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Ting-Bing: Constructionist Architecture for Adventure Classrooms
Sam Kronick
MAS.714: Technologies for Creative Learning
11 December 2009
Introduction
In *Mindstuff*, Michael Eisenberg reexamines some of the “powerful ideas” of Seymour Papert’s influential book, *Mindstorms*. He argues that the concepts of constructionism education that Papert lays out do not have to stay confined inside computers; learners can and should gain new understanding by making physical “stuff” as well as computer programs and digital representations. As a tinkerer who has learned more building with atoms than bits, I found this critique poignant. And as a student of architecture, I found the following extension highly compelling:
...in thinking of what “Mathland” might mean, *the room, and not the computer screen, is the most tasteful and productive grain size of design for educational technology.* That is: as educational technologists, we should try to imagine what the child’s room (or maybe the classroom) might look like, not merely what sort of interface is provided on a computer screen. (Eisenberg 2003, emphasis original)
When I read this, I was already involved in designing an educational project on the room scale. My self-imposed challenge was to design a kit of architectural building blocks for a temporary structure that could be reconfigured, built, and rebuilt by high school students who would use it as their classroom. Initially, my motivation came from a simple desire to share what I loved about the act of building in hopes that it would create an empowering experience for a younger generation of learners. However, Eisenberg’s perspective as well as related ideas from the learning sciences turned my thoughts to situating this project more specifically in the context of constructionism and new media literacies.
How could I focus and extend this project to enable more students to be more creative and collaborate while doing so? Specifically, how could I engage a wide variety of learners in the construction of their environment, creating an architecture that actively encourages appropriation of ideas and builds a collective intelligence? What different types of media would be appropriate for learners to work with and navigate between in this context? Similar to how Henry Jenkins sees potential for participatory media to be a powerful training ground for civic engagement via developing these new media skills (Jenkins 2006), could I develop a *participatory architecture* that informs and encourages active and critical inquisitiveness about the spaces we inhabit in our everyday lives?
It is this salient connection between participation via production and critical thinking that gave this project its name: ting-bing — a shorthand for “thinking” and “building.”
Precedents
A number of existing projects have attempted to engage high school age students with the architectural or urban environments they learn in by assisting in creative and analytical investigations of these spaces. Though most of the following examples use creative and participatory processes as central activities, their educational goals do not specifically come from constructionism or new media literacy.
In Annette Krauss’ *Hidden Curriculum* project, Krauss uses techniques from her contemporary artistic practice to foster creative works with her students. She asks students to take everyday objects found within their school, such as a typical chair, and create new and explicitly unusual situations by placing these objects in strange contexts. These constructed situations provide sites of reflection on the relationships of authority and power that shape the school environment, revealing a hidden spatial curriculum (Krauss 2009).
The Center for Urban Pedagogy (CUP) draws from the toolset of urban planners to investigate the conditions of the city in which students live. A typical CUP project asks students to use media tools (video, oral interviews, graphics, drawing) to produce exhibitions about issues such as public housing, waste management, and building codes (Hammett 2006).
While the previous examples primarily serve to create knowledge about a spatial situation, others seek specifically to construct new spatial arrangements altogether.
Architect Alex Gilliam, as a fellow with Auburn University’s Rural Studio, worked with students in rural Newbern, Alabama to rebuild their aging school. The students documented issues with their building and lent their labor to physically construct a new place of learning (Rural Studio 2004).
Danish landscape architect C. Th. Sorensen developed the idea for a “junk playground” after he realized that children would rather play in the rubble of destroyed buildings following World War II than in his carefully designed playgrounds. He proposed, and others later implemented, a play space that would consist of little more than tools and materials with which children could build and care for their own structures. Many of these “adventure playgrounds” (as they are commonly called in English) were built around the world. Unfortunately, very few exist in the United States. While not designed primarily sites of learning, the act of play can be seen as educational in certain terms (Bengtsson 1972).
Papert’s original formulations of constructionism drew heavily on the idea of immersion in a sort of “Mathland” that is actively built by the learner (Papert 1993). Though the activities he described and developed did focus on creating immersive environments, these environments remained for the most part virtual. Likewise, projects that explicitly followed down this path focus on the virtual environment first. As an example, the Scratch programming language gives learners a virtual programming environment in which they can create their own virtual worlds through games, stories, simulations, and art projects (Resnick et al 2009).
Especially relevant to this design project is the Computer Clubhouse - learning centers designed specifically for making constructionist projects, such as programming with Scratch, or using digital image and video software to make creative and expressive works (Rusk et al 2009).
The above examples range in scope and impact from site-specific interventions to networks of related projects over a wide geographic range. They also illustrate two different approaches to construction and space: some, like the Sunshine School project and the adventure playgrounds, are about making spaces, while others, like the Computer Clubhouse or the Scratch programming environment, are about providing spaces for making. The ting-bing project as described in this document seeks to bridge these approaches by developing a system of making spaces for making. Why are the spatial conditions in a Computer Clubhouse given when all the content produced within it is meant to be created by the students? In ting-bing, the space becomes the content, and the making of the space can become a fitting part of a larger constructionist curriculum. In doing this, it maintains some features from each of the above precedents: that spatial relations are intimately related to civic engagement and an understanding of space is important to civic participation, and that collaboration, appropriation, and sharing as facilitated by virtual tools can be a powerful tool of engagement and learning. It also seeks to facilitate the same experiences of play and tinkering found on adventures playgrounds and in Scratch.
**Design Principles**
The following are the design principles I have come to value and used to guide me through the life of this project:
1. The structures created should be **temporary**, **rugged**, and **reusable** such that each new group of students has a chance to renegotiate, reconfigure and reconstruct the classroom as they desire.
2. Elements of **tinkering** and **play** should be the guiding mode of interaction.
3. A set of **standard components** should be provided to create a common design language that accommodates easy sharing amongst students and different groups building their own ting-bing classroom.
4. A **standard layout** should be given as a starting scaffold for adaptation within a framework.
5. The components should be **modular** in nature such that the standard layout can be **extended** or radically redesigned in addition to being used as-is.
6. Components and the layout should be expressible in **multiple media** appropriate to the context.
7. Designing and constructing the classroom as well as the activities provided within the space should accommodate a **diversity of learning styles** and interests.
Some of these principles correspond to the idea of creating construction kits with “low floors” (low barrier to entry, as expressed by the standard layout, standard components, and facilitation of tinkering), “high ceiling” (room for increasing sophistication, as in the modular extensibility), and “wide walls” (providing a wide range of activities and supporting diverse learning styles) (Resnick and Silverman 2005).
Design
The design process for ting-bing began in the spring of 2009 by finding a partner high school to develop the initial ideas. I met with a group of students and their teacher at Prospect Hill Academy Public Charter School in Cambridge, MA once or twice a week after school throughout the spring. During that time, I talked with them about architecture and asked them to share ideas that they had about what their ideal classroom might look like. These interactions demonstrated to me that flexibility of the space was important as the school was small and popular classes and activities experienced a high level of volatility. It also challenged me to accommodate the many interests and skills present in this small but highly diverse group.
At the end of the spring, I worked with fellow MIT architecture student Bill McKenna to develop a working design for the classroom based on what was learned. The design we came up with can be thought of as a collection of modular building systems: foundation, floor, vertical structure, and roof.
Exploded isometric drawing of the original classroom building systems.
The organization of the floor plan itself was designed to accommodate reconfigurable learning “modules” that would plug in to a common “core.”
Over the summer, we asked some of the students from the spring to join us in a series of workshops and actually build a life-size prototype of a portion of the design. Although we had a picture in our heads of what we wanted the students to produce and the sort of positive experience they might have, our sense of what and how the students needed to learn to get there was not very well informed.
*The output of the summer: a full-scale portion of a classroom prototype.*
Most importantly, we learned that working in one media of full-scale construction - even if it was modular in nature - limited what could be learned and what could be communicated between the different participants. For example, some of the students didn’t like working with power tools that
were noisy and intimidating, while others relished that challenge. Painting the materials was a surprisingly popular activity, as it was both expressive and immediately accessible. The students also were used to working on projects that were desktop-sized or entirely computer-based and had a hard time thinking larger. After understanding more about the learning sciences and successful constructionist projects, it became clear that providing multiple modes of expression and engagement was an important next step. In architectural terms, I interpreted this as providing different scales of building activities centered on a common structure. This would hopefully “widen the walls” and “lower the floor” (conceptually speaking, of course; the representations of the building would physically get smaller!)
I then distilled the structure down into a smaller set of repeated components:
- **Textile roof** enables the structure to be lightweight and more easily reused. It can be constructed or modified using a sewing machine - a tool and skill set certain students might find more appealing and relevant to their existing interests.
- A set of **spaceframe hardware** provides a reconfigurable building system of steel hubs and struts for students curious about the physics of architectural structures.
- **Post collars** provide an interface for clamping the spaceframe onto the **timber posts** which serve as columns and provide vertical structure.
- **Planter boxes** serve as the foundation for the structure, using the weight of soil to provide stability while still being temporary. The large flat sides of the planter box provide an opportunity for custom decoration through painting and the soil provides a garden for students to cultivate plants - two acts of creative construction very different from building structures.
- The triangular **floor tiles** provide a modular geometric grid for laying out the classroom. They can be reconfigured, but their standard dimension lowers the barrier to thinking spatially by constraining the possible arrangements. Still, their large flat surfaces provide an open canvas for artistically inclined students to decorate.
In addition to providing life-size version of these components, I developed them in a **virtual** and **model** scale. Moving between these different modes of production and understanding the advantages of each is an opportunity to cultivate transmedia navigation skills (Jenkins 2006).
**Virtual components** are provided as 3D CAD files for Google SketchUp, a free and easy-to-use 3D modeling program. These components are stored in the Google 3D Warehouse where they can be freely downloaded and imported into a student’s personal virtual model of the classroom. A large number of everyday and specialized objects are also available from the 3D Warehouse community, enabling a student to build a complex simulation of what could become a real learning space. In turn, the student’s creations can be shared again in the 3D Warehouse for others to modify, extend, or look to for inspiration. Here students can develop skills in appropriation and witness the building of a collective intelligence as they interact with what their peers have made (Jenkins 2006).
The **model kit** facilitates tinkering with tangible “stuff” representative of the life size classroom. The scale factor of the model is exactly 1:8 of life size, making it tabletop-sized but still rather large. This is a scale factor larger than most doll houses and the same as the popular “fingerboard” skateboard toys that skateboarders play with to build their own skate parks. At this scale, it was possible to model the assembly and disassembly processes of the classroom in a realistic way - using materials such as using magnets, drinking straws, and small steel spheres to simulate the connections of the spaceframe. Of course, fitting all the pieces on a single table allows for much faster and easier tinkering than working with the full scale. The model has advantages similar to working with LEGO bricks, but its specific components provide a meaningful connection to both the virtual and life-size mode of construction. As with the other building modes, artistic expression is encouraged through the inclusion of paints and blank surfaces for decorating.
Building with the life size components allows students to construct a space that is both meaningful and visible to their community. The built space becomes meaningful through its connections to creative explorations in the virtual and model media, as well as the participatory nature of its construction. It is visible by virtue of its size, giving students a chance to display their creative and cognitive efforts for their local school and community publics. And at this size, teamwork is mandatory or nothing gets off the ground!
An immersive, tangible experience that only building life-size can provide.
Learning Scenarios
Melissa is a student that says she “hates math with a fiery passion,” but she likes to draw. Her teacher asks her if she would be interested in designing patterns for the floor of the classroom on its equilateral triangle grid. This sounds interesting to her and she begins looking at triangular patterns online and in books at the library. She notices that different pattern styles and geometries tend to come from different cultures all around the world - they reflect objects from those peoples’ everyday lives. She decides to draw her own patterns that incorporate symbols meaningful to her fellow students – iPods, cell phones, the flags of their parents’ home countries, and the colors and icons of the subway system they use to get to school. She starts by sketching these onto model-scale floor tiles and playing with the different ways to rearrange them. She carefully adjusts the lines so they flow from tile to tile no matter how they are arranged. Finally, she works with her art teacher to blow up her drawings and make screen prints onto the full size floor. In the end, she has constructed her own meaningful example of tessellations and symmetry and situated it in a cultural context of architectural ornamentation. She thought she was just drawing, not doing math, too!
Jim, a student at another high school sees pictures of Melissa’s floor tile designs after she posts them on Flickr. He happens to be an experienced Scratch programmer and thinks he can make similar patterns by writing a computer program. He does this and sends his project to Melissa. She is delighted by the ability to quickly tinker with her sketches and makes some new tiles in this way. Jim lives near a FabLab and uses the output from his program to cut some of Melissa’s designs into plywood using a CNC router. From the CAD files he designed, other students working with ting-bing make and install their own Melissa-designed floors. From computer code, to virtual representations, to real sketches on models, to very tangible objects that make up the floor beneath their feet, these students are learning how to navigate and collaborate across multiple media.
Meanwhile, Jack is a Senior who has been accepted into an architecture college next year. He met Marcos, a friend from another state, at a summer design program and told him all about ting-bing. Marcos was excited by the idea, especially since his school is a drab, outdated, and uninspiring brick box. Jack and Marcos decide to work together on a design proposal for a new ting-bing classroom at Marcos’ school. They trade SketchUp files of their custom design back and forth using the 3D Warehouse. Marcos uses the 3D files to convince a teacher to help him get materials for a physical model. He then uses the model to demonstrate to the school’s students, teachers, and administrators how the design could be put together and how it could be stored when not in use. Because Jack has experience working with the common components of this system, Marcos has picked up a few tips that make him sound very well informed: he notes that it’s especially important to consider how the room is oriented to the sun so that plants in the planter box foundations get the right amount of light to grow. A fellow student, Elise, likes gardening and volunteers to choose local native plants that will grow well in the dirt of the foundations. The administrators at Marcos’ school are impressed by the proposal and the students’ energy and agree to help make it happen. Marcos, Jack and Elise have demonstrated their ability to work together and become active advocates for the quality of their own environment.
Future Explorations
Now that the ting-bing tools have been designed and some potential uses have been outlined, the next steps involve implementing and evaluating this system.
The tinkering nature of the model kit makes it ideal for using in workshops with groups of students, teachers, and other potential designers. By going into schools and asking users to share their dreams for what their classroom could be through building with the model, I not only gain insight into the appropriateness of the tools, but I build familiarity in the schools with this system. If students are engaged and want to pursue playing with the building components further, they can work with the virtual models that are already available online or eventually through their own life size implementation. I would like to facilitate connections between different groups that are interested in pooling their skills to make this happen; workshops seem to be a great way to begin building such a community.
Also in the interest of developing a community and encouraging collaboration, a project such as this requires a participatory website that allows students and teachers to post their creations for others to see. Fortunately, many tools for sharing this kind of media already exist via Google 3D Warehouse, Flickr, Instructables, or YouTube. I believe it would be wise for a community website to leverage these existing systems to connect to a wider audience.
Finally, the specifics of how this system could fit into existing academic programs of high schools should be explored more. This should involve working with interested teachers to develop curriculum and lesson plans for a class that would focus on the opportunities of the ting-bing system.
References
Bengtsson, A., ed. Adventure Playgrounds. New York: Praeger, 1972. Print.
Eisenberg, M. “Mindstuff: Educational Technology Beyond the Computer.” *Convergence* 9.2 (2003), 29-53.
Hammett, K. “designing for urban education and activism.” *Designer/Builder* November/December 2006.
Jenkins, H. “Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century.” In *Building the Field of Digital Learning*. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (2006).
Krauss, A. Hidden Curriculum. Rotterdam: episode, 2008. Print.
Papert, S. *Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas*. 2nd ed. New York: Basic Books, 1993.
Resnick, M. and Silverman, B. 2005. Some reflections on designing construction kits for kids. In *Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on Interaction Design and Children* (Boulder, Colorado, June 08 - 10, 2005). IDC ’05. ACM, New York, NY, 117-122.
Resnick, M., Maloney, J., Monroy-Hernández, A., Rusk N., Eastmond, E., Brennan, K., Millner, A., Rosenbaum, E., Silver, J., Silverman, B., and Kafai, Y.. "Scratch: Programming for Everyone." *ACM Communications* (November 2009).
Rusk, N., Resnick, M., and Cooke, S. “Origins and Guiding Principles of the Computer Clubhouse.” In Kafai, Y., Peppler, K., and Chapman, R. (eds.), *Computer Clubhouse, The: Constructionism and Creativity in Youth Communities*. New York: Teachers College Press, 2009.
Rural Studio. “Sunshine School // Newbern, Al // 2004 Outreach Project.” http://www.cadc.auburn.edu/soa/rural-studio/Default.aspx?path=Gallery%2fProjects%2f2004%2fsunshineschool%2f (2004).
MAS.714J / STS.445J Technologies for Creative Learning
Fall 2009
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It is not Cool to be Cruel: Prejudice-based bullying and harassment of children and young people in schools
Published in Scotland by the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body.
All documents are available on the Scottish Parliament website at: http://www.parliament.scot/abouttheparliament/91279.aspx
For information on the Scottish Parliament contact Public Information on:
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Email: firstname.lastname@example.org
© Parliamentary copyright. Scottish Parliament Corporate Body
The Scottish Parliament's copyright policy can be found on the website — www.parliament.scot
Contents
Foreword ................................................................................................................................. 1
Summary of Recommendations ......................................................................................... 3
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 7
Part One - The Impact of Bullying and Harassment ....................................................... 10
Sexual harassment, sexual exploitation and physical appearance ............................ 10
Race and ethnicity ........................................................................................................... 12
Faith and belief .............................................................................................................. 13
Disability ....................................................................................................................... 15
Sexual orientation and gender identity ....................................................................... 16
Social media and bullying ............................................................................................. 17
The Scottish Government ............................................................................................. 18
Conclusions and recommendations ............................................................................. 19
Part Two – Dealing with Bullying and Harassment ....................................................... 22
Children’s rights and bullying ....................................................................................... 22
Counter Terrorism and Security Act 2015 – section 26 the ‘prevent duty’ ............ 23
Conclusions and recommendations .......................................................................... 24
Anti-bullying related strategies, relevant public policy, and leadership .................... 25
Relevant public policy ................................................................................................. 26
Leadership .................................................................................................................. 26
The Scottish Government .......................................................................................... 28
Conclusions and recommendations .......................................................................... 29
Negative environments in schools ............................................................................... 32
The Scottish Government .......................................................................................... 34
Conclusions and recommendations .......................................................................... 34
Definitions of prejudice-based bullying ....................................................................... 35
Conclusions and recommendations .......................................................................... 36
Teaching practice and prevention of bullying ............................................................. 37
The Scottish Government .......................................................................................... 39
Conclusions and recommendations .......................................................................... 40
Data recording and monitoring of prejudice-based bullying ..................................... 42
Scottish Government ................................................................................................ 44
Conclusions and recommendations .......................................................................... 44
Inspection of, and compliance with, anti-bullying guidance ..................................... 45
The Scottish Government .......................................................................................... 46
Conclusions and recommendations 46
ANNEX: Notes of case studies and informal fact-finding meetings 47
Case study: TIE Campaign and the Vale of Leven Academy 47
Case study: the experience of one young disabled person 49
Case study: An approach to school leadership 50
Case study: an approach to LGBTI bullying from Ireland 51
Fact-finding meeting on sexual harassment 52
Fact-finding meeting on race bullying 54
Event: Your Scottish Parliament 57
Bibliography 58
Equalities and Human Rights Committee
To consider and report on matters relating to equal opportunities and upon the observance of equal opportunities within the Parliament (and any additional matter added under Rule 6.1.5A). In these Rules, “equal opportunities” includes the prevention, elimination or regulation of discrimination between persons on grounds of sex or marital status, on racial grounds or on grounds of disability, age, sexual orientation, language or social origin or of other personal attributes, including beliefs or opinions such as religious beliefs or political opinions. Human rights, including Convention rights (within the meaning of section 1 of the Human Rights Act 1998) and other human rights contained in any international convention, treaty or other international instrument ratified by the United Kingdom.
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/CurrentCommittees/Equalities-Human-Rights-Committee.aspx
email@example.com
0131 348 6040
Committee Membership
Convener
Christina McKelvie
Scottish National Party
Deputy Convener
Alex Cole-Hamilton
Scottish Liberal Democrats
Jeremy Balfour
Scottish Conservative and Unionist Party
Mary Fee
Scottish Labour
Gail Ross
Scottish National Party
David Torrance
Scottish National Party
Annie Wells
Scottish Conservative and Unionist Party
Foreword
“Human greatness does not lie in wealth or power, but in character and goodness. People are just people, and all people have faults and shortcomings, but all of us are born with a basic goodness. If we were to start by adding to that goodness instead of stifling it...even if it's a simple act of kindness...and didn't scrimp on kindly words, there would be much more love and justice in the world.”
Anne Frank, 1944
Scotland is on an ambitious journey to build a more equal, fair and accepting society for all of its people. The cornerstone of this ambition must be to ensure equality for the children and young people of Scotland. How we help to shape their experience of Scotland today, will dictate how fair and equal the Scotland of tomorrow is. To do this, we must place the voices of our children and young people at the centre of our efforts to deliver their human rights.
Over the last eight months the Equalities and Human Rights Committee of the Scottish Parliament has been listening to the voices of our children and young people, and their advocates, as part of our inquiry into prejudice-based bullying and harassment in schools. The story they have told us is a troubling one.
In this report we have sought to shine a light on the reality of children’s experiences of prejudice-based bullying and harassment and the enormous risks posed to their health and wellbeing. We have listened to their ambitions for a school life that helps them learn and grow, supports them to find out who they are, and sets them on the path to achieve their full potential.
But for too many children and young people this is not the reality of their education. For them school is becoming a battle against prejudice, bullying and sexual harassment, one fought daily in classrooms, corridors, playing fields and online. Their primary goal is simply to survive their education, emotionally, psychologically, and now more than ever, literally, with 27% of LGBTI children attempting suicide.
Our education system plays a vital role in addressing prejudice and harassment. Protecting the human rights of children is central to their developmental experience. We welcome the refresh of *Respect for All*, Scotland’s national approach to anti-bullying by the Scottish Government. We thank the Deputy First Minister and Cabinet Secretary for Education and Skills, John Swinney MSP, for pausing the refresh process so as to allow us
to set out the actions we believe are necessary to properly address prejudice-based bullying and harassment in schools.
We believe *Respect for All* has a vital role to play in proactively placing a human rights-based ethos at the centre of our education system. However, it is only part of a wider approach which must be adopted to ensure key strategies and tools work effectively together to achieve the success we all want to see. This includes—
- recognising the prevalence of prejudice-based bullying and sexual harassment in schools, and the need for urgent action;
- moving away from a reactionary approach which deals with the consequences of bullying and harassment, to a proactive education system which seeks to prevent them;
- ensuring national policies in areas such as mental health, hate crimes, school leadership, and the curriculum, properly promote children’s rights, early intervention and a whole school approach to inclusive environments;
- ensuring we educate children on issues such as consent and healthy relationships from the earliest age;
- delivering mandatory teacher training and CPD on equalities, children’s rights and the impacts of prejudice-based bullying, and
- establishing a duty to report all prejudice-based bullying and sexual harassment in schools.
Our report elaborates on these, and other key issues relating to prejudice-based bullying and harassment. The time is now for all those who help to shape, deliver and support education in Scotland to act effectively together to ensure children and young people can develop and learn in a school environment free from the fear and cruelty of prejudice.
**Christina McKelvie MSP**
Convener of the Equalities and Human Rights Committee
6 July 2017
Summary of Recommendations
SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT’S REFRESH OF THE NATIONAL ANTI-BULLYING APPROACH
RECOMMENDATION 1: We ask the Scottish Government to take cognisance of Young Scot’s findings from its youth investigation into race equality in Scotland, entitled Fairer Future, when finalising the refresh of the National Anti-Bullying Approach. [Paragraph 58]
RECOMMENDATION 2: We also recognise continual blurring of the boundaries around acceptable behaviour, language and cyber bullying makes addressing bullying in the school environment complex. We are strongly of the view, however, that no child or young person should have to experience bullying or harassment at school. Its effects are wide-ranging and damaging and can have a lasting impact on life chances. This is why we believe the approach taken needs to be preventative. [Paragraph 60]
RECOMMENDATION 3: We ask the Scottish Government to ensure the future direction of the National Anti-Bullying Approach’s emphasis is on prevention, through proactivity, rather than focusing on reacting to bullying incidents. This should focus on creating a whole-school culture which is inclusive. In addition, we ask the Scottish Government for an update on any changes made prior to publication of the refreshed National Anti-Bullying Approach. [Paragraph 96]
RECOMMENDATION 4: We expect the National Anti-Bullying Approach to be reviewed at least every three years, so as to ensure it keeps pace with changes or developments which materially affect its efficacy and efficiency. Public consultation and relevant parliamentary consideration should form part of the review process. [Paragraph 99]
RECOMMENDATION 5: We ask the Scottish Government to ensure the refreshed National Anti-Bullying Approach’s focus is on prevention, early intervention and the rights of children. It should be aspirational and stress the importance of promoting an inclusive environment where pupils are safe and are comfortable with challenging bullying behaviour because they are supported to do so. It should also make clear that every incident reported should be treated seriously and investigated with children’s rights at the core, as should be the case with professional practice. [Paragraph 131]
RECOMMENDATION 6: We ask the Scottish Government to undertake further work to provide a simple definition of bullying and bullying motivated by prejudice, so that all those who work with children have a clear understanding. This should also look to clarify when bullying constitutes a hate crime or a sexual offence. We ask the Scottish Government to provide assurance that all those working in schools are trained when to report bullying to the police. We seek assurance from the Scottish Government that teachers have the necessary guidance to implement child protection procedures. [Paragraph 141]
COMPREHENSIVE RESEARCH OF BULLYING IN SCOTLAND
RECOMMENDATION 7: We ask the Scottish Government to undertake wide ranging research to establish the level and nature of bullying to ensure policies are evidenced-based to assist in ensuring bullying is addressed comprehensively across all relevant Scottish Government portfolios, every local authority, and within every school, as a matter of priority. [Paragraph 61]
HUMAN RIGHTS AND RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
RECOMMENDATION 8: We ask the Scottish Government to encourage schools to become rights-respecting-schools as part of the Rights Respecting Schools Award. We ask the Scottish Government to bring forward legislation which incorporates the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child into Scots law. [Paragraph 73]
RECOMMENDATION 9: We ask the Scottish Government to work with providers of initial teacher training and Continuous Professional Development to augment training on the protected characteristics with specific training on children’s human rights to clearly embed the Children’s Parliament’s message that children’s human rights very much depend on our actions, our behaviours, our expressions of respect and our belief in the human dignity of every child. We also ask the Scottish Government to promote this message in the refreshed National Anti-Bullying Approach. [Paragraph 74]
TEACHER TRAINING
RECOMMENDATION 10: We ask the Scottish Government to work with providers of training for teachers so that greater emphasis is placed on equalities, the handling of bullying incidents, the protected characteristics, and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. We ask the Scottish Government for a yearly update on progress towards combating bullying through embedding equalities and human rights within teacher training courses. [Paragraph 166]
RECOMMENDATION 11: We ask the Scottish Government and the education authorities to make CPD training on equalities, the protected characteristics and children’s human rights, compulsory. This should be complemented with training material which is refreshed at regular intervals to keep pace with legislation, social media or other relevant developments, for example around identities. [Paragraph 168]
RECOMMENDATION 12: We ask the Scottish Government to take steps to ensure all teacher training makes the position clear that Section 28 was repealed in Scots law, by the Scottish Parliament, on 15 March 2001 (SSI/2001/113). [Paragraph 169]
THE COUNTER-TERRORISM AND SECURITY ACT 2015 – ‘PREVENT DUTY’
RECOMMENDATION 13: We ask the Scottish Government to provide further clarification on the Prevent Duty, which relates to the duty in the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 to have due regard to the need to prevent people from being drawn into terrorism, related guidance and how this fits with the Scottish Government’s National Anti-Bullying Approach. [Paragraph 75]
CHILD PROTECTION
RECOMMENDATION 14: The Government should also take advantage of the review of hate crimes to ensure the National Anti-Bullying Approach delivers clarity on hate crimes and sexual offences to all involved in the education system. [Paragraph 98]
DELIVERY OF ANTI-BULLYING POLICIES
RECOMMENDATION 15: The Scottish Government should ensure that all anti-bullying related policies and agencies are working in a coordinated and joined-up manner to address all prejudice-based bullying and harassment in schools to ensure consistency of
delivery and outcome across the entire education system in Scotland. We will review progress as part of our 2018 work programme. [Paragraph 103]
**RECOMMENDATION 16:** In order to ensure local joined-up delivery we expect Community Planning Partnerships provide the necessary focus to join-up the efforts of key public sector stakeholders, such as education authorities and Health Boards etc. on anti-bullying policy. This should be reflected in Single Outcome Agreements. [Paragraph 104]
**RECOMMENDATION 17:** We ask the Scottish Government to investigate whether the policy lead on school bullying and harassment would be better aligned to public health policy, thus switching the focus from education to health by concentrating on the health and wellbeing impacts of bullying on children or young people. [Paragraph 105]
**RECOMMENDATION 18:** We commend the work of BelongTo in Ireland to the LGBTI Inclusive Education Working Group. We ask the Scottish Government to report back to us on the work of the Working Group when it concludes its task. [Paragraph 106]
**RECOMMENDATION 19:** We ask the Scottish Government to clarify how the role of the newly announced regional education collaboratives will help to deliver anti-bullying strategies in schools. [Paragraph 107]
**RECOMMENDATION 20:** It is vital that the Scottish Government work with education authorities to guarantee uniformity of delivery of the National Anti-Bullying Approach, both in denominational and non-denominational local authority run schools, and independently run schools. [Paragraph 110]
**RECOMMENDATION 21:** We ask the Scottish Government to work with the Association of Directors of Education in Scotland and the independent school sector to create an action plan which flows from the National Anti-Bullying Approach. This should include targets for schools and should be monitored by the education authority in coordination with the Inspection Service. [Paragraph 111]
**RECOMMENDATION 22:** The Scottish Government should work with the Association of Directors of Education in Scotland to look at creating or utilising an existing forum where anti-bullying best practice can be shared. [Paragraph 113]
**RECOMMENDATION 23:** We urge education authorities to be more proactive with the schools in their areas and recognise the risk of potential future legal challenges by individuals where schools and education authorities may be judged to have failed to adequately protect children from the impacts of bullying and harassment, especially when motivated by prejudice. [Paragraph 114]
**THE CURRICULUM**
**RECOMMENDATION 24:** We ask the Scottish Government to examine, and report back to us, on how reform of Personal and Social Education (PSE) and school counselling services will underpin delivery of the National Anti-Bullying Approach. [Paragraph 97]
**RECOMMENDATION 25:** We are concerned the curriculum places a great deal of emphasis, albeit well-meaning, on teaching about the differences between cultures, races and traditions instead of focussing on commonality and empathy. We ask the Scottish Government and education authorities to work with training providers to ensure all teachers are adequately trained to also promote commonality. [Paragraph 171]
RECOMMENDATION 26: Given the evidence we received about children as young as 12 years old being coerced into sexual activity, we ask the Scottish Government and education authorities to ensure that consent and healthy relationships be taught from the beginning of primary school in an age appropriate manner to safeguard children. [Paragraph 172]
RECOMMENDATION 27: We received evidence on teaching materials which continued to reinforce stereotypes. We accept it will be a large undertaking; however, we ask the Scottish Government and education authorities to undertake an audit of teaching materials to ensure they support delivery of equality. [Paragraph 173]
RECORDING, MONITORING AND INSPECTION
RECOMMENDATION 28: We ask the Scottish Government to make it a requirement for every education authority in Scotland to collect and monitor school bullying incidents and to record specifically incidents of prejudice-based bullying. We ask the Scottish Government to ensure consistency by prescribing the type of data recorded. If necessary, such a requirement could be placed on a statutory footing. We also believe data collected should be shared with other agencies involved in reducing prejudice-based bullying. [Paragraph 190]
RECOMMENDATION 29: We ask the Scottish Government to build the requirement for recording and monitoring of school bullying into the inspection framework to ensure compliance, and also to ensure teachers are competent not only in delivering health and wellbeing, but also inclusion, diversity and human rights. [Paragraph 201]
Introduction
Remit of the inquiry
1. In September and October 2016, we held a number of round table oral evidence sessions with various stakeholders, to assist us in mapping out our work programme for 2016-17. In addition, we also held informal breakfast meetings with service users to hear about their lived experiences and priorities, including young people and trainee teachers. One of the key areas of concern to emerge from this process, in terms of both equalities and human rights, was the prejudice-based bullying and harassment of children and young people in schools in Scotland.
2. Prejudice-based bullying is bullying related to the protected characteristics as defined in the Equality Act 2010. These are as follows: age; disability; gender reassignment; marriage and civil partnership; pregnancy and maternity; race; religion or belief; sex; sexual orientation. This report focusses on issues related to disability, race, religion or belief, sex (gender) and sexual orientation and gender identity.
3. We were told that it was important when looking at hate crime to take a step back and focus on bullying in schools. Alastair Pringle of the Equalities and Human Rights Commission advised “The majority of hate crime is perpetrated by younger people, and we know that it does not start outside the school yard”.¹ Also of concern to stakeholders was the normalisation of sexualised bullying. Emma Ritch, Engender said “We are aware from other survey data that sexual harassment, assault and even rape are occurring in schools in the UK”.²
4. Colin MacFarlane of Stonewall Scotland, said that from “our lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender perspective, we know that bullying is rife in our schools—indeed endemic, given that 99 per cent of young people hear some form of homophobic language every day in the classroom”.³ Also on LGBTI issues, we heard schools had individual bullying plans for gender, race and disability, but not for LGBTI⁴ and that those entering the teaching profession were being told that section 28 still applies and that they should therefore not talk about homophobic bullying.⁵
5. Reporting of bullying incidents was also highlighted as an issue with both the police and disability organisations citing under-reporting.⁶ Kayleigh Thorpe from Enable Scotland told us more than 70 per cent of young people who had learning disabilities felt that people in school did not understand them and nearly half of them felt alone at school.⁷
Approach to evidence gathering
6. In response to these issues, we held a one-off oral evidence session on 10 November 2016 to explore the subject area in more detail, with Dr Kay Tisdall of the Centre for Research on Families and Relationships at the University of Edinburgh; Carol Young of the Coalition for Racial Equality and Rights (CERE); Bill Ramsay of the Educational Institute of Scotland (EIS); Iain Smith of Inclusion Scotland; Cara Spence of LGBT Youth Scotland; Dr Rowena Arshad of Moray House School of Education at the University of Edinburgh; Joanna Barrett of NSPCC Scotland/
Childline Scotland; Kathryn Dawson of Rape Crisis Scotland; Brian Donnelly of respectme; Dr Gillean McCluskey of the Scottish Council of Deans of Education and Jordan Daly of Time for Inclusive Education.
7. Following the evidence session on 10 November, we wrote to the Deputy First Minister and Cabinet Secretary for Education and Skills, John Swinney MSP ("the Cabinet Secretary"), highlighting the concerns which witnesses has expressed to us about the lack and consistency of data on the extent of the problem of prejudice-based bullying and harassment in schools, possible major under-reporting of such incidences, concerns about teacher training and the prioritisation of ongoing professional development. We also highlighted the view of witnesses that the upcoming refresh of Respect for All ("the National Anti-Bullying Approach"), properly addressed prejudice-based bullying and harassment. We asked the Cabinet Secretary to pause the refresh process to allow us to examine these issues in more detail.
8. On 11 November the Cabinet Secretary replied to us agreeing to put the refresh of Respect for All on hold and welcoming the Committee’s examination of these issues and agreeing to consider any recommendations the Committee may make in relation to Respect for All, and prejudice-based bullying and harassment in schools. The Cabinet Secretary wrote again on 1 December providing further information on the background to the National Anti-Bullying Approach.
9. We held further two oral evidence sessions on 26 January and 15 June. On 26 January we heard from Philip Gosnay of the Association of Directors of Education in Scotland; Mary Berrill of Her Majesty’s Inspector of Education and Maggie Fallon of Education Scotland; Barbara Coupar of the Scottish Catholic Education Service, and John Edward of Scottish Council of Independent Schools.
10. On 15 June 2017, we heard from Anthony Horan of the Catholic Parliamentary Office of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Scotland; Rev Dr Richard Frazer of the Church and Society Council of the Church of Scotland; Hannah Brisbane and Susie McGuiness of Girlguiding Scotland; Derek Allan and Cameron Bowie of Kirkcaldy High School; Samena Dean of Scotland Against Criminalising Communities; Brittany Ritell of the Scottish Council of Jewish Communities, Charlie Lynch of the Scottish Secular Society, Anne Whiteford of Scouting Scotland and Niamh McGeechan of the STAMP Project at Lanarkshire Rape Crisis. At our final session on 22 June we heard from the Cabinet Secretary.
11. In addition, to subject-specific evidence sessions, we also made use of other parts of our work programme to draw in relevant evidence, such as examining policies relating to Gypsy Travellers. We have also drawn on the work of other Parliamentary committees, such as the recent recommendations from the Education and Skills Committee from its inquiry on Personal and Social Education.
12. Scottish Government officials also provided an overview of the work they had undertaken to help us understand the breadth of the policy area and the process by which advice on tackling bullying is provided to schools, parents, community groups and children.
Evidence from children and young people
13. During our sessions on 10 November and 26 January, we became aware of the sensitivities around taking formal evidence from children who had been bullied. Some of the cases we heard concerned serious sexual and physical assault. Core to our decision-making was the vulnerability of witnesses, particularly if they were still experiencing bullying or harassment, or if they were in the process of recovery, or could potentially face repercussions from sharing their personal stories. We were acutely aware that even anonymising testimony could still lead to identification of a child. As such, we decided to use a mixture of formal evidence taking sessions, as well as informal face-to-face meetings and fact-finding visits. This enabled us to take account of both the timescales involved for the inquiry and the need for sensitivity.
Research
14. We were also aware of a number of recent research work undertaken by Scottish third sector and advocacy groups, which could provide considerable first hand testimony from children and young people. We commissioned Children in Scotland to draw together information from relevant research and surveys and to give us their views on this research.\(^9\)
Fact-finding activity
15. We also undertook private fact-finding meetings with stakeholders on sexual harassment, race bullying, and disability bullying. In addition, we undertook a fact-finding visit to Vale of Leven Academy in West Dunbartonshire on 21 March 2017, which allowed us to see first-hand how a school worked with delivering LGBTI inclusivity through an assembly and its equalities group. A note of this visit is available in the Annex to this report. At the Your Scottish Parliament event, held on 24 March 2017, we gathered views from 80 young people on bullying and harassment in schools. A note of this event is available in the Annex to this report.
16. We wish to sincerely thank everyone who provided evidence to us, but particularly to the children and young people who shared their personal stories of prejudice-based bullying and harassment. In many cases this was deeply personal and emotional and we very much appreciate their courageousness. We were also impressed by how articulate, compassionate and dignified they were in telling us about the circumstances and the impact of their experience of being bullied.
17. Part One of our report examines different protected characteristics and the impacts of bullying, while Part Two considers the current response to school bullying by the Scottish Government, education authorities and schools.
Part One - The Impact of Bullying and Harassment
18. We felt strongly that we wanted to share the personal testimony evidence we received. This contributed significantly to our understanding of the impact of bullying and informed our conclusions and recommendations. We have included a number of case studies in the Annex to this report and would encourage readers to engage with this evidence to bring the issues detailed in the report to life, as we have necessarily had to summarise some of the evidence for the purpose of reporting.
19. The evidence we gathered showed that across all of the protected characteristics, children and young people feel singled-out because of their gender, faith or belief, disability, race or ethnicity, as well as their sexual orientation and gender identity.
20. We set out the evidence received on:
- sexual harassment, sexual exploitation and physical appearance,
- race and ethnicity,
- faith and belief,
- disability,
- sexual orientation and gender identity, and
- social media and bullying.
Sexual harassment, sexual exploitation and physical appearance
“I was playing dares with a boy from my school then he dared me to send nudes and I did. I feel ashamed and embarrassed and I don’t know why I did it.”
– (Girl aged 12) (NSPCC, 2016)
“They call me fatty and chubby, and push and pull me around. I have not eaten much since it started a few weeks ago. I feel like I need to change so I have put myself on a diet. I want to lose weight so they stop bullying me.”
– (Girl aged 7) (NSPCC, 2016)
21. Sexual harassment and intimidation is being experienced by children in both primary and secondary school. Gender played a key factor we found, and is disproportionately impacting girls and young women.
22. Evidence we gathered pointed to high levels of prejudice around physical appearance across all of the protected characteristics. As part of the work we commissioned from Children in Scotland, they highlighted that “physical
appearance is an important issue; young people expressed that they are bullied about the shape and size of their bodies. This also appeared to have had a negative impact on wellbeing and body image as the NSPCC administered 2,618 counselling sessions (from approx. 25,000 related to bullying) in 2015-16 in relation to body image issues (NSPCC, 2016).”
23. Children in Scotland’s report highlighted “there would appear to be a strong link between bullying and poor mental health, with young people identifying that bullying has a whole host of negative impacts such as low self-esteem, social isolation, sadness, depression or anxiety. Furthermore, bullying about weight was also noted to have the effect of causing eating disorders, in some instances, and contributing to poor body image.”
24. On sexual bullying and harassment, the Children in Scotland research showed that “sexualised bullying also plays a big part in the lives of young people. This ranges from sexualised name-calling, uninvited touching, encouragement to send inappropriate and sexualised photos and also bullying in relation to the onset of puberty. Girls also raised issues about attending new schools and feeling under pressure from young men in relation to sex, leading to name-calling, threats and rumours being spread about them.”
25. Girlguiding Scotland referred to the results of their 2014 Girls’ Attitude Survey on the views of girls and young women across the UK. This highlighted how widespread the problem was with 59% of girls aged 13 to 21 stating they had faced some form of sexual harassment at school or college in the past year. One in four had seen sexually explicit pictures or videos, or pictures or videos of girls or women that made them feel uncomfortable. 22% of girls aged 7 to 12 had experienced jokes of a sexual nature from boys at school.
26. We encourage everyone who reads this report to watch the short video produced by Girlguiding Scotland on the impact of sexual harassment in schools.
**Girlguiding Scotland video**
Sexual harassment in schools
Source: Katie Horsburgh, Girlguiding Scotland
27. Also worryingly, we heard of instances of sexual harassment directed at female students by male members of teaching staff. Girlguiding Scotland Youth Worker Susie McGuinness from Glasgow told usI sat in a classroom with a guidance teacher who watched as a boy walked around the classroom and undid girls’ bras through their shirts, and I had a teacher who put everybody’s third-year picture up on the board and commented on what the girls looked like. That was quite normal. Schools need to be much clearer with their staff and clamp down on that.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 15 June 2017 [Draft], Susie McGuiness, contrib. 52
28. Susie McGuinness also told us of instances of teaching staff approving or encouraging male students to commit physical assault on girls—
A young person in my guides group told me about a teacher who told a boy not to be too scared about hitting a girl, because, the teacher said, “She is a bit of crazy bitch.” That same teacher came in on the first day of school and said to my 13-year-old friend, “So, let’s see which of the girls have developed over the summer… That sort of thing has been reported again and again at my school, but the girls’ concerns have been dismissed. That is normal.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 15 June 2017 [Draft], Susie McGuiness, contrib. 52
29. Other witnesses we heard from highlighted alarming behaviour by both children and teaching staff.
30. Rape Crisis Scotland gave an example of “where girls have reported that boys in their school have raped them or coerced them into sending an image which has subsequently been shared. In some cases this has been reported to the police or social work, but no further action taken and the boy remains in the school. In addition to the trauma of the original abuse or assault, the girls have faced bullying, with problematic attitudes being brought into play for example that girls and women often lie about rape, and that when they are raped or sexually assaulted, they are in some way responsible.”
Race and ethnicity
People said to me “Are you adopted?” “Go back to where you come from” and call me “ugly brownie”. (Girl aged 12) (CRER)
31. The Coalition for Racial Equality and Rights (CRER) also highlighted there was wider impact on children from racial and ethnic bullying, “racist incidents and bullying on children and young people is different from the impact of other forms of bullying. Racism is experienced not just as a personal attack on a young person, but as something deeper which undermines and degrades their family, their community and their culture”
32. Carol Young of CRER cited the fact that “teachers have reported that bullying based on race is the number one type of prejudice-based bullying” and that children from black and ethnic minority communities are far more likely to suffer prejudice-based bullying over their majority community peers.
33. We also undertook a private fact-finding meeting with stakeholders from CRER on specific cases of racist bullying and harassment in Scottish education. This was amongst some of the most serious and shocking evidence we received, especially as incidents were prolonged and resulted in serious physical, and in some cases sexual assault, on children. It would be inappropriate to elaborate further because of the sensitivities and impending legal action in regard to a particular case.
34. Even where strides have been made in addressing the impact of bullying and harassment targeted at racial and ethnic groups, the inherited culture fear of victimisation amongst parents can have a disproportionate impact on the education and wellbeing of children. Maureen Finn of the Scottish Gypsy Traveller education programme STEP who had surveyed families on the main barriers to education, told us—
“The main reason that Gypsy Traveller parents give for not allowing their children to go to secondary school—although many go to primary—is bullying and discrimination. The view of STEP and many other agencies is that Gypsy Traveller parents have inherited that narrative in their culture.”
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 01 June 2017 [Draft], Maureen Finn (STEP), contrib. 7
Faith and belief
“Ever since the Paris attacks, I have been getting bullied really badly at school. I wear a headscarf and the bullies think that just because I am Muslim that I support ISIS. It’s gotten so bad that I have started to miss school, which I never do.”
— (Girl aged 15) (NSPCC, 2016)
35. We examined the complex relationship between ethnic and racial-based prejudice and that of faith-based prejudice, especially for children from minority religious communities in Scotland such as members of the Islamic and Jewish faiths.
36. Many witnesses spoke of a rapidly deteriorating environment for their children. Existing problems of prejudice were now being compounded by suspicion and stigma generated by media coverage of the refugee crisis or terrorism. This resulted in hostility towards their children who were perceived as having a cultural relationship with these nations and faiths.
37. Youth worker Samena Dean of Scotland Against Criminalising Communities (SACC) highlighted the growing level of Islamophobia faced by Muslim children in 2016 (years P5 to S6) attending 18 high schools and 22 primary schools in Edinburgh. Of 100 Muslim children surveyed—
- 55% in high school encountered verbal Islamophobia,
- 35% experienced it personally;
- 53% in primary school encountered verbal Islamophobia,
- 29% experienced it personally;
• Children were called “terrorist”, “bomber”, “ISIS”, “suicide squad”, “al Qaeda”. Kids heard other making fun of God and Allah, and were asked if they had a gun under their scarf;
• 15% in high school had encountered physical Islamophobia,
• 6% experienced it personally;
• 26% in primary school had encountered physical Islamophobia,
• 14% experienced it personally, this included being punched, kicked, pushed and having hijabs pulled off.
38. Brittany Ritell of the Scottish Council of Jewish Communities (SCoJeC) highlighted many instances of anti-Semitism against Jewish children. SCoJeC referenced "several accounts of children at school being told that 'the Jews killed Jesus', and being subject to a Hitler salute, and some conflating Judaism with Israel. She said that while some Jewish people volunteer to visit schools, this is very unstructured and often the people admit they have little knowledge of the Jewish faith. She added "In many communities, there are people who have never met a Jewish person in their life...how is a religious education teacher supposed to teach about Judaism when they have probably never met someone who represents that faith?"
39. Anthony Horan, Parliamentary Officer for the Catholic Bishop's Conference of Scotland reflected similar concerns—
"The problem that we have, which the previous witnesses referred to, is that there is a culture of fear about being open. We are talking about faith, but people might also feel uncomfortable about speaking openly about other characteristics... A lot of people fear being open about their faith...I have received evidence from young people about anti-Catholic bullying."
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 15 June 2017 [Draft], Anthony Horan, contrib. 97
40. Dr Richard Frazer, Convener of the Church and Society Council of the Church of Scotland, highlighted the need for a level of "religious and secular literacy" in the Scottish education system to overcome prejudice generated by ignorance. He told us young people’s experience in the classroom “whether they are secular or from any kind of faith community—can feel that they are being singled out or being asked to be an expert on a subject that they know little about.”
41. Children of no faith background also felt isolated as a result of the way faith education was delivered. Charlie Lynch of the Scottish Secular Society said “we are unhappy with religious observance as it is currently managed in non-denominational schools. We have started to compile evidence from pupils and their parents who are atheists and who have had all kinds of problems with religious observance. There is a right to opt out, but we are concerned that people are frequently not told about that properly.” The Secular Society advocated an opting in rather than opting out approach to faith education to make school culture more inclusive.
Disability
“School wasn’t easy for me, I didn’t have any friends and some of the children bullied me and called me names, or just ignored me. I felt invisible.”
– (Enable, 2016)
“These two boys are meant to be my friends but they keep telling me to hit this other girl. I have done it once but they keep telling me to do it again. I don’t want to hurt her again but feel I have to in case they won’t be friends with me anymore. I am autistic and have ADHD and I don’t really know what it means, but I think that is why I think I have to do what they say. They have messaged her telling her I am going to get her.”
– (Girl aged 16) (NSPCC, 2016)
42. One of the most vulnerable groups who fall victim to prejudice-based bullying and harassment were young disabled people. The research we commissioned from Children in Scotland pointed to the “presence of an additional support need or a learning disability” being a contributing factor to being bullied. They stated however, “that while there was often a correlation made between the two, causal proof or evidence was not forthcoming in the work carried out” by key stakeholders (NSPCC, 2016, Enable, 2016, Enquire). They noted that bullying was identified by Enquire “as contributing to a child or young person’s additional support need in 87 out of the 171 calls on the subject.” In 2016, Enable found that two thirds of young people with a learning disability or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) they engaged with had experienced bullying.\(^{20}\)
43. Iain Smith of Inclusion Scotland pointed to the lack of comprehensive information on disability bullying in Scotland. He pointed out that “most of the evidence that exists suggests that disabled children are twice as likely to be bullied at school as non-disabled children, and that bullying can carry on into adult life”. \(^{21}\)
44. He also explained that “over time, disabled people become immune—not to the effects of disability-related bullying, but to its significance. They think that it is just part of normal life, and therefore they stop reporting incidents of bullying or harassment because they think, ‘Well, that’s just what happens.’ That is very worrying. In the longer term, bullying impacts on the mental health of disabled people and leads to more social isolation.” \(^{22}\)
45. One of the most distressing cases we encountered was that of Rebecca Nicholson, a young woman from the Highlands who now volunteers as a disabled youth worker with Inclusion Scotland. Rebecca met the Committee to tell us of her experience of prejudice-based bullying as a disabled student. Her full story is in set out in the Annex to this report. In summary, Rebecca suffered disability-related prejudice throughout her secondary school years. The vast majority of hostility and prejudice directed towards her came from her teaching staff, and this left her suffering with low levels of self-worth and self-esteem. She was subsequently diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Today, Rebecca is a strong, confident, articulate young woman who is determined to make a positive contribution in life and wants to
work to eliminate fear and disability-prejudice amongst students and teachers in the Scottish education system.
**Sexual orientation and gender identity**
“In my first few years at secondary, I was bullied for not fitting the stereotypes of masculinity, with my peers questioning my sexuality before I even had a chance to do it myself.” – (TIE, 2016)
“The bullying I received has severely damaged my self-esteem. I currently suffer from an anxiety disorder… and in the past I have self-harmed.” – (Gay young person, left school in 2000s) (TIE, 2016)
46. Of concern to many of the stakeholders we heard from was the impact of sexual orientation and gender identity bullying and harassment. Children in Scotland’s report highlighted that teachers regularly hear about this sort of bullying in school. In 2014 Stonewall Scotland found that 39% of primary teachers in Scotland have heard homophobic bullying, while around 88% of secondary teachers say young people in their school are bullied for being or being suspected to be lesbian, gay, bisexual or trans, with 71% of teaching staff reporting hearing language like poof.”
23
47. Speaking about the widespread nature of the problem, Colin Macfarlane of Stonewall Scotland said that “from our lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender perspective, we know that bullying is rife in our schools—indeed endemic, given that 99 per cent of young people hear some form of homophobic language every day in the classroom.”
24
48. TIE’s 2016 “Attitudes Towards LGBT in Scottish Education” survey stated that 91% of LGBT youth reported experiencing homophobia, biphobia or transphobia in school, while 65% reported being bullied because of their gender identity or sexual orientation. Most worrying, however, was that 27% of LGBT youth attempted suicide at least once as a result of prejudice-based bullying. 15% had attempted to end their lives more than once and 45% report they regularly self-harm as a consequence of bullying. Also, 95% of LGBT youth surveyed said that they believed bullying has had a long term impact on their lives, and 97% stated that it would have been much more helpful if their schools had had an LGBTI inclusive environment.
25
49. Cara Spence of LGBT Youth Scotland further reinforced the severity of the damage caused to LGBTI young peopleUnfortunately, many of them talk to our services about feeling suicidal and having suicidal thoughts. They attribute that to being a direct result of their experience of schools. We also know that bullying can affect the attainment of LGBT young people. Fourteen per cent leave school as a direct result of homophobic, biphobic or transphobic bullying, and 10 per cent leave as a result of a homophobic environment in the school. Therefore, it is not just about bullying incidents; it is about the environment and culture in which bullying incidents take place.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 10 November 2016, Cara Spence (LGBT Youth Scotland), contrib. 74
Social media and bullying
“It might sound like not much of a problem but there’s this group of people I play with online and they told me to kill myself. I won’t kill myself but it upsets me. My parents don’t realise how upset it’s making me and they tell me to stand up for myself or just not play anymore but they don’t know how hard that is! They don’t understand why I want to play with people who are not friends, but to me they are. I don’t know why they have just suddenly started picking on me but it hurts so much.” – (Girl aged 12) (NSPCC, 2016)
“Every day I wake up scared to go to school, scared about the comments people will make and scared about walking home. Then I get in and log onto my social networking site and there are horrible messages everywhere. It’s like there’s no escaping the bullies. I’m struggling to cope with how upset I feel so sometimes I cut myself just to have a release but it’s not enough. I can’t go on like this.”
– (Girl aged 13) (NSPCC, 2016)
50. Youth advocates from Girlguiding Scotland gave evidence of the serious situation of sexual assaults on girls and young women in the school environment. They called for guidance teachers in schools to better equipped to deal with sexual harassment, especially when it involved video and images posted and shared online. The widespread use of social media platforms, such as Snapchat, are being used to share images of assault.
51. They highlighted the fact that “really young girls” are having nude photographs taken and leaked online, a fact they stated that “is quite shocking to a lot of adults, but it is widespread in schools and it goes under the radar”. Girlguiding Scotland explained that this problem is prevalent because “it is not happening in the classroom and teachers are not sure whether they are allowed to deal with it what steps they should be taking or whether the police should be involved…” 26
52. Maggie Fallon of Education Scotland agreed that “social media has made things very emotive and that the situation can become extremely complex, but a number of schools have adopted some thorough ways of dealing with the problem…it largely comes down to having a positive ethos and an inclusive environment in which
bullying cannot thrive. It is crucial that schools work hard to have such an environment in place.” 27
The Scottish Government
53. The Deputy First Minister and Cabinet Secretary for Education and Skills, John Swinney MSP, said in recognising the harm and damage that bullying causesI make it absolutely clear that the Government considers bullying of any kind to be completely unacceptable. Wherever it occurs, we have a responsibility to take action to deal with it quickly and effectively. The Government believes that there is no place in Scotland for prejudice or discrimination and that everyone deserves to be treated fairly.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], The Deputy First Minister and Cabinet Secretary for Education and Skills (John Swinney), contrib. 25
Conclusions and recommendations
54. Based on the evidence we took we are gravely concerned by the extent and seriousness of bullying in Scottish schools. In the course of our inquiry we got a real sense that prejudice-based bullying is on the increase.
55. The impact of bullying and harassment can be profound affecting confidence and undermining a sense of identity. It can result in social isolation and poorer life outcomes. Health and wellbeing are also significantly affected with some experiencing depression, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder or actions which lead to unhealthy personal relationships. The full physical and psychological implications of being bullied sometimes may not fully manifest until later in people’s lives. In the worse cases bullying can lead to self-harm or suicide. Bullying can also impact on educational attainment which in turn can affect potential life opportunities.
56. Racism, which had been the focus of concerted efforts to stamp it out in the 1970s, has made a resurgence with previous progress being rolled back. Gender-based bullying and harassment appears to be commonplace too, so much so that some witnesses described it as a daily occurrence. It is also clear that language, previously deemed as derogatory, has now been normalised, for example, the use of "bitch" or "slut" being considered ordinary. Bullying towards young people who are LGBT we found is still prevalent, and a tragic failure of our society when 27% of LGBT bullied young people attempt suicide.
57. Overall, we believe any perceived difference means there is a risk of being bullied in an enabling environment (we address school culture and permissive environments later in this report). We believe that having a protected characteristic heightens the risk of being bullied or harassed and contributes to the length of time a child is bullied. Bullying becomes almost inescapable when a young person with a protected characteristic has, for example, a visibly identifiable feature (such as wearing a hijab) or a physical disability. We also found that not all bullying has the same impact. Bullying around faith or race had the potential to hold deeper impact for individuals as it extends to their community, culture or faith. Discrimination and equalities are thus core issues to address within bullying and harassment of children and young people.
58. We were interested to learn about Young Scot’s youth investigation into race equality in Scotland, entitled Fairer Future, due to be published this summer. We hope the findings will shed more light on this problem. We ask the Scottish Government to take cognisance of Young Scot’s findings when finalising the refresh of the National Anti-Bullying Approach.
59. Digital technology in the form of text, apps, videos, games and news media, provides the backdrop to today’s bullying. It also offers various spaces where cyber bullying can take place and so we recognise bullying today doesn’t stop at the school gates, meaning there is little respite for those being bullied. This constant digital media “noise” also contributes to an air of “acceptability” as boundaries are eroded due to these being largely unmoderated. Recent reporting of news items in relation to terrorism, Brexit and the American presidential election have given permission and credence to views previously considered off-limits. Over time, we believe this could have a normative effect unless challenged effectively in schools. We appreciate though that digital technology can also provide solutions in the form of anonymous reporting or gaining advice and support through online forums.
60. We also recognise continual blurring of the boundaries around acceptable behaviour, language and cyber bullying makes addressing bullying in the school environment complex. We are strongly of the view, however, that no child or young person should have to experience bullying or harassment at school. Its effects are wide-ranging and damaging and can have a lasting impact on life chances. This is why we believe the approach taken needs to be preventative.
61. Many organisations, including Children in Scotland, called for more information about how children and young people are experiencing bullying rooted in racism, xenophobia and gender. Gaps in information relating to disability were also raised, including those with additional support needs. In order to provide a more accurate picture of all forms of bullying in Scotland we ask the Scottish Government to undertake wide-ranging research to establish the level and nature of bullying to ensure policies are evidenced-based to assist in ensuring bullying is addressed comprehensively across all relevant Scottish Government portfolios, every local authority, and within every school, as a matter of priority.
The risk of inaction—
For the child/individual
- poorer life chances
- poorer physical and mental health outcomes
- Worst case: self-harm and suicide
For education
- Difficulty meeting attainment goals
- Increased impact on staff
- Additional pressure on resources
For society
- Higher costs for health, education, criminal justice, social care
- Lower economic and developmental benefit
- Long term generational consequences
Part Two – Dealing with Bullying and Harassment
62. This part of the report focusses on wider issues relevant to tackling and preventing bullying and harassment in schools and the approaches currently taken by the Scottish Government, education authorities and schools:
- Children’s rights and bullying,
- Anti-bullying related strategies, relevant public policy, and leadership,
- Negative environments in schools,
- Definitions of prejudice-based bullying,
- Teaching practice and prevention of bullying,
- Data recording and monitoring of prejudice-based bullying, and
- Inspection of, and compliance with, anti-bullying guidance.
Children’s rights and bullying
63. Children in Scotland referenced several leading stakeholders who had pointed to the need to understand and deal with prejudice-based bullying of children within the wider context of promoting and protecting their human rights. The Children’s Parliament’s view was that “as duty bearers, we adults must understand that children place their trust in us. The realisation of children’s human rights depends on our actions, our behaviours, our expressions of respect and our belief in the human dignity of every child.”
64. Drawing together these views, Children in Scotland stated that, “dealing with bullying has to take on a different emphasis than simply aiming to tackle it as an individual issue. Instead it must focus on child rights and trust. Children have the right to be safe from bullying and children should know adults will listen to them and act in solidarity with them…. positive intergenerational relationships, built on a foundation of human rights, will also promote the prevention of bullying and harassment”.
65. Many stakeholders have pointed to the UN’s Concluding Observations from the Convention on the Rights of the Child in terms of the UK meeting its commitments to children’s rights. The Children and Young People’s Commissioner Scotland told us of the pressing need to embed a right-based approach for children. Other witnesses have highlighted the need for this to include children’s rights within the Scottish education system.
66. Dr Kay Tisdall, Professor of Childhood Policy and Co-Director of the Centre for Research on Families and Relationships (CRFR), University of Edinburgh pointed out that “the 2016 Concluding Observations of the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, for the UK, has conclusively recognised bullying as a form of violence
against children and thus against their human rights. Paragraph 48(a) states:
Bullying, including cyberbullying, remains a serious and widespread problem, particularly against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex children, children with disabilities and children belonging to minority groups, including Roma, gypsy and traveller children.” 32
67. Failure to meet UN human rights standards was also emphasised by CRER. They pointed to the concluding observation of UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, which recommended that the UK:
“35 a) Strengthen efforts to eliminate all racist bullying and harassment in the State party’s schools, including by requiring schools to collect qualitative and quantitative data on bullying and exclusions from school on the grounds of race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin, and to use the data to develop concrete strategies.
b) Ensure that schools comply with their public sector equality duty under the Equality Act 2010 and section 75 of the Northern Ireland Act 1998 to challenge racist bullying and to promote respect for diversity, including through the training of educational personnel”. 33
68. Juliet Harris, Together (The Scottish Alliance of Children’s Rights), highlighted the often unrecognised flouting of the rights of children by adult society. She spoke of a “culture of discrimination against children and young people across Scotland. We see that, for example, with signs that say that only one or two children are allowed in a shop at any one time, and in the fact that mosquito devices are still legal—it is still possible to have a device outside a shop that makes a noise that adults cannot hear to keep children away. If we had such a device that discriminated against people with a disability or BME communities people would be outraged, but it discriminates against children and people just say, Okay—that’s fine”. 34
69. Education Scotland drew attention to the approach it was leading with other key partners like, COSLA, Police Scotland, SportScotland and respectme, in the refresh of the National Anti-Bullying Approach by underlining “the principals that we are basing the approach on are robust, children’s rights focussed, rooted in equalities and have been agreed by the working group and the parents and carers, children and young people and practitioners we consulted with.” 35
Counter Terrorism and Security Act 2015 – section 26 the ‘prevent duty’
70. The Educational Institute of Scotland (EIS) were “very concerned about the ‘Prevent’ duty contained in the 2015 Counter Terrorism and Security Act…for certain public bodies to have …in the exercise of their functions…due regard to the need to prevent people from being drawn into terrorism.” ‘Prevent’ has been widely criticised, not least for creating conditions in which racism and Islamophobia will be exacerbated. We are particularly concerned about the degree of scrutiny to which Black and Minority Ethnic learners and families may be subjected because of this legislation and its implementation.” 36
71. Dr Kay Tisdall advised Together (the Scottish Alliance for Children’s Rights) had received concerns from its members about the implications of the prevent duty on
children and young people and that this was taken up by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, which recognised the potential discriminatory or stigmatising impact that the Prevent Strategy could have.” 37
Conclusions and recommendations
72. We agree that bullying is a human rights issue and that part of the key to preventing bullying is the importance of instilling a rights-based approach in schools.
73. Rights Respecting Schools Award places the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child at the heart of its ethos and curriculum. 38 We believe in addition to strengthening the National Anti-Bullying Approach to tackling, and importantly preventing, school bullying, encouraging the Rights Respecting Schools Award would make significant progress for the Scottish Government towards addressing the relevant concluding obligations of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the UN Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. We ask the Scottish Government to encourage schools to become rights-respecting-schools as part of the Rights Respecting Schools Award. We ask the Scottish Government to bring forward legislation which incorporates the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child into Scots law. 39
74. We ask the Scottish Government to work with providers of initial teacher training and Continuous Professional Development to augment training on the protected characteristics with specific training on children’s human rights to embed the Children’s Parliament’s message clearly that children’s human rights very much depend on our actions, our behaviours, our expressions of respect and our belief in the human dignity of every child. We also ask the Scottish Government to promote this message in the refreshed National Anti-Bullying Approach.
75. Concerns were raised about the UK Government’s ‘Prevent Duty’, which relates to the duty in the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 to have due regard to the need to prevent people from being drawn into terrorism. Some considered this could exacerbate school bullying and harassment. In the time available we did not have an opportunity to thoroughly explore this issue. We therefore ask the Scottish Government to provide further clarification on the Prevent Duty and related guidance and how this fits with the Scottish Government’s National Anti-Bullying Approach.
Anti-bullying related strategies, relevant public policy, and leadership
76. Scottish Government officials elaborated on the support Government provides to build confidence and the capacity to address bullying effectively, aligned to the National Anti-Bullying Approach. Funded by Government, respectme provides direct support to local authorities, schools, youth groups and all those working with children and young people. This includes reviewing, formulating, implementing and evaluating locally relevant anti-bullying policies on which stakeholders have been consulted and providing training, information and support with guidelines, procedures and monitoring.
77. In addition to this, officials stressed that Education Scotland, which provides the school inspection service, continued to provide support to schools on promoting positive relationships with children and young people, which includes support and resources around anti-bullying strategies.\(^{40}\)
78. Maggie Fallon explained that the strongest language in the national guidance is “should” and that there is an “…expectation that local authorities and schools will develop their own policies and that schools and all youth organisations should develop their own policies, too. At a local level, local authorities can use stronger language on what they expect from their schools”. \(^{41}\)
79. The national anti-bullying organisation respectme suggested that the Anti-Bullying Approach should be reviewed every two or three years and explained that the approach taken in Scotland to anti-bullying policy is not to label people, but to talk about the behaviour and its impact of the people involved. \(^{42}\)
80. Philip Gosnay of the Association of Directors of Education in Scotland (ADES) welcomed a refreshed Anti-Bullying Approach which, he stated “should be at the heart of a whole-school approach to establishing a welcoming and nurturing ethos, whereby health and wellbeing and being safe are necessary prerequisites to effective learning, to achievement and to the attainment of all young people”. \(^{43}\)
81. We also note the Scottish Government’s recently published Mental Health Strategy 2017-2027, where the first three key actions listed under Prevention and Early Intervention for mental health are—
• A review of Personal and Social Education (PSE), the role of pastoral guidance in local authority schools, and services for counselling for children and young people;
• A roll out improved mental health training for those who support young people in educational settings;
• To commission the development of a matrix of evidence-based interventions to improve the mental health and wellbeing of children and young people.
Relevant public policy
82. Many witnesses spoke of the need to integrate the National Anti-Bullying Approach with other key aspects of Government policy, such as the new National Mental Health Strategy and reviews of the curriculum and teacher training.
83. The recent report from the Education and Skills Committee on reform of PSE within the Scottish curriculum, *Let’s Talk About Personal and Social Education*, made several key findings and recommendations which are relevant to the National Anti-Bullying Approach. These include—
- While recognising that the “approach taken in England, of making relationships and sex education mandatory for all schools, may not be replicable given the philosophy underpinning Scotland’s education system”, the Education and Skills Committee, “is concerned that the importance the Scottish Government places on health and wellbeing (with Personal and Social Education sitting within this) as one of three priorities alongside numeracy and literacy, is not borne out in some schools or with consistency across schools.”
- The [Education and Skills] Committee seeks an acknowledgement from the Scottish Government that, despite health and wellbeing being given equal priority to numeracy and literacy centrally, this is not always the case in practice locally.
- The [Education and Skills] Committee also considers that the Scottish Government should ensure positive outcomes for all our young people if the [PSE] review recommended [by the Committee] finds clear evidence of children and young people not receiving the level of Personal and Social Education that is expected from education authorities, particularly in the absence of external validation of teaching that is present in exam subjects.” 44
84. The Scottish Government also recently established the LGBTI Inclusive Education Working Group, to look at making the Scottish curriculum and education system more inclusive of LGBTI culture and history. The terms of reference of this group include facilitating “joined up thinking and discussion to provide advice and recommendations to Scottish Ministers on the concerns and pledges of the Time for Inclusive Education (TIE) Campaign on how to improve the inclusive education experience for LGBTI young people.” 45
Leadership
85. A key element to emerge from the inquiry was the views held by many of the vital importance strong school leadership and a whole school approach can play is addressing bullying and harassment. Such leadership is not just confined to head teachers and teachers, but also required a joined up approach by the wider school community, education authorities, teacher associations and teacher training colleges and third sector partners.
86. We explored the factors involved in developing strong school leadership with head teachers from schools recognised as having both a positive and inclusive ethos, as well as strong teacher/pupil co-led mechanisms.
87. Derek Allan, Rector (Head Teacher) of Kirkcaldy High School gave evidence to the Committee alongside the student chair of the school’s LGBTI+ Committee, Cameron Bowie. Speaking about the role of strong school leadership and building a whole school environment, Mr Allan told us of the lessons he learned during a study tour of the education system in the Canadian province of Ontario. Their school ethos, he said, places a central focus on character education and Ontario had “a specific curricular insert that looked at values such as honesty, trust, fairness and respect”.
Source: Derek Allan (Rector) and Cameron Bowie (Chair, LGBTI+ Committee), Kirkcaldy High School give evidence to the Committee on 15 June 2017.
88. This had shown him that the “key thing is that prevention is far better than cure. Bullying policies in schools are important as frameworks but we would always want to get to the point at which bullying is minimised through the school’s culture being such that it is not acceptable and not thought cool to be cruel. It is about building up a culture and ethos that are inclusive” These formed the basis for his approach to building the school ethos when he became head at Kirkcaldy High School.”
89. This approach was also echoed in what we learned from Rebecca Machin, Head Teacher of Kinlochleven High School. She took part in a private face-to-face fact finding about school ethos and leadership. A small school of 147 students in rural Scotland, Rebecca Machin spoke of her experience of engaging students and their families in reshaping the ethos of the school. She told us “to begin we had set down a school ethos which ran to about two sides A4. But after I engaged the students in its redesign this was narrowed down to two sentences, and these are now constantly refreshed.” She also spoke of how children led on the process of welcoming children from families in the Syrian Resettlement Programme and the creation of an LGBTI committee in the school. A note of this visit is available in the Annex to this report.
90. During a visit to Dublin, the Convener met with Carol Anne O’Brien, Director of Advocacy with BelongTo, one of Ireland’s leading third sector LGBTI youth organisations. We learned about the approach taken in Ireland to treating LGBTI prejudice as a public health issues and discussed the school assessment tool BelongTo has developed in cooperation with Government and the various private and faith groups which deliver education in Ireland. BelongTo have developed a rapid assessment toolkit to assist schools as part of the mental health strategy
delivered by the Irish public health service. A note of this meeting is available in the Annex to this report.
Source: Whole school approach adopted by BelongTo in Ireland, Self-Assessment Toolkit on LGBTI issues
The Scottish Government
91. In response to a question about how guidance in schools is put into practice and how an ethos where bullying cannot thrive is created, the Cabinet Secretary said—
“Guidance has to be brought to life to ensure that young people experience the type of education system that the guidance aspires to deliver.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 96
92. He went on to say that “our challenge is to ensure that that is replicated in operational practice in schools around the country”. 47
93. And further explained—
“The profile of a school in the centre of Glasgow will be very different from the profile of a school in Ms Ross’s constituency. We must ensure that the approach is tailored to meet the needs of young people in different circumstances. However, regardless of whether bullying is due to relationship issues in a school in rural Scotland, or due to racial prejudice in a school in central Glasgow, it is totally unacceptable.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 157
94. The Cabinet Secretary also highlighted the importance of relationships between schools and communities. He said, “The ethos that we try to encourage in our schools is for them to be involved in the communities of which they are a part.” He referred to a school in his constituency which had been working with vulnerable elderly people in care homes and said of the benefits, “That work is part of the process of reinforcing the ethos of a respectful and inclusive society in which people are respectful not just to elderly members of the community, but to a variety of groups in our society”.
Conclusions and recommendations
95. We acknowledge the National Anti-Bullying Approach has an important role in communicating the emphasis the Scottish Government places on addressing bullying in schools. We appreciate the Cabinet Secretary’s willingness to delay the publication of the refreshed National Anti-Bullying Approach and his commitment to reflect on the findings of our inquiry for aspects which could be strengthened.
96. We ask the Scottish Government to ensure the future direction of the National Anti-Bullying Approach’s emphasis is on prevention, through proactivity, rather than focusing on reacting to bullying incidents. This should focus on creating a whole-school culture which is inclusive. In addition, we ask the Scottish Government for an update on any changes made prior to publication of the refreshed National Anti-Bullying Approach.
97. The ongoing Scottish Government review of Personal and Social Education (PSE) and school counselling services, should be closely aligned to the refresh of the National Anti-Bullying Approach. In our view PSE in the curriculum can play an important role in building an inclusive learning environment which provides both students and teachers with a tool to address prejudice-based bullying and harassment. This is a topic we will continue to pursue in cooperation with the Educational and Skills Committee. We ask the Scottish Government to examine how reform of PSE will underpin delivery of the National Anti-Bullying Approach and report back to us on this.
98. The Government should also take advantage of the review of hate crimes to ensure the National Anti-Bullying Approach delivers clarity to all involved in the education system on hate crimes and sexual offences.
99. We expect the National Anti-Bullying Approach to be reviewed at least every three years, so as to ensure it keeps pace with changes or developments which materially affect its efficacy and efficiency. Public consultation and relevant parliamentary consideration should form part of the review process.
100. We welcome the Scottish Government’s commitment to prioritising health and wellbeing of children through GIRFEC (Getting it Right for Every Child) and the recently published Mental Health Strategy which also prioritises children and young people’s mental health.
101. We are supportive of the views expressed by the Education and Skills Committee and the views expressed by many of the witnesses we have heard from that the curriculum should provide a more pupil-led response to building a stronger whole school environment which is more consistently delivered across Scotland.
102. Both the findings of the Education and Skills Committee, and the approach of the new national mental health strategy point to the need for a more joined up approached to national policy on prejudice-based bullying and harassment. This was also reflected from many of the groups we heard from.
103. The Scottish Government should ensure that all anti-bullying related policies and agencies are working in a coordinated and joined up manner to address all prejudice-based bullying and harassment in schools to ensure consistency of delivery and outcome across the entire education system in Scotland. We will review progress as part of our 2018 work programme.
104. In order to ensure local joined-up delivery we expect Community Planning Partnerships provide the necessary focus to join-up the efforts of key public sector stakeholders, such as education authorities and Health Boards etc. on anti-bullying policy. This should be reflected in Single Outcome Agreements.
105. We also ask the Scottish Government to investigate whether the policy lead on school bullying and harassment would be better aligned to public health policy, thus switching the focus from education to health by concentrating on the health and wellbeing impacts of bullying on children or young people. This approach has found support in other countries such as Ireland and may also assist in providing a fresh approach to dealing with some of the sensitivities around delivering inclusive teaching and education in faith-based school environments.
106. The recently formed Scottish Government LGBTI Inclusive Education Working Group is also a welcome advancement in addressing LGBTI issues in schools. We wish it well in its deliberations and look forward to the action which flows from its work. We commend the work of BelongTo in Ireland to the Working Group. We ask the Cabinet Secretary to report back to us on the work of the Working Group when it concludes its task.
107. We ask the Scottish Government to clarify how the role of the newly announced regional education collaboratives will help to deliver anti-bullying strategies in schools.
108. We believe of vital importance to addressing prejudice-based bullying and discrimination in our schools is strong leadership at all levels, from the Scottish Government through to education authorities and head teachers of schools.
109. The effective implementation of the National Anti-Bullying Approach across Scottish education is of major concern to us. Freedom of Information requests made by CRER (see the evidence from CRER on recording and monitoring), show that there is limited evidence to support that all schools have anti-bullying policies in place.
110. Scotland’s duty to protect children and young people from prejudice-based bullying and harassment extends to all children in the education system, irrespective of what type of school they attend. It is vital, therefore, that the Scottish Government work with education authorities to guarantee uniformity of delivery of the National Anti-Bullying Approach, both in denominational and non-denominational local authority run schools, and independently run schools.
111. We recognise education authorities are autonomous and that schools need the flexibility to address their particular circumstances; however, we consider there is a disconnect between the direction set out in the National Anti-Bullying Approach and positive action being taken in schools. We therefore ask the Scottish Government to work with the Association of Directors of Education in Scotland and the independent school sector to create an action plan which flows from the National Anti-Bullying Approach. This should include targets for schools and should be monitored by the education authority in coordination with the Inspection Service.
112. Successful prevention is happening in schools where anti-bullying practice is embedded within school culture. Leadership from head teachers is essential, but it has to be an inclusive approach, through shared values and vision and this whole-school approach must include young people in its development. Pupils know the issues that need to be addressed and often have the solutions, for example, peer-to-peer support. Key messages have to be reinforced at every opportunity, through assemblies for example, to maintain a positive culture that welcomes diversity. We consider more needs to be done to export good practice to other schools.
113. The Scottish Government should work with the Association of Directors of Education in Scotland to look at creating or utilising an existing forum where anti-bullying best practice can be shared.
114. As we have learned from the experience of equal pay compensation, future court proceedings on discrimination in the education system may pose possible serious risks to the levels of public revenue available to fund education. We urge education authorities to be more proactive with the schools in their areas and recognise the risk of potential future legal challenges by individuals where schools and education authorities may be judged to have failed to adequately protect children from the impacts of bullying and harassment, especially when motivated by prejudice.
Negative environments in schools
115. It was clear from the evidence we received that prejudice-based bullying affects not only those who are victims, but also those who carry out such bullying and those who witness it. The widespread nature of the prejudice-based bullying and harassment and the normalisation of such negative views and beliefs can impact on the lives of all children.
116. Another key element raised is the need to address the development of negative permissive spaces in the school environment, including online. Time and again the need for safe school spaces, not just for children and young people, but also for teachers and all who work in education, was highlighted to us, as being central to tackling prejudice and proactively create safe and trusted school environments.
117. Children in Scotland’s report noted that, “School culture was found to be vitally important in ensuring that young people are supported to deal with bullying. Successful prevention is happening in schools where anti-bullying practice is embedded within school culture”. This was echoed by respectme who found that the most successful anti-bullying interventions were embedded within a positive ethos and culture and do not focus on individual incidents.”
118. Evidence from other witnesses, such as Rape Crisis Scotland, CRER, Inclusion Scotland, the NSPCC, the TIE Campaign, Girlguiding Scotland and the Scottish Youth Parliament have all referenced the combination of factors which has led to growth of negative school environments for protecting children from prejudice-based bullying and sexual harassment. These include deficiencies in teacher training and CPD, failure to challenge inappropriate behaviour and language, lack of understanding of the role, and impact of online and social media and lack of leadership in building strong school ethos and supporting teachers when the challenge behaviour.
119. These views were also reflective of much of the evidence we received from witnesses. Brittany Ritell of the SCoJeC highlighted the need to tackle the negative permissive space in relation to understanding the role of the bystander: “An
important word that came up with the previous panel of witnesses was bystander. I talked with P7 students yesterday and none of them knew what a bystander is. When working on creating a Holocaust education curriculum for S5 and S6 students, my colleague said that he did not think that those students would know what a bystander was. Starting to change that culture is important.” 51
120. Cameron Bowie, Chair of Kirkcaldy High School’s LGBT+ Group spoke of the importance strong leadership in creating safe positive school environment for LGBTI students: “The LGBT group is a good support network for kids who are feeling victimised due to their sexuality or gender identity… assemblies that we have done at the school have given people knowledge, so that they do not go by wrong stereotypes and judge people. …the school is a very accepting place. At assemblies, Mr Allan uses words like ‘gay’, ‘lesbian’ and ‘transgender’, which takes away the stigma and makes those identities accepted.” 52
121. Kirkcaldy High School’s LGBT+ Group set out some of the key aspects to building a successful inclusive environment: ongoing messages of acceptance are delivered to the entire school to pupils and parents; pupils aware of the rules from the head teacher; all staff fully aware they are supported to deal with any Homophobic, Biphobic, Transphobic bullying; good school culture on addressing topics like contraception, teenage pregnancy and LGBT+ lessens prejudice; effective use of used social media to build up a culture of acceptance.
122. They concluded “we believe that the way forward for equality and acceptance is a strong, clear and consistent message delivered continuously by respected authority figures until it becomes part of the school’s identity and ethos”. 53
123. The strength of a pupil co-led approach was also reflected by the Education and Skills Committee in their recent inquiry report on PSE when they stated—
“The [Education and Skills] Committee considers consulting young people and tailoring the approach to teaching to their needs aligns with the ethos of the Curriculum for Excellence and that this approach would lend relevance and breadth to Personal and Social Education curricula. The Committee recommends to the Scottish Government that all Personal and Social Education programmes should include an element of co-design to ensure that young people explore issues of importance to them and are engaged in the learning process.” 54
124. In a private fact-finding meeting with the Committee on specific cases of racial bullying, CRER raised concerns that the current curriculum places too much of a focus, albeit well-meaningly, on teaching about the differences between human cultures, races and traditions instead of focussing on commonality which all humans share. They questioned whether any review of PSE and school counselling services in the curriculum, should re-examination of the policy of "learning about diversity" and whether it is unhelpfully focusing on the small percentage of differences between people, instead of promoting and grounding empathy and human communality based on the vast majority of human experience.
125. Bullying and harassment faced by children and young people was not the only form of bullying referred to by witnesses. In its evidence to the Committee the EIS expresses its concerns that “teachers are at risk of bullying and harassment from a
wide range of sources: it can come from colleagues, management, students and pupils, members of the public or from parents. Multiple strategies therefore need to be put in place to prevent and challenge the harassment of teachers.”
126. Adequate support for teachers to address bullying towards students, as well as that directed at themselves, was reflected on by others witnesses too. In a private fact-finding meeting with youth advocates from the Scottish Youth Parliament and Girlguiding Scotland on 14 June 2017, we heard of several instances where teachers, especially female teachers, were the subject of harassment by other teachers, or students. A note of this meeting is included in the annex to this report. One of the participants told us that she recalled a female teacher who was too intimidated to address prejudice-based bullying in class because “she was afraid she’d be filmed by students and have it posted on the internet”.
127. The Scottish Parliament hosted the Your Scottish Parliament Conference attended by approximately 135 young people (16-19 years old). The Committee engaged with over 80 young people on the issue of prejudice-based bullying in schools. The key views they expressed were—
• Prejudice-based bullying has a long lasting impact on the lives of those who’d experienced it, and for those who witness it happening, it made their school years unpleasant;
• the whole education system was too “reactive” and needed to be much more “proactive” on bullying: such as focussing on forming positive self-identity and health relationships from an early age; an understanding consent in relations; developing empathy and the ability of develop think critically, and children’s experience of personal relationships should start in their pre-school years.
The Scottish Government
128. When asked about teachers who were dismissive or unsympathetic towards children and young people’s issues, the Cabinet Secretary was unequivocal—
“there is no circumstance in which bullying is acceptable, and there is no circumstance in which bullying that is perpetrated by one individual is any less significant or less concerning than that which is perpetrated by any other. Bullying is not acceptable; whether we are talking about the way in which bullying has been perpetrated, or the way in which it has not been properly investigated or held to account, it is completely at odds with the aspirations of our approach.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 258
Conclusions and recommendations
129. What has been concerning during the course of our inquiry was the number of incidents we heard about where teachers had been dismissive or were unsympathetic to children and young people worried about bullying. This non-validation of concerns can lead to the creation of a negative-permissive environment where children do not raise issues because they think they will not be dealt with. This is where bullying can flourish. We also heard about teachers who
used inappropriate language or terms that made children and young people less likely to trust that their concerns would be addressed.
130. Bullying not only affects those experiencing it, but also those who witness it. We note that some young people feel they cannot stand up for friends who are being bullied due to the effect it might have on the young people. There are also issues about friends being put in an awkward position about whether to report bullying when the victim’s wishes are to avoid telling someone. Support for bystanders was also felt to be important, as children faced issues such as not knowing what to do, fearing ridicule from adults, and retribution from bullies.
131. We ask the Scottish Government to ensure the refreshed National Anti-Bullying Approach’s focus is on prevention, early intervention and the rights of children. It should be aspirational and stress the importance of promoting an inclusive environment where pupils are safe and are comfortable with challenging bullying behaviour because they are supported to do so. It should also make clear that every incident reported should be treated seriously and investigated with children’s rights at the core, as should be the case with professional practice.
Definitions of prejudice-based bullying
132. Various witnesses expressed grave concerns around confused definitions in terms of bulling, prejudice-based bullying and when incidents which are looked upon as bullying, but are in reality, hate or sexual crimes.
133. Susie McGuinness of Girlguiding Scotland said
that there are instances of girls who have been filmed being assaulted, and that there is non-consensual footage of rape going around schools and not being reported or dealt with. It is a frightening thing, and it is so large that teachers do not know who to go to or how to deal with it, so it often goes unreported. When it does get reported, that can often make the situation worse, because it is not dealt with appropriately and people do not know what steps they can take...[schools should]...know what steps they should be taking and how to report incidents to the police, so that young men see the consequences of those actions. If they do not see the consequences, we are creating a culture where that is an acceptable thing to be happening in schools, and it is clearly not.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 15 June 2017 [Draft], Susie McGuinness, contrib. 189
134. Her colleague, Hannah Brisbane, added: “A lot of [Girlguiding Scotland’s] statistics come from the seven to 12 age group, which is always surprising to a lot of people because they think that it happens a lot later. It is happening a lot earlier. 56
135. Commenting on this evidence, Derek Allan, Rector (Head Teacher) of Kirkcaldy High School said “I find it frightening that guidance teachers would not know that that is a clear child protection issue. There is clear guidance for all teachers about how to progress issues and report them appropriately.” 57
136. CRER also expressed serious concerns to us around the lack of clarity in guidance and culture in schools on what's constitutes a race incident. They called for this clearly established definition of a racist incident, which was out in the MacPherson Report in 1999 (which inquired into the murder of Steven Lawrence and the criminal case and trial which followed), to be use by all schools in deciding whether an incident of bullying or harassment constitutes a race incident—
“any incident which is perceived to be racist by the victim or any other person”.
137. Everyone who works in the Scottish education system should be aware of this clear simple definition and use it as the benchmark to assess whether a racist incident has occurred.
138. Brittany Retill of the SCoJeC echoed this sentiment "it is good that there is a definition of anti-Semitism, which will probably help to combat it. Many times, it is hard to define exactly what is bad enough to be dealt with, so having a concrete and clear definition will go a long way."
139. Barbara Coupar of the Scottish Catholic Education Service (SCES) expressed concerns raised by Catholic primary school head teachers about how to define prejudice-based bullying stating that head teachers “raised the issue of who gets to define the root of the bullying. Is it the person who is being bullied, the bully or the adult who is looking at the situation? There is nuance and greyness around that, and the people to whom I spoke said that they are very open to receiving help and support to ensure that their data is accurate.”
Conclusions and recommendations
140. Evidence we received points to there being significant confusion amongst teaching professionals about what constitutes bullying, and bullying motivated by prejudice. We believe different definitions have the potential to compound confusion. Particular concern was also raised regarding children from a black and ethnic minority background, Gypsy Travellers, and from those faith communities around confused definitions and what constitutes an act of racism. There is also evidence of poor practice regarding child protection and reporting of bullying incidents which are hate or sexual crimes.
141. We recognise the National Anti-Bullying Approach defines the types of behaviours which could be bullying and we think this is helpful. We however ask the Scottish Government to undertake further work to provide a simple definition of bullying and bullying motivated by prejudice, so that all those who work with children have a clear understanding. This should also look to clarify when bullying constitutes a hate crime or a sexual offence. We ask the Scottish Government to provide assurance that all those working in schools are trained when to report bullying to the police. We seek assurance from the Scottish Government that teachers have the necessary guidance to implement child protection procedures.
Teaching practice and prevention of bullying
142. Equipping teachers with the skills and confidence to tackle prejudice-based bullying and harassment, as well as addressing prejudice amongst teaching professions, has been a major theme in this inquiry.
143. In the Programme for Government the Scottish Government committed to “require all new guidance and promoted teachers – and eventually all teachers – to undertake training so that they are confident in tackling prejudice-based bullying in schools. We will work with the General Teaching Council for Scotland to provide more support on equality issues by August 2017, and ensure that schools address the important issues that LGBTI young people face, and that teachers have the skills, knowledge and confidence to embed inclusive approaches in their schools”.
61
144. On 10 November 2016, we took evidence from Centre for Research on Families and Relationships, CRER, the EIS, Inclusion Scotland, LGBT Youth Scotland, the Head of Moray House School of Education, the NSPCC Scotland/Childline Scotland, Scottish Council of Deans of Education, Rape Crisis Scotland, respectme, and the TIE Campaign. There was broad consensus amongst these groups of the need for teacher training on prejudice-based bullying and harassment with a focus on the content of that training in order to improve the confidence of teachers.
62
145. Brian Donnelly, Director of respectme told us that the “biggest challenge that we have found in schools in recent years is quite saddening: the lack of knowledge in schools of the Equality Act 2010 and protected characteristics can be quite alarming. There are people who genuinely do not understand their duties and responsibilities in relation to prejudice-based bullying.”
63
146. Bill Ramsay of the EIS spoke about the teachers views on time and resources available to undertake training and CPD, “It is important to realise that teachers have only a certain amount of time outwith the classroom to train up on various issues and further develop their professionalism…they have about 7.5 hours a week to prepare for their lessons and roughly five hours a week to refresh—teachers do much more than that…therefore, there is an issue of priorities”
64
147. Speaking about the approach favoured by the Scottish Catholic Education Service, Barbara Coupar said it would be helpful to have one teacher per school with the specialist training to support children and deal with prejudice rather than training all teachers “for some of our secondary school teachers, it does not matter what the issue would be … If they are not a PSE teacher or a religious education teacher, they might not feel equipped to have conversations of that ilk with the children anyway….teachers need to be able to say, ‘I don’t think I’m the person who can help you.”
65
148. Barbara Coupar made clear that the SCES is trying to “ensure that our staff know, first, at a basic level, the law and what they are allowed to talk about, and secondly what the church actually teaches—there is sometimes confusion there—so that they have the confidence and the sense of freedom to be able to talk about that.”
66
149. John Edward of the SCIS informed us that there are about 3,500 teachers in the independent schools sector, and “about at least a third of them go through SCIS training of some form or another every year”, mostly on child protection and wellbeing. He added “we do not see it as something that is all over once a teacher has got their certificates.”\(^{67}\)
150. Speaking about teacher training and inspection, he told us “from our perspective, [ethos] is very important to our schools, because they all have an individual ethos or philosophy that has developed over decades—or centuries in some cases. That forms a very core part of how they approach any of these problems, such as cyberbullying and sexual exploitation. One of the main roles that SCIS performs for its schools is professional learning and development and the production of guidelines on all sorts of areas, based on best practice, case law, the Equality Act 2010, the Children and Young People (Scotland) Act 2014 or whatever it may be”\(^{68}\)
151. He continued, “If we thought that the training out there was perfect, we would not have to develop our own. I suppose that we are lucky to be in the position that we can create bespoke training, involving the time for inclusive education campaign, respect me and others.”\(^{69}\)
152. As we have cited previously, witnesses from the Church of Scotland, SACC and SoCJeC spoke about the need for religious literacy and the need to train teachers on main faiths in Scotland to be able to respond appropriately to faith and do more to teach pupils to adopt non-judgmental attitudes and accept different identities.\(^{70}\)
153. Stonewall Scotland also reflected deep concerns around the lack of confidence amongst teachers to know how to deal with prejudice-based bullying. Colin Macfarlane told us that “the big issue is that our teachers feel that they do not have the confidence to tackle the problem in the classroom. Only 16 per cent of our teachers in Scotland have had any training whatsoever on tackling such bullying or talking about lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex issues in the classroom.”\(^{71}\)
154. From our discussions with teachers and trainee teachers, we are particularly dismayed to hear of continuing confusion amongst educational professionals about what they can and cannot discuss in school in terms of LGBTI issues, or uncertainty about responding to children and young people who approach them seeking advice or support around their sexual orientation or gender identity.
155. Concern over how prepared teachers are to deal with prejudice in the education system was reflected by many witnesses. Kathryn Dawson of Rape Crisis Scotland said: “despite the health and wellbeing component of curriculum for excellence, there is little content in initial teacher training on those issues. The teachers I meet and my colleagues work with are really concerned about a lot of the issues that we have talked about, but that is not always matched by their understanding of the best way to go about tackling those things…We must bear in mind the need for initial and on-going teacher training to better equip teachers to tackle the issues proactively.”\(^{72}\)
156. Jordan Daly of the TIE campaign spoke of the need for a deeper understanding of the current limitations of how teachers are trained and equipped to fully address prejudice-based bullying: “we consistently find that teachers do not have the
confidence to address those issues…there is a risk that saying that teachers do not have the confidence to do that can just come across as empty rhetoric. Once we look past that, it is a matter of asking what they do not have the confidence to do. Some schools are just not addressing the matter—full stop. Language is heard, and teachers shy away from addressing it. In other schools, teachers tell us that they can address the language; they will say, “Don’t say that. That’s not acceptable.” However, there is then a full stop and no progress after that.”
157. Girlguiding Scotland and the members of the Scottish Youth Parliament, in both private fact-finding meetings and in public evidence, spoke of the urgent need to ensure that teacher training, and the school curriculum, allows and equips teachers to begin teaching children about issues of consent and healthy personal relationships from a much earlier age.
158. Speaking about the alarming volume of sexual harassment and assaults being reported to them amongst girls aged 7 to 12, Susie McGuiness of Girlguiding Scotland told us: “A lot of people are realising that it is happening to girls aged 12 or 13. It is more of a case for personal and social education. Issues of consent and online abuse need to be discussed much earlier—at the end of primary school, in my view. By primary 6, I was sitting in classes in which boys were taking it in turns to shout ‘rape’ the loudest. Teachers need to realise that we need to combat that much earlier.”
159. While acknowledging the obstacles of resourcing and the complexity of developing tailored responses to issues such as racist bullying, Carol Young of CRER told us “I have had conversations with people over the years about whether having a race equality charter for schools would be beneficial. It would be a complex thing to do because issues with regard to race are quite different, partly because of Britain’s history of empire and racialisation. It would be difficult to have a set of criteria to be signed up to address racism adequately. On the other hand, I have always felt that it would be worthwhile scoping whether there is a way to do that proactively and get people on board. Unfortunately, the resources to carry out that scoping are distinctly lacking”.
160. Education Scotland pointed to a resource titled “Dealing with Homophobia and Homophobic Bullying in Scottish Schools, a Toolkit for Teachers” which provides support for staff in recognising, challenging, and reducing homophobia and homophobic bullying in their schools, as part of Relationship Sexual health and Parenthood (RSHP) education.
161. Children in Scotland highlighted the importance of ensuring Scotland’s response to bullying and harassment takes a holistic approach with a “focus on building and rebuilding relationships between children, young people and adults. Friendships were seen as key in giving children and young people the resilience to deal with bullying.”
The Scottish Government
162. The Cabinet Secretary saidCrucially, we must ensure that those who are likely to be delivering that support to young people are well equipped in that respect. That is where the importance of taking the correct approach in initial teacher education comes in, because we must equip professionals with the capacity to provide the support that young people require.
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 4
163. He explained the purpose behind regional collaboratives was “to ensure that the quality interventions to enhance learning and teaching, and to enhance the quality of our schools, are available systemically in Scottish education.”
164. With regard to faith based bullying, the Cabinet Secretary said religious and moral education is a taught subject in the curriculum but we have to ensure young people “set that knowledge in the context of their wider educational experience, which has to be in an inclusive environment where we are respectful of difference and diversity in the education system.”
Conclusions and recommendations
165. Key to addressing prejudice-based bullying is to ensure teacher training adequately equips teachers to deal with incidents and to be able to create an inclusive classroom environment.
166. We ask the Scottish Government to work with providers of training for teachers so that greater emphasis is placed on equalities, the handling of bullying incidents, the protected characteristics, and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Training must be embedded throughout the whole course in order to improve teachers’ confidence in dealing with bullying and in creating a classroom culture which is welcoming and allows diversity to thrive. For example, in learning about disability there needs to be a practical element which allows teachers to learn about the consequences of not addressing equality and rights issues when teaching. In relation to initial teacher training, the importance of respecting diversity needs to be reinforced throughout training, not just delivered through a couple of specific lessons, although that specific focus is of course welcome. We ask the Scottish Government for a yearly update on progress towards combating bullying through embedding equalities and human rights within teacher training courses.
167. In relation to existing teaching staff, we heard teachers had difficulty in attending CPD training related to anti-bullying and equalities. Reasons for this ranged from the lack of value placed on the training, to the inability to get teaching cover to attend training sessions. We also heard from young people who advised a number of teachers in post were dismissive of children and young people’s identities or directly contributed to a negative-permissive environment because of the views they held. Schools are subject to the Public Sector Equality Duty which means they must have due regard to the need to eliminate discrimination, harassment and victimisation; advance equality of opportunity; and foster good relations. This places
an onus on individual head teachers to ensure their school is meeting the Public Sector Equality Duty.
168. We therefore believe the only way to ensure that schools can implement a whole school approach to bullying is if all teachers are on board with the objective to meet the Public Sector Equality Duty. As such we ask the Scottish Government and the education authorities to make CPD training on equalities, the protected characteristics and children’s human rights, compulsory. This should be complemented with training material which is refreshed at regular intervals to keep pace with legislation, social media or other relevant developments for example around identities.
169. There still seems to be confusion in the teaching profession about a continuing possible legal effect of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988 (which at the time inserted Section 2A into the Local Government Act 1986). Section 28 was repealed in Scots law, by the Scottish Parliament, on 15 March 2001 (SSI/2001/113). There is no reason whatsoever that the discriminatory shadow cast by “Section 28” should not be dispelled within Scottish education by 2017. We ask the Scottish Government to take steps to ensure all teacher training makes the position clear.
170. We believe opportunities to further realise equalities and human rights through the curriculum should be seized, rather than relying solely on Personal and Social Education and Religious and Moral Education. It is hoped compulsory training will assist teachers in gaining confidence to address such issues when they arise in a teaching situation.
171. We are concerned the curriculum places a great deal of emphasis, albeit well-meaning, on teaching about the differences between cultures, races and traditions instead of focussing on commonality and empathy. We ask the Scottish Government and education authorities to work with training providers to ensure all teachers are adequately trained to also promote commonality.
172. Given the evidence we received about children as young as 12 years old being coerced into sexual activity, we ask the Scottish Government and education authorities to ensure that consent and healthy relationships be taught from the beginning of primary school in an age appropriate manner to safeguard children.
173. We also received evidence on teaching materials which continued to reinforce stereotypes. We accept it will be a large undertaking; however, we ask the Scottish Government and education authorities to undertake an audit of teaching materials to ensure they support delivery of equality.
Data recording and monitoring of prejudice-based bullying
174. Another concern to emerge from this inquiry is the lack of comprehensive and consistent data on the levels, frequency and types of prejudice-based bullying. Most of the information available to policy makers is either gleaned from the education inspection system, or provided by bespoke research commissioned by the Scottish Government through bodies like respectme. Third sector and voluntary groups fill in some of the data gaps with their own research, focussing on specific types of bullying such as race, ethnicity, LGBTI, disabilities and gender.
175. Children in Scotland told us that Scotland “needs more information about how children and young people are experiencing bullying rooted in racism, xenophobia and gender in order to provide a more accurate picture of all forms of bullying in Scotland and to ensure that we can make evidence-based recommendations.” 80
176. This view was echoed by many who have evidence to the Committee. Inclusion Scotland also called for…“more focus on getting clear data about disability bullying and a greater focus in anti-bullying policies in schools on addressing disability-related harassment, including the use of inappropriate language and bullying.” 81
177. The Equality and Human Rights Commission commissioned research highlighted that one in four pupils surveyed said they were aware of peers experiencing prejudice based bullying, and that pupils who had been bullied were 20% less likely to report feeling safe at school or feel supported and respected. 82 This research also found that, although 26 education authorities had a formal policy which required monitoring, only 14 could produce evidence when requested to.
178. Philip Gosnay of the ADES supported calls for the local recording of data on bullying, adding “this is not just about recording—data should be recorded in any case. What is more important is analysis. This is all about getting information to measure the effectiveness of our anti-bullying approaches and the impact on young people who are directly affected by bullying, and the purpose of data collection must remain the improvement of our service to young folk.” 83
179. Mary Birrell of the Inspectorate Service of Education Scotland noted that a “range of data is very important in safeguarding and child protection procedures. Data on attendance, for example, is important. If somebody is not in school, there are clearly concerns about their safeguarding. Data on exclusions is also important, as is looking at how well the young person is attaining and achieving, as that can often be an indication of difficulties or an unmet need.” 84
180. The Equality and Human Rights Commission has called on the Scottish Government to implement reporting on identity based bullying. 85 Giving evidence to the Committee, the EHRC’s Scottish Director, Alasdair Pringle told us the EHRC “…have also called for mandatory reporting of bullying—particularly prejudice-based bullying—in schools. We recently went to the UN to call for mandatory reporting of racial discrimination, but we are now calling for all forms of prejudice-based discrimination to be reported. To date, the response has been nonmandatory guidelines—a refresh of the existing framework for schools—but we do not think that that is acceptable.” 86
181. Barbara Coupar of the Scottish Catholic Education Service (SCES) explained that Catholic schools account for approximately 20 per cent of schools in Scotland with the majority of them under local authority control.
182. Speaking about how Catholic schools address and record instances of prejudice-based bullying, she told us “I went to a meeting of the Catholic Headteachers Association of Primary Schools (CHAPS), and everyone there was absolutely sure that local authorities were robust in their anti-bullying policies and that bullying should be recorded. However, my understanding from what was said at that meeting is that there are significant differences around what should be recorded and how that should be done. CHAPS represents the eight dioceses, which cover all 32 local authority areas, and different groups of people from neighbouring local authorities highlighted different approaches. Those differences might come from, for example, the computer system that is used to record data, which may mean that certain types of bullying are not recorded in the same way”. 87
183. The TIE Campaign called for all local authorities to report all cases of homophobic, biphobic and transphobic bullying and for similar recording for all other forms of prejudice-based bullying. 88
184. During a private fact-finding meeting on specific cases of racist bullying in schools, CRER pointed to risk to relying on other "recording indicators" to measure the scale and impact of such bullying. They pointed out that children who suffer racist abuse or bullying at school may often still perform very well academically, so the impact of such abuse is not necessarily reflected in any attainment measures. Therefore, it may seem that there are no negative impacts to the victims of racist bullying. However, often the impacts are in the area of mental health and may not manifest themselves until after the person's school life is over. This then gives rise to an attitude amongst teachers that the children who experience racist bullying are "coping fine" because they are still achieving in class.
185. In follow up to their evidence, CRER provided the inquiry with preliminary results from the data it has collected through Freedom of Information requests to all 32 Scottish education authorities on the recording of prejudice-based bullying. Their preliminary results show—
• Of the 32 local authorities approached, three had failed to respond within the statutory deadline, and two have refused to send information, claiming that doing so would incur a cost above the £600 threshold;
• More than one local authority claimed that it did not record any bullying centrally, either by the school or the education authority;
• Primary schools were more likely to submit nil response, with no local authority claiming a 100% response rate from across primary schools in the area and the average nil returns rate being around 80% across all local authorities. In contrast, the average return rate was 50% for secondary schools across all local authorities;
• One school issued its anti-bullying policy with missing sections under certain protected characteristics (including race), claiming that the policy was currently
undergoing consultation, meaning that there was not presently a policy in place to address prejudice based bullying;
- At least one local authority was only able to provide an anti-bullying policy from one school as no others in the local authority had provided details of their policy on bullying, prejudice based bullying, or handling racist incidents at school.
186. CRER concluded its observations on these preliminary findings by stating that it “remains deeply concerned that based on the findings so far, the approach taken by schools and local authorities demonstrates a significant regression from our 2012 report.”
187. Several other stakeholders who gave evidence to us, including Girlguiding Scotland, Inclusion Scotland, Centre for Research on Family and Relationships and LGBT Youth Scotland amongst others, all called for improved and consistent recording of prejudice-based bullying and harassment across the Scottish education system.
**Scottish Government**
188. On the question of school recording of bullying incidents, the Cabinet Secretary said—
“No school will want to acquire a reputation as one with a bullying problem; equally, though, a school will want to be able to take the necessary action to tackle the issue, and that is what matters.”
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 27
**Conclusions and recommendations**
189. Currently there is no requirement for schools or education authorities in Scotland to monitor or report on identity based bullying in schools. We believe that this is a significant weakness in the current National Anti-Bullying Approach. We recognise data recording is part of a wider approach to addressing school bullying and also that there is concern collecting data might create a "league table" scenario. At the moment, collection of data is variable and the information recorded inconsistent. This lack of consistency of information makes it difficult to analyse trends which in turn makes it difficult to develop or refine policy in a meaningful way.
190. We believe the rights of the child outweigh the arguments against having a formal recording and monitoring regime. In fact, we believe, over time, it will become a useful indicator of how much progress a school has made and assist the school in targeting action early to prevent children and young people from being bullied. We ask the Scottish Government to make it a requirement for every education authority in Scotland to collect and monitor school bullying incidents and to record specifically incidents of prejudice-based bullying. We ask the Scottish Government to ensure consistency by prescribing the type of data recorded. If necessary, such a
requirement could be placed on a statutory footing. We also believe data collected should be shared with other agencies involved in reducing prejudice-based bullying.
Inspection of, and compliance with, anti-bullying guidance
191. The role played by the education inspection system, both in terms of ensuring anti-bullying guidance is properly implemented, and that teachers and schools have the resources and tools necessary to fully address this problem has been raised by witnesses.
192. Cara Spence of LGBT Youth Scotland recommended that Scotland “could look at regulation and inspection and how that could include all the protected characteristics and be reviewed with rigour in schools. We might also look at legislation—for example, how the Equality Act 2010 and its specific duties for schools are implemented in the school environment. Those are some of our ideas about moving forward on consistency.” 91
193. Iain Smith of Inclusion Scotland called for “more effort to be made, partly through the school inspection process. The ‘How good is our school?’ exercise that Education Scotland operates is done to ensure that when disabled children are in school, they are part of the school as a whole and are not just there in the fabric of the building. That is key.” 92
194. John Edward of the Scottish Council of Independent Schools (SCIS) also spoke about independent schools which are liable to inspection. The SCIS represent 76 independent schools, including mainstream schools—day and boarding, nursery and all-through, single-sex and co-ed—and a substantial number of independent complex additional support needs schools, most of which are residential. 93
195. Mary Berrill of the HMIE section of Education Scotland spoke of the key work of HMIE in ensuring wellbeing, equality and inclusion in schools. She told us that HMIE has introduced a “new model of inspection which…places an increased emphasis on safeguarding, which is now a core component of the inspection process. It always was part of the process, but its role has been enhanced.” 94
196. Mary Birrell outlined how the HMIE service would monitor issues like sexual harassment “in our discussions with schools, we will ask about and look at all their policies and procedures, to ensure that child exploitation and other matters have been fully included and have been given due regard in relation to all their policy and practice. If we are aware, through bullying logs and so on, of any particular incident, we will also have a detailed discussion to ensure that the school has done everything possible to support the child to address the issue and, more important, to ensure that the school is striving to develop a culture and ethos of the highest expectation—a culture of inclusiveness in which everybody feels that they belong and are safe.” 95
197. She also elaborated on how HMIE uses information from pre-inspection questionnaires: “school inspection has three elements: quantitative data, pupils’ views and direct observation… we send out to parents, teaching staff and pupils pre-inspection questionnaires from which we gather and collate feedback. That information shows that in 2015-16, for example, 85 per cent of primary school pupils and 71 per cent of secondary school pupils strongly agreed or agreed that staff were good at dealing with bullying. We use the fact that we are data rich. If we see a problem, we ask why it is there. We ask why staff do not know about it and say that they have to do training.”\(^{96}\)
198. We were told HMIE also examined the role of educational psychologists, social workers and the third sector in such circumstances to see how teaching staff are being “better equipped and more competent when it comes to delivering pupils’ health and wellbeing.”\(^{97}\)
**The Scottish Government**
199. The Cabinet Secretary expected bullying issues to be considered as part of the inspection process. He said—
“When inspectors go into school, they have open discussions with young people; indeed, inspectors put a very significant emphasis on the quality of those discussions and the need for privacy in that respect.”
Source: Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 27\(^{11}\)
**Conclusions and recommendations**
200. We welcome the increasing inspection focus on the promotion of equality and diversity in schools and the enhanced emphasis on safeguarding. We also note the relatively high confidence level from the pre-inspection work undertaken, that school staff are good at dealing with bullying. We, of course, have heard about the hard cases, but in common with the Cabinet Secretary, we believe that any bullying, or dismissive response to bullying, is unacceptable so there is room for improvement and therefore should be a key inspection priority because of the impact it can have on individuals and their attainment and life outcomes.
201. We ask the Scottish Government to build the requirement for recording and monitoring of school bullying into the inspection framework to ensure compliance, and also to ensure teachers are competent not only in delivering health and wellbeing, but inclusion, diversity and human rights.
Case study: TIE Campaign and the Vale of Leven Academy
Tuesday 21 March 2017: Vale of Leven Academy (VOLA), West Dunbartonshire
On Tuesday 21 March 2017 a fact-finding group from the Committee visited VOLA in West Dunbartonshire to observe a TIE Campaign student assembly event on LGBTI issues. This was led by Jordan Daly and Liam Stevenson of the TIE Campaign. The group was also joined by Claire Cusick from the Education Dept. of West Dunbartonshire Council.
9.15am TIE student assembly event
Members of the TIE Campaign spoke to a school assembly of approximately 100 S1 and S2 students about LGBTI prejudice.
Liam Stevenson of the TIE Campaign spoke to pupils about the use of homophobic language, and how it is seen as banter. He discussed pupils challenging their friends and family when certain language is used.
Jordan Daly of the TIE Campaign spoke about his personal experience of bullying, the impact it had on him and how, by the age of 12 or 13, he was contemplating suicide. He spoke movingly about this experience. He told the assembly how he had planned to end his life before finally confiding in his best friend he was gay. He said that things started to improve for him from that moment on.
Dean, a former student from Vale of Leven Academy who graduated in 2016 spoke to the Assembly. Dean was assigned female at birth, but has transitioned to male. He spoke about his experience of feeling isolated at school from his S1 year. He spoke about self-harming during school hours to deal with the impacts of the prejudice he faced. He also developed an eating disorder to try and match magazine images of beauty. With the support of a teacher from the school, Dean was able to come out about his gender and begin the process of transition.
10.00am Meeting with the LGBTI Committee in VOLA
Following the student assembly, the Committee group had a meeting with pupils and teachers from the school's LGBTI committee.
Pupils on this committee are very well informed on issues to do with sexuality and gender identity. One of the views that emerged from our discussions was the point they made that it can be difficult to challenge a bully because they'll respond with "I'm just expressing an opinion."
The LGBTI Committee members believe that there should be more training for children during breaks and lunch period on such issues. They had a view that it is very helpful to have information on sexuality and gender identity delivered to students by people from
outside the school (like the TIE Campaign) as they can be more hard hitting about issues. It also means that teaching staff can listen and learn from such an event too.
The LGBTI Committee agreed they didn’t want to have a “designated teacher” to deal with these LGBTI issues in the school, because all teaching staff “need to be on board”. They pointed to the fact children going to a designated teacher might attract unwanted attention or speculation about why that student was meeting that teacher.
Liam from the TIE Campaign said that some teachers may be immune to homophobic language as they are just so used to hearing it.
Some teachers present raised questions about the effective ways teaching staff can record identity based bullying, but it was pointed out that West Dunbartonshire Council is developing ways to do this through the IT system. The main concern expressed by the Council is to ensure incidents are reported in the first place. In terms of getting pupil input on reporting bullying, *TootToot* was mentioned as a way of recording pupil’s voices.
The view was expressed that bullying on social media is worse than bullying done offline in school. Some students might feel more confident talking to someone their own age about bullying.
**10.40am Meeting with six education staff from across West Dunbartonshire Council area**
The fact-finding group was joined by six educational staff members from different schools across the West Dunbartonshire area for a discussion. All secondary schools in the area are looking to update their school bullying policies. Staff recognised there can be places and times where pupils feel safe or unsafe during school.
The view was expressed that social media makes dealing with bullying more complicated. If someone is getting bullied by a group, but they actually want to be friends with the group, it makes it complex. You are dealing with relationship issues.
The view was expressed that schools can get too obsessed with recording incidents.
There was a suggestion that a restorative practice/model can be very helpful. This involves bringing pupils together, face to face, but only if they are in agreement.
It was noted that social media starts getting used in Primary schools; pupils in P5 are using it.
There is a need to educate parents about bullying, and there was mention of the Parent Teacher Associations.
Concerns were expressed about the stresses and pressures placed on teaching staff and other school staff in dealing with the complexity of bullying and harassment in the school environment today. Instances were cited where students and their parents has been engaged in heated online communications outside school on various issues (say over a weekend) and this then spilling into the school week when parents look to teachers to intervene in such dispute.
It was noted that West Dunbartonshire contains areas of high deprivation, but it was noted that poverty is not a protected characteristic under the Equality Act. However, teaching staff expressed the view that pupils are often bullied because they can’t "afford the latest things". Poverty is one of the leading reasons children may suffer bullying at school.
To make things easier, the group suggested—
- Mindfulness training for children
- Restorative practices
- School counsellor to help address mental health issues.
Case study: the experience of one young disabled person
Tuesday 20 June 2017, Scottish Parliament
One of the most distressing cases we encountered was that of Rebecca Nicholson, a young woman from the Highlands who now volunteers as a disabled youth worker. Rebecca met Committee members for a fact-finding meeting to speak about the disability-related prejudice and abuse she suffered throughout her school years.
Rebecca’s primary school experience was positive and she described her final year in primary school as being “the first time I was accepted and my disability wasn’t an issue.” She believed students and teachers saw her as “Rebecca”, and not just a disabled child.
This situation changed drastically, however, when she went to secondary school. Over the course of her secondary education she ended up moving schools twice. In her first school she encountered prejudice and bullying from fellow students, with verbal insults like “spaz” being used to her. As a wheelchair user she would also encounter physical harassment, such as students putting rubbish in the hood of her clothing etc. without her knowledge as she couldn’t turn to see what they were doing and then laughing and belittling her.
Despite seeking help from teachers and school leadership, this kind of harassment was common and never properly addressed. Her then Head Teacher, and others, tried to rationalise away or ignore this abuse by telling her they didn’t believe the issues she was reporting. On one occasion in her early teens a teacher told her: “Rebecca, when you take your eye off the ball you imagine things that aren’t happening”. She felt the school authorities never supported her and just “wanted to brush it under the carpet” and not deal with the issues as they didn’t want the reputation of the school to suffer.
Rebecca felt very isolated and her levels of self-worth and self-esteem were very badly affected, so she decided to move to another mainstream school. However, the experiences she had there were much worse. The vast majority of hostility and prejudice directed towards her came from her teaching staff. While she said she could understand prejudice by her fellow students because they had never been educated on disability, she couldn’t understand the prejudice and hostility she received from the “paid professionals who were meant to care” for her. She described the atmosphere of the school towards her as “cold” and unhelpful and was told she was a “problem” for them. Their attitude to her was that they were forced to accept her as a student and that any trouble they might have in dealing with her disability could damage their reputation. She described the indifferent and uncaring approach of teachers to her needs as “devastating” to her.
She told staff she wanted to do as much as possible for herself, and to be as independent as she could. Consequently, she was told she could not use the lift in the school on her
own, and as she wanted to be "independent" teachers would not assist her to do so. Instead she "would have to find someone else" to help her as it was now her responsibility. Also on more than one occasion she was interrupted by other students while she was using the disabled bathroom, because of faulty locks. When a boy once walked in on her using the toilet because of a faulty lock, and she complained to the Head Teacher, she was told it wasn't so bad because the boy had a sight impairment. Rebecca also witnessed other children with disabilities, like autism and ADHD, being treated in prejudicial ways. The general attitude of teaching staff seems to be that disabled students would never be "high achievers" and so would negatively impact the school's academic performance record.
At one stage an educational psychologist told her parents in front of her that they were "making far too much of her intellect" because "she is never going to achieve what you want her to achieve". These were just some of the examples Rebecca cited to us in terms of her treatment at secondary school.
Rebecca became deeply anxious and fearful of going to school and was constantly focussing on what she needed to do to avoid harassment and bullying. Rebecca eventually ended up moving schools again; however, the prejudice continued. The constant denigration left her depressed and with very low self-worth. She eventually ended up finishing her secondary education at a specialist school in another council area.
At 16 Rebecca had a brief relationship with a young man that proved to be highly abusive and very damaging to her. At the time she believed this was all she could expect as a disabled person because of all she has suffered at school and that she "didn't and couldn't deserve" to be happy. She was subsequently diagnosed with Post Traumatic Disorder. She now believes these negative impacts on her life were as a direct result of the prejudice and trauma she suffered during her school years.
Now in her 20s, and despite continuing to experience problems at university, she is studying health and social care and has achieved three distinction stars in her studies. Rebecca is a strong, confident articulate young woman who is determined to make a positive contribution in life and wants to work to eliminate fear and disability-prejudice amongst students and teachers in the Scottish education system. We are indebted to her for sharing her story with us. Rebecca summed up her meeting with the Committee by outlining the three key issues she thinks must be addressed by Government—
- She believes very strongly what is needed in the education system is teaching on disabilities and health relationships from “the very earliest age” to address ignorance and prejudice amongst children and young people;
- The education system needs to equip disabled young people with the skills they will need for life, and
- Training needs to be developed for all teachers and school leaders to dispel ignorance and prejudice of disabilities and help them build positive school environments for disabled students.
**Case study: An approach to school leadership**
Tuesday 20 June 2017, Scottish Parliament
The Committee met with Rebecca Machin, Head Teacher of Kinlochleven High School to discuss her experience of leading a school in a rural area of Scotland, adopting a whole school approach and working on issues such as LGBTI rights and how the community welcomed children from Syria.
Rebecca spoke to Members of the Committee on how she has helped to shape the school ethos at Kinlochleven High School, and the leadership role she has played in addressing prejudice such as that experienced by disabled students.
As head teacher of a relatively small school of 147 students in rural Scotland, Rebecca spoke of her experience of engaging students and their families in reshaping the ethos of the school. She told us “to begin we had set down a school ethos which ran to about two sides A4. But after I engaged the students in it redesign, this was narrowed down to two sentences, and these are now constantly refreshed.” Rebecca emphasised the benefits of fully engaging students in the development of school policy and the sense of shared ownership this develops.
She spoke of the positive experience the school underwent when four families from the Syrian Resettlement Programme moved into the Kinlochleven community and their children joined the school. This was a new experience for a rural community like Kinlochleven, however the whole school approach adopted by the school played a key part in welcoming these families to the local community. The work the students did in welcoming the new students led to the school signing up to the UK Rights Respecting Schools programme.
The experience of pupil/teacher co-led initiatives on these issues also saw the introduction of dancing as part of the school community. This was an initiative led very much by the students. One of the positive outcomes it has was to provide a basis for the establishment of an LGBTI committee within Kinlochleven High School.
Questioned about how Rebecca engaged parents, and the wider community, in taking a role and being supportive of such changes, she told us “the voice of the children made the key difference, they are so powerful” in delivering change. The whole school approach adopted by Kinlochleven High School shows student co-led approached help to actively engage their families, and the wider local community, in dialogue on changes and create a supportive environment for change.
**Case study: an approach to LGBTI bullying from Ireland**
Tuesday 13 May 2017, Dublin, Ireland
As part of this inquiry, the Committee has sought to identify approaches which might facilitate the sharing of best practice and help schools and local authorities to address the problems of prejudice-based bullying in a consistent, constructive and appropriate way, recognising that one size will not fit all.
To this end, we were impressed with one of the examples we learned of from Ireland. During a trip to Dublin on unrelated parliamentary business, the Convener and Assistant Clerk undertook a fact-finding meeting with Carol Anne O’Brien, Director of Advocacy with BelongTo, one of Ireland’s leading third sector LGBTI youth organisations. She outlined
the approach taken in Ireland to addressing prejudice-based bullying and harassment around LGBTI children. This is also pertinent given the fact that a single religious community (the Irish Catholic Church) provides over 90% of primary school education and 50% of secondary school education in the Republic of Ireland. Ireland approached the delivery of anti-prejudice bullying and training as a public health issue and the BelongTo Safe & Supported Schools project is delivered by the Irish public health service.
As part of this process, BelongTo has developed a rapid assessment toolkit for schools, which is adapted from the Schools for Health in Europe (SHE) Rapid Assessment Toolkit. Each school’s environment and community is evaluated against an agreed series of indicators in the toolkit, on a non-judgemental basis. This then forms the basis for the development of a bespoke health plan for each school to address the problems of prejudice-based bullying and harassment faced by LGBTI students. The assessment includes work with both teachers and students to build a common approach to solutions. This includes developing systems for teacher/pupil co-led structures, tools to engage parents, families and the wider community, teacher training and development and curriculum tools etc.
Another advantage of such toolkit assessment approach is the basis it provides to a head teacher from which to build an inclusive safe school community for all students and teaching staff. If adopted as part of the Scottish national approach to anti-bullying, and implemented across all 32 education authorities, it could have the advantage of providing a common mechanism across the country to allow teachers, education authorities, the school inspection service, and community bodies to set outcomes, assess progress, learn from mistakes and share best practice.
**Fact-finding meeting on sexual harassment**
*Wednesday 14 June 2017*
The Committee met with representatives from Girlguiding Scotland and the Scottish Youth Parliament, as well as with Gillian Martin MSP, to discuss issues around the sexual harassment of girls and young women in schools in Scotland.
Girlguiding outlined the findings of its recent members’ survey on bullying and harassment. Some of the representatives present will be giving oral evidence, on the record, at the Committee meeting on 15 June 2017, and will place details of the survey on the record.
Girlguiding Scotland spoke of specific cases of sexual bullying and harassment, carried out by both male students and male teaching staff on girls and young women. They also spoke of cases of sexual assault and the inadequate response these cases has received from teachers and school leaders.
There was also discussion of cases where female teaching staff who tried to tackle sexual bullying in class were themselves the target for harassment by male students, and were often not properly supported by other teachers. This leads to a culture of fear where sexual harassment becomes commonplace.
One of the participants told us that she recalled a female teacher who was too intimidated to address prejudice-based bullying in class because “she was afraid she’d be filmed by students and have it posted on the internet”.
Gillian Martin MSP also spoke of the work she is undertaking in her constituency on this issue follow recent incidents of sexual harassment. A troubling case of an 11 year old girl who has inappropriate images of her shared amongst students was discussed. There was a strong view that the lack of understanding of what constitutes a criminal activity by students, and teachers, couples with the negative permissive space what can evolve, is a difficult situation which schools are struggling to copy with.
The Scottish Youth Parliament representative added, "teachers often just ignore this kind of behaviour in class because they don't know how to deal with it." She spoke of her own personal experience of sexual bullying and harassment and the level of misogynist language used in her school, by both male and female students. Harassment of girls by other girls is also a major problem with some girls being pressures into being sexually active with boys through peer pressure, or other being attacked or shamed for going through with sexual activity.
Several members of the group spoke of the impacts sexual harassment has had on them including depression, anxiety and suicidal tendencies.
The spoke about the disclosure system Girlguiding Scotland operated for its members in terms of sexual bullying. There was a discussion on the role of Personal and Social Education (PSE) in the curriculum. There was a strong view that the effectiveness of PSE as a forum to discuss issues such as bullying greatly varied depending on the personality and training of the teacher delivering it. There was a strong feeling that the true level of sexual harassment on girls, especially young girls aged 7 to 12, is hugely under-reported.
There was discussion of the hyper-sexualised environment children now face, with it now being quite common for 12 to 13 years olds to take, view and share sexual images of themselves and each other, especially were girls are pressured into this activity as a sign of "love" or "commitment" in a relationship, often referred to as nudes for nudes.
The group also spoke of the harassing practise of girls having images of themselves digitally altered or photo-shopped to make they sexualised, or body shame them, as a form of harassment. The group felt that school leadership often panic when they become aware of these instances as they don't know how to address it. There was also a strong view that teachers and head teachers are in denial over how common this form of harassment now is in schools.
The Scottish Youth Parliament representative spoke of how most young people are too scared to resist or protest in such a negative and hostile environment, and there is a pressing need to reclaim the school space. She also believe that fear or lack of skill amongst teachers is limited to older teaching staff. In her experience young newly qualified teachers as just as likely to be unable to deal with sexual harassment as their more experienced colleagues.
One of the Girlguiding Scotland representatives also pointed out that boys are damaged by this environment as its gives them a warped sense of what is appropriate in personal relationships and how to relate to girls and women. She said "when we fail to protect girls from sexual harassment, we are failing boys too. How can they learn what is and isn't appropriate when we don't show them how to behave properly and tell them what is expected of them".
Gillian Martin MSP echoed this view stating that most boys in school are not aware that the actively there are undertaking may be a criminal offence. Girlguiding Scotland spoke of
a YouTube video they have made about this issue of sexual harassment of girls in schools and they will share this with the Committee.
There was a strong view that sexual education material and videos used in schools are very inadequate and don't address issues around consent and legality. They focus on the biological aspects of sex and pregnancy. This is totally inadequate to respond to the needs of students today. The group all agreed the sex education video 'Living and Growing' used is schools urgently needed to be updated to cover areas like consent and sexual crimes.
There was view that many guidance teachers don't take their role seriously, or don't show up for classes, as for some it is merely an advancement step for a post such as Deputy Head Teacher.
There was also a strong view that school's ethos must foster a positive feminist environment where girls and young women support and respect each other. This would also create a positive environment for boys and young men to learn how to engage and relate to girls and young women in a healthy way. Sexual harassment needs to be addresses in a formal structure within the school system.
Concern was expressed about the approach taken to teaching on sexual relationships in schools, for example on how society places the focus on girls to "protect" themselves for potential dangers such as rape. This send a negative normalising message to boys. Also there were concerns expressed about some school dress codes, especially sports/PE kit, and co-educational PE classes as an area where a lot of girls are intimidated and harassed by boys. Some wanted to see more girl-only sports activities in the school cycle.
**Fact-finding meeting on race bullying**
Thursday 25 May 2017, Scottish Parliament
The Committee met with representatives from CRER to discuss specific cases of racial bullying and harassments in schools in Scotland. As a strategic anti-racist organisation, CRER carries out research on the levels of racist incidents in Scotland’s schools. They have a good relationship with the police. They are not an advice organisation and don’t have a casework service. However, the cases of racist bullying they discussed with the Committee have come to their attention because the families involved already knew the organisation and sought advice from CRER about the issues their children were facing in schools. CRER seeks to point families to where they might find the help or support they need.
In the last few years CRER has seen an increase in the number of parents coming to them for advice about racist bullying their child is experiencing. Occasionally, parents will come with information about bullying happening to some other child/family they are aware of in a school.
Most of the bullying centres around issues like racist language and name calling/racial slurs etc. But there are number of much more serious cases CRER is aware of which are more illustrative of how bad the failings are by schools and education authorities. There are common threads throughout all of these cases indicating the same systemic issues underlying the failings in dealing with racist bullying and harassment.
One of the big problems is the lack of a coherent approach to tackling racist bullying across schools and education authorities. It’s often a challenge for schools to get hold of the relevant policies and many don’t seem to know what the processes are.
Most cases come to CRER’s attention when a parent has gone to a teacher or school leadership looking to deal with incidents of racist bullying and have an “unacceptably weak response.” At that point the parent often asks what are the anti-racist bullying policy of the school. Usually the response is that there isn’t a policy, or there is just a generic anti-bullying policy with a general message that racism isn’t acceptable in the school environment. However, this doesn’t tell parents, or teachers, how to actually address the issues or what to do.
Many policies are very out of date, and also they tend not to be practical policies that help to address issues. Most policies are ethos-based and centred around statements of how racism is unacceptable, but it doesn’t tell people how to go about solving the problems on the ground.
There was a wide-ranging discussion on the level of data available on racist bullying in schools and CRER are in the process of undertaking analysis from Freedom of Information requests they have submitted to all 32 Scottish local authorities. While the detailed analysis will not be available for a period of time, CRER undertook to provide the Committee with a summary of the main data issues which the Committee can consider as part of the inquiry.
The general picture seems to be that the lack of a coherent approach means that schools don’t know what they are supposed to do when racist bullying occurs. Most schools don’t want to look bad, so often they avoid doing anything at all. This incoherent approach is impacting the education and wellbeing of children.
A lot of the cases CRER sees feature a real lack of understanding of the issue and impact of race and racism. They believe the definition of a racist incident set out in The Macpherson Inquiry’s report should be the baseline for school’s understanding of what constitutes a racist incident. In a lot of the cases brought to CRERs attention, there is a theme that teachers and schools will often contest that fact as to whether a given incident constitutes a racist incident under the Macpherson Definition. In cases where there is a blatant racist tone, there is often an attempt to explain this away. In three recent cases CRER has seen where kids have been called the n-word, teachers/schools have said the kids often hear this word used in popular rap music, so there is nothing they can do about it.
One parent recently challenged this attitude in a female teacher who has used the “rap music” explanation in response to a complaint of racist bullying. The parent then asked “so would it be OK if I called you a h** as that’s in rap music too”. At this point the teacher seemed to understand the level of unacceptability and gravity of the situation.
So, at a basic level, racist language that would have been unacceptable in the 1980s is now becoming normalised in schools. This is a very worrying trend. There is also a trend not to tackle racist stereotypes. So if a child makes remarks based on a racist stereotype, there seems to be a response that the child per-say is not being racist as these stereotypes are common in society, so it’s not the fault of the child and they are not being racist.
There seems to be a concern amongst teachers that if you call what a child has said as racist, then you are labelling that child as a racist. This is often seen as being a worse outcome than tackling the racist incident in the first place.
One recent case is illustrative of this defensiveness. A child in a class was using racial slurs to a particular child, and other children were joining in on a regular basis. The child who was the victim of the slurs complained to a teacher. The teacher took the lead child making the slurs aside and told him he was being racist. The lead child became very distressed by this and started crying. All of the other children in the class then turned on the victim child and said that he had no right to call his classmate a "racist". The victim child ended up feeling very bad for the child who had been bullying him because he had gotten so upset about being called a racist. This case of "victim blaming" is illustrative of why we need a more coherent approach to how racism is talked about in schools so as to break down defensive attitudes.
Several other far more serious cases were discussed. This included racially motivated cases of serious physical assault on children by other children. Several of the cases are subject to pending legal action as so cannot be publicly discussed in any detail. However, a key issue was the lack of appropriate response to the various racist incidents. In one case there was a long recognisable long build-up of racist verbal and physical assault on a child. However, it was only when this led to a physical assault, did the authorities understand the gravity of the situation. Nevertheless, a worrying aspect of this situation was than there still seems to be a failure to recognise this case as a racist one, instead of treating it only as a case of physical assault.
Cases which CRER hears about is often where you have parents proactively seeking help, so they have no issues with seeking to address the situation their child faces. But there may be instances of kids from BME backgrounds where there is still a strong cultural inhibition to raise or acknowledge metal health issues, so some kids may not have the support networks around them to help find a response to the impacts of racist bullying they suffer in schools.
One complexity is that kids who suffer racist abuse/bullying at school often still perform very well academically, so the impacts that they face are not being picked up through any attainment measures. Therefore it may seem they have had no negative impacts as a result. However, often the impacts are in the area of mental health and may not manifest themselves until after the individual has finished school. This then gives rise to an attitude amongst teachers that the kids who experience racist bullying are "coping fine" because they are still achieving in class academically.
Further issues were discussed reflecting on the written and oral evidence CRER has made to the inquiry. One issue of note was a discussion around the unhelpfulness of a focus on "diversity" in the school curriculum. There is a feeling that this may be inadvertently causing racism as it places a focus on the differences between people and culture. There is a view that this should also be balanced against a much stronger focus on the vast commonality all people and communities share in common. Such an approach may help children understand race and ethnicity in a broader, more helpful context and lessen the tendency to focus on difference.
Event: Your Scottish Parliament
Friday 24 March 2017, Scottish Parliament
The Scottish Parliament hosted the Your Scottish Parliament Conference as part of its public outreach and engagement work. The focus of this event was to engage with young people at the start of adult life, in order to develop their self-awareness as active and valued citizens. The event was attended by approximately 135 young people (16-19 years old) from all 27 FE colleges in Scotland, including one tutor per college.
The Committee took advantage of this event to gather the views of those attending on the issues of prejudice-based bullying and harassment in schools. Over 80 young people and college staff, across three workshops, liaised with Committee staff and the Scottish Parliament’s Outreach team, and debated their own experienced of bullying and harassment in primary and secondary education. The key views expressed by the groups were—
• Prejudice-based bullying and harassment has a major and long lasting impact on the lives of those in the groups who’d experienced it;
• For those who hadn’t but had witnessed it happening to others, it made their school years unpleasant and in some cases shaped how they felt about themselves;
• There were mixed experiences of how teachers and schools handled prejudice-based bullying and harassment, with some young people having very good experiences of how schools dealt with the problem, with others stating their experiences ranged from "poor" to "dreadful" to "totally inadequate";
• There was wide agreement that the whole education system was too "reactive" and needed instead to be much more "proactive".
Some of the suggestions to achieve this were:
• education on forming positive self-identity and health relationships with others should start from an early age;
• an understanding of consent in interpersonal relations is necessary;
• developing empathy and the ability of develop critical thinking should be part of the curriculum; and
• Children’s education experience on personal relationships should start in their pre-school years, and go through primary and into secondary school curriculum as well.
[1] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 15 June 2017 [Draft], Susie McGuiness, contrib. 52, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&c=2009698
[2] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 01 June 2017 [Draft], Maureen Finn (STEP), contrib. 7, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10987&c=2005890
[3] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 15 June 2017 [Draft], Anthony Horan, contrib. 97, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&c=2009743
[4] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 10 November 2016, Cara Spence (LGBT Youth Scotland), contrib. 7, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10618&c=1946496
[5] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], The Deputy First Minister and Cabinet Secretary for Education and Skills (John Swinney), contrib. 2, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11025&c=2012074
[6] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 9, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11025&c=2012081
[7] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 15, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11025&c=2012087
[8] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 25, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11025&c=2012097
[9] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 15 June 2017 [Draft], Susie McGuiness, contrib. 18, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&c=2009664
[10] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 4, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11025&c=2012076
[11] Equalities and Human Rights Committee 22 June 2017 [Draft], John Swinney, contrib. 27, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11025&c=2012099
1 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 8 Sept 2016 Col 9:
http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10509&mode=pdf
2 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 20 Sept 2016 Col 20:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10538&mode=pdf
3 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 8 Sept 2016 Col 7:
http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10509&mode=pdf
4 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 8 Sept 2016 Col 10:
http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10509&mode=pdf
5 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 8 Sept 2016 Col 13:
http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10509&mode=pdf
6 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 8 Sept 2016 Col 8:
http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10509&mode=pdf
7 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 6 Oct 2016 Col 6:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10568&mode=pdf
8 Education and Skills Committee 7th Report 2017 (Session 5): Let’s Talk About Personal and Social Education: https://sp-bpr-en-prod-cdnep.azureedge.net/published/ES/2017/5/22/Let-s-Talk-About-Personal-and-Social-Education-1/7th%20Report,%202017.pdf
9 Children in Scotland report for the EHRiC Committee: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRiC.pdf
10 Children in Scotland report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRiC.pdf
11 Children in Scotland Report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRiC.pdf
12 Children in Scotland Report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRiC.pdf
13 Rape Crisis Scotland submission: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/RAPE_CRISIS_SCOTLAND.pdf
14 CRER submission November 2016: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/CRER_EHRiC_Prejudice_Based_Bullying_scoping_submission(1).pdf
15 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 2:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10618&mode=pdf
16 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 15 June 2017 Col 34:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&mode=pdf
17 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 15 June 2017 Col 31:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&mode=pdf
18 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 15 June 2017 Col 29:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&mode=pdf
19 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 15 June 2017 Col 32:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&mode=pdf
20 Children in Scotland report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/
General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRIc.pdf
21 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 3:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10618&mode=pdf
22 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 3:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10618&mode=pdf
23 Children in Scotland report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/
General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRIc.pdf
24 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 8 Sept 2016, Col 7:
http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/
report.aspx?r=10509&mode=pdf
25 TIE Campaign submission 10 NOv 2016: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/
General%20Documents/TIE_submission.pdf
26 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 15 June 2017 Cols 5-6:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&mode=pdf
27 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 26 Jan 2017, Col 6:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
28 Children’s Parliament (CP) is a Registered Charity and is Scotland’s Centre of Excellence for children’s participation and engagement, working through projects, consultations and training programmes to improve communication between children and adults and to build relationships based on mutual respect and understanding.
29 Children in Scotland report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/
General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRIc.pdf
30 Children in Scotland report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/
General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRIc.pdf
31 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 6 October 2017, Cols 20-24:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10568&mode=pdf
32 Dr K Tisdell written submission 10 Nov 2016: http://www.parliament.scot/
S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/
CENTRE_FOR_RESEARCH_ON_FAMILIES_AND_RELATIONSHIPS.pdf
33 CRER submission November 2016: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/CRER_EHRiC_Prejudice_Based_Bullying_scoping_submission(1).pdf
34 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 8 Sept 2017, Cols 6-7: http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10509&mode=pdf
35 Education Scotland written submission 26 Jan 2017: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/EDUCATION_SCOTLAND.pdf
36 Educational Institute of Scotland (EIS) written submission 10 Nov 2016: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/EDUCATIONAL_INSTITUTE_OF_SCOTLAND.pdf
37 CRER submission November 2016: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/CRER_EHRiC_Prejudice_Based_Bullying_scoping_submission(1).pdf
38 Rights Respecting Schools Award https://www.unicef.org.uk/rights-respecting-schools/about-the-award/the-rrsa/
39 Jeremy Balfour MSP dissents from the last sentence of paragraph 65.
40 (SG email to clerks 15 Dec 2016)
41 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Col 15: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
42 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 17: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10618&mode=pdf
43 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Col 5: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
44 Education and Skills Committee 7th Report 2017 (Session 5): Lets talk about Personal and Social Education (22 May 2017): https://sp-bpr-en-prodcnep.azureedge.net/published/ES/2017/5/22/Let-s-Talk-About-Personal-and-Social-Education-1/7th%20Report,%202017.pdf
45 Scottish Government LGBTI Inclusive Education Working Group (2017): http://www.gov.scot/Topics/Education/Schools/HLivi/sex-education/LGBTIWG/LGBTIWGToR
46 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 15 June 2017: Col 6: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11011&mode=pdf
47 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 22 June 2017: Col 6: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11025&mode=pdf
48 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 22 June 2017: Col 9: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=11025&mode=pdf
49 Children in Scotland report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRiC.pdf
50 Children in Scotland report
51 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 15 June 2017: Col 32:
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52 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 15 June 2017: Col :
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53 Kirkcaldy High School LGBT+ Group submission (June 2017):
http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Kirkcaldy_High_School_EHRC.pdf
54 Education and Skills Committee 7th Report 2017 (Session 5): Lets talk about Personal and Social Education (22 May 2017): https://sp-bpr-en-prod-cdnep.azureedge.net/published/ES/2017/5/22/Let-s-Talk-About-Personal-and-Social-Education-1/7th%20Report,%202017.pdf
55 Educational Institute of Scotland (EIS) written submission 10 Nov 2016:
http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/EDUCATIONAL_INSTITUTE_OF_SCOTLAND.pdf
56 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 15 June 2017: Col 6:
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57 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 15 June 2017: Col 6:
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58 The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry: Report of an Inquiry by Sir William Macpherson of Cluny (1999): https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/277111/4262.pdf
59 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 15 June 2017: Col 31:
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60 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Cols 12-13:
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61 A Plan For Scotland: The Scottish Government's Programme For Scotland 2016-17:
http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2016/09/2860/4
62 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016:
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69 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Col 18:
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70 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 15 June 2017:
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71 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 8 Sept 2016 col 7:
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72 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 26:
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73 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 21:
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74 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 15 June 2017, Col 5:
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75 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 13:
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76 Education Scotland written submission 26 Jan 2017: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/EDUCATION_SCOTLAND.pdf
77 Children in Scotland report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRiC.pdf
78 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 22 June 2017: Col 4:
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79 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 22 June 2017: Col 9:
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80 Children in Scotland report: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Children_in_Scotland_-_commissioned_by_EHRiC.pdf
81 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 3:
http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10618&mode=pdf
82 Equality and Human Rights Commission written submission 10 Nov 2016:
http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/Equalities_and_Human_Rights_Commission_Scotland.pdf
83 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Cols 13-14:
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84 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Col 11:
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85 EHRC Scotland raises identity based bullying in Scottish schools with UN 4 Aug 2016: https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/our-work/news/ehrc-scotland-raises-identity-based-bullying-scottish-schools-un
86 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 8 Sept 2016 cols 8-9: http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10509&mode=pdf
87 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Cols 12-13: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
88 TIE Campaign written submission 10 Nov 2016: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/General%20Documents/TIE_submission.pdf
89 CRER supplemental written evidence 20 June 2017: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/Inquiries/CRER_Supplementary_Evidence.pdf
90 CRER supplemental written evidence 20 June 2017: http://www.parliament.scot/S5_Equal_Opps/Inquiries/CRER_Supplementary_Evidence.pdf
91 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 7: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10618&mode=pdf
92 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official Report, 10 Nov 2016, Col 8: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10618&mode=pdf
93 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Cols 3-4: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
94 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Col 4: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
95 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Col 7: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
96 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Col 21: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
97 Equalities and Human Rights Committee, Official report, 26 Jan 2017: Col 21: http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=10754&mode=pdf
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Abstract:
The RoboTuna is a robotic fish that will be able to collect samples from marine wildlife and allow us to better understand the oceanic ecosystem and the behavior of underwater creatures. This biomimetic robot will be able to get closer to fish and other creatures in their natural habitat than a person ordinarily could, and therefore will give new insights into how the underwater world is changing. Many of the RoboTuna’s pieces need to be flexible and waterproof, so casting and molding will be necessary to create them. The focus of this research was on fabricating a fin and air bladders for the RoboTuna, which included experimenting with different kinds of silicone rubber and urethane plastic. Existing soft robotic actuators have been extremely helpful to gain insight on how to move these parts without mechanical mechanisms. Shape memory alloys allow for simpler fin movement actuation instead of having to rely on a bulky motor. The same goes for moving the tail via air bladders, a kind of fluidic elastomer actuator. The differences between different kinds of silicones and how each material and molding method affected the fabricated parts are shown through flexibility and strength data. The information here can help future researchers determine what materials would be best for various parts of the RoboTuna and understand their options for soft robotic actuators.
Introduction:
The RoboTuna is a robotic fish that will be used to collect genetic material from marine wildlife in bays and seas in various testing locations. To be able to build a successful robotic fish that can survive for long periods of time underwater, the fish must be completely watertight, have very precise movement control, and have a flexible body that can bend like the body of a tuna. Data from Dunlop’s paper cited in Ref.3 proves that nitinol wire can be successfully used to create actuators so SMAs, or shape memory alloys, would work well to create a controllable fin.
Silicone fins with nitinol spines will help the fish adjust its direction as it swims, and rubber air bladders can be the driving force behind the bending of the fish tail which will help propel the fish. To create the best fins and bladders possible, many kinds of silicones and applications of nitinol needed to be tested.
The fins and bladders needed to be built will be based on existing research regarding soft robotics, actuators, and nitinol wire. Soft robotics is a growing field as more robots are being built to go to places people and traditional robots cannot. The flexibility they have allows for high force absorption, with the downside being low force output. Actuators used in soft robotics cannot create much force, as they need to be lightweight and compliant. These actuators fall into three categories: variable length tendon, fluidic actuation, and electro-active polymer (EAP). Within these categories, the kinds of actuators include shape memory alloys (SMAs), fluidic elastomer actuators (FEAs), shape morphing polymers (SMPs), dielectric electro-activated polymers (DEAPs), and magnetic/electro-magnetic actuators (E/MA). To create the fin, a shape memory alloy was used as they are widely available, quick to use, and easily customizable. Nitinol works as a variable length tendon actuator and is a SMA, as when a current is run through it to heat it the wire moves back to its pre-programmed shape regardless of how it is currently bent.
Figure 1. Nitinol undergoes three phases that are used to program it to a certain shape. It is first heated to around 500° C in the desired shape, then cooled in ice water. After that it can be bent and once heated to between 30°C (86°F) to 130°C (266°F), it will return to its shape during the martensite phase. Figure reproduced from Ref.[6].
To ensure that the fin will be able to turn both to the left and right, two wires will be inserted and the direction of the turn will depend on which wire receives current. On the other hand, air bladders are an example of fluidic actuation as they are a fluidic elastomer actuator. They can contract and expand with fluid pressure, so the material they are made of needs to be flexible enough to expand but stiff enough to hold its shape.
The rubber muscle is similarly designed to the images above as the folds fill up with air and cause the muscle to expand. Figure reproduced from Ref.[4].
The fin must be made of rubber as it needs to be able to bend, and also cannot be too sharp as it will puncture the sides of the testing pool. Too stiff and it will not be able to bend and might scratch the pool, and too flexible it will not be able to hold its shape. The silicones tested are all from Smooth-On and include Ecoflex, Dragon Skin, and OOMOO. Ecoflex and Dragon Skin are platinum cure silicones while OOMOO is a tin cure silicone. The difference lies in which metal is used to cure the base rubber mixture. Tin cure silicones cannot cure within a similar tin cure silicone mold, but will harden within a platinum cure silicone mold. Tin cure silicones also experience more shrinkage over time and are less expensive.
The flexibility and compression/expansion data gathered from creating multiple fins and bladders with varying materials will show which materials are best for what purpose, and how convenient each is to use. The differences between Ecoflex, Dragon Skin, and OOMOO can be difficult to understand so my experiments and data will show the pros and cons of each. There are also multiple methods of molding and casting which suit different shapes. These findings will be used to help create the RoboTuna and can be built off of for other parts of the fish, including a flexible skin and tail fin.
Methods:
Fins and air bladders were created from several Smooth-On silicones: OOMOO 25, Dragon Skin 30, and Ecoflex 00-30. Many of the molds were 3-D printed out of Onyx, a micro carbon fiber filled nylon plastic, on a Markforged 3-D printer. To create the fin mold, a CAD of the fin design needs to be subtracted from a solid block of material to create a female mold. By mirroring this the opposite side of the fin mold can be made, along with adding guide holes to ensure that the two pieces will align. After printing the mold on our 3-D printer, spray mold release onto every part of the mold that will be coated in silicon to ensure easy demolding. Mix the silicone in the given ratios, adding coloring if needed, then pour into the mold.
Figure 3. Shown are two different fin molds created. The larger mold is a one-piece mold while the smaller molds create a two-piece fin mold.
The nitinol wire was then annealed. 22 gauge wire was straightened by placing the wire in a hot water bath between 30°C (86°F) to 130°C (266°F), which puts the wire in its martensite phase, meaning that the metal is in its transitional stage. The wire was bent in the desired shape, in this case a C-shaped curve, and the shape was held using two pliers. A lighter was used to heat up the wire to 500°C so the wire reaches austenite so its crystalline structure changes. The wire was heated until it glowed red and placed it in an ice bath to bring the wire back to martensite after ensuring the wire does not straighten due to the heat. Two wires are annealed so the fin can turn to the left and right. After the fin finished curing, the two wires were inserted into the fin ensuring that they would bend in different directions. A power supply, wires, and alligator clips were used to put current through one of the wires and test the direction of the bend. Then current was put through the second wire to test whether the wire will be strong enough to bend the fin in the other direction.
Figure 4. A completed fin made of OOMOO 25 silicone rubber and a piece of nitinol wire inserted after current has been passed through it.
This was done for all three fins: OOMOO, Dragon Skin, and Ecoflex. Results were compared by seeing how far each fin bent when the same pieces of wire were used for each as well as how easy it was to insert wire into the fin. The fin that was bent the furthest will be the most flexible.
To create an air bladder, a 3-part mold was needed for the top part of the bladder and the folds, and another piece was needed to create the bottom portion of the air bladder. Mold release was sprayed, then a silicone was mixed and poured. Rubber bands were used to hold the pieces of the mold together.
Figure 5. The three portions of the mold are shown above, with the base at the bottom and the two halves that can create the folds needed for the bladder to be able to expand.
For the bottom portion of the mold, either a straw was placed in the middle or a hole was cut after the piece was done curing to create the hole needed for rubber tubing. After the bladders were done curing, the rubber tubing was inserted and tested to ensure it was airtight (if loose, add putty or clay around the opening). The rubber tubing was connected to the 12 V air pump then connected the air pump to the power supply using wires and alligator clips.
Figure 6. The 12 V air pump is used for the air bladder, which can push and pull air depending on which nozzle the rubber tubing is connected to.
To test each bladder, first the push air nozzle was used to test how much they expand, then the pull nozzle was tested to compare the compression of the bladders. The bladder that changed the most in total will be the best material for creating air bladders.
Results and Discussion:
The results of this research focus on the viability of various silicones for creating parts of the RoboTuna. For the air bladders, the characteristics that have been tested are the amount of compression and expansion that they undergo when attached to the air pump. The fins are tested on the basis of how easy it is to push the wire through the material and how much each fin bends when the same pieces of nitinol wire are used for all three.
| Material | Elastic Modulus | Viable for bladder? | Bladder Compression (cm) | Bladder Expansion (cm) |
|-------------------|-----------------|---------------------|--------------------------|------------------------|
| OOMOO 25 | 100 | No, too viscous | N/A | N/A |
| Dragon Skin 20 | 86 | No, does not expand | ~1 | N/A |
| Ecoflex 00-30 | 10 | Yes | ~2.5 | ~1 |
Table 1. By comparing various characteristics of the bladders, the Ecoflex air bladder is shown to be the most viable out of the three tested.
Figure 7. The materials in red are the ones that have been tested, and those in blue have not been tested yet. This chart compares the tensile strength against the elastic modulus of various silicones. The 100% modulus represents the force the material exerts when extended to 100% more than its original length. Tensile strength represents the amount of force per square inch needed to stretch a material to its breaking point. The experimental data aligns with the given elastic moduli, as OOMOO 25 failed to create a bladder due to being too viscous and Dragon Skin was too stiff when cured so it did not compress enough and was not able to expand. To test the flexibility of each fin, an equal amount of pressure was applied to each via nitinol wire bending within it, and the fin that bent the most resisted the movement of the wire the least, meaning that it is the most flexible material. The Ecoflex fin bent the most while the OOMOO fin bent the least, but OOMOO was the easiest to push nitinol wire through. As the differences in bending between the three materials were insignificant, the OOMOO fin would be the best and most convenient material to create fins.
Other experiments that can be run include running the nitinol wire through the fins in a loop instead of straight through the top, as that would allow for the wires connecting to the power source to stay at the bottom of the fin. Finding a method of measuring the force that the nitinol wire exerts when heated would also help to understand the largest viable size for a controllable fin and can be done via tests described in Ref.[5].
Conclusion:
By creating flexible fins and bladders, the RoboTuna can have a method of locomotion that is less dangerous to the environment around it and mimics the movement of a real tuna. Flexible OOMOO 25 fins will not be able to puncture the testing tank or surrounding animals and are also able to bend in either direction of the two nitinol wires within them. Ecoflex air bladders are able to compress and expand tremendously but still are able to hold their shape, meaning that they will be able to be used for the movement of the RoboTuna tail. The RoboTuna will hopefully be able to successfully collect gene samples and marine data that we have not been able to gather previously; therefore, having reliable means of movement is of utmost importance. Biomimetic movement can be achieved by using the materials tested and validated in this study.
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank the Clare Boothe Luce Research Scholars Program at Olin College, funded by the Clare Boothe Luce Program of the Henry Luce Foundation for their financial support and allowing me to pursue this research over the summer. I would also like to thank Professor Dave Barrett for assisting me in this project and providing much needed guidance throughout my research.
References:
[1] Lee, Chiwon & Kim, Myungjoon & Kim, Yoon & Hong, Nhayoung & Ryu, Seungwan & Kim, Sungwan. (2017). Soft robot review. International Journal of Control, Automation and Systems. 15. 10.1007/s12555-016-0462-3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312573734_Soft_robot_review
[2] Boyraz, Pinar, Gundula Runge, and Annika Raatz. 2018. "An Overview of Novel Actuators for Soft Robotics" Actuators 7, no. 3: 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/act7030048
[3] Dunlop, R., & Garcia, A.C. (2002). A Nitinol Wire Actuated Stewart Platform. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.227.3107&rep=rep1&type=pdf
[4] Thalman, Carly & Lam, Quoc & Huy Nguyen, Pham & Sridar, Saivimal & Polygerinos, Panagiotis. (2018). A Novel Soft Elbow Exosuit to Supplement Bicep Lifting Capacity. 6965-6971. 10.1109/IROS.2018.8594403. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330595928_A_Novel_Soft_Elbow_Exosuit_to_Supplement_Bicep_Lifting_Capacity
[5] Kennedy, S. (2013). Material Characterization of Nitinol Wires for the Design of Actuation Systems. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.974.4592&rep=rep1&type=pdf
[6] “Nitinol - Frequently Asked Questions.” Nitinol - FAQ - Smart Wires, Aura Design, https://smartwires.eu/index.php?id_cms=9&controller=cms&id_lang=1 | cebdb2c7-b99e-4119-b805-6b2687be0aa2 | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://phoenixfiles.olin.edu/do/1435/iiif/8745eb67-6363-4727-afea-654c64dde7ef/full/full/0/RoboFish%20Fin%20Report%20Final%20Shamama.pdf | 2023-09-27T16:04:14+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510300.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20230927135227-20230927165227-00850.warc.gz | 505,415,986 | 3,354 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.905047 | eng_Latn | 0.998494 | [
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Key Takeaways:
- Grasslands have many names – you may know them as prairies, steppes, meadows, savannahs, or pampas.
- Grasslands are found on every continent except Antarctica, covering over a quarter of the land on our planet. They are found in areas where there is not enough regular rain for forests to grow.
- The deep and fertile soils and absence of tree cover make grasslands perfect for farming. People have used grasslands to grow crops and support herds of grazing domestic animals for thousands of years.
- Grasslands support a great number of animals, such as zebra, antelope, and wildebeest, which need space to roam great distances. In turn, these grazers keep grasslands healthy by stimulating new growth with their trampling feet, keeping trees and shrubs from taking over, and providing food for predators.
- Grasslands help to prevent global warming by absorbing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it underground. The larger the variety of plant species in a grassland, the more efficient the grassland is at absorbing CO₂.
- Today, nearly 40% of Earth’s habitable surface is used to make food. Assuming current trends continue, global population is expected to reach more than 9 billion, and the demand for food could increase by 70% by 2050. What we eat and how we produce it will determine the future of our planet’s grasslands.
- Each year, between 30% and 40% of the food produced globally for humans is wasted. That’s over 1 billion tons — four times the number of calories needed to feed the more than 800 million people who are malnourished.
- The conversion of the grasslands has meant that some wild animals have lost their habitats. They are forced to try to find food or living space closer to people, and this can lead to clashes. Grassland wildlife are also threatened by hunters. In recent years, attacks by poachers on rhinos to steal their horns has brought the species to the edge of extinction.
- If we choose carefully, our planet can give us space to grow enough food for every person and leave enough space for the incredible wildlife that need grasslands to survive. We need to think more carefully about what we eat and also how we can farm more efficiently to use less space.
Each year over two million wildebeest, zebras and gazelles migrate across Northern Tanzania and Kenya in search of green pasture.
GUIDED DISCUSSION PROMPTS
Use these prompts to generate a class or small-group discussion based on the Our Grasslands episode or on videos on ourplanet.com.
1. The grazers that live in grasslands are constantly on the move, following the rain that causes the grass to flourish. These animals can migrate over very long distances in search of their food. The chewing, tromping, and fertilizing of these grazers contribute to keeping the grasslands healthy. These large herds in turn support populations of predators such as cheetahs, lions, and African wild dogs. How would these animals and their migration routes be impacted by climate change, and what would happen to their grassland ecosystem without them?
Example from the episode:
In the Serengeti, herds of over a million wildebeest gather. These grazers attract predators, such as cheetahs. This natural balance is made possible because there is enough space for each species to thrive; the Serengeti has been protected for over 60 years. One of the effects of climate change is irregular rainfall, causing droughts in some areas and floods in others. The lives of these grazing species depend on rainfall; if the rainfall schedule were to change, so would the likelihood of the wildebeests’ survival. And without them, the health of the grasslands and the survival of the larger predators are also in trouble.
2. Grasslands are a prime example of how a growing human population leads to an increase in consumption of natural resources and results in larger impacts to the Earth. Discuss this in terms of cause and effect, citing examples from the episode. What kind of changes could be made to minimize these impacts?
Example from the episode:
Grasslands are being plowed up for cropland and converted for urban development. This not only pollutes and destroys vital wildlife habitat, it disrupts the natural benefits that the environment provides and uses a lot of water and energy. However, if we learn to use the land and our food more efficiently, we could find a balance where everybody wins. Advancements in technology will allow new farming methods to do more with less and continue to feed the growing population while leaving space for wildlife. We can help by making an effort to not waste food in our homes, our workplaces, and our schools.
3 In addition to their genetic characteristics, animals pass down behavioral traits to their offspring as well. These behaviors may have originated years ago, but continue to be passed down through generations in order to help the animals survive. Provide an example from the episode of a species whose members’ survival depends on these tricks learned from their parents. As species continue to face challenges like habitat loss and poaching, populations are decreasing. What would happen if these behaviors stopped being passed down?
Example from the episode:
Elephants in Namibia have learned to survive in a harsh desert environment where riverbeds only flow once or twice a year. The matriarch female leads her family to a special place known to have food available even in a drought. She only knows of this place’s existence from her mother, and now she is teaching her own family how to get there. Elephants can only survive in this area because of knowledge passed down from previous generations. If the knowledge is lost, the elephants may no longer be able to live in that environment.
4 For many grassland species, the loss of their habitat isn’t their only problem. As their habitat gets converted for human uses, animals are forced to wander in search of food and water, many times leading them right into human-occupied areas. This can pose problems as these species encounter humans and compete for space and food. Conflict with humans and habitat loss are two predominant threats leading many grassland species to face extinction. Discuss, in terms of cause and effect, how changes to the environment may result in the extinction of a species. Is it possible to bring animals back from the brink of extinction?
Examples from the episode:
There were only a few Przewalski’s horses that remained in Mongolia. Careful breeding of 12 of these horses in captivity increased their numbers until they were safe to release back onto the plains. Their recovery was secured only because the vast Mongolian grassland has remained largely untouched.
Over the last 100 years, the number of wild tigers has declined by over 95%. But in India, despite pressure from poaching and a growing human population, tiger numbers are increasing, thanks to protection of the grasslands. Protect the precious space that deserts and grasslands provide, and the animals will bounce back.
5 Agriculture is the world’s largest industry – it employs more than one billion people and generates trillions of dollars’ worth of food each year. When sustainably managed, agriculture can benefit the ecosystem; some of our healthiest remaining grasslands are privately or communally managed and sustainably grazed for livestock, which keeps them from being converted into cropland and supports biodiversity. But when unsustainably managed, agriculture can destroy habitats and have serious detrimental impacts to wildlife. Define unsustainable agriculture; what is the current design problem? Discuss innovative solutions for how we will feed people in the future when we’ve run out of space, without harming the environment.
Example from the episode:
Two hundred years ago, millions of bison grazed across the grasslands of the Northern Great Plains. Today, 40% of North American grassland has been lost to cropland, and less than 30,000 plains bison remain.
6 Consider your recent meals. What did you eat? Did you have any leftovers? What did you do with them? What small changes could we make in our everyday routines that could greatly impact the future of grasslands?
## ACTIVITIES
| ACTIVITY IDEA | SUBJECTS |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------|
| Play a game that forces players to work together and demonstrate the benefits of wildlife corridors to species like elephants.—[How Did the Elephant Cross the Road?](#) | Physical education |
| Design an experiment to test elephant deterrent techniques and avoid human conflict.—[How to Outsmart an Elephant](#) | Science |
| Conduct a science experiment to understand the importance of soil to healthy life everywhere.—[Don’t Treat Soil Like Dirt!](#) | Science |
| Use what you’ve learned about how our food practices impact the health of our planet to write a letter to a future pen pal about the Earth.—[Eating Our Planet](#) | Language arts |
| Rethink throwing out that sandwich from your lunch after calculating what it took to get it to you.—[How Much Water Is in Your Lunch?](#) | Math |
| Bring the challenge and importance of reducing food waste to life by measuring what’s getting thrown out in your own cafeteria.—[Be a Food Waste Warrior](#) | Science |
| Take the [Food Waste Quiz](#) to test your knowledge of how we treat our food and how it impacts our planet. Then create a pledge for your home or school of how you plan to alter your food routine and make a difference. | Social studies |
## What We Can Do:
- Farm smarter—our planet provides us enough space to grow food for every person and leave enough space for wildlife that needs grasslands to survive. With farming methods improving all the time, we can produce all we need using less space.
- Diversify our diets—by making careful choices about what we eat, we can have a healthy diet while reducing the amount of space needed to produce our food. Eat more fruits and vegetables, buy sustainably produced products, and follow recommended dietary guides.
- Cut out food waste—we can avoid wasting food by buying and preparing only what we need. At meals, try to take only as much food as you realistically think you’ll eat. If you do end up with leftovers, save it for another time or repurpose it, rather than throw it away. Encourage your school to compost or establish a share table in the cafeteria to avoid wasting food.
- Spread the word—share with family and friends how they can help by saving food, balancing their diets, and shopping smarter.
## Additional Resources:
- Understanding grassland loss in the Northern Great Plains—breaks down what’s happening in the Great Plains of North America and why it matters
- Grasslands habitat WWF webpage—explains why prairies are important and the threats they’re facing
- Deserts habitat WWF webpage—an overview of these unique habitats and the species that depend on them
- Meet the bison: facts about America’s national mammal—why bison are unique to our landscape
- Elephant species WWF webpage—what WWF is doing to help protect these magnificent species and their migration routes
- The next Dust Bowl? Great Plains grassland loss slows overall, but rises in South Dakota—recounts the Dust Bowl of the 1930s and how we prevent history from repeating itself
- Our Planet official webpage | 18603bde-ffcc-43e2-9ead-b83bf2205c74 | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | http://assets.worldwildlife.org/educators_toolkit_files/91/toolkit_files/original/OP_EducatorGuide_FromDesertsToGrasslands.pdf?1555948590 | 2023-06-09T02:12:14+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224655244.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20230609000217-20230609030217-00480.warc.gz | 4,964,500 | 2,342 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998247 | eng_Latn | 0.998583 | [
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Social auditing is the process of assessing and reporting a business’s performance on fulfilling the economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic social responsibilities expected of it by its stakeholders. Social audits are tools that companies can employ to identify and measure their progress and challenges to stakeholders.
The auditing process is important to business because it can improve financial performance, increase attractiveness to investors, improve relationships with stakeholders, and improve organizational effectiveness. A firm’s reputation depends on transparency and openness in reporting and improving its activities.
The social audit provides an objective approach for an organization to demonstrate its commitment to improving strategic planning. Thus, it is critical that top managers understand and embrace the strategic importance of the social audit. Key stakeholders of the company should also be involved in the audit to ensure the integration of their perspectives into the firm’s economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities.
Adapted from “Business and Society: Stakeholders, Ethics, Public Policy”, January 2010, by Anne Lawrence
1. Choose the letter that corresponds to the right answer. (01pt)
The text is taken from:
a) a book
b) a magazine
c) the web
2. Are these statements true or false? Write T or F next to the letter corresponding to the statement. (02 pts)
a) Companies can use social auditing to identify and measure their progress.
b) Auditing is not essential to business.
c) Social auditing takes a subjective approach.
d) Managers must comprehend the importance of the social audit.
3. Answer the following questions according to the text. (03 pts)
a) Why do companies employ Social audits?
b) Is transparency important for improving a firm’s activities?
c) Who should also be integrated in the audit?
4. Who or what do the following words refer to in the text? (02 pts)
a) that (§1)
b) their (§3)
B) Text Exploration
1. Find words in the text whose definitions follow:
a) to give sb a job to do for payment. (§1)
b) to make sth greater in amount, number, or value. (§2)
c) the act of combining two or more things so that they work together. (§3)
2. Combine each pair of sentences with the connectors given between brackets. Make changes where necessary. (2.5pts)
a) Social audits are effective. Most companies are hiring them. (so…….. that)
b) Associations could improve productivity. They follow Social audits’ recommendations. (providing that)
3. Classify the following words according to the number of their syllables. (1 pt)
integrated - objective - approach - firm
| 1 syllable | 2 syllables | 3 syllables | 4 syllables |
|------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|
| | | | |
4. Reorder the following sentences to get coherent passage. (2 pts)
a) These concerns are important and show social responsibility.
b) with legal ramifications, such as harassment,
c) employee safety, and environmental impact.
d) Some companies conduct audits of business practices
PART TWO: Written Expression (05 points)
Choose ONE of the following topics
Topic one: Social auditing is one of the best tools to improve a company’s productivity and reputation. Use the following notes to write a composition of about 70-80 words in which you state the benefits of social auditing.
- to achieve the best social performance possible
- to facilitate organizational improvement
- to improve relationships with stakeholders
- to increase transparency.
- to project a good image in light of negative publicity.
Topic Two: Some people argue that the budget given to space exploration is a waste of money. Write a composition of about 70 to 80 words stating your opinion on this issue.
| العلامة | مجزأة | مجموع |
|--------|-------|-------|
| 15pts | | |
| 08 pts | | |
| 1 pt | 1x1 | |
| 2 pts | 0.5 x 4 | |
| 3 pts | 1x3 | |
| 2 pts | 1x2 | |
| 07 pts | | |
| 1.5 pt | 0.5x3 | |
| 2.5 pts| a x 1.5 | b x 1 |
| 1 pt | 0.25 X4 | |
| 2 pts | 0.5x4 | |
| 05pts | | |
**Part One: Reading**
**A. Comprehension**
1. The text is taken from: b) a magazine
2. a - T b - F c - F d- T
3. a- They employ Social audits to identify and measure their progress and challenges to stakeholders.
b- Yes, it is.
c- Key stakeholders of the company
4. a- that → tools b- their → key stakeholders
**B. Text Exploration**
1. a- employ b- increase c- integration
2. a- Social audits are so effective that most companies are hiring them.
b- Associations could improve productivity providing that they follow Social audits’ recommendations.
3.
| 1 syllable | 2 syllables | 3 syllables | 4 syllables |
|------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|
| firm | approach | objective | integrated |
4. d-b-c-a (0.5 opening sentence) (0.5 each pair)
**Part Two: Written Expression**
Topic 1 or Topic 2:
Relevance: 1 pt
Semantic coherence: 1 pt
Correct use of English: 2 pts
Excellence vocabulary and creativity: 1 pt
Life may have evolved on at least three planets within a newly discovered solar system that is 39 light years from Earth, it was announced last night. Astronomers at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have detected no less than seven roughly Earth-sized worlds orbiting a dwarf star in the system, it was announced today. Scientists had previously only identified a tiny number of so-called “exoplanets”, which are believed to have the qualities needed to support life.
The team determined that all the planets in the system are similar in size to Earth and Venus, or slightly smaller. And density measurements suggest that at least the innermost six planets are rocky. Because the star is so dim, the planets are warmed gently despite having orbits much smaller than that of Mercury, the planet closest to our Sun.
Hubble Space Telescope is already being used to search for atmospheres around these planets. Future telescopes, including the proposed European Extremely Large Telescope and the James Webb Space Telescope, may be powerful enough to detect markers of life, such as oxygen, in the atmospheres of exoplanets.
Adapted from www.telegraph.com.uk.
23 February 2017. By Henry Bodkin
1- Write the letter which corresponds to the right answer.
The text is….
a)- Prescriptive
b)- Argumentative
c)- Expository
2- Are these statements true or false? Write T or F next to the letter corresponds to the statement.
a)- Life probably exists on at least three planets within the new discovered system.
b)- All the new discovered planets are like the Earth.
c)- The exoplanets are composed of rocks.
d)- Hubble Space Telescope is sufficient to discover markers of life on the new planets.
3- Answer the following questions according to the text
a)- How many new planets did NASA discover?
b)- Why are the planets slightly hot?
c)- Are scientists sure of the existence of life on the exoplanets?
4- In which paragraph is it mentioned that…
a) Scientists are still looking for signs of life in the newly discovered planets?
b) The description of the exoplanets?
B) - TEXT EXPLORATION (7pts)
1) Find in the text words or phrases that are closest in meanings to:
a) the same §2 = ……
b) to discover §3 =….
2) Combine each pair of sentences with the connectors given between brackets. Make changes where necessary.
1- The new planets have orbits much smaller than Mercury. Mercury has orbit longer than the new discovered planets. (unlike)
2- Future telescopes may be powerful. They detect markers of life on the exoplanets. (so……that)
3) Classify these words according to the pronunciation of their final "s"
markers - qualities - planets - researches
| /s/ | /z/ | /iz/ |
|-----|-----|------|
4) Fill in the gaps with words from the list below:
(atmosphere, diameter, made, largest)
Pluto is the second …1… dwarf planet after Ceres and is about 1/6 the mass of the Moon. It has a…2… of 2370 km and is….3… of rock and ice with a thin ….4….of nitrogen, methane and carbon monoxide.
PART TWO: WRITTEN EXPRESSION (5pts)
Choose ONE of the following topics.
Topic one: You have heard about the new planets that scientists discovered. One of them is Hawmea. Use the notes below to write a short composition of about 70 to 80 words describing it.
- Hawmea/ strange planet
- Shape: spherical
- Mass: 6% of the Moon.
- Composition: rock / crystalline ice
- Temperature: -220
- Orbit: the sun / every 283 years
Topic two: Advertising influences people’s behaviour in a negative way. Do you agree or disagree?
Write a short composition of about 70 to 80 words in which you justify your opinion.
| العلامة المجموع | مجزأة |
|----------------|-------|
| 15pts | |
| 8pts | |
| 1pt | 1 |
| 2pts | 0.5 x4|
| 3pts | 1x3 |
| 2pts | 1x2 |
| 7pts | |
| 1. pt | 0.5 x2|
| 3pts | 1.5*2 |
| 1pt | 0.25*4|
| 2pts | 0.5*4 |
| 05pts | |
**PART ONE : READING**
A)- Comprehension.
1. The text is: c)- Expository
2- a)- T b)- T c)- T d)- F.
3- a- no less than seven roughly Earth-sized worlds.
b- Because the star is so dim,
c-No they aren't.
4- It is mentioned a)- §3 / b)- §2
B Text exploration.
1- a= similar b= to detect.
2
1-. Unlike the new planets, Mercury has orbit longer than the new discovered planets
2- Future telescopes may be so powerful that they detect markers of life on the exoplanets.
3-
| /s/ | /z/ | /iz/ |
|-----|-----|------|
| Planets | - markers | researches |
| | - qualities | |
1- Gap filling.
1- Largest 2-diameter 3- made 4-atmosphere.
**PART TWO : WRITTEN EXPRESSION.**
Topic 1 or Topic 2:
Relevance: 1 pt
Semantic coherence: 1 pt
Correct use of English: 2 pts
Excellence vocabulary and creativity: 1 pt | 996fef84-c724-4ee0-a57a-fa6bf5be69e1 | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://3as.ency-education.com/uploads/3/0/9/3/309326/english-3sci17-3trim1.pdf | 2020-09-18T17:28:59+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400188049.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200918155203-20200918185203-00227.warc.gz | 255,652,065 | 2,486 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.988997 | eng_Latn | 0.996391 | [
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Marine Birds – Common Murre Colonies
description
The Common Murre (*Uria aalge*) has a short neck and a long, straight bill and a coloration that resembles that of a penguin: black above and white below. Common Murres also have a white wing-bar and, during the winter, white cheeks and white streaks up the neck. Common Murres typically nest on wide, open ledges on rocky cliffs. They spend much of the time on the open ocean and in large bays, but are found closer to rocky shorelines during the breeding season. Relative to their size, Common Murres have the most densely packed nesting colonies of any bird and incubating adults may actually touch their neighbours on both sides. They do not build nests.
This atlas page depicts active and historic Common Murre colonies in terms of their relative importance, a value that corresponds to the number of “individuals” estimated at any one site during the most recent survey year. Because only three sites had estimated counts in the most recent survey year, the sites have been subjectively classified based on expert opinion and both Triangle Island (count = 4,327) and Kerouard Island (count = 377) have been classified as ‘high’ importance. Sites have been included regardless of whether breeding had been previously confirmed at a particular site. Attributes for each site include the date that breeding was last confirmed and the most recent survey results. Colony locations were buffered to represent some of the marine habitat used by those birds adjacent to each colony, based on the distances employed in the creation of the Canadian Wildlife Service’s Marine Bird Areas of Interest dataset.
data sources
- Environment Canada (Canadian Wildlife Service) – British Columbia Seabird Colony Inventory
- Parks Canada – Nesting Seabird Colonies
data resolution
- 1:250,000 (some points have been adjusted to match the 1:20,000 TRIM coastline)
data collected
- 1977-2004 (years breeding was confirmed)
date compiled
- 2008
reviewers
- Harry Carter, Consultant
- Representatives from Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service
reviewer comments
- Note that White Islet near Florencia Bay is missing from the map. This is a possible breeding site (see Carter et al. 2001, 2006; Carter 2004).
- Possibly keep colonies with zero counts in the ‘low’ relative importance category as they have been occupied in the very recent past.
- Sites labelled as ‘rock attended by Common Murre but breeding not confirmed’ are likely just roost sites and could be removed.
caveats of use
- Gaps in the extent of this feature should not be inferred to be an absence of the species, but rather an absence in survey effort.
- Buffer distances do not represent the entire foraging area of the birds.
- Sites of low relative importance may include extirpated sites or sites where the most recent survey did not obtain a count for breeding birds. Not all colonies are surveyed each year and colonies that were active in the past may or may not still support breeding populations. Therefore, these sites are still deemed important by the experts.
- Possible breeding sites are sites where breeding is suspected but has not been confirmed or counted. This information is only available for the Parks Canada dataset for Haida Gwaii.
- Recommended date of expiry for use of these data in a marine planning context: None provided.
map, feature data and metadata access
- Visit [www.bcmca.ca/data](http://www.bcmca.ca/data) for more information.
references
- Carter, H. R., U. W. Wilson, R. W. Lowe, M. S. Rodway, D. A. Manuwal, J. E. Takekawa, and J. L. Yee. *Population trends of the common murre* (*Uria aalge californica*). In: Manuwal DA, Carter HR, Zimmerman TS, Orthmeyer DL, editors. *Biology and conservation of the common murre in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Volume 1: Natural history and population trends*. Washington, DC: US Geological Survey, Information and Technology Report USGS/BRD/ITR-2000–0012. 2001. p. 33–132.
- Carter, Harry R., Ken H. Morgan, Trudy Charwin, and Francis Brulwiler. Notes on recent breeding of Common Murres at Starlight Reef and Cleland Island, British Columbia. *Wildlife Afjeld* 3. 2006. 117–121.
- Carter, H. R. Temporary colonization of Cleland Island, British Columbia, by common murres in 1969–82. *Wildlife Afjeld* 1. 2004. 33–43.
Species description contains material from:
- B.C. Conservation Data Centre. *Species Summary: Uria aalge*. BC Ministry of Environment (MoE). 2010. 21 Sep. 2010 [http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/esn/](http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/esn/)
- Environment Canada (Canadian Wildlife Service). *The Scott Islands Revised 2004*. [www.pyr.ec.gc.ca/scottislands/mwa_e.htm](http://www.pyr.ec.gc.ca/scottislands/mwa_e.htm)
- Seattle Audubon Society. *BirdWeb – Seattle Audubon's Guide to the Birds of Washington*, Revised 2008. [www.seattleaudubon.org/birdweb](http://www.seattleaudubon.org/birdweb)
BCMCA Atlas
Marine Birds
Common Murre Colonies
Legend
Relative Importance
(range in individuals)
- High (238-4327)
- Low (40-237)
- Historic/Possible Sites
Notes:
- Polygons of high relative importance have been drawn last and may overlap polygons of lesser importance.
- Colonies have been buffered by 5 kilometres.
Data Sources:
Environment Canada
(Canadian Wildlife Service), Parks Canada
Base Data:
ESRI Base Data, GeoBlue, GeoTIFF,
NOAA, Natural Resources Canada,
USGS Washington State Government
Thematic Data:
For more information on data sources and methods please refer to the facing page to this map
Projections: BC Albers NAD83
Note: The inset has been provided to illustrate the level of detail available in the data. This inset is for illustrative purposes only and does not imply any significance to this region. | 592ebc1e-c044-457b-8345-3237cbfa367b | CC-MAIN-2025-08 | https://bcmca.ca/datafiles/individualfiles/bcmca_eco_birds_commonmurrecolonies_atlas.pdf | 2025-02-12T03:33:19+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831951746.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20250212025441-20250212055441-00830.warc.gz | 105,879,010 | 1,364 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.96148 | eng_Latn | 0.986652 | [
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Introduction
• In 1950, there were only a few zooarchaeologists (Gifford-Gonzalez, 2018)
• Zooarchaeology is the study of animals remains, located in a specific archaeological area in questioned (Gifford-Gonzalez, 2018)
• Archaeologists debated how best to use the animal remains to study their past environment, and the relationship with humans
• These animal remains are used to document what indigenous people were eating
Methods
• Artifacts were collected from specific archeological locations and sent to the lab.
• Carefully using a toothbrush and water, each bone artifact was brush cleaned
• Artifacts were let dry for identification
• Pictures were taken, and a size chart was used (shown in the cards).
• Observation of the artifacts were collect and each bone was identified
Results
Fish
Gar
• This is not a specific part of the fish or a specific species of Gar
• The texture consists of long straight line or striations on the surface of the bone
Gar Vertebra
• Two different types of garfish.
• Florida Gar (opossumfish): Platycephalus & Longnose Gar
• Convex on back, convex on front side
Bowfin
• The progni are ribs
• Arms Calcar
• Bone structure is called basapophisis
Bowfin
• This is not a specific part of the fish
• The teeth inside the bone shows a tiny recessed bubble pattern
Sun Fish
• This is not a specific part of the fish
• The texture is a flat oval with a small bubble on the top, it is similar to the grinding plate, but different as grinding plates: bubbles are closer together
Stingray
• The bone structured like a barb with small spikes radiating down each side
Mullet Vertebrae
• Long & Thin
• Left & right side of the vertebra is bisected on both sides
Fish Spines
• Attach to the vertebra, giving fishes spiny shape
• It has teeth at the end
• Can be top attachment part or on the angle
Fish Skull
• Lace-like pattern
Shark
• Perfect disc
• “Cardioidalistic fish”
Fish Teeth
• The bottom part of the teeth/darker part is the teeth, and the inside of it is light
• The lighter part is the crown
• These specific fish cannot be identified.
Grinding Plates
• It looks like smooth balls, on the bottom, it’s hollow
• Used to grind up plants in the state of Florida
• Bone that comes from dogfish, chimaera, and sharks
Scales
• Cover the enamel-like coating
• Diamond or arrow-head shaped
Reptile
Jaw
• Long & Thin
• Holes where teeth are supposed to be
• Multiple pieces in Photo
Reptile vertebra
• Squarish shape
• Fractions of reptile vertebra shown
Alligator Scute
• Circular with a ridge down
• Like plate armor
Turtle
• Very light, pruas
• Broken edge will showcase porus pattern
Other
Crab
• Little horn-like structure
• White or off-white
• Crystalline shell look alike
Organic Residue
• Cooking fats mixed with charcoal
• Looks like clumps of dirt
• Dark
Bird Bone
• Hollow in the middle
References
Gifford-Gonzalez, D. (2018). An introduction to zooarchaeology. Spring. | 87252cff-7c05-4be9-9366-bbddcaa6c0bf | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://spiral.lynn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1118&context=studentpubs | 2023-05-28T16:05:48+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224644309.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20230528150639-20230528180639-00406.warc.gz | 588,336,675 | 738 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.988318 | eng_Latn | 0.988318 | [
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Global Citizenship Education promoting Social Sustainability
UEF/MOOC Adult Education Promoting Sustainable Development
Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union
1. What is Citizenship?
2. Free citizenship
3. Development of nation-state citizenship
4. The contradictions of democratic citizenship
5. Reflection
6. Cosmopolitanism 1 & 2
7. Global Citizenship Education (GCE)
8. GCE and Sustainable Development
9. Towards Glocal Sustainability in Education?
10. Key Points
11. References
What is citizenship?
- Citizenship perception and notion has changed throughout historical transformations
- From **civil rights** (enlightenment), **political rights** (democracy and equality) and **social rights** (welfare model)
A picture of the marina bay area of Singapore, one of the few existing city-states today.
Free citizenship
- Medieval (and ancient, such as Greece) notions included concept of free citizenship in relation to social strata in a city or city-state.
“Citizenship is a status bestowed on all those who are full members of a community. All those who possess the status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the status is endowed” (Marshall 1950)
- In a state, all citizens are meant to be free and equal persons (Rawls 1985), conceptualising citizenship through justice.
Development of nation-state citizenship
- In the 18th and 19th centuries (e.g. treaty of Westphalia), the role of cities and city-states as arenas for negotiating citizenship was replaced by nation-states.
- Becoming a citizen depended on membership of a national community (e.g. French, German, Italian), a citizen was also a national, so regardless of the idea of being above cultural differences (e.g. French Statism), citizenship is based on cultural specificity.
(Castles 2000.)
The contradictions of democratic citizenship
- Democratic citizenship is a goal pursued by member states of the United Nations, however a majority are unable to deliver it.
- The goal of integrating all inhabitants into an equal, political community is contradicted by nationalism, molding varying and diverse cultural groups in a territory into one "nation".
(Castles 2000.)
Nation-states such as Yugoslavia and Austria-Hungary had extreme assimilation doctrines.
What is the meaning of citizenship and what kinds of memberships are attached to it, from your perspective?
Cosmopolitanism
- Cosmopolitanism (cosmos –universal, polites –citizen) refers to the idea of a cosmopolitan identity, connected not to cultural specificity but cultural pluralism and membership in a global, single community.
- Origins in migration, where specific groups were "cosmopolitan" in the way they migrated through cultures, cities and citizenship orders (e.g. traders, travellers).
The contemporary idea of cosmopolitanism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment.
Cosmopolitanism (cont.)
- Globalisation and the formation of the United Nations boosted the modern notion of cosmopolitanism linked to global citizenship (which, strictly speaking, is not an official status, rather a misnomer).
- Also linked to the concept of superdiversity (Steven Vertovec), where diversity in large metropolitan "global cities" are so common that the meaning of difference and cultural specificity becomes less obvious.
- "Cosmopolitanization" as inclusion and exclusion (Beck 2012).
Global Citizenship Education
- “The concept of education for cosmopolitan citizenship [...] is based on a definition of citizenship as comprising feeling, status, practice and explicit commitments to human rights.”
- “Education can develop the capacity of people to identify with fellow human beings irrespective of national boundaries”
- GCE as an instrument for inclusion of a diversity of thought, belonging and agency
(Starkey 2017)
GCE and sustainable development
- Global citizenship education does not only empower individuals to include and acknowledge specific SDGs in their daily lives, but to comprehend the idea around their purpose in the global context.
- Through GCE, individuals may look at the world and make judgments or solve problems through reflection on universal human rights, struggles for political and social justice as well as sustainability (Starkey 2017).
Towards glocal sustainability in education?
- Glocalization and globalization as double process (Eriksen 2014)
- Sustainability, too, can be a double process
- Citizenship is defined on a national, and sometimes supranational level (e.g. European identity)
- Non-formal education, civic movements and active citizenship on a local level contribute to sustainability and may result in glocal and global change
Links to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
- **Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions**: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.
- **Goal 17 Partnerships for the Goals**: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.
Key Points
- Citizenship, and the concept of global (cosmopolitan) citizenship, are socially and culturally constructed and thus their meaning reflects specific socio-cultural, political and economic values of the time.
- Global citizenship education may construct sustainability in its different dimensions through engaging, in both formal and non-formal settings, individuals to reflect on inclusiveness, social justice and critical thinking.
- Global citizenship education requires glocal applications and critical reflection.
"Thus compressed between two forces, within and without, could humanity follow any other course than that which it has taken?"
Letters on Aesthetic Education
(Friedrich Schiller, 1794)
References
- Beck, U. (2012) Redefining the Sociological Project: The Cosmopolitan Challenge. Sociology: Vol. 46, Issue 1.
- Castles, S. (2000) Citizenship and Migration: Globalization and the Politics of Belonging. Macmillan.
- Eriksen, T. H. (2014) Globalization: The Key Concepts. Berg.
- Marshall, T. H. (1950) Citizenship and Social Class: And Other Essays. Cambridge University Press.
- Rawls, J. (1985) Justice as Fairness: Political not Metaphysical.
- Starkey, H. in Banks, J. A. (2017) (ed) Citizenship Education and Global Migration: Implications for Theory, Research and Teaching. American Educational Research Association.
- Vertovec, S. (2007) Super-diversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies: Vol. 30, Issue 6.
Images:
Slide 2: Photo by congerdesign on Pixabay (accessed 8/12/2022)
Slide 3: Photo by akenarinc on Pixabay (accessed 8/12/2022)
Slide 6: Photo by WikImages on Pixabay (accessed 8/12/2022)
Slide 9: Reading of the Tragedy of Voltaire in The Salon of Mrs. Jeoffrin by Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier, ca. 1812-1814
Slide 11: Photo by geralt on Pixabay (accessed 8/12/2022)
Slide 13: The Weimar Court of the Muses by Theobald von Oer, 1860.
Thank you!
uef.fi
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6-12 Everglades Champions in Action™
EDUCATORS’ GUIDE
A reference document designed to support the 6-12th grade Everglades Lead Teachers.
WWW.EVERGLADESLITERACY.ORG
| **Name** | **Date** |
|----------|----------|
| | |
**Note:** This form is to be completed by the student and submitted to the department chair for approval before the student can register for the course.
Step 1: Community Inventory
What is the purpose of Step 1?
To (1) introduce the Civic Action Process, (2) inventory your community, (3) identify environmental strengths and concerns, and (4) dig into the underlying root causes of those concerns.
Prior to conducting environmental inventories and creating a list of strengths and concerns, it is often necessary to facilitate student buy-in to becoming an environmental citizen and to help them develop an understanding of why they are engaging in this Process, the specifics of the community they will explore, and what it means to make a change in their community. In other words, to get student buy-in.
Once introduced, students will jump into investigating their community by conducting a series of inventories. They will collect data and observations, then synthesize that information into a list of community strengths and community concerns. From there, students will analyze their concerns to dig into the root causes of the concerns they previously identified.
In summary:
- Explore and investigate the local community.
- Assess the community’s strengths and concerns; and,
- Analyze those concerns to understand the underlying root causes.
Teacher(s) will:
- Set community boundaries.
- Establish inventory locations.
- Determine what the overarching Everglades focus topic.
- Help guide students into deeper investigation and analysis of the focal topic through guiding questions and inventory selections.
Students will:
• Understand the process.
• Students will discover that in order to be an environmental citizen, capable of developing and carrying out an action project that makes a sustainable change, they need to conduct investigations, dig for research, ask questions from all kinds of people, work together cooperatively and collaboratively, make compromises, and make choices based on criteria. They will review the six steps of the Process to develop an understanding of how each step builds upon the previous one and guides them to make informed and reasoned decisions.
• Conduct 2-3 community inventories that focus on the given Everglades topic. Community inventories include activities such as meeting with community experts; doing online research; surveying members of the community; completing an observational checklist.
• Create a list of community strengths and concerns.
• Determine root causes of their concerns.
You will know you have completed Step 1 when:
• The community has been defined.
• Students have completed multiple inventories including one descriptive and one numbers-based.
• The inventories have resulted in a list of strengths and concerns.
• That list of concerns has been analyzed, and root causes (kept within the community) have been identified.
• Students have created a portfolio to save their work.
Resources for Step 1:
Lesson plans, handouts, and activities
• Environmental Citizen Activity & Attributes of an Environmental Citizen
• Community Inventory List
• Strengths and Concerns
• Cause and Effect Tree - Root Cause Analysis
Guiding questions:
- What does it mean to be an environmental citizen?
- Why does caring for and about the environment matter?
- What makes up our defined community?
- What are the environmental conditions in our community that need improvement?
- What are the environmental strengths in our community?
- What is culturally important to our community?
- Is there any indication of long-term environmental concerns?
- How can we gather information about concerns and strengths in our community?
- How do we know what the underlying issues are of our concerns?
- How do we learn more about a concern so we can determine whether it is the root issue or not?
- Who might know something about our area of focus, and be able to give us a better understanding of it?
- How will we know we are ready to move on to selecting a single issue (Step 2)?
TIPS Cards related to Step 1:
- TIPS Card 1 Keeping a Portfolio
- TIPS Card 4 Taking Notes
- TIPS Card 5 Working Together & Hearing All Voices
- TIPS Card 6 Making the Most of Your Community Inventory
- TIPS Card 8 Finding the Root Cause of Concerns
- TIPS Card 13 Finding & Evaluating Research Sources
- TIPS Card 14 Finding & Using Maps
- TIPS Card 16 Identifying Stakeholders & Beginning Questions
- TIPS Card 19 Guest Speakers & Expert Volunteers
- TIPS Card 20 Interviews
- TIPS Card 21 Surveys
Learning Objectives: To solidify what it means to be an Environmental Citizen. An Environmental Citizen is a proactive member of the community who understands the importance of being a steward of the planet’s limited natural resources and is committed to going beyond private actions by using civic actions to sustain them. (Reference Attributes of an Environmental Citizen)
Scaffolds: Try this activity as an entire class, led by you or a student leader instead of breaking up into smaller groups. Students often say their Environmental Citizen needs a friend to help them—so this option allows the space to draw additional friends and helpers!
Materials Needed:
- One large sheet of paper per small group
- Markers
- Wall space or portfolio space to keep the drawings once completed
1] Divide your class into small groups of 3-6 students.
2] Give each group one large sheet of paper and different colors of markers.
3] Each group should begin with a head and torso drawn on their paper, similar to a hangman.
4] Ask the large group – “What is a citizen?” Discuss responses. “Now imagine you want to be an Environmental Citizen – what would you need? (Physical, mental, emotional attributes—real or whimsical) Working in your small groups, use your paper to create an Environmental Citizen. Give them the physical and mental attributes you think would be necessary. Be sure to label each part. For example, everybody needs a mouth. But how would an Environmental Citizen use their mouth?
5] Give groups at least 10-15 minutes to work. You may need to move between groups, offering encouragement, helping them expand on their ideas, and reminding them to add explanation labels that will help them make a presentation about their Citizen.
6] Give each group a chance to do an oral presentation on their Environmental Citizen.
7] Post the Citizens around the wall. Groups can continue to add attributes later, if desired. Some typical attributes (it is amazing what youth will think of—no two Citizens will be alike!):
- A heart to care
- A brain to analyze community issues
- Hands to reach out to others/to hold a shovel/to write letters
- A pocket for seed packets/to hold a notebook
- Soft shoes to tread lightly/sturdy shoes for walking through the community
- A nose to smell pollution/to smell trouble/to smell the flowers
| Knowledge | Skills | Orientations (Character Traits) |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Environmental Awareness:** Awareness of current local environmental issues, needs, and resources | **Research:** Ability to conduct a thorough and balanced investigation on a local environmental and/or community issue | **Civic Responsibility:** Sense of personal responsibility for, and commitment to, the well-being of the environment and the community |
| **Historical Awareness:** Understanding how past ecological events, political decisions, and the economy have affected the environment | **Media Literacy:** Ability to assess various sources of information for credibility and bias | **Self-Efficacy:** Belief in one’s ability to make positive changes in the environment and community |
| **Policy & Practice Understanding:** Understanding that environmental issues are influenced by policies and community practices | **Communication:** Ability to defend a position on an environmental issue both orally and in writing | **Community Connectedness:** Practicing building respectful relationships with all members of the community |
| **Stakeholder Knowledge:** Awareness of decision-makers who can influence public and private policies and community practices associated with environmental issues | **Collaboration:** Ability to work cooperatively with peers and adults toward a common end | **Academic Achievement:** Personal sense of achievement, accountability, and accomplishment in and out of school |
| **Civic Ability:** Understanding of the roles that citizens can play in shaping policies or community practices to help the environment | **Advocacy:** Ability to develop and execute a plan for sustainable improvements to the environment or community | **Social Respect & Empathy:** Willingness to respectfully consider diverse points of view |
| **Inclusivity:** Understanding the importance of integrating diverse experiences and perspectives into all aspects of learning | **Problem-Solving:** Ability to make wise decisions and plans to solve environmental and community issues using sound research | **Program Affinity:** Sense of connectedness to movements of students involved in Earth Force and other such environmental programs |
| **Reflection:** Ability to think critically about experiences and to solidify big picture take-aways and behavior changes | | |
The following is a list of possible inventories to help us understand community concerns. Remember, an inventory is inquiry driven, collects some kind of data, and leads to a list of strengths and concerns of the defined community.
**Note:** Earth Force advocates for conducting at least 3 inventories: One that is **numbers-based** data, one with **descriptive** data, and at least one that is **justice-focused** (noted with a ⭐). Bonus if students design!
| Inventory | Examples |
|----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Surveys | Create a school/peer/community survey or poll. Consider different formats: written, digital, or verbal. Consider asking questions like “who is the most affected by…” “do certain groups feel the consequences of X more than others?” See TIPS Card 21 |
| Audits & Assessments | Complete audits of energy use, recycling, carbon footprints, food waste and access, walkability, canopy cover, etc. Assess how well systems and processes are working within the community. |
| Review Policies & Practices| Identify city/county ordinances and analyze topographical maps & evaluate adherence to policy. Invite local policy makers to participate in a panel; use observational studies to determine community practices. See TIPS Card 12 |
| Interviews | There are two groups of people who are excellent to interview: Local Experts, and Knowledge Holders. Look for local experts or persons who are directly involved with a concern like city planners, school administration, and other stakeholders. Invite them into your classroom or interview them by phone. Also consider people who hold community knowledge, like faith-based leaders, grassroots organizations, social service providers, and people who have lived in your community for a long time. This group will be able to shine a light on environmental and social inequities in your community. See TIPS Cards 16-19 |
| Online Databases | Use online databases to investigate concerns and/or help with determining project approaches. Government and other agency websites have public information that can help your students! EarthForceResources.org website is filled with links to such databases as well. See TIPS Card 15 |
| Maps | Use maps to identify local facilities (energy plants, waste treatment facilities, etc.); collect data based on particular areas; analyze topographical maps & evaluate adherence to policy; and get more information about your community. Story and GIS maps are a fun and interactive way to collect information too. See TIPS Card 14 Note, there are excellent maps that focus on justice-issues, including Redlining, Brownfield, and Ecojustice maps. |
| Guided Walking Tours | Take a walk! Educators and/or experts can guide students through their community and ask driving questions to stimulate thought and discovery. Identify community boundaries and look for strengths and concerns. |
| News & Media Search | Look at local media in the recent past and make a list of concerns they see mentioned; summarize the concerns and what the community is doing about them. Make sure sources are credible! See TIPS Card 13 |
| Data Collection | Get out in the field and collect samples; test the health of air/water/soil; sample macroinvertebrates or biodiversity; try observational studies of community practices. |
| Other Ideas? | Add your own! |
Additional inventory resources (including those specific to flooding and water quality) can be found online.
Cause and Effect Tree
An Exercise in Root Cause Analysis
Learning Objectives To understand the systemic root cause of concerns identified during inventories
Scaffolds If needed, use the “Identify Cause and Effect Relationships/Cause and Effect Organizer” activity as a precursor to inventories to help students grasp this concept. Also, the “Why You Need To Ask Why” story under Step 1 Resources is a great narrative example that can be used to kick this activity off.
Note: Many environmental issues are rooted in social and ecological inequities. It is important not to shy away from exposing students to these root causes. By discussing and taking inequities into consideration during this process, your solutions will be more sustainable, equitable, and reflect the true nature of the issue at hand.
1] Have students write the chosen concern in the center of the tree in the brown circle. They can work individually or in small groups, each group/individual working on their own concern.
2] Prompt students to think about what effects this concern can have on their community and write down their thoughts in the branches and leaves in the tree. To stimulate conversation, here are a few perspectives that could be affected by an environmental concern:
- Who is most affected by this concern?
- Are different groups of people affected by this concern differently?
- Environmental effects that could arise
- How could this affect our lives?
- Buildings/ city infrastructure
3] Shift focus to think about the systemic root causes of your concern and how your community is affected by it. Why is this happening in the first place? Have students brainstorm their thoughts in the circles near the roots of the tree. If needed, prompt students with the following questions to help stimulate thought:
- How did this concern begin?
- Is it being perpetuated (kept going) by a group of people or law? Maybe a lack of a law?
- Does this concern oppress certain groups of people?
- Use the “Five Whys” Method (Why You Need To Ask Why). Ask yourself: Why is this concern happening? Then ask “Why is that happening?” etc. Keep going until you’re at the root cause of the concern!
4] The class may find that the concerns they identified while on inventories are already root causes, which is great! Or they may have originally identified effects of a deeper root cause. Come together and talk about the root causes (real community issues) of the concerns that they identified. Working on an effect of a root cause is not usually a good project strategy to move forward on. **Root causes are the best issues to tackle** because changing them have high impact and create sustainable change in your community.
Cause and Effect Tree:
An Exercise in Root Cause Analysis
Effects
Environmental Concern
Root Causes (Issue)
Step 2: Issue Selection
What is the purpose of Step 2?
To select a single issue to focus on for the rest of the Process. Step 2 focuses on helping students select an environmental issue based on a set of criteria. Working with the list of root causes developed in Step 1, students go through a selection process that ensures the issue chosen is one of importance to the community, interesting to the students, and connected to your academic needs. Students are more likely to be engaged if they care about the issue. The selection process works most effectively if students work in partnership with you to make this decision.
In summary:
- Use root causes from Step 1 to select one issue.
- Use a criteria-based selection process to select one issue.
Teacher(s) will:
- Facilitate a student discussion of all the root causes found in Step 1.
- Introduce students to the idea of using criteria to make a decision (The What’s for Lunch Activity is a great way to introduce criteria.)
- Facilitate a conversation with your students about the criteria that will help them determine the most viable issue to select, research, and develop solutions around.
- Commonly used criteria include:
- Connects to curriculum
- Can be researched without leaving school
- Affects all or a large number of students
- Important to the community
- Help students make a democratic decision based on the criteria
- Use guiding questions to help facilitate Step 2.
Students will:
- Debrief and discuss the list of issues identified in Step 1.
- Select the criteria that will be used in the decision-making process.
- Democratically decide on an issue for further research that will occur in Step 3.
You will know you have completed Step 2 when:
- The issue selected is one the students are interested in.
- The issue meets your educational standards.
- You worked with the students to collaboratively make the decision.
- The issue impacts the larger community, not just the students.
- Students add their work from Step 2 to their portfolio.
Resources for Step 2:
Lesson plans, handouts, and activities:
- Using Criteria-Based Decision Making
- What’s For Lunch? Activity
- Issue Selection Grid
Guiding questions:
- Do we need to dig deeper into any of our root causes to understand them fully?
- How do we select only one issue to explore more deeply?
- How do we involve all voices, adults and youth, in our selection process and why does this matter?
TIPS Cards related to Step 2:
- TIPS Card 5 Working Together & Hearing All Voices
- TIPS Card 7 Decision Making
- TIPS Card 17 Outreach to Professionals: Formal Letters and emails
- TIPS Card 18 Outreach to Professionals: Phone Etiquette
- TIPS Card 19 Guest Speakers & Expert Volunteers
Learning Objective: To understand, and be able to successfully use criteria-based decision-making
Added Information: This practice is utilized in both Steps 2 and 4 in Earth Force.
Scaffolds: Introduce with the “What’s For Lunch” Activity to get a foundation for this concept with a familiar topic to students.
In both steps 2 and 4, students will be asked to use criteria to select their issue and their action plan respectively. The following outlines best practices for explaining and establishing criteria that result in strong civic action projects.
1] Introduce “Criteria”. In order to make all of our decisions, we use some form of criteria to narrow down our options and arrive at a final selection. Criteria are defined as “standards on which decisions are based.”
For example, something as simple as what to have for lunch requires us to measure our options against a defined set of criteria. For choosing lunch our criteria might include things like: location, dietary restrictions, price, or how hungry we are. See the What’s For Lunch Activity if you’d like to begin with this material.
2] After introducing the concept, it is time to use criteria to select an issue. Below you will find a chart of criteria categories that Earth Force has found to be helpful in selecting issues that will result in meaningful civic action projects. Earth Force believes that the best projects result from considering the amount of student voice involved, practicality, use of civic skills, and the overall environmental impact. Under each category of criteria, you will find a few questions that pinpoint topics for discussion and further explain the meaning of each category.
You may use this table to start a discussion with your students or you could also assign point values to the answers (i.e. a point for every yes or a scale) to come up with concrete scores for each issue or action proposed. You and your students are encouraged to develop your own criteria or categories as needed based on your discussions, though remember that too many criteria can actually make the process more difficult. We recommend no more than 5.
| Student Voice | Practicality | Civic Engagement/Skills | Impact |
|---------------|-------------|-------------------------|--------|
| Participation: Can everyone be a part of this? | Educator Needs: Meets the educational standards I need to accomplish. | Community: Does this require us to interact with the local community? | Community: Does our community care about this issue? |
| Interest: Is this issue fun and interesting for us to work on? | Accessible: Are we working in an accessible area? Is this issue in our community boundaries? | Decision-makers: Will we engage with decision makers & people in power? | Sustainable: Does this issue have solutions that will lead to a more sustainable community? |
3] Try it yourself. Using the above categories and any additional ones suggested, you may rank your issues or proposed action solutions. Have a class discussion to decide on which criteria you would like to use to vote.
This is a great time to use another democratic voting method to choose criteria. See Democratic Voting Processes for ideas.
Use the grid below to map out the criteria your class has chosen as their favorites. Remember, you do not need to use all of the categories we suggested, and you do not need 3 criteria for each category you do choose. Just narrow it down to your class’ favorites.
| Issue Selection Grid |
|----------------------|
| | Issue Option 1 | Issue Option 2 | Issue Option 3 |
| Student Voice | | | |
| Practicality | | | |
| Civic Engagement/ | | | |
| Skills | | | |
| Impact | | | |
| Additional Category 1: | | | |
| Additional Category 2: | | | |
4] Vote. Use discussion, additional voting methods, or your authority to choose the 3-5 criteria that will be used on the Criteria-Based Decision-Making grid (See Issue Selection Grid) and vote on your issue!
Deciding what to eat for lunch is a perfect example of using Criteria-Based Decision-Making in daily life!
**Definition:** Criteria are guidelines we use to make judgments or decisions.
When deciding what to eat, you think about what you want or like, what is available, and what is involved in preparing the food among other things. You are making multiple decisions to refine your options.
Ask your students what criteria they think about when deciding what to eat. Here are a few ideas:
- What’s already in the fridge/pantry
- How tasty the food option is
- How healthy the food option is
- How long it will take to cook
Using these criteria, you narrow down your options. Using a table like the one below creates a visual representation of that narrowing-down process. The more boxes checked for each option, the more closely matched it is to your criteria!
| Availability (already in fridge /pantry) | Peanut Butter & Jelly Sandwich on White Bread | Mac & Cheese | Pizza | Salad | Turkey and Cheese Sandwich on Whole Wheat Bread |
|------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|-------------|-------|-------|-----------------------------------------------|
| Taste | X | X | X | | X |
| Health | | | | X | X |
| Shortness of Cooking Time | X | | | X | X |
So as you can see, Turkey and Cheese on Whole Wheat is the best option for lunch using these criteria!
Learning Objective: To choose a single issue as a group while maintaining buy-in from students.
Additional Information: Need help developing criteria? Look at the Using Criteria-Based Decision-Making Activity Scaffold: Instead of using a 1-5 rating system per the instructions below, place one “X” per criteria under the issue you think meets it best. To tally, count the number of “X” each issue has.
1] Use the grid on the next page to decide which issue your class should focus on for your Earth Force project. Fill in the rows with the criteria you will be decided on. Use the columns to list the issues you are considering. Rate each issue against each criterion. Rank the issues: 1 meaning it does not meet the criteria and 5 (or the total number of issues you have) meaning it completely meets the criteria. Total the scores at the bottom.
Note: This activity can be done individually (and score sheets added for the entire group) or done as a whole class (project this grid on the board and each student gets X many votes).
2] Once everyone has voted and scores are tallied, look to see if one issue is the clear winner, or if multiple are close. If one is clearly the winner, great! You are ready to move forward into Step 3: Research. If there are a few that are relatively close though, consider having a second round of voting with just those issues. Precede it with a discussion on the merits of those issues or a debate structure of the pros and cons of each.
You may not need to use Criteria-Based Decision-Making again. There are many other democratic decision-making tools available that can help come to a conclusion. Look to the Democratic Voting Processes tool for guidance on other ways to make decisions, and to our Civic Engagement page online.
| CRITERIA | ISSUE 1 | ISSUE 2 | ISSUE 3 | ISSUE 4 | ISSUE 5 |
|----------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| Criteria 1 | | | | | |
| Criteria 2 | | | | | |
| Criteria 3 | | | | | |
| Criteria 4 | | | | | |
| Criteria 5 | | | | | |
TOTAL:
Step 3: Community Practice and Policy Research
What is the purpose of Step 3?
To research the selected issue looking at policies and community practices, to understand the history and implications of the issue, and to synthesize the information gathered.
In this step students gather information that gives them the context of their selected issue. They will learn:
- Who is affected by the issue and has a stake in how the issue is handled (stakeholders).
- Why their issue exists.
- What current policies and community practices are related to their issue.
- Who the decision-makers are on relevant policies and practices.
- The possible areas for improving relevant policies or community practices.
- There may be more than one viable solution to a problem.
In summary:
- Through research, students will begin to understand how policies are created and how they affect their issue.
- They will begin to identify the motives that led to the creation of those policies, and the different pressures or interests that shaped them.
- They will explore the effectiveness of current policies and practices, helping them identify a policy or practice needing improvement in Step 4.
Teacher(s) will:
- Guide students to understand what is meant by a policy and a community practice and how to distinguish between them.
- Facilitate further exploration of examples of policies and practices.
- Facilitate a discussion of stakeholders who have an interest in their selected issue.
- Guide students to conduct further research into the policies and practices that relate to their issue.
- Invite community experts to come to your classroom or connect virtually to answer questions and provide feedback on information students have gathered.
- Use guiding questions to facilitate this step.
Students will:
- Identify stakeholders.
- Identify and research policies and practices.
- Debrief and analyze the policy and practice information they found.
You will know you have completed Step 3 when:
- Students have researched policies and community practices related to their issue.
- They have used multiple research methods to gather data.
- They have interacted with more than one stakeholder.
- They have synthesized their research to debrief what they have learned.
Resources for Step 3:
Lesson plans, handouts, and activities:
- Stakeholder Mapping - 2 Activity Options
- Conducting Research: A Lesson in Policy, Practice, and Stakeholder Research
- Distinguishing Policy and Community Practice (Intro)
Guiding questions:
- What policies and community practices are currently in place around your issue?
- Who in the community might know information about this issue that we can talk to?
- What policies or practices need to be changed to improve your issue in the long run?
- Who is affected by this issue?
- Who makes decisions about the policies and practices related to this issue?
Guiding questions to help identify stakeholders:
- Who has an interest in this issue?
- Who is an expert on this issue?
- Who has tried to address this issue in the past?
Guiding questions to help identify stakeholders (continued):
- Who makes decisions about this issue and/or is responsible for enforcing policies on this issue? Who is affected by the issue you selected and cares about the status of the issue?
- Who bears the cost or pays for the issue?
- What are the different points of view that stakeholders have?
Guiding questions to help with policy and practice research:
- What policies are in place around this issue? Are they being enforced?
- What are the community practices around this issue?
- What needs to be changed to improve the issue?
- What is the history of this issue in our community?
- What are the debates and viewpoints on this issue?
TIPS Cards related to Step 3:
- TIPS Card 2 Creating A Contact List
- TIPS Card 3 Staying Organized
- TIPS Card 4 Taking Notes
- TIPS Card 5 Working Together & Hearing All Voices
- TIPS Card 9 Moving from Issues to Projects
- TIPS Card 11 Committee Structures & Peer Accountability
- TIPS Card 12 Policy vs Practice
- TIPS Card 13 Finding & Evaluating Research Sources
- TIPS Card 14 Finding & Using Maps
- TIPS Card 15 Finding Government Information
- TIPS Card 16 Identifying Stakeholders & Beginning Questions
- TIPS Card 20 Interviews
- TIPS Card 21 Surveys
Learning Objective: To learn the basic difference between a policy and a community practice
Additional Information: Refer to TIPS Card 12 for additional information.
Scaffolds: We have additional activities on policy and practice that can be coupled with this to introduce the concept. Consider using this activity as the introductory conversation. Then use the What’s In Your Backpack? hands-on activity so students have the opportunity to try this out before research begins.
1] Display the following table in front of your class.
| Column 1: _________ | Column 2: _________ |
|---------------------|---------------------|
| Chewing gum is not allowed in school | I choose to wear jeans on the weekends |
| You must be 16 to get a driver’s license | My neighbors recycle their bottles and cans |
| ABC Pharmaceutical Company does not test its products on animals | A big group of high school students usually hangs out at the local skate park on Friday nights |
Explain that one column is a list of policies and the other is a list of practices.
2] Ask: “What do the statements in the first list have in common?”
Answer: They are rules or guidelines established by people/organizations in authority.
Explain that we refer to these as policies. There are public policies, which are rules/laws instituted by various levels of the government, and private policies, which are by private institutions, like your school or ABC Pharmaceutical Company.
3] Ask: “What do the statements in the second list have in common?”
Answer: They are habits and behaviors – basically things people do.
Explain that we refer to these as practices. They can either follow or contradict policies, if a policy is in place.
4] Debrief by explaining that we will be exploring and gathering information on policies and practices for the chosen issue. Answer any clarifying questions needed to move forward.
Learning Objectives: To have a clear understanding of policies, practices, and stakeholders, to examine research, and point out environmental inequities in your community
Additional Information: Inside this lesson plan, there are references to other Earth Force materials including activities and TIPs Cards. It would be handy to have EarthForceResources.org open and a set of TIPs Cards handy while reviewing this lesson. Also, this lesson begins as a discussion and transitions into active, independent research and will likely take multiple classes, or a combination of class time and homework to complete.
Scaffolds: Before beginning this lesson, introduce the concept of policy and practice using the What’s In Your Backpack activity or Examples of Policies and Practices.
1] Convey the context and goal of this lesson, which is that students will begin to research their chosen issue. Moving forward, they will hear from stakeholders in the community and from other sources about the policies and practices that relate to their issue.
Scaffold option: Draw from students’ experiences by relating to a new band / musical talent. Ask students if they have done research before. When they hear a new band that they like, do they try to find out more about them – where they’re from, how long they’ve been together, the names of the musicians? Basically, that’s research!
2] Define and discuss stakeholders, policies, and practices if you have not done so already.
Stakeholder: Someone who has a direct interest or investment in an issue. Make sure to include those who are most affected by the issue.
Policy: rules or guidelines established by people/organizations in authority.
Practice: habits and behaviors – basically things people do.
Ask students about these three concepts related to their own school.
Next, what burning questions arose when they developed questions related to their issue? Recap their question brainstorm.
Discuss the importance of consulting stakeholders as part of the research and the importance of looking at an issue from varying perspectives and multiple sources. What if we only consulted one source when we wanted to make a change that would affect many?
For example: Farmers could be consulted about the possibility of using treated wastewater to irrigate their fields. In this way, water could be better managed. However, if local geologists were also consulted, they may warn that irrigation using this method could result in the contamination of a nearby spring due to the high nitrogen content of treated wastewater.
3] Introduce the research process.
Using whichever structure works best for your class, divide the class into partners, groups, or committees. Provide students and groups with necessary handouts and expectations for research. The Step 3 resources web page has additional tools and organizers to facilitate this.
Also, the TIP Cards have different TIPs to help students work in their groups, find sources, and judge if they are credible or not.
4] Begin researching by identifying stakeholders to contact, and gathering policy and practice information. Have some groups identify community stakeholders. See TIP Card 16 for additional information. Groups make a stakeholder web (See Stakeholder Web Activity) of the key people who have a role in the issue. Students research appropriate people/organizations to contact. Have students keep track of all contacts throughout the process, see TIPs Cards 2 and 3 for more information. Think about how different groups of people communicate. Using different methods of outreach can help you reach a more diverse group of people.
Other groups are researching policies and community practices. Use the Policies and Practices Related To Our Issue organizer to help them keep track of sources and organize their thoughts. These groups continue their questioning and research while the others go through the interviewing phases of stakeholder research. Groups can work together if you would like all to participate in all aspects of research. Use whatever methods work best for your class!
5] Help facilitate the community stakeholder interactions and conduct the interviews (TIP Card 20). There are three main ways to interact with stakeholders and where to find a little more information on how to facilitate each one. The TIPs Cards are a great tool to help students take ownership in coordinating stakeholder interactions. If other ways work better for your situation, get creative!
- Email exchanges – TIP Card 17
- Phone Interviews – TIP Card 18
- Guest Speaker Opportunities – TIP Card 19
- Make sure to follow up the interviews by sending a thank-you note (See TIP Card 31), and saying that you will keep in touch as the project progresses.
6] Allow time to wrap up all aspects of research, and debrief. Depending on how you’re structuring your groups, let the groups working on policies and practices wrap up their findings. Allow the stakeholder groups to write-up their interviews and think about the big take-aways.
Then, bring everyone together for a debriefing session so all groups can learn about all aspects of the research findings. This is a great time to answer everyone’s questions, and see if you all feel satisfied with the amount of information that has been acquired. Maybe you need to answer a couple more questions in order to move forward, or maybe you’re good to go.
7] From here, use the The Change I’d like to See activity to transition to Step 4. This helps move the group from thinking about the issue to possible project ideas.
Learning Objective: To organize students’ thoughts and information on key stakeholders they may need to contact to further the research process
Scaffolds: Activity Option 1 is simpler than Option 2 and allows for more creativity/individuality. Option 2 is more easily incorporated into math and NGSS standards, but may require a little more conversation ahead of time to ensure students understand how to use the tool.
ACTIVITY OPTION 1: STAKEHOLDER WEB
Use this web to organize your key stakeholders. Write your issue in the green circle in the middle, then add stakeholders in the circles around it.
Feel free to arrange them in a way that makes sense to you! Maybe add a color-coding or pattern system, use stickers, draw more lines, etc.
Remember to include groups of people that may be more affected by your issue than others! Don’t only think of experts, but those who could greatly benefit from this issue getting fixed.
Step 4: Goal and Strategy Selection
What is the purpose of Step 4:
To determine one policy or practice to change (the goal), as well as to develop and vote on ways to change it (strategies).
In summary:
In this step, students will use the information gathered and analyzed in Step 3 to determine their solution for the selected issue. This involves:
- Determining one policy or practice that was researched in Step 3 to change, this will be their goal.
- Developing project strategy ideas and creating project goals and strategy statement.
- Selecting the most effective strategies to achieve their desired goal.
Teacher(s) will:
- Guide students to set a project goal by reviewing the key research findings from Step 3.
- Discuss with students which are the most viable options that will create the change they want to see.
- What do they want to see as a result of their action project?
- What stakeholders can help bring about the desired change?
- Are any of the possible goals connected to stakeholder interests that will help gain momentum for change?
- Which policies or practices are they most interested in?
- In partnership with students, develop 4-5 criteria that strategy ideas will be measured against during the voting process. Project management and sustainability criteria are appropriate here, items like timelines, budgets, community impact, etc. are all great criteria.
- Break students up into groups to generate strategy plans. If they need examples or strategy possibilities, look to the Examples and Inspiration of Strategies for Your Change.
- Have each group fill out the Project Goal and Strategy Statement to streamline their ideas and outline the major strategies that their plan includes. This will help each group while presenting their ideas to the larger group.
- Have each group present their ideas; allow for questions by other groups; and then facilitate a democratic vote to determine the best strategy to use to accomplish their goal.
- Use guiding questions to help facilitate this step.
Students will:
- Define their project goal.
- Choose criteria for selecting the best strategy to accomplish their goal.
- Develop strategy ideas to accomplish their goal.
- Present strategy idea.
- Vote to determine the best strategy.
- Reflect on what they have accomplished so far.
You will know you have completed Step 4 when:
- The group’s goal reflects the research they have done and decisions they have made.
- The chosen strategies are a logical sustainable way of addressing the issue.
- The decision-making process considered multiple voices, both youth and adult.
- Students updated their work portfolio with materials from this decision-making process.
Resources for Step 4:
Lesson plans, handouts, and activities:
- Goal and Strategy Selection Lesson Plan
- Project Goal and Strategy Selection Statement
- Examples of Strategies for Change
- Democratic Voting Processes
Guiding questions:
- How do we select an action to take that will make a measurable and sustainable change?
- How can we select a single policy or practice to change?
- What are we trying to achieve by changing this policy or practice?
- What are our strategy options for changing this policy or practice?
- What criteria do we need to select the most effective strategies?
- Should we work with a group, organization, or initiative already working on our issue? Or should we take our own action?
TIPS Cards related to Step 4:
- TIPS Card 5 Working Together & Hearing All Voices
- TIPS Card 7 Decision Making
- TIPS Card 10 Elements of An Action Plan
- TIPS Card 11 Committee Structures & Peer Accountability
- TIPS Card 22 Petitions
- TIPS Card 23 Public Speaking
- TIPS Card 25 General Process for Changing Local Legislation
- TIPS Card 26 Fundraising
Learning Objectives: Create a goal and strategy for your project, Identify and apply selection criteria when making a decision, demonstrate cooperative group process when making decisions
Added Information: This is the overall lesson plan outline for Step 4. It is one option to accomplish the goal and strategy selection process; there are other ways as well. Please feel free to adapt and create alternatives that meet your class needs. The key pieces here are that students get the opportunity to discuss and deliberate strategies, focus on one policy or practice to change, and vote in a democratic way.
Scaffolds: The green text below are callouts to activities and additional resources that can help throughout this step.
Transitioning from Step 3 to Step 4 can be tricky. This lesson gives a detailed outline of a process to follow should you need it. This does not need to be completed all in one class period, break it up as needed.
WHAT TO DO:
1] Begin by recapping what you all have learned so far. We are about to transition from talking about issues, to projects. So now is a good time to revisit all of the important facets we know about the issue, including who are our major stakeholders, who are the decision-makers, what policies are in place, etc. Talk to students about the idea of proposing solutions now, and that you’ll begin that process.
Note: Use the Defining a Course of Action Activity for this step for added help in graphic organizer form.
2] Choose a Goal. Before jumping to strategies, or how you’re going to change your issue, it’s important to set a goal. Your goal is the specific policy or practice your group wishes to change. Often this goal is naturally evident and the group comes to consensus through discussion. If not, and there are a few that are feasible options, use a democratic voting method (See Step 2 resources for options) to vote and choose.
3] Establish criteria for selecting a strategy. Students should already be familiar with criteria-based decision-making, as they used it in Step 2. We will use it here, again, in Step 4 to vote on short-term project strategies. Developing criteria as a group before students develop their project ideas helps them craft higher-quality solutions.
In order to create sustainable solutions, be sure to keep equity and impact on marginalized communities when developing your criteria, and later your strategies for your change. Use the Step 4 Activity JEDI Check if you need
See Difference Between Step 2 and Step 4 Criteria handout for additional information.
4] **Break Students into Teams.** Now that you have your goal set, it’s time to brainstorm strategies to change it. Have students break into groups—no more than 5 groups per class. It is okay if group size is a little large. The more groups there are, the more project ideas you will be voting on. It’s easier to have 5 projects to vote on, rather than 25.
Ask the groups to consider the criteria that was created to come up with a game plan to change the goal (policy or practice). Outline the strategies (what you will actually do) your group wants to actually accomplish. Prompt them to think of multifaceted approaches that use different strategies to come at the goal from different ways.
If needed, the Examples and Inspiration of Strategies for Your Change handout can provide guidance on possible strategies that can help.
Ask each group to complete the Project Goal and Strategy Statement Template, so when presenting, they are easily compared to one another.
5] **Present and Vote.** Ask student groups to present their strategies, beginning with reading their Project Goal and Strategy Statement. If you have time, allow for creative presentation styles, including videos, skits, PowerPoint presentations, etc. If time does not allow, a simple explanation in front of the class gets the job done.
Once everyone understands all strategy plans, move to a democratic voting method using the Strategy Selection Grid to decide on which project should be selected based on the criteria chosen previously (See Step 2 resources for options).
6] **Assess for Understanding, Reflect, and Acknowledge Privilege.** Use the Step 4 Assessment: Post Goal and Strategy Selection activity to check for understanding, and allow students to reflect on this experience. If keeping a portfolio of student work, add these assessment pieces to their portfolio after completion.
Creating a strategy and asking for change from decision-makers is a privilege that not all community members feel they can do. There are issues of residence status, financial and time barriers, as well as systemic circumstances that limit groups of people from interacting in their government systems. Please take a moment and discuss this with your students. If these barriers exist within your group, talk about how you plan to move forward.
Below is a list of potential strategies applicable to a wide variety of action projects. Use these to inspire the development of your own project idea. It is often a good idea to create a multi-faceted project. Students can get involved in pieces they are interested in, and you create higher chances for success.
In order to create a sustainable solution, keep your chosen policy/practice you would like to change in mind, as well as your community’s needs.
Remember, an effective Earth Force project involves asking for change. So make sure your strategy includes at least one component from that category!
**Ask for Change From a Person in Power:**
*Note: “Speak” can mean virtually if meetings are held in that manner*
- Ask policy makers to amend or create policy you would like to see
- Speak at city council meetings
- Meet with your principal
- Speak at a school board meeting
- Speak to a private business owner
**Engage the Media:**
- Create a documentary
- Hold a press conference
- Invite newspapers/tv stations to events
- Publish a press release
- Publish a PSA
- Write a letter to the editor
- Write a blog post
**Community Organizing:**
- Create a social network presence
- Host a community forum
- Build a coalition of community members
- Create a petition/ write letters to policy makers
- Plan a youth summit or conference
**Environmental Management:**
- Implement and maintain a buffer zone
- Label storm drains
- Create a rain garden and build a plan for its maintenance
- Replace impervious surfaces
- Improve wildlife habitat
- Install rain barrels
**Create or Serve an Organization:**
- Start a nonprofit organization
- Serve on a school/city/state planning committee
- Serve on a nonprofit board
- Serve on a youth advisory or action council
- Organize a youth component to an existing organization or campaign
- Create an eco-club at your school focused on action
Learning Objectives: Students understand projects goals and strategy clearly enough to communicate to others succinctly
Added Information: Use this tool in small pieces to help students boil down their project ideas into a succinct statement. Note: This activity is usually done in small groups.
Scaffolds: This tool is embedded within the Goal and Strategy Selection Lesson Outline, should you want to follow an exact method to go through Step 4.
**The blank student template is on the next page.**
Example:
What policy or practice will we change?
School policy preventing a recycling program
Who do we want to ask for this change?
Our school board and principal
What do we hope these decision-makers will do and how will this impact people? Change the policy to allow for school-wide recycling programs which allows students and teachers to recycle.
What are our short-term strategies to make this happen?
1. Ask our principal to gain her support
2. Talk to facilities to gain their support
3. Make a petition of our peers
4. Present our ask at the school board meeting
Final Statement (a combination of the 4 statements above):
We will change our current school policy on recycling programs by asking for change from our principal and school board. We will support our case by getting approval from facilities and our peers.
What policy or practice will we change?
Who do we want to ask for this change?
What do we hope these decision-makers will do and how will this impact people?
What are our short-term strategies to make this happen?
Final Statement (a combination of the 4 statements above):
Democratic Voting Processes
Learning Objectives: To vote in a youth-adult partnership, while maintaining student buy-in.
Added Information: These methods can be used in conjunction with Criteria-Based Decision-Making in Steps 2 and 4 to select an issue or a project strategy. These also work great throughout the process to make smaller decisions as needed.
Scaffolds: These voting methods can help break decisions into smaller, bite sized pieces, making them more manageable as needed.
GROUP VOTING METHODS
DOT VOTING Write each of the issues or strategies on the board in large letters. Distribute three dot stickers to each student. Explain the rules of voting: students may use their three votes in any way they choose, from one vote on each, to all three votes on one. Invite students to walk up to the board and place their dots next to the issue(s) or strategy(ies) of their choice.
4 CORNERS Write the numbers 1-4 on 4 pieces of paper and tape them on each corner of the room (or place them on the floor). Review the criteria chosen by the group. Then, read each issue out loud and ask students to move to the number that they think that issue meets the suite of criteria. (1= does not meet the suite of criteria, 4= meets them very well). Tally the votes. If the votes do not identify a preferred issue, have more discussion before casting another vote.
HUMAN CONTINUUM Two signs, one saying “High” and the other “Low,” are placed on opposite sides of the wall (or on the floor) to form the ends of a continuum. For each issue, students stand somewhere along the continuum to demonstrate their point of view. A student standing at the high end volunteers to describe why they have taken that position; similarly, a student at the low end describes their reasoning. Then hold a brief discussion. After discussion, students have the opportunity to change their location on the continuum. Repeat this for each issue. Tally the results. If the votes do not identify a preferred issue, have more discussion before casting another vote.
ANONYMOUS METHODS
MAJORITY VOTE Review the criteria chosen by the group. Give students time to review, in pairs or alone, which issue best meets the set criteria. Hand out pieces of paper and have students write down one issue each. Collect the papers and count how many votes each issue was given. This is an opportunity to discuss a number of factors:
- There is a difference between majority rule and consensus building.
- Majority Rule is a good tool to begin the conversation or to narrow the options so that the group can use consensus to reach a final decision. It is important to facilitate the group so that those who “lose” the vote stay vested.
- Our political system is based on majority rule with strong protections that guarantee respect for minority views.
**Democratic Voting Processes**
**HEADS DOWN, THUMBS UP** Incorporating at least one type of anonymous voting can allow students a chance to vote without feeling self-conscious about their choice, and may reduce the “group-think” and peer influence that can sometimes dominate classrooms. Try voting with students at their desk, heads down. Ask them to vote for their issue or strategy of choice by raising their hand when you call it out loud. Tally the votes. If the votes do not identify a preferred issue, have more discussion before casting another vote.
**5 FINGERS** To add an additional layer to the Heads Down, Thumbs Up method described above, ask students to put their heads down at their desk. But this time, instead of just putting their hand up for their issue/strategy of choice, ask them to vote with their fingers. 0 finger (their fist) means they don’t think that issue meets the suite of criteria, all the way up to 5 fingers which means they think that issue/strategy thinks it meets that suite of criteria really well. Tally the votes. If the votes do not identify a preferred issue, have more discussion before casting another vote.
**ELECTRONIC POLLS** Polling apps or websites allows for students to cast votes without the pressures of peer opinions. You can structure the voting method like a majority vote, or a Dot Vote, but use an online method! Try [polleverywhere.com](http://polleverywhere.com) if interested.
Step 5: Planning and Taking Action
What is the purpose of Step 5:
- To design and implement a civic action project that will lead to a sustainable, and measurable environmental change.
In summary:
There are two key components to Step 5:
- Refine your action plan to address the project goal and strategy statement.
- Take action by implementing the action plan.
Teacher(s) will:
- Facilitate with your students the development of an action plan which breaks down all the tasks that need to be done, including how you will implement each strategy, who will do the work, what resources you will need, and the timeline to get it done.
- Help students form a committee structure to divvy up the tasks.
- With students’ input, set deadlines, identify resources, and set budget, if needed. This creates accountability so they can monitor their progress. Prompt students to think about what people, skills, materials, and money are needed to carry out the action plan.
- Discuss with students what potential challenges or obstacles they might face in implementing their action plan and what the backup plan will be if these challenges are too big to address.
- Monitor and guide student progress as they implement their action plan.
- Use guiding questions to help facilitate this.
Students will:
- Develop an Action Plan.
- Build a Committee Structure.
- Implement the Action Plan.
- Refine/Reflect on the Action Plan.
You will know you have completed Step 5 when:
- Students have a detailed action plan for their project.
- Roles are assigned based on personal strengths and everyone has a chance to be part of the collective effort.
- The action plan includes measures to ensure project sustainability.
- Students implement their action plan.
Resources for Step 5:
Lesson plans, handouts, and activities:
- Writing an Action Plan Lesson
- Action Planning Sheet
- Committee Task Sheet
- Action Project Funding Request Budget Template
Guiding questions:
- What are the necessary tasks to complete our strategies and meet our goal?
- How long will each task take?
- Who will do what?
- What resources are needed for each task?
- Who will help us?
- What challenges or obstacles might occur along the way?
- What will we do to overcome those possible challenges?
- How will we know when our action project is completed?
TIPS Cards related to Step 5:
- TIPS Card 3 Staying Organized
- TIPS Card 5 Working Together & Hearing All Voices
- TIPS Card 10 Elements of An Action Plan
- TIPS Card 11 Committee Structures & Peer Accountability
- TIPS Card 24 Preparing for Meetings with Decision-Makers
- TIPS Card 25 General Process for Changing Local Legislation
- TIPS Card 26 Fundraising
- TIPS Card 27 Writing A Grant Proposal
- TIPS Card 28 Media Attention
- TIPS Card 29 Writing an Article
Learning Objectives: Work collaboratively with classmates to develop an action plan using a committee structure
Added Information: This is an optional lesson plan.
1] INTRODUCE STEP FIVE. This is the step in the Process when students develop and implement their project – it’s what everything has been building up to! Students will be discussing what needs to happen in order for them to carry out their project, and will then work in committees to complete tasks. It’s important for students to be thinking about measurability and sustainability. How will they know if their project is successful, and how are they ensuring it will be maintained in the coming years?
2] REVIEW THE KEY PIECES OF INFORMATION. Make sure they are stating the issue from Step 2, review the goal and the strategy selected in Step Four, and identify the stakeholders involved in this issue. This will help ensure the project involves appropriate stakeholders and involves all of the appropriate components. Use the Action Planning Sheet to facilitate this activity.
3] BRAINSTORM ACTIVITIES REQUIRED. Begin with the column labeled “Key Parts of the Strategy” on the Action Planning Sheet. These will become different committees. Prompt students to brainstorm different tasks/activities for each of these committees. You could organize this by writing each committee on a piece of paper and post it around your room. Students could write activities on sticky notes and stick it around the room in appropriate places, or a simple group discussion works as well.
Note: Committees will vary greatly, but may include communications, fundraising, publicity, budgeting, managing, event coordinating, specific strategies, etc.
4] CREATE COMMITTEES. Decide how you will form committees. For example, you might assign your students to committees based on their interest or abilities that they communicate to you, or allow students to self-select their committees using sign-up sheets. Use whatever method you feel works best for your class.
5] COMMITTEES PLAN. Each committee should complete the Committee Task Sheet together, and then present their plans to the rest of the class. As a large group, students should discuss each committee’s plan and give feedback to ensure success. Committees should complete a preliminary budget based on the resources they think their committee will need using the Committee Budget Sheet if needed.
Note: An important piece to be explicit about with all committees is a timeline. There is a box on the Committee Task Sheet to lay out timelines, be sure to dedicate discussion time to walk through expectations. Backwards planning can be an effective strategy here.
Look to Fine Tuning An Action Plan: A Lesson for further assistance on executing plans.
EXAMPLE
| Environmental Issue | Key Parts of the Strategy |
|---------------------|--------------------------|
| Our school throws away recyclable materials. | 1] Researching cost savings and amount of recyclable waste produced by the district. |
| Policy or Practice to be Changed | 2] Securing a spot on an upcoming school board agenda. |
| Our school district does not have a waste reduction and recycling policy in place (school policy). | 3] Creating the speech and presentation material. |
| Project Goal (We want ___ to ____, which will result in ____.) | 4] Spreading the word that we are speaking. |
| We want our school district to pass a recycling policy, which will result in our school no longer throwing away recyclable plastic. | 5] Creating a petition of our peers and other school district community members. |
| Strategy (In order to achieve this, we will ____.) | |
In order to achieve this, we will present to the school board at a school board meeting and include how much money they will save.
Begin with the yellow boxes on the left-hand side and work your way down. These boxes should be familiar to you, they have been completed previously. Once you complete the green box labeled “Strategy”, move to the green, right-hand side box. Connect your ideas from the “Strategy” box, and begin to dig deeper into what you think the main tasks are into successfully executing that strategy.
| Environmental Issue | Key Parts of the Strategy
List the Main Categories of Tasks |
|---------------------|--------------------------------|
| | |
| Policy or Practice to be Changed | |
| Project Goal
(We want ___ to ___, which will result in ____.) | |
| Strategy
(In order to achieve this, we will ____.) | |
Learning Objectives: To help students self-steer their committees and build a peer accountability structure
Added Information: This sheet provides an example, the template to use with your class is provided on the next page. This example builds upon the same example used on the Action Planning Sheet.
Scaffolds: This document is embedded in the Writing An Action Plan: A Lesson lesson plan for added facilitation on Step 5 from start to finish.
EXAMPLE
| Committee Name | Committee Members |
|----------------|-------------------|
| Recycling Researchers! | John, Eve, Derek, Maria |
| Primary Goal | Who we are working with? (community partners or other committees) |
|--------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|
| To research cost savings and amount of recyclable waste produced by the district | ● Mr. Johnson, Head of Facilities at our School
● Katherine Peterson, works at Waste Management Plant in our community
● Presentation/Speech Committee in our class |
| Resources Needed | Deadline (check when task is completed) | Who’s responsible? |
|------------------|----------------------------------------|--------------------|
| Do your resources require money? Use the Committee Budget Sheet to work out your costs.
● Class time to research (with laptops if possible)
● Ability to email Mr. Johnson and Katherine Peterson
● Excel or Google Sheets | □ April 16
□ April 18
□ April 16
□ April 18
□ May 10 | John and Maria
John and Maria
Eve and Derek
Eve and Derek |
| Possible Obstacles | Break up workload - all 4 participate |
|--------------------|--------------------------------------|
| Mr. Johnson and/or Katherine Peterson are not available or do not respond to us | Eve and derek |
| How we will know if we have done well: Everyone completes their tasks on time. We get the information we need for our class presentation. | Research online any leftover or unanswered questions | □ May 12 | Eve gather everyone's information and send to presentation team |
| Committee Name | Committee Members |
|----------------|-------------------|
| **Primary Goal** | Who are we working with? (community partners or other committees) |
| **Resources Needed** | Task List |
| Do your resources require money? Use the Committee Budget Sheet to work out your costs. | Deadline (check off when task is completed) |
| **Possible Obstacles** | Who’s responsible? |
| **How we will know if we have done well:** | | | | |
Step 6: Celebrate and Reflect
What is the purpose of Step 6:
To make sure students recognize their accomplishments they need to share their project with the public and reflect on their experience.
Reflection and celebration help students explore and understand what they learned, what worked, and how this experience changed them. It is especially important that students recognize their success and celebrate all the hard work and effort they put into this project process. This step brings closure to the entire process.
In summary:
• Students reflect on and celebrate their experience.
• Students document their journey by writing a project story.
• Students document their project story with a video.
Teacher(s) will:
• Use guiding questions to facilitate this step.
• Help students reflect on their experience.
• Have students create their project story and present it to others.
• Guide students to create a project story video that talks about their project and what they did step-by-step.
• Submit the project story video and all supporting documentation to The Everglades Foundation via their Final Reporting Form.
Students will:
• Use their portfolio/documentation to review everything they have done throughout the process.
• Reflect on their experience.
• Create a written project story and video.
• Share their story with others.
You will know you have completed Step 6 when:
- Students have reflected, and feel a sense of accomplishment.
- Students have shared their work publicly.
- Students have written an action project story and submitted their video to The Everglades Foundation via their Final Reporting Form.
- You feel great about your students’ experience and accomplishments.
Resources for Step 6:
Lesson plans, handouts, and activities:
- Reflection Prompts and Methods
- Civic Reflection
Guiding questions:
- How well did the action plan work?
- How well did we work together?
- What did we learn that would make our next project more effective?
- What could be done next with our project or issue?
- How have I changed as a result of participating?
TIPS Cards related to Step 6:
- TIPS Card 1 Keeping A Portfolio
- TIPS Card 17 Outreach to Professionals: Formal Letters and Emails
- TIPS Card 18 Outreach to Professionals: Phone Etiquette
- TIPS Card 23 Public Speaking
- TIPS Card 28 Media Attention
- TIPS Card 29 Writing An Article
- TIPS Card 30 Telling Your Story
- TIPS Card 33 Reflect On Your Work
Reflection Prompts & Methods
Learning Objectives: To have students reflect on their experience to solidify the stewardship behaviors they embodied during the project experience.
Added Information: This activity is built to be very flexible. Students could choose which questions and methods they would like to answer, or you can assign questions and methods. It is completely up to you. Earth Force recommends students answer at least one question that reflects upon their past experience, and one looking forward to the future. If you would like students to guide themselves in reflection, look to TIPS Card 33 Reflect On Your Work.
Scaffolds: Choose one method and the set of questions ahead of time to be used for the entire class. This will help with time and classroom management. Alternatively, use the Step 6 Assessment activity which is a ready-to-go reflection writing prompt.
Questions
- What have been your successes?
- What have been your challenges and how did you overcome them?
- How sustainable do you think our project will be?
- What impact did we have on the community? On the environment?
- Did your action project benefit a particular community more than others?
- How did the decision-makers you spoke with treat you and your class?
- What is the single most important thing you’ve learned?
- How has this process influenced your attitude about your personal responsibility to help improve your community?
- Has this process changed your attitude about your ability to help improve your community? How?
- What does “environmental citizenship” mean to you now?
- How might the project be continued and/or improved? †
- How can the knowledge and skills you’ve gained through this experience be applied to other aspects of your lives? †
- In what ways can you be an environmental citizen in the years to come?
- How can you support the work of marginalized groups in your community?
- How did your project expose or address social inequities in your community?
- What did you learn about the lives of others in your community? Does everyone have a similar experience as you?
Methods
BUILD A QUESTION BALL. Have students write the questions on slips of paper. Roll up the slips of paper to form a ball. Arrange your students in a circle and pass the paper ball. As each person receives the ball they peel off one question, then read and answer the question and randomly pass it on to the next person. Ensure that all students answer at least one question.
PRESENT FINAL DOCUMENTATION. If students maintained a portfolio throughout the Earth Force process (e.g., journals, videos, saving activities, etc.), have them present in-class summaries of what they accumulated and how they feel moving forward.
DRAW A PICTURE OF THE COMMUNITY. Students can draw portrayals of the community now, either individually or in mural form. The drawing(s) can be either the culmination of a discussion or a stepping-off point for group discussion.
WRITE CREATIVELY. Students can write creatively like essays, poems, or raps about their experiences in Earth Force. Emphasis can be on what was learned, what was accomplished, and what might be changed in future work to make it better.
INTERVIEW EACH OTHER. Students can interview each other about what they learned and any difficulties they had in Earth Force. Interviewers can write up their interviews in a news report and submit a story to the school newspaper. This can also take the form of a Fishbowl Discussion.
DEVELOP AND PERFORM A SKIT. Students can think back on their Earth Force experience and develop a skit, acting out the whole process. Built into the skit can be what students learned, accomplished, and had problems with what they had along the way. The skit can be performed before parents, community members, or people from organizations that helped them.
Learning Objectives: To have students reflect on their experience working in the public sphere, and how they can continue to contribute to their community in the future.
Instructions:
The educator and students engage in a group discussion about what they both learned through participating in a civic action process. They review their portfolios or other materials they’ve gathered along the way, then discuss what worked well and what didn’t. Next, brainstorm ways that they can continue to be civic actors, either through continuing this project or working on new ones.
Example Questions to Prompt Discussion
- Did the change you asked for actually happen? What were the hurdles you faced, if not?
- What makes a civic project successful?
- Help students realize that it is in the ask itself and the skills they built along the way
- What do you want to do moving forward to help continue to work on this issue?
- What was it like to ask for a change from decision-makers?
- If you could do this all over again, what would you do differently?
- How do you plan to make changes in the civic sphere moving forward?
- Do you feel that these decision-makers accurately reflect your community representation?
- If not, how might that change?
Moving Forward
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Spanish 2: Part 1
Course number: LA031_21_1
Credits: .5 credit
Prerequisites: Spanish 1
INSTRUCTIONAL TEAM
Our Academic Advisors are also available to help you when you need it. They are trained to provide answers to your questions about the course or program.
Phone: 1-800-224-7234
Hours: 8:30AM – 8:30PM (Eastern Standard Time), Monday-Friday
MAIL
James Madison High School
5051 Peachtree Corners Circle, Suite 200
Norcross, GA 30092
TEXTBOOK
McGraw-Hill Education. (2016). *¡Así se dice! Spanish 2*. New York: McGraw-Hill.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Spanish II is a continuation of our online Spanish I course, including development of all modalities of the language — listening, speaking, reading, and writing — with a heavy emphasis on grammatical structures and verb tenses. Having mastered the present tense in Spanish I, students will move on to the past, present progressive, present perfect, conditional, and future tenses, along with learning commands, stem-changing verbs and reflexive verbs. The big idea of Spanish II is differentiating and mastering the preterite and imperfect tenses, and using them in a variety of settings. Topics in Spanish 2 Part 1 will include air and train travel, including airports and train stations, daily routine, hygiene, backpacking and camping, and food and restaurants. Skills are developed through more advanced reading, writing, and listening activities, opportunities for practice speaking, as well as lesson exams, written or oral projects, and a comprehensive midterm exam.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing Spanish 2: Part 1, students will be able to:
- Discuss events that happened in the past, specifically using the preterite tense
- Use reflexive verbs and the passive *se*
- Conjugate stem-changing verbs in the present and preterite
- Use a variety of tenses, including the present progressive tense, present, and preterite tenses
- Understand perspectives, practices, and products of the cultures where Spanish is spoken and how they are interrelated
- Demonstrate an understanding of the similarities and differences between the culture(s) studied and those of the student’s own culture
- Talk about a variety of subjects due to vocabulary students have learned
| LESSONS | TOPICS |
|---------|--------|
| Repaso | Friends, students, and relatives; at home & at school; personality and health; sports, shopping, and summer & winter vacations and activities; present and preterite verbs, direct & indirect object pronouns, comparisons |
| Lesson 1| Packing for a trip, air travel and airports, Nazca Lines in Peru, “Yo -go forms” in the present tense, present progressive tense |
| Lesson 2| Parts of the body, daily routine, backpacking and camping, reflexive verbs, commands with *favor de* |
| Lesson 3| Train travel, train trips in Peru and Mexico, irregular preterite verbs, prepositional pronouns, the verb *decir* |
| Lesson 4| Restaurants and types of food, utensils & dishes, ordering and paying for a meal at a restaurant, comparing restaurants in US and Latin America, stem-changing verbs in the present and preterite tense, nationality, passive voice with *se* |
GRADING
The following point totals correspond to the following grades:
| POINTS | GRADE |
|--------|-------|
| 100-90 | A |
| 89-80 | B |
| 79-70 | C |
| 65-69 | D |
| Below 65 | F |
James Madison High School allows 2 attempts on exams. If a student is not satisfied with his/her score on the 1st attempt, an exam may be resubmitted. The 2nd attempt is not required as long as the final course average is above 65%. The higher of the 2 attempts will be the score that counts towards the final average.
Exams are timed and once you begin an exam, the timer runs continuously, even if you leave the course. Refer to the exam instructions for the time limit (in most cases 3 hours), but the time limit cannot be spread over multiple days.
GRADE WEIGHT
| TOPIC | ACTIVITY | PERCENTAGE |
|---------------------|----------------|------------|
| Repaso | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 1 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 2 Project | Assignment | 11% |
| Lesson 2 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 3 Grammar | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 3 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 4 Grammar | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 4 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Midterm Exam | Cumulative MC Exam | 12% |
ACADEMIC AND COURSE POLICIES
Please see the Academic Policies section in the James Madison High School Catalog for information on Course policies, including the Exam/Assignment Retake Policy, Grading Policy, Academic Honesty Policy, and Student Conduct Policy.
Spanish 2: Part 2
Course number: LA032_21_1
Credits: .5 credit
Prerequisites: Spanish 2: Part 1
INSTRUCTIONAL TEAM
Our Academic Advisors are also available to help you when you need it. They are trained to provide answers to your questions about the course or program.
Phone: 1-800-224-7234
Hours: 8:30AM – 8:30PM (Eastern Standard Time), Monday-Friday
MAIL
James Madison High School
5051 Peachtree Corners Circle, Suite 200
Norcross, GA 30092
TEXTBOOK
McGraw-Hill Education. (2016). *¡Así se dice! Spanish 2*. New York: McGraw-Hill.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Spanish II is a continuation of our online Spanish I course, including development of all modalities of the language — listening, speaking, reading, and writing — with a heavy emphasis on grammatical structures and verb tenses. Having mastered the present tense in Spanish I, students will move on to the past, present progressive, present perfect, conditional, and future tenses, along with learning commands, stem-changing verbs and reflexive verbs. The big idea of Spanish II is differentiating and mastering the preterite and imperfect tenses, and using them in a variety of settings. Spanish II Part 2 covers topics such as travel and transportation, holidays, social occasions, media and technology. Skills are developed through more advanced reading, writing, and listening activities, opportunities for practice speaking, as well as lesson exams, a written project and a comprehensive final exam.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing Spanish 2: Part 2, students will be able to:
- Conjugate regular and irregular verbs in the preterite and imperfect
- Use reflexive verbs
- Conjugate stem-changing verbs in the present and preterite
- Use a variety of tenses, including the present progressive tense, present perfect tense, future and conditional tenses
- Understand perspectives, practices, and products of the cultures where Spanish is spoken and how they are interrelated
- Demonstrate an understanding of the similarities and differences between the culture(s) studied and those of the student’s own culture
- Talk about a variety of subjects due to vocabulary students have learned
| LESSONS | TOPICS |
|---------|--------|
| Lesson 1 | Hispanic holidays, regular and irregular forms of the imperfect tense |
| Lesson 2 | Media and technology, making and receiving phone calls, preterite and imperfect tenses, both separately and together |
| Lesson 3 | Checking into and staying at hotels or hostels here and abroad, the Camino de Santiago in Spain, present perfect tense, double object pronouns |
| Lesson 4 | Comparing and contrasting life in the city and country in Latin America and the U.S., Little Havana, future tense, object pronouns with infinitives and gerunds |
| Lesson 5 | Cars and driving in the city and on the highway, gas stations, how to give directions, the Pan American Highway, familiar commands, conditional tense |
GRADING
The following point totals correspond to the following grades:
| POINTS | GRADE |
|--------|-------|
| 100-90 | A |
| 89-80 | B |
| 79-70 | C |
| 65-69 | D |
| Below 65 | F |
James Madison High School allows 2 attempts on exams. If a student is not satisfied with his/her score on the 1st attempt, an exam may be resubmitted. The 2nd attempt is not required as long as the final course average is above 65%. The higher of the 2 attempts will be the score that counts towards the final average.
Exams are timed and once you begin an exam, the timer runs continuously, even if you leave the course. Refer to the exam instructions for the time limit (in most cases 3 hours), but the time limit cannot be spread over multiple days.
GRADE WEIGHT
| TOPIC | ACTIVITY | PERCENTAGE |
|----------------|----------------|------------|
| Lesson 1 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 1 Project | Assignment | 11% |
| Lesson 2 Grammar | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 2 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 3 Grammar | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 3 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 4 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Lesson 5 | MC Quiz | 11% |
| Final Exam | Cumulative MC Exam | 12% |
ACADEMIC AND COURSE POLICIES
Please see the Academic Policies section in the James Madison High School Catalog for information on Course policies, including the Exam/Assignment Retake Policy, Grading Policy, Academic Honesty Policy, and Student Conduct Policy. | 2697a56e-5300-4b15-9ad9-a852b6aef24f | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://www.jmhs.com/pdfs/syllabus/spanish-2-jmhs-syllabus.pdf | 2021-12-09T00:14:42+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363641.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20211209000407-20211209030407-00401.warc.gz | 894,391,343 | 2,178 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.993543 | eng_Latn | 0.994258 | [
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We have been learning about obesity. I think we should quit drinking sugary drinks because they will make you get diseases like type 2 diabetes. You need to quit drinking sugary beverages. You need to quit buying food like junk food.
I know this because Magyarie University says that sugar and caffeine when combined and feed to rats produced lasting changes to brain chemistry. People who drink just 200 oz of sugary soda a day may take as much as 9 years off of their lifespan.
Now I hope you try to buy beverages that have less sugar. And remember, try to eat healthy so you will not get obesity. Now you can buy healthy foods and beverages for your family.
## 4th Grade Opinion Writing Rubric
**W4.1 Write opinion pieces on topics or texts, supporting a point of view with reasons**
| Scoring Criteria | 1 Beginning | 2 Approaching | 3 Competent* | 4 Advanced |
|------------------|-------------|---------------|--------------|------------|
| | □ Launches directly into opinion without an introduction to the topic/text. | □ Attempts an introduction to the topic/text. | □ Orients the reader with an introduction to the topic/text. | □ Orients the reader with an engaging introduction to the topic/text. |
| | □ Shows little or no awareness of purpose. | □ Shows some awareness of purpose by stating an opinion. | □ Establishes a purpose by stating an opinion. | □ Establishes purpose by stating a convincing opinion; maintains focus throughout. |
| | □ Shows little or no awareness of audience’s needs by providing inadequate or no context. | □ Shows some awareness of audience’s needs by attempting to provide some context. | □ Shows an awareness of audience’s needs by providing relevant contextual details. | □ Shows strong awareness of audience’s needs by anticipating the reader’s response to the opinion. |
| | □ Does not organize ideas and information coherently due to a lack of introduction, body and conclusion. | □ Organizes ideas and information in an attempted introduction, body and conclusion. | □ Organizes ideas and information into logical introduction, body and conclusion. | □ Organizes ideas and information into purposeful, coherent introduction, body and conclusion. |
| | □ Provides reason(s) for opinion that may be illogical. | □ Provides reasons for opinion. | □ Provides clear, logical reasons for opinion. | □ Provides insightful reasons for opinion. |
| | □ Attempts to support reason(s) with facts, details, but makes irrelevant connections. | □ Supports reasons for opinion. | □ Provides clear explanation of how information supports opinion. | □ Provides insightful explanation of how information supports opinion. |
| | □ Includes supporting details that appear to be in no particular order. | □ Organizes reasons, facts, and details into sections or paragraphs that feel mostly cohesive, but may also include some information that does not seem to fit. These sections or paragraphs appear to be in no particular order. | □ Organizes related ideas into sections or paragraphs to logically support the writer’s purpose. | □ Organizes related ideas into sections or paragraphs including some that are more sophisticated (e.g., ones that show cause and effect, etc.). |
| | □ Does not use transitional words and phrases to link opinion and reason(s). | □ Uses some transitional words and phrases, but may be repetitive. | □ Uses a variety of transitional words and phrases (e.g., for instance, In order to, in addition) to link opinion to reasons and reasons to supporting facts and details. | □ Provides a compelling concluding statement or section that builds on the opinion. |
| | □ Ends seemingly in the middle of a section with no sense of closure. | □ Provides a concluding statement or sentences that may feel abrupt or insufficient. | □ Provides a satisfactory concluding statement or section related to the opinion. | □ Provides a comprehensive list of sources. |
| | □ Does not list sources. | □ Provides limited list of sources. | □ Provides a list of sources. | □ Demonstrates correct grammar and usage, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout. |
| | □ Shows little evidence of correct grammar and usage, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. | □ Shows some evidence of correct grammar and usage, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. | □ Shows frequent evidence of correct grammar and usage, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. | □ Constructs a variety of sentence structures. |
| | □ Uses many incomplete sentences. | □ Uses mostly simple sentences. | □ Uses mostly simple sentences. | □ Uses conventions (e.g., spelling, punctuation, capitalization) to communicate effectively and clarify the writing. |
| | □ Makes convention errors (e.g., spelling, punctuation, capitalization) that do not impede communication. | □ Makes some convention errors (e.g., spelling, punctuation, capitalization) that do not impede communication. | □ Makes some convention errors (e.g., spelling, punctuation, capitalization) that do not impede communication. | □ Uses good word choices to convey an appropriate tone for audience. |
| | □ Shows little or no awareness of good word choice to convey appropriate tone for audience (e.g., formal vs. informal). | □ Shows some awareness of good word choice to convey appropriate tone for audience. | □ Shows some awareness of good word choice to convey appropriate tone for audience. | □ Uses words and phrases skillfully to connect with audience. |
*Meets Standards
CCPS/JL/2012-13
1. Overall, how would you describe the writing's use of source material? Select the option that best describes the writing's overall use of source material.
- Skillfully integrates source material to fully support the paper's claim
- Integrates source material to support the paper's claim
- Uses source material in ways that somewhat support the paper's claim
- Summarizes or copies source material; may or may not present a claim
- Does not use source material
2. Does the writing distinguish between the student's own ideas and the source material, including the use of clearly indicated paraphrasing, quotation marks, or signal phrases?
- Not present
- Developing
- Competently
- Effectively
3. Does the writing comment on the source material?
- Not present
- Developing
- Competently
- Effectively
4. Does the writing characterize the credibility of the source material or author?
- Not present
- Developing
- Competently
- Effectively
5. Does the writing use source material for any of the following purposes? Check all that apply:
- [ ] Illustrating | Use specific examples from the text to support the claim
- [ ] Authorizing | Refer to an "expert" to support the claim
- [ ] Extending | Put your own "spin" on terms and ideas you take from other texts
- [ ] Countering | "Push back" against the text in some way (e.g., disagree with it, challenge something it says, or interpret it differently)
- [ ] None of the above
6. What do you see as next steps for this student?
Comment on the source material. Use (Extending) to support claim. | <urn:uuid:f4404b13-286a-4934-b0fc-9870c0c2cbd7> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://www.kentuckywritingproject.com/uploads/2/7/8/7/27877037/sugary_drinks_odw.pdf | 2018-12-14T13:36:27Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376825728.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20181214114739-20181214140239-00428.warc.gz | 407,524,518 | 1,555 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.929501 | eng_Latn | 0.997755 | [
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Musical Intellect – Structure and Dimensions
Krasimira Georgieva Fileva-Ruseva
Abstract – We use the system of signs – musical notation – in order to preserve and re-create a musical work of art. A certain level of musical intelligence is needed to successfully work with musical notation, since two of the activities, related to the system of signs – writing down the aurally perceived music and singing from sheet music – are beyond the abilities of people, who possess a very low degree of one of the subcomponents of musical intelligence – pitch (the so called tone deafness). Musical intelligence includes the abilities modality sense, metrical rhythm sense, musical auditory notation and the heritage of the person’s abilities of polyphony. These skills are needed for one to exercise the musical activities: perception, which has its sensory, intellectual and emotional sides; performance, requiring sensitivity, empathic and artistic skills, the ability of interpreting sheet music quickly, accurately and aesthetically well, instrument or vocal technical skills, knowledge of musical theory and aesthetics, the ability to construct a faithful concept for an artistic performance, stage presence, self-control; and composing, which requires sensitivity, empathic abilities, knowledge of musical theory and aesthetics and creativity.
Keywords – Music, Musical Abilities, Musical Activities, Musical Intelligence, Musical Notation.
I. INTRODUCTION
As humans were getting to know the world around them, they, in order to better adapt to it and to be able to modify it, started using complex systems of signs and symbols. These helped people communicate with each other, to preserve and pass on their knowledge, expanding and advancing it. Thus, two types of systems for communication and self-expression emerged in the course of the vast history of mankind – based on signs and based on symbols. One sign system, used to this day, is letters – the written signs of language; another one is numbers. The letters of different alphabets and the digits all have a clear and specific meaning – letters represent the sounds of human speech, digits – specifically defined values, quantities.
Symbol systems, which include facial expressions, movements, sounds, are not universal, but are inherent to a specific group of people and intelligible to that group. A given symbol system is applicable in a definite moment and reflects transient relations. The symbol system does not communicate specific knowledge, rather than the attitude towards it. While with the sign system we record and share permanent relations, acquired knowledge, the symbol system serves as a supplement – it relates emotional state, personal attitude towards subjects and events. This gives a reason to expect that science would use more often sign systems, and the arts – symbol systems. Of course, it is not possible to have a clear distinction, since verbal arts, like poetry and prose, use a sign system, through which they express emotional states, the attitude of the person towards the described events, etc., while psychology takes into consideration “body language” (facial expressions, gestures, poses), meaning in this science symbolic systems have great importance and are a subject of research.
II. THE MUSICAL SIGN SYSTEM AND ITS RELATION TO MUSICAL INTELLECT
Music uses its own, unique sign system to re-create the emotional world of man. Unlike other sign systems, however, for example digits, each of which always holds one specific meaning, every note invariably has two meanings – pitch, defined by the frequency of the vibrations of sound waves, travelling through space; and value, which is a temporal category. The complexity of deciphering (reading) sheet music comes from the fact that the temporal and pitch characteristics of the tone, designated by a specific note, build very diverse relations with each other (a tone with a certain pitch could have many different durations, a tone with a specific duration can be of all the varied pitches). Additionally, the pitch, as well as the duration of the tone, designated by the specific note, has to be performed with the maximum accuracy, because even the slightest change in pitch or in the duration of the given tone, also changes the logic of the musical thought, its semantic meaning. For example, if in a simple melody in a major mode – with the sound line “c – d – e – f – g”, the tone “e” is performed slightly lower, then the melody, written in major, will be heard in minor, which seriously alters its coloring. A similar problem appears with the duration correlations, which have to be re-created accurately. Thus, in a melody in the time signature $\frac{3}{4}$, starting with the rhythmic group $\text{c} \cdot \text{d} \cdot \text{e}$ followed by two equal quarter notes, if the first group is not performed correctly, the melody will lose its energy. When playing sheet music on a string instrument, the intonation accuracy is of extreme importance, because the correct sound pitches are not pre-defined, the way it is with the keys of the piano (with each key, a specific tone pitch is set), but depend on the precision of the performer. With keyboard instruments, the difficulty in deciphering musical notation consists in the following: even though it is easier to find the specific tone frequency of each sound, the performer has to simultaneously re-create the contents of several textural planes, because the clavier texture is polyphonic. Thus, the performer is responsible for the logical flow of the sound horizontal – melodies, as well as for the vertical – the logic of the stability and instability modal functions or supporting and non-supporting sound structures (assonances). Furthermore, the score for the right and for the left hand is written (noted) in a different clef, i.e. depending on the clef used, the meaning of a specific note is often different for each hand. When deciphering a verbal text, we use stereotypes, which allow us to register and comprehend with a single glance the
meaning of the word. When reading sheet music, one also uses pre-defined stereotypes, established in the practice of the instrumentalist; these stereotypes are related to: the type of melodic movement (conjunctive, disjunctive, repetitions), parallel movement of two voices (for example, octave or third doubling) or type of chord formation – triads, four-note chords. The particular tone pitches, however, between which the above-mentioned relations arise, are different in the individual works; the duration for which a specific type of movement continues is also distinct; each of the listed “patterns” can be combined in a specific texture (particular musical matter) with other voices that do not participate in the specified model of movement, but are subject to another “rule”. Remarkable in that relation is the fact that, while verbal texts can be translated to different languages, and thus the information they hold can be understood and used by people, who do not speak the source language the text was written in, musical “text” cannot be translated, it is unique, singular. Melodies of the same intonation style, even in the different works of the same composer, can be similar, presenting common traits, but they are not the same. The most characteristic features of the musical sign system are these:
– Encoded in this system is information about the frequency and the duration of each tone.
– The sign system in music is used to relate emotional content, to which the listener reacts, perceiving it as an emotional experience and not so much as knowledge.
– Musical information enriches the emotional culture of the receiver of the tonal art and their spirit.
To learn the two universal sign systems – letters and digits, i.e. for a person to develop the skills to use them to their desire in order to self-express themselves or to solve specific problems, is possible at a medium level of intelligence. The scope of learning, i.e. the level and speed of grasping the elements of this system and of working with them is in a direct correlation with the intellectual properties of the individual mind. Acquiring, however, the musical sign system is determined not only by the presence of certain intellectual abilities (the word “intellectual” here is used in its traditional sense), but also of the presence of an acute pitch. While the comprehension of the temporal correlations of tones is achieved on the basis of the regular intellectual abilities, the perception of the pitch relations in a musical thought is controlled by the presence of a certain threshold of sensibility of the pitch, i.e. working with the sign system “notation” requires, apart from intelligence in the general sense, yet another quality.
One of the main characteristics of intellectual activity is comprehension, i.e. identifying the main, leading aspect, the essence of the regarded object or the understanding, respectively, the knowledge about that object. The more clearly and accurately the key features are distinguished and differentiated from the particular ones (random, single, specific only to a certain object), the higher the level of intellectual activity. Another feature of this highly organized activity is the speed of processing and extracting the specific knowledge. Resultant of these two features is also the third one – adequacy of the reaction of response.
In the musical act of perception (the lowest of musical activities), these three features have a specific manifestation. When listening to music, the mind of the recipient undergoes complex processes of finding familiar patterns – intonational cores, rhythmic groups, meters, structural elements, which allows the individual to comprehend the new musical structure. The familiar in the newly perceived object (unknown music) is being sought and found, this serves as a basis for its understanding. If the listener has become aware of the new structure – musical thought, this will now allow them to discern it from other perceptions (other tonal works), i.e. to recognize it as familiar. In this way the newly acquired music is added to the musical dictionary – Assafyev speaks of “vocabulary” [1] – and in its turn starts to serve as a reference point for other perceptions. Characteristic to musical perception is the following: the listener recognizes the base melody even in different circumstances – for example, if it is performed on a different musical instrument (with a different timbre), which means the recipients can understand the new object, acknowledging the changed condition. The solid and certain knowledge of the melody provides the ability for it to be re-created through voice – regardless the fact, that when it has been initially heard, it may have been performed on a musical instrument, i.e. the recipient is able to ignore the timbre characteristics, which on its part gives way to the main property – musical logic. At its core, it is a structure, built from tone pitches and tone durations. In the given example, we observe the following specific features:
– The recipient assesses which timbre is more suitable for the performance of the specific melody (which timbre more appropriately reflects the emotions, embedded in it), because it, aside from its musically logical structure, has also an emotional semantic content. Additionally, the recipient can determine how accurately in intonation and rhythmic sense the melody has been re-created, i.e. can apply a criterion to assess their own performance of the melody.
– The following characteristic of musical perception is very important – for all types of intellectual activity, the speed of “comprehension” and reaction to the object depends on the responsiveness of the brain processes of the individual person. In music perception, however, the musical flow passes through time with its own metrorhythm and tempo. This means that the recipient tracks the object – its exposition, its movement at the strictly specific time. Rhythm with its unique features is an important means of expression in music; it is perceived and realized in the process of its unfolding in time. This means that the speed of musical reactions depends on the object being observed, while the recipient follows and gets to know it not only as per the reactivity of their nervous processes, but to a great extent according to the movements of the object in time.
Another specific feature of intellectual activity is related to the possibility to “encode” the acquired knowledge. In this, of significant importance is the usage of reliable
“ciphers” – a set of means, signs, signals, adapted to the essence of the specific knowledge – they will allow for it to be adequately (without losing or distorting the information) re-created when it is deciphered. Commonly accepted sign systems are used in this intellectual activity (according to Jean Piaget), which have proved their efficiency in the course of the thousands of years they have been used and perfected. And while the two types of sign systems – alphabetic and numeric – are applied in different areas of human knowledge, the musical sign system – notation – has its application solely in musical activities. Also, while the alphabetic and the mathematical sign systems can be learnt to a different degree, notation cannot be, even to a basic level, learnt by everyone. The reason for this is that the main characteristic of musical hearing – pitch, varies greatly between different individuals. There are people who possess the “absolute” pitch. This ability consists of recognizing the tone frequency, without any reference points; i.e. the one who possesses this category of auditory sense will always identify that they are hearing, for example, the sound “A”, regardless of when, where or what the origin of the tone is (the source of the sound does not even have to be a human voice, nor a musical instrument). This is valid for recognizing also all of the tones from the whole register of the musical system. With the experience gained, one develops a certain degree of tolerance – for example, the tones in what range of frequencies (pitches) around 440 hertz could be considered to be “A’s”. Those who possess absolute pitch have no problem in recognizing the tones in a sequence, in which there are no modal inclinations and with a complex interval organization. The presence of a good sense of polyphony in addition allows the listener to name the tones of a randomly performed chord. All of this shows that absolute pitch is the ability to freely and accurately understand tone frequencies. Many musicians and psychologists have pondered over this unique ability, but its underlying mechanisms have not yet been unveiled. On the opposite pole are people whose pitch can be described as “tone deafness” [10]. These people can only identify, i.e. register as different tone pitches only those that differ by at least two and a half tones. They, of course, cannot learn notation (specifically, they could not be able to deal with encoding – writing down the music they are hearing, and with singing the contents of sheet music, but it would not be impossible, if very hard, for them to play a music score on a musical instrument, even though with mistakes sometimes, which they would not be able to recognize themselves), because one of the meanings of a specific note – the pitch of the tone it represents is incomprehensible for them.
As was already clarified, specifically defined abilities are needed in order to learn the musical sign system; and professional occupation with music requires a high level of development of the set of these abilities. In relation to this, the American psychologist and Professor in Cognitive science, Howard Gardner, speaks of musical intelligence. According to Gardner, “musical intelligence is related to a person’s ability to perform, compose and appreciate different musical patterns” [2, p. 44]. In practice, these are the three main musical activities. They require the presence of the basic musical abilities in the individual – mode sense, metro-rhythm sense and musical auditory notions, as well as their derivative sense of polyphony.
Accepting Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, I will try to present in more details the structure of musical intelligence and to outline the borders of each of its components (to point out the highest level, which can be found in professional musicians, and I will speak about the lowest level of manifestation of each of the components, when that level is specific).
III. MUSICAL ABILITIES
A. Mode Sense
Since human language is not spoken only at a specific tonal height, but has clear frequency variations – intonations, which reflect the underlying emotions in speech, it can be supposed that the invention of communication became the reason for the development of the sensitivity to tone pitch.
Mode sense has as a basis the following talents (talents are inherent, abilities are subjects to developing):
– Pitch hearing through which we register the frequency of a tone, we are hearing, as well as the difference between tone frequencies. This is a primary talent, needed for the development of the mode sense. The highest level of the pitch hearing is absolute pitch, which I already discussed above. The ones, gifted with absolute pitch, do not need to compare tone heights in order to find each subsequent tone in a sequence (melody). This means that they do not rely on logic, determined by the modal organization of the melody. For that reason they encounter specific difficulties with encoding (writing down) music and need to additionally study the rules of using the symbols for alteration, i.e. even at the highest possible level of inherent talent, the absolute pitch has room for improvement. Those, gifted with absolute pitch, learn these rules, similarly to studying correct spelling. In this sense, I must clarify, that the highest level of pitch hearing does not on its own equal a high level of development of the mode sense. The ability mode sense has to be cultivated through focused activities for the acquirement of the skill to find logic in a tone sequence (this has to be acquired not only by the gifted with absolute pitch, but by all musicians). The good relative pitch, which can be acquired through systematic activities, allows for confident navigating through the logic of tonal sequences, but with a given reference point. The lowest level of the pitch hearing is the already described tone deafness.
- Timbre hearing, through which we identify the specific sounds of individual voices and musical instruments. A high level of the timbre hearing is essential for conductors, who have the task to carefully build the balance of the density of the sound of the different instruments in the orchestra, to identify which one of all the instrumentalists is intoning inaccurately, to use efficiently the different variants of articulation to give greater texture to the individual orchestral planes, in order to enhance the impact of the music. Acute timbre hearing is a quality,
possessed also by some people with weak or impaired vision, since the timbre hearing allows them to identify unmistakably familiar people by their voices. This circumstance prompts us to suppose that timbre hearing can be trained.
– Dynamics hearing, through which we identify the loudness of sound and the changes in sound saturation. A good dynamics hearing is of significant importance for performing music, but it is especially necessary primary in the work of sound directors, hence the “ceiling”, the highest manifestation of this talent – the lowest differential threshold should be probably sought namely amongst the best sound directors.
For the development of the sense of mode, most important is the presence of pitch, while the timbre and dynamics hearings are supplementary.
B. Metro-rhythm Sense
Metro-rhythm Sense is the ability to perceive and perform a specifically organized in stressed and unstressed beats and sounding in a specific tempo sequence of different in duration tones.
The metro-rhythm sense has at its core the musical ability metro-rhythmic hearing. A good level of this ability is especially effective for the skill of performance of musicians of percussion instruments, since in many of the instruments from the percussion group, the metro-rhythm is the main means of expression, i.e. the impact of the performance is based mainly on the recreation of metro-rhythm. The application of the musical means of expression agogics, in the interpretation, as well as the guidelines in some works of art for changes in tempo in the duration of the piece – contrasts in the tempo, gradual changes in the tempo, return to the initial tempo after a change – make the accompanist with a high level of metro-rhythm sense especially valuable, able to immediately recognize the intentions of the soloist in regard to the metro-rhythm and to keep up a synchronous performance.
C. Musical Auditory Notions
Musical auditory notions are acquired in the process of musical education of the person, but apart from the richness of the acquired reserve of musical auditory notions (which, although it cannot be measured in the separate individual, since there is no way of taking into account all musical auditory notions, acquired through involuntary memorization, can be considered a quantitative feature), this ability has also qualitative factors. Those are:
– The reliability of storing memorized works, intonations, rhythms, consonances and their logical sequences, the ability of long-term and efficient memorization of the work learnt. At the highest level, the durability and accuracy of storing musical works of art in the memory can be found in soloists and conductors, performing in concerts, who have a vast stage experience and need to keep in their memory a very extensive volume of concert repertoire, to which they constantly add new opuses. Professor Lily Atanasova, who taught me piano lessons, had a huge reserve of musical auditory notions, consisting of mostly piano and chamber music. During each lessons, she listened, without looking at the sheet, to all pieces of music we were performing and was able to correct even the most minute and hardly noticeable error.
– Speed and depth in understanding the meaning of the music heard depend on the ability of comparing what was heard with the templates, existing in the memory reserve. The speed, with which the great Hungarian piano player and composer Ferenc Liszt could comprehend unfamiliar music and, regardless of the complexity of the score, then perform it logically and impressively, remains without a rival.
– Speed of memorization. Famous for his incredible speed and accuracy of memorizing music was the renowned German piano player Walter Gieseking, who, in the airplane, on his way to the next recital, without a piano, having only the sheet music, learnt by heart the works that he was to perform.
– The quality of the musical auditory images varies also in regard to the detail of the mental image. Detail provide, for example, the ability to mentally “listen” to a given melody, with a specific timbre, in a strictly defined register, with marked articulation, even with the specific for a given instrument effects (for example when using the right pedal of the piano). For polyphonic music, the detail helps us re-create mentally the textural elements of the work with the predefined combinations of different instruments of the orchestra. The same detail allow us to “retell” – to mentally play out a piece, we are preparing for a concert performance, checking the reliability and the stability of the formed mental image.
– The flexibility of musical auditory notions provides us with the ability to mentally change the characteristics of the way a certain musical element sounds, to compare these characteristics and to choose the most suitable, to imagine the sound of the whole (even several different versions of sounding), to remember some of the especially valuable “finds”. This is required of the performer and the conductor, in order to build their own interpretational concept. This flexibility also allows the composer to create their opuses, drawing from their own reserve of musical notions, which will include more and more own elements with the development of professional qualities and gaining of experience. In this way, starting from the period of inevitable imitation they gradually manage to form their own individual style of composing, and later – to perfect it. In this sense, it can be expected that the author, who has developed their own artistic vision at an early stage, would have the most flexible musical auditory imagery. In this regard, the brightest example among the tonal artists is Mozart, whose earlier works are distinguished by an unusual maturity and originality. In a different aspect, an incredible flexibility is characteristic also for the musical auditory notions of J. S. Bach, who, using the rules of his predecessors and his the contemporary styles, brought the composing techniques through his own works to incredible and unreached by other authors heights, building a perfect polyphony, an immense treasure of the sound vertical and graceful in their elegance musical forms.
D. Polyphony Sense
The polyphony sense – the differentiated perception of
simultaneously sounding tones is a derivative musical ability, resulting from the interaction between three basic abilities:
– Perceiving the movement of simultaneously resounding melody lines as logical, of chord sequences as functionally organized and of the specific sound of tonal matter (the texture) depends on the sense of mode.
– The metro-rhythm sense takes part in the intricately structured act of perception, because the passing of the polyphony flow in time is strictly organized.
– Each auditory experience – a result of the realization of the varied in depth (phonism) and modal inclinations (functionality) consonances and of the simultaneously resounding melody lines enrich the musical auditory reserve, which registers the perceived polyphonic sequences as memorized or as new ones that are to be added to the already known.
This musical ability is most highly developed in opera and orchestral conductors, because of the need to follow and appraise in relief each textural plane of the organized in a complex manner polyphonic matter and to lead the sound balance of the varied performing groups with their different tasks in achieving the shared sound. Most undeveloped (but with possibilities of improvement) is the polyphony sense of the performers on single-voice instruments and of singers, who have not had any experience with vocal or instrumental ensembles.
IV. MUSICAL ACTIVITIES
A. Perception of Music
Musical intellect is also related to the successful exercising of the musical activities, determined by musical abilities. The act of perceiving music is accessible to the widest range of people, since practicing this activity at an average level does not require professional training. In that case, at the “lowest threshold” of the ability of practicing this activity stand people, who, having listened to a given piece, can only express whether they like it or not, without being able to point out arguments and without being affected by its emotional impact. This statement leads us to specify what abilities are needed to fully perceive a tonal work of art. Perceiving music includes the ability to “understand” the piece heard, to grasp its emotional contents, as well as to assess the qualities of the musical work and its performance. According to the Bulgarian researcher, Penka Mincheva, [5] the full perception of music has two aspects:
– A sensory aspect, which consists of the adequate and precise work of the sensory apparatus;
– Intellectual aspect. The accurate and detailed perception of a musical image is the basis of the understanding of its logic and structure, which results in the comprehension and understanding of the music heard;
– Emotional aspect. Realizing the form and the processes in it, gives us the opportunity to fully experience emotionally and aesthetically the work.
In this sense, at the highest level of successful performance of the act of perceiving music we will find the most notable musical critics, because understanding, based on solid knowledge of musical theory, of the subtleties and depth of the form and processes of the work, provides them with a new quality of aesthetic experience, and through it – with the ability to give a reasoned assessment, made through the mind and the heart.
B. Performance of Music
The successful music performance requires the presence of different skills.
– The skill to fully embody the musical image. Apart from the successful functioning of the three components for music perception – sensory, intellectual and emotional, the performer has to possess also the quality of artistry, because they are expected not only to experience the musical opus, but to also relate to the audience the logic and feelings it is comprised of;
– The skill to read the notation quickly, accurately and in an aesthetically pleasing way. Naturally, we cannot expect of every performer, right from the moment of familiarizing themselves with it, to have a detailed idea of the way a musical piece would sound in a concert environment, but the first impression of the work is very important for the formation of a performer’s view of the work and it has to contain, even still not in detail, an aesthetically correct understanding of its emotional contents. Here I again can point to accompanists, as an example of a developed ability to especially quickly get familiar with an unknown score, because they have to learn a new accompaniment in a very short period of time, even to perform it a prima vista on the stage. Not the accompanist, however, is considered the best in this regard. Famous in the history of the piano art is the example of Liszt, who could perform at first glance any type of music, in the correct tempo, without “skipping” some of the voices (not playing some elements of the musical texture is a common practice in accompanying) and especially impactful. We don’t know of any other instrumentalist after him to have had this ability developed at such a high level.
– Technical skills. The upper limit of technical skills of performers cannot be measured, because a given performer is better in one kind of technique, while another performer is talented in a different one. Besides that, these skills constantly improve. It would be sufficient to mention the great Italian violinist, Niccolò Paganini, whose performances were considered as unmatchable, even supernatural, “diabolic”, his capriccios, the performances of which earned him this definitions, have inspired generations of musicians, but today they are within the capabilities of every good violinist.
– Erudition in musical theory and musical esthetics. Not only empathic and technical skills are needed to re-create faithfully the artistic idea of the composer. It is important that the performer should have preparation on the subjects, related to, for example, musical forms. It is known that embedded in the structure of a piece is the principle of the development of the musical image. For example, in a theme with variations, the main character – the theme – will be enhanced with new features, new qualities will be added to it, it will be observed from different angles, it will be put into different situations; the ternary form with a contrasting middle partition represents symmetry, i.e. we
can expect it to be a static form; the sonata depicts two contrasting characters, they usually in conflict, after which they are brought together or one of them is affirmed. The performer of music has to known the principles of constructing musical texture – homophonic, polyphonic, heterophonic, to known the systems of modal organization, of genre definition. The interpreter has to also get familiar with the specifics of the time period, in which the author of the studied piece has worked, the style category, he belongs to, to search for information about the musical aesthetic preferences of the composer, of his image as a performer, if he is also one. On the basis of this erudition, the talented interpreter can build their own well-grounded concept of the way the music work should sound.
– On the basis of the above-described skills and knowledge, combining them, functions also the ability to unveil the artistic intentions of the author and to build a faithful artistic performance concept for the work being rehearsed. Possessing the highest degree of this ability of course are the greatest music interpreters, but who of them exactly will be considered the best is a matter of personal preferences of each individual listener.
– Stage presence. This is that elusive trait of musical interpreters and actors, who make the audience hold their breath, listening or watching intently to their performance, leaving no option of interpreting the given artistic image in any other way. In history, famous for capturing the attention and emotions of all of his listeners in a unique and powerful way was Anton Rubinstein.
– Self-control. This ability – control over the quality of the achieved sound, keeping the attention on the musical work, which is being learnt and presented in front of an audience, self-control during the concert performance itself – is developed through focused and persistent exercises. The ability of self-control is also presented at the highest level in the practice of the world renowned performers. In my opinion, the Bulgarian pianist Alexis Weissenberg was remarkable in his self-control.
C. Composing Music
– The sensitivity and ability of immersion. To be able to re-create experiences and feelings as sound matter, the composer has to gather a sufficient reserve of vivid enough such experiences and feelings, so they can “trigger” the artistic impulse in him. This means that the author of music has to possess sensitivity, reactivity and empathic abilities, similar to the ones presented by the performer and the sensitive listener.
– Preparation in musical theory and musical aesthetics. To pour down all thoughts, impressions and feelings (content) into an adequate and understandable to the users form, the composer also has to possess musical erudition, because, as I’ve mentioned above, the form of the work of art is an especially valuable guideline that the author leaves for the other two subjects in tonal art – the performer and the listener.
– Creativity. It is of special importance to the composer. They have to invent a way to artistically present the perceived reality, of their thoughts, ideas and feelings. The most basic example of such an activity is onomatopoeia. Counting with a limited range of means for the imitation of a particular sound (timbre capabilities of the musical instrument the music piece is written for), the composer has to find a suitable method, through which to make the sound being imitated identifiable by the performers and listeners. Naturally, artistic representation of the reality is not limited to the onomatopoeic expression, the process of creating something new is very complicated and includes a wide variety of mediatory connections with the “original image”. Such a relation is the depiction through music, developed to supreme aesthetical levels by the impressionists and practiced also by the newer authors. Another mediatory connection with the original is the expression through musical means of the emotional attitude towards it. Since there is a certain regularity in the professional development of tonal artists – in the earlier periods of their composing endeavors they use a very wide range of methods to present their ideas, while in the later stages of their work, they create in a notably more laconic way, with a smaller range of techniques, but often those pieces are brilliantly understandable and moving (i.e. they have already mastered the way of expressing themselves, they do not need such a wide variety of means of expression), it can be expected that the highest, most pure form of creativity of composers could be sought in their later works. A similar opinion was expressed by the renowned Russian writer, L. N. Tolstoy, whom I quote from memory: “a person first writes in a simpler and poor way, after that – complicatedly and poorly, then – complicatedly and well, and finally – he writes simply and well”.
V. Conclusion
From all that has been said here, it becomes clear that musical intellect is a complicated, multi-component system, manifested within an extremely wide range; its different elements can be in a different state even in the same person.
Since the level of each of the components of musical intelligence can be further improved through persistent work, while it could also degrade, the musically intelligent person is responsible for their abilities (even for this, because not everybody possesses them in a sufficient degree) and has to work daily to perfect.
References
[1] Asatief, B. „The music form as a process”. Ed. Leningrad: Musica, 1971
[2] Gardner, Howard. “Intelligence reframed”. Ed. Sofia: Siella, 2003
[3] Heinrichs I. “Musical Hearing and Its Development”. Ed. Moscow: Musica, 1978
[4] Michel, Paul. “Musical Abilities and Performance. Skills. Contributions to Musical Psychology”. Ed. Sofia: Prosveta, 1980
[5] Mincheva, P. „Music and Intellect”. Ed. Sofia: Prosveta, 1994
[6] Minchev, Petar. „Music Education in the General Education School”. Ed. Sofia: Prosveta, 1994
[7] Nazaykinsky, E. „Logic of Musical Composition”. Ed. Moscow: Musica, 1982
[8] Piaget, Jean. „Selected Psychological works: Logics and Psychology; Psychology of Intelligence”. Ed. Moscow: Prosvetenie, 1992
[9] Tarasova, K., „Ontogenesis of Musical Abilities”. Ed. Moscow: Muzyka, 1976
[10] Teplov, B. “Psychology of musical abilities”. Ed. Moscow: Nauka, 1947
[11] Wilks, F. „Intelligent Emotion”. Ed. Sofia: Krugozor, 2003
AUTHOR’S PROFILE
Krasimira Georgieva Fileva-Ruseva was born in Varna, Bulgaria, 08. 02. 1960. I graduated from the Musical School of Secondary Education “Dobri Chivkov” – Varna with a golden medal and from the State’s Musical Academy “Professor Pancho Vladigerov” – Sofia. In 1996, I defended a dissertation “Limiting the Stage Distress” and received the scientific title “Doctor of Psychology”.
I work in the Academy of Music, Dance and Fine Arts Plovdiv, where since 2014 I am an associate professor of Piano as a compulsory instrument. I have performed in concerts in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Greece. I have a total of 133 scientific publications, published in Bulgaria, Russia, the USA, Ukraine, Turkey. I am an author of the textbook for university students “Methods of Teaching Piano” Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria, Europe 2011, 297 pages of the monographs “Structural Principles in the Works for Piano of Dimitar Nenov”, “Articulations and Timbre Effects” Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria, Europe 1998, 65 pages. I take part in an author collective for creation of textbooks for music for the Bulgarian general education schools.
My awards:
Golden medal for excellent learning
A diploma for best science research in the section Pedagogical Sciences of Trakia University – Stara Zagora, Bulgaria, Europe – 29. 09. 2005
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Summary: The full report presents a collection of standardised country reports from the ten partner countries involved in PROMISE. Using the most recent data available from macro-indicators and surveys, each country report provides a national baseline of the attitudes, activities and social involvement of young people. The macro-indicators used to describe the national context are used consistently throughout to allow comparison.
In particular, each country report provides an overview of the general ‘state of the country’s health’; the situation that young people face; how young people feel about their situation; and what, if anything, they are doing to change it.
We employ a concept of social and political engagement developed for PROMISE that includes four dimensions of engagement: civic activism, formal political participation, activism, and everyday engagement.
This report (Germany) should be read in conjunction with the Introduction and Appendices document. It was submitted to the EC as part of deliverable D9 (D4.3).
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme, under Grant Agreement no. 693221.
| Statistic | Value |
|-----------------------------------------------|----------------|
| Population | 82,667,685 |
| Population aged 15-29 years old | 17.0% |
| Population aged 65 years old and above | 21.3% |
| Birth Rate | 9.0% |
| International migrant stock as a percentage of the total population | 14.9% |
1. Standards of living in Germany
Among the PROMISE countries, Germany appears as one of the most reassuring economic contexts. This is not only because of the highest gross national income (GNI) of 49710 and of the lowest unemployment rate (3.8%), but also because the relatively friendly regulations can support the development of businesses in this country, together with one of the most moderate perceptions of corruption and a high perception of Government effectiveness, second only to Finland.
Fig. 1.1 GNI per capita, PPP (current international $), 2016
Fig. 1.2 Ease of doing business index (1=most business-friendly regulations), 2017
Fig. 1.3 Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate), 2017
Fig. 1.4 Corruption Perception Index - Transparency International (1 to 100; 1= high corruption perceived), 2016
Fig. 1.5 Government Effectiveness: Estimate, 2014 (-2,5 to 2,5 -2,5=very low effectiveness perceived)
---
1 Last available data. Sources: World Bank; Transparency International; Freedom House; Global Gender Gap Report (World Economic Forum); Eurostat; OECDStats. See Appendix for detailed references.
The Freedom House defines freedom of the press as “a media environment where coverage of political news is robust, the safety of journalists is guaranteed, state intrusion in media affairs is minimal, and the press is not subject to onerous legal or economic pressures”. According to these criteria, the German press is quite free (index score of 20).
Among the countries considered, Germany is one of those with the smallest gender gap (0.778) and ranks at the 12th position out of 144 in the Global Gender Gap Report 2017, indicating a fair balance of opportunities for women and men.
Less than one-third of the active German population has a tertiary education, but almost nine out of ten use the internet, hinting at a smaller digital divide compared to the other countries.
Together with many other European countries, Germany is facing a severe demographic transition. Between 1970 and 1990 the share of young and old people was about the same (Fig. 2.1). Since 1990 the gap in the proportion of older and younger population has increasingly become more pronounced. In the aging German society of 2015, people older than 65 years are double in number to young people aged 15-24 years old.
The share of young people living with their parent(s) decreased by about ten percentage points in ten years (Fig. 2.2). In 2016, slightly more than one quarter of the youth aged 25-29 years old was still living with their family of origin.
Since 2004, education at all levels has improved. Youth with a tertiary education steadily increased (Fig. 2.3), in particular in the case of women: today almost one-third of the females aged between 25-29 years have a university degree.
Compared to other European countries, Germany shows lower rates of school drop out (Fig. 2.4) and exclusion from the labour market and school system (Fig. 2.5).
Since 1999, the numbers of early school leavers decreased from 15% to 10% without relevant differences by gender. On the contrary, females seem to be more exposed than males to the risk of becoming NEET (Fig. 2.5). In any case, the NEET rate appears quite stable over time, with only a slight decrease for females.
Less than 20% of men and less than 25% of women are unemployed. Except for a slight decline in 2004-2005, the youth employment rate is quite stable both for men and women (Fig. 2.6).
However, those with lower educational attainment are more exposed to the unemployment risk than those with higher degrees (Fig. 2.7). Between 2003 and 2009, the unemployment rate among those with less than lower secondary education, increased from 15.8 to 27.8 (peak in 2006). Only 3% of those with tertiary education are unemployed.
Nevertheless, the rate of young people at risk of poverty or exclusion increased from 22% in 2005 to 25% in 2013, with females more affected than males since 2006.
2.3 Health and well-being
Fig. 2.9 Percentage of young people who perceive their health as good/very good by gender and age groups (2005-2015)
German youth progressively reported better health conditions (Fig. 2.9). Males were more likely than females to perceive their health as good or very good.
Females also manifest current depressive symptoms more than males (Fig. 2.10), except in the older group (25-29 years old). The youngest females (15-19 years old) were the subgroup that reported these symptoms more than the other age groups (9.8%). Even if more females are reporting more depressive symptoms and are less positive in indicating their health conditions, females commit suicide four times less than males (Fig. 2.11), with trends relatively stable over time.
Fig. 2.10 Percentage of youth with current depressive symptoms by gender and age group (2014)
Fig. 2.11 Crude death rate per hundred thousand inhabitants by suicide of young people (2000-2010)
2.4 Use of Substances and Crime
In 2015 (Fig. 2.12) about seven out of ten of German young people reported to have drunk alcohol in the last month, without significant differences between genders. More males tended to smoke tobacco (32.2%) than females (21.6%). The number of males who admitted having used illegal drugs in the last month are almost double the number of females.
Since 2013, the number of juvenile prisoners have steadily decreased (Fig. 2.13). The biggest group, aged 21-30 years old, decreased by 18%, those aged 18-21 years dropped by 26%, and the youngest group (14-18 years old) decreased by 23%.
---
Data for Juvenile prisoners in Germany are not available in the international sources adopted for the other countries (Eurostat/UNODC), we therefore use figures from Statistisches Bundesamt (https://www.destatis.de/EN/FactsFigures/SocietyState/Justice/Tables_/ConvictedPrisoners.html).
3. What do young people in Germany think and feel?
This section aims to provide an overview of German young people’s perception and evaluation of the current situation in their country and how they feel in such context. German youth seems to be quite satisfied with the society they live in. The context of opportunities provided by the German system probably help them to reach their personal goals and feel quite satisfied with their life.
Generally speaking, their relation with authority does not appear particularly problematic: most of the young people have high trust in institutions, with the notable exception of political parties and the politicians, but they tend to perceive a good level of personal political efficacy.
3.1 Perception of opportunity and constraints
3.1.1 Germany situation
Fig. 3.1 Perception of the social climate
- Social climate perceived tend to be negative: 6%
- Neither positive nor negative: 70%
- Social climate perceived tend to be positive: 24%
A measure of perception of the social climate (Fig. 3.1), builds upon the position towards three statements* and shows that most young German people cannot clearly define whether they live in a positive social climate or not. However only a few of them perceive it as negative, and about one out of four think that it is positive. This is particularly true for men, for those without a migration background, and those who live in country villages (Fig. 3.2).
Fig. 3.2 Young people perceiving a positive social climate - by gender, migration background and place of living
| Gender | Migration Background | Place of Living |
|-----------------|----------------------|-----------------------|
| Male | 24.8% | Big city |
| Female | 23.4% | Suburbs or small city |
| No migration | 26.2% | Country village or... |
*“Most people can be trusted” (vs “you can’t be too careful”);
“Most people try to take advantage of you” (vs “Most people try to be fair”);
“Most of the time people are helpful” (vs Most people are mostly looking out for themselves”)
Most young people rate as ‘good’ the state of the health services and almost half consider the state of education in Germany to be ‘good’ (Fig. 3.3). Taking these two services together (Fig. 3.4), males, the youngest respondents, young people with migration backgrounds, and those living in small villages, are most likely to rate them positively.
More than seven young people out ten feel safe when they are alone in their local area after dark (Fig. 3.5). However, the share of those who feel unsafe (Fig. 3.6) is mainly composed of females; young between 15-19 years old; those with no migration background; and those living in the suburbs or in small towns.
Thinking about the current situation in Germany, young people appear quite satisfied. In particular (Fig. 3.7), most of them are satisfied with the state of the national economy and the way democracy works in Germany. However, they report less satisfaction with the national government.
Fig. 3.8 shows that the more satisfied are men, the youngest subgroup, those with a migration background, and young people living in big cities. Females and those aged 25-29 years old report being less satisfied with the overall situation of the country.
3.1.2 Personal situation
Considering their personal situation, young people living in Germany appear very satisfied (Fig. 3.9) and happy (Fig. 3.11), probably also as a reflection of the good opportunities allowed by the state of the economy of the country and the overall picture of stability and fairness (see section 1).
In the perspective of the opportunities to get resources to achieve their personal goals (and then being satisfied and happy), the breakdown for the socio-demographic characteristics is quite similar to the extent of satisfaction with life as a whole (Fig. 3.10) and the feeling of happiness (Fig. 3.12). Men, young people aged less than 24 years old, those without a migration background, and who live in country villages, are more likely to report these positive feelings.
3.2 Relation with authority
3.2.1 General opinion on institutions
In line with their perceptions (Fig. 3.7) about how democracy works in their country, most of the young people in Germany think that the political system allows people to have an impact on political matters (Fig. 3.13).
However more than one-third do not perceive this kind of personal political efficacy.
Looking at this latter group, men, those with a migration background and those living in country villages tend to perceive the possibility of influencing politics less than others (Fig. 3.14). However, only age appears to make some differences in perceptions of opportunities to have a say on what the government does. Interestingly, those who can already vote are less likely to perceive this efficacy (Fig. 3.15).
3.2.2 Trust in institutions
While institutions like the German and the European parliaments still have the trust of most German youth (40% of young people trust them highly), politicians and political parties are the most critically evaluated (Fig. 3.16): only 20% of youth have high trust in them.
Considering a synthetic measure of trust in these four political institutions, Fig. 3.17 shows that youth with lower trust in political institutions are mainly composed of men, the oldest age group, those without a migration background, and those who live in big cities.
3.3 Opinion on social issues
Fig. 3.20 Do you think world's climate is changing? (%)
- Missing: 1.1
- Definitely not changing: 1.4
- Probably not changing: 2.9
- Probably changing: 32.0
- Definitely changing: 62.7
German youth are reasonably aware of climate change. Most of them believe that the world’s climate is definitely changing (Fig. 3.20) and this is caused by human activity (Fig. 3.22). Such consciousness is more strongly established among women and those without a migration background. Differences by age and place of residence are not remarkable in terms of climate change awareness (Fig. 3.21). However, more young people aged below 24 years old, compared to older respondents, and those with no migration background, believe the causes of this process are mainly due to human activity (Fig. 3.23).
About seven out of ten of young Germans express high trust in the police and the legal system (Fig. 3.18). This high trust in law and order institutions is a common trait among German youth without relevant difference by sociodemographic characteristics, except gender and migration background. The composition of the share of those who have lower trust in such institutions presents a slight majority of men and people without a migration experience (Fig. 3.19).
Fig. 3.22 Climate change caused by natural processes, human activity, or both (%)
- Missing: 2.4%
- Entirely by human activity: 5.1%
- Mainly by human activity: 59.9%
- About equally by natural...: 26.5%
- Mainly by natural processes: 5.5%
- Entirely by natural processes: 0.5%
Fig. 3.23 Young people who think that "Climate change caused mainly by human activity", by gender, age, migration background, place of living
- Male: 59.5%
- Female: 63.9%
- 15-19 years old: 64.6%
- 20-24 years old: 63.9%
- 25-29 years old: 53.4%
- no migration...: 64.9%
- with migration...: 52.5%
- big city: 63.8%
- suburbs or...: 59.9%
- country village or...: 62.7%
Fig. 3.24 Opinion on social issues - equality (%)
- Gays and lesbians free to live life as they wish:
- Disagree strongly: 0.9%
- Disagree: 2.1%
- Neither agree nor disagree: 2.8%
- Agree: 4.3%
- Agree strongly: 31.7%
- Missing: 58.3%
- For fair society, differences in standard of living should be small:
- Disagree strongly: 1.7%
- Disagree: 0.5%
- Neither agree nor disagree: 14.4%
- Agree: 24.3%
- Agree strongly: 50.4%
- Missing: 8.7%
- Men should have more right to job than women when jobs are scarce:
- Disagree strongly: 0.6%
- Disagree: 3.3%
- Neither agree nor disagree: 12.3%
- Agree: 29.7%
- Agree strongly: 53.1%
- Missing: 0.9%
Fig. 3.25 Young people who agree with "gays and lesbians free to live life as they wish"
- Male: 88.8%
- Female: 93.2%
- 15-19 years old: 92.4%
- 20-24 years old: 91.1%
- 25-29 years old: 88.5%
- no migration...: 96.6%
- with migration...: 76.9%
- big city: 85.2%
- suburbs or small city: 88.8%
- country village or...: 95.7%
Together with the concern for the environment and climate change, social equality appear as another important issue for German youth. About nine out of ten think that gay and lesbian couples should be free to live life as they want (Fig 3.25), and eight out of ten are against the idea that men should have more job opportunities than women when jobs are scarce (Fig 3.27). In this respect, the more conservative are men, the older age group, and those who have a migration background.
About six out of ten think that, for a fair society, the differences in standard of living should be smaller (Fig 2.26). The differences by sociodemographic characteristics are lightly remarkable considering age and migration background. The oldest and those who did not experience migration express more support for this statement.
Young people who have a bad opinion of immigration are in the minority. Half of German youth think that immigration enriches the country’s cultural life (Fig. 3.28) and the German economy (Fig. 3.29), and more than one third took an intermediate position on these aspects. Nevertheless, German youth appear a bit more tentative when expressing a position about whether, in general, immigration makes Germany a better place to live (Fig. 3.30).
In all these three aspects, the group who has a positive view on immigration is mainly composed of men, older than 25 years, and (more surprisingly) people living in big cities (Fig. 3.31 to Fig. 3.33).
German youth are fairly open when talking about the “quantity” of allowed immigrants. However, when the immigrant belongs to a different ethnic group from the German native, the welcoming attitude is a bit colder (Fig. 3.34).
Looking at the refugees’ situation, only about one-third think that Germany should be generous when judging applications for refugee status (Fig. 3.35). In this respect, the most remarkable differences are by place of living (Fig. 3.36): those living in the big cities tend to be much more supportive than those living in the suburbs and villages, and probably have more direct experiences of such a situation. However, about 60% of German youth think that, once the refugee status is granted, refugees should be allowed to bring their close family members to live with them. There are no remarkable differences among the young people supporting this view.
Fig. 3.34 Position towards immigration: Allow many/few immigrants
- **of same race/ethnic group as majority**
- Allow many to come and live here: 42.0%
- Allow some: 47.9%
- Allow a few: 9.1%
- Allow none: 0.2%
- Missing: 0.8%
- **of different race/ethnic group from majority**
- Allow many to come and live here: 28.8%
- Allow some: 51.7%
- Allow a few: 18.0%
- Allow none: 1.1%
- Missing: 0.4%
- **from poorer countries outside Europe**
- Allow many to come and live here: 32.3%
- Allow some: 48.1%
- Allow a few: 16.8%
- Allow none: 2.4%
- Missing: 0.4%
---
Fig. 3.35 Opinions towards the refugees' situation (%)
- **Granted refugees should be entitled to bring close family members**
- Agree strongly: 11.4%
- Agree: 51.8%
- Neither agree nor disagree: 17.2%
- Disagree: 15.6%
- Disagree strongly: 3.1%
- Missing: 0.9%
- **Government should be generous judging applications for refugee status**
- Agree strongly: 7.7%
- Agree: 24.2%
- Neither agree nor disagree: 28.1%
- Disagree: 31.0%
- Disagree strongly: 8.4%
- Missing: 0.6%
---
Fig. 3.36 Young people who think that granted refugees should be entitled to bring close family members
- Male: 63.8%
- Female: 63.6%
- 15-19 years old: 64.7%
- 20-24 years old: 61.3%
- 25-29 years old: 65.1%
- big city: 66.7%
- suburbs or small city: 69.0%
- country village or...: 56.5%
4. Engagement and Social Change
In this section, we provide information about young people’s social and political engagement in Germany. We adopt the concept of social and political engagement as defined in D4.1, including aspects of civic engagement, formal political participation, activism, and everyday engagement.
4.1 Civic engagement
About one-third of the young respondents recently worked in a civic society organisation (Fig. 4.1). Males, those aged 20-24 years old, those without a migration background and those living in big cities, tend to be slightly more engaged in such organisations than others (Fig. 4.2).
Fig. 4.1 Have you worked in a civic society organization in the last 12 months?
- Yes: 29%
- No: 71%
- Missing: 0%
Fig. 4.2 Young people who worked in a civic society organization
- Male: 31.2%
- Female: 27.2%
- 15-19 years old: 29.2%
- 20-24 years old: 31.8%
- 25-29 years old: 26.2%
- no migration background: 32.8%
- with migration background: 20.8%
- big city: 30.5%
- suburbs or small city: 28.8%
- country village or countryside: 29.1%
In relation to their ability to get involved in social activities (Fig. 4.3), half of the young respondents estimated that they take part in social activities at a similar level to their peers, while one-third perceive themselves as less engaged. The rest, estimating themselves to be more socially involved, are mainly composed of men, those older than 25 years old, those without a migration background, and those living in big cities (Fig. 4.4), suggesting that the structure of opportunities and access to resources to engage and activate young people’s potential is not homogeneous.
**Fig. 4.3 Compared to other people of your age, how often would you say to take part in social activities?**
- I take part in social activities less than my peers: 1%
- The same: 31%
- I take part in social activities more than my peers: 18%
- Missing: 50%
**Fig. 4.4 Young people who take part in social activities more than their peers**
- Male: 22.8%
- Female: 13.6%
- 15-19 years old: 18.5%
- 20-24 years old: 17.8%
- 25-29 years old: 19.3%
- No migration background: 20.3%
- With migration background: 13.5%
- Big city: 20.7%
- Suburbs or small city: 16.3%
- Country village or countryside: 19.8%
4.2 Formal political participation
Fig. 4.5 Have you voted in the last national election?
- Yes: 39%
- No: 15%
- Not eligible to vote: 46%
- Missing: 0%
Almost half of the young respondents were not eligible to vote at the time of the data collection (Fig. 4.5). The majority of those entitled expressed their vote in the last national election. However, thinking about the possibility of voting for leaving/remaining in the EU, only 1.4% would not express their opinion (Fig. 4.7), and the vast majority would cast a pro-Europe vote.
Young people living in the peripheries and in small towns or country village perceive national politics as something distant from them: their formal political participation is in fact lower than young people living in big cities (Fig. 4.6).
Other forms of formal political participation, including working in political parties and directly contacting politicians (Fig. 4.8), are experienced by very few young people.
Fig. 4.6 Young people who voted for the last national election by gender and place of living (%)
- Male: 40.1%
- Female: 37.2%
- Big city: 45.7%
- Suburbs or...: 39.9%
- Country village...: 34.6%
Fig. 4.7 Would vote for Germany to remain member of European Union or leave? (%)
- Remain member of the...: 78.9%
- Leave the European Union: 6.6%
- Would spoil the ballot paper: 1.4%
- Not eligible to vote: 9.8%
- Missing: 3.2%
Fig. 4.8 In the last 12 months, have you...? (%)
- Worked in political party or action group: 3.9%
- Contacted politician or government official: 12.8%
- Yes: 96.1%
- No: 87.2%
4.3 Activism
About one-third of the youth signed petitions and half of them also took part in lawful demonstrations (Fig. 4.9). Signing a petition appears a more viable option to express their position (in support of, as well as against, something) for women, youth aged more than 25, those living in big cities and those without a migration background (Fig 4.10).
On the other hand, taking part in activities which leads young people to expose their standpoint more evidently, is something engaged in more by: men, those aged between 20-24 years old, and by those with a migration background. Most of the demonstrations usually take place in the heart of the big cities, so it could be more difficult for young people living in villages located far from the cities to take part in such activities (Fig. 4.11).
4.4 Everyday Engagement
Expressing an interest in politics split the German youth in two: half of the young people were not interested and the other half were ‘quite’ or ‘very’ interested (Fig. 4.12). Men, those older than 25 years old, youth with a migration background, and those living in big cities, express interest in the topic “politics” more than the others (Fig. 4.13).
Environmental issues appear relevant for most youth. For example, less than 15% of the young respondents are not worried about climate change (Fig. 4.14).
In particular, women, those aged 20-25 years old, youth with a migration background, and those living in big cities are more worried about this issue (Fig. 4.15). The difference by gender is quite significant and indicates that females tend to be more concerned than males about this aspect.
In line with their concern about the environment, more than half of German youth feel a personal responsibility to try to reduce climate change (Fig. 4.16).
Almost seven out ten of them would buy the most energy efficient home appliances (Fig. 4.17), do things to reduce their energy use (Fig. 4.18), and are quite confident to be able to use less energy than they do now (Fig. 4.19). Women, those older than 25 years of age, and those living in big cities or their suburbs, tend to be more engaged in these forms of everyday engagement (Fig. 4.20, Fig. 4.21). The other subgroups are confident that they could use less energy than now and do more to reducing climate change (Fig. 4.22).
Fig. 4.17 How likely to buy most energy efficient home appliance
- I would buy most energy efficient home appliance: 71.6%
- middle position: 22.1%
- I would not buy most energy efficient home appliance: 6.3%
Fig. 4.18 How often do things to reduce energy use
- Missing: 1.2%
- often/very often/always I do...: 66.9%
- sometimes I do things to reduce...: 26.3%
- Never/hardly never do things to reduce...: 5.7%
Fig. 4.19 Confidence in using less energy than now
- I am confident that I could use less energy...: 65.6%
- middle position: 27.2%
- I am not confident that I could use less...: 7.2%
Fig. 4.20 Young people who would buy most energy efficient home appliance (%)
| Category | Male | Female |
|---------------------------------|--------|--------|
| 15-19 years old | 68.9% | 74.9% |
| 20-24 years old | 60.5% | 73.1% |
| 25-29 years old | 83.3% | 73.1% |
| no migration background | 72.1% | 70.2% |
| with migration background | 74.4% | 73.1% |
| big city | 68.4% | |
| suburbs or small city | | |
| country village or... | | |
Fig. 4.21 Young people who do things to reduce energy use
| Category | Male | Female |
|---------------------------------|--------|--------|
| 15-19 years old | 64.0% | 71.5% |
| 20-24 years old | 60.2% | 71.2% |
| 25-29 years old | 72.3% | 72.3% |
| no migration background | 66.9% | 69.4% |
| with migration background | 69.9% | 72.1% |
| big city | 60.8% | |
| suburbs or small city | | |
| country village or... | | |
Fig. 4.22 Young people confident that could use less energy than now
| Category | Male | Female |
|---------------------------------|--------|--------|
| 15-19 years old | 66.5% | 61.4% |
| 20-24 years old | 66.1% | 63.8% |
| 25-29 years old | 65.8% | 65.3% |
| no migration background | 67.5% | 63.2% |
| with migration background | | |
| big city | | |
| suburbs or small city | | |
| country village or... | | |
The young respondents also expressed other forms of everyday engagement.
Political online activity and political consumption appear as the most practiced forms of engagement (Fig. 4.23).
Almost four out of ten young people had posted or shared something about political matters online. The main differences, in this case, are by gender and migration background: females and youth who experienced migration find it easier express their positions online (Fig. 4.25).
Boycotting products (Fig. 4.24) is less likely by very young people, but women appear as the most critical consumers. In both cases, those living in big cities tend to be more engaged in these activities.
A small group of young people (about one in ten) express their political view by wearing or displaying badges and stickers (Fig. 4.23). (The small size of this group does not allow any meaningful breakdown by sociodemographic characteristics).
Although half of German young people said they were not interested in politics (Fig. 4.12), in their daily life they express political opinions and follow political activities with quite an assiduity.
Less than two out of ten of them spend less than ten minutes a day following current political issues. More than four out of ten spend between 11 and 30 minutes, and about one-quarter reads, watches, or listens to political news for more than half an hour a day.
The main differences in this form of participation are by gender, age, and migration background (Fig. 4.27), with males, those older than 25 years old, and youth who experienced migration following the political news more than females, the youngest, and native Germans.
**Fig. 4.26 Time spent in a day to follow news about politics, current affairs (watching, reading, listening)**
- more than one hour: 13.4%
- between 31 and 60 minutes: 24.3%
- between 11 and 30 minutes: 44.8%
- less than 10 minutes: 17.5%
**Fig. 4.27 Young people who spend more than 30 minutes a day for following political news**
- Male: 43.0%
- Female: 31.5%
- 15-19 years old: 29.0%
- 20-24 years old: 39.4%
- 25-29 years old: 46.6%
- no migration background: 34.9%
- with migration background: 44.0%
- big city: 40.2%
- suburbs or small city: 36.1%
- country village or...: 38.6%
Project Identity
PROJECT NAME Promoting Youth Involvement and Social Engagement (PROMISE)
COORDINATOR Jo Deakin, University of Manchester, UK.
email@example.com
CONSORTIUM Raffaele Bracalenti, Istituto Psicoanalitico per le Ricerche Sociali, Italy.
firstname.lastname@example.org
Eckart Müller-Bachmann, Christliches Jugenddorfwerk Deutschlands e.V., Germany.
email@example.com
Zyab Ibanez, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain.
firstname.lastname@example.org
Raquel Matos, Universidade Catolica Portuguesa, Portugal.
email@example.com
Ivan Chorvát, Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici, Slovakia.
firstname.lastname@example.org
Kaisa Vehkalahti, Finnish Youth Research Network, Finland.
email@example.com
Annett Wiedermann, YES Forum (Youth and European Social Work), Germany.
firstname.lastname@example.org
Anna Markina, University of Tartu, Estonia.
email@example.com
Markus Quandt, GESIS - Leibniz Institut Fur Sozialwissenschaften E.V., Germany.
firstname.lastname@example.org
Elena Omelchenko, National Research University, Russia.
email@example.com
Ben Perasović, Ivo Pilar Institute, Croatia.
firstname.lastname@example.org
FUNDING SCHEME Horizon 2020 Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2014-2020), Societal Challenge 6 – Europe in a changing world: inclusive, innovative and reflective societies", call YOUNG-2015.
DURATION May 2016 – April 2019 (36 months).
BUDGET EU contribution: 2 500 000 €.
WEBSITE http://www.promise.manchester.ac.uk/en/home-page/
FOR MORE INFORMATION Contact: Markus Quandt (email@example.com)
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Deaf-friendly education
Northern Ireland
# Contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Deafness and its impact on learning 5
3. Working together to support deaf pupils 14
4. Transitions 21
5. Listening and communication 30
6. High or first quality teaching 38
7. Assessments, tests, exams and access arrangements 45
8. Supporting emotional health and wellbeing 48
9. Quality improvement: Classroom observation and pupil feedback 54
10. Appendices 59
Appendix 1: Types and levels of deafness 59
Appendix 2: Personal hearing technology 62
Appendix 3: ‘Assess, plan, do, review’ overview 64
Appendix 4: Communication options 68
11. Our information and support 72
A note about terms
We use the term ‘deaf’ to refer to all types of hearing loss, from mild to profound. This includes deafness in one ear or temporary hearing loss such as glue ear. We include pupils the school may identify as having a ‘hearing impairment’ in the School Census.
We use the term ‘parent’ to refer to all parents and carers of children.
At time of writing, changes to the Special Educational Needs (SEN) framework are in the process of being introduced. This includes use of the term ‘learning support co-ordinator’ (LSC) to coordinate support for children with SEN, replacing ‘special educational needs co-ordinators’ (SENCo). This resource uses the term ‘SENCo’, as this is the correct term at time of publication\(^1\).
---
\(^1\) The Learning Support Co-ordinator (LSC) role is referenced in Section 3 of the SEND Act (NI) 2016, however Section 3 has not been commenced at time of drafting.
Deafness is not a learning disability and, given the right support, deaf children can make the same progress as hearing children of similar cognitive ability.
The majority of deaf pupils are educated in mainstream schools, yet many deaf children do not achieve the same academic outcomes as their hearing peers. We know that:
- **deaf pupils can learn as much as their hearing peers** when they are taught by teachers who recognise and can adapt teaching methods and materials to accommodate their strengths and needs
- **deaf pupils achieve more when both teachers and families have high expectations**
- **deaf pupils may not receive the support they need** especially if they have good speech
- **a setting’s acoustic environment** (listening conditions) can have a huge impact on deaf children's ability to access information and learn
- **qualities such as assertiveness, confidence and resilience**, promoted within the school setting, benefit deaf pupils
- **deaf pupils do better when their families are engaged** and have the information they need to support their decision-making. Informed choice allows parents to be fully involved in their child’s education, both formally and informally
- **families value the opportunities their child has to attend school clubs and activities** and be part of the school and local community.\(^2\)
**Who is this resource for?**
This resource is for anyone who works with deaf children in educational settings.
**How to use this resource**
This resource should be used alongside support and advice from the Education Authority’s Sensory Service.
“My child needs to grow up to live their life similar to a hearing peer. The same level of confidence, intelligence, academic qualifications, job prospects and opportunities, independence, able to form relationships with other people and live a satisfying life.”
– Parent
---
\(^2\) O’Neill, R., Arendt, J. and Marschark, M., 2014. Report from the achievement and opportunities for deaf students in the United Kingdom: From Research to Practice project. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh. [www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/18805218/EDU_37468_Nuffield_Report_MASTER_v3.pdf](http://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/18805218/EDU_37468_Nuffield_Report_MASTER_v3.pdf) (accessed 7 February 2022).
Deafness and its impact on learning
Did you know that 8 out of 10 children will experience an episode of deafness before the age of 10?
Childhood deafness presents a very significant barrier to pupils acquiring communication and language, and affects their cognitive, emotional and social development. Even mild deafness can have a significant, and detrimental, impact on a child’s ability to learn.
Levels and types of deafness
The levels and types of childhood deafness vary considerably. They include permanent mild, moderate, severe or profound hearing loss in one or both ears, and temporary hearing loss, such as glue ear.
The Teacher of the Deaf will be able to explain the individual deaf pupil’s level of hearing by showing you an audiogram. An audiogram is a chart used by an audiologist to record the results of the hearing assessment.
It is estimated that at any one time 20% of children in reception class have glue ear. It’s important to look out for any possible signs of deafness and to monitor deaf pupils’ hearing levels in case of deterioration.
Further details on the types and levels of deafness are given in Appendix 1.
Hearing aids and cochlear implants
Deaf children use different types of personal hearing technology supplied by health and social care, such as hearing aids, bone conduction hearing devices or cochlear implants. More information about the technology that deaf children may use can be found in Appendix 2.
Hearing technologies cannot replace normal hearing. Although they are programmed to help the wearer hear speech, a lot of background noise is also made up of speech sounds. This may mean pupils will find it hard to understand speech in group learning, a noisy playground or open-plan break out space. Also, sounds ‘bounce’ off hard surfaces making it harder for pupils to identify individual voices. They may have problems hearing in a classroom, gym or dining hall with wooden floors and hard surfaces.
Acquired or a change in deafness
Children may start school or pre-school without a diagnosis of deafness or acquire a permanent hearing loss while at school. At primary age this is most likely to happen following a serious illness, such as meningitis, but it can happen at any time.
It is important for staff to look out for any possible signs of deafness and to monitor deaf children’s hearing levels in case of deterioration.
For more information on causes of hearing loss or to find links to charities and support groups, visit: www.ndcs.org.uk/causesofdeafness.
Deafness and additional needs
Many children with learning difficulties and/or other disabilities are also deaf. Often the child’s deafness is overshadowed by their other difficulties. It is important to take steps to address the impact of the deafness so that they can access learning, communicate and socialise.
Mild, unilateral or temporary hearing loss
Many children with a mild hearing loss or glue ear do not wear hearing technology and will not receive support from a Teacher of the Deaf. However, information is available on the EA Sensory Service website. In many cases these children have normal speech and language development and they do well. However, for some children, mild, unilateral or temporary deafness can have a significant and adverse impact on their development.
Children with a mild hearing loss, unlike adults, may not be able to filter out background noise. They may also lack the knowledge, vocabulary and context to be able to work out what has been said if they mishear. This means they miss out on a lot of the new vocabulary and concepts being taught every day in educational settings.
Other challenges include:
- difficulties in hearing speech on one side and locating the source of sound
- missing key information
- tiredness, frustration and a shorter attention span
- difficulties participating in group discussions and activities
- speech, language and literacy difficulties.
Identifying deafness
Children may start school or pre-school without a diagnosis of hearing loss or acquire a permanent hearing loss while at school. It is therefore important for staff to look out for any of the possible signs of hearing loss. These may include:
- not responding when called
- watching faces or lips intently
- constantly asking for repetition
- not always following instructions straight away
- misunderstanding or ignoring instructions
- watching what others are doing before doing it themselves
- seeking assistance from peers
- talking either too loudly or too softly
- appearing inattentive or as though daydreaming
- making little or no contribution to class discussions
- complaining about not being able to hear
- tiring easily
- becoming easily frustrated
- appearing isolated and less involved in social group activities
- difficulties identifying or producing individual speech sounds.
Children with temporary hearing loss may demonstrate these behaviours intermittently.
If any member of staff is concerned that a child may have an undiagnosed hearing loss, the school should discuss the matter with the family and suggest that their child is taken to the GP.
Impact of deafness on development and learning
Deaf children have a diverse range of needs. These include different types of hearing technologies and different ways of communicating and learning. It is important to find out from the child, their family and the Teacher of the Deaf what their hearing, learning and communication preferences are and how best to support them.
The table below includes strategies to support deaf pupils’ needs so they can make the same progress as other pupils of a similar age and cognitive ability. It’s important to note that the child’s hearing technology should be used effectively and appropriately at all times.
| You should be aware of: | Teaching, learning and support strategies |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Slower communication and language development, with reduced vocabulary and understanding of words and concepts. | - Find out the pupil’s communication needs. Find out the pupil’s language levels from regular assessment and any recommendations or targets that have been set.
- Monitor and develop language skills through focused interventions.
- Use visual aids and everyday items to support understanding.
- Minimise use of idioms and colloquialisms but keep language rich and varied.
- Think about how language is used and not just what’s said (pragmatics).
- Support social skills.
- Identify and teach key vocabulary and share with parents and other professionals.
- Develop vocabulary associated with emotions and feelings through discussions around events, others’ points of view and book sharing.
- Check understanding and clarify and rephrase if needed.
- Involve parents in interventions to support learning. |
| You should be aware of: | Teaching, learning and support strategies |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Difficulties with listening skills, such as processing spoken language and accessing certain speech sounds, or less well-developed listening skills. | Provide a quiet area if required. Keep background noise to a minimum and be aware of the limitations of hearing technologies. Make sure hearing technologies are being used correctly and appropriately. Model and share strategies that support active listening behaviours, such as signalling when you want the child to listen. |
| Difficulties with accessing certain speech sounds. | Plan activities that build upon and develop the child’s listening skills. Chunk information and provide visual information to support the child’s understanding. Allow children time to respond to questions. Repeat and clarify peer responses. |
| Difficulties maintaining attention and concentration during activities that include a lot of lip-reading and listening. | Be aware of which speech sounds the child can and can’t hear and adapt teaching to take this into account. Deliver activities that demand careful listening in a quiet environment. |
| | Be aware that group work is particularly challenging for deaf pupils. |
| | • Encourage pupils to talk one at a time. |
| | • Ask pupils to signal when they’re about to talk. |
| | • Reduce background noise. |
| | Think about the length and pace of learning sessions and offer listening breaks. |
| | Repeat and clarify peer responses and contributions. |
| | Provide visual information such as pictures and objects to support teaching points. |
| You should be aware of: | Teaching, learning and support strategies |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Delayed literacy skills and difficulties with grammar and spelling. | Support phonological awareness and access to speech sounds that may be difficult to hear or identify. Share texts and books before and after they’re taught. Identify and teach unfamiliar vocabulary, colloquialisms, idioms and phrases. Draw attention to tense endings and function words deaf children may not hear. Use pictures and real-life events to stimulate ideas. Encourage children to talk through their ideas before writing. Use writing frames to help the child structure their ideas. Create word mats with key vocabulary or prompt sheets to support grammatical rules. Encourage children to review texts and select important information. Use specific programmes, resources and strategies to target areas of difficulty. Ask the Teacher of the Deaf or speech and language therapist to support you with this. Go to [PAGE NUMBER] to find out more about the role of a speech and language therapist. |
| You should be aware of: | Teaching, learning and support strategies |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Challenges with working memory and auditory memory. | Carry out activities that support memory including ‘Kim’s game’, repetition of key information such as times tables, days of the week and learning songs and rhymes. Break tasks into simple steps and make sure the child has mastered the first step before going on to the next. While they may understand what they are being asked, they still might not be able to do it. |
| **You should be aware of:** | **Teaching, learning and support strategies** |
|-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| Difficulties with multitasking, for example, carrying out an activity while listening or lip-reading. | Stop activity when delivering key information. Give more time to process information. Allow time for children to write down information before talking. Use communication support workers (CSWs) or learning assistants to record information, allowing the child to focus on listening. |
| Difficulties around incidental learning – deaf pupils may have a smaller or reduced knowledge of the world because they struggle to pick up what others are saying. | Provide opportunities for pupils to talk about wider issues, such as non-routine events or days out, before they happen. Use books and texts as a springboard for discussing wider issues. Encourage children to ask questions and find answers. Encourage classmates to include deaf children fully in conversations and discussions. |
| Social skills – deafness may cause difficulties with friendships, everyday social situations and responding appropriately in unfamiliar and new situations. | Make sure peers are deaf aware and can communicate appropriately with the deaf pupil. Create opportunities for small group work and activities in which pupils can practise: |
Use clear, specific language when making requests and, if appropriate, show the child what you want them to do.
A donation has been made in your behalf to the National Deaf Children Society.
Create a working memory prompt sheet to lessen the working memory load (for example, times tables, spelling rules or word mat).
Encourage the child to ask for help.
Ask peers to support with instructions and completing tasks to allow the child to get started straight away rather than wait for the teacher.
Encourage the child to write down verbal information or draw picture/take photos of important things they may need to remember.
| You should be aware of: | Teaching, learning and support strategies |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Promoting deaf pupils’ self-esteem and pupil voice. Deaf pupils may need support to develop resilience, feel confident about their deaf identity and advocate to have their needs met. | Make sure that disabilities including deafness are included in the curriculum. Promote the child’s deaf identity through:
- providing information to both the child and their family that supports their decision-making and enables them to be fully involved in their child’s education, both formally and informally
- providing opportunities for deaf children and their families to meet deaf peers, deaf adults and role models |
• explaining to children and their families how to explain and talk about their deafness so their needs are met
• supporting the development of resilience and problem-solving strategies when coming up against everyday challenges
• supporting their potential to be as independent as possible and lead a ‘normal life’.
Fully include the deaf child in discussions, reviews, target-setting and decision-making using a range of strategies and resources.
Use specific resources and training developed for supporting deaf children, for example, our Healthy Minds programme:
www.ndcs.org.uk/healthyminds.
An effective school will understand the impact of deafness on learning and reduce this impact by using strategies and adaptations that support deaf pupils to achieve their academic potential.
Working together to support deaf children
Early years settings
Much of the guidance on the communication and learning needs of deaf children, and on transition into and out of settings in this booklet, will be useful for anyone working with deaf children, regardless of the educational setting.
However, if you are working in one of the below educational settings please read our detailed guidance on supporting the achievement of deaf children in early years settings at www.ndcs.org.uk/supporting-the-achievement-of-hearing-impaired-children-in-early-years-settings.
- Parent and toddler group
- Nursery or playgroup
- Crèche
- Pre-school
- At home, if you are a childminder
Staff in these settings will have valuable childcare experience that will benefit deaf children. Because of their hearing loss, the deaf child will have particular needs that are different from hearing children. The guidance will help you to:
- make sure the environment and activities in your early years setting are accessible for deaf children
- enable the deaf child to make progress towards achieving early learning goals, particularly in the area of language development
- work closely with the families to fully understand the impact of the deafness on their development
- know where to go for extra support.
A Deaf-friendly setting
It is very important that there is a ‘whole school’ approach to the education of deaf children. This means that all members of staff throughout the setting are aware of deaf children’s needs and work alongside specialist professionals to ensure the best possible support. To be a deaf-friendly setting, there needs to be a positive attitude towards deafness and deaf issues. This can be achieved by making sure that the governors and senior managers are also firmly committed to supporting deaf pupils.
All staff working in primary and secondary settings should be aware of how to:
- identify the signs of deafness in a child
- understand the educational, social and developmental implications of deafness
- know how to support deaf children so they can achieve alongside their peers.
The lists below explain how different staff members can support the achievement and inclusion of deaf pupils. They focus on the roles that are specific to the needs resulting from pupils’ deafness.
**Special Educational Needs Coordinator/Learning Support Co-ordinator (SENCo/LSC)**
The SENCo (in future to be known as LSC) is responsible for coordinating the special educational provision made for the child and for any decisions made. Drawing on guidance from a Teacher of the Deaf (ToD), the SENCo will:
- ensure the setting receives all information on the pupil’s deafness and its implications, before starting in September
- ensure the required hearing technologies, adjustments to the acoustic environment, classroom and support staff are in place for the start of term
- ensure all information about the pupil’s needs and how to meet them is communicated to other staff
- ensure the setting works cooperatively with other health and education specialists who are supporting the pupil
- organise staff training, such as deaf awareness training
- ensure teaching assistants have the knowledge and skills to support the pupil, including at least a Level 3 Irish Sign Language (ISL) or British Sign Language (BSL) qualification or equivalent for pupils who require signed support
- find out what arrangements should be in place for testing and assessment
- ensure that information about the deaf pupil is available on the school portal for supply staff.
**Class or form teacher**
The class teacher is responsible and accountable for the progress of all pupils in their class. They will need to:
- understand the child’s capabilities and the impact of their deafness
- be aware of the pupil’s communication needs and know how to communicate with them
understand the pupil’s needs and the implications for accessing lessons and activities
adapt the teaching approach to ensure the pupil can access teaching and learning
understand the benefits of hearing technologies and know how to use them
make the necessary adaptations to ensure a good acoustic environment
identify the pupil’s social needs and support their social skills and friendships, and where appropriate offer pastoral support
encourage peers to understand the pupil’s needs and the support they can give
facilitate effective links between the home and setting, encouraging parents to express any concerns or worries
ensure behaviour management strategies take account of the pupil’s deafness
promote the development of independence skills
**Bursar or property manager**
Makes changes to improve, for example, listening conditions in the setting such as improving room acoustics or installing soundfield systems. There is more information about soundfield systems in Appendix 2.
**School senior management**
Promotes person-centred planning and an inclusive approach.
Make quality assurance arrangements to ensure deaf pupils are accessing teaching and learning (for example, tracking and classroom observation, pupil feedback).
**Teaching assistants’ and communication support workers**
“Effective working with TAs should:
- raise the achievement of deaf pupils, narrowing any attainment gap with other children;
- enable the inclusion of deaf pupils in school activities;
- encourage independent learning.”
---
3This section summarises key points from *Raising the Achievement of Pupils with a Hearing Impairment: Effective working with teaching assistants in schools*, produced by the National Sensory Impairment Partnership (NatSIP) in 2012, available from [http://www.natsip.org.uk/doc-library-login/curriculum/teaching-assistant-guidance/410-01-teaching-assistant-guidance-for-hi](http://www.natsip.org.uk/doc-library-login/curriculum/teaching-assistant-guidance/410-01-teaching-assistant-guidance-for-hi)
Communication support workers
Some deaf pupils may need additional communication support to access what the teacher and other pupils are saying. The teaching assistant can have an additional role as a Sign Language (BSL or ISL) interpreter but they may have a qualification in communication support and be referred to as a communication support worker (CSW). They will do this as well as their teaching assistant responsibilities.
Working with a CSW: tips for teachers
- Remember there is a time lag between what you say and it being interpreted. So, for example, if you ask the class a question, allow the pupil time to watch the CSW and form a reply.
- Ensure the CSW has a copy of the lesson plan and resources (textbooks, videos etc.) you intend to use so that they can prepare and ask questions if they do not understand anything.
- Plan activities with regular breaks, as interpreting and reading an interpreter can be hard, tiring work.
- Speak directly to the pupil and not the interpreter.
Remember that the deaf pupil will be watching the CSW to access the lesson so try to avoid tasks that require divided attention. For example, if carrying out a demonstration, build in time so that the pupil can look at the demonstration and turn their attention back to the CSW, otherwise they will miss the explanation.
Make sure there is space for the CSW to stand near the pupil and the lighting is good.
The setting will need to be confident that communication support workers have good enough BSL/ISL skills to translate the curriculum and provide a fluent language model.\(^4\)
When they start school, deaf pupils will have the level and type of support decided and arranged by the Teacher of the Deaf and SENCo.
Involving the deaf pupil and their family
It is important to involve the deaf pupil and their family in determining the type of support they receive. Deaf children do best when settings work in partnership with parents. Settings can facilitate person-centred planning for deaf pupils through:
---
\(^4\)The National Sensory Impairment Partnership (NatSIP) recommends that a communication support worker should have a Level 3 qualification in BSL, which is roughly equivalent to an A-Level. Schools should seek specialist advice from a Teacher of the Deaf on this issue, where needed.
• actively seeking input from the pupil and their family about provision and support and providing appropriate facilities for meetings, such as a portable soundfield system or an interpreter for deaf family members
• providing information to others supporting the child on their progress – for example, informing the Teacher of the Deaf about how well personal hearing technology is working
• ensuring school staff have the time for necessary liaison with parents and other professionals who support the child
• contributing to multidisciplinary assessments and any resulting support plan.
**Keeping parents involved** – Parents must be kept well-informed about the provision for their child through regular review meetings where progress can be discussed.
It is important to plan with parents when and how they can expect to receive this information.
**Establishing good communication between the home and setting**
Communicating everyday information between setting and home can be hard for deaf children who may miss or misunderstand verbal information or instructions. To help, you can:
- agree a regular way for staff to update parents by emailing, meeting or phoning
- send text messages to ask parents to look out for information coming home or when a pre-planned activity is imminent
- nominate a member of staff to ensure confidential information reaches parents in a secure way.
**Professionals who support deaf pupils may include the following:**
**Teachers of the Deaf (ToD)**
“I have a Teacher of the Deaf who comes in and checks my progress in school once in a while. The extra support means that I am able to be educated at the same level as my classmates even if I need a little more help to understand the work. I think if I didn’t have this extra support in all my years I would not be where I am today.”
– Pupil
In many areas, a child with a permanent moderate to profound hearing loss will receive regular support from a Teacher of the Deaf who has a mandatory qualification in deaf education. They may have supported the deaf child and their family since diagnosis.
A child with a mild temporary hearing loss or a loss in one ear may not meet the criteria for regular support, but the Teacher of the Deaf may be able to advise the setting on ways to meet their needs. The setting SENCo should contact the Education Authority’s Sensory Service for advice or support.
**Speech and language therapist**
Deaf pupils may also get support from a speech and language therapist, who will assess how well their speech, language and communication skills are developing. The speech and language therapist may work directly with the pupil or suggest programmes for the setting and family to implement. They monitor and assess the pupil’s progress and suggest interventions and activities.
**Audiologists**
Audiologists carry out hearing tests, determine the level and type of hearing loss a child has and discuss with parents the options available. They fit hearing aids and review the child’s progress with their hearing aids.
Audiologists work with the Teacher of the Deaf or educational audiologist to ensure that the pupil’s hearing technologies, for example, radio aids and hearing aids, are working together effectively.
**Educational audiologists**
Educational audiologists are Teachers of the Deaf with an additional qualification in educational audiology and offer specialist advice on acoustics and hearing technologies.
Deaf-friendly teaching
Starting school or pre-school is an exciting and challenging time for any child.
When working with deaf children, you will need to consider:
- new learning environments with varying quality in listening conditions
- managing hearing technologies throughout the day
- lots of new relationships and names
- varying deaf awareness levels among staff and pupils
- more demanding subject content and school-specific vocabulary
- making new friends
- differing expectations of behaviour and independence
- a longer and more demanding day.
**Contact prior to starting school**
Meeting with the deaf child’s family before they start school means you can gather important information about their needs and make sure they have a successful start to school. It gives you an opportunity to respond to any worries parents may have about their child starting at school. You will be able to plan for the family’s needs and aspirations and help them to feel valued, welcomed and involved in their child’s education.
Periods of change can be made less daunting if parents’ views are respected and they feel that they have made a meaningful contribution to the move.
We have lots more information for parents on how they can help their child prepare for school at [www.ndcs.org.uk/preparingforprimary](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/preparingforprimary) and [www.ndcs.org.uk/preparingforsecondary](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/preparingforsecondary).
**The transition plan**
Preparing for transition is key to a successful start to school. A good transition plan can help to identify and provide solutions to potential challenges and ensures a successful start to school. It should:
- be prepared well in advance of the pupil starting primary school to give time for the support arrangements to be put in place
- clearly identify the staff member responsible for preparing the plan and coordinating its implementation
involve the child and their family and use information they have from specialist assessments to inform the content.
It may include:
- employment of learning support assistant or CSW
- staff training on deafness
- visits for the whole family to the new setting
- provision of photos of key staff and school areas
- opportunities for the child to talk about their hearing loss and be able to ask for help with hearing technologies
- opportunities for the child to practice managing and monitoring hearing technologies
- arrangements for promoting and supporting social development
- identification of a member of staff responsible for preparing the plan and coordinating its implementation
- aspirations of the deaf pupils and their family
- thorough analysis of the pupil’s needs and strengths including specialist assessments.
Example checklist for collecting information to support the transfer from the early years setting.
| Transition plan |
|-----------------|
| **Pupil name:** |
| **Early years setting:** |
| **Early years setting contact:** |
| **Parents:** |
| **Teacher of the Deaf:** |
| **Teacher in charge of coordinating plan:** |
| Hearing and personal technology | Information required | Actions |
|---------------------------------|----------------------|---------|
| Type and level of deafness | | What needs to be done to improve access to sound? For example, providing radio aids, improving acoustics, using soundfield systems. |
| Un-aided hearing level | | What needs to be done to make sure hearing technologies are being used correctly and well? For example, daily checks by staff of batteries, tubing etc and developing the pupil’s skills in managing their own technology. |
| Aided hearing level | | |
| Listening in different | | What are the health and safety implications, for example, fire drills? |
| environments (for example, | | |
| classrooms or hallways) | | |
| Sounds or words that are | | |
| difficult to hear | | |
| Personal hearing technology | | |
| used | | |
| When it is used | | |
| How well the pupil uses it | | |
| Communication and Language | Information required | Actions |
|---------------------------------|----------------------|---------|
| Preferred way of communicating | | What needs to be done in class to support access to teaching and learning including, for example: |
| in different locations and | | - seating position to allow for lip-reading |
| situations (class, home, with | | - ensuring good acoustics |
| friends) | | - using radio aids |
| Competence in preferred way of | | - using a soundfield system |
| communicating | | - advice/training for teachers |
| Lip-reading ability | | - providing CSWs with Level 3 BSL or ISL qualification for pupils who use BSL or ISL. |
| Language | Information required | Actions |
|----------|----------------------|---------|
| | Levels of understanding of language | How does this compare with hearing pupils? What are the implications for learning? For example, more processing time? If a gap exists, what targets should be set to close the gap and what support or interventions are required to achieve them? What are the implications for teaching? |
| | Level of expressive language | |
| | Vocabulary level | |
| | Reading level | |
| | Writing level | |
| | Social interaction and use of language | |
| Cognition | Information required | Actions |
|-----------|----------------------|---------|
| | Non-verbal cognitive skills to: | What needs to be done ensure that teachers have the right expectation and aspirations? What needs to be done to address any other underlying difficulties the pupil may be experiencing? |
| | - make sure teachers have informed expectations | |
| | - check whether there are other underlying learning difficulties. | |
| Progress in curricular areas | Information required | Actions |
|-----------------------------|----------------------|---------|
| | Progress in different curricular and extracurricular areas | Is more support required in particular areas? What targets need to be set? |
| Are there particular strengths? | |
| Are there particular difficulties? | |
| **Social and emotional wellbeing** | |
| **Information required** | **Actions** |
| Level of social interaction in class/school friendship groups | If levels of social interaction are low how can they be increased? |
| Knowledge and understanding of their hearing loss (the deaf child’s understanding and other children’s understanding) | What is their preferred friendship group? |
| Ability to manage their learning needs | Do other pupils need deaf awareness training and information on how to communicate with the deaf pupil? |
| | Would the pupil benefit from meeting other deaf pupils? |
| | Is the pupil able to self-advocate? |
| **Pupil’s views** | |
| **Information required** | **Actions** |
| What are the pupil’s hopes, aspirations and concerns about moving to a new school? | What information and opportunities are needed to help with the move? |
| What information and help do they think they need to support their move to a new school? | |
| Parent’s Views |
|----------------|
| **Information required** | **Actions** |
| What are the parents’ hopes, aspirations and concerns about their child moving to a new school? What information and help do they think they need to support their child’s move to a new school? | What information and opportunities are needed to help with the move, such as additional visits? |
| Other considerations |
|----------------------|
| **Information required** | **Actions** |
| Any other considerations:
- other difficulties or medical conditions or medical needs
- attendance issues
- behaviour issues. |
**Sharing information**
Once all the relevant information has been collected by the SENCo, the summary information should be shared with school staff. The following example information sheet could be distributed to staff (with the agreement of the pupil’s parents).
| Photo | General information |
|-------|---------------------|
| | **Pupil:** Ben Thomas |
| | **Year:** 3 |
| | **Teacher:** Mr Jones |
| | **SENCo:** Mrs Taylor |
**Hearing loss and hearing technology**
Ben has a severe sensorineural hearing loss in both ears and uses hearing aids and a radio aid.
**Communication**
Ben uses spoken English, but he has delayed language. He needs to be able to see the teacher’s face at all times.
**Learning and access**
- Ben will need to be sitting on the table closest to the front of the class so he can see the smart board and the teacher at all times.
- Anyone speaking needs to use the radio aid – this includes children speaking.
- You to check with Ben that all his equipment is working as he might not say if something is wrong.
**Remember:**
- Ben may not say if he doesn’t understand.
- Ben may need extra time to answer questions.
- Ben might not hear other children’s comments or answers so please repeat these.
- Ben may not understand or know certain vocabulary. Identify any new words or phrases before the lesson, which can be shared with his family and Mrs Taylor.
**Personal passports**
Some parents of deaf children may have prepared a ‘personal passport’ or an ‘information card’, containing key information about themselves and their needs. They can range from small, laminated cards that can be attached to a lanyard or a locker key and shown to ‘new’ people, to A4 sheets of paper with more detailed information.
We’ve given an example of a personal passport below and you can find more at www.ndcs.org.uk/passport.
**Angela-Marie Douglas**
I use a hearing aid.
**It helps if you…**
- face me when talking
- check I have understood what you’ve said
- use some simple signs to help me understand
- know it’s harder for me to listen when there’s lots of background noise.
**When using the radio aid…**
- remember to mute it when you’re not talking to me
- be careful not to let anything brush against or hit the microphone.
---
**An effective school will:**
- recognise the additional challenges that deaf children may face in starting formal education
- make sure that it has all the necessary information from the early years setting, other relevant professionals and parents well in advance of the transfer
- develop a transfer plan that identifies a lead member of staff responsible for ensuring that the move is successful for the deaf pupil, and that all the necessary provision is in place for the first day of term
- ensure that the transfer plan sets out what support needs to be provided to meet the deaf pupil’s needs and that it’s put in place – this includes ensuring that any necessary training is provided
- distribute relevant information on the deaf child to staff
- continue to monitor the success of the transfer through feedback from school staff, the deaf child and their family.
Starting at the new setting
Familiarisation/taster days should be carefully planned to enable the deaf pupil to take part fully in the activities provided and get to know key members of staff. The deaf pupils and their family may benefit from additional visits and access to photos of members of staff, maps and timetables.
Think about which form/class the deaf pupil is placed in. Is the teaching space a good listening and communication environment? Is the deaf child with members of their friendship group? At the start of term, deaf awareness training for all pupils is a great welcome for the deaf pupil.
Deaf awareness training for staff should take place prior to the start of the academic year so that the deaf pupil can feel confident in the support provided from the first day at the new school.
Planning for specialist hearing technology and improvements to acoustics should be in place before the deaf pupil transfers to the new setting. There should be opportunities for the child to talk about their deafness and to practice managing and monitoring hearing technologies.
Opportunities for supporting and developing friendships and attending activities and events outside the curriculum should be planned for.
Meetings and ongoing liaison with the family and key professionals should be scheduled during the transition phase, to ensure the transfer of working knowledge and information.
If the deaf young person is considering their post-16 options, we have lots of information to help you support the pupil plan for their future, whether they want to stay in education, enter the world of work or do something else, like travelling or volunteering. Visit www.ndcs.org.uk/post16.
Listening and communication
This chapter explains how you can make it easier for deaf pupils to listen and communicate in educational settings through:
- the use of hearing technology
- good communication skills
- creating good listening environments
- promoting effective communication throughout the setting.
Hearing technology
Many deaf children use personal hearing technologies such as hearing aids, cochlear implants and bone conduction hearing devices to support their access to spoken language and sound. Remember that hearing technologies do not correct hearing.
It is essential that:
- a child’s hearing technology is always working
- hearing technology is used both in and outside the classroom
- all staff understand the uses and limitations of hearing technologies and can support the child to use them both appropriately and sensitively
- a member of staff is trained to maintain and monitor the hearing technology daily, check for faults and troubleshoot.
A Teacher of the Deaf from the Sensory Service in the Education Authority can provide training for school staff.
There are a series of how-to films to support this work available at www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL7B1043ABAEC9A100.
Making sure all members of your school community are familiar with the pupil’s technology and how to use it will make a big difference to the deaf pupil.
Below is an example of information that could be included.
### Example: Notes to staff
| Hearing loss and hearing technology |
|-------------------------------------|
| **Priya:** |
| - is profoundly deaf |
| - wears two hearing aids |
| - uses a radio aid in all lessons (see attached guidelines) |
| - uses your face and lip patterns to supplement her hearing. |
| **Priya can:** | **Support for Priya:** |
|-------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| - hear speech sounds and follow a simple one-to-one conversation in a quiet environment |
| - take out her hearing aids and put them in with support |
| - tell you if the radio aid isn't working. |
| - Priya won’t hear you when you’re talking to the class if you’re not using the radio aid, so turn it on before you talk and make sure she is looking at you. |
| - She will need an adult in her group for group discussion work to make sure all the other children are following the deaf awareness rules they’ve been taught. |
| - Priya will need help to change her batteries. They’re kept in the desk drawer. |
You can find more information on hearing technology in Appendix 2. Our resource *Hearing Aids: Information for families* gives more detailed information about hearing aids and how to look after them. Visit [www.ndcs.org.uk/hearingaidsguide](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/hearingaidsguide).
### Radio aids
Many deaf pupils benefit from using a radio aid with their main hearing technology. Radio aids reduce problems caused by background noise and when there is a distance between the speaker and pupil. They do this by carrying the teacher’s voice directly via a microphone to a receiver attached to the pupil’s hearing technology. The Sensory Service can advise on radio aids.
“The radio aid has dramatically improved my child’s life at school and she would not want to be without one in an education setting. The radio aid is used every day in school and all the teachers are able to use this simple but effective device.”
- Parent
When using radio aids, teachers should:
- switch the transmitter on when talking to the whole class or a group in which the deaf pupil is working
- wear the microphone about 15cm from the mouth
- switch it off or mute the microphone when having a conversation that the deaf pupil does not need to hear (the signal can travel some distance and even through some walls)
- avoid standing in a noisy place, such as next to an overhead projector or open window, as the microphone will pick up background noise and transmit this to the deaf pupil
- avoid letting the microphone knock against clothing or jewellery
- make the handover and return of any hearing technology during lessons as smooth and inconspicuous as possible
- ask the Teacher of the Deaf about leads from the radio aid to audio equipment such as the interactive whiteboard, soundfield system or computer.
We offer deaf children, their families and the professionals working with them the opportunity to borrow radio aids and try them out in their own home or at school through our Technology Test Drive: www.ndcs.org.uk/test-drive.
For further information download our resource, How Radio Aids Can Help, at www.ndcs.org.uk/radioaids.
**Soundfield system**
A soundfield system can make it easier for the pupil to hear your voice wherever you are in the room. Your voice is amplified via a microphone to a base station placed within the room. This amplifies and enhances the speech and then broadcasts it from speakers positioned around the room. Portable systems are available.
The communication environment
A good communication environment is crucial for children to be able to learn and socialise. Even a mild hearing loss can result in children missing up to 50% of everyday classroom language.\(^5\) Settings provide a wide variety of excellent opportunities for every pupil to develop their communication and language skills.
Here are some simple strategies that can be used to optimise the communication environment.
- Take the time to find out how the deaf pupil prefers to communicate.
- Find out simple things, such as a preferred seating position, which support the deaf child to access learning.
- Make sure that you have the deaf pupil’s attention before you start talking.
- Speak clearly and at your normal level and pace – speaking too slowly or exaggerating mouth patterns will make you harder to understand.
- Allow the deaf pupil to see your face and lips when speaking – putting something in front of your face or turning to the smart board will make it difficult for them to lip-read.
- Make sure you are not standing with your back to a light source as a shadow cast across your face can obstruct the deaf pupil’s view.
- Check that the pupil understands what has been said in a sensitive way, for example asking questions such as ‘Who can tell me what we are going to need for this lesson?’ or repeating or rephrasing if needed.
- When working with a CSW, make sure the deaf pupil can see you both. Speak directly to the pupil, not the CSW.
- Allow time for pupils to move their attention between you and other information when you speak so they can use your facial cue and lip patterns to help them understand.
- If you need to turn off the lights (for example to watch a DVD), make sure all spoken instructions or explanations are given beforehand.
- Repeat any questions that other pupils in the classroom may have raised before answering them.
\(^5\) Ear Foundation. *Research on Experiences of Children with Mild and Moderate Deafness*. 2015. National Deaf Children’s Society, London.
Seek advice from a Teacher of the Deaf on ways of communicating to meet the child’s needs, for example, where English is an additional language or the pupil has additional needs.
“People face the wrong way when talking.”
- Pupil
**Involving peers**
Being able to communicate with friends and peers is key to promoting deaf children’s mental health social development and helping them to feel fully included. To help with this, teachers can:
- support classmates to be ‘deaf aware’
- ensure that all pupils in the class understand how background noise affects the listening environment and how to communicate with the deaf pupil
- encourage deaf pupils and classmates to let each other know when there is a breakdown in communication and how to re-establish it
- support social situations and identify when interventions and social groups would be helpful
- if the deaf pupil signs, help other children to develop signing skills – signed speech can also clarify and reinforce linguistic understanding for all pupils
- in agreement with the deaf pupil, select nominated hearing peers or ‘hearing buddies’ who can explain rules
- set up ‘quiet zones’ inside and outside the school where deaf pupils can go to communicate with their friends.
“I have to explain what my hearing aids are all the time.”
- Pupil
Our short films for mainstream schools cover all aspects of deaf awareness within a school and include interviews with deaf pupils, their parents and school staff. For primary schools [www.ndcs.org.uk/heretolearn](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/heretolearn) and for secondary schools [www.ndcs.org.uk/secondaryschoolvideos](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/secondaryschoolvideos).
**Creating a good listening environment**
“…the noise people make around me in class – it gives me headaches and I don’t like it. If I can’t hear what is happening in class, I don’t understand what to do.”
- Pupil
No technology can replace normal hearing. It is most effective when there is a good listening environment. The listening environment in a typical classroom can be very poor. To listen to what it can sound like for a deaf pupil in a classroom visit our webpage www.ndcs.org.uk/simulation.
A good listening environment benefits all pupils. Deaf pupils will have trouble in learning when:
- there is a lot of reverberation and echo in a room (i.e. poor acoustics). Reverberation happens when sound bounces off hard surfaces. This distorts what is heard through the hearing technology worn by the deaf pupil
- background noise drowns out the voice of the teacher.
Remember, children are less likely than adults to be able to work out what is being said in noisy environments.
**Encourage active listening**
Hearing is not the same as listening because listening involves the brain. Active listening is when the child hears sound and then turns this into useful information.
There are many education resources available including posters, labels, worksheets, rhymes, widgets, picture prompts and encouragement charts, which can promote listening skills within the classroom. Think about promoting and developing listening skills through:
- asking pupils to listen out for pictures or words
- playing listening games on a regular basis – these can be provided by education suppliers but could be made by a teaching assistant to include routines and classroom instructions
- using the suggestions in this resource to adapt teaching strategies and enhance the listening experiences of the deaf pupil in your class
- asking and observing the deaf pupil to build up a picture of their listening experience at school. When specific problems are identified, respond promptly and make adaptations to improve listening conditions.
**Promoting effective communication across the setting**
Adaptations can be made to improve acoustics throughout the setting.
School managers should liaise with the Teacher of the Deaf or educational audiologist to ensure the school building meets the national minimum standard on acoustics. All teaching spaces should be regularly assessed, and adaptations put in place to reduce reverberation and background noise.
Settings can help reduce reverberation by:
- fitting curtains, carpets or blinds
- installing specialist acoustic treatments in rooms, for example, acoustic tiles, panels and door seals
- putting rubber tips or ‘hush ups’ on the bottom of chair and table legs
- using display drapes on walls
- covering hard surfaces with fabric
- padding the bottom of trays or pencil and pen pots with felt or foam.
Schools might also consider introducing a soundfield system to improve listening conditions. These systems are designed to improve listening conditions for all pupils in the classroom and in a hall. They can be used with or without hearing aids or cochlear implants. More information about soundfield systems can be found in Appendix 2.
**Reducing background noise**
Teachers can reduce background noise by doing the following.
| Closing doors to noisy areas or corridors. | Introducing classroom strategies that can establish and maintain a quiet working atmosphere within the classroom, including good behaviour management. |
|------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Closing windows to outside noise and closing curtains and blinds if necessary. | Encouraging pupils to develop an understanding of how classroom noises such as chairs scraping, doors banging, dropping objects, shouting and so on can interfere with what their deaf peer can hear. |
| Positioning full bookshelves and cupboards against partition walls (to minimise noise transfer from other rooms). | Liaising with colleagues in shared open-plan teaching areas, so as not to start a quiet reading session when the neighbouring class begins their music lesson, for example. |
| Raising awareness of noisy equipment such as heating or air conditioning systems. | |
| Turning off IT equipment such as interactive whiteboards, computers and overhead projectors, when not in use. | |
“I used to be frightened by loud noises and the sound of hand dryers in toilets. It is still difficult for me to deal with people who are shouting; the noise is very loud.”
– Pupil
Setting managers should:
- liaise with the Teacher of the Deaf or educational audiologist to ensure that all teaching spaces for deaf pupils are assessed and any required adaptations are made before the child starts school
- ensure new school buildings meet national minimum standards on acoustics and take note of the standards when considering improvements to school buildings
- ensure improvements in the listening environment are part of the setting’s longer-term plan for improving its accessibility for all pupils
- ensure that staff are implementing all the lower cost adaptations to reduce reverberation and background noise (see above).
For top tips for teachers to help make their classroom into a better listening environment and improve the attainment of deaf pupils, visit www.ndcs.org.uk/goodlisteningconditions.
6 High or first quality teaching
Teachers are responsible and accountable for the progress of all pupils in their care. Pupils who are deaf cover the whole range of ability. They have the same potential to attain and achieve as any other pupil given the right levels of support.
Most teaching and learning takes place through seeing and hearing. Deaf pupils are likely to need extra support to make the same progress as other pupils of a similar age and cognitive ability.
Teachers will need to make adaptations and put strategies in place to:
- manage and minimise the impact of deafness on the child’s learning
- develop metacognitive (awareness and understanding of your own thought processes) and learning skills
- provide access to the curriculum
- ensure deaf pupils can achieve their academic, emotional and social potential.
High quality teaching checklist
The checklist below sets out how to promote inclusive practice and remove challenges specific to deaf pupils.
| Adaptations and strategies | Observations |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|
| Seat pupils carefully so they can see you and also see their peers. | |
| Remember hearing technologies work less well over distance – consider using a radio aid. | |
| Gain pupil’s attention before giving important information. | |
| Keep background noise to a minimum. | |
| Slow down speech rate a little, but keep natural fluency. | |
| Use rich and varied language but repeat and clarify when necessary. | |
| Make sure you are confident using and managing the pupil's hearing technology. |
| Allow more thinking and talking time. |
| Model and teach active listening along with signals for when careful listening is required. |
| Don't stand in front of a window. |
| Repeat contributions from other children – their voices may be softer and speech unclear. |
| Encourage peers to signal when they are about to talk. |
| When appropriate check that oral information or instructions have been understood. |
| Face the pupil when speaking – they may be using your lip patterns. |
| Keep hands away from your mouth. |
| Provide the pupil with key vocabulary to use before or during the lesson. |
| Divide listening time into relatively short chunks. |
**Visual supports**
Visual supports help the deaf pupil to learn and access information, taking the pressure off being reliant on listening and speech or lip-reading. Visual supports illustrate new concepts and vocabulary, support visual memory skills and reinforce what has been learnt.
Wherever possible:
- support stories, songs and rhymes, instructions, class routines, trips out, the setting environment, spoken explanation and written texts with visual materials
- use real objects, story bags, puppets, photos, pictures, diagrams, illustrations, objects and artefacts to support learning and understanding
- point clearly to the visual clues you are using and when other members of the class refer to them during discussion
• use PowerPoint presentations via the interactive whiteboard to incorporate visual images supporting teaching
• use display work to consolidate and develop understanding – displays with pictures and captions provide important visual clues. It may also be useful to have a small whiteboard to hand so illustrations can be made to reinforce understanding
• use visual timetables and graphic organisers to support the child to understand and follow school routines
• use photo books to share information about home and setting
• allow enough time for the deaf pupil to look at the visual material before you start talking again – this gives them time to focus their attention back on you.
**Vocabulary resources and support handouts**
Deaf pupils may have reduced vocabulary in comparison to their hearing peers because they have fewer opportunities to overhear new and unfamiliar language. Strategies to support vocabulary include:
• identifying and teaching key vocabulary
• making topic or knowledge mats in which new vocabulary is embedded in context and learning.
• creating graphic organisers – also known as a knowledge maps, concept maps or story maps – using visual symbols to express knowledge, concepts, thoughts or ideas and the relationships between them.
More examples of topic mats and graphic organisers can be found on the EAL Nexus website at [www.bell-foundation.org.uk/eal-programme/guidance/effective-teaching-of-eal-learners/great-ideas](http://www.bell-foundation.org.uk/eal-programme/guidance/effective-teaching-of-eal-learners/great-ideas).
Twinkl also produce activities and games designed to develop British Sign Language, vocabulary and working memory, records and information sheets for audiology and resources to widen knowledge of deafness at [www.twinkl.co.uk](http://www.twinkl.co.uk).
**Pre- and post-teaching**
• Pre-teach to introduce new vocabulary and concepts. Post-teach to consolidate work covered.
• Sharing a book, text or key vocabulary and concepts before a lesson helps deaf pupils feel able to participate more fully in lessons.
• Revisiting a book or new vocabulary and concepts helps children and staff identify and fill in missing knowledge.
• Pre- and post-teaching should be part of the taught curriculum. Children should not be missing other learning opportunities such as PE or socialising opportunities such as break times.
**Small group work/teaching**
Deaf children benefit from learning in small groups. It is an ideal opportunity to practice turn taking, social skills and discussion techniques. However, group working can also be very challenging so it important to follow some simple rules, such as:
• think about the listening environment and position the group where there is a minimum of background noise and distractions
• make sure the deaf child can see the faces of all the children in the group
• make sure all hearing technologies are being used – the radio aid can be placed in the centre of the group or passed to the speaker
• teach the children to signal or identify who they are before they speak
• encourage children to speak one at a time
• repeat or clarify what has been said
• use a prompt sheet or remind children of the ‘group rules’ at the beginning of the session.
**Group reading**
This should be adapted for deaf pupils as per the group work guidelines. It can also help to:
• show the pupil the text before the lesson and, if necessary, go through it in a pre-tutoring session
• use a radio aid round the group, passing the transmitter between readers
• use a ‘buddy’ system where a hearing peer helps the pupil keep track of the text
• be aware that the child may feel anxious due to poor speech intelligibility
• make it clear when reading is stopped to discuss a specific point.
Using video clips
Deaf pupils may find it difficult to access spoken information from video clips because of the sound quality or lack of lip patterns. When possible:
- use the pupil’s radio aid or streamer to provide direct access to sound
- make sure that any video clips you show are subtitled. If no subtitles are available, you should provide a transcript
- use the automatic subtitling function for YouTube videos but be aware that there may be errors so check the quality of subtitles before showing a clip. Download our factsheet for more information on captions and subtitles and how to make online resources more accessible for deaf pupils at www.ndcs.org.uk/accessible-resources
- discuss the content you plan to watch with teaching assistants or support workers, giving them time to watch it and discuss any key points or vocabulary with the pupil
- some pupils might benefit from watching the content before or after the lesson, with their support worker or at home
- if appropriate, get a transcript or summary of the content (give plenty of notice as it takes time to transcribe)
- stop the video clips to allow notes to be taken – the pupil may miss information if they take notes while watching.
Making online content and remote learning accessible for deaf pupils
More and more content is now shared online. Online learning offers challenges and opportunities for all pupils, and it’s worth remembering that it can happen both remotely and in the classroom. Remote online learning has similar opportunities and challenges, but learners do not have access to the same social contact and support. This may negatively impact on deaf children who are at risk of greater isolation due to their communication and language needs.
We have lots more information on how to make online resources accessible to deaf children here: www.ndcs.org.uk/remote-learning-checklist.
Hands-on experience
Activities which involve hands-on learning will particularly benefit deaf children as they will bring the learning to life and allow a more visual approach to learning. Allow time for deaf pupils to watch what you are doing and then listen to instructions.
Classroom displays
The pictures, captions and information used by teachers to consolidate learning for the class will particularly benefit deaf pupils as they also provide opportunities for ‘incidental learning’ that deaf pupils may not pick up through overhearing.
Notetaking
Deaf pupils will find it difficult to lip-read the teacher and/or follow signing by the communication support worker and record information at the same time. The teaching assistant can record information, enabling the deaf pupil to concentrate on the content of the lesson. Information can be recorded in an age-appropriate way, for example, pictures on a whiteboard can be used in post-tutoring sessions or sent home for reinforcement.
Mind maps
Mind maps are an excellent way to present and record information pictorially for deaf pupils. This method can be learnt in age-appropriate stages to present or support the concepts being taught during a lesson, and to check the deaf pupil’s understanding of what has been taught.
Time to think
As the deaf pupil’s auditory memory may not be as well developed as other pupils it is important to:
- build processing time into lessons, particularly if they contain new information or a ‘question and answer’ session
- include opportunities for repetition in lesson time
- avoid overloading lessons with too much information or too much talk.
Reducing fatigue
Deaf children have to expend more concentration on listening. This can result in them tiring more quickly than their peers.
Try to:
- timetable lessons that need the most concentration for the morning session
- get to know what teaching methods or activities the deaf pupil finds most tiring –build in breaks and adapt activities to include tasks that do not solely rely on lip-reading
• keep oral instructions to a minimum – break down periods of spoken input into smaller sections within the overall lesson
• become familiar with signs of tiredness and fatigue so that you can intervene before the deaf pupil becomes frustrated.
**Setting homework**
Deaf pupils tell us that homework is often set when background noise is high, for example, at the end of a lesson.
Teachers should make sure that information about homework, including deadlines, is communicated clearly at a quiet point in the lesson with time allowed for questions. Deaf pupils will benefit from having their homework written down on paper or on the smartboard.
**Children who speak English as an additional language (EAL)**
According to the Consortium for Research into Deaf Education (CRIDE) 2021, 5% of deaf children in Northern Ireland use an additional spoken language other than English in education. Adaptations and strategies need to be implemented to ensure that the child is able to access the curriculum. These adaptations and strategies include:
• specialist support including from teachers, Teachers of the Deaf and support assistants
• improving the acoustic environment and minimising background noise
• consistent and effective use of hearing technologies
• differentiation of the curriculum to meet the needs of the individual learner
• effective pre- and post-tutoring, repetition, checking for understanding and the use of visual supports among others
• careful and consistent assessment and ongoing monitoring
• focused individual and small group activities to allow for learning in a smaller and quieter environment
• securing the involvement of parents in the child’s learning.
Our resource *Supporting the achievement of deaf children who use English as an additional language*, produced with support from The Bell Foundation, provides information and resources to help you to meet the needs of deaf EAL learners. It is available at [www.ndcs.org.uk/eal](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/eal).
Schools, colleges, universities and awarding bodies are all subject to laws that mean arrangements must be put in place for deaf students to access assessments and exams.
Access arrangements involve adjusting the way that assessments and tests are written or assessed. This is important for deaf pupils because they may have difficulties with language because of their deafness. It might be harder for them to be sure what they are being asked or to show what they know. One example of an access arrangement might be to give the pupil a short break to help with concentration fatigue.
We have information for deaf children and young people aged 8 to 18, about asking for reasonable adjustments at school and college on the Buzz at www.buzz.org.uk/articles/reasonable-adjustments-school-college-secondary.
When should access arrangements be made?
Not all deaf pupils require access arrangements; it will depend on the individual pupil and their deafness. The Teacher of the Deaf can advise on this.
Access arrangements should be discussed early so the pupil knows what to expect and the setting can decide. Access arrangements must reflect how the pupil usually works. This is so the access arrangements are familiar to them and they know what to expect.
For further advice and information on exam and assessment access and adaptations visit www.ndcs.org.uk/examaccessNI.
Specific information for Northern Ireland is available from the Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment (CCEA) at www.ccea.org.uk/examiner-centre-support/examinations-support/pre-examination-information/access-arrangements-and and from the EA Sensory Service at Exam Access Arrangements Guideline (Deaf) (eani.org.uk).
Exemptions
Sometimes a child’s needs, and the nature of the exam, will mean that it’s not possible to adjust the exam without fundamentally changing what’s being assessed. For example, some deaf young people might be unable to access the speaking and listening part of an English GCSE, but support such as a BSL or ISL interpreter would be inappropriate because the young person wouldn’t be displaying an understanding of the language in which they were being examined. Where no adjustment can be made, the deaf child might be given an exemption.
Remember, assessments which are completed online in which children follow spoken instructions may not be accessible to deaf children unless adaptations can be made. These could include:
- subtitles
- using technology such as audio input leads or a radio aid to boost the sound signal
- provision of a written transcript, which can be read to the pupil allowing them access to lip patterns and extra processing time.
Specialist assessments
Specialist assessments for deaf learners fall into two areas.
1. Access to learning to make sure deaf children are fully included in education.
2. Supporting the development of skills that allow children and young people to make decisions about their learning and become independent and autonomous learners.
Areas of development known to be at risk because of early childhood deafness will need regular assessment and benefit from early identification and early intervention.
We have produced a resource to support professionals in assessing and monitoring the progress of deaf young people in communication, language, listening, literacy, numeracy, cognitive development and social and emotional wellbeing. The resource is available at www.ndcs.org.uk/assessments.
Assessments, tests, exams and access arrangements
Supporting emotional health and wellbeing
A deaf child with good emotional health and wellbeing:
- feels good about themselves
- has an appropriate level of independence and feels able to influence the world around them
- has positive and warm relationships with others
- is resilient and able to bounce back from setbacks and move on from negative experiences
- has the language and communication skills to be able to express and understand their emotions
- acknowledges their deafness and is confident when dealing with any challenges they may face
- never apologises for being deaf.
“The school as a whole is very deaf aware, with the other children learning to sign, so interaction is good. One good thing the school does is the Christmas play. The children conduct the play and/or songs in sign, which is fantastic. The children do not feel excluded from the school as a whole. We are really pleased with things so far.”
- Parent
Our resource *What are you feeling?* is a guide to help deaf children understand and identify their emotions. You can download this resource from [www.ndcs.org.uk/whatareyoufeeling](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/whatareyoufeeling).
Emotional health and wellbeing in deaf pupils is influenced by several factors, including:
- Attitudes towards the pupil’s deafness.
- Do setting policies and procedures reflect deaf pupils’ needs, including communication needs?
- Are deaf pupils represented and fully included in all activities, both in the setting and out?
- Are there positive images of deafness in school?
• Approaches to language and communication. Many opportunities to socialise take place in the noisiest parts of the school, where deaf pupils are more likely to struggle to hear.
› Are there quiet places both inside and out where pupils can socialise one to one or in small groups?
› Does the child misunderstand current social language or worry about mishearing and misunderstanding?
› Are there opportunities for the child and their classmates to learn sign language?
• Knowledge of pragmatic language and social communication skills.
› Does the deaf child understand others’ viewpoints and perceptions? This is known as Theory of Mind and research suggests it can be delayed in deaf children.
› Does the child understand jokes and sarcasm?
› Are there opportunities to rehearse common social situations, for example a social skills group?
• Conversations about feelings. Social acceptance requires an understanding of social norms but hearing pupils acquire these by incidental learning experiences, which deaf pupils are less likely to have.
› Deaf children may need specific teaching to understand situations from other people’s perspectives. This is known as Theory of Mind and research suggests it can be delayed in deaf children.
• Family attitudes to deafness. Sometimes families struggle to accept their child’s deafness and/or their hearing technology. Remember the most important influence on a deaf child’s life is their family, therefore the emotional health and wellbeing of everyone in the family is also very important.
› Does the child’s family also need support?
• Peer attitudes towards deafness. Deaf pupils say that it’s helpful if their peers understand the problems presented by deafness and how to support them.
› Has the Teacher of the Deaf delivered peer awareness training?
› Have you asked deaf pupils to talk about their deafness and what helps them as part of a deaf awareness session?
“I think people should be more aware of deafness but accept that it can be hard to understand if you have not had experience of it.”
– Pupil
Our website offers plenty of information and advice on how to support the mental health and emotional wellbeing of both yourself and your child at www.ndcs.org.uk/wellbeing.
Building resilience
It is important for deaf children to have a positive self-image and be resilient. This will help them to deal with social situations and getting their needs met in the wider world. Setting staff can help pupils be resilient and have a positive self-image by:
- letting deaf pupils know that other children can also make mistakes, mishear or misunderstand and require time out. Deaf pupils may find it helpful to know they have similar experiences to their peers and that they are not the only one in class needing support
- supporting deaf pupils to have the correct language to talk about their deafness and providing opportunities to tell other members of the school community what will help them
- providing opportunities for deaf children to practice their social skills safely in small groups
- teaching pupils strategies that will help them cope with the unpredictable world outside school, particularly in relation to their deafness
- ensuring that visual aids, stories and other resources reflect the diversity of people in the community, which includes deaf children
- providing opportunities to meet other deaf children and deaf adults – parents or local deaf groups may be able to help provide these opportunities
- supporting deaf children to correctly ‘label’ their feelings.
Our Healthy Minds programme explores good emotional health and wellbeing for deaf young people. Tackling issues such as low self-esteem, isolation, stress and anxiety, it encourages deaf young people to use positive strategies for dealing with change, managing their deafness, developing their self-esteem and confidence and building a repertoire of social skills. For more information on Healthy Minds visit www.ndcs.org.uk/healthyminds.
Our website signposts to a range of resources to help professionals keep deaf children safe from harm or abuse, including our resources on online safety and preventing bullying. These are available at: www.ndcs.org.uk/bullyingadvice.
Theory of Mind
Many deaf pupils may have a delayed understanding of the thoughts, beliefs, intentions and emotions of other people, and perhaps themselves. This is known as Theory of Mind. Sometimes deaf children aren’t challenged in their Theory of Mind abilities as a result of their deafness, but as a result of the potentially restricting environments they may live and learn in. Having age-appropriate skills helps to safeguard deaf children and supports their abilities to make effective social connections with others.
Strategies to support Theory of Mind include:
- sharing books and talking about the characters and what they are thinking and feeling
- using language about thinking such as “I wonder why” or “what do you think might happen?”
- helping the pupil to think about what someone is thinking or feeling about someone else
- developing higher level language skills to understand what others’ mean when they are not speaking literally
- explicit teaching of figurative language, including metaphors, idioms and sarcasm
- think-alouds – where the pupil is asked to say out loud what they are thinking about when reading, solving math problems, or simply responding to questions posed by adults or their peers.
Pupil voice
It is important to engage with, listen to and involve deaf pupils in decision-making on a wide range of topics including learning, teaching, equipment, keeping healthy, feeling positive, keeping safe, being part of the community and being independent. This helps deaf pupils to understand how their deafness impacts on their lives and learn strategies to advocate for themselves and improve difficult situations.
You can support deaf pupils to be fully involved in decision-making by:
- teaching the skills and language needed so they can take part in decision-making
- recording conversations and interactions – they’re as valuable as formal feedback
- being specific: what do you want to find out about? What language are you going to use? Has the child understood the question? What are you going to do with the information? How are you going to feed back?
• considering using a deaf peer or friend to facilitate conversations around deaf-specific issues
• thinking about the best conditions for participation, for example, a quiet area with minimal background noise
• using a wide variety of strategies to collect feedback including online tools and visual resources such as pictures
• being aware of safeguarding procedures
• encouraging deaf pupils to take responsibility for their own deafness and to develop the confidence to ask for support.
If a deaf pupil experiences emotional or social difficulty that cannot be supported within school, they can be referred to other organisations for support, such as the National Deaf Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (Deaf CAMHS). The Teacher of the Deaf or local specialist educational service for deaf children should be able to advise on local services.
**Anti-bullying policy**
Deaf pupils are more vulnerable to bullying than hearing pupils. Settings face several challenges in identifying, responding to and preventing pupils with SEN and/or disabilities being bullied and victimised.
Staff can help prevent and deal with bullying by:
• giving the pupil time to give a full account of what happened, recognising that communication can be particularly difficult when they are upset
• ensuring the pupil and their parents know the school’s anti-bullying policy and understand related procedures
• ensuring the pupil understands the concept and different types of bullying – that all pupils tease and are teased, but unacceptable levels should be challenged and personal toleration levels should be respected
• identifying a staff member for the deaf pupil to discuss worries and concerns with
• regularly observing and monitoring the interaction between pupils and being alert to signs of bullying, such as a pupil:
> asking to stay inside at break time
> becoming anxious near lunch and home time
> not taking part in class activities
• providing opportunities or individual sessions for the pupil to decide and practice (for example, through role play) how to respond to bullying and how to problem-solve
• providing deaf awareness training for pupils and, when appropriate, involving the deaf pupil in choosing the content.
Our resource *Protecting deaf children from bullying: For primary and secondary schools* has been produced for any education professional working to support deaf pupils in primary and secondary schools. It has guidance on how schools can adapt existing arrangements to prevent bullying and for handling bullying incidents in order to meet the needs of deaf pupils. You can order or download the resource at [www.ndcs.org.uk/protecting](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/protecting).
Information for parents and young people are also available at [www.ndcs.org.uk/bullying](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/bullying).
**Behaviour**
Settings should strike a balance between making reasonable allowances for a pupil’s deafness and communication difficulties, while holding deaf pupils to the same behaviour standards as other pupils.
Challenging behaviour may be caused by:
- frustrations about not being able to hear or understand what is going on
- fatigue – deaf pupils can have a shorter attention span and tire more quickly as they have to concentrate hard to hear
- being teased or bullied about their deafness.
Schools can support positive behaviours by:
- making sure the child understands rules and routines
- explaining and talking through changes to the timetable and routines
- showing as well as explaining the rules and expectations, and the consequences of breaking them
- talking through difficult situations so the child understands what they have done wrong. Deaf pupils’ understanding of emotions and other people’s mental states may be less developed than their peers’, so it is important that they understand the reason for discipline and not just that they got caught.
For more information on deaf children’s wellbeing, resources and links to organisations that can support emotional and mental health, visit [www.ndcs.org.uk/wellbeing](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/wellbeing).
Quality improvement: Classroom observation and pupil feedback
Learning walks
Settings must make sure there is provision for all pupils with SEN and that teachers are responsible and accountable for the progress of all pupils in their class. Learning walks and classroom observations allow managers to assess how well interventions and support strategies for pupils with additional needs are working.
This checklist will help managers assess the extent to which deaf pupils are engaged in teaching and learning during lesson observation.
Quality improvement checklist for setting managers
| The teacher | Observations and recommendations |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| Is the teacher aware of the pupil’s level of deafness and implications for accessing learning? | |
| Has the teacher checked with the pupil that their hearing technology is being worn, is switched on and is working? | |
| Does the teacher know how to use a radio aid if the pupil needs one? | |
| Has the teacher taken steps to minimise background noise? | |
| Is the teacher’s language matched to the pupil’s needs? To what extent is the teacher repeating and reinforcing key points and checking understanding? | |
| Is the pupil seated in a position where they can hear and see the teacher for lip-reading but can also identify other speakers in the classroom and see the CSW to follow BSL delivery? | |
| Has the teacher used multisensory approaches (for example, visual clues) to help the pupil access learning? | |
6 This checklist is based on a pro forma designed by Helen Bate from Derbyshire local authority.
| Has the teacher enabled the pupil to follow classroom discussion by identifying speakers and repeating contributions and questions from others? | |
| --- | --- |
| Is the teacher using clear speech patterns and standing or sitting in a position where the pupil can see them for lip-reading? | |
| Is the teacher using good whiteboard practice, such as listing lesson objectives and new vocabulary? | |
**The support staff**
**Are support staff demonstrating that they:**
- are working under the guidance of the teacher and are fully familiar with the lesson plan and learning objectives?
- have sufficient knowledge of the subject being taught to be able to support the pupil with any pre-lesson preparation (introducing new concepts and vocabulary) or post-tutoring (to check full understanding)?
- are aware of their role in:
- implementing strategies and approaches to ensure access to teaching and learning?
- helping the pupil achieve the learning objectives and targets (including any pre- or post-tutoring, communication support)?
- (if they’re used as notetakers) are taking sufficiently full and accurate lesson notes?
- are providing the appropriate level of support to promote independent learning with a particular focus on helping the pupil develop understanding rather than just focusing on completing tasks?
- can help ensure hearing technology is functioning properly and know what to do if there is a problem?
- have the relevant qualification in BSL or ISL if the pupil needs sign support to access what is being said during the lesson?
- are fully aware of the specific needs of deaf pupils (type, degree of deafness, residual hearing, level of language)?
| The support staff | Observations and recommendations |
|-------------------|----------------------------------|
| **Is the pupil:** | |
| • able to follow what the teacher is saying? | |
| • engaged and active in learning? | |
| • confident and able to identify their own needs and strategies to support access to learning? | |
| • making effective use of hearing technologies and knows what to do if there are problems? | |
| • able to interact/communicate with adults and ask questions? | |
| • able to interact/communicate with peers? | |
| • confident after the lesson that they have achieved the learning objectives? | |
| • engaged with the learning task? | |
**Standards for specialist hearing support services**
The Sensory Service in Northern Ireland is not required to operate to specific standards. However, they voluntarily use the following quality standards and resources to review service development:
- NatSIP: Quality Standards for Sensory Support Services in England
- National Deaf Children’s Society Quality Standards: Early years support for children with a hearing loss, aged 0 to 5 (England)
- Newborn hearing screening programme quality standards
- NatSIP Quality Improvement Support Pack. *The Quality Improvement Support pack* is available at: [www.natsip.org.uk/doc-library-login/quality-improvement-for-services](http://www.natsip.org.uk/doc-library-login/quality-improvement-for-services)
- Education and Training (ETI) inspections ([www.etini.gov.uk/](http://www.etini.gov.uk/)).
All inspections by the Education and Training Inspectorate include an assessment of how SEN support is provided within the educational setting.
Pupil feedback
Seeking pupils’ views is an increasing part of a setting’s quality assurance systems. The following approach was developed by the Sensory Impairment Service in Oxfordshire. The questionnaire can be used annually with children and young people (more frequently when there are concerns about social inclusion).
The questionnaire is intentionally simple so children and young people can access and answer the questions independently. The questions may stimulate more in-depth discussions to identify areas of difficulty and possible intervention strategies. The percentage score provides a statistical measure (if appropriate) to demonstrate the effectiveness of interventions and improved outcomes.
Example: Pupil feedback form 1
Reproduced with the kind permission of the National Sensory Impairment Partnership (NatSIP) from its publication SEN Support and Outreach Services: Case studies to illustrate how different services are seeking to meet the quality standards (2012).
Recording and monitoring outcomes: Oxfordshire’s questionnaire
How’s it going?
| Point score | 10 | 7 | 4 | 0 |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|------|------|-------|
| I enjoy school | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| I feel safe at school | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| I do well at school | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| I am able to take part in activities that other children do | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| I feel I have friends | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| I enjoy breaks and lunchtimes | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| I feel comfortable when there is pair or group work | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| I can talk to an adult if I am worried about something | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| My teachers understand what I need and do things to help | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
| My support workers understand what I need and do things to help | Always | Most of the time | Some of the time | Never |
At school I enjoy...
At school I don’t enjoy...
Other things that would help me are...
Total point score/percentage:
Visit our webpage on creating good listening conditions for learning which includes a pupil feedback survey on listening conditions in the classroom, at www.ndcs.org.uk/acoustics.
Appendix 1: Types and levels of deafness
Types of deafness
Conductive deafness is when sound cannot pass through the outer and middle ear to reach the cochlea and auditory nerve. This hearing loss can be temporary or permanent. The most common cause during childhood is a temporary build-up of fluid in the middle ear known as ‘glue ear’.
Up to 80% of children will experience an episode of glue ear by the time they are aged 10. It is estimated that one in five of four-year-olds will be affected by glue ear at any one time. Teachers, particularly those teaching the youngest children, will have several pupils in their class who are experiencing difficulty in hearing.
For some children, glue ear can reduce hearing considerably for a protracted period and this has a significant impact on learning and progress.
Sensorineural (or nerve) deafness is when there is a problem in the inner ear (most often because the hair cells in the cochlea are not working properly) or with the auditory nerve. It reduces both your ability to hear quiet sounds and the quality of the sound that you do hear. Sensorineural deafness is permanent.
Mixed hearing loss is when there is a combination of sensorineural and conductive hearing loss, such as when a child has glue ear and a permanent sensorineural deafness.
Congenital and acquired deafness refers to children who are born deaf. Other children acquire deafness due to illness, accident or a late onset genetic condition.
Levels of deafness
Deafness is measured in two ways:
- how loud the sound has to be so that the child can hear it. This is measured in decibels (dB)
- which frequencies (pitch) the child can or cannot hear, measured in hertz (Hz).
Each child’s deafness is different depending on which frequencies are affected and how loud a sound has to be before they can hear.
Few children are totally deaf. Most children can hear some sounds at certain pitches and volumes, known as their ‘residual hearing’. There are different degrees of deafness classified as follows.
**Mild hearing loss**
Many young people with mild hearing loss do not use hearing technologies such as hearing aids, but a mild loss can still have a significant impact on education.
- Pupils may not hear if there is background noise or if they are far away from the speaker.
- Pupils would not be able to follow a whispered conversation.
To find out more about the impact of a mild hearing loss on children’s ability to learn download our resource *Mild Hearing Loss: Information for Professionals* at: [www.ndcs.org.uk/mildhearingloss](http://www.ndcs.org.uk/mildhearingloss).
**Moderate hearing loss**
Most pupils with a moderate hearing loss will use hearing aids. Without hearing aids, a pupil will not be able to hear a whole conversation unless they are in a quiet room with a good view of the speaker’s face.
Even with their hearing aids, pupils will find it extremely difficult to follow a conversation in a large group, if there is background noise or if they are far away from the speaker.
**Severe hearing loss**
Most pupils with a severe hearing loss will be using hearing aids or cochlear implants.
- A pupil will be unable to access conversation at normal levels without hearing aids or a cochlear implant but may be able to hear loud sounds such as a dog barking or a drum.
- With hearing aids or a cochlear implant most pupils will be able to follow a conversation within a quiet room provided that the speaker is within two to three metres of them.
- A pupil is likely to require additional communication support, for example, sign support or lip-reading, to understand speech in the presence of any background noise or within a group conversation.
Profound hearing loss
Most profoundly deaf pupils will use a cochlear implant or hearing aids.
- Without a cochlear implant or hearing aids a pupil will not be able to hear speech or other sounds. They may be able to feel very loud sounds such as a lorry passing them in the street.
- Without a cochlear implant or hearing aids the pupil is likely to use a sign-based language to communicate directly with another person.
- With cochlear implants or hearing aids the pupil may require additional communication support (for example through sign language or cued speech) to access speech, especially within background noise or within a group conversation.
- Some pupils may have a malformation of the inner ear – an absence or malformation of the cochlear or auditory nerve. This will mean they will have no direct access to sound at all. In these situations, hearing aids or cochlear implants would offer no benefit. They will use sign language as their main means of communication.
Visual representation of the loudness and pitch of a range of everyday sounds
This diagram is based on British Society of Audiology definitions of hearing loss.
The Teacher of the Deaf will be able to explain the individual deaf child’s level of hearing by using an audiogram, similar to the one above. An audiogram is a chart used by an audiologist to record the results of the hearing assessment and is a visual representation of the child’s hearing.
Unilateral deafness
There may be little or no hearing in one ear, but ordinary levels of hearing in the other.
The pupil will be unable to localise sound and follow group conversations and will find it difficult to understand speech in the presence of background noise.
Auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder (ANSD)
ANSD occurs when sounds are received normally by the cochlea but become disrupted as they travel to the brain. Pupils with ANSD are likely to have greater difficulty understanding speech, especially in the presence of background noise. They may have a similar experience to someone using a mobile phone when the reception is poor and the sounds they hear are distorted. Some pupils with auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder will use hearing aids or cochlear implants; others will not find them beneficial and therefore not use them.
Deaf culture
Less than 10% of deaf young people have deaf parents. These families often use British Sign Language (BSL) or Irish Sign Language (ISL) as the first language of the home. Other families may also choose to use sign language as a first language with their family members.
These families, and indeed many other deaf young people and adults, consider deafness as a culture rather than a disability. Within their community they use sign language and describe themselves as ‘Deaf’ with a capital D. Sign Language is the language of the Deaf community.
Appendix 2: Personal hearing technology
Below is an overview of the types of hearing technology you may come across, how they work and what limitations they have. It is important to note that hearing technologies do not replace normal hearing.
Hearing aids
A hearing aid amplifies sound and is worn in or behind the ear. It has three basic parts: a microphone, amplifier and speaker. Modern digital hearing aids can be programmed very closely to match the wearer’s hearing loss and often have multiple programmes for wearing in different listening environments.
Hearing aids are designed to maximise the hearing the wearer has (known as their residual hearing). If the pupil has no measurable hearing at all at certain frequencies, especially the higher frequencies such as ‘ss’ and ‘th’, then a hearing aid will not improve this.
Hearing aids are programmed to help the wearer hear speech, but they amplify all sounds, including background noise, so a deaf pupil wearing hearing aids may still find it hard to hear speech. This is especially challenging for them in group situations, in a noisy playground or open plan breakout space. They may also have problems hearing in a classroom, gym or dining hall with wooden floors, as sounds ‘bounce’ off hard surfaces making it harder to hear.
For more information on hearing aids see our resource Hearing Aids: Information for families at www.ndcs.org.uk/hearingaidsguide.
Cochlear implants
This is a surgically implanted hearing device for severely and profoundly deaf children when hearing aids are not powerful enough for them to hear the entire speech range. A cochlear implant works by stimulating the auditory nerves and bypassing the damaged nerve cells within the cochlea.
More information on cochlear implants can be found in our resource, Cochlear Implants: A guide for families, or at www.ndcs.org.uk/cochlearimplants.
Bone conduction hearing devices
A bone conduction hearing device is designed for people who have a functioning cochlea, but the middle or outer part of the ear prevents the information reaching the cochlea in the usual way. This allows sound waves to be transmitted directly to the cochlea in the inner ear. Young children wear the sound processor on a headband. Older children may have a bone conduction hearing implant which allows them to attach the sound processor directly to the skull.
More information can be found at www.ndcs.org.uk/boneconduction.
Radio aids
A radio aid carries the teacher’s voice directly to the pupil’s receiver attached to their hearing aid, bone conduction hearing device or cochlear implant. It reduces some of the problems presented by distance from the teacher and background noise. The microphone and transmitter are worn by the teacher and the receiver is worn by the pupil and attached to their hearing technology such as a hearing aid. Some radio aids can be used by pupils without personal hearing technology by wearing an earpiece receiver. This may be particularly useful for pupils with unilateral deafness, with the earpiece worn in their good ear. Schools should ask a Teacher of the Deaf or Educational Audiologist for tailored advice.
Most pupils will have their hearing technology programmed to allow them to hear from both the radio aid and their surroundings so that they can hear other pupils as well as the teacher. However, it is possible to programme their hearing technology to only hear the radio aid. Some radio aids have a microphone function which switches from an individual talker to a small group interaction mode, based on orientation of the device. This is particularly useful for group work. Otherwise, the microphone can be passed to pupils speaking in group work or class discussion. The radio aid transmitter can also be connected to equipment such as televisions or computers, via an audio lead, to assist clarity.
For further information see our resource How Radio Aids Can Help at www.ndcs.org.uk/how-radio-aids-can-help or visit www.ndcs.org.uk/how-technology-works.
Soundfield systems
Soundfield systems rely on a radio or wireless microphone worn by the teacher and loudspeakers, which are placed around the room. They project the teacher’s voice at a consistent level around the classroom. These systems can improve the listening conditions for all pupils in a classroom.
Portable systems are available that can be moved between learning spaces as required. Some systems can link with other classroom equipment such as smartboards.
A pupil may need to use a radio aid alongside the soundfield system and both can be set up to work side by side.
Appendix 3: ‘Assess, plan, do, review’ overview
Effective provision for any deaf child will involve:
- a thorough assessment of the child’s needs and strengths
• a plan setting out how the setting will meet those needs and overcome any barriers to the pupil making good progress
• carrying out the plan effectively
• regular reviews of the pupil’s progress and the success of the plan to establish whether changes need to be made and what these are.
Deafness isn’t a learning disability, and with the right support, there’s no reason why a deaf child can’t achieve as much as a hearing child. Having high expectations of deaf children and young people is vital.
How to follow this approach is set out below. This will support any planning to meet additional learning needs within the Special Educational Needs (SEN) framework, not replace it.
**Assessing what support is needed**
A good assessment will enable the setting to identify potential barriers to progress and the support that is needed to overcome these. An accurate and thorough understanding of a child’s needs and strengths underpins good planning and progress. A good assessment will include:
- the child, young person’s, or their families’ self-evaluation of any support requirements
- information on the child’s or young person’s levels of progress and attainment
- parents’ views about appropriate provision
- the involvement of specialists such as a Teacher of the Deaf (ToD)
- the use of specialist assessments
- the need for access to technology and communication support
- consideration of support needed to meet any specific subject requirements.
Deafness will impact on a range of factors that contribute to a pupil’s ability to learn including:
- listening skills
- attention and concentration
- language development
- literacy skills
- working memory
- auditory memory
• processing time
• incidental learning
• social skills
• self-esteem
• learning style.
It’s likely that assessments will focus on these areas. Further advice on specialist assessments can be found in Chapter 8 and in our resource Assessing and Monitoring the Progress of Deaf Children and Young People www.ndcs.org.uk/assessments.
Planning the right support
You should develop plans with the child or young person, parents and Teacher of the Deaf. You should consider:
• long-term outcomes for the child or young person agreed by them and their family
• short-term targets needed to achieve those outcomes
• the provision and adjustments required to achieve those outcomes and targets, meet the student’s needs and overcome any barriers to accessing teaching and learning
• arrangements for monitoring and reviewing.
The challenges presented by a hearing loss mean that for many deaf children and young people their plan is likely to include:
• targets related to the development of language, communication, literacy, confidence and social skills and the support and interventions needed to achieve the targets
• the use and maintenance of hearing technology
• communication support
• how teaching and learning will take place in a good listening environment
• access arrangements for assessments and exams
• access to support from specialist staff such as Teachers of the Deaf, teaching assistants and communication support workers
• pre- and post-lecture tutoring
• high quality teaching to make sure deaf pupils are able to learn
• strategies to ensure the deaf pupil is fully included in the school community
• details of who is responsible for the overall coordination of the plan, delivering key aspects of the provision and organising regular reviews.
**Implement or do: Putting the provision in place**
A child or young person’s plan should set out who is responsible for the overall coordination and implementation of any plan. This would usually be the SENCo, with support from the Teacher of the Deaf. They will have responsibility for the following.
• Making sure all staff involved in teaching and supporting the deaf child have information, advice, guidance and training on how to support a deaf pupil and make sure they can access teaching and learning.
• Ensuring the child or young person’s progress is monitored.
• Getting feedback from the child or young person on what is going well and what isn’t.
• Making sure support and provision is in place (for example, employing qualified communication support staff, using hearing technology and making adjustments to teaching spaces to improve the listening conditions).
• Ensuring teachers and teaching assistants implement interventions and strategies agreed as part of the support.
Your setting should also make sure that all necessary modifications and adaptations are in place so that the deaf pupil has equal access to assessments and exams. More information on access arrangements can be found in Chapter 7.
**Keeping the support and its impact under review**
A setting should regularly review and evaluate how effective support is, and the impact it has on a pupil’s progress. The setting will have systems and processes for this. Key areas related to the pupil’s deafness include the following.
• Levels of progress in areas of language and communication.
• Levels of overall progress and whether any gaps with other pupils are widening or narrowing.
• Whether subject content is accessible. For example, checking if the pupil is able to understand the language and concepts used in lessons or establishing where and when the pupil may experience most difficulty in hearing what is said.
• The effectiveness of communication support. For example, is the communication support worker able to interpret accurately and fluently what the teacher is saying?
• The effectiveness of technology.
• Any changes to the pupil’s level of hearing.
• The pupil’s success in communicating with others, socialising and forming friendships.
Where the pupil isn’t making expected progress, specialist assessments, particularly in language and communication, may be helpful in identifying the source of difficulties and revising the plan and support strategies. Don’t assume that the problem lies with the pupil. A Teacher of the Deaf can give advice on this.
Settings should also review the general effectiveness of provision for deaf pupils. This may include looking at, for example, the listening environments in the setting and whether staff need additional training and support. In Chapter 9 we give some guidelines for how setting leaders can do this.
Appendix 4: Communication options
The information below covers the variety of communication options for deaf children. It is important to respect the deaf pupil’s preferred means of communication.
Spoken language
Nearly all (more than 90%) of deaf children are from families with no first-hand experience of deafness. This means that most deaf children are brought up with a spoken language as their first language.
Not all deaf children who use spoken language will have English as their home or first language. The Consortium for Research in Deaf Education (CRIDE) reported that in 2021, 5% of deaf children in Northern Ireland are English as an additional language (EAL) learners.
It is important to remember that whichever language is used in the home, the child could still experience a significant language delay. In many cases, spoken language will be supported by signing and lip-reading.
British Sign Language (BSL) and Irish Sign Language (ISL)
BSL and ISL are visual languages that use hand shapes, facial expression, gestures, body language and fingerspelling. Sign Language has a structure and grammar different from that of written and spoken English. Some deaf children will have BSL or ISL as their first language or preferred language but may also speak English as a second language. Deaf children brought up by deaf parents, who have BSL or ISL as a first language, will often start school with age or near age-appropriate language in BSL or ISL.
Sign Supported English (SSE)
Some deaf children’s spoken English may be supported with signs taken from BSL or ISL. When signs are used to support spoken English in this way it is known as Sign Supported English. It can be a way of making spoken English more visual and is used to add clarity to what is being said, for example in situations where deaf children may struggle with background noise or if they are too distant from the speaker.
Lip-reading
Lip-reading has an important role in helping children access spoken language. Not every speech sound or word can be seen on the lips, but lip patterns of spoken words can help the deaf child identify what is being said, supporting the interpretation of the speech sounds that they hear. Lip-reading is a learned skill and evidence suggests that this skill is influenced by cognitive ability, good language and vocabulary knowledge, good reading skills, normal eyesight and good verbal short-term memory. On its own, lip-reading has a number of limitations but it’s a natural support to understanding spoken communication and can be especially helpful to the deaf child.
Cued speech
Cued speech is a lip-reading tool that enables access to spoken language visually. It uses eight hand shapes in four different positions and accompanies natural speech. Whereas some sounds cannot be fully lip-read (for example, ‘p’, ‘m’ and ‘b’ all look the same on the lips and sounds like ‘k’ and ‘g’ cannot be seen at all), the cues make it clear exactly what sound is used so that the deaf child may see the sound in each word as it is spoken in real time. This enables the child to develop a mental model of the spoken language regardless of whether they have any hearing or not.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the people and organisations who have contributed to the creation of this resource.
This resource has been developed by the National Deaf Children’s Society, based on previous resources produced in collaboration with the National Sensory Impairment Partnership (NatSIP). *Deaf-friendly education: Northern Ireland* has been produced with funding from A Fair Start, a Department of Education (DE) Northern Ireland programme.
For more information about A Fair Start, visit www.education-ni.gov.uk/fair-start.
About the National Deaf Children’s Society
We’re here for every deaf child who need us – no matter what their level or type of deafness or how they communicate. We want to work with professionals like you to overcome the barriers that hold deaf children back.
Visit our website [www.ndcs.org.uk](http://www.ndcs.org.uk) to join us for free. You’ll have access to:
- information resources for professionals
- our quarterly digital magazine and email updates
- workshops and events
- our Freephone Helpline.
THE STARS OF PI
COME
We are the National Deaf Children’s Society, the leading charity for deaf children.
Freephone Helpline:
0808 800 8880 (voice and text)
firstname.lastname@example.org
www.ndcs.org.uk
Developed with funding from the Fair Start programme. Fair Start is run by the Department of Education (DE) in Northern Ireland.
Published by the National Deaf Children’s Society © National Deaf Children’s Society March 2022
37–45 Paul Street, London EC2A 4LS
Tel: 020 7490 8656 (voice and text) Fax: 020 7251 5020
This publication can be requested in large print or as a text file. To give us your feedback email email@example.com.
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Chemistry Lecture #26: Shape of the s, p, d, and f orbitals.
Early models of the atom stated that electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbiting the sun. This model is not correct. Electrons do not move around the nucleus in nice, circular paths. In fact, they move in random paths around the nucleus.
Why do electrons move in random paths? It has to do with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This states that you cannot know both the position and velocity of an object at the same time. The velocity of an object is its speed and direction.
To illustrate what this means, suppose we shoot electrons through a hole in the wall. The electrons pass through and hit a second wall. Assume we know the speed and direction of the electrons before it goes through the hole. If the hole is big, the electrons will just move straight through the hole.
Now suppose you have a friend with an active imagination. He says, "I know the electron passed through that big gap and went to the other side, but what happened when the electron entered the gap? Maybe it is possible that the electron started bouncing up, down, left and right, and then left the gap. We don't know where it was in that big gap before it left and hit the second wall."
You reply, "You're crazy! You can draw a straight line from where the electron started to where it ended up! But just to prove that we can pinpoint its position while it is in the gap, we'll narrow the gap and make it smaller."
So you narrow the gap and shoot electrons through it, and this is what happens:
Instead of landing in one spot, the electrons appeared to have changed direction while they were in the gap, and landed at different locations. The region where they landed has spread out.
You then decide to make the gap even smaller. Here's what happens when electrons are shot through an even smaller gap:
We see that the electrons spread out even more when the gap gets smaller! Thus, the smaller the gap (or the more we know about the electron’s location), the less we know about the direction it will take (or its velocity).
Conversely, when the gap is wide, we know less about the electron’s position, but it is more likely to keep the same direction or velocity, which means we know more about its velocity.
Although we cannot predict the direction an electron will take when it passes through a narrow gap, we can predict the probability that it will move in a certain direction.
Photons also behave like electrons when passing through a narrow gap. The diagram below shows the distribution of photons through a narrow gap. Most of the photons will go straight, a smaller number will move left and right, and an even smaller number will go further left and right.
We can’t predict which ones will go straight, left or right, but we know the percentage that will take a certain direction.
Below is a picture showing the light pattern made when photons pass through a narrow gap or slit.
Notice that most of the photons went straight to the center, and the number of photons that go left or right decreases as you move further from the center.
Thus, when placed in a confined space, we can predict the likelihood that a photon or an electron will move in a certain direction.
Why does the electron "choose" a certain direction? Why would it go left instead of right? WE DON'T KNOW! The best we can do is to predict the likelihood that it will choose a certain direction.
This bothered Albert Einstein, who said, "God does not play dice with the cosmos." Physicist Niels Bohr responded by saying something like, "Stop telling God what to do."
Anyway, an electron moving within the tiny, confined space of an atom will move in a random direction, so we’ll never know exactly where it is located. We can, however, express the probability of finding the electron at a certain location.
In fact; the s, p, d, and f energy sublevels have specific shapes that show where the electron is likely to be found.
Below is a picture of an s orbital. It is a sphere that surrounds the nucleus. This means that the electron can be found within the region of the sphere.
The shape of s orbitals is a sphere. Electrons can move anywhere within the sphere.
Below is a picture of the p orbitals. Remember that the p sublevel has 3 orbitals, so there are 3 orientations for the p orbitals.
Below is a picture of the d orbitals. Remember that the d sublevel has 5 orbitals, so there are 5 orientations for the d orbitals.
Finally, we have the shapes of the f orbitals. Remember that the f sublevel has 7 orbitals, so we have 7 shapes. | db0eae27-01ab-4ff8-80bb-e52abde5eb39 | CC-MAIN-2020-50 | https://www.richardlouie.com/uploads/6/6/9/1/66918707/chemistrylecture_26.pdf | 2020-11-28T11:14:29+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141195417.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20201128095617-20201128125617-00461.warc.gz | 819,600,516 | 983 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998004 | eng_Latn | 0.998309 | [
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Welcome to April
The world is remembering its roots this month as spring starts turning everything green! No matter how fickle the weather may be, we always anticipate the new beginnings this freshest of months brings. Of course, April is full of other celebrations, like April Fools’ Day (1st), Earth Day (22nd) and even National Velociraptor Awareness Day (18th). However you choose to have fun this month, we hope you enjoy the brightening days!
Penny for Your Thoughts
You might have gotten more than you expected had someone said this phrase to you in 1787! That’s when the U.S. Congress of the Confederation—which governed the emerging United States following the Revolutionary War—authorized its first penny: the Fugio cent. In addition to its monetary value, the copper coin also boasted some advice. “Mind Your Business,” a proverb popularized by Benjamin Franklin, was engraved on the front, while the patriotic motto “We Are One” appeared on the back.
Memorable Melody: ‘Bette Davis Eyes’
This ode to one of Hollywood’s most alluring leading ladies was first recorded in 1974 by Jackie DeShannon, who co-wrote the song with Donna Weiss. But fellow singer-songwriter Kim Carnes took the tune to the top of the charts in 1981 with her version, transforming the upbeat, bluesy number to a slower, synth-driven pop hit. Carnes’ raspy voice was a match for the lyrics describing a glamorous, mesmerizing woman with eyes like the famous actress. The song was the biggest hit single of the year, spending several weeks at No. 1 on Billboard’s Hot 100 chart and winning two Grammys. Thrilled with the song’s success, Bette Davis wrote to Weiss, DeShannon and Carnes thanking them for making her “a part of modern times” and convincing her grandson that she had “finally made it”!
## Groovy, Baby!
Rock some flares with flair!
April 5 is Bell Bottoms Day.
## See a Solar Eclipse
On April 8, millions of people in the U.S. will have the chance to witness the spectacle of a total solar eclipse, when the moon will pass in front of the sun and darken the sky. This astronomical event will span across the continent from Mexico to northeastern Canada. In the path of totality, the darkness will last up to 4 1/2 minutes, nearly twice as long as the total solar eclipse in 2017. Even those outside the main path can experience a partial eclipse, where the moon will partially block the sun. Remember, you should never look directly at the sun during an eclipse event. Be sure to wear solar viewing glasses, use approved solar filters on cameras and binoculars, or view the eclipse indirectly with a pinhole camera.
“Tomorrow morning, when the sun shines through your window, choose to make it a happy day.”
—Lynda Resnick
### Activities Subject to Change
Popular Pages: ‘A Tree Grows in Brooklyn’
Much of the growing up in this 1943 novel isn’t done by the tree in the title, but by the smart and sensitive young girl at the heart of the story. Francie Nolan lives with her family in a poor Brooklyn, N.Y., neighborhood in the early 1900s. Though times are tough, Francie’s hardworking mother is determined that her children will get an education. The lessons Francie learns about family, love and loss resonated with readers, particularly World War II soldiers, who were given a paperback Armed Services Edition of the book. Thousands of GIs wrote fan letters to author Betty Smith, thanking her for providing comfort with her inspiring tale.
Natural Bridges National Monument
They have been around for millennia, but the natural bridges of southeast Utah didn’t become a national monument until April 16, 1908. The three bridges that make up the monument have gone through a number of name changes. Originally dubbed President, Senator and Congressman by Cass Hite, the prospector who introduced these natural wonders to the wider American public in 1883, the bridges were later renamed Augusta, Caroline and Edwin. The bridges were renamed again in 1909 when the park was expanded to include nearby Native American structures. The large stone formations now bear the Hopi names Sipapu (“the place of emergence”), Kachina (a reference to carved symbols that resemble Puebloan spirits) and Owachomo (“rock mound”).
Mandala Meditation
From a Sanskrit word meaning “circle,” a mandala is a popular tool used in meditation, often representing wholeness. You may have seen a mandala without realizing what it was. Simply stated, it is a circular shape filled with repeating geometric patterns. Creating your own mandala—by drawing at least three concentric circles, then filling in the spaces between the circles with various shapes—can be therapeutic and relaxing. Coloring or painting pre-drawn mandalas has the same effect.
The Dish on Dandelions
Some see dandelions as unwelcome weeds, but this plant with its familiar bright yellow flower has many culinary uses. Its head, root and leaves are used in teas, soups, salads and jelly.
April Is National Poetry Month
Whether you believe that poetry is merely “the best words in the best order” (Samuel Taylor Coleridge) or “language at its most distilled and most powerful” (Rita Dove), April is the month to celebrate this lyrical form of expression. Brush up on these interesting poetry facts to impress your friends with!
• The longest poem in the world—the Indian epic poem “The Mahabharata”—is around 1.8 million words long!
• “The Epic of Gilgamesh,” from ancient Sumer, is one of the oldest surviving epic poems. Gilgamesh’s adventures were written on stone tablets sometime in the second millennium B.C.
• One of the shortest poems ever written is by George MacDonald. At a brief two words, the poem is shorter than its title (“The Shortest and Sweetest of Songs”)! Another contender is “Lines on the Antiquity of Microbes” by Strickland Gillilan, more commonly known as “Fleas.” The Guinness Book of Records, though, recognizes Aram Saroyan as the winner, with his four-legged “m.” | 71d0485f-99ec-403a-98cc-569a5a097a56 | CC-MAIN-2024-26 | https://www.spanishvinesseniorliving.com/app/main/files-module/local/other_newsletters/04-24-MC.pdf | 2024-06-18T14:33:06+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-26/segments/1718198861762.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20240618140737-20240618170737-00448.warc.gz | 866,081,577 | 1,305 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997501 | eng_Latn | 0.997415 | [
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WETLAND ECOSYSTEM AND HABITAT
Trainer’s Booklet
WETLAND ECOSYSTEM AND HABITAT
Trainer’s Booklet
Target Audience: 8-14 years old
District Government of Enez
Gaziomerbey Mahallesi
Cumhuriyet Meydanı Hükümet Konağı
Enez / Edirne
Phone: +90 284 811 6006
E-Mail: email@example.com
Prepared By
Bilgesu Gungor Tutal
Tora Benzeyen
Design
OmaOma Medya ve Yayincilik
Erden Gümüşçu / Creative Director
Emirhan Demirci / Graphic Designer
Legal Warning
© 2021 Republic of Turkey District Government of Enez. All rights reserved. Licensed to the European Union under conditions.
The texts, images and photos in this booklet cannot be distributed or reproduced without permission. The information in the booklet can be published by referencing. The responsibility for the content of the booklet belongs to the authors.
Joint Operational Programme Black Sea Basin 2014-2020 is co-financed by the European Union through the European Neighbourhood Instrument and by the participating countries: Armenia, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Turkey and Ukraine.
This publication was produced with the financial support of the European Union. Its contents are the sole responsibility of Enez District Governorship and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Union.
Twitter / biolearn2
Facebook / BioLearn-BSB-Project -100523088197753
Website www.bio-learn.org
# Contents
**ABOUT THE PROJECT** 6
**ABOUT THE BOOKLET** 9
## WETLAND ECOSYSTEM AND HABITAT 10
Ecosystem 11
Food Chain and Food Web 12
How Does the Wetland Ecosystem Work? 14
Wetland Ecosystem Elements 17
Wetland Habitat 20
## ACTIVITIES 23
Activity 1. The Web of Life in the Ecosystem 24
Activity 2. Habitat Discovery 31
## NOTES 37
## REFERENCES 40
BIOLEARN (Eco-Conscious Minds to Stop Pollution in the Valuable Wetlands of Black Sea Basin - BSB142), which was initiated on 01.01.2020 within the scope of the first call for proposals of “Joint Operational Programme Black Sea Basin 2014-2020” where the Directorate for EU Affairs is the national authority, is led by District Government of Enez.
Representatives of the following partners are as follows:
1. District Government of Enez-Turkey
2. Division Directorate of Edirne under First Regional Directorate under General Directorate of Nature Protection and Nature Parks of Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry - Turkey
3. Foundation Caucasus Environment - Georgia
4. Agricola NGO - Ukraine
5. Green Balkans / Stara Zagora NGO - Bulgaria
6. Management Body of Evros Delta and Samothraki Protected Areas - Greece
The overall objective of the project is to provide information, experience transfer and capacity building training between partners and develop a common environmental protection and education approach, methodology and organizing campaigns that will raise awareness in the society to reduce pollution in important wetlands in the Black Sea Basin.
The main activities to be carried out within the scope of the 26-months project are as follows:
1. Establishment of a total of 4 environmental protection and training centres, one of which is on the shores of Gala Lake, and providing environmental protection training to visitors and especially to students. By providing equipment for the other 6 existing centres, there will be a network of 10 activity and training centres.
2. Workshops to be held in Bulgaria and Greece, focusing on discussions about examples of
successful training and awareness-raising campaigns for the protection of wetlands, sharing experiences and preparing the materials to be used in training which will be applied in all centres. Capacity building training for trainers.
3. Organizing massive and synchronized cleaning campaigns to reduce pollution in wetlands.
4. Award-winning photo contest and exhibition focused on wetland protection.
5. Organizing a wetland pollution-based painting contest and exhibition in primary and secondary schools.
**Outputs of the Project:**
1. “Stop Pollution” and “Save Nature” environmental education and activity centres, one of which is mobile, will be established in 5 countries and will sustainably carry out training and awareness-raising activities.
2. A report will be prepared on the nature and rate of pollutants in 5 wetlands in the Black Sea Basin.
3. A guide with examples of good practices consisting of training and campaigns focused on protecting wetlands will be prepared.
4. A wetland protection training set consisting of 12 sections will be prepared especially for students. Training sets will also be shared on the internet.
5. After 10 people from 2 each partner country received trainer’s training, they will train 25 people in each region (totally 125 people) and the sustainability of training activities will be ensured in the established centres.
6. A painting competition on environmental protection will be held in at least 15 primary and secondary schools and paintings selected by the jury will be exhibited.
7. Pictures taken in 5 regions with the participation of professional photographers will be exhibited. With the mobile ‘Stop Pollution’ vehicle, the exhibition will travel to 5 countries.
8. An environmental cleaning campaign will be held simultaneously with the participation of 1500 people in 5 regions.
9. With the international conference to be held in Georgia, the outputs of the project and future action plans will be shared with the public.
For more information, you can visit the project website: [www.bio-learn.org](http://www.bio-learn.org)
WETLAND ECOSYSTEM AND HABITAT
About The Booklet
This training booklet is a part of the training set prepared under the “BIOLEARN-BSB142 / Eco-Conscious Minds to Stop Pollution in the Valuable Wetlands of Black Sea Basin” project. The booklet is prepared to attract the attention of the countries in the Black Sea basin to the importance of wetlands, to prevent pollution in wetlands and to develop ecological literacy of the participants accordingly.
This training material targets groups age 8-14 and consists of two parts which are the educator booklet and participant booklet. The trainer booklet has detailed activity application instructions, necessary information on the subject, assessment questions and recommendations to enrich the activity.
Application Notes
Before starting the activity, it is recommended to view the entire booklet and to get ready for the topic by using the information in the booklet.
At the beginning of the activity, necessary materials and worksheets should be distributed to the participants.
When activities are applied, it is important to undertake a facilitator/guide role and to ensure the active participation of the participants.
The activities in this booklet are planned to be completed in a short time. All of these activities can be applied consecutively or one or two of the activities can be applied in desired order depending on the development stages and interest levels of the participants.
Presenting the activities with a natural narrative rather than reading the information text in the instructions and keeping the interest of the participants with questions and answers would present positive benefits.
The activity instructions can be followed exactly or adapted based on participants’ ages, development stages and interest levels without diverging from the activity purposes.
Wetland Ecosystem And Habitat
Wetlands are among the richest ecosystems on our planet with numerous living beings as well as non-living elements such as water and soil.
Ecosystem
Everything on our planet whether they are living and non-living is interrelated. The flower blooming in the meadow, a bee collecting nectar from flowers, a stream flowing at the slopes of a mountain, a rock rolling inside the river... All of them are part of the ecosystem. The ecosystem concept is used for defining all-natural beings including living and non-living things in nature and the relationships between these beings.
For example, a forest where a rabbit runs, birds build nests with small rivers and worms under the soil represents an ecosystem. The forests are an ecosystem not because they are full of trees but they consist
of all living organisms and non-living compounds. Similarly, a wetland full of marshes stretching across the land and an otter looking for food among the reeds and waterfowls flying above the marshes form a complete ecosystem on its own.
**Food Chain and Food Web**
All living and non-living beings in an ecosystem undertake certain tasks. Green plants, that is, producers produce food with a method called photosynthesis. The living beings that live by eating these green plants or other animals are known as consumers. Other living beings such as fungi,
---
The food network contains various food chains.
The flower blooming in the meadow, a bee collecting nectar from flowers, a stream flowing at the slopes of a mountain, a rock rolling inside the river... All of them are part of the ecosystem.
bacteria and worms other than producers and consumers are classified as decomposers. The entire cycle that contains living being groups undertaking different tasks is called the **food chain**.
Food chains are indispensable elements for the entire ecosystem! But this chain can be in various forms and living beings in this chain can also be in other chains. For example, butterflies not only collect food from flowers but also collect nectar from different plant types. Similarly, buzzards not only eat mice but also eat lizards and hedgehogs. **Food web** term is used for defining this complex food relationship and multiple food chains.
How Does the Wetland Ecosystem Work?
Although wetlands only form 6% of the Earth’s surface, they are important ecosystems with numerous tasks. In addition to the rich biodiversity they host, the properties provided by their physical structure have important benefits for humans.
First of all, wetlands are the ecosystem that protects water as the source of life. This ecosystem acts like a giant sponge and a filter! It can store a tremendous amount of water after intense rainfalls. Thus, it can control floods and high-water. This stored water mass also feeds the underground water sources due to their special soil structure. On the other hand, this giant filter can clean the water in it. The plants, fungi and
Did You Know?
Wetlands absorb carbon 10-20 times faster than other terrestrial carbon sinks such as forests and meadows. Approximately 40% of the terrestrially-absorbed carbon is stored in wetlands.
40% of all known living creatures on Earth live in wetlands. Because wetlands act as a safe home where these species live and thrive.
Mosses inside the wetland can filter the water and purify it from dangerous chemicals and foreign materials. These filtered materials are safely stored in the sand and soil layer at the bottom of the wetlands.
At the same time, wetlands protect the beaches and coastline. The marshes and swamps on the coastline protect the valuable soil and sand that might wash away with strong hurricanes and waves. Thus, our beaches can be as beautiful as they are even though they are subjected to giant waves!
The benefits provided by the wetland are not limited to these. 40% of all known living creatures on Earth live in wetlands. Because wetlands act as a safe home where these species live and thrive. Most importantly, wetlands are our greatest supporters to decrease the effects of climate change which is one of the most important problems of our planet. They can capture the greenhouse gases and especially carbon dioxide that leads to climate change.
Other than all of this, humans can benefit from the unique beauties of wetlands in different ways. The close relationships of humans with wetlands throughout history have led these areas to be included in cul-
Wetlands are our greatest supporters to decrease the effects of climate change which is one of the most important problems of our planet.
Visitors can visit different zones with walking paths in wetlands.
tural, economic and social life. For example, humans have been using fish species as a food source and reeds as structural materials especially in some local communities. Today, wetlands are mostly used for tourism activities and these areas can turn into places where people can visit with ecological tourism methods.
**Wetland Ecosystem Elements**
Like all other ecosystems, wetlands contain numerous living and non-living components. Wetlands are among the richest ecosystems in the world thanks to the relationships and interactions between these elements.
The key non-living component that forms the wetland is water. Although water, which is indispensable for all wetland areas is defined as a non-living thing, it enables all other living beings to emerge. In addition to water, various soil layers and landforms inside the wetland play a role in preserving water in wetlands, water cleaning and enriching processes.
What makes a wetland unique is the living beings in that wetland. Millions of living beings live in wetlands including simple water moss to complex animals like birds, fish and mammals.
Did You Know?
Although plants love water, excessive water might cause them to die. But the plants in wetlands have evolved to survive and produce when they are exposed to excessive water.
The most fundamental living beings in the wetlands are plants. The flora that changes based on wetland soil structure, climate conditions or the amount of water can consist of reeds, mosses, grass and weeds or trees and bushes. While some of these plants grow to the surface of the water and are visible, others live underwater. In addition to plants, numerous fungi can be found in wetlands.
This perfect habitat has a rich biodiversity in terms of birds and fish as well as numerous other animals. The fish, crabs, frogs, turtles living in water; herons and grebes nesting among the marshes; flies flying around; waterfowls and waders feeding on the water surface; otters hunting fish and many others enjoy the rich habitat provided by the wetland.
Let’s think about living and non-living things in wetlands. Write the word to the table below based on the number of letters in the word.
| 3-letter word | 4-letter word | 5-letter word | 6-letter or more word |
|---------------|--------------|--------------|-----------------------|
| | | | |
Wetland Habitat
As we have mentioned, the ecosystem is a large concept including various elements. When we limit this large concept, we call an environment where a species lives, feeds, finds shelter to protect itself or its young as the habitat of that living being. For example, for a bittern living in the wetland, this wetland is its habitat, that is, its living space. It can hunt fish in the wetland and feed itself, hide among the marshes to be protected from birds of prey or build the nest here to raise its chicks. In other words, an ecosystem contains the habitats of hundreds of different creatures.
Wetlands are the safe habitats for living beings where they can live, feed, build nests and raise their young.
Birds called bitterns are hidden inside these marshes both to be protected from the hunters and to secretly approach their prey.
However, the habitats of living beings can face various threats. These creatures that mostly struggle with the problems caused by humans lose their habitats day by day. Dams built on rivers that feed the wetlands, drying the wetlands for agricultural fields or building new structures, water pollution with pollutants such as plastic, chemical waste and oil, burning marshes in the wetlands, cutting down trees and numerous threats destroy the habitat of living beings in the wetlands. Both to ensure healthy living for these creatures and for humanity to have a healthy future, we need to protect the natural habitats and do our best to eliminate these threats.
What Did We Learn?
The relationship between living organisms and non-living components in nature is defined as the ecosystem.
Producers, consumers and decomposers are included in the food chain.
Living beings in different food chains form a food web.
Wetlands are among the richest ecosystems on our planet with numerous living beings as well as non-living elements such as water and soil.
Plants, fungi, insects, amphibians, fish, reptiles, birds and mammals are among the creatures living in wetlands.
Wetlands are the safe habitats for living beings where they can live, feed, build nests and raise their young.
Activities
The Web Of Life in The Ecosystem
Objective
To understand the food web in the ecosystem and the relationship between the living and non-living things.
Learning Outcomes
- S/he will relate the living and non-living things in the ecosystem.
- S/he will realize the importance of the ecosystem.
- S/he will predict the consequences of changes in the food chain.
Target Audience
8-14 years old
Duration
40 min.
Method
Question - answer, game
Materials
The Web of Life Cards, ball of wool
Preparation
Cut and prepare The Web of Life Cards before the activity.
Application
1. Hand out the cards only representing living creatures randomly to the children.
2. Ask every child to say their opinions about the card they draw. At this stage, you can ask the following questions:
- Which card did you draw? Are you a plant or an animal?
- Have you seen this living being before?
- Where does it live?
- What does it feed on?
3. Then, ask the children to sit in a circle. Show the ball of wool in your hand and tell everyone to throw this ball of wool to the species that can eat him/her. For
this purpose, the child should throw the ball of wool holding on to the free end; in this way, the chain at the end will be visible to everyone.
4. You can create the following food chains:
- Grass-cow-human
- Flower-bug-nightingale-fox
- Worm-blackbird-cat
- Grass-grasshopper-frog-snake-eagle
- Acorn-squirrel-owl
- Moss-shrimp-carp-grey heron
- Tree-deer-wolf
5. Show the game with a few simple food chains. For example, you can use the grass, cow and human food chain. Give the ball of wool to the child holding the grass card; ask “who is eating the grass?” question and guide the child holding the ball of wool to throw it to the child with the cow card. Ask “who is eating the cow?” and guide the child holding the ball of wool to throw it to the child with the human card. After remarking this food chain for the children, play the game for a few rounds with other food chain examples to help the children better understand the activity. Give the following information when you are playing and ask questions to the children to make them think about the food chain:
All living beings in nature need energy. To meet this energy need, all living and non-living things depend on each other. Let’s think about a forest ecosystem. Plants use the sun’s rays and water to photosynthesize and produce their own food. These are called producers. Herbivorous animals eat plants to get energy. Carnivorous animals eat these animals that are feeding with plants. These are called consumers. The ecosystem has a food chain that follows these rules and this chain always starts with a producer like a green plant and continues with a consumer. At the same time, there are decomposers in nature that decompose the plants or animals when they die and turn them back to the soil.
- What could happen if one of these living beings is missing? (For example, the number of deer will increase if the number of wolves decreases. Deer will eat more trees in the forest and this will decrease the number of trees in the forest. This will lead the animals living on the trees to be homeless and living beings that feed on the trees to run out of food.)
- What could happen if there is a sudden increase in the number of one of the living beings?
- What could affect the increase or decrease of these living beings?
6. Then, collect back the cards you have given to the children. Randomly distribute the cards again by adding non-living thing cards (sun, soil, water, air). Say that they have seen some of the food
chain examples in the ecosystem with this game. Then, say that you will all create a more complex web in the ecosystem. Make the following brief information about the web of life.
We saw the food chains and food flow in nature. We now know these: for example, grass will produce its food from the sun. The rabbit eats the grass. The fox eats the rabbit. When the fox dies, the bacteria decompose the body and turn it back to the soil to supply food for the grass. But other animals eat grass in nature other than the rabbit, right? Or rabbits eat different plants than grass. Foxes can eat various animals and plants. Each of these living beings can be a part of multiple food chains. In this way, a food web created by multiple interconnected food chains emerges in an ecosystem. Non-living things such as sun, water, air and soil are included in these complex food webs and create a web of life that ensures continuity of life. At the same time, we can call this an ecosystem. Everything on our planet whether they are living and non-living is interrelated. Wetland is an example of an ecosystem. The wetland consisting of the water, marshes, flies in the reeds, otters looking for food inside the reeds and duck flocks flying above the water and soil forms a rich ecosystem with a complex web of life.
7. After informing the children, start the game with any of these elements. Make sure that the child throws the ball of wool to the second being related to the first being and continue this game until everyone is connected. The child must mention the form of a relationship when throwing the ball of wool. The relationship here could be eating each other to survive like in the food chain or needing other beings to survive. For example, the sun will throw the ball of wool to the grass (grass needs the sun to produce food), the grass will throw to the rabbit (rabbit eats the grass), the rabbit will throw to the water (rabbit needs water to live), the water will throw to the tree (tree needs water to live), the tree will throw to the soil (tree needs soil to live), the soil will throw to the worm (soil is the home for the worm; also, the worm decomposes the dead beings in nature and mix them into the soil), the worm will throw to the blackbird (blackbird eats worm), the blackbird will throw to the eagle (eagle eats blackbird) and the eagle will throw to the water (eagle drinks water to live).
8. The game will continue until everyone has a few connections with others. As the network moves forward, discuss each connection or relationship.
9. After everyone is connected with the wool, make sure everyone observes this web of life. Then, take one of the beings out of the web and ask the child to let the wool go. Ask who is directly connected to this wool and whether they felt any shaking after the child let the wool go. Learn how a missing being will affect them. Ask the relationship and what will happen now. Then, ask them to let the wool go and talk about how other connected beings are affected and disintegrate the entire web step by step. Make sure that children understand that the ecosystem elements are interconnected and the balance is necessary to keep the ecosystem healthy.
Assessment Questions
You can ask the following questions to the children at the end of the activity. Depending on the readiness level of the children, you can talk about pollination, cycles in nature, no waste in nature thanks to decomposers.
- What is the relationship between living and non-living beings? Do you think this relationship is complex?
- What is the duty of soil in this ecosystem?
- What is the duty of animals and plants in this ecosystem?
Extensions
- At the end of the activity, you may ask the children to do a painting by thinking about the living beings in the food chain and the relationships between them.
- At the end of the activity, you may organize a nature field trip and ask for the children to guess the relationships between the living beings they have observed.
THE WEB OF LIFE CARDS
Habitat Discovery
Objective
Discovering suitable habitat for animals.
Duration
40 min.
Method
Field trip-observation
Learning Outcomes
- S/he will realize the importance of the natural environment for living beings.
- S/he will observe and discover the surrounding and natural assets.
- S/he will relate the living and non-living things in the ecosystem.
- S/he will distinguish the natural and human elements in the surrounding.
Materials
Habitat Discovery Worksheet, pencil
Target Audience
8-14 years old
Application
1. Ask the children to close their eyes and imagine being a bird. Ask “what are you doing, where are you living, what do you see”. Focus on the living space (habitat) with your questions. You can make the children think about the answers to the following questions.
- Which bird are you? Are you a big or small bird? Do you live in the water like a duck? Or next to water like a grey heron? Or in the bushes like a European robin? Do you spend time more in the air or on the roof of the houses like a swift?
• What do you eat? Where do you find your food?
• Do you drink water? Where do you find water?
• Where do you sleep?
• Where did you lay your eggs?
• A foreigner is coming... Where would you hide?
• There is heavy rain... Where would you shelter?
2. After collecting the answers of everyone, do the following explanations about the habitat to the children.
*Habitat means the home or living space of a living being.* Let’s think about our habitat as humans. Our home, our school... What do we do here? Where do we eat, where do we sleep, where do we rest if the weather is cold, where do we spend time? Our homes offer us our vital needs like eating, drinking, resting, sheltering, right? In other words, our homes are our basic habitat...
Other living beings like humans need habitats with similar properties to sustain their lives. These habitats should have 4 essential elements: food, water, cover and
space. All living things need a sufficient amount of food and water to grow, thrive and sustain their lives. The cover could be the nesting space or a space to sleep, rest, hide, run away, shelter and feed. Space is the fourth necessary element for a habitat. Living beings require spaces of certain sizes to walk around, look for food, raise their young and migrate. The space for every species could be different. For example, the size of space needed by a squirrel or a brown bear or a migratory bird might be different.
3. After making this explanation, tell the children that you will discover a habitat and you will use the Habitat Discover Worksheet for this purpose. Tell the children that if they find the necessary elements for 4 different categories on the worksheet, this might be a good habitat for the bird they have selected. Children can draw the elements they find or write their names on the worksheet.
4. Gather at the end of the field trip and discuss the results.
**Assessment Questions**
You can ask the following questions to the children at the end of the activity.
- Which element was the easiest to find? Which element was the hardest to find? Why?
- Do the habitats of animals and our habitat look similar? What are the similarities and differences?
- Which other animals could be living in this habitat? Why?
- Why are some habitats not suitable for some animals?
- How will the living beings in the habitat be affected if these habitats are damaged?
**Extensions**
- If you have time, you can play the Tag Your Habitat Game with the children.
First, find a safe area for the game. An open field with an even surface will be good for the game. If you select a small area, the game will end in a short time.
Then, make the following explanation to the children: “The birds are trying to survive in this habitat. They have 5 minutes to find all their needs in the habitat which are food, water, cover and space.”
There are five different roles in the game: Bird and four different habitat elements: food, water, cover and space. Give one of these roles to each child. If there are less than 10 children, choose 2 as birds, if there are children between 10-20, choose 3 as birds and if there are more than 20 children, choose 4 birds. Assign the remaining children with food, water, cover and space roles.
The birds will try to tag others. They will try to catch the habitat elements. The habitat element children will do certain moves while running so that the birds can understand which element they are.
• **Food**: These children will imitate eating by bringing their hands to their mouths.
• **Water**: These children will do wave movement with their arms.
• **Cover**: These children will hold their arms above their heads.
• **Space**: These children will keep their arms open.
The purpose of the game is that the bird will collect four different habitat elements by tagging them. When the child that is bird catches the habitat element, s/he will connect their arms and continue to follow other elements together.
When a group collects all four elements, this group must sit outside the playing field.
At the end of the first round, the birds that can collect all four elements will survive. If you want to make the game longer, you can add the following details:
• The bird that collects four habitat elements will start reproducing. One of the four habitat elements will go back
to the game as a bird and this child will try to catch the habitat elements like other children. Since the competition will increase as the number of children increases, not all the birds can catch all habitat elements. You can assess the reasons for that with the children at the end of the game.
- Or you can tell short stories to the children while playing the game and add or remove some habitat elements. You can use different scenarios like the ones below:
» “People started to gather food or raise cattle in a forest.” Remove 1 space and 2 covers from the game.
» “This was a dry year and the water in the river is low.” Remove 1 water.
» “The wildlife is being protected and additional space is allocated.” Add 1 food, 1 water, 1 cover and 1 space.
You can add new scenarios to the activity and change the habitat elements in every round to apply the game for as much as you want. A bird that cannot obtain all the elements that it needs cannot survive throughout the round. You can assess the effects of these scenarios with the children at the end of the game.
HABITAT DISCOVERY WORKSHEET
FOOD
(Do you search by considering what the selected bird eats. Seeds, bugs, worms, fish, fruit, etc.)
WATER
(What are the water sources around you? Lake, stream, river, puddle, etc.)
COVER
(Which area could be the most suitable option for the bird you have selected to find cover? Trees, reeds, bushes, nests, buildings, etc.)
SPACE
(Which space are you in? Is the space suitable for the selected bird? Forest, garden, sea etc. Or is it a migration route? What is the size?)
Notes
Notes
References
Besin Zinciri Oyunu. (2019). In Yavru TEMA Eğitim Programı Öğretmen Rehberi (pp. 61-62). TEMA Vakfı.
Cherry, J. A. (2011). Ecology of Wetland Ecosystems: Water, Substrate, and Life | Learn Science at Scitable. The Nature Education. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/ecology-of-wetland-ecosystems-water-substrate-and-17059765/?error=cookies_not_supported&code=c43e2f01-fdbb-48ca-b62b-9639a65e0f8e
Committee on Characterization of Wetlands, National Research Council. (1995). Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries. The National Academies Press. https://www.nap.edu/read/4766/chapter/4#42
Our Habitat is for the Birds. (2012). In Connecting Kids Through Birds (pp. 15-17). Cornell Lab Of Ornithology. https://www.jamentrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/BirdSleuth-Curriculum-Nov-2012.pdf
Ecosystem. (n.d.). Britannica Kids. https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/ecosystem/433377#
Food Chain and Web. (n.d.). Ducksters Science for Kids. https://www.ducksters.com/science/ecosystems/food_chain_and_web.php
National Geographic Society. (2012a, October 9). Food Chain. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/food-chain/
National Geographic Society. (2012b, October 9). Wetland. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/wetland/
NWF. (n.d.). Habitat Loss. National Wildlife Federation. https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Habitat-Loss
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. (2010). Wetland Ecosystem Services – an introduction. https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/services_00_e.pdf
The International Union for Conservation of Nature. (2019, February 15). Wetland Ecosystems. IUCN. https://www.iucn.org/commissions/commission-ecosystem-management/our-work/cems-specialist-groups/wetland-ecosystems
The Web Of Life. (2010). In Teacher’s Guide to Wetland Activities (p. 14). Ducks Unlimited Canada. https://www.hanovercounty.gov/DocumentCenter/View/3801/Wetlands-Teachers-Guide-PDF
The Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust. (n.d.). Wetland habitats. WWT. https://www.wwt.org.uk/discover-wetlands/wetlands/wetland-habitats/
The World Wide Fund. (n.d.). Impact of habitat loss on species. WWF. https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/wildlife_practice/problems/habitat_loss_degradation/
Wierck, A., & Team, A. (2017, June 15). Habitat stores carbon. AskNature. https://asknature.org/strategy/habitat-stores-carbon/
WWF. (n.d.). What is a wetland? And eight other wetland facts. World Wildlife Fund. https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/what-is-a-wetland-and-8-other-wetland-facts
The Title of the Programme
Joint Operational Programme Black Sea Basin 2014-2020
The Editor of the Material
District Government of Enez
Joint Operational Programme Black Sea Basin 2014–2020 is co-financed by the European Union through the European Neighbourhood Instrument and by the participating countries: Armenia, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Turkey and Ukraine.
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Secondary Subject Resources
Science
Module 1 Biology
Section 1 Classification and adaptation
Section 2 Transport
Section 3 Respiration
Section 4 Nutrition, conservation and ecology
Section 5 Cells
TESSA (Teacher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa) aims to improve the classroom practices of primary teachers and secondary science teachers in Africa through the provision of Open Educational Resources (OERs) to support teachers in developing student-centred, participatory approaches. The TESSA OERs provide teachers with a companion to the school textbook. They offer activities for teachers to try out in their classrooms with their students, together with case studies showing how other teachers have taught the topic, and linked resources to support teachers in developing their lesson plans and subject knowledge.
TESSA OERs have been collaboratively written by African and international authors to address the curriculum and contexts. They are available for online and print use (http://www.tessafrica.net). Secondary Science OER are available in English and have been versioned for Zambia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. There are 15 units. Science teacher educators from Africa and the UK, identified five key pedagogical themes in science learning: probing children’s’ understanding, making science practical, making science relevant and real, creativity and problem solving, and teaching challenging ideas. Each theme is exemplified in one topic in each of Biology, Chemistry and Physics. Teachers and teacher educators are encouraged to adapt the activities for other topics within each subject area.
We welcome feedback from those who read and make use of these resources. The Creative Commons License enables users to adapt and localise the OERs further to meet local needs and contexts.
TESSA is led by The Open University, UK, and currently funded by charitable grants from The Allan and Nesta Ferguson Foundation, The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and Open University Alumni. TESSA Secondary Science was originally funded by The Waterloo Foundation. A complete list of funders is available on the TESSA website (http://www.tessafrica.net).
TESSA Programme
The Open University
Walton Hall
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Except for third party materials and otherwise stated, this content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 licence: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/. Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders. We will be pleased to include any necessary acknowledgement at the first opportunity.
TESSA_EnPA_SSCI_M1 May 2016
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Contents
- Section 1: Classification and adaptation
- 1. Creating a learning environment
- 2. Peer assessment and using keys
- 3. Encouraging students to ask questions
- Resource 1: Brainstorming
- Resource 2: Example of a mind map
- Resource 3: Peer assessment
- Resource 4: Questioning
- Resource 5: Working with insects
- Resource 6: Examples of classification keys
- Section 2: Transport
- 1. Demonstrating transport in plants
- 2. Organising a class practical
- 3. Planning investigations
- Resource 1: Practical work
- Resource 2: Transport in plants
- Resource 3: Students’ writing
- Resource 4: Understanding the structure of leaves
- Resource 5: Investigations
- Section 3: Respiration
- 1. Measuring changes in pulse rate
- 2. Focus on interpreting data
- 3. Baking and brewing
- Resource 1: Making Science relevant
- Resource 2: Experiments on pulse rate
- Resource 3: Data on the effect of exercise
- Resource 4: Data pulse
- Resource 5: Making bread
- Resource 6: Background information on yeast
- Section 4: Nutrition, conservation and ecology
- 1. Using a story to think about local issues
- 2. Thinking about nutrition
- 3. Conducting research on local food issues
- Resource 1: Problem solving and creativity
• Resource 2: Kabwe’s story
• Resource 3: Background knowledge for Kabwe’s story
• Resource 4: Differentiating work
• Resource 5: Data on food and energy
• Resource 6: Suggestions for conducting and assessing research
• Section 5: Cells
• 1. Focus on language to support understanding
• 2. How big are cells?
• 3. Building Models of cells
• Resource 1: Background information on cells
• Resource 2: True/false exercise on cells
• Resource 3: Working with onion cells
• Resource 4: Magnification exercise
• Resource 5: Assessing models
• Resource 6: Using models in science
Section 1: Classification and adaptation
Theme: Probing students’ understanding
Learning outcomes
By the end of this section, you will have:
- used brainstorming to probe students’ understanding of adaptations to different habitats;
- planned questions at different ability levels to help students classify organisms they have found;
- given students the opportunity to devise a key to demonstrate their understanding of the principles of classification.
Introduction
At the end of teaching a topic, teachers usually set a test or exam to find out what the students have learned. They are often dismayed to find that it is not as much as they expected but by this time it is too late to help students. A good teacher will find out what students understand as they go along and what the students are finding difficult, and help them to make progress.
This unit has three short activities that will fit into your normal teaching about classification and adaptation and will show you how to find out what your students understand. The activities will encourage you to bring living organisms into your classroom and will help to develop your students’ understanding. Don’t worry – the activities won’t prevent you from finishing the syllabus; they are quite short and will help your students to learn. Once you have tried these activities, you will be able to adapt them when you teach other topics.
1. Creating a learning environment
Students have their own ideas about a topic and an effective teacher takes account of these ideas when teaching. So a good way to start teaching any topic is to find out what your students already know about it. You may be surprised about what they have learnt from newspapers, peers, adults, older brothers and sisters, and observations. Often their ideas are not the same as the scientific ideas we want them to understand. Sometimes they only begin to realise how much they already know when you give them the chance to think out-loud with each other, in a brainstorming activity. By asking simple, open-ended questions you can make sure that as many students as possible take part in the discussion and you will have a better understanding of what they know.
As a biology teacher, if you are lucky enough to have your own classroom, you should bring in examples of living creatures to keep in the classroom. Pot plants, small insects that the students take it in turns to feed and seeds to plant will all be resources you can draw on in your lessons. Many students may already know a lot about animals and plants. You need to give them the chance to demonstrate their knowledge and interest, but you also need to challenge them to think about why certain living things have certain characteristics. While your syllabus may specify particular organisms that the students should know about, both adaptation and classification are topics based on one or two key ideas that can be applied to the many varied organisms that are found on Earth.
Case study 1 shows how a teacher organised her classroom to inspire and motivate her students and Activity 1 describes a brainstorming session that will provide material you can use as examples throughout the topic.
Case study 1- Creating a stimulating learning environment
Mrs Yara had been teaching biology in Moshi Junior High School for two weeks. She was lucky enough to have her own classroom. Before she started teaching she spent the last week of the holiday preparing her room. She collected pictures of animals from magazines and tourist brochures, making sure she had one from each of the main vertebrate groups and some invertebrates. She brought in a pot plant from home and took some cuttings; a friend gave her a cactus and she bought an old glass tank from a market stall. She collected some insects and filled the tank with twigs, leaves and created a living space for the insects. To do this she used the guidance in Resource 5. Finally she planted some seeds that were beginning to sprout.
When she started to teach classification, she divided the class into groups of four and gave them 10 minutes to go round the room and look at all the pictures, the plants and the insects. For each one they had to try and identify it and say where it would normally live.
She then gathered them round the front and asked questions about what they had seen. She started off with simple, closed questions such as the name of the organism and where it lived, and moved on to harder questions that challenged them to think about the different adaptations. On the board, she wrote the names of the plants and animals and asked them how the animals could be divided into groups. Finally she asked them about other plants or animals that they knew about and was delighted when Joshua told the class about a carnivorous plant that he had seen.
Mrs Yara was very impressed by how observant they had been and realised that they knew and understood quite a lot about how animals were adapted to their habitats. Finally she asked for volunteers to take responsibility for the plants and insects in the classroom, and was very pleased with the responses.
Activity 1: Conducting a brainstorm
Choose a habitat like the sea, grasslands or a rain forest.
Gather your students round the front desk and ask for some examples of animals that might live in the chosen habitat. You are going to use brainstorming (see Resource 1) to build up a picture of how much your students already know about animals, how they are adapted and how they can be classified.
Once you have gathered some names, you could ask them about how they are adapted for that environment, which ones are vertebrates, which ones are mammals, etc. This is the sort of topic about which students will probably have quite a lot of general knowledge, but have perhaps not thought about it in a scientific sense.
Build a spider diagram on the board using their ideas. You could link specific adaptations to both habitat and mode of life. Encourage them to suggest both structural and behavioural adaptations. You could use coloured chalk to distinguish these. Resource 2 shows an example of a diagram that another class produced. It is important that the one you produce is based on what your students suggest.
2. Peer assessment and using keys
In **Activity 1** you have gained some understanding of the breadth of knowledge in the class and have consolidated their understanding of how an organism’s characteristics adapt them for a particular habitat or way of life. Like Mrs Yara you might have realised that as a class, your students already seem to know quite a lot. You will need to start to find out more about your students’ individual understanding. Teachers often do this by setting questions, or by asking them to write about an experiment or activity they have done. Sometimes, however, it is helpful to let them explain their ideas using a drawing or a model and to offer them a choice about what they do. This gives the students who are not so good at writing the chance to demonstrate what they can do and helps them to feel more confident. Confident students learn better and often try harder.
In **Case study 2** the teacher uses this technique and gets his students to mark each other’s work. He does this so that they have the opportunity to learn from each other, as well as from him. **Activity 2** involves getting your students to construct a classification key. This will tell you whether or not they understand the principles of classification, and doing the activity will help their understanding.
**Case study 2: Organising peer assessment**
For homework, Mr Uno asks his class to draw a picture of an animal of their choice. He asks them to choose a vertebrate that lives in their country. If they prefer, they can find a picture in a magazine, cut it out and stick it onto a page, so that they can write around it. In class, he asks them to annotate their picture to explain which classification the animal belongs to and how it is adapted to where it lives and its way of life. Before they start he gathers the students round the front and asks them to think about what they would need to do to get a high mark for this activity. He writes their ideas on the board and explains that they are going to use these statements to mark each other’s work. [Resource 3](#) has some ideas about how to help students mark each other’s work.
While the students are working, he goes round and looks at what they are doing. He asks questions to guide them and makes sure that they explain things as fully as they can. After 20 minutes, they swap work with someone who has chosen a different animal. They use the statements on the board to help them make some comments on the work. Finally, the students have 5 minutes to finish off their poster, taking into account the comments from their friends.
Mr Uno collects the posters. He is very impressed by the quality of the work and pleased with the comments they made. Some students have clearly acted on the advice from their friends and improved their work.
Activity 2: Using keys to promote thinking
Your students will need to know some of the main classes of animals. It is easy to test whether they know the names of the groups, but less easy to establish whether they understand the principles of classification. This activity will help with understanding the idea of a hierarchy.
To help them understand the principles we use to put living organisms into groups, you can use an identification key. First you will need to show them a key and let them practice using it (Resource 6). Then, give them (or let them devise) a list of animals that are common to your local area and ask them to work in groups to construct a key that would enable a friend to identify the animals they have chosen. Alternatively you can use the made up animals given on the resource sheet and ask them to construct a key.
Ask them how they decided on the key questions. Let them try out other people’s keys.
3. Encouraging students to ask questions
There is no better way of motivating and engaging students with this topic than using living creatures. In the final activity you are going to collect some insects from the school grounds, or visit a local wildlife park or farm, and think about how you can use questioning to really find out what your students are thinking. It is important to make sure that your questions challenge them. Resource 4 reminds you about the different types of questions that you should be asking. It is a good idea to plan the questions that you could ask before the lesson. You can ask questions of individuals while they are working and then finish off the activity with questions to the whole class. Think about how you will respond to their answers. You could ask several people the same question then ask the students to select the best one. You could also ask a follow up question: ‘Why do you think that?’
Getting your students to ask the questions is a very good way to find out what they are thinking, as the teacher in Case study 3 found when he invited a wildlife ranger into the classroom.
Case study 3: Welcoming visitor into the classroom
Mrs Essuman’s brother, Joseph works for the local wildlife park as a ranger. It is his job to go round the exhibits with the visitors and tell them all about the animals on display. She invited him to come to school to talk to the class.
Joseph started by telling the students about his job and what he does every day. He told them about the qualifications he has and what he needed to do to get a job in a wildlife park. Finally, he told them some stories about some of the animals that he looks after. The students were very interested. Joseph talked about the animals’ behaviour and the sorts of things they liked to eat. Mrs Essuman was pleased and surprised at how many questions her students wanted to ask him about the wildlife park. They were particularly fascinated by the skulls and teeth that he brought to show them. He played a game with the students in which they had to ask questions to try and work out which kind of animal the teeth came from. He could only answer yes or no, so the questions had to be phrased very carefully.
After the visit, some of the students asked Mrs Essuman how they could become a wildlife ranger.
Activity 3: Identifying living creatures
For this activity you should help your students to collect small animals in the school grounds. Resource 5 will give you some information about organising the activity.
Use Resource 4 to help you plan some questions to ask to check your students’ understanding of classification and using a key. The students should work in groups and you should go round asking each group questions. Encourage them to ask each other as well. You could start with simple, closed questions designed to make them observe carefully. How many legs has it got? Does it have antennae? Once they think they know what it is, ask them to classify the animal. Get them to explain why they have chosen a particular group. Are you sure it is in that group? How do you know is it not an X?
They should try to classify the animals they have found using a suitable guidebook or biology textbook for your country. For each one they should be able to classify it at more than one level and should be able to give reasons for their choice. The majority of animals are likely to be arthropods, which should be classified to at least class level.
If you have a local wildlife park then a visit there would be a good alternative to this activity. You will need to go beforehand and devise activities that your students could do.
What is brainstorming?
Brainstorming is a group activity that generates as many ideas as possible on a specific issue or problem for the group to then decide which ideas offer the best solution. It involves creative thinking by the group to think of new ideas to address the issue or problem they are faced with. Brainstorming helps students to:
- understand a new topic
- generate different ways to solve a problem
- be excited by a new concept or idea
- feel involved in a group activity that reaches agreement.
Brainstorming is particularly useful for helping students to make connections between ideas. In science, for example, it can help them to appreciate the links between the ideas they are learning in class, scientific theories and their everyday lives.
A brainstorm at the start of a topic will give you as a teacher a good idea about the extent and depth of knowledge already held by the class. It will not tell you about individuals’ understanding, but it will provide a wealth of collective ideas that you can refer back to as the topic progresses.
How to set up a brainstorming session
Before starting a session, you need to identify a clear issue or problem. This can range from a simple word like ‘energy’ and what it means to the group, or something like ‘How can we develop our school environment?’ To set up a good brainstorm, it is essential to have a word, question or problem that the group is likely to respond to. The teacher can gather the class round the board and run the session, or, in very large classes, divide the class into groups. The questions can be different for different groups. Groups themselves should be as varied as possible in terms of gender and ability.
There needs to be a large sheet of paper that all can see in a group of between six and eight pupils. The ideas of the group need to be recorded as the session progresses so that everyone knows what has been said and can build on or add to earlier ideas. Every idea must be written down, however unusual.
Before the session begins, the following rules are made clear:
1. Everyone in the group must be involved.
2. No one criticises anyone else’s ideas or suggestions.
3. Unusual and innovative ideas are welcomed.
4. Lots of different ideas are needed.
5. Everyone needs to work quickly. Brainstorming is a fast and furious activity.
Running the session
The teacher’s role initially is to encourage discussion, involvement and the recording of ideas. When pupils begin to struggle for ideas, or time is up, get the group (or groups) to select their best three ideas and say why they have chosen these.
- summarise for the class what they have done well
- ask them what they found useful about their activity: what did they discover in the brainstorming that they didn’t realise before?
Resource 2: Example of a mind map
Background information / subject knowledge for teacher
Savannah
- **Lion**
- eats meat
- strong teeth
- move fast
- attack big animals
- **Cheetah**
- spots
- well hidden
- run fast to catch prey
- **Zebra**
- stripes
- not easily seen
- **Elephants**
- trunk
- reaching food
- large
- defend themselves
- **Rhino**
- horn
- thick skin
- protect
- **Giraffes**
- long neck
- reach food
- patterned camouflage skin
Peer assessment
Students can learn a great deal by looking at and assessing each other’s work. It can help them to evaluate their own work more objectively and it can help them to understand the assessment criteria. Taking part in peer assessment can also help students to be more involved in the assessment process and take more responsibility for their own learning.
It is important that students understand how to evaluate and they need to take it seriously.
In order to get some of the benefits of peer assessment, you need to teach your students how to do it:
- They need some basic ground rules.
- They need very clear criteria against which to make the assessments.
Ground rules
When commenting on other people’s work they should start with at least two positive comments:
‘I like the way you did…’
‘That is a really good idea…’
‘You have made it very clear…’
The first few times you try this with a class, it is best to limit them to making positive comments or suggestions (‘it would be really good if you had coloured in that part as well…’)
Any criticisms should be worded in terms of things that could be improved or developed, rather than a negative point.
‘I liked the way you …, it would be even better if…’
‘That was a good decision, but perhaps you could have done … as well’
Clear criteria
Your students will need very clear guidelines about what they are looking for. These can be in the form of questions. For the poster in Case study 2 a set of suitable questions would be:
- Does the drawing/picture make it clear what type of animal it is?
- How many adaptations have been identified?
- Are the reasons for the adaptations clearly explained?
- Did you learn something from this poster?
- Is the work clear and well-presented?
When your students have had the chance to look at other students’ work, they should have the opportunity to look at their own again and make some changes if they wish. This process will make them more aware of the assessment process and more critical of their own work.
Questioning
Good questioning is really important and is not as simple as it first may seem. It can help you develop good relationships with your students, it can help your students to organise their thoughts and therefore help them to learn, and it can provide you with valuable insights into their thinking. Good questions can promote thought, encourage enquiry and help with assessment.
By thinking carefully about the sorts of questions that you can ask, you will improve your teaching.
It is helpful to think of questions as being ‘open’ or ‘closed’ and ‘person’ or ‘subject-centred’.
**Closed questions** have a single correct answer. They can reassure students and help you to find out what they remember. But too many closed questions can limit the opportunities to explore thinking and develop understanding. They are often undemanding and can be quite threatening if the student lacks confidence.
**Open questions** have no right answer, or several right answers. They give you opportunity to find out what your students are thinking, and can be less threatening for some students.
**Subject-centred questions** ask things like ‘what goes into a plant?’ and ‘what sort of rock is this?’
**Person-centred** questions focus on the student and are less threatening and more learner-friendly: ‘What do you think goes into the plant?’ ‘What do you notice about the rock?’
A committee of educators chaired by Benjamin Bloom devised a taxonomy of types of questions in which they identified **‘lower order questions’** and **‘higher order questions’**. Research shows that lower order, recall-type questions tend to dominate classrooms. This leads to an emphasis on remembering facts and reduces the opportunities for creativity, thinking and developing understanding (see table).
It is important that you **plan** your questions appropriately. When you are doing a practical demonstration, for example, or introducing a new topic, write out a list that includes some lower order and some higher order questions. This way, you will be using questions to help your students to learn. Just like every aspect of teaching, you need to practise! You also need to think about how you respond to your students’ answers. Try and give them time to think, ask several students the same question or let them discuss the answer before they respond.
Conventionally, students are asked to put their hands up when they answer a question. You probably find that the same students frequently put their hands up and some do so very rarely. It can be very effective to ask specific students to answer your questions and **not** to ask them to put their hands up. Everyone will have to listen as they know that they might get asked. When you first start doing this, make sure that you direct easy questions at students who you know will find the work difficult. If they can successfully answer some of your questions, they will become more confident.
| Type of questions | Purpose | Examples |
|-------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Lower order questions** | | |
| Recall | To see what your students remember | Who is? |
| | | What are? |
| | | Where are? |
| | | When did? |
| Comprehension | To see if your students understand what they can remember | Explain why? |
| | | What are the differences between? |
| | | What is meant by? |
| Application | To see if your students can use their knowledge | How would you classify these invertebrates? |
| | | What is the evidence that this is a metal? |
| **Higher order questions** | | |
| Analysis | To help your students think critically | Why? |
| | To see if they can make deductions and draw conclusions | What do you think will happen if? |
| | | What do your results show? |
| | | What would be the effect on? |
| Synthesis | To help your students create new ideas from existing information | What would happen if there was no friction? |
| | | Suppose the Earth rotated at half the speed? |
| Evaluation | To encourage your students to form opinions and make judgments | How effective is? |
| | | Which is best and why? |
| | | What do you think? |
Adapted from Amos, S. (2002) ‘Teachers’ questions in the classroom’ in Amos, S., Boohan, R. (eds) Aspects of Teaching Secondary Science, London, RoutledgeFalmer.
Resource 5: Working with insects
Background information / subject knowledge for teacher
Collecting small animals
Caution: You will need to research the ‘bugs’ in your local area and be aware of any that are poisonous or dangerous.
You will also need a reference book that describes the insects that might be found in your country so that you can help your students identify what they find.
Students of all ages are usually quite keen to collect small animals, such as invertebrates (which include 97% of all known animal species), from the school playground or surrounding areas. However, you should point out to them that, although apparently insignificant, these are living creatures; they and their habitats must be treated with respect and consideration; e.g. any lifted stones must be replaced with great care. If pupils are going to collect creatures and bring them into school, you need to show them how to set up a temporary habitat for them in a suitable container such as a margarine tub or similar.
1. The environment should be quite moist and placing a small piece of rolled up damp tissue paper in the bottom of the tub will ensure this.
2. Placing a few leaves inside the tub is a good idea, preferably those of the plant or shrub near or on which the creature was found.
3. Each different type of animal should, ideally, be kept separate; slugs, for example, leave a trail of slime in their wake and other animals’ legs may stick together if they are placed in a container with slugs.
Once they have transported them appropriately from home or the playground they should be transferred to a more suitable habitat within the classroom if a longer study is required. A large plastic or glass tank with leaf mould in the bottom together with a few stones will suffice. A piece of linen or muslin held in place by an elastic band or piece of string would serve as an appropriate cover. The animals should be returned to their natural habitat as soon as possible.
Equipment
Assortment of small jars, boxes and containers
Nylon netting or muslin, elastic bands
Hand lenses
Plastic or glass tanks
Cardboard boxes
Black plastic sheet or large piece of card
Old white sheet
Sheets of card
Small lengths of wood
Trowel (to dig in soft earth)
Clipboards
Paint brushes/plastic spoons (also for transferring creatures into the containers)
Methods of collection
There are several ways in which small creatures can be collected, which should not cause them distress.
1. Small paintbrushes can be used to very gently brush animals from leaves, tree bark, rocks, etc. into small containers.
2. Pitfall traps: these are small holes dug into the soil and filled with small containers, such as jam jars, so that the mouth of the container is just below the surface of the soil. In each container should be placed a few morsels of ‘bait’ to entice the creatures in. The container should be covered so that light cannot enter directly. Placing a few stones around the edge and covering the stones with an appropriately sized piece of card can achieve this. There should, of course, be sufficient space between the stones to allow the creatures’ entry. The traps can be inspected daily to see what creatures have been caught.
3. Lay a piece of black plastic sheeting over the ground, say 1 square metre, early in the morning and see what creatures are under it towards the end of the day.
Main groups of invertebrates
You will need to research the invertebrates that live in your local area.
Organisation
The class can be divided up into groups of three or four. Each group can be given the task of collecting small creatures by one or more of the methods described above. Their task will be:
1. To identify each of the animals they collect.
2. To classify them into groups justifying why they have assigned each one to a particular group.
3. To gather evidence to support their classification in terms of the animal’s structure and habitats.
Choice chambers
You could also carry out investigations into which types of environment each of the groups of animals prefer, e.g. light or dark, dry or moist, by constructing choice chambers. These are closed containers with several chambers, each of which comprises a different environmental variable, as suggested above.
Setting up a dry environment will require the use of a desiccant such as silica gel. An example of a choice chamber is shown on the next page.
Examples of classification keys
- **Animal**
- Hard, outer covering
- 6 legs
- Wings → Grasshopper
- No wings → Ant
- 8 legs
- Round body, short legs → Tick
- Small body, long legs → Spider
- Soft body, no shell
- Long thin body → Worm
- Short fat body → Slug
- **Animals to be keyed out**
- (Kangaroo, Cow, Bee and Spider)
- No internal skeleton
- (Bee, Spider)
- Six legs (Bee)
- Not six legs (Spider)
- Internal skeleton
- (Kangaroo, Cow)
- Pouch present (Kangaroo)
- Pouch absent (Cow)
- **Feathers**
- yes
- Swims → Duck
- no
- yes
- Legs → Lizard
- no → Snake
- no → Hen
Six animals and a key that could be used with your students to illustrate how a key works
The students have to use the key to name each of the animals.
A B C
D E F
How many parts is the body divided into?
Head plus 1 part
Does it have spots?
Yes
FRED
No spots
Does it have a tail?
Yes
AMY
No
JO
Head plus 2 parts
Does it have stripes?
Yes
BEN
No stripes
Does it have 2 sets of antennae or one?
2
TIM
1
AL
Section 2: Transport
Theme: Making science practical
Learning outcomes
By the end of this section, you will have:
- used a demonstration practical as a stimulus to generate students’ questions;
- used practical work to encourage students to observe carefully and to explain their observations;
- supported students in groups to plan an investigation.
Introduction
Practical work is a really important part of being a scientist and can help students to learn. There are a lot of different types of practical work including demonstrations; investigations in which students plan, carry-out and analyse their own experiment and experiments designed to help students learn specific skills or understand scientific ideas. Gaining first hand experience of materials, organisms and processes can increase understanding and help students to remember what they have been taught. Shared experiences and real objects may also be helpful for students who find English difficult. All practical work requires careful planning and some improvisation.
In this unit the activities are all linked to the topic transport. They involve students taking part in a practical demonstration, a practical activity designed to illustrate theory in which they are required to make very careful observations and an open-ended practical investigation. Resource 1 has some general information about practical work and Resource 2 has some background information to the topic.
1. Demonstrating transport in plants
Practical work is a very good way to engage your students with an idea or problem and help them to see the relevance of the theories that you want them to learn. As a teacher you will be keen to explain the scientific ideas. Often teachers are too ready to offer an explanation and miss the opportunity to really engage and interest their students. If you can show your students something that surprises or intrigues them, they will be keen to find out more. Sometimes, therefore, it is better to withhold information and let your students ask questions or suggest an explanation. In Case study 1, the teacher gets her students to set up an experiment but does not tell them why they are doing it. This is important; she wants them to think about what might happen and give them the opportunity to share their ideas. In Activity 1 a slightly different way of presenting the same experiment is suggested.
Case study 1: Organising a demonstration
At the end of the topic on nutrition Mrs Ngnomo found that she had 15 minutes at the end of the lesson. The next topic she was due to teach was transport, and she had been collecting plants and flowers for a while. She got out her plants, some jars and some food colouring. She asked some of the students to half-fill the jars with water and to add a few drops of food colouring to each one. A pale coloured flower or a stick of celery was placed in each jar and they were left on the window sill of the classroom until the next lesson. The class were intrigued. Mrs Ngnomo gathered them round the front and asked them what they thought might happen. She did not tell them any answers.
She wrote all their suggestions on the board. Then she gave them five minutes to talk to each other. She asked each pair to write down a prediction and a reason for their prediction. She collected in their suggestions and kept them until the next lesson.
The next day the class rushed into the lab, keen to see what had happened to their flowers. The white carnations had gone blue and the veins could be seen all the way through the celery.
The students were really interested in what had happened and Mrs Ngnomo let them cut thin sections of the stems of the plants and look at them with a hand lens. She gave out the predictions they had made, gathered them round the front and asked them questions about the experiment. She started with simple, closed questions, based on their observations and moved on to harder questions that challenged their thinking.
Activity 1: Encouraging student questions
Set up a plant in a beaker of coloured dye. Choose a plant or flower that clearly shows the path of water through vascular bundles and that has a stem that you can cut easily with a razor. Your school textbook should suggest suitable plants found in your area.
You should do this at the end of a lesson, so that the students can see what you are doing – but don’t tell them anything about it. Leave it until the next lesson so the dye has time to move up the stem. (If you have not done this before try it beforehand to see how long it takes. If it is a long time until the next lesson, you might need to set up another one).
You should use probing questions aimed at helping students to predict, observe and explain what the experiment shows. You may also choose to show the same experiment with a plant that has a pale coloured flower where the dye is seen moving through the flower. Ask students to suggest what further questions this experiment raises. Write all suggestions on the board. Then ask students to predict the answers to their questions and to suggest how scientists could investigate these questions.
2. Organising a class practical
Demonstrations can be a good way to enthuse and interest your students, but they really begin to learn about being a scientist if they have the chance to do the experiments themselves. Activities 2 and 3 describe two different approaches to class practical work.
Firstly, you can use experiments to illustrate key concepts and to help your students understand the theory, or secondly, you can support them in designing their own experiments in order to investigate a hypothesis. If you do this they will begin to learn about how scientists work as well as understanding the theory. In Case study 2 the teacher does not have very much equipment but manages to do some simple experiments. Rather than get her students to copy notes about the experiments from the board, she uses a sentence matching exercise that will encourage her students to think about what the experiment has shown them. Resource 3 provides ideas about how you can use students’ writing to enhance learning. Activity 2 shows what you could do if you have access to microscopes or balances or a source of heat. Firstly students are encouraged to look very carefully at something they see every day. Then, they put the leaves in special conditions to find out more and finally, they use a microscope to see something invisible to the naked eye. This illustrates three approaches that biologists use to build their understanding of the living world.
Case study 2: Doing practical work with limited resources
Mrs Ogina works in a secondary school near to a large city slum and has very few resources, but she is very resourceful. She is passionate about living things and her students love coming to her room because there are lots of plants growing in pots and pictures of living things that she has collected from old magazines and tourist brochures.
Before the lesson, Mrs Ogina had put a plastic bag over one of the plants in a pot. By the time the lesson began, droplets of water had collected in the bag. She gathered her class round the front and asked them where the water had come from. She didn’t tell them the answer but was encouraged when someone suggested that it might be something to do with the leaves.
She sent them out of the classroom to collect leaves. She asked each group of five students to collect three different types of leaf. (She had also brought some in from where she lives as she knew there was not much variety near the school). She asked them to look at the leaves very carefully and to write down four ways in which they are adapted for photosynthesis. She asked them to think about what they all had in common and what the differences were between them.
When they had been working for a while she stopped them and went back to the suggestion that the water might have come from the leaves. She drew a diagram of a leaf on the board and explained about the stomata. She encouraged them to look carefully at their leaves and see where the stomata should be but explained that they would need a hand lens or microscope to see them.
The next lesson, Sam came rushing into the classroom to show Mrs Ogina a magnifying glass that his uncle had given him. He was happy for the students to take turns in looking for the stomata, provided they were careful with the magnifying glass. To finish the activity, Mrs Ogina wrote statements on the board (see Resource 4) and the students had to match them correctly to make sentences.
Activity 2: Encouraging careful observations
Organise the students into groups of three or four. Ask each group to collect four different leaves. Challenge the groups to find five adaptations for photosynthesis that they can observe without a microscope or hand lens.
Now give each group a beaker or tin of boiling water. Ask them to put each leaf in turn into the water, observe what happens on both sides of the leaf and explain what they see. They should notice that air bubbles appear at the lower surface of the leaf, showing that air is escaping through tiny holes.
Show them a diagram of a section of a leaf seen under a microscope and ask them to relate their observations to the diagram. If your school has a microscope you can show them the stomata or better still get them to make their own slides.
3. Planning investigations
Students enjoy planning experiments for themselves. In doing so, they develop thinking skills and the ability to ask questions, both of which will help them to learn. In order to plan an experiment, students need a question to answer or a hypothesis. It might be something like ‘which plastic bag is the strongest?’ or ‘which design of paper airplane flies the furthest?’
In Case study 3 the teacher chooses a simple question that she thinks will interest her students. Activity 3 describes an investigation linked to the topic of transport which involves thinking about where on the leaf the water is coming from. You will need to lead them to the idea that spreading petroleum jelly on the surface of the leaf will prevent water from leaving, but leave the details of the plan to them. Use questioning to encourage them to think about how they will detect water loss, how they will decide on where the water is coming from, what the control will be and why they need a control. Some groups will need more help than others.
When students plan their own experiments, they don’t always come up with the best way of doing it, but that doesn’t matter because you want them to learn about the process as much as the theory. If you make sure that they evaluate their experiment carefully they will still learn and will be receptive to your suggestions of how it might be improved. The more investigations you do, the better they will be at doing them.
Case study 3: A simple investigation
Mr Machacha did an investigation with his class in biology. However, it was not a very successful lesson as his students found it very difficult – they were not used to designing experiments. They did not appreciate the importance of a ‘fair test’ or the benefit of testing their idea before they started collecting data. He realised that they needed the opportunity to do a really simple investigation that would help them to understand the principles involved in planning experiments.
Mr Machacha made two different paper helicopters (see Resource 5). He asked the class which one was the best. This got them thinking about how to decide what was ‘best’ and how to measure it. He got them to predict how the size of the rotors would affect the time it took to fall. He purposefully didn’t tell them how to do the experiment or how to record the results. They soon realised that they had to drop it from the same height each time and that they needed to think about how best to record the results.
His class spent about 20 minutes taking readings and plotting a graph. Mr Machacha went round asking them questions about how best to record the results and helping them plot a graph. At the end he asked the group who had done the best to draw their table of results on the board so everyone could see what they had done. They had a lot of fun and learnt a lot about how to plan experiments.
Activity 3: Investigating leaves
Tell the students that they are going to plan their own investigation into how water is lost from leaves. Ask them to predict whether more water will be lost from the upper or lower surface of leaves. If they have done Activity 2, ask them to think about what they observed when they put leaves in boiling water. Do not tell the answer to this, but ask them to work in groups to design an experiment to answer the question. You will need to give them some clues and prompts (see Resource 5) but should not give them more information than they need.
Collect the written plans. Check whether they are reasonable and collect apparatus to do as many different ones as possible. In the next lesson, give them feedback on their suggestions and allow students to set up all the ones that are possible.
Resource 1: Practical work
Teacher resource to support teaching approaches
Practical work
Introduction
Practical work is an important part of learning about science and learning to be a scientist.
The TESSA materials consider practical work in science involves pupils finding out, learning and verifying through observation and experiment, using skills and methods that are used by scientists in the real world. There are different types of practical work, which serve different purposes. Over time, a good teacher will make sure that their students experience different types of practical work.
Purposes of practical work
Different types of practical work and particular experiments will meet different objectives, but the benefits of practical work include:
- Developing practical skills and techniques such as how to use a microscope.
- Gaining first hand experience of materials, organisms and processes that may increase their understanding of science and help the retention of knowledge.
- Developing inquiry skills, such as control of variables, analysis and recording of data and looking for patterns.
- Motivation and enjoyment.
- Encouraging and promoting higher levels of thinking. Pupils can be asked to predict and explain when presented with problems and phenomena.
- Communication skills. Practical work may provide a context for the development of communication skills. The link to shared experiences and real objects may be very helpful for learners with limited proficiency in English.
Types of practical work
- **Demonstrations** – A teacher may decide to do a demonstration for reasons of safety or due to lack of time or resources. They may also be the most suitable method for consolidating understanding or providing challenge. Try to actively involve pupils through questioning or through participating in conducting the experiment or activities before or during the demonstration (e.g. predicting if statements are true or false and then using observations to confirm or change their decision).
- **Structured practical** – Pupils do an experiment in groups. The teacher may give them instructions to follow, advice on recording and analysis and questions to help them relate their observations to theory. These may be suitable for practising skills and techniques, supporting particular inquiry skills, and gaining experiences.
- **Rotating (circus) practical** – Pupils in groups move from one experiment to the next at ‘stations’ in the classroom. The experiments should be related and instructions should be brief. Similar questions at each experiment will help pupils
gradually build their understanding of a key concept, e.g. particle theory of matter or adaptation. Some of the stations may include a card sort or problem to solve rather than an experiment.
- **Investigation** – Pupils plan, carry out and analyse their own experiment. They may have freedom to choose what they investigate or the teacher may limit the materials available or specify a topic to investigate. The teacher has a role as a facilitator rather than teacher. They will usually give pupils guidance on ‘the scientific method’ or carrying out a ‘fair test’.
- **Problem solving** – this is similar to an investigation, but pupils have more freedom of approach. It may be a practical problem, such as dropping an egg from the top of a building without breaking it, which can be solved in a number of ways. This can be motivating and a good vehicle for the promotion of communication skills.
**Organising practical work**
Whenever you are planning an experiment, you should try it out yourself before the lesson. Simple experiments are often more complicated than you might think. You will also need to do a risk assessment. This means thinking about the potential hazards and taking steps to reduce them.
When dealing with chemicals other than water, students should wear safety goggles. If safety goggles are not available, you need to use very dilute solutions (0.1 M). The chemical that is most likely to cause permanent eye damage is sodium hydroxide (above a concentration of 0.4 M).
You will need to think about how your students will get the apparatus they need. The things you might consider could include:
- Give them an activity to do at their desks and, while they are doing it, you distribute the apparatus they will need.
- Spread out the different items around the room and ask one person from each group to collect what they need. By spreading it out, you will avoid the potentially dangerous situation of lots of people gathering in the same place.
- Give out the chemicals yourself with a teaspoon on to small pieces of paper that they can take back to their place. This will ensure that they get the right amount and will avoid a lot of mess!
Transport in plants
It is amazing!
Plants include trees such as the giant redwood trees of California, USA. These trees are often over 100 metres tall.
Even these tall trees can transport many litres of water up their trunks in just a few hours on a hot day.
Diagram 1 Movement of water through a plant
What are the main substances transported by plants?
Water is transported from the roots through the plant and out through the leaves.
Mineral salts (ions) are transported from the roots to all parts of the plant.
Sugar, made in photosynthesis, is transported from the leaves to all parts of the plant.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported through tiny holes (pores) on the surface of leaves and stems through a network of air spaces within the plant to and from all living cells.
What are the routes and mechanism of transport?
Water moves from the outer layer of the young roots to the centre of the roots, via cell walls and cytoplasm. It moves by diffusion and osmosis.
It then passes into the xylem cells. It passes up to the stem and leaves in the xylem in the transpiration stream.
Once in the stem and leaves water can pass out of the xylem to all the cells via the cell walls and cytoplasm, as in the root.
Mineral salts pass along the same route as water. They pass from cell to cell by diffusion or active transport. They pass up the xylem in the transpiration stream.
Sugar passes by diffusion from leaf cells to the phloem.
It passes from the leaves to the stem and root via the phloem. The mechanism for this is not fully understood.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported through tiny holes (pores) on the surface of leaves and stems through a network of air spaces within the plant to and from all living cells.
Diagram 2 Structure of xylem and phloem cells as seen under the microscope
The transpiration stream
Most of the water moving through the plant evaporates from the surfaces of the cells inside the leaves and escapes from the leaves as water vapour. The evaporation from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration. The sun provides the heat energy for this evaporation to occur.
A continuous column of water extends from the outer surface of the cells inside the leaf through tiny spaces in the plant cell walls to the water inside the xylem vessels.
Because of its special cohesive properties (water molecules ‘want’ to stick together) water that has evaporated from the leaves is replaced by water drawn up through the xylem.
The water column at the bottom of the xylem in the roots is continuous with a water network in the walls and cytoplasm of the root cells all the way to the outer surface of the root.
**Stomata**
Stomata (singular, stoma) are found on the surfaces of leaves – also of stems and flowers. A stoma is a pore or hole. It is surrounded by two cells called guard cells. These guard cells can change shape and this alters the size of the pore, allowing the amount of water vapour, oxygen and carbon dioxide that can pass through the pore to be controlled.
**Water uptake by the roots**
Plant roots form a branching network in the soil. Uptake of water and mineral salts is mainly carried out by the ends of the youngest roots. Just behind the tips of the branches of the roots is a region of root hairs. These are formed as extensions of the cells in the outer layer of the root (root epidermal cells). These root hairs increase the surface area for absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
If the stem of a plant is cut at its base, water exudes from the cut stem. This suggests that a pushing force is generated in the roots – **root pressure**. Root pressure on its own is not enough to drive water to the top of the tallest trees.
Getting students to write about their ideas is a good way to find out what they understand. Traditionally most of the writing that students do in science involves writing short answers to closed questions, or copying notes from the board. If this is all the writing that your students do, then you will be missing opportunities for them to demonstrate what they know and to be creative.
Writing in science should definitely not be restricted to answering questions and copying notes. There are a variety of ways in which you can use children’s writing to probe their understanding, develop their knowledge and refine their skills and some of these are summarized below.
**DARTS**
This stands for Directed Activities Related to Texts. As the name suggests the activities involve pupils working with texts that have been changed in some way. One common device is text with words missing that pupils have to supply. The missing words can either be listed below, or not, depending on the abilities of the pupils.
Sentences that link together to explain a process or phenomenon can be jumbled up and pupils have to decide their correct order.
**Learning diary**
This is a useful way of helping pupils reflect on their learning and even evaluate it. They will need to be trained to do this as it usually does not happen naturally.
**Word matching**
You supply a list of scientific words and definitions. Students have to match the right word with the correct definition.
**Poster production**
Producing a poster will not only give pupils an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding in writing but also enable them to use drawings and diagrams to illustrate science concepts.
**Leaflet production**
This is similar to poster production but with the added dimension that it normally expresses a particular view or opinion. It is often useful to ask pupils to produce leaflets expressing a view that is opposed to their own.
Pressure group letter writing
This is similar to leaflet production but is just text written in continuous prose with the intention of expressing a usually strongly held view. This provides pupils with an opportunity to marshal their thoughts and to construct a persuasive argument.
Experiment write up
Encouraging your students to write about their experiments in their own words will show you how much they understand. A strategy that teachers often use is to provide some headings and some key words that their students should be trying to use so that they can structure their writing.
Concept map construction
This involves breaking down a complex idea, process or phenomenon into sub-components and linking them graphically to display their logical sequential relationships and how they contribute to an understanding of the whole. This is normally quite a cognitive challenge and requires a lot of practice to perform successfully. Probably more significantly it requires a sound knowledge of the subject if the maps are to make sense.
Summarising
Pupils have to decide on key points from an extract and either rewrite them to fit in with a restricted word limit or number of points.
Storyboarding
Pupils illustrate a particular process by transcribing from text to a series of pictures in cartoon form that describe the process.
Using flow diagram
This is similar to storyboarding except that the main features or aspects of the process are represented by particular diagrammatic symbols either of your choice or your pupils’.
Resource 4: Understanding the structure of leaves
Teacher resource for planning or adapting to use with pupils
This resource can be copied for all students, or you can copy it on to the board.
Leaves
1. Look at the different leaves you are given.
Read the statements a to e below.
Write the statements in your book, leaving a clear line after each one.
a. Leaves are flat with a large surface area
b. Leaves have lines called veins on them
c. Leaves are usually green
d. The upper surface is darker green than the lower surface
e. Leaves are thin
2. Complete your sentences using statements f to j below.
a. to take water to all parts of the leaf.
b. so a lot of sunlight falls on them.
c. because there is more chlorophyll near the top of the leaf.
d. because they contain chlorophyll to absorb light energy.
e. so gases don’t have far to move.
3. Draw one of the leaves.
Label the following parts:
- Veins
- Midrib (a big vein in the middle)
- Blade (the flat part).
4. If you notice anything else the leaves have in common write it down.
Simple investigations
In order to help their students learn about how to do investigations, teachers often choose a simple problem or question. Students can then concentrate on the investigation and not worry about the science.
Testing household products is popular, such as investigating which is the strongest bag for carrying groceries.
At the end of this resource is a template for a simple paper helicopter. Students can time how long it takes to fall from a height. They can change the area of the blades (by cutting them down) or change the mass by adding paperclips. In the process they learn about predicting, fair-testing, repeating readings, taking averages and spotting results that should be discounted.
To help your students plan a simple investigation you could write these questions on the board:
- What question are you trying to answer?
- What do you predict the answer will be and why?
- How will you measure ... [the strength of the material, the time for the fall, etc.]
- What will you have to keep the same for each test?
- How will you record the results?
- How will you make sure the results are reliable? [They may need prompting to repeat readings.]
- What do you think the difficulties will be with your experiment? [Encourage them to do some trials to test their method.]
In an investigation like this the **process** is more important than the results. At the end gather your class round the front and use questions to draw out the important features of the process. Highlight the importance of making a prediction, testing the method, controlling variables, repeating the measurements, looking critically at the results and being prepared to ignore anywhere an error has been made. Once your students understand the principles of a scientific investigation, they will find it easier to plan an investigation to test a scientific question.
Leaf investigation
This is a simple investigation but it is important to let your students work out how to do it. Resist telling them the answers, but do ask leading questions if they are stuck.
You can tell them that rubbing petroleum jelly on a leaf will seal it and prevent water escaping.
Let them work out how to test whether both sides of the leaf lose water, or whether one side loses more than the other.
Each group will need some leaves or access to a small plant in a pot.
There are two ways you can set this experiment up.
**Experiment to show that more water is lost from the under surface than from the upper surface of most leaves**
1. As many leaves as possible (preferably still attached to plants) are treated as shown:
Leave for several minutes.
**Result**
1. A series of leaves have their surfaces variously smeared with petroleum jelly
The leaves are left for a few days and observed at various intervals
**Result**
*Adapted from: Life, Form and Function; Brewer and Burrow, Macmillan, 1972, p. 138*
Below is a template for making a simple helicopter. Cut round the bold lines and fold the dotted ones.
Cut along solid lines. Fold along dotted lines.
Section 3: Respiration
Theme: Science lived – relevant and real
Learning outcomes
By the end of this section, you will have:
- helped your pupils to learn some science by studying the working of their own bodies;
- helped your pupils to collect data related to exercise and blood supply and record it appropriately and helped them to analyse and interpret patterns in this and additional second-hand data;
- taken pupils to visit a local industry to see how knowledge of respiration and microbial activity is applied.
Introduction
Science is all around us. Too often young people see science as something learnt from a textbook that is not relevant to their everyday lives. An effective way of demonstrating that this is not the case is to start with the everyday context and use it to draw out scientific principles. Activities like baking cakes, growing vegetables, and mending a bicycle all involve scientific principles. Making connections between the things they do at home and the science they learn in school can help to reinforce the scientific principles that your students need to learn. Asking students about things outside school that are important can get them engaged and interested – especially if some controversy is involved. Most real-life situations are actually quite complicated and it is easy to find yourself talking about chemistry, biology or physics, or even wider issues. This will help to keep your students interested in science and help them to see how science can help them to understand the world.
Resource 1 gives some strategies that you can use in order to help your students make these connections. We want to encourage you to develop the habit of relating all the areas of science that you study with your students to their everyday lives. Try to refer to the list in Resource 1 whenever you start planning a new topic for your pupils and ensure that you incorporate some of the ideas. In this unit we demonstrate how you can use some of these ideas in the context of learning about respiration.
In this unit we start with aspects of science relevant to the students’ own bodies and their experiences at school, home and in their leisure time. We then move on to consider issues of wider importance to their own lives and to society as a whole.
1. Measuring changes in pulse rate
In biology one of the best ways of making students see the subject as relevant to them is to relate it to their own bodies. In Activities 1 and 2 they consider the way their bodies respond to increased exercise. When you introduce the topic, you should be able to refer to their participation in physical education (PE) and school sports. They should be able to draw on their own experience in class discussions of the activities. Activity 1 is a standard practical that the students will enjoy, especially if you are able to take them outside to do the exercise. By asking them to design their own table you are helping them to develop an important skill – communicating experimental results clearly. They may need some assistance with this. Make sure you have worked out a suitable table yourself, so that you can help them if they have any difficulty. A traditional way to explain these results might be to discuss them as a class and to give them notes summarising the processes that occur during exercise. The written exercise replaces the notes and gives them practice in writing a clear concise paragraph about scientific ideas (an important skill for exams). It is designed to give the students enough help to work it out for themselves. You should discuss the results as a class before asking them to do the writing, but let them do the writing themselves.
Case study 1: Organising groups to do an experiment
Mrs Addai had explained the terms pulse and pulse rate and shown her students how to measure their pulse. She planned a practical in which her students investigated changes in their own pulse rate, in beats per minute, before and after exercise. She had a stop watch on her mobile phone and two egg timers. Before they started, they practised measuring a minute by counting slowly to sixty. This was necessary so that those without a timer could still do the experiment.
She divided the class into groups of three or four with each person performing a specific task: one person in each group acted as the subject; another took the pulse of the subject; a third did the timing and the fourth recorded the results in the table. The third and fourth task could be combined. The students could change tasks, so that everyone had a chance to have their pulse measured. Mrs Addai noticed that last time they did an experiment, the boys did the practical work and the girls tended to hang back. This time, she insisted that they worked in groups of boys or girls. They started by measuring the pulse rate of the subject while he or she was sitting down comfortably. They then had to run either outside or on the spot in the classroom for two minutes. Their pulse rate was measured again immediately afterwards.
At the end she gathered them round the front to discuss the significance of the changes in pulse rate before and after exercise and the reasons for variation in rates between individuals. For their homework, Mrs Addai asked the students to make a poster outlining the investigation and highlighting the key results. She told them what they had to include in the poster (what they did, why they did it, what they found out and what it showed) but let them choose how to present their work. She was amazed by the creativity and enthusiasm that they showed.
Activity 1: Investigating pulse rate
You could do this activity when you have taught your students the principles of respiration; or you could do the experiment first and then use the results to help you explain respiration. Think about what would work best for your class. Divide your students into groups of three or four. Explain what they are going to do and ask them to design a table in which to record their results. Tell them they are going to investigate the effect of exercise on pulse rate and describe what they should do. They will measure the pulse rate (pulses per minute) for each person in the group at rest (sitting down). They should then walk for 30 seconds before taking the pulse again. They should repeat this after running.
They could exercise by walking or running on the spot, but, if you can, take them outside to do this. After they have finished, if you have already explained respiration, ask them to write a paragraph describing their results using the following words and phrases: average; differences between individuals; increase heart beat; oxygen; muscles; respiration; rate; energy.
2. Focus on interpreting data
Scientists need to be able to identify patterns in experimental data. This can be a complex skill and students may face difficulties doing this in exams if they have not practised it beforehand. In Case study 2, the teacher shows her students examples of how data are presented in the media. It is a good idea, as a science teacher, to keep a file of cuttings from newspapers or magazines that you can use with your students. Any story related to science is worth keeping – you never know when it might be useful. Sometimes, newspapers present data in a particular way to make a specific point. Your students need to learn to be critical about what they read or hear. In the main activity, students are given the data in graphical form, but you could show them the graphs and the tables and get them to decide on the best way to display the data.
Case study 2: Explaining patterns in data
Mrs Maduhu had prepared a poster of graphs, charts and tables cut out of newspapers and magazines to show her class that these ways of presenting information are commonly used in many situations in daily life as well as in science, and science examinations. The ways of presenting the data included tables, line graphs and pie charts. She told her students that it was important that they became familiar with reading graphs, charts and tables and looking for patterns in the data so they could understand and explain what these forms of presentation showed. She also showed them how easy it is to emphasise a particular point by changing the scale on a graph.
Mrs Maduhu wrote three tables on the chalk board with data about cardiac output (Resource 4). She asked her students to copy the tables into their science books very carefully, to study the tables for their homework and to look for patterns in the figures.
She also asked them to use their knowledge of respiration to explain each pattern. For students who had time and were interested, she said they could do the same for Table 3. Next lesson, she put the students in groups of four and asked them to share their ideas. They had to choose one pattern they all agreed about, together with its explanation, and present this to the whole class.
Activity 2: Explaining patterns and peer review
Divide the class into groups of three to five students. Hand out a copy of the data on cardiac output and blood distribution to each group (Resource 3). If you do not have access to a copier, use Resource 4 and write the information on the chalkboard. Tell them to write three sentences that describe patterns in the data on a sheet of paper. Give them this example to start them off: ‘The amount of blood going to the brain stays almost the same during exercise.’ Tell them to pass their sheet to the next group, who should decide whether they think each statement is correct. If it is correct they should try to explain the reason for the pattern, using their knowledge of respiration and exercise. They should hand the paper on to a third group for checking. Each group should be asked to read to the class one of the patterns and the explanations written by their neighbours.
You can round off the lesson by reviewing two or three of the key patterns reported and their explanations. You can point out any important patterns that have not been reported on and you can congratulate your class on their developing analytical and interpretative skills.
3. Baking and brewing
All living things respire and the respiration of yeast forms the basis of the brewing and baking industries. Case study 3 and Activity 3 show how you can make use of this in your classroom. In the case study, the teacher gets a visitor into the classroom and the activity involves a visit. While it requires time and careful planning, a visit to a local industry (e.g. bread making) will have real value in motivating students and in helping them to understand the relevance of what they do in class to the real world. It should also help them to realise that ordinary people have used aspects of the scientific process to refine their methods. Over hundreds of years scientists have observed, carefully experimented with different methods, evaluated the results and where necessary modified their methods. Before you go, try to prime students on what they should look out for. It will help if they have studied yeast and fermentation before they go and are asked to relate what they see to what they have learned.
Case study 3: Inviting a visitor to school
One of Mr Nkala’s former students, David, had started working in a local bakery. Mr Nkala asked David to come and talk to his students about work in the bakery. David enjoyed his job and was pleased to do this.
He explained that the main ingredients of bread are flour, yeast, and water. He had brought some fresh yeast and some dried yeast to show the students. He put some of the yeast in a small bowl, added some warm water and a small spoonful of sugar. He asked the students to keep an eye on the mixture to see if they noticed any changes. In the meantime, he explained how to make bread.
David told the class that yeast is a single-celled fungus. Like all living organisms, yeast gets its energy during respiration. He asked them what they knew about respiration and was impressed with the replies. Yeast can respire without the need for oxygen (anaerobic respiration). As it respires yeast produces carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.
By now the students had noticed that the bowl of yeast, water and sugar had started to froth up with lots of tiny bubbles. David had brought some samples of the bread he made which he passed round for the students to examine. He asked the students why the bread did not taste of alcohol. Before he left, David explained what qualifications he had and described the training he had received. One day he hopes to own his own bakery and intends to specialise in making different kinds of bread from other countries. He gave the class a recipe for making bread (Resource 5) which they could do at home.
Activity 3: Organising a visit
Set up an experiment to show that yeast, sugar and water produce carbon dioxide and ethanol, provided that they are kept in a warm environment, in the absence of air. Explain to your students how this process is used in bread making and in brewing.
Try to arrange a visit to a local bakery or brewery, to reinforce learning and demonstrate the practical uses of this process. Depending on the size of your local bakery or brewery, there may not be enough space for the whole class to go on the visit. Those who do go could give a short presentation to the rest of the class when they return. You and your students will need to be aware of strict rules on cleanliness and hygiene associated with any business concerned with food. You can ask your students to look out for ways the bakery workers ensure that cleanliness is maintained. Some equipment and processes could cause injury to your students, such as the hot ovens, so it is important that they act responsibly and listen to instructions carefully. During the visit students should try to find answers to a number of questions. Possible questions, together with suggested answers are included in Resource 6. Students should also be encouraged to think of and to ask questions of their own.
Resource 1: Making Science relevant
Teacher resource to support teaching approaches
Making science relevant to everyday life
Introduction
The TESSA resources are underpinned by a view that science is not just an activity that is carried out by people in white coats in a laboratory. Science helps students to make sense of the world and they need to realise that it is taking place all around them. Many everyday activities involve scientific principles. It is important that pupils get the opportunity to apply their scientific knowledge to an understanding of their own environment and that they understand that the skills they develop in science are relevant to some of the problems they face in everyday life.
Possible strategies
Class discussion
Use local examples where possible, but also encourage pupils to draw on their own experience in the classroom.
Practical work
- Use local examples and materials, e.g. hibiscus indicator; local minibeasts for work on classification or adaptation; wood and kerosene to compare calorific content of fuels.
- Give pupils a challenge using scrap materials, e.g. obtain clean salt.
Research projects
Pupils could find information from local newspapers or magazines or interview adults in the community, such as brewers, mechanics or health workers. This could be the basis of a poster, oral presentation or role play.
Making use of the school grounds
Besides the obvious opportunities for ecological investigations, the school grounds are a source of teaching examples in other topics such as corrosion, structures and forces. Take pupils to see them or ask them to find examples or collect data for analysis.
Day visits
Visit local industries, agricultural sites or museums. The effective teacher will link this to classroom work both before and after the trip.
Homework
Ask pupils to write about examples of science around them (e.g. chemical change in the kitchen or forces on the football field) or to bring materials to the classroom.
Writing tasks
Use local issues as a stimulus for creative written work, e.g. a letter to a newspaper or radio script on local environmental or health issues.
Discussion tasks
- Interviews – one child could be the ‘expert’ and the interviewer can ask questions as if they were producing a news item for the radio.
- Pupils come to a decision about a local issue, e.g. health promotion or energy supply.
You should create a file for yourself and keep any newspaper and magazine articles that you find that contain or are about scientific issues. Every time you start a new topic, ask yourself how it relates to everyday life and help your students to make those connections.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming as a class or in smaller groups can help students to make connections between the science they learn in class and their everyday lives.
Resource 2: Experiments on pulse rate
Background information / subject knowledge for teacher
Practical hints on measuring pulse rate
Investigating the effect of exercise on heart rate/pulse rate
You can find out how fast your heart is beating, that is your heart rate, by feeling your pulse. The wave of pressure which passes down an artery as a result of each heart beat is felt as a pulse when an artery is near the surface of the body and runs over a bone.
Finding the pulse
You can find the pulse in your wrist by turning your hand palm-side up. Gently place the middle and index finger of your other hand on the inside of the wrist at the base of the thumb. Press your fingers down in the groove between your middle tendons and your outside bone.
Do not use your thumb to feel the pulse as it has a pulse of its own.
You can also use a pulse in your neck region. To find this pulse, place your fingers gently on one side of your neck, below your jawbone and halfway between your main neck muscles and windpipe.
Do not press too hard when measuring your pulse.
Extension investigation on the effect of exercise on heart rate/pulse rate
For an extra investigation, some groups could choose one pupil to be the subject. The subject should then do two minutes of exercise again. Their pulse rate is measured immediately after this as before and then at one minute intervals until the pulse rate has returned to the resting rate. The fitter a person is the quicker the rate will return to normal.
Resource 3: Data on the effect of exercise
Teacher resource for planning or adapting to use with pupils
Effect of exercise on cardiac output and blood distribution
Adapted with permission from Honeybourne, J. Hill, M. and Morris, H. *Advanced physical education and sport for A level*, Cheltenham, Nelson Thornes.
Cardiac output data
Table 1. Changes in cardiac output under different exercise conditions
| Condition | Rest | Light exercise | Strenuous exercise | Maximal exercise |
|--------------------|------|----------------|--------------------|-----------------|
| Cardiac output l/min | 5.8 | 9.5 | 17.5 | 25.0 |
Table 2. Distribution of blood (in l/min) to different parts of the body under different exercise conditions
| Body area | Brain | Other | Gastro-intestinal | Muscle | Total |
|-----------------|-------|-------|------------------|--------|-------|
| Rest | 0.9 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 5.8 |
| Light exercise | 0.9 | 2.9 | 1.3 | 4.4 | 9.5 |
| Strenuous exercise | 0.7 | 4.0 | 0.7 | 12.1 | 17.5 |
| Maximal exercise | 0.7 | 1.8 | 0.5 | 22.0 | 25.0 |
Table 3. Distribution of blood as a percentage of cardiac output to different parts of the body under different exercise conditions
| Body area | Brain | Other | Gastro-intestinal | Muscle | Total |
|-----------------|-------|-------|------------------|--------|-------|
| Rest | 16 | 41 | 20 | 23 | 100 |
| Light exercise | 9 | 31 | 14 | 46 | 100 |
| Strenuous exercise | 4 | 23 | 4 | 69 | 100 |
| Maximal exercise | 3 | 7 | 2 | 88 | 100 |
Recipe for making bread
700 g (1½ lb) strong plain flour
15 ml (1 tablespoon) salt
15 g (½ oz) butter (for greasing the tin)
425 ml (3/4 pt) lukewarm water
15 g (½ oz) fresh yeast, or 10 ml (2 teaspoons) dried yeast with 5 ml (1 teaspoon) sugar
Method
Stir fresh yeast into the water or mix dried yeast and sugar with a few drops of water and add to the rest of the water.
Sift the flour and salt into a bowl. Make a well in the centre and add the water and yeast. Mix well until the dough comes away from the sides of the bowl.
Knead the dough with your hands for 10 minutes.
Put the dough into the bowl and cover with a damp cloth. Leave it for an hour in a warm place until it has doubled in size.
Knead the dough again for a few minutes. Place the dough into a greased loaf tin or shape into balls and place on a baking tray.
Let the dough rise again in a warm place for another hour.
Bake the dough for 30–35 minutes in an oven at 230°C (450°F) or gas mark 8.
Yeast and baking
Background information for bakery visit
Scanning micrograph of yeast cells.
There are many types of yeast. The species of yeast used in baking is known as *Saccharomyces cerevisiae*.
Yeast cells are globose to elongate in shape. They are found in soils and on plant surfaces and are especially abundant in sugary media such as flower nectar and fruits.
Yeasts are saprophytes and feed mostly on sugars in the medium around them. Saprophytic organisms feed by secreting digestive enzymes on dead organic material and absorbing the products of digestion.
Yeasts reproduce by budding. During this process a small bump, the bud, protrudes from the parent cell. This enlarges and matures. The bud eventually breaks away from the mother cell to form a separate daughter cell. Some of the yeast cells in the photograph above can be seen with buds on them.
The production of alcohol by yeast is exploited in wine and beer making. *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* is most commonly used, but other species are important for some types of beer.
Several yeasts have been used in scientific research into genetics and cell biology. In 1996 *S. cerevisiae* was the first eukaryote to have its DNA fully sequenced as part of the Genome project.
Other species of yeast, such as *Candida albicans*, are pathogens and can cause infections in humans.
Notes on constituents of bread making
Amylase enzymes in the moistened flour convert the starch in flour to glucose, which the yeast cells use as their respiratory substrate.
Flour protein, called gluten, helps make the dough stretchy (elastic and plastic). This helps to ensure that the carbon dioxide remains trapped as it enlarges the bubbles within the dough. Kneading the dough changes the structure of the proteins in the flour, making them more elastic so the bubbles of gas are trapped. This makes the bread light and chewy.
Types of flour: strong flours contain plenty of gluten, but very little α-amylase enzyme. Wholemeal flour is rich in α-amylase.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) may also be added as a flour improver. It makes the dough more elastic and better at trapping gases and as a result reduces the time required for leavening. This is an important consideration in commercial bread production.
Potassium bromate is sometimes used as a flour improver.
Salt is often added in the bread making process. It inhibits the action of proteases (protein digesting enzymes) and so prevents gluten from being weakened into a sticky mass that cannot retain carbon dioxide.
Excess salt forms strong ionic bonds with side chains of protein molecules. This makes them less stretchy and leads to tough bread. Excess salt also inhibits yeast growth.
Questions about yeast.
Q1 Where do you find yeasts naturally?
A Yeasts are found worldwide in soils, on plant surfaces and in the atmosphere. Yeasts are especially abundant in sugary mediums such as flower nectar and fruits.
Q2 When did people first learn about yeast and how it could be used in bread-making?
A Yeast is probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms. People have used yeast for fermentation and baking throughout history. Archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeasted bread, as well as drawings of 4000-year-old bakeries and breweries. In 1680, the Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek first observed yeast cells under the microscope. At the time he did not consider them to be living organisms. In 1857, the French scientist Louis Pasteur proved that alcoholic fermentation was caused by living yeast cells.
Q3 How is yeast produced commercially now?
A Yeast is grown in a medium of sugar beet or cane molasses in large batch culture vats (50 000-200 000 litre capacity). Yeasts can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen.
The commercial production of yeast occurs in aerobic conditions. These conditions allow maximum multiplication of yeast cells. If multiplication is too rapid, oxygen levels fall and respiration becomes anaerobic. Hence oxygen levels must be monitored.
(N.B. When baking bread, the yeast in dough must be allowed to respire anaerobically. There is very little cell multiplication. Instead, the sugar is used mainly to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide).
After removal from the vats, the yeast is centrifuged and washed several times, then chilled to 2–4°C.
Water is removed by dehydrators and the yeast packaged.
*Fresh yeast*
*From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker’s_yeast (Accessed 2008)*
*Dried yeast*
**Q4 What special conditions are required for yeast growth and multiplication?**
A Yeast must be grown under aerobic conditions in order for the cells to multiply. Hence oxygen must be supplied and levels must be monitored carefully.
Ammonium sulphate, \((\text{NH}_4)_2 \text{SO}_4\), is often added as a source of nitrogen for the yeast cells.
The pH must be kept in the range 4.0–5.5. As the yeast cells use up ammonium ions from the ammonium sulphate in order to get nitrogen, this tends to create acid conditions. This must be adjusted by periodic addition of alkali to keep the pH in the correct range.
Other substances may be added to aid growth, e.g. biotin or pantothenic acid.
The temperature must be kept at 30–35°C to ensure reactions work most efficiently. Enzymes in the yeast cells are essential for respiration to happen. Enzymes are very sensitive to temperature.
Q5 How big is a yeast cell?
A The typical yeast cell is approximately equal in size to a human red blood cell and is spherical to ellipsoidal in shape. Because of its small size, it takes about 30 billion yeast cells to make up to 1 g of compressed baker’s yeast.
A yeast cell is around 5–10 micrometres (µm) by 4–8 micrometres (µm).
There are 1000 micrometres in one millimetre.
The very sharp point on a pin is about 100 micrometres (µm) across.
Q6 What is the most important difference in the growth conditions for the production of yeast cells and the use of yeast cells in baking?
A The production of yeast cells occurs in aerobic conditions, so oxygen must be supplied. For baking, no oxygen should be supplied and the yeast must be allowed to respire anaerobically.
Q7 What is the meaning of the scientific name of bakers yeast, *Saccharomyces cerevisiae*?
A *Saccharomyces* means sugar loving. The species name, *cerevisiae*, comes from the name Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture.
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Section 4: Nutrition, conservation and ecology
Theme: Problem solving and creativity
Learning outcomes
By the end of this section, you will have:
- told a story about problems in a local area and given students the opportunity to work out the reasons for the problems and to suggest a sensible course of action;
- supported students in using their knowledge of nutrients to plan a day’s diet;
- organised students into groups to conduct research within their community and present it to the class.
Introduction
When your students start to look for a job, the qualifications that they have will obviously be very important. However, potential employers will also be looking for people who are creative and who are able to solve problems; they will be looking for people who can think for themselves. Students can sometimes view science as a subject that provides absolute answers that lead to technological advances which can be used directly to solve practical problems. In reality, many problems have cultural and economic perspectives that must be considered as well. Scientists must consider all perspectives when seeking solutions which will be successful in the real world. They need to be creative and able to work effectively with others. The case studies and activities in this unit are designed to show you how you can give your students the opportunity to be creative, to develop their thinking skills and to work effectively with others. They will fit into your normal teaching of nutrition, ecology and conservation. Some general strategies are given in Resource 1.
1. Using a story to think about local issues
Working effectively with others entails listening carefully to what they say. You need to respect, and also critically analyse, their knowledge and opinions. Students should be able to present their own knowledge and ideas in a clear and honest manner. They need to learn to work together to come up with solutions acceptable to all. There should be give and take on all sides. This is an important and difficult skill to acquire. Students will become more proficient at it the more they practise it.
In **Activity 1** and **Case Study 1**, we ask students to consider the possible benefits of applying their knowledge of ecology and conservation to a real problem. However, they also need to take into account the views of people who may be resistant to change. They not only need to look for ways to persuade local people of the benefits of change, but should also consider whether the local community may know of factors that scientists have not considered. **Case study 1** shows how one teacher used the story to revise certain topics. The activity uses a story to create interest and then a table to record key points.
**Case study 1: Using a story to make revision fun**
Christina Majula has a dilemma. She is keen to show her students that what they learn about ecology and conservation in school is very relevant to the daily lives of us all. She also wants the students to do well in their exams but is struggling to finish the syllabus. She plans a revision lesson which includes a story (**Resource 2**) to illustrate a real problem which biological knowledge and understanding could help resolve. Christina has prepared five posters which she will use as a circus of activities with her class. The posters will act as revision of the topic she has just covered with the class. Each poster provides information relevant to the problem (**Resource 3**). Christina reads the story to the class. She then divides the students into five groups. Each group has 10 minutes to look at each poster. She asks them to read the information and to note down some advice to the villagers with an explanation of why that would help solve their problems. She then gathers her students around the front and asks each group to report on what they have learned from one of the posters. Finally, she asks them to imagine that they were Kabwe. How could he convince the village headman that the ideas they were suggesting would work? He is young and new to the area, whereas the village headman is held in great respect. People are not likely to listen to what Kabwe has to say. The students became very animated and interested in a problem that some of them recognised.
**Activity 1: Using a story to highlight a controversial issue**
Tell the students you are going to read them a story about a village with problems. Ask them to note down the problems the village has faced, while you are reading. Read Kabwe’s story (**Resource 2**) quickly. After you have done this ask the students to tell you about the problems the village faced. They should have noted the lack of wild fruits, the poor harvests, low rainfall and lack of water (see **Resource 2**). Now put a table on the board with two headings: Kabwe’s views; Chanda Bwalya’s views. Ask students to take turns to read a paragraph and after each paragraph, add points to the table. Then organise them into groups and ask them to produce a poster suggesting ways of improving the situation. They should use their knowledge of science to suggest some solutions, but they should also think about who they would consult to help them and how they will convince the headman and villagers to adopt their ideas.
2. Thinking about nutrition
As you know, there is a lot to learn in science. You will find that if you can present the information in the form of a problem or issue, then it will be much more interesting for the students – much better than simply copying notes or listening to a lecture. In Case study 2 and Activity 2 we apply this idea to nutrition. Your textbook will explain the need for a balanced diet and give examples of foods rich in particular nutrients. In this activity, we ask students to create their own menu for a day. Students will enjoy the opportunity to make their own decisions about what they could eat and to compare these with their friends’ choices. They will also reinforce their knowledge of the basic ideas and terminology of the topic. The case study shows how one teacher used this as an opportunity to differentiate the work. (Resource 4 has more information on catering for students with different abilities). Just as with Activity 1, students will apply their scientific knowledge to a practical problem with a wide range of possible answers. A key aspect of the problem-solving approach is the development of the students’ ability to think for themselves and to find and justify an answer that is unique. This helps students to realise that success in science is not simply a matter of learning and remembering facts from a textbook.
Case study 2: Differentiating work
Mrs Kaddu is teaching nutrition to her students. She knows that it is important that the whole class knows the main types of food required for a healthy diet. She also knows that some of the students in the class are particularly able. She decides to set two different tasks for students, depending on how easy or difficult they find science. This will help maintain the interest of the students who find science easy and extend their abilities. She uses Activity 2 but also prepares some extra materials. These include two tasks that will challenge the more able students to use detailed nutritional information and provide them with an opportunity to practise their numeracy skills. She gives these students information on the energy content of foods in kilojoules and gives them values for the energy requirements of an active teenage girl and boy. She also gives them information on the energy needed for different types of activity. This provides a range of possible extension work. All the students in her class have work that is suitable for their current stage of development and ability. You can see the extension work Mrs Kaddu made in Resource 5.
Activity 2: Working in groups to learn about nutrition
Organise your students into groups of three to five. Ask them to use the textbook or Resource 5 to identify foods that they eat regularly which are rich in proteins, carbohydrates, fats or vitamins and minerals. Discuss their lists and remind them of the idea that some nutrients (e.g. carbohydrates) are needed in much larger quantities than others (e.g. vitamins and minerals). Approximate amounts of the daily requirements of some nutrients are shown on the resource sheet. Explain that actual amounts will vary according to how old you are, how active you are, whether you are a boy or a girl and how big you are. Ask each student to design a menu for the day that would give them a balanced diet as well as being nice to eat.
If there is time at the end of the lesson, some students could read out their diets. Alternatively, students could exchange their work with their neighbour and read their diets.
3. Conducting research on local food issues
Encouraging students to ask questions and giving them choices about their work are both important when you are teaching them to be creative and to solve problems. By conducting their own research on a topic of their choice, they have ownership of the problem and will develop other skills alongside learning about science. The work they produce could even be of interest to future employers. They have freedom to choose an area of interest and to research it in their own time and in their own way. While this activity will take the students some time to complete, it does not take up much class time and it will give them an opportunity for independent learning. Case study 3 shows what students can do by simply making use of friends and families and Activity 3 also shows what else they could do if they have access to a library or computers. They will practise sorting through a range of information and presenting it in a poster or booklet to their colleagues. You could explain that this is an important way that scientists communicate their research to other scientists at international conferences.
Case study 3: Research using friends and family
Mr Saiti is worried that some of the pupils in his class do not get a good balanced diet. Many have family plots at home for growing food, but these do not always yield a good harvest. He decides to set his class a competition to research good techniques for growing crops on a small scale. They should base their research on talking to people they know and other people in the community. He wants them to use their scientific knowledge to explain the techniques that they hear about. He divides the class into groups of four students. He asks each group to display their findings in a poster and tells them that there will be a prize for the best plan. He puts the judging criteria (Resource 6) on the classroom wall so that the students can see what he will be looking for and plan their work accordingly. Hari’s group are very enthusiastic. Hari goes down to the local market. He picks the stall with the nicest looking vegetables and chats to the owner about how he grows them. Sakina’s aunt works in a local clinic. Sakina asks her about the sorts of illnesses that local people have and as a group they work out what sort of food would help improve local diets and reduce the likelihood of illness due to nutrient deficiencies.
Mr Saiti has already noticed a small plot of land that belongs to the school, but which is not being used. He has asked the headteacher if he could use this plot with his class to develop a small garden to grow vegetables and fruit. The headteacher has agreed to his request.
Activity 3: Organising a research project
Divide your class into groups of up to four students. Explain that you would like them to identify a local food issue to research. Give them time in class to decide on the issue they will research and to plan how they will carry out their research. Encourage them to talk to their family and other friends to identify a local issue or concern. If possible, they could also use a library or the internet. You could spend a short time with the whole class doing a brainstorming activity to generate ideas for suitable topics. Resource 6 has some ideas to start the students thinking. Tell them they have 3 weeks to do the research and prepare a poster, a set of leaflets or a scrap book that will be displayed in the classroom. When they have done this allow them time in the lesson to go round the exhibition and to evaluate each others’ work.
Problem solving and creativity
Through being resourceful and engaging and providing variety, you will be able to motivate your students. If you are willing and able to solve problems and be creative, you will be able to help your students develop these skills. And it is not as difficult as it might seem!
Creativity
Creativity is about the ability to think. It is not just about remembering, but also applying, suggesting, extending, modelling, and offering alternatives. It is something that you can model for your students. Students need to be encouraged to think differently and come up with original ideas. They also need to feel confident in the reception they will get before they make such suggestions.
Some teachers will naturally be very creative, but some will not – and that is fine as long as you are resourceful and willing to try new ideas. A creative teacher, for example, will take the TESSA Secondary Science units and apply the strategies we suggest to different contexts. You could use news items from radio, television or newspapers and relate this to the science you are teaching. You can set open-ended tasks and allow students to make choices about how they present their work. You may take some risks in your teaching. Above all, you will create an atmosphere of excitement and enquiry with dramatic demonstrations, enthusiasm or amazing and unbelievable facts.
Strategies to promote creativity
Get students to:
- write a story to illustrate a scientific principle
- draw a picture to illustrate a scientific principle
- make up a play
- make a model
- take part in a role play (e.g. be the particles in a solid, liquid or gas)
- make up a poem or a rap
- think up alternative explanations for something they see
- write a letter or newspaper article or podcast.
Problem solving
Helping students to develop problem-solving skills is a frequently cited goal of science teachers. As with creativity, you can model these skills in your own classroom. For example, if you can’t answer a student’s question, you can come back next lesson with a solution and explain how you worked it out and why you found it hard. Being able to solve problems involves developing thinking skills. There are various strategies that you can adopt to help children develop these skills (Wellington and Ireson, 2008):
- **Encouraging student-generated questions.** The act of asking questions requires engagement and creative thought, two core cognitive strategies.
• **Being clear about ‘purpose’**. Students should be encouraged to ask: what is this all about? What does this relate to? Why do you want us to do this? – rather than embark on activities in an unthinking, recipe-following fashion.
• **Setting open-ended activities**. Teachers should set activities that can be tackled in a variety of ways so that children have to think about how they will tackle the problem.
• **Planning**. Teachers need to provide opportunities for children to plan their problem-solving strategy in a systematic way.
• **Paraphrasing**. It is well known that you really get to know and understand ideas when you try to teach them to someone else. Giving children opportunity to paraphrase an explanation will help them to understand difficult ideas and to be aware of their own learning.
• **Learning to learn (metacognition)**. Teachers can encourage children to become more conscious of their learning by getting them to think about why they don’t understand and what strategies helped them that might be useful in the future.
**Reference**
Wellington, J. and Ireson, G. (2008) *Science learning, Science teaching*. Abingdon: Routledge.
Kabwe, a 21-year-old man, is a newly appointed Basic School Diploma teacher. He was recently recruited from Kasama Teacher Training College to teach grades 8 and 9 at Katoma Basic School in Chinsali District of Zambia. In order to familiarise himself with this new school, Kabwe went to meet the local village headman, 75-year-old Chanda Bwalya. Kabwe wanted to shed some light on the history of the village and the development and future of the school.
Kabwe noticed that there were problems in the village. There were very few trees in the area, recent harvests had been poor and there were low levels of rainfall. Some of the children in his class did not come to school very often and several of them had protruding tummies, and small legs showing a lot of suffering and hunger.
Chanda Bwalya, the local village headman, praised the ancient days when they founded the village; there was plenty of water in the surrounding streams, and large number of large wild trees with fruits which engulfed the new village. They used to get large crop harvests from very small portions of land they had tilled. It was their custom to use the shifting cultivation system known as chitemene for farming, which involved growing maize or food in one field until it no longer produced enough food then shifting to another area. The trees had provided fruits but also firewood and charcoal. Now the area is a semi-desert. The plants are growing stunted, the yield is poor and there are very few trees left.
Chanda Bwalya blamed the crop failure, lack of wild fruits and the lack of water in most of the streams on misfortune which had befallen the village. Respect for the ancestors had reduced drastically and no yearly rituals for thanking them had been conducted for several years. Chanda also blamed the schools for the bad manners they were teaching the children such as stopping the villagers from cutting trees and planting maize for several years in one garden. The issue of planting new trees was not a village problem but God’s problem as he comes to replace the trees after some time. Chanda Bwalya hinted at the bad times they were going through and was hopeful that things would change for the better once certain solutions were introduced such as paying homage to the ancestors, respect of elders and many more.
Kabwe, the teacher, reminded the village headman that there were no new trees coming up to replace the ones that had been cut down and this was causing the area to become desert. He suggested they planted trees and changed to new methods of organic farming. The old man refused to agree with Kabwe reminding him that he was too young to understand how God and our ancestors replace the lost trees. He should first spend some time in this village and then he would experience the growth of new trees. Chanda Bwalya suggested that Kabwe was too young to understand how these problems had befallen his village and its school.
Kabwe, after listening to the old man for over 2 hours, became more tense in his mind and started contemplating how he would manage his new job in such an environment and what he could do to change the existing beliefs and norms to more modern approaches so that the pupils and the community could move forward and their health could improve.
The poor health of most of his pupils worried him and the newly created desert in an area which previously had large trees and the poor harvests the people were experiencing concerned him.
The next day, Kabwe returned to his classroom. Overnight he had fully reflected on the stories he had heard from old Chanda Bwalya. He was determined to help the village find a solution to their problems.
**Notes on Kabwe’s story**
Below are some problems in the village that your students should be able to identify. See what ideas they think of themselves before you share these with them.
1. Poor crop harvests.
2. No wild fruit or other forest foods such as mangos which can supplement diet.
3. Poor nutrition of some pupils – affecting health and school attendance.
4. Low rainfall.
5. Greatly reduced water flow in local streams.
6. Soils lacking in nutrients and becoming dry and desert like.
7. Resistance to organic or different farming methods, e.g. the same crops grown on a plot of land every year; not using animal manure and collecting organic waste to make compost.
8. Loss of native forest trees.
9. Poor communication and mutual understanding between traditional villagers, such as the headman who feels that traditional ways and respect for ancestors is being lost, and younger people from outside the village with new ideas.
Here are some questions you could get your students to think about:
- Why was their village lacking wild fruits?
- Why was the area resembling a desert?
- What was causing the shortage of water in streams which used to be perennial?
- Why were the harvests from their parents’ gardens yielding very little?
- What measures would they take to resolve these problems in their village?
- Who should they consult to assist with resolving these problems?
- What examples would they show to the local people that these problems could be resolved?
Resource 3: Background knowledge for Kabwe’s story
Background information / subject knowledge for teacher
Solutions using biological knowledge
Knowledge and understanding of natural interactions between living organisms and their environment, including soil and water availability, can be applied to situations where human intervention has created problems. It can be used to develop solutions to help alleviate the problems.
Main areas of biology syllabus which relate to this story
1. Nutrient cycles such as the nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle.
2. Problems associated with human population growth and depletion of resources.
3. Soil fertility, resource management and improved farming practices.
4. Effects of human activity in causing deforestation, soil erosion, drought, flooding, loss of biodiversity (genetic material for future crop breeding and potential economic resources such as yet undiscovered medicines).
5. Components of a healthy diet.
Scientists and communication
As well as doing and understanding science themselves, scientists must be able to explain scientific ideas to the general public and persuade them of the advantages of new techniques where appropriate. They need good communication skills. This includes listening to the views of others, analysing them critically and being prepared to learn from others. Some problems need to be solved by taking account of a balance of scientific, economic and cultural considerations.
In this story, the headman laments the lack of respect for ancestors. Biologists have a respect for the natural environment. It may be that common ground can be found by negotiation.
Listening is also important as the local knowledge of community members can be extremely valuable. This is internationally recognised as an important concept. Such knowledge should not be stolen nor its holders exploited.
Poster 1 The nitrogen cycle and the carbon cycle
Harvesting crops reduces the carbon and nitrogen going back into the soil.
Diagram 1 Nitrogen cycle
Diagram 2 Carbon cycle
Methods of conserving and renewing soil fertility
Application of manure, compost or artificial fertilisers: Removing crops at harvest interrupts natural nutrient cycles and prevents nutrients from dead remains returning to the soil to replenish nutrients. To make good the losses, farmers can apply manure, compost or artificial fertilisers. Animal manure decays to give nutrient salts. It also supplies humus which improves the water holding capacity of soils.
Crop rotation: If crops are chosen carefully this can reduce the amounts of any one mineral which is removed from the soil. It also reduces the likelihood of harmful pests and parasites building up in the area and adversely affecting crop yields. A leguminous crop is often included in the rotation so nitrogen levels can be built up in the soil due by the action of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules.
Poster 2 Human population growth – depletion of resources
As the population grows, more food is needed. If it is not available, people suffer from malnutrition. Also, people need to make a living and they often do so by selling resources such as timber from rainforests.
Malnutrition
This is caused by not eating enough of all the necessary components of a healthy diet. The main components of a healthy diet are protein, carbohydrate, lipid, vitamins, minerals and water.
Why traditional practices that used to be successful now need to be modified
Traditional practice of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture did no long-term damage to forests when population densities were low. Given time, the ‘bush fallow’ between clearances provided a natural rotation system that allowed the forest and its soil time to recover. Human population expansion and competing land uses such as plantation agriculture (rubber, oil palm) and hydroelectric power schemes have reduced the fallow period.
In addition to subsistence farming systems, forests are being removed for fuel wood gathering. Also, they are now being removed at an increasing rate by commercial logging for tropical hardwood timber (mainly for rich countries), for wholesale burning and clearing for cattle ranching (beef at cheap prices).
Poster 3 Soil fertility, resource management and improved farming practices
Organic practice
Organic practice focuses on maintaining a healthy and fertile soil using animal manure and compost rather than artificial fertilisers. This provides nutrients and also increases the water holding capacity of the soil. It also advocates using crop rotation. Where possible, rainwater should be collected. The need for watering can be reduced by improving the soil and growing appropriate plants. Native species should be grown where possible. Natural wildlife areas should be encouraged adjacent to crops so crop pests are controlled by natural predators.
Sustainable resource use
Where forests are cut down, for example as a timber resource, this should be done in a sustainable way. This means, with thought for future generations, i.e. as trees are cut down, new saplings should be planted.
Water and nutrient availability and soil erosion
Deforestation accelerates desertification by reducing rainfall. When the forest trees are cut down, the water cycle is disrupted. The reduction in transpiration (the evaporation of water vapour from the surface of the plants) results in fewer clouds and less rainfall in the vicinity. Surrounding forests are threatened by desiccation. As the land becomes hotter and drier, more of the soil is eroded.
Diagram 1 Effects of deforestation
Rainforest soils are poor in nutrients. In rainforests, virtually all the nutrients are in the organic matter of the forest canopy. Normally when dead organisms fall to the floor and are decomposed into nutrients, these nutrients are quickly reabsorbed into the living plants. If, however, the forest is felled and the trees removed, the soil nutrient source is removed too, so soils quickly become nutrient poor. The soil is of little use even for subsistence agriculture and soil erosion usually follows.
Forests are often on uplands and on watersheds. They catch and hold large amounts of rain and release the water slowly and reliably into rivers and streams. Deforestation of uplands disrupts regular water supplies and can result in much disastrous flooding of the plains below.
Trees help to stabilise soil. Deforestation results in soil erosion. This means food production is affected and can result in hunger and economic losses. Reservoirs and water supplies can silt up and harbours and estuaries must be continually dredged to keep them open.
Loss of biodiversity
Forests are extremely species rich. Their destruction will lead to innumerable extinctions of unknown and little known species, with consequent loss of genetic variety and potential resources.
Forests and climate change
Forests are an important carbon sink (together with plankton in the oceans). This is an important role within the carbon cycle. Removal of forests contributes to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which can lead to climate changes due to the greenhouse effect.
If there is not enough of the necessary types of food available, people will suffer from malnutrition. Malnutrition is caused by not eating enough of all the necessary components of a healthy diet. The main components of a healthy diet are protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, minerals and water.
**Sources of the main nutrients**
| Food | Rich source of | Moderate source of |
|-------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| Cereals | Starch, fibre | Protein, B vitamins, many minerals|
| Starchy roots and fruits (yams, maize, cassava, potatoes, rice) | Starch, fibre | Some minerals, vitamin C if fresh, vitamin A if yellow or orange |
| Beans and peas | Protein, starch, some minerals, fibre | B vitamins |
| Oilseeds | Fat, protein, fibre | B vitamins, some minerals |
| Fats and oils | Fat | Vitamin A if orange or red |
| Dark to medium-green leaves | Vitamins A and C, folate | Protein, minerals |
| Orange vegetables | Vitamins A and C | Fibre |
| Orange fruits | Vitamins A and C | Fibre |
| Citrus fruits | Vitamin C | Fibre |
| Milk | Fat, protein, calcium, vitamins | |
| Eggs | Protein, vitamins | Fat, minerals (not iron) |
| Meat | Protein, fat, iron | |
| Fish | Protein, iron | |
| Liver | Protein, iron, vitamins | |
Resource 4: Differentiating work
Background information / subject knowledge for teacher
Differentiating work for students of varying abilities
As you know, each pupil has different abilities. There can also be a significant difference in age between the oldest and youngest pupil in the class. Some students will learn more effectively by reading a book, some by carrying out a practical activity and some by listening to and absorbing spoken instructions. Some will understand the work very easily, some will take more time. Some will work very quickly through any task you set, some will work slowly. It is impossible for you as a teacher to take all the differences into account all the time, but there are things that you can do to support individuals within a class.
If you have a class of 40 or more pupils this might sound like a daunting task. There are two important things that you need to do to be able to effectively cater for everyone in your class:
1. **Know your students**. You need to give them opportunities to work in groups and listen to their conversations; you need to mark their written work; you need to ask questions of individuals in class and you need to encourage them to ask you questions if they don’t understand or just want to know more. When you know who understands easily, who finds science difficult, who likes to talk, who likes to write, who likes to draw and who likes doing experiments, you will be in a much better position to help individuals.
2. **Know your subject**. It is unrealistic to expect everyone to remember and understand everything that you do. Students who find science difficult will be overwhelmed if you try to tell them everything. You need to break each topic down into simple steps and make sure that everyone understands the most important ideas. You also need to know how to challenge students who have grasped the basic ideas.
You can cater for the range of abilities within your group in two main ways:
**Differentiating by outcome**
This involves setting some questions that get progressively more difficult. Everyone gets as far as they can. Alternatively, you can set open-ended tasks in which students demonstrate what they can do. This also enables you to give them a choice about how they present their work, which can be very motivating. You may find that the degree of support that you need to provide to individuals, pairs or small groups within the class varies significantly.
**Differentiating by task**
For this, you set different students, or groups of students, different tasks. For example, in a practical session some pupils could have instructions provided for them in written form and some could have them in diagram form and some could have a combination of both.
You could provide a set of questions that cover the basic ideas that you judge that everyone needs to understand and a set that are more challenging. The students who you expect to get a grade A could be given the more challenging ones.
**Learning style**
There is a lot of research that suggests that different students prefer to learn in different ways. The three learning styles that are more commonly referred to are visual, audio and kinesthetic, i.e. some students prefer diagrams and pictures, some learn best by listening and some prefer to be able to do things.
As a teacher you cannot be expected to cater for all the students all the time, but a good teacher will make sure that their lessons contain activities that cover all three learning styles.
There is a tendency to expect students to do a lot of listening. You should make sure that your students also get to do experiments or activities that involve moving around the room and talking about science. Encourage them to use mind maps and diagrams or pictures to summarise key ideas, rather than simply copying notes off the board.
A healthy diet requires adequate amounts of protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, minerals and water.
A rough guide to daily requirements is as follows:
- protein 50 g
- carbohydrate 300 g
- fat 65 g
- fibre 30 g
- vitamin A 730 µg
- vitamin C 60 mg
- iron 11 mg (males), 15 mg (females)
- calcium 1300 mg.
Note the different units for different nutrients:
\[ 1 \text{ mg} = \frac{1}{1000} \text{ g} \quad 1 \text{ µg} = \frac{1}{1000} \text{ mg}. \]
### Sources of the main nutrients
| Food | Rich source of | Moderate source of |
|-------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| Cereals | Starch, fibre | Protein, B vitamins, many minerals|
| Starchy roots and fruits (yams, maize, cassava, potatoes, rice) | Starch, fibre | Some minerals, vitamin C if fresh, vitamin A if yellow or orange |
| Beans and peas | Protein, starch, some minerals, fibre | B vitamins |
| Oilseeds | Fat, protein, fibre | B vitamins, some minerals |
| Fats and oils | Fat | Vitamin A if orange or red |
| Dark to medium-green leaves | Vitamins A and C, folate | Protein, minerals |
| Orange vegetables | Vitamins A and C | Fibre |
| Orange fruits | Vitamins A and C | Fibre |
| Citrus fruits | Vitamin C | Fibre |
| Milk | Fat, protein, calcium, vitamins | |
| Eggs | Protein, vitamins | Fat, minerals (not iron) |
| Meat | Protein, fat, iron | |
| Fish | Protein, iron | |
| Liver | Protein, iron, vitamins | |
## Sources of vitamins
| Vitamin | Good sources |
|--------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Vitamin A | Liver, fish liver oils, egg yolk, milk and dairy products, green leafy |
| | vegetables (especially kale, amaranth, sweet potato, cowpea and cassava |
| | leaves), yellow and orange-coloured fruits and vegetables (carrots, pumpkin, |
| | mango, papaya, oranges), orange-coloured sweet potato, palm oil |
| Vitamin D | Cod-liver oil, oily fish, liver, egg yolk |
| Vitamin E | Vegetable oils (such as maize, soybean and sunflower oils), nuts, soybeans, |
| | cereals, egg yolk |
| Vitamin K | Green leafy vegetables, vegetable oils, egg yolk, beef, mutton, poultry |
| Thiamine (vitamin B₁) | Millets, sorghum, wheat, maize, dried beans, rice, liver, kidney, beet, |
| | nuts |
| Riboflavin (vitamin B₂) | Green leafy vegetables, liver, kidney, milk, cheese, eggs, whole grains |
| Niacin (nicotinic acid | Lean meat, poultry, fish, groundnuts, dried beans, wheat, yam, potato |
| and nicotinamide) | |
| Pantothenic acid | Kidney, fish, egg yolk, most vegetables, most cereals |
| Pyridoxine (vitamin B₆) | Meat, poultry, fish, egg yolk, whole grains, banana, potato, dried beans, |
| | lentils, chickpeas |
| Biotin (vitamin H) | Groundnuts, dried beans, egg yolk, mushrooms, banana, grapefruit, watermelon|
| Folic acid | Green leafy vegetables (losses from cooking can be high), fresh fruits |
| | (especially orange juice), dried beans, peas, nuts, egg yolk, mushrooms, |
| | banana, liver |
| Vitamin B₁₂ (cyanocobalamin) | Liver, kidney, chicken, beef, fish, eggs, milk, cheese |
### Extension activities: food and energy
We need energy to stay alive and carry out our daily activities. This energy comes from the food we eat. Energy is measured in units called joules (J). One joule is quite a small amount of energy, so we usually use kilojoules (kJ) to measure our energy requirements.
- 1 kilojoule = 1000 joules.
Teenagers should eat enough food to provide them with between 10 000 and 15 000 kJ each day. The exact amount required will vary according to size (mass), age, sex (in general boys need more than girls) and activity.
**On average, a teenage girl needs 11 000 kJ of energy each day.**
**On average, a teenage boy needs 13 000 kJ of energy each day.**
Task 1
Plan a diet for a day for a teenage boy or girl. The food you select and the amounts of each food should be enough to meet the energy requirements of an average teenager as given above. Do not forget to include snacks as well as main meals.
Use the information in the table below to help you. You will need to estimate how many grams of each food you will require before you calculate the energy it provides.
**Energy content of some common foods**
| Food | Energy content in kJ per 100g |
|---------------|------------------------------|
| Milk | 272 |
| Eggs | 662 |
| Chicken | 771 |
| White fish | 289 |
| Oily fish | 796 |
| Haricot beans | 1073 |
| Broad beans | 289 |
| Lentils | 1236 |
| Green peppers | 88 |
| Potato | 364 |
| Cassava | 667 |
| Rice | 1504 |
| Banana | 318 |
| Melon | 96 |
| Orange | 147 |
| Spinach | 88 |
| Biscuits (sweet, rich) | 2078 |
| Bread (brown) | 993 |
| Bread (white) | 1060 |
| Pasta | 1525 |
| Maize meal | 1350 |
| Yams | 462 |
You can record your diet plan in a table like the one below.
**Energy content of a sample diet for a teenager for one day**
| Meal | Food item | Amount of this food in g | Energy content of this food in kJ per 100g | Total energy provided by this food item in your diet |
|------|-----------|--------------------------|--------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
- Calculate the overall total energy in kJ that your diet will provide.
- How does this compare with the average requirements for a teenager of your sex?
Diet, energy and activity
Your energy requirements will vary according to your activities. The table below shows the energy requirements for different activities.
**Energy requirements for different activities**
| Activity | Energy required for each minute by an average teenager in kJ |
|------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------|
| Sleeping | 4 |
| Watching TV | 5 |
| Eating | 6 |
| Washing clothes | 10 |
| Gentle walking | 12 |
| Sewing | 12 |
| Digging the garden | 24 |
| Swimming | 30 |
| Playing football | 36 |
| Sprinting | 60 |
**Task 2**
Plan a day where you do various activities for a certain length of time.
A day lasts 24 hours or 1440 minutes.
Activities (and their durations) you might choose could be sleeping, 480 minutes; eating, 50 minutes; swimming, 70 minutes and so on.
Work out how many kilojoules of energy you would need for each activity.
You could record your answer in a table like the one below.
**Activities in a day and energy required to perform them**
| Activity | Minutes | Energy required per minute for this activity in kJ | Total energy required for the duration of this activity |
|----------|---------|---------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
- Calculate the overall total energy in kJ that your activity plan would require.
- How does this compare with the amount of energy your diet in Task 1 would provide?
Suggestions for research
- Nutritional values of local foods not mentioned in national textbook.
- The organic movement.
- Mother’s milk or powdered milk?
- Health problems associated with obesity.
- How our diet has changed. (Encourage students to interview grandparents – if possible use a recording device.)
- Can we believe adverts about food?
- What are the main causes of malnutrition in our country?
- Assess the nutritional value of the meals served in the dining hall of students in a boarding house of a senior high school in your locality.
- Determine the calorific value of the meals served to pupils under the school feeding programme of the government.
Criteria to evaluate the projects
The criteria used by Mr Saiti in (Case study 3) to judge the competition he set his class to research good techniques for growing crops on a small scale were as follows:
1. Have the pupils taken note of the existing conditions in the plot?
2. Have they suggested what tests, if any, they will do to find out more about how the plot is suited to crop growing?
3. Have they suggested what preparatory work must be done before planting, including what measures they have taken to prevent stray animals from invading the plot?
4. Have they researched what crops are grown successfully in the locality by other people?
5. Have they tried to choose a mix of crops that will provide all the requirements of a healthy diet?
6. What special conditions do these crops need and how could they meet these conditions?
7. What plans have been made for looking after the crops?
8. How will they organise a water supply for the plot?
9. How will they prepare for and deal with potential pests or disease?
10. When would planting take place?
11. When would harvesting take place?
12. What do they suggest is done with the harvest?
13. Have they thought ahead about what would be planted in future years (crop rotation) and how they can recycle nutrients (composting)?
14. What plans do they have for making other people aware of the scheme?
Criteria for evaluating research projects
These criteria relate to Activity 3 and the score card below.
1. Has the group stated the aims of their research clearly?
2. Has the group collected sufficient evidence from a range of reliable resources?
3. What scientific knowledge and understanding from their biology course has the group used in their research?
4. How clearly have they explained the results of their research findings?
5. To what extent have they used diagrams in an imaginative and creative way to explain their findings?
6. Do you think they have covered the main issues in their chosen area of research? Are there any additional questions you think they should have considered?
7. Is the project attractively presented? Is there an appropriate amount of text – not too much and not too little? Does the layout make you want to read it?
8. Have they suggested areas in which their research could be continued if they had more time to develop it?
9. Is there evidence that all members of the group have made an appropriate contribution to the work, using their particular skills?
For each poster, evaluators should give a score for how it was rated on each criterion.
Scores can be between 1 and 5:
- 5 Excellent
- 4 Very Good
- 3 Good
- 2 Needs more attention
- 1 Needs a lot more attention.
Score card
| POSTER NUMBER | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---------------|---|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION SCORE| | | | | |
| Question 1 | | | | | |
| Question 2 | | | | | |
| Question 3 | | | | | |
| Question 4 | | | | | |
| Question 5 | | | | | |
| Question 6 | | | | | |
| Question 7 | | | | | |
| Question 8 | | | | | |
| Question 9 | | | | | |
| TOTAL SCORE | | | | | |
Return to Science (secondary) page
Section 5: Cells
Theme: Dealing with challenging ideas in science
Learning outcomes
By the end of this section, you will have:
- used pair discussion and probing questions to review and develop students’ understanding of the basic structure of plant and animal cells;
- used mathematical activities that help students gain an idea of the relative size of cells;
- helped students make and evaluate their own models of cells.
Introduction
Your students will have been taught about cells in primary school. However, they are likely to have a number of misconceptions about what cells are really like. Developing an understanding of the size of cells is difficult. The fact that cells can only be seen with the aid of a microscope adds to this difficulty. Research has shown that some students confuse ideas about cells and molecules, including their relative sizes. Although three-dimensional diagrams of cells may be shown in textbooks, photographs of cells as seen under the microscope are always two dimensional. It is difficult for students to imagine the 3D structure. Other common incorrect ideas that students may hold about cells include thinking that plant cells are surrounded by cell walls instead of cell membranes, rather than by both a membrane and a wall.
1. Focus on language to support understanding
Researchers have established a clear link between language and learning. When students discuss ideas with peers, they have time to draw on their memory of what they have done before, share ideas with their partner and clarify their thoughts by having to explain them to others. It also helps them to get used to the scientific words, which might not be familiar to them. You get the chance to listen to what they are saying and look at what they are writing, so that you are aware of their misconceptions when you plan your questions at the end. You are far more likely to address their misconceptions in this way. Too often when we use questions in a whole class discussion, we assume that because one student can give us a correct answer, the class as a whole understands the topic well.
Activity 1 will take more time than simply explaining cell structure to the whole class and asking them to copy labelled diagrams and notes. However, it will help the students to understand.
Case study 1: Creating a word wall
Mrs Keraro worked in a secondary school in Moshi, Tanzania. She was concerned that her 13-year-old students found scientific words difficult to pronounce and remember. She created a ‘word wall’ in the classroom. Every time they started a new topic she wrote the key words on card from an old cereal packet and stuck them on the wall. Whenever she had 5 or 10 minutes to spare in a lesson, she would play a game with her class. One person pointed to a word and someone else had to say it and explain the meaning. Alternatively, she divided the class into teams. She would say the meaning and one person from each team had to run to the wall and point to the word. She encouraged her students to make up different games. At the end of the year, their understanding of scientific words had improved a great deal.
She did this with the cells topic; she put up the technical words like ‘chloroplast’ and ‘membrane’, but also the easy words like ‘cell’ and ‘cell wall’. This is because she thought her students might think they knew what a ‘cell’ was – a small room where a prisoner is kept! Lots of scientific words have different meanings in real life and she knew that this often confused her students. She also put up two large photographs of cells as seen using a light microscope. She asked the students to look carefully at the pictures and to talk about them in their pairs. During their discussions, she asked them to write down three interesting observations about the object in each photo. She also asked them to think of two questions which they would like to ask about each of these objects.
Activity 1: Working in pairs to discuss cells
Before the lesson, draw diagrams of generalised animal and plant cells on the board, without labels. Ask each student to copy the diagrams. Also, on the board write the names of the main structures (see Resource 1). Tell pupils to work in pairs or threes to label the diagrams and annotate them with the functions of each part. No one is allowed to write in the label or the function until they all agree. Talking about the answers will help them to learn. While they are working, move round the room. Visit the back of the room first. When you discuss the labels, your initial questions will mainly focus on recall, but try to follow these up with a more demanding question. You could check their understanding at the start of the next lesson by using the true/false exercise (Resource 2). Again, let your students work in pairs and discuss the answers.
2. How big are cells?
It is very difficult for us to get a real idea of very small and very large sizes. So, when we are thinking about things like molecules, cells or the solar system it can be helpful to compare their size with things we are familiar with. In Case study 2, the teacher was fortunate enough to have a good, working microscope and was able to give concrete experience of one of the measurements on the worksheet. When the students do the calculations in Activity 2 they will consider the dimensions of a cell in a number of ways. The activity will help them to develop an understanding of cells, as the building blocks of living things, rather than as diagrams in a book. It will also give them practice of numeracy skills in science and give you an understanding of their ability in maths. This may affect your planning when teaching other science topics with a mathematical content.
Case study 2: Looking at onion cells
Mr Baguma had one microscope to use with his class. He also had 40 glass microscope slides. He did not have cover slips for the slides, but he used a second slide instead of a cover slip when preparing slides with his class. He divided the class into groups of four. Mr Baguma showed the microscope to the whole class and pointed out the main parts and what they do. He demonstrated how to prepare a slide of onion cells to view using the microscope and explained how to use a ruler with the microscope to estimate the size of the cells (Resource 3). He then asked each group to make a slide of onion cells. The groups took it in turns to come up to the front bench to look at their slide using the microscope. While they were waiting to use the microscope, Mr Baguma set some questions and calculations for the class to work on to help them appreciate just how small cells really are (Resource 4). He realised that some of the students were finding the questions difficult, which was a problem as he needed to help with the microscope. So he encouraged the students to help each other. The rule was that they could only write down the answer if they understood where it had come from. Jophus is very good at maths and really enjoyed helping his friends. After each pair had measured their onion cells, they were allowed to write the measurements in a table Mr Baguma had drawn on the board. At the end of the lesson, they could see that there is variation in cell size, but that the variation falls within certain limits.
Activity 2: Thinking about the size of cells
Remind students that you can only see cells with a microscope. Discuss why this is so. Probe their understanding of magnification and use analogies such as buildings made of stones or bricks. If you are far away you can only see the building, but as you get closer you see the bricks or stones. Compare cells to atoms and molecules which are much too small even to see under a normal microscope. Ask pupils to guess how big cells really are. Explain that most cells are between 0.01 mm and 0.1 mm in size. Do they know anything else that is so small? Can they imagine this size? Ask them to carry out all or some of the calculations in Resource 4. If there are students who find maths difficult, you could ask them to work in pairs. When you check the answers, discuss the extent to which these exercises helped their understanding and ask them to write their own questions.
3. Building Models of cells
One way of helping your students to visualise things like cells (or viruses or molecules) is to let them build models. Resource 6 explains some of the advantages of using models in science. A resourceful science teacher will collect materials such as cardboard packets, plastic, packaging materials, wood and clay so that when they wish to build models, they have materials the students can use. You could also ask your students to collect materials and keep them in a cardboard box in your classroom. When students see cells in diagrams or on microscope slides, it is quite difficult for them to imagine the cells in 3D. You should encourage them to think about materials that will best represent their ideas of what a cell is like. Getting them to plan and deliver a presentation about their model means that they will have to clarify their own thoughts and explain them to others. Our understanding of abstract concepts is closely linked to our ability to use language to order our thoughts about them. While there are advantages in asking students to present to the whole class, this can take a lot of time and many of the benefits are just as great if they do the presentation to a partner.
Case study 3: Making and assessing models
Mrs Muthui had been teaching for 2 years. When she was at college her tutor had encouraged her to use models with her students. Last year her students made models of cells, but Mrs Muthui did not think it had worked very well. The students did not really understand what she was looking for. So this year, she did it differently. She showed her students some of the ones that she had saved from last year. She asked them which one they thought was the best and to explain why. Together, they made a list of marking criteria for the models. She then gave the class two weeks to make a model, working in groups of two or three, and was delighted to find them in the classroom before and after school, working on their ideas. She organised a display and asked her students to mark each others’ models. She invited the head of department and the headteacher to see the display. Everyone was talking about it and some of the other teachers came to see as well. Mrs Muthui was delighted. The models were much more creative and imaginative than last year and she realised that sharing the marking criteria with the students had helped them to understand what was expected of them. She began to do this more often and gradually found that the students took more responsibility for their own learning.
You can see the criteria in Resource 5 – but don’t just use those, make up some of your own.
Activity 3: Making and presenting models
In teaching about cells, you will have introduced your students to cells that are adapted to a particular function, and you will have encouraged them to draw diagrams of the cells in their notebooks. Ask them to make a 3D model of one of the cells they have learned about. Give them materials such as cardboard, water, clay, wool, plastic drinks bottles, plastic bags or yoghurt pots, but also encourage them to use any other available materials.
When they have made their models, ask them to prepare a spoken presentation on the model. They should explain the structure of their cell and how it is adapted to its function. Encourage them to point out any aspects of the real cell which they could not show accurately on their model. They should all get the chance to work in pairs, giving their presentation to their partner. If you have time, you could choose the best models and ask those students to make a presentation to the whole class.
Resource 1: Background information on cells
Background information/subject knowledge for teacher
Diagrams of a plant and an animal cell
Diagram 1: Typical plant cell in 3D, cut through to see inside.
Diagram 2: Typical animal cell, shown in section.
Names of cell structures for students to label diagrams of plant and animal cells:
A. Central cell vacuole
B. Cell membrane
C. Nucleus
D. Cytoplasm
E. Chloroplast
F. Vacuole (small)
G. Cellulose cell wall
Information about cell structures for students to use as annotations on diagrams of plant and animal cells:
(A structure may have more than one annotation. Some annotations apply to both plant and animal cells.)
1. The outer layer of this cell is firm and rigid. It is made of cellulose. It gives the cell a definite shape.
2. The outer layer of this cell is not very rigid. It causes the shape of the cell to be flexible.
3. This is a large central area in the middle of the cell. It is filled with liquid. This helps to make the cell firm and gives support to the whole plant.
4. This structure controls what goes into and what comes out of the cell.
5. This structure controls what the cell is like and how it works.
6. This is a jelly like fluid containing many granules. Activities such as releasing energy and making proteins happen here.
7. These structures are used to make food by photosynthesis.
8. These are small vacuoles found in cells. They may contain food particles, chemicals made by the cell or germs that are being destroyed by the cell.
Photographs of plant and animal cells as seen using a light microscope:
Cells from a moss leaf.
Cells from inside the human cheek.
Plant and animal cells: true–false exercise
The following statements are about cells.
Read each statement and then in your group decide, for each statement, whether it is true (T) or false (F). If you are not sure put ‘?’.
Write the letter or symbol to show your decision in the middle column. Use the last column to explain your reasons.
| | Statement | True, false or unsure | Comment – reasons for your choice |
|---|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------|----------------------------------|
| 1 | All cells have a nucleus. | | |
| 2 | There is a cell membrane around all cells. | | |
| 3 | All cells have a cell wall. | | |
| 4 | Chromosomes are found in the cytoplasm. | | |
| 5 | The cell membrane controls what the cell will look like and how it behaves.| | |
| 6 | The nucleus controls what passes into and out of a cell. | | |
| 7 | A nucleus is smaller than a chloroplast. | | |
| 8 | A chloroplast is larger than a mitochondrion. | | |
| 9 | All cells have a central cell vacuole filled with fluid. | | |
|10 | The cell membrane is made of cellulose. | | |
|11 | The nucleus is always found in the middle of a cell. | | |
|12 | A nucleus is smaller than a molecule. | | |
|13 | Some cells in your body are one metre long. | | |
|14 | If you looked through a magnifying glass at a red blood cell, it would look like the dot at the end of this sentence. | | |
|15 | A fully grown human is made of about one hundred million, million cells. | | |
|16 | Fifty typical cells lying side by side would measure about 1 mm. | | |
|17 | Cells are black and white. There is no colour in a cell. | | |
|18 | If you could shrink and stand in a cell, everything would be silent and still. | | |
Teachers’ notes: statements 1–9
| Statement | True, false or unsure | Notes for teachers |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| All cells have a nucleus. | True, with some qualifications. See notes. | All plant and animal cells have a nucleus. In some cells, the nucleus may have disintegrated by the time the cell reaches maturity. Red blood cells have a nucleus when they are developing. However, when they are mature and doing their job of carrying oxygen round the body, the nucleus has broken down. The whole cell is full of the oxygen-carrying pigment called haemoglobin. Bacterial cells are usually described as having a nuclear area, rather than a true nucleus, because there is not a nuclear membrane round the nuclear area. |
| There is a cell membrane around all cells. | True | |
| All cells have a cell wall. | False | Plant cells are surrounded by a cell membrane and outside this is a fairly rigid cell wall. The cell wall gives the plant cell a more definite shape than an animal cell. Animal cells do not have a cell wall. They are surrounded by a cell membrane only. A cell membrane is much more flexible that a cell wall. |
| Chromosomes are found in the cytoplasm. | False | Chromosomes are found in the nucleus. |
| The cell membrane controls what the cell will look like and how it behaves. | False | The nucleus controls what the cell looks like and how it behaves. |
| The nucleus controls what passes into and out of a cell. | False | The cell membrane controls what passes into and out of a cell. |
| A nucleus is smaller than a chloroplast. | False | A nucleus is about three times as big as a chloroplast. |
| A chloroplast is larger than a mitochondrion. | True | A chloroplast is three or four times larger than a mitochondrion. |
| All cells have a central cell vacuole filled with fluid. | False | Plant cells have a central cell vacuole filled with fluid, called cell sap. Animal cells do not. Animal cells may contain one or several small vacuoles. |
| Statement | Answer | Explanation |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 10 The cell membrane is made of cellulose. | False | Plant **cell walls** are made of cellulose. Cell membranes of both plant and animal cells are made of protein and lipid. |
| 11 The nucleus is always found in the middle of a cell. | False | The nucleus may be found in the middle or around the edge of a cell. |
| 12 A nucleus is smaller than a molecule. | False | A nucleus is much larger than a molecule. The nucleus contains chromosomes – 46 in human cells. Each chromosome is made of a DNA molecule. |
| 13 Some cells in your body are as long as metre. | True | Nerve cells are made up of a compact cell body with long thread like fibres extending out from the cell body. Some of these fibres, called axons, may be up to one metre long. Nerve messages are carried along these fibres. |
| 14 If you looked through a magnifying glass at a red blood cell, it would look like the dot at the end of this sentence. | True | |
| 15 A fully grown human is made of about one hundred million million cells.| True | |
| 16 Fifty typical cells lying side by side would measure about 1 mm. | True | |
| 17 Cells are black and white. There is no colour in a cell. | False | Chloroplasts are found in most plant cells. Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll. Cells in flower petals will contain coloured pigments either in special structures like chloroplasts in the cytoplasm or dissolved in the cell sap. Animal cells, e.g. in the skin and eye of human will also contain coloured pigments. |
| 18 If you could shrink and stand in a cell, everything would be silent and still. | False | Everything would certainly not be still. Cytoplasm is continually moving around. Molecules would be moving in and out of cells. In a muscle cell you might find yourself squeezed and released from time to time. The swishing of the streaming cytoplasm is likely to set up vibrations. Sound is vibration. If you could manage to shrink to fit in a cell your ears could probably manage to detect these vibrations as sounds! |
Preparing a slide of an onion cell and measuring a cell
You will need:
- Microscope
- Scissors
- Microscope slide
- Dropper pipette
- Cover slip
- Clear plastic ruler
- Dilute iodine solution.
Preparing the onion slide
What to do:
1. Slice an onion in two, lengthwise.
2. Remove one of the thick leaf-like structures from inside.
3. Pull away a piece of the thin papery lining of its inner surface.
4. Using scissors, cut a small square of this lining, about 5 mm x 5 mm.
5. Place this square on the centre of a slide.
6. Add a drop of dilute iodine solution – make sure the solution spreads below as well as above the square of onion skin. The iodine acts as a stain to make the structures in the cell easier to see.
7. Carefully lower a cover slip over the onion skin. Try to avoid trapping air bubbles.
8. Place the slide on the microscope stage. Examine first using the low power. Focus carefully.
9. Choose an area of the slide where the cells can be clearly seen. Switch to high power and refocus.
10. Look for the structures shown in the photographs in Resource 1.
Measuring the onion cell
What to do:
1. Place the ruler on the microscope stage under the low power objective lens.
2. Move the ruler so the edge with the scale can be focused in the centre of the field of view of the microscope, as in Diagram 1 below.
3. Use the scale to measure the field of view of your microscope.
4. The diameter of the field of view in Diagram 1 is approximately 5 mm.
5. You can use the measurement of the field of view in your microscope to estimate the size of objects viewed with the same objective lens.
6. The cell viewed in Diagram 2 would be about 2 mm long if viewed with the microscope with the field of view shown above.
7. Estimate the length and width of your onion cell using this method.
**Using a microscope**
The main parts of a light microscope are shown below
Diagram 3: Main parts of a light microscope.
Resource 4: Magnification exercise
Teacher resource for planning or adapting to use with pupils
Magnification exercise
1
One of the plant cells in the photograph really measures about 0.01 mm x 0.07 mm. Draw it in your book so its shape and proportions are nearly the same as in the picture.
Calculate magnification of the cell in this way:
Length of cell in drawing ÷ width of real cell = X _______
Mean magnification = X __________
Add this magnification to your drawing.
Photo from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg (Accessed 2008)
2
Draw an animal cell that is nearly round in shape.
Measure the diameter of your drawing.
Assume this cell is really 0.02 mm in diameter.
Calculate the magnification and show it on your drawing.
3
Draw a line, 10 mm long.
How many of the animal cells could fit on this line side to side?
How many of the plant cells could fit lengthwise on this line side to side?
4
A person’s stride length is about 1 metre.
If you were magnified by the same amount as your drawing of an animal cell, how far could you go in one stride?
5
Measure the length of a small animal such as an ant.
If its skin cells are 0.02 mm long. How many are there along the length of the animal?
6
Write your own question that helps you to understand the size of a cell.
Why does it help you to get a better understanding of this?
See if your neighbour or the rest of the class can work out the answer.
Criteria for assessing models of cells
1. Is the model clearly labelled?
It should be obvious what all the parts are and they should be labelled.
2. Does it include all the relevant parts?
All the key parts should be present.
3. Are the parts in the right proportion in terms of size?
For example, if a tennis ball is used for the nucleus, the chloroplasts could be marbles.
4. Does the model reflect the nature of the cell? Have appropriate materials been used to represent the parts?
For example, is the cell wall made of a rigid material? Is the cytoplasm squashy?
5. Does the model reflect the 3D aspects of cells?
Children find this aspect of cells difficult to imagine and one of the main reasons for making a model is to show the 3D nature of the cell.
Using models in science
Using models or analogies is a very powerful way of helping children to understand scientific ideas. Used properly, models can also help to develop critical thinking. You can do this by helping children to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a model.
Some general principles to think about when planning lessons with models are:
- introduce the model early in the teaching of the topic, then use the model consistently until it is replaced by a more sophisticated one
- ensure students make links between the model and the real situation
- ensure students recognise the differences between the model and what it is illustrating
- encourage students to apply their understanding to explain new ideas
- encourage students to identify strengths and weaknesses in any model
- increase the sophistication of the model when necessary.
A useful approach when you are planning a sequence of lessons based on a model such as the particle model might be:
1. Teach the original model explicitly – show which part relates to which, making sure students understand and picture it.
2. Test the original model by applying it – students practise using the model to explain simple ideas. For example, explaining why gases can be compressed, liquids can’t be compressed, solids are hard, etc.
3. Challenge the original model – by using it to explain more complicated things like melting, dissolving and evaporating.
4. Develop a ‘better model’ – if necessary explore the development of a better model with the students or provide a more sophisticated one.
Once students have a good understanding of the particle model, this will help them to understand concepts such as why materials have different properties, osmosis, Brownian motion, density, elements, compounds and chemical change.
Return to Science (secondary) page
TESSA
Teacher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
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Marvellous mini fields
This is a great group activity to help you tell your ‘farm to fork’ story by focusing on one square metre of a field. Construct a one square metre frame. Prepare your props and use them to talk about the seeds and other inputs, the farming process, timelines, what is produced and what it is used for – whether 11 pints of beer, 265 (37g) bags of Maltesers or 33 boxes of corn flakes! Once prepared it is simple and easy to use and always amazes visitors. You can create your own mini field stories about what you produce or tell mini field stories about whatever crop or livestock you like.
You will need
For each mini field you will need:
- A one metre square frame made out of wood, sticks, bamboo or plastic plumbing conduit and corner joints
- Farming and food props for each mini field story, for example, seed, fertiliser, spray, harvested crops, through to boxes of corn flakes, 37g bags of Maltesers, rapeseed oil, crisps and loaves of bread
- Mini field facts and figures for your chosen crop/s - either prepare your own facts or refer to the pre-prepared mini fields facts available in the activity section in ‘Open my farm’ at www.farmsunday.org
When and where to do this
This activity can be done in the field at the start or end of a tour. Adults and children will enjoy the challenge of guessing how many loaves of bread, boxes of cornflakes, 37g bags of Maltesers, bottles of oil etc can be produced out of a single square metre mini field. For more facts and figures of what can be produced out of a square metre mini field, visit the activity section in ‘Open my farm’ at www.farmsunday.org and in the activity section in Things to do at www.letnaturefeedyoursenses.org
Example mini field facts for: Winter Wheat
Inputs:
- Seed: 300 seeds
- Pesticide/spray: 1.5ml
- PK Fertiliser (0.24.24): 30g
- Nitrogen fertiliser (AN): 58g
Outputs:
- Wheat: 1kg
- Gives 800g flour
- 1 large loaf of bread
Suggested messages
- Many ingredients in processed food are produced on UK farms
- Farmers produce our food with care for the environment following LEAF’s sustainable farming principles
- Many farmers in the UK are LEAF Marque certified – this means they are growing food with environmental care
- The choices we make when we buy our food has a direct effect on the countryside
This activity was developed as part of the Let Nature Feed Your Senses project run by LEAF and The Sensory Trust with funding from The Big Lottery Fund www.letnaturefeedyoursenses.org. Grateful thanks to David Jones for supplying the mini fields facts. | a8e47b69-bd4f-49f2-ad79-836d1bc719f1 | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://farmsunday.org/uploads/activity-files/files/LFWT_-_Mini_Field.pdf | 2021-05-07T18:28:35+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988802.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20210507181103-20210507211103-00546.warc.gz | 271,959,921 | 608 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997765 | eng_Latn | 0.997765 | [
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UAE launches Venus, asteroid belt mission
PLAN TO LAND SPACECRAFT ON AN ASTEROID BY 2033
DUBAI
Gulf News Report
The UAE yesterday launched an Emirati interplanetary mission under the Projects of the 50 initiative, which will involve orbiting Venus and exploring the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
The announcement was made during a ceremony at Qasr Al Watan in Abu Dhabi attended by His Highness Shaikh Mohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice-President and Prime Minister of UAE and Ruler of Dubai, and His Highness Shaikh Mohammad Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces.
Building on the knowledge gained from the Emirates Mars Mission (EMM), the new mission scheduled for launch in 2028 will involve Emirati private sector companies.
Spacecraft to undertake 3.6b km, five-year journey
The five-year mission from 2028 to 2033 includes developing a spacecraft over the next seven years. The spacecraft will undertake a 3.6 billion-km, five-year journey.
“We have set our eyes to the stars because our journey to development and progress has no boundaries, no borders and no limitations. Today we are investing in the generations to come.”
Shaikh Mohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum
“We have set our eyes to the stars because our journey to development and progress has no boundaries, no borders and no limitations. Today we are investing in the generations to come,” Shaikh Mohammad Bin Rashid said.
“With each new advancement we make in space, we create opportunities for young people here on Earth.”
It will begin its first close planetary approach orbiting Venus in mid-2028, followed by a close orbit of Earth in mid-2029. The spacecraft will make its final fly-by of a main asteroid belt object in 2030, going on to observe a total of seven main belt asteroids before its final landing on an asteroid 560 million km from Earth in 2033. This will make the UAE the fourth nation to land a spacecraft on an asteroid.
‘Emirati youth equipped to take on new challenge’
Hailing the mission, Shaikh Mohammad Bin Zayed said: “This new mission tests and extends the capabilities of Emirati youth. We are certain that our talented local engineers, academia and research institutions, which have made quantum leaps in developing our space sector, are well equipped to take on this daring new challenge.”
Five initiatives
The mission to be developed in partnership with the Laboratory for Atmospheric Science and Physics (LASP) from the University of Colorado, involves five initiatives: A fully funded programme to establish Emirati space sector capabilities; priority access to contracts for Emirati companies; a vocational training programme for young Emiratis; and a programme to bring local and international universities and research centres together to work on the mission, including LASP and Emirates University.
SEE ALSO P6
UAE space journey to drive engineering, research
NEW MISSION SEEMS TO GET THE PRIVATE SECTOR ON BOARD IN A BIG WAY
DUBAI
Gulf News Report
The UAE Space Agency yesterday announced the commencement of a new Emirati interplanetary mission, designed to further accelerate the young country’s engineering, scientific research and exploration capabilities and drive innovation and opportunity in the country’s private sector.
“We have set our eyes to the stars. Human journey to development and progress has no boundaries, no borders and no limitations. Today we are investing in the generations to come,” said His Highness Sheikh Mohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice-President and Prime Minister of the UAE and Ruler of Dubai. “With each new advancement we make in space, we create opportunities for young people here on earth.”
Built on the knowledge and experience gained from the Emirates Mars Mission (EMM), the new mission will involve significant participation from Emirati private sector firms. It is scheduled for launch in 2028, with the primary goal of exploring the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, the source of most meteorites that impact Earth.
His Highness Shaikh Mohammad Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces, said: “This next mission team and extends the capabilities of Emirati youth in achieving Zayed’s ambition to explore space. We are certain that our talented local engineers, academics and research institutions, which have so far made quantum leaps in developing our space sector, are well equipped to take on this daring new challenge.”
Technical challenges
The spacecraft will undertake a 3.6-billion-km, five-year journey, which will see it perform gravity assist manoeuvres by orbiting first Venus, then Earth in order to build the velocity required in order to reach the main asteroid belt, located beyond Mars. Its trajectory around Venus will see it reaching a solar proximity of 109 million km, requiring substantial thermal protection and a furthest distance from the sun of 448 million km, requiring high levels of insulation and spacecraft operation with minimal levels of solar energy.
Through its journey, it will study seven main asteroid belts. It will be built using the substantial heritage and intellectual property (IP) acquired during the development of the Emirates Mars Mission and its Hope Probe, currently orbiting Mars and gathering unique data on Mars’ atmospheric composition and interactions.
Sarah Al Amiri, Chair of the UAE Space Agency, said: “Our goal is clear: to accelerate the development of innovation and knowledge-based enterprises in the Emirates. This can’t be done by going steady-state, this requires leaps in imagination, in faith and the pursuit of goals that go beyond prudent or methodical. When we embarked on the Emirates Mars Mission, we took on a six-year task that was in the order of five times more complex than the earth observation satellites we were developing. This mission is in the order of five times more complex than EMM.”
Ambitious targets
The mission will make its first close planetary approach orbiting Venus in mid-2028, followed by a close orbit of Earth in mid-2029. It will then attempt to fly-by of a main asteroid belt object in 2030, going on to observe a total of seven main belt asteroids before its final landing on an asteroid 560 million kilometres from Earth in 2033. This will make the Emirates the fourth nation to land a spacecraft on an asteroid.
The mission brings extensive challenges that go beyond EMM in terms of spacecraft design and engineering, interplanetary navigation and control systems integration, requiring new levels of performance from its communications, power and propulsion systems as well as demanding intensive mission control.
The mission was developed in partnership with the Laboratory for Atmospheric Science and Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado. LASP was the primary knowledge transfer partner for EMM, having over 40 years of experience in spacecraft and instrumentation design and development and helping train and develop the team of Emirati engineers, software developers and scientists who worked on EMM. | dd7d3d9a-d81e-4f6c-868d-d5dff5b8733f | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | https://epizodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/inostr-yazyki/Gulf_News/2021/UAE_launches_Venus_%5Band%5D_asteroid_belt_mission_Gulf_News_(06-10-2021).pdf | 2022-01-23T11:32:46+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320304261.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20220123111431-20220123141431-00553.warc.gz | 284,840,632 | 1,432 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.996995 | eng_Latn | 0.997068 | [
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Module 3: PHFS03M
Sustainable Natural Resources Use
Module 3
Sustainable Natural Resources Use
Module code: PHFS03M
| Author: | Erna Kruger |
|------------------|-------------|
| Module Co-ordinator: | FM Ferreira |
| Project leader: | A Barlow-Zambodla |
| Critical reader: | Martie Mearns |
| Educational consultant: | Christine Randel, Elrina Whitlock and Josef de Beer |
| Language editor: | WD Coetzee |
| Layout artist: | M Visagie |
University of South Africa 2010
Printed and published by the South African Institute for Distance Education and the University of South Africa.
This studyguide, PHFS03M for Sustainable Natural Resources Use, was developed for the pilot run of the Programme for Household Food Security in agreement between the South African Institute Distance Education and the University of South Africa.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution – Share Alike License.
This means:
You are free:
- to Share — to copy, distribute and transmit the work
- to Remix — to adapt the work
Under the following conditions:
- **Attribution** — You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author or licensor (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work).
- **Share Alike** — If you alter, transform, or build upon this work, you may distribute the resulting work only under the same or similar license to this one.
The project for training household food security facilitators was initiated by the South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE) that received funding from the WK Kellogg Foundation to help facilitate the design and development of a programme aimed at further upgrading the skills of community development workers and volunteers. SAIDE approached the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences of the University of South Africa (UNISA, CAES) and the two institutions signed a memorandum of agreement in this regard. The programme was to be offered by UNISA as a Short Learning Programme. The project is being overseen by a Steering Committee, under the leadership of Dr M.J Linington (Dean, CAES, UNISA) and Ms J Glennie (Director, SAIDE).
This study guide for the module PHFS03M Sustainable Natural Resources Use is the third of six modules in the programme to be piloted with groups of community development workers linked to local government and volunteers linked to non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in the Eastern Cape. The Eastern Cape NGO Coalition (ECNGOC) has supported the strategy through advocacy and helping to link organizations with the project, thus enabling the recruitment of practising volunteers or community development workers who want to be trained and specialise in Household Food Security. The ECNGOC organized consultative meetings between the UNISA-SAIDE project team and a number of interested NGOs wishing to participate in the pilot project.
The NGOs organised community meetings and identified students at a number of sites who would participate in the pilot study. The NGOs and people to be acknowledged are Student Partnerships Worldwide (SPW), Transkei Land Service Organisation (TRALSO), The Directorate of Social responsibility in the Anglican Diocese of Grahamstown (DSR), Africare and an independent community development consultant. The project is managed by a Project Leader from SAIDE, Dr A Barlow-Zambodla, and has a designated Programme Coordinator from CAES, UNISA, Mrs FM Ferreira. Six writing teams participated in the curriculum development and design process, together with other stakeholders.
The teams were involved in the writing of study materials for each module and need to be acknowledged for their dedication to the task of developing the study packages. Their names are listed on the front page of each study guide. In addition acknowledgements go to a team of people involved in developing a resource package for Homestead Farming and Water Management for the Water Research Commission which was also involved in the curriculum design and development process and writing of this module.
The Programme in Household Food Security is an approved UNISA Short Learning Programme that serves to promote community engagement with UNISA by linking curriculum and tuition, research and community service with the delivery of higher education. This is in line with the UNISA vision:
“The African University in the service of humanity”.
The references used to develop and design the study materials are acknowledged for the use of their material, content, illustrations, ideas and activities. The material has been used for educational purposes to design and develop this material study package to train household food security facilitators for educational purposes in the writing of this study material:
Articles and illustrations have been adapted for use in this training material. These have been taken from publications where the publishers indicated that parts of publications or illustrations may be used for educational purposes provided that the sources been acknowledged. Where this has not been done and recognised as such, the writing team does acknowledge the relevant publications.
The publications used are:
Cousins, T. and Kruger, E. 1993. Towards Partnership in Development: A handbook for PRA practitioners; Based on a PRA training workshop. Midlands Development Network. Bulwer: KZN.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 2007. Programme Guidelines for Intensive Family Food Production and Rain Water Harvesting. June 2007.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 2008. Mzimvubu Development Project: Water Study: Rainwater harvesting possibilities. RWH presentation and Record of Responses & Actions. Version: 4 April 2008.
Faber, M. Laurie, S. and Venter, S. 2006. Home Gardens to address deficiency in South Africa: A food based Approach. ARC – Rodeplaat Vegetable and ornamental Plant Institute. Pretoria: South Africa.
Food and Agriculture Organisation. 2004. Rural households and resources: A guide for extension workers. Socio-economic and gender analysis programme. Rome, FAO.
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. 2006. How to conduct a food security assessment: A step by step guide for National Societies in Africa, Geneva, IFRC.
Nordin, S. 2005. Low Input Food and Nutrition Security: growing and eating more using less. Malawi: World Food Programme, 2005.
Stimie, CM, Kruger E, De Lange, M. and Crosby, CT. 2010. Agricultural Water Use in Homestead Gardening Systems Volume 1 – Main Report. Water Research Commission. WRC Report No: TT 430/09.
Stimie, CM, Kruger E, De Lange, M. and Crosby, CT. 2010. Agricultural Water Use in Homestead Gardening Systems Volume 2 Draft Report. Water Research Commission. WRC Report No: TT 430/09.
# Table of Contents
**Introduction to the module** ........................................................................................................... xi
Purpose of the module .................................................................................................................. xi
How Module 3 fits into the programme ...................................................................................... xii
Overview of Modules .................................................................................................................... xii
Module 3 outcomes ....................................................................................................................... xiii
Brief outline of the units ............................................................................................................... xiv
What is in your study pack? ......................................................................................................... xiv
The teaching approach for this programme .............................................................................. xv
How will you know what to do in the study guide? ..................................................................... xvi
The module map .......................................................................................................................... xvii
## UNIT 1 Natural resources and their importance ................................................................. 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Specific outcomes and learning outcomes .................................................................................. 1
Key concepts ............................................................................................................................... 2
Start-up activity .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 What are natural resources? ............................................................................................... 5
1.1.1 What are renewable resources? .................................................................................. 5
1.1.2 What are non-renewable resources? .......................................................................... 7
1.2 Water as a natural resource ................................................................................................. 9
1.2.1 The water cycle ........................................................................................................... 9
1.2.2 Rainfall in South Africa ............................................................................................... 13
1.2.3 What is evapotranspiration? ....................................................................................... 16
1.2.4 What happens to water in the soil? ........................................................................... 21
1.2.5 What are watersheds and catchments? .................................................................... 22
1.2.6 Water management areas in South Africa .................................................................. 23
1.2.7 What is topography? .................................................................................................. 26
1.2.8 What are aspects, ridges and valleys? ...................................................................... 28
1.3 Soil as a natural resource .................................................................................................... 31
1.3.1 What is soil? .............................................................................................................. 33
1.3.2 What is soil texture? .................................................................................................. 37
1.3.3 What is soil structure? ............................................................................................... 39
1.4 Biodiversity as a natural resource ...................................................................................... 43
1.5 Energy resources ................................................................................................................ 43
1.5.1 Non-renewable energy sources .................................................................................. 43
1.5.2 Renewable energy sources .......................................................................................... 43
1.6 How nature works ........................................................................................................ 47
1.6.1 The cycle of nature .............................................................................................. 48
1.6.2 Feeding relationships in ecosystems ................................................................. 50
Concluding remarks ........................................................................................................... 56
UNIT 2 Natural Resources and food security ................................................................. 57
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 57
Specific outcomes and learning outcomes ..................................................................... 57
Key concepts .................................................................................................................. 58
Start-up activity ............................................................................................................. 59
2.1. Linking availability, access and use of resources to food security ....................... 60
2.1.1 The environment and food security ................................................................. 61
2.1.2 Availability of, access to and use of resources ................................................ 64
2.2 Finding out about resources; participatory methods ............................................. 68
2.2.1 Resource mapping ............................................................................................. 69
2.2.2 Transect walks .................................................................................................. 73
2.2.3 Ranking and scoring .......................................................................................... 76
2.3 Constraints regarding resources .............................................................................. 76
2.3.1 Macro-level constraints ..................................................................................... 76
2.3.2 Diseases and resources ..................................................................................... 77
2.3.3 Resources and gender-linked constraints ....................................................... 81
Concluding remarks ........................................................................................................ 90
UNIT 3 Using natural resources wisely ........................................................................... 91
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 91
Specific outcomes and learning outcomes ..................................................................... 93
Key concepts .................................................................................................................. 94
Start-up activity ............................................................................................................. 94
3.1. Eating more using less (low input principles) ..................................................... 95
3.1.1 What does low input mean? ............................................................................. 95
3.1.2 Basic principles of low input ............................................................................. 96
3.2. Water management ............................................................................................... 97
3.2.1 How do we disturb the water cycle? ............................................................... 97
3.2.2 How do we disturb catchments? ...................................................................... 100
3.2.3 Water considerations when designing your homestead garden ..................... 101
3.2.4 Low input irrigation .......................................................................................... 112
3.3. Soil management .................................................................................................. 114
3.3.1 How do we abuse soil? ..................................................................................... 114
3.3.2 Desertification and soil erosion ........................................................................ 117
3.3.3 Soil considerations when designing your homestead garden ....................... 122
3.4 Managing biodiversity ........................................................................................................ 127
3.4.1 Abusing biodiversity .................................................................................................. 127
3.4.2 Considerations when using biodiversity ................................................................. 128
3.4.3 Consider permaculture groups when you choose plants for your area ............... 131
3.5 Managing energy resources .............................................................................................. 133
3.5.1 Abusing energy resources ....................................................................................... 133
3.5.2 Consider using renewable energy to cook your food ........................................... 134
3.6 A design plan for your area ............................................................................................... 138
3.6.1 Farming with Water Case Study: Mr Phiri ............................................................. 139
3.6.2 Water for Food Case Study: MmaTsepho Khumbane ............................................ 143
3.6.3 Creating a design plan for your area ....................................................................... 147
3.6.4 Steps for your design plan ....................................................................................... 147
Concluding remarks .................................................................................................................. 152
UNIT 4 Taking action for household food security ................................................................. 153
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 153
4.1 Build good working relationships ..................................................................................... 155
4.1.1 Be honest .................................................................................................................. 156
4.1.2 Be calm and polite .................................................................................................... 156
4.1.3 Be fair ....................................................................................................................... 156
4.1.4 Be well informed ...................................................................................................... 156
4.1.5 Be helpful ................................................................................................................ 156
4.1.6 Take the long view, and celebrate your small successes ................................. 156
4.2 Portfolio Activities and the “Triple A” Cycle .................................................................. 157
4.3 Your main task in this unit are Portfolio Activities ....................................................... 158
4.3.1 Assessing (collecting information) ........................................................................ 159
4.3.2 Analysing information ............................................................................................. 164
4.3.3 Taking action ........................................................................................................... 167
Glossary .................................................................................................................................. 175
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 183
# List of Activities
## UNIT 1 Natural resources and their importance .......................................................... 1
- Start-up activity .................................................................................................................. 2
- Activity 1.1 Renewable resources under threat ................................................................. 6
- Activity 1.2 Renewable and non-renewable natural resources ........................................... 8
- Activity 1.3 A simple model of the water cycle .................................................................. 11
- Activity 1.4 Finding out about rainfall from maps ............................................................... 14
- Activity 1.5 Finding out about rainfall in your area ............................................................. 15
- Activity 1.6 Make your own terrarium ............................................................................... 17
- Activity 1.7 Reading maps on evapotranspiration ............................................................... 18
- Activity 1.8 Water use in your management area ............................................................... 25
- Activity 1.9 Measuring angles using a protractor ................................................................. 27
- Activity 1.10 Considering aspects, ridges and valleys ......................................................... 30
- Activity 1.11 Identifying soil types ...................................................................................... 34
- Activity 1.12 Identifying soil texture, structure and depth .................................................. 38
- Activity 1.13 Using biodiversity as a resource .................................................................... 40
- Activity 1.14 Making choices regarding natural resources .................................................. 45
- Activity 1.15 Natural resources and processes provided by the sun and Earth ............... 48
- Activity 1.16 Your place in the cycle of nature .................................................................... 50
- Activity 1.17 Feeding relationships in a dam ....................................................................... 53
## UNIT 2 Resources and food security .................................................................................. 57
- Start-up activity .................................................................................................................. 59
- Activity 2.1 Environmental components that influence food security ............................... 61
- Activity 2.2 Finding out about resources of two villages .................................................... 65
- Activity 2.3 Read a resources map ...................................................................................... 70
- Activity 2.4 Draw a resources map of your area ................................................................. 71
- Activity 2.5 Read a transect diagram ................................................................................... 74
- Activity 2.6 Draw a transect walk diagram .......................................................................... 75
- Activity 2.7 Interpret information on major diseases ............................................................ 77
- Activity 2.8 The rapid transmission (spread) of HIV/AIDS ................................................ 79
- Activity 2.9 Gender-related use and control of resources ................................................... 82
- Activity 2.10 The inheritance rights of women .................................................................... 84
- Activity 2.11 Gender-related use and control of resources in an area ............................... 88
UNIT 3 Using natural resources wisely ................................................................. 91
Start-up activity ........................................................................................................... 94
Activity 3.1 Healthy and unhealthy water tables ...................................................... 98
Activity 3.2 Audit of a catchment in your area ....................................................... 100
Activity 3.3 Selecting water-wise plants and animals for your area ..................... 103
Activity 3.4 Be water-wise with dish drying racks .................................................. 107
Activity 3.5 Make a line level .................................................................................... 109
Activity 3.6 Using a line level to measure slope ..................................................... 110
Activity 3.7 Interfering with the balance in soil ...................................................... 114
Activity 3.8 The effects of chemicals on soil ........................................................... 116
Activity 3.9 Causes of soil erosion in your area, and possible solutions ............. 121
Activity 3.10 The wise use of biodiversity in your area .......................................... 128
Activity 3.11 Good and bad practices with regard to biodiversity ......................... 129
Activity 3.12 Plants for the seven permaculture groups ......................................... 132
Activity 3.13 Making a solar cooker (Optional) ...................................................... 136
Activity 3.14 Creating a design plan for your area .................................................. 148
UNIT 4 Taking action for household food security .................................................. 153
Portfolio Activity 4.1 Gender related exercise to establish use and control of resources 159
Portfolio Activity 4.2 (Option 1) Draw a Resource Map of your area .................. 161
Portfolio Activity 4.2 (Option 2) Draw a Transect Walk diagram .......................... 163
Portfolio Activity 4.3 Best water, soil and plant practices ..................................... 164
Portfolio Activity 4.4 Creating a design plan for a homestead garden in your area .... 167
Portfolio Activity 4.5 Write a reflection report ....................................................... 172
# List of Figures
## Introduction to the module
| Figure | Description | Page |
|--------|-------------|------|
| 1.1 | The ghowa (ghoba) plant (Hoodia spp) | xi |
| 1.2 | The “Triple A” Approach | xv |
## UNIT 1 Natural resources and their importance
| Figure | Description | Page |
|--------|-------------|------|
| 1.3 | Looking at the issue from different perspectives | 3 |
| 1.4 | Utilising natural resources in rural and urban areas | 7 |
| 1.5 | Classifying natural resources | 9 |
| 1.6 | The water cycle | 10 |
| 1.7 | The water cycle in Kouga (Eastern Cape) | 10 |
| 1.8 | Models of the water cycle | 12 |
| 1.9 | Average annual rainfall for South Africa | 13 |
| 1.10 | Seasonality of rainfall in South Africa | 14 |
| 1.11 | Rainfall is measured in millimeters in a rain-gauge | 15 |
| 1.12 | How evapotranspiration works | 16 |
| 1.13 | A terrarium to demonstrate evapotranspiration | 18 |
| 1.14 | Map showing December evapotranspiration potential in South Africa | 19 |
| 1.15 | Map showing the July evapotranspiration potential in South Africa | 19 |
| 1.16 | What happens to underground water? | 21 |
| 1.17 | The top of a watershed with two catchment areas | 22 |
| 1.18 | The 19 water management areas in South Africa | 23 |
| 1.19 | Contour lines | 27 |
| 1.20 | A protractor | 27 |
| 1.21 | A sundial | 29 |
| 1.22 | Ridges and valleys in your catchment showing the mid-slope area that is best for farming | 29 |
| 1.23 | Organisms present in soil | 32 |
| 1.24 | The movement of water and minerals in the soil | 32 |
| 1.25 | Soil sample mixed with water to show layers | 36 |
| 1.26 | Creative ways of using natural resources for energy | 45 |
| 1.27 | The sun and the Earth as providers | 47 |
| 1.28 | The cycle of nature | 49 |
| 1.29 | A simple food chain | 51 |
## UNIT 2 Natural resources and food security
| Figure | Description | Page |
|--------|-------------|------|
| 2.1 | The dimensions of food security: necessary and complementary | 60 |
| 2.2 | Components of the environment that influence food security | 61 |
| Figure 2.3 | Different ways of using resources ................................................................. 64 |
|-----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Figure 2.4 | Resource map drawn in Nthunzi, Bulwer, 1993.1 ........................................... 69 |
| Figure 2.5 | A group creating a resources map on the ground .............................................. 72 |
| Figure 2.6 | An example diagram of a transect walk in Tsupaneng Kwazulu-Natal .................... 74 |
**UNIT 3**
*Using natural resources wisely*
| Figure 3.1 | Human impact on the water table ........................................................................... 98 |
|-----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Figure 3.2 | Sunken, raised and level beds ............................................................................... 105 |
| Figure 3.3 | Water-wise with swales ......................................................................................... 106 |
| Figure 3.4 | A Tandala Rack ....................................................................................................... 107 |
| Figure 3.5 | Using a line level to mark contours ......................................................................... 109 |
| Figure 3.6 | How to mark contours in a field .............................................................................. 110 |
| Figure 3.7 | How to measure slope with a line level ..................................................................... 111 |
| Figure 3.8 | Low input irrigation ................................................................................................. 112 |
| Figure 3.9 | Drip bottles for irrigation ....................................................................................... 113 |
| Figure 3.10 | The potential destruction of soil structure through incorrect watering ................. 116 |
| Figure 3.11 | Disadvantages of bare landscapes, compared to the advantages of having vegetation in the landscape ................................................................. 119 |
| Figure 3.12 | Sheet flow erosion .................................................................................................... 120 |
| Figure 3.13 | Rill Erosion ............................................................................................................. 120 |
| Figure 3.14 | Rehabilitation of a typical gully .............................................................................. 121 |
| Figure 3.15 | Two examples of incorporating organic matter into the soil .................................. 125 |
| Figure 3.16 | Making compost ....................................................................................................... 126 |
| Figure 3.17 | The disaster of deforestation .................................................................................. 127 |
| Figure 3.18 | Planting according to permaculture principles ...................................................... 133 |
| Figure 3.19 | Making paper charcoal briquettes ........................................................................... 134 |
| Figure 3.20 | Cooking with fuel efficient stoves .......................................................................... 135 |
| Figure 3.21 | Basket cooker with insulated cover .......................................................................... 135 |
| Figure 3.22 | Making a solar cooker .............................................................................................. 137 |
| Figure 3.23 | The four corners of every homestead and different ways of using resources .......... 138 |
| Figure 3.24 | Water, soil, seeds and life gather where water flow slowly across the land .......... 139 |
| Figure 3.25 | Sketch of Mr Phiri standing in a “fruition pit” full of thatch grass ....................... 140 |
| Figure 3.26 | Layout of Mr Phiri’s farm ......................................................................................... 141 |
| Figure 3.27 | The water table and resource management ............................................................ 142 |
| Figure 3.28 | The multiple use of natural resources ....................................................................... 145 |
| Figure 3.29 | An example of a design plan laid out with bricks .................................................. 150 |
**UNIT 4**
*Taking action for household food security*
| Figure 4.1 | The “Triple A” Approach .......................................................................................... 157 |
|-----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Figure 4.2 | Making compost ....................................................................................................... 170 |
# List of Tables
| UNIT 1 | Natural resources and their importance | 1 |
|--------|---------------------------------------|---|
| Table 1.1 | De Bono’s lenses | 4 |
| Table 1.2 | Threats to renewable resources | 5 |
| Table 1.3 | Water requirements for the 19 water management areas based on statistics for the year 2000 (million m$^3$/year) | 24 |
| Table 1.4 | Recommendations for land use, depending on slope | 28 |
| Table 1.5 | Soils classified on the basis of particle size | 33 |
| Table 1.6 | Identify soil type by touch | 35 |
| Table 1.7 | Characteristics of soil types | 37 |
| Table 1.8 | Indigenous plants used by the Hantam community | 41 |
| Table 1.9 | Renewable energy sources | 44 |
| UNIT 2 | Resources and food security | 57 |
|--------|----------------------------|---|
| Table 2.1 | Indigenous foods eaten by members of Village B | 67 |
| Table 2.2 | Major diseases of the world | 77 |
| Table 2.3 | De Bono’s hat strategy to look at the issue of HIV/AIDS | 81 |
| Table 2.4 | Gender-related access to and control over resources | 83 |
| Table 2.5 | Common constraints faced by women in relation to financial services and income generation activities | 86 |
| UNIT 3 | Using natural resources wisely | 91 |
|--------|-------------------------------|---|
| Table 3.1 | Examples of good and bad practices related to biodiversity | 130 |
| Table 3.2 | Permaculture: Seven groups of plants for a garden | 132 |
Water is a vital natural resource without which we cannot live. How we use water so that there is enough for everyone today and in the future is a challenge we face in South Africa and in other parts of the world. But water is not the only natural resource we need and use.
For thousands of years local people have used indigenous plants as a source of food. As you know, some of these plants can also serve as medicine. An interesting example that will be known to many of you is the ghowa or Hoodia plant, which is eaten by many South Africans, and is also used as a medicine. Many cultural groups in South Africa look in a holistic way at human well-being. What does this mean? A traditional healer will not only prescribe medicines (various plant materials), but will often also provide some psychological help to his patients. Refer back to the four dimensions of healing in Module 2: the physical, social, psychological and spiritual dimensions.
In this module you will find out about the natural resources that are available in your area, how people are using them to obtain food, and how their use affects the environment and the community. You will also examine different and improved ways in which the natural resources in the area can be used so that people can continue to get food that will keep them healthy.
**Purpose of the module**
In this module your main task is to plan and carry out a set of activities with selected households in the community to help them gain a good understanding of their current and possible future use of natural resources in their area. Why is this important? As people become informed and take actions to manage their use of resources responsibly to obtain food, they will be able to sustain themselves and their families. These actions will help to break the cycle of poverty and protect the environment at the same time.
To prepare you for working with households, you will learn about the issues around the use of natural resources and strengthen your ability to use some participatory techniques and methods. What you learn in this module will also help you with Module 5 when you start a homestead garden, and with Module 6 when you look at food resource management.
How Module 3 fits into the programme
Each module is an important part of the Household Food Security Programme. The modules for the programme are the following:
| Module | Code | Title |
|--------|--------|--------------------------------------------|
| 1 | PHFS01K | Introduction to household food security concepts |
| 2 | PHFS02L | Participatory extension for household food security |
| 3 | PHFS03M | Sustainable natural resource use |
| 4 | PHFS04N | Food behaviour and nutrition |
| 5 | PHFS05P | Optimising household food production |
| 6 | PHFS06Q | Food resource management |
The modules are linked and what you learn in one module will also help you in another. The diagram given below is a *programme map* that will provide you with an overall picture of the programme. It shows you the main purpose of the programme and what each of the six modules focus on.
Overview of modules
Programme in household food security
Orientation for facilitators - concepts and tools
Module 1: PHFS01K
Introduction to household food security concepts
Module 2: PHFS02L
Participatory extension for household food security
Module 3: PHFS03M
Sustainable natural resources use
Module 4: PHFS04N
Food behaviour and nutrition
Module 5: PHFS05P
Optimising household food production
Module 6: PHFS06Q
Food resource management
Work with households in communities
The programme prepares and equips students with relevant skills to strengthen the capacity of rural communities to respond proactively to meeting their food, nutrition and livelihood needs. By participation in achievable projects, individuals and groups in rural areas are mobilised to acquire confidence and skills so as to increase their ability to break the cycle of poverty.
Module 3 outcomes
The table below shows the topics of the four units in Module 3 and gives you a good idea of what you are expected to know and do. The assessment in this module is closely linked to the outcomes. It includes two assignments, portfolio activities and workbook activities. You will find detailed information about the assessment activities in the General Tutorial Letter.
| Unit | Specific Learning Outcomes | Assessment |
|------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|
| 1. | Assess resources in terms of their contribution to food security | Assignment 1 (10%) |
| 2. | Assess the availability, accessibility, utilisation and stability of natural resources with individuals and groups in an area | Assignment 2 (20%) |
| | Consider constraints regarding natural resources | |
| 3. | Determine the impact of natural resources use on the environment and on people. | |
| | Explore various knowledge systems for an alternative resource management option. | |
| 4. | Develop solutions with households for improved natural resource use and livelihood strategies | Portfolio activities (60%) |
| | | Workbook 10% Selected activities from all units |
Brief outline of the units
Unit 1 – Natural resources and their importance
We examine the natural resources in the environment such as water, soil, biodiversity, and natural energy resources in order to gain an understanding of how they fit together to create a natural system. Understanding how natural systems work and your own place in these systems will help you to find out how best to use natural resources so they will not be depleted (used up).
Unit 2 – Natural resources and food security
The link between natural resources and food security is explored. We need to have enough natural resources available, we need to access them and we need to utilise them wisely. This will ensure stability and will therefore, enhance food security. We examine participatory tools and methods to find out which resources are available in your area and how the people living there are using them for obtaining food. We conclude the unit by looking at some of the constraints regarding natural resources including disease and gender-related issues.
Unit 3 – Using natural resources wisely
The impacts of our use of natural resources on the environment and on other people are examined. We focus on the importance of using the natural resources that are available to us in a sustainable way to ensure stability and thus contribute to food security. In this way, you can find out the strengths and weaknesses of present resources use practices. You will get a good idea of what is working well, what is not, and what can be done to improve the situation. The low input principles examined in the unit are used to design a plan for a homestead garden which will be implemented in Module 5.
Unit 4 – Taking action for household food security
The work you undertake in Units 1, 2 and 3 prepares you for working with households in your community. You will plan and carry out an intervention in which you invite them to participate fully. With your guidance they will assess their use of natural resources in obtaining food, they will analyse their current practices and come up with possible actions that will help them to improve their use of natural resources. Your work with the households consists of portfolio activities.
What is in your study pack?
Check your study pack for this module. It should contain the following:
| This study guide | ✔ |
|------------------|---|
| A module workbook | |
| Tutorial Letters 101 and 103, with your assignments and by when you should submit them | |
| A general information letter, Tutorial letter 301, on the programme | |
During the year you will receive additional tutorial letters that give you general feedback on the assignments submitted.
The teaching approach for this programme
What we do flows from the plans we make, it is based on information we have at the time, and how we understand that information. As we start implementing our plans, we learn more and can therefore improve our plans and actions. The approach that we will use, not only in this module, but also in all the other modules, is the “Triple A” Approach.
The “Triple A” Approach guide your learning by engaging you in a cyclical process of assessing, analysing and acting based on the new information which you have been given.
The “Triple A” is one of many ways in which this ongoing planning and re-planning process is described. We gather information (assess), think about it and use it to come up with plans (analyse), implement those plans (act), all the while gathering new information.
Figure 1.2 The “Triple A” Approach
(Adapted from FAO, 2005)
How will you know what to do in the study guide?
We make use of symbols or icons to show you what you are expected to do.
| Text activities | These are learning activities that encourage you come up with your own ideas as you read the text. |
|-----------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Workbook activities | Some activities have been selected to help you to reflect on your own context and deepen your understanding of the main issues dealt with in the module. You will either do these activities by yourself or in a group. These are activities which are provided in the study guide but which should only be completed in the workbook. |
| Case studies in blocks | We have included a number of short case studies that reflect what is happening in practice in different parts of South Africa and in other parts of the world. The case studies serve two main purposes: to give you examples of what people are doing in different contexts and to invite you to reflect on these experiences as they will help to strengthen your insight and understanding of the issues to be addressed. |
| People’s voices | Boxes in the text give quotes of experiences of household members and other people on food security and descriptions of other events. |
| Portfolio activities | The activities with the households in Unit 4 are portfolio activities. They are practical activities and you will be required to produce specific evidence for your portfolio in order to complete them. |
| Concept boxes | Boxes in the text give definitions and explanations of concepts. |
The module map
The module map gives you an overall picture of what Module 3 is about. The map appears before each unit to remind you of the purpose and direction of the module and to show you how the individual units are linked.
Module 3 Map
Unit 1: Natural resources and their importance
Assess natural resources
Unit 2: Natural resources and food security
Assess and analyze resources related to food
Unit 3: Using natural resources wisely. Managing natural resources related to food, using low input principles.
Unit 4: Taking action for household food security
Work with households to develop solutions for improved use of natural resources
Evidence for Portfolio
Work with households
• contributes to improved natural resource use practices
• strengthens community facilitation skills
xviii
Introduction
When people use a piece of land to grow crops such as maize, sorghum or wheat, they are using soil and water to obtain food. A natural resource is a supply of something from the natural environment that people use because of its particular value to them. For centuries people have used the resources available in their immediate environment for food, shelter and clothing. Our planet has huge supplies of natural resources that we need in order to survive. However our biggest challenge is to use resources without destroying or degrading the environment. Our quality of life and survival depend on our ability to use, rather than abuse, the environment.
We start this unit by examining what natural resources are and continue by focusing on water, soil, biodiversity and energy as natural resources.
This unit consists of the following sections:
1.1 What are natural resources?
1.2 Water as a natural resource
1.3 Soil as a natural resource
1.4 Biodiversity as a natural resource
1.5 Natural energy resources
1.6 How nature works
Specific outcome and learning outcomes
The specific outcome for this unit is to assess what natural resources are available for human use.
| Learning outcomes | Assessment Activities | Actual time spent |
|-------------------|-----------------------|------------------|
| | Workbook activities | |
| 1. What are natural resources? | 1.3 A simple model of the water cycle. (1h) | |
| 2. Water as a natural resource | 1.5 Finding out about rainfall in your area. (2h) | |
| 3. Soil as a natural resource | 1.6 Make your own terrarium. (1h) | |
| 4. Biodiversity as a natural resource | 1.8 Water use in your management area. (1.5h) | |
| 5. Natural energy resources | 1.10 Considering aspects, ridges and valleys (1h) | |
| 6. How nature works | 1.11 Identifying soil types. (2h) | |
| | 1.12 Identifying soil texture, structure and depth. (5h) | |
| | 1.13 Biodiversity as a resource (1h) | |
| | 1.16 Your place in the cycle of nature. (30 min) | |
| | Assignment | |
| | Assignment 1: Information for this assignment is contained in Tutorial Letter 101. (3h) | |
Key concepts
Strategy
Natural resources
Renewable resources
Non-renewable resources
Habitat
Solar energy
Recycling
Water cycle
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Transpiration
Condensation
Precipitation
Infiltration
Groundwater
Water table
Water shed
Aquifers
Catchment
Drainage basin
Perspective
Fossil fuel
Indigenous
Organisms
Soil texture, structure and type
Humus
Biodiversity
Cycle of nature
Food chain
Food web
Trophic (feeding) levels
System
Ecosystem
Start-up activity
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Thandi, whom you met in previous modules, was listening to a group of people arguing under the shade of a Marula tree. The argument was on whether soil, air, water, wild plants and animals are only for the benefit of people. What are your immediate thoughts on this issue?
When we think of this or any other issue, we need to think scientifically and look at the issue from different perspectives (ways of thinking) before coming to a conclusion. A man by the name of Edward De Bono developed a strategy, called the *Six Hat Thinking* strategy. According to this strategy, you put on different coloured hats that each represent a different perspective on the issue. When you wear a specific coloured hat you think of the issue only from that perspective. Only after you have worn all the different coloured hats will you be able to reach a scientific conclusion on the issue.
We have adapted De Bono’s strategy and will look at the issue not by putting on different coloured hats, but by looking at the issue through spectacles with different coloured lenses. What does each of the different coloured lenses represent?
White lenses: White is the colour of the paper in this study guide. This lens means that a person would look at the facts (just as books represent facts).
Red lenses: Red is the colour of blood and the heart, and the red lens in a similar way represents emotion. What are my feelings (emotions) on the issue?
Yellow lenses: Yellow is a sunny and bright colour, and the yellow lens represents a view where one looks at the positive side of something. Think about the points in favour of the issue.
Purple lenses: Think critically about the issue, without allowing your emotions to dominate. What are the weaknesses in an issue? What are the problems associated with the issue?
Green lenses: Green is the colour of new growth in plants, and the green lens represents a creative look at things. Think creatively and suggest new solutions for the issue.
Blue lenses: Blue is the colour of the sky. The blue lens represents a big-picture view. Evaluate all the arguments and think about the bigger picture.
Figure 1.3 Looking at an issue from different perspectives
(Adapted from Edward de Bono’s Six Hat Thinking Strategy)
Note: You may wish to use different coloured hats for the activity by using coloured sheets of A4 paper that you fold and staple to form the hat.
What you must do
1. Work in groups and discuss the issue specified in the block below to formulate your immediate thoughts.
Soil, air, water, wild plants and animals are only for the benefit of people.
2. Each group now looks at the issue from the perspective represented by the:
- white lenses
- red lenses
- yellow lenses
- purple lenses
- green lenses
- blue lenses
After your discussion, complete the following table:
Table 1.1 De Bono’s lenses
| White lenses/hats (facts) | Purple lenses/hats (positive arguments) |
|--------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| | |
| Red lenses/hats (emotions) | Green lenses/hats (problems or weak points) |
| | |
| Yellow lenses/hats (creative look) | Blue lenses/hats (big picture) |
| | |
3. Discuss each perspective and write the group’s ideas on the flipchart.
4. Come to a final decision on where you stand on the issue and write this down in the space below.
..........................................................................................................................
You will gain a much better insight on this issue and other issues as you work through this unit and the other units in this module.
1.1 What are natural resources?
Almost everything that people use comes originally from nature. This includes cars, aeroplanes and computers. Most of these items have gone through many different manufacturing and industrial processes before we get to use them as resources. Have you ever thought that the money in your pocket is a resource that has its origin in nature? Today special paper is used to print notes and coins are made from various metals. Each country in the world has its own currency, which represents its trading unit. Did you know that in the past people in Africa used a variety of items from their environment to trade with, such as shells, ivory, gold and silver ingots and bracelets? In the late 1800’s right up to 1918 people in Sierra Leone, Liberia and Guinea used thin twisted iron wires, known as Kissi twists, as money. The Kissis were 25 to 40 centimetres long and bundled in groups of 20 to 50 pieces. In those days you would have needed about 1000 Kissis to buy one bull. Money has always had a social and financial dimension and it is communities that decide on the value that their money represents.
When we refer to **natural resources** in this programme, we include those that come **directly from nature** or are still in a natural form. Wood to make fires and cook food is a natural resource, but paraffin is not. Paraffin and petrol are not natural resources as they are by-products of a refining process of the natural resource called crude oil. Vehicles, roads, and houses are also not natural resources as they are made by people and are referred to as **physical** resources.
There are two broad categories of natural resources: renewable and non-renewable.
1.1.1 What are renewable resources?
**Renewable resources** are resources that can grow again or replenish themselves. Trees, grass, other plants and animals are **organic** (living) resources. Water and certain gases like oxygen are **inorganic** (non-living). But are renewable resources always renewable? If renewable resources are used in an unsustained (unwise) way, will they continue to be renewable? Look at the following facts:
**Table 1.2 Threats to renewable resources**
| Renewable resources | Possible threats to renewable resources that can make them non-renewable |
|---------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Fresh water | We are only able to use \( \frac{1}{4} \) of the Earth’s groundwater as the rest depends on steady rainfall over long periods of time. People can use up the groundwater in an area because of drought and insufficient rainfall to restore it. Water can be polluted by humans through improper sewage management, and by chemical spills. This makes the water unsafe and unusable. |
| Land/soil | The land can be overgrazed or the nutrients in the soil can be used up through improper farming practices. Natural vegetation can also be removed to make way for building projects. In these cases the soil cannot renew itself and plants cannot grow. This makes it easy for the rain to wash away the soil and for the wind to blow it away. We refer to this as **soil erosion**. |
| Oxygen/clean air | The rainforests are often called the lungs of the world because the trees absorb carbon dioxide, which cannot be used by the human body, and release oxygen into the air. When forests are destroyed or die through pollution they are not able to carry out this important function. As a result the quality of the air decreases. When chemicals pollute rivers the oxygen in the water is depleted and living things in the water die. |
| Trees and other plants (vegetation) | Trees and other plants play a vital role in maintaining the balance in an environment. Where trees and other plants are cut down and not replanted, the soil and climate of the natural environment change. As a result plants may die and animals may lose their **habitat** (the natural conditions or environment in which living things live). |
**Activity 1.1 Renewable resources under threat**
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
1. What renewable resource in your area is under threat?
2. Why do you think this renewable resource is in danger of becoming unusable or not renewable?
3. Do you think something can be done to prevent this renewable resource from becoming unusable or not renewable? Give a reason for your answer.
Comments on Activity 1.1
Human actions can have a positive or a negative effect on renewable resources. One of the resources under severe threat in many areas of South Africa is water. This is due to low rainfall and high water pollution levels in many places. Levels of pollution are often high in urban areas where there are factories and industries and where large numbers of people live together. This situation puts a lot of pressure on natural resources. We will discuss the impact of people and their actions on the environment in more detail in Unit 3.
Today we are beginning to realise that renewable resources cannot be taken for granted. We cannot afford to think that we can use as much as we like because a resource is renewable. Renewable resources are capable of being replaced only under the right circumstances and conditions and if we manage their use by respecting the laws of nature.
1.1.2 What are non-renewable resources?
Non-renewable natural resources are those that can be used up or finished and cannot be produced, re-grown or replenished in a reasonable amount of time. Examples include fossil fuels such as coal, crude oil, and natural gas. Minerals that are taken out of the Earth through mining such as diamonds, gold, silver and copper are also considered non-renewable. All these resources exist in a fixed amount in nature and they cannot be replaced as fast as they are being used up. The time will come in the near future when the world's oil reserves will be used up. It is for this reason that countries around the world are looking at alternative and renewable sources of energy. For example energy from the sun or solar power, wind power, and power from the movement of water (hydropower) are possible new sources of energy that are practically infinite and that cannot be used up.
The following pictures show the kind of natural resources people use in a rural and in an urban area.
Picture 1 - A household in a rural area
Picture 2 – A household in an urban area
Figure 1.4 Utilising land as a natural resource in rural and urban areas
Activity 1.2 – Renewable and non-renewable natural resources
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
It is important to distinguish between renewable and non-renewable natural resources, since you will need to make this distinction when you investigate and assess the available resources in your area.
1. Look at the two pictures in Figure 1.4 and identify the resources used by a household in an urban and one in a rural area. Pick out the items that you consider to be renewable and non-renewable resources.
2. Write the items in the table below.
| Natural resources |
|-------------------|
| Renewable resources (Urban area) | Renewable resources (Rural area) | Non renewable resources (Urban area) | Non renewable resources (Rural area) |
Comments on Activity 1.2
Renewable resources do not only include biological resources such as plants and animals but also water, and solar (sun) energy. Energy from the sun is renewed daily and will continue in this way until the sun burns out millions of years from now. Soil is a very important resource for growing crops and it can be improved and renewed through good soil management and land use.
Most non-living resources such as metals and fossil fuels cannot be replaced when they are used up. People will have to learn to live without them or to improve techniques for recycling them.
The diagram below gives a helpful summary of the ideas discussed in this section.
**Figure 1.5 Classifying natural resources**
(Adapted from Hugo, 2004)
### 1.2 Water as a natural resource
Without water no life is possible. Why is water so important to life? Most living things are primarily composed of water. The human body, for example, is made up of 70% water. All the chemical reactions of life, which happen inside the bodies of living things, take place in water. About 96% of the water on Earth is found in oceans, salt lakes and rivers. Less than 1% occurs in the atmosphere and about 3% is found as fresh water on land and in underground reservoirs (natural storage places). As most of this fresh water is locked up in the polar ice caps and as glaciers, only 0.3% of all fresh water is available for humans to use. What does this tell us about using water wisely?
#### 1.2.1 The water cycle
Where does the water on Earth come from? Water constantly circulates around our planet moving from the oceans to the skies to the land and back to the oceans again in a process called the **water cycle**. This cycle is driven by heat energy from the sun, as you can see in the figure below.
**What are polar ice caps and glaciers?**
*Ice caps are thick layers of ice and snow that permanently cover an area of land, usually the area around the North and South Poles.*
*A glacier is a huge mass of ice which moves very slowly, often down a mountain valley.*
The sun supplies energy to evaporate water
Moisture evaporates from seas and lakes (evaporation)
Clouds form
Clouds move inland (transpiration) (condensation)
Clouds cool to form rain (precipitation)
Rain water sinks into ground to be taken up by plant roots (infiltration)
Rain water runs off into lakes and rivers
Figure 1.6 The water cycle.
Wind
Rain
Clouds
Condensation
Evaporation
Agriculture
Water Use
Rivers and dams
Figure 1.7 The water cycle in Kouga (Eastern Cape)
What happens in the water cycle? A number of inter-linked processes take place:
1. **Evaporation**: Heated by the sun, water evaporates into the atmosphere from the surfaces of any open body of water such as oceans, lakes, rivers and dams. Because oceans cover three quarters of the Earth’s surface, evaporation from the oceans contributes most of the water to the atmosphere. On land, as much as 90% of the water that reaches the atmosphere, comes from plants as they release water vapour into the air during a process called *transpiration*. Find out more about this process in the next section.
2. **Condensation**: The water vapour in the air condenses back into water when it cools down there. Clouds are formed that consist of very small droplets of water.
3. **Precipitation**: Water falls from the clouds back to Earth through rain, hail, sleet and snow. Dew, frost and mist are formed when water vapour condenses directly onto the land without first forming clouds.
4. **Infiltration**: Water falls on the land and infiltrates the soil until all the soil pores/openings are filled and the soil is saturated. The water that infiltrates the soil becomes groundwater. Further rainfall runs off into puddles, streams, rivers, lakes and finally into the ocean. Ultimately all water will end up back in the ocean to start the whole process again. No new water therefore enters the cycle and no water ever leaves the cycle.
**Groundwater and pollution**
Much of the groundwater in South Africa is polluted and the situation is getting worse. Pesticides are one reason for this. They are washed from the surface of plant leaves and the topsoil, to reach underground water. You will find out more about how human activities impact on the water cycle in Unit 3.
**Something to think about**
In what ways is the water cycle important to people in communities, especially those who want to start a homestead garden? You need to start thinking about this question, but it will become clear to you as we progress through this module.
You will gain a much better understanding of how the water cycle functions by completing the next activity.
**Activity 1.3 A simple model of the water cycle**
**Complete this activity on your own in your workbook**
**Aim**: Build a simple model of the water cycle to gain an understanding of the interlinked processes that take place.
**Time**: 1 hour
**What you will need**
Transparent (see through) container, cup, plate, dirty water, plastic cling wrap, small stone.
What you must do
1. Build your model of the water cycle as shown in any one of the figures below. Make sure that the cling wrap seals tightly along the edge of the container.
2. Once your model is set up, place it outside in the sun and observe it over a period of a few days.
3. Answers the questions below in your workbook in the spaces provided.
A. An evaporation/condensation chamber to simulate the water cycle.
B. Another way of doing this experiment
Figure 1.8 Models of the water cycle
Questions
1. Describe your observations. (What did you see?)
2. How does your model represent the water cycle? Make a drawing of your model with arrows connecting the different processes that form part of the water cycle.
3. We have seen that most water is stored in the oceans. This water is saline (salty). Is rainwater saline or fresh? Give a reason for your answer.
4. Which human activities have a negative impact on the water cycle?
5. Reflect on how we can lessen our negative impact on the water cycle.
South Africa is a water-poor country and we are therefore very dependent on rainfall. What is the average rainfall for different parts of the country?
1.2.2 Rainfall in South Africa
You are aware that the amount of rain in your area varies from one year to the next. Rainfall may also be concentrated over a short rainy season or spread over a longer period. However, it is possible to get a general idea of the amount of rainfall in your area from maps that have been developed for this purpose. These maps show the *mean annual rainfall*. The amount of rain which falls in a year is measured for a number of years and then an average is taken which gives the mean annual rainfall.
The two maps below will help you determine:
- the average annual rainfall
- the season in which the rain falls
- the months of the year when there is the most rain.
For example, the eastern parts of the country, have an annual rainfall ranging from 600 to 800 millimeters (mm), concentrated in the midsummer months. The northern areas average 400 to 600 mm, concentrated again in the midsummer, while in the West the rainfall averages 200 to 400 mm and peaks later, namely in March to May.
**What does mm stand for?**
*Rain is measured in millimeters (mm).*
*There are 10 millimeters in a centimeter.*
*There are 100 centimeters in a meter.*
*Use a school ruler to determine the size of one mm and one cm.*
Figure 1.10 Seasonality of rainfall in South Africa (see Annexure A for colour maps)
Activity 1.4 Finding out about rainfall from maps.
Complete this activity in groups in this study guide
1. In groups of three to five people, look at the two maps in Figures 1.9 and 1.10. (See Annexure A)
2. Use the maps to identify where your group members are from and what the mean annual rainfall is for your area. (You can use another more general map of South Africa to pinpoint your position if it is difficult from this map)
3. Which months have rain and when does the rainy season occur in your area?
4. Discuss in your group whether the values given on the maps are similar to what you have experienced in the past few years. Does it rain more or less at the times suggested?
Note: It is also possible to use information from agricultural extension staff, local people in your area or to even measure the rain for yourself. You can measure rainfall for your area by using a rain-gauge and keeping a record of it.
Figure 1.11 Rainfall is measured in millimetres in a rain-gauge
Activity 1.5 Finding out about rainfall in your area
Complete this activity in groups in your workbook
Aim: Get rainfall data in specific areas using local sources.
Time: 2 hours
What you must do
1. Find out from knowledgeable people in your area:
- what the average rainfall for the area is.
- what the seasonality of the rainfall is (which months of the year have rain and which month has the most rain).
- the average minimum and maximum temperatures for your area. (You need to know whether there is frost, or you have very high temperatures and how long these conditions last)
Temperature is measured in degrees centigrade (also known as Celsius). We use the symbol ° for degrees. We use the symbol C for centigrade or Celsius.
0°C is freezing point
20°C is mild
35°C is very warm
Who are knowledgeable people whom you can consult about rainfall?
You can speak to older farmers who have been living in the area for a long time.
You can speak to the local agricultural extension officer in your area.
You can consult books or the Internet (Here you may need help from your tutor).
2. Once you have spoken to people and looked at other sources, you need to write a short report, which includes the following information:
- Who you spoke to.
- What each person said about average and seasonal rainfall and minimum and maximum temperatures. Present this information in a small table).
• Compare this information with the general rainfall data you worked out in Activity 1.4.
• Comment on similarities and differences.
• Specify why it is important for an HFS facilitator to be aware of average rainfall and seasonality of rainfall.
1.2.3 What is evapotranspiration?
You may have read about, or have heard people talk about, **evapotranspiration**. But what does this mean?
Evaporation on the ground surface + transpiration by plants
= evapotranspiration from a given piece of land
You know what evaporation is but what is transpiration? Plant roots take up water which slowly moves through the soil. The plant loses part of this water as vapour which is emitted into the air through pores (small holes) in the leaves by means of a process called **transpiration**. Plants and in particular forests and grasslands play an important role in contributing to water vapour in the air and thus in maintaining rain in the landscape. This is one more good reason to protect our trees and other plants, especially our **indigenous plants**! Evapotranspirated water in the air accounts for about 90% of our atmospheric water from land. The water vapour forms clouds and these, in turn, form rain.
**Figure 1.12 How evapotranspiration works**
Carry out the experiment in the next activity to find out how evapotranspiration takes place.
Activity 1.6 Make your own terrarium
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Build a terrarium to gain an understanding of evapotranspiration
What you will need
A large glass or clear plastic container (spray bottle) with a lid, soil, sand, pebbles, compost, seeds, small plants, a small dish or cup, spray bottle.
Time: 1 hour
What you must do
1. Build the terrarium (a very small garden inside a container) as follows:
- Place the sand and pebbles at the bottom of the container which has been tipped on its side
- Place about 3 to 4 cm of soil and compost on top of the sand and pebbles.
- Plant the small dish firmly in the ground and fill it with water.
- Create a small landscape by building small hills and valleys.
- Plant the seeds and the small plants in the soil.
- Moisten the soil and plants, using a spray bottle.
- Seal tightly and place the terrarium in indirect sunlight, for example on the veranda (stoep) away from the sun.
2. Look at your terrarium (small world) every day for one to two weeks and write your observations in your workbook.
- What is happening inside the terrarium?
- What has changed over time? (Give the date and the event)
- Why do you think the changes have happened? (Give the reason for the changes.)
3. Try some of the following experiments:
- Add other life forms, for example, insects.
- Plant some more seeds or small plants of your choice.
7. In what way does this model represent the water cycle? Make a drawing with arrows connecting the different elements of your terrarium in the space provided in your workbook.
8. Explain why is it important to know about evapotranspiration.
Figure 1.13 A terrarium to demonstrate evapotranspiration
Comments on Activity 1.6
Understanding evapotranspiration is an important concept in growing vegetables and other crops. Plants wilt and become stressed if they transpire more water from their leaves than they can draw from the soil.
What is stress?
Plants suffer from stress when conditions are difficult (e.g. a lack of water or light), just as when people do when facing difficult situations.
Something to think about
• How can a gardener limit the rate of transpiration by plants and evaporation from the soil, i.e. how can evapotranspiration be inhibited?
• Why should a person be selective regarding the type of crop or vegetables he or she plants in a garden?
• Which factors would determine what plants are cultivated in a garden?
You need to start thinking about these questions. The answers will become clear to you as we progress through this module.
Activity 1.7 Reading maps on evapotranspiration
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Look at the two maps below (also see Annexure A for coloured maps) and answer the questions that follow.
• The first map shows you the potential evapotranspiration (written in mm) during December, the peak rainfall month in the summer rainfall areas of South Africa.
• The second map shows you the potential evapotranspiration for July, which is mid-winter.
Figure 1.14 Map showing December evapotranspiration potential in South Africa
(See Annexure A for coloured map)
Figure 1.15 Map showing the July evapotranspiration potential in South Africa
(See Annexure A for coloured map)
Questions
1. What does the symbol >, and the symbol < on the maps mean?
2. Why do you think the reference evapotranspiration for the area shown in red is so high for December? See Annexure A for coloured map.
3. Why is it useful to know about the reference evaporation for the area where you are living if you are a farmer or gardener?
4. Identify on the map where you are from. What is the evapotranspiration in December and July in your area?
Comments on Activity 1.7
The symbol >, means more than. Example; the evapotranspiration is more than (> ) 500mm. The symbol <, means less than. Example; the evapotranspiration is less than (<) 500mm. The area shown in red (see Annexure A) is in the interior with a very hot and dry climate, which causes the evapotranspiration to be very high.
Why is it useful to know the evaporation for the area where you are living and farming? This information will give you an idea of the amount of water you will require to grow crops. The agricultural planning sector in your area can work out the evapotranspiration of any crop that you may want to grow. This is then compared with the amount of rainfall expected, which, in turn, indicates the amount of water that you will need to provide for your crops through irrigation or rainwater harvesting.
The annual reference evaporation ranges from 1300 mm (1,3 metres) on the east coast, and 1500 mm (1,5 metres) in the North and interior, to 1800 mm (1,8 metres) in the West. Annual means for a period of one year.
Remember that the evapotranspiration values are higher than the rainfall values. Therefore the main function of irrigation and rain harvesting is to close the gap between low rainfall and high evapotranspiration. Crops need to get at least as much water as they lose in evapotranspiration in order to produce high yields.
### 1.2.4 What happens to water in the soil?
As you are aware, infiltration is one of the inter-inked processes that take place during the water cycle. With enough rainfall the water that falls on the ground will infiltrate (move deeper into the earth) to become groundwater that is stored in aquifers. These aquifers could be in cracks inside other rocks or in huge caves or channels. The upper boundary of the underground water is called the **water table**. About 98% of all fresh water in the world is stored as groundwater. Figure 1.16 shows you what happens to water beneath the ground.
**What is an aquifer?**
*Aquifers are cracks in rocks or huge caves under the ground that are usually filled with water.*
**Figure 1.16 What happens to underground water?**
When water that seeps into the soil reaches an **impermeable** layer of rock such as shale/mud stone, which is a layer of rock that doesn’t let water through, it will follow the slope and can eventually emerge on the surface as a spring or the source of a stream or river. Rivers have a sustained flow, because most of the water is actually stored in the soil, where it slowly releases into the drainage basin or stream.
1.2.5 What are watersheds and catchments?
A watershed is an area of higher elevation (such as the top of a mountain) that separates two catchment areas from each other, so that water flows down from the watershed into one or the other catchment area. All the streams in one catchment flow into one river and those in the other catchment flow into a different river.
**Figure 1.17 The top of a watershed with two catchment areas**
Plants in catchments
Indigenous vegetation (plants) are very important in catchment areas (catchments) for the following reasons:
- Plants slow down water as it flows over the land (runoff) allowing much of the rain to soak into the soil and replenish underground water (aquifers). Water seeps from these aquifers into rivers.
- Plants prevent soil erosion as their roots hold soil in position, preventing it from being washed away.
In disturbed watersheds, the slow and sustained release of water is disrupted. Water runs rapidly off the ground’s surface, rather than soaking in. This process creates floods followed by drought.
Vegetation (plants) in wetlands and on the banks of rivers is of particular importance. The roots of the reeds, sedges, shrubs and grasses growing in wetlands and next to rivers bind the soil and prevent erosion. At the same time these plants clean the water by filtering impurities and regulating water flow.
**Something to think about**
Why are watersheds and catchments important to communities and people who want to start gardening projects?
It is of the utmost importance that our catchments are well managed because if this does not happen, all the people in the community will suffer. Reflect on how you can contribute to good management of catchments.
### 1.2.6 Water management areas in South Africa
On a larger scale your land (your local government/ local municipal area) will almost surely be part of a larger watershed or catchment. These are combined for local areas to form **regional drainage basins/catchments** that drain thousands of square kilometres of land, creating streams and rivers. In South Africa the **quaternary catchment** (about 100 square kms) is the smallest unit at which national planning is done. These quaternary catchments make up the units of even larger areas known as **water management areas**, of which there are 19 in South Africa.
These water management areas contain the larger rivers and dams in the various regions of South Africa and provide the basis for regional planning. This planning includes water requirements and allocations for various uses such as irrigation, mining, cities, industry and rural areas.
Where are the 19 water management areas in South Africa and what are the water requirements for these areas?
**Figure 1.18** The 19 water management areas in South Africa
(Adapted from Oosthuizen, 2004)
Do each of the 19 water management areas use water for the same purpose? Do they use different amounts of water? Table 1.3 below gives you an overview of how water is used in each water management area.
Table 1.3: Water requirements for the 19 water management areas based on statistics for the year 2000 (million m$^3$/year)
| Water Management Area | Irrigation | Urban | Rural | Mining and Bulk Industrial | Power generation | Afforestation | Available balance in 2000 | Potential water requirements in 2025 | Total local requirements |
|--------------------------------|------------|-------|-------|----------------------------|------------------|--------------|---------------------------|--------------------------------------|-------------------------|
| Limpopo | 238 | 37 | 28 | 14 | 7 | 1 | (24) | 8 | 325 |
| Luvuvhu/Letaba | 248 | 11 | 31 | 1 | 0 | 43 | (37) | 102 | 334 |
| Crocodile west and Marico | 445 | 691 | 38 | 127 | 27 | 0 | 11 | 0 | 1 328 |
| Olifants | 557 | 92 | 44 | 94 | 181 | 3 | (196) | 239 | 971 |
| Inkomati | 737 | 65 | 24 | 24 | 0 | 198 | (253) | 114 | 1 048 |
| Usutu to Mhlathuze | 404 | 54 | 40 | 91 | 0 | 104 | 235 | 110 | 693 |
| Thukela | 204 | 56 | 31 | 46 | 1 | 0 | (97) | 598 | 338 |
| Upper Vaal | 114 | 795 | 42 | 173 | 80 | 0 | 481 | 50 | 1 204 |
| Middle Vaal | 159 | 112 | 32 | 86 | 0 | 0 | (2) | 0 | 389 |
| Lower Vaal | 525 | 78 | 44 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 48 | 0 | 653 |
| Mvoti to Umzimkulu | 207 | 438 | 44 | 74 | 0 | 65 | (267) | 1 018 | 828 |
| Mzimvubu to Keiskamma | 190 | 100 | 39 | 0 | 0 | 46 | 480 | 1 500 | 375 |
| Upper Orange | 777 | 129 | 60 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 486 | 900 | 968 |
| Lower Orange | 780 | 28 | 17 | 9 | 0 | 0 | (9) | 150 | 834 |
| Fish to Tsitsikamma | 763 | 116 | 16 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 106 | 85 | 902 |
| Gouritz | 254 | 57 | 11 | 6 | 0 | 14 | (66) | 110 | 342 |
| Olifants/Doring | 356 | 7 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 1 | (35) | 185 | 373 |
| Breede | 577 | 43 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 29 | 197 | 637 |
| Berg | 301 | 423 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | (34) | 210 | 738 |
| **Total for Country** | **7 836** | **3 332** | **572** | **756** | **296** | **488** | **504** | **5 576** | **13 280** |
Activity 1.8 Water use in your management area
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Interpret information on water management in your area.
Time: 1.5 hours
What you must do
1. Look at the map in Figure 1.18 above.
2. Identify on the map where you live. You may want to look at another more general map of South Africa to help you situate where you are and what the names of the major rivers are that are close to you.
3. Find out the name of the water management area where you are and list the names of the major rivers.
4. Now look at Table 1.3. Look under your water management area and summarise the water requirements information by answering the following questions:
Questions
1. What does million m$^3$/ year mean?
2. Which water user, uses the most water in your water management area? Look at the headings across the top of the table to help you find this information.
3. Which water user uses the least water in your water management area?
4. Why are the water requirements for rural users much lower than for the urban users? Think of at least three possible reasons.
5. Is the “Available balance in 2000” for your water management area in brackets? What do you think this means?
6. Compare the “Available balance” in your water management area with the “Potential water requirements in 2025”. What do these figures mean to you?
7. Suggest at least three potential options of how to solve the problem of too little water.
Comments on Activity 1.8
The metric unit m$^3$ indicates cubic meters.
A cubic meter is a measurement of volume which is 1m x 1m x 1m in size.
The million m$^3$/ year in the heading of Table 1.3 therefore means that a million cubic meters of water is used every year.
Water use will depend on where you live. For example in the Mzimvubu – Keiskamma region: Irrigation uses the most; mining and power generation uses the least water.
We can summarise by saying that the main consumption of water is for:
- **agricultural use.** Agriculture is the largest user of water in South Africa where water is mainly used for irrigation. Irrigation in our country leads to a tremendous waste of water. Unwise irrigation, the choice of crops and inefficient management techniques are mainly responsible for this wastage. In the next unit we will examine how water should be managed.
- **industrial use.** In developed countries almost as much water is used for industrial purposes as it is for agriculture. However, in industry a large part of this water is used over and over again.
- **domestic use.** Unfortunately a tremendous amount of valuable purified water for domestic purposes is wasted every day. The people of South Africa will have to be made aware of the necessity to conserve water.
You are now aware of the importance of catchments and their management, but is it important to also consider the shape of the land when you plan a homestead garden? This is the topic for our next section.
### 1.2.7 What is topography?
Topography tells you about the shape of the land. It is important to take the shape of your land into consideration, as this will affect your farming/ gardening and how you use the land.
For example:
- If you cultivate steep **slopes**, you could cause soil erosion.
- Valley bottoms are often not suitable for farming as there may be a problem with frost or there may be a wetland. **Wetlands** are lowlands that are seasonally or permanently waterlogged (wet).
- If your crops are planted in a flood plain, they can wash away during heavy rainfall.
- If you are at a high altitude you may have cold winter temperatures.
#### What is a slope?
A slope tells us how steep or flat our land is. Steep slopes are vulnerable to erosion when used for cropping and grazing. Bare soil is easily washed away on slopes. Slope is measured or estimated, so that it is possible to work out how far apart to make **contours** or erosion control structures on the slope or hillside so that slopes may be cultivated without being eroded.
#### What are contours?
**Contours** are imaginary lines that are on the same level (at the same height or elevation), across a slope as indicated on the picture below.
To measure the angle of a slope, professional people use an instrument called a *theodolite*. However, as we do not have such an instrument available, we can practise measuring the angle of the slope by using a small instrument called a *protractor* which measures in degrees (°). The small sketches on the right give you an idea of the angles of three different slopes.
**Figure 1.20 A protractor**
**Activity 1.9 Measuring angles using a protractor**
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
1. Measure the following angles with a protractor.
A .......................................................... The ideal is to have no slope and the soil is level.
B .......................................................... Note the filling added to improve the slope forming part of the foundation.
C .......................................................... Note the filling to add if you want to level the soil for a garden.
2. Look at Table 1.4 below that provides recommendations for land use, depending on the slope. Go outside and look at the land. Guess the degrees (steepness) of three different slopes you notice in the environment.
Table 1.4 Recommendations for land use, depending on slope
| Slope \(^\circ\) | Description of slope | Recommendations for land use |
|------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Less than 12\(^\circ\) | Gentle slope | Can be ploughed and used for commercial cropping |
| 12\(^\circ\) - 20\(^\circ\) | Moderate slope | * Can be ploughed and used for commercial cropping.
* Include contour plantings and structures. In areas including Eshowe in KZN and Alexandra, Albany, Bathurst, Komga and East London in the Eastern Cape ploughing of slopes more than 12\(^\circ\) is not recommended, because the soil is likely to erode.
* Home gardens also need contour plantings, structures or terraces. It is better to plant crops that cover the ground such as sweet potatoes and cowpeas.
* It is best to plough and plant perennial (long living) plants such as trees, pasture, sugarcane, etc. |
| 20\(^\circ\) - 30\(^\circ\) | Moderately steep slope | Plough for perennials (plants that carry on growing for years and years and do not die after one season). |
| 30\(^\circ\) - 50\(^\circ\) | Steep slope | This slope is too steep for crops. You can plant fruit or timber trees. However you will need to dig holes by hand. |
| > 50\(^\circ\) | Very steep slope | Not recommended for planting, |
In Unit 3 you will measure the actual slope of your land, using a line level.
1.2.8 What are aspect, ridges and valleys?
**Aspect** tells you whether your land faces North (N), South (S), East (E) or West (W). In South Africa, north-facing slopes tend to get the most sun. They are sunny and can often be hot and dry. You may find aloes on these slopes. The South-facing slopes are cooler and wetter. This is where you would find indigenous forests.
Do you know how to find out where N, S, E and W are? If you are confused; just think where the sun comes up – that will be East. Where the sun goes down – is West.
**Something to do**
Go outside and stand with your left hand towards the West and your right hand towards East. You will be facing North and South will be behind you. If it is Midday (12 o’clock) your face should be facing the sun to estimate north.
You can also use the direction of N, E, S, and W and the sun to tell the time as the shadow of the pole moves from one point to the other corresponding with time on a watch.
**Figure 1.21 A sundial (sun clock)**
Plant a pole and measure the end of the shadow at every hour and mark with a stone. The position of the shadow will be different in summer and winter.
Ridges are at the tops of hills or slopes. Valleys are at the bottom of hills or slopes. There can be a large difference in temperature between ridges and valleys. Valleys can become very cold at night and hot during the daytime. Frost is often found in the valleys. Ridges can be cold and windy.
The best places for cultivating plants are generally on the mid- and lower slopes, but not on top of ridges or in valley bottoms, as you can see from the figure below.
**Figure 1.22 Ridges and valleys in a part of your catchment showing the mid-slope area that is best for farming.**
Activity 1.10 Considering aspects, ridges and valleys
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Analyse a figure on aspect, ridges and valleys for land use options.
Time: 1 hour
What you must do
1. Look at the figure below. It gives an indication of where to plant fruit trees taking the aspect, ridges and valleys into consideration.
Note the aspect and the movement of air as shown in the drawing. Then answer the following questions.
Questions
1. Where is the best place to plant trees and crops? Give two reasons for your answer.
2. Why have no fruit trees or other trees been planted on the cool, cold south-facing slope?
3. What is the difference between the fruit trees planted on the north-facing slope and the fruit trees planted in the valley bottom?
4. A comment on the drawing states: *Rows of trees can trap cold air and should be removed.* Discuss what this statement means.
5. Where is the cold air coming from and where is it going?
6. Where will the cold air be trapped?
7. If you would want to plant rows of trees to protect your fruit trees from cold air where would you plant them?
1.3 Soil as a natural resource
Soil together with temperature and the availability of water is one of the most important resources in the environment.
1.3.1 What is soil?
Soil is the growth medium that supports almost all plant and animal life on land. Soil can be defined as the uppermost weathered (broken down) layer of the Earth’s surface that contains gases, water, mineral salts, living organisms and their remains (organic matter). Soils begin with the weathering of rocks and their minerals. What do we find when we examine each component in soil?
Soil air and soil water
In a good soil, about two thirds of the spaces between the soil particles contain air after the excess (extra) water has drained.
The air in these spaces, provides oxygen for plant roots. Water occupies the remaining soil space. The relation between the amount of air and water is, however, not fixed.
After heavy rain all the spaces may be filled with water. If some of the excess water does not drain from the soil, plant roots may die from lack of oxygen.
On the other hand, if there is not enough soil moisture, plants wilt from lack of water. Soil moisture and air are also important in determining the numbers and kinds of organisms present in the soil.
Soil organisms
Healthy soil is living soil, with many different organisms living and working in it.
Protozoa, nematodes, earthworms, insects, bacteria and fungi are typically found in soil. What are the functions of these organisms in soil?
What are organisms and organic matter?
Any living thing is an organism. For example, bacteria, protozoa, fungi (mushrooms), plants and animals, including humans are all organisms. Bacteria are very small organisms and are therefore called microorganisms.
Dead organic matter in soil, is the remains of plants (leaves, fruits or grass), and animals (manure or dead organisms)
Organisms present in healthy soil
Protozoa
are very small organisms who act as parasites on other soil organisms. They therefore help to regulate the population size of the other soil organisms.
Nematodes
are often called roundworms. They may help with the breakdown (decay) of dead organic matter.
Insects
contribute to soil properties by forming burrows (passages) and recycling organic material. Some are also major crop pests.
Bacteria and fungi
are microorganisms and very important in the decay and recycling of organic materials. They can for example change nitrogen in the dead material into ammonia or nitrate that can be utilised by plants.
Figure 1.23 Organisms present in soil
Mineral salts in soil
Mineral salts can be visible (in the form of crystals, powder or granules) or invisible (dissolved in the water). They can also be combined with organic matter. Ashes spread on the ground are visible salts, as are fertiliser granules or crushed shells. When they are dry these salts remain on the surface of the ground. As soon as it rains some of these salts dissolve and are carried away between the soil particles. We use the word leaching to describe water moving through the soil which dissolves and removes the salts to layers lower down.
Figure 1.24 The movement of water and minerals in the soil
(Adapted from Du Preez et al. 1992)
1.3.2 What is soil texture?
Soil is made up of individual particles or clusters of particles, with small spaces (pores) between them that contain air and water. A good soil has pores of many different sizes, large and small. The texture of soil is determined by the size of the rock particles (pieces) in the soil. The following table shows you how soil is classified, based on the size of the particles.
Table 1.5 Soils classified on the basis of particle size
| Soil type | Particle size |
|-----------|------------------------|
| Gravel | Between 0.05 and 2.0 mm|
| Sand | Between 0.05 and 2.0 mm|
| Silt | Between 0.002 and 0.5 mm|
| Clay | Less than 0.02 mm |
**Gravel and sand**
Large particles like gravel and sand feel rough between the fingers. Water and air easily infiltrate this kind of soil because of the spaces between the particles. Water drains from this kind of soil very rapidly, often carrying valuable **soil nutrients** out of the soil where they cannot be reached by plant roots.
**Silt**
Silt is a fine sandy soil. Silt holds water and **plant nutrients** better than a coarser sandy soil. Silt is easily washed out of the soil into rivers and dams.
**Clay**
Clay consists of very tiny particles. They are so small that you cannot feel them with your fingers. That is why clay feels slippery and sticky. There are very small pores or spaces between the particles. The particles stick together in lumps or clods. Clay holds onto water and nutrients in the soil. Certain types of clay will swell when they are wet and shrink and crack when they are dry. They can be difficult to work with.
Which type of soil is the best? The best soils are called **loams**, which combines the good aeration and drainage properties of large particles with the ability of clay particles to retain **nutrients**. Loams contain more or less equal mixtures of sand, silt and clay.
**How can you tell your soil type?**
We need to touch, see and smell soils so that we can use our knowledge to discuss different soil types. We want to use peoples’ own ways of distinguishing between soils and their own management practices as the basis for our discussions. We can use the bottle and soil sausage tests below to guide a discussion on soil types, soil characteristics and good and bad soil management practices.
Something to think about
When you start a homestead garden, why is it important to determine what kind of soil you have available?
Group Activity 1.11 Identifying soil types
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Identifying different soil types by touch and observation
Time: 2 hours
What you need
For the sausage test: At least three types of soil (about a handful of each) and some water. These can be collected from the river (sand), low lying wet areas (clay) and good cropping fields (silt). Look for soils that have a different colour and texture so that you can compare them.
For the bottle test: Three clear plastic or glass bottles (for each small group), such as 1-litre coke bottles, with caps. Handfuls of three different types of soil from the area or of the three main soil types there are.
Use the space provided in the workbook to complete this activity.
What you must do
Tell by touch: You can tell how much sand, silt or clay is in your soil by how it feels.
1. Wet some soil and roll it into a ball between your hands.
2. Now roll this ball into a sausage.
3. Use the table below to identify your soil type.
Table 1.6 Identify soil type by touch
| What soil looks like | What soil feels like | When rolled into a sausage | The soil is |
|----------------------|----------------------|----------------------------|-------------|
| Very Sandy | Very rough | Cannot be rolled into a sausage | Very Sandy 0-5% clay |
| Quite Sandy | Rough | Can be rolled into a sausage but it cannot bend | Sandy 5 - 10% clay |
| Half Sandy & half smooth | Rough | Sausage can bend a little | Sandy Loam 10 - 15% clay |
| Mostly smooth | A little sandy, quite smooth but not sticky | Sausage can bend about half way around | Loam or Silt Loam 15 - 35% clay |
| Mostly smooth | A little sandy, quite smooth and sticky | Sausage can be bent more than half way round | Clay Loam or Sandy Clay 35 - 55% clay |
| Smooth | Smooth and sticky | Sausage can bend into a ring | Clay More than 55% |
(Adapted from Stimie, et al. 2010)
Tell by observation.
1. Fill a bottle one third full of soil.
2. Almost fill the bottle with water and shake vigorously for several minutes to separate the soil grains.
3. Leave the bottle with its contents to settle and observe what takes place.
4. Make a labelled drawing and write a description next to it in the space provided in your workbooks.
5. Use the examples below to guide your comments.
Examples
- The substances settle in layers, the heaviest at the bottom and the lightest at the top. Others remain suspended (float) in the water. Some substances are lighter than water and float on its surface. These are pieces of organic matter such as leaves, seeds, fruit or insect litter and fungus spores. Other heavy substances such as gravel, pebbles and sand quickly fall to the bottom.
- The finer substances then accumulate (stick together); first the silt, followed by the fine and very fine clay. These layers vary in consistency and colour. The layer of water above the settled material remains cloudy for a long time. It contains clay particles so fine that they stay suspended in the water.
- If some salt crystals were added to the soil before the bottle was shaken, we notice that they have now disappeared. They have dissolved in the water and can no longer be seen. Some soil components are visible and others are invisible, because they are dissolved in the water.
bottle in which a soil sample mixed with a large quantity of water is thoroughly shaken
Figure 1.25 Soil sample mixed with water to show layers
6. Once you have decided on your soil types, use Table 1.6 below which gives an indication of good soil management practices for each of your soil types.
1.3.3 What is soil structure?
Soil structure tells us how the soil particles are mixed or grouped together. It also tells us how well the smaller particles stick together in clusters. This influences how easily water and air (and plant roots) can move through the soil.
The structure of soil depends on the following:
- The type and proportion of the different materials that make up the soil
- The way in which the soil was worked by tillage implements, water and microorganisms.
Table 1.7 Characteristics of soil types
| SANDY SOILS | LOAM SOIL (Mixture of sand and clay) | CLAY SOIL |
|-------------|-------------------------------------|-----------|
| Good things about this type of soil | Bad things about this type of soil | Good things about this type of soil |
| • It is easy to dig and work with | • It gets dry quickly | • It holds water well |
| • It warms up quickly in spring after winter | • It does not keep much fertility | • It is best for root growth |
| • It is good for root crops | • It does not hold water well | • It contains organic matter |
| • Water and air can get into the soil easily | | |
| | | Good things about this type of soil |
| | | • It holds water well and for a long time |
| | | • It holds fertility well and for a long time |
| | | • Its hard to work; heavy |
| | | • It is slow to warm up in spring |
| | | • It is sticky when wet |
| | | • It is hard when dry |
Why is it important to know about soil structure? Soil structure plays a critical role in soil water management. The fact that organic materials and minerals are mixed together creates a balance:
- In a sandy soil where water will quickly run through, the addition of organic matter and humus promotes water retention (holding onto water). The soil will then not dry out so quickly,
- In a clay soil the addition of organic matter is good for drainage because it creates water channels in the soil.
Note: If you want to identify soil structure when you are in the field, you do so by means of observation and by touch. Below is information which you can use for this identification.
Structureless soils
Here the grains of sand or silt are not bound together. A dry, structureless soil will slip through your fingers like sorghum grains when they are poured into a container. These soils are infertile unless they are rich in humus. They are unable to hold water and are easily leached as the water flowing through carries away mineral salts in large quantities. These soils are susceptible (at risk) to water and wind erosion as there is no sticky matter to keep them in place.
Compact soils
These soils contain a lot of clay. They are sticky when wet. Neither people nor plants work compact soils easily. The plants must use a lot of energy to allow their roots to penetrate this type of soil. When these soils dry out, they harden so much that neither roots nor farm implements can penetrate them. They contract and cracks appear.
Granular or aggregate soils
These soils are composed of a mixture of well-proportioned (good balance of the different kinds) elements. They are divided into little clods of Earth. These clods are divided into crumbs in which clay, humus and minerals stick the coarse granules of sand and gravel together. Between the crumbs there are spaces (pores) openings (gaps) and free spaces where water and air can circulate.
The crumbs are formed by everything that works the soil, including farm implements, plant roots, micro-organisms, earthworms, moles, ants and termites. These soil organisms are constantly moving, decomposing and producing material in the soil.
Activity 1.12 Identifying soil texture, structure and depth
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Digging a soil pit to tell different soil textures, structures and depth.
Time: Five hours
What you will need
Tools to dig a hole, a tape measure or ruler to measure depth and paper to record your results on.
What you must do
Complete this exercise in your home garden or in the garden of a member of the community. Make drawings and, if at all possible, take a few photographs.
Note: Digging a soil pit is quite hard work. You may want to dig this pit in a spot in a garden where other activities will take place later. For example this pit can form the beginnings of a trench bed which you will use in Module 5, or it can become the planting hole for a fruit tree.
1. First look at the general environment. Are the plants growing there doing well? Are all the plants of the same kind, growing the same? If not, describe the differences.
2. What does the soil look like? Is it cloddy (lumpy), sandy or granular? What colour is it? Can you see any organic matter or humus in or on the soil?
3. What life forms can you find that are working the soil? Describe them and give an idea of what you think they are doing in the soil in terms of moving material, decomposition and production. Make drawings of your life forms (or take some pictures, if possible).
4. Dig a pit about 40 to 50 cm wide and 40 to 50 cm deep. Keep on digging until there is a change in soil colour and consistency (that is, when you move from the top-soil into the sub-soil).
Now carry out the following activities:
- Check and record how deep the topsoil is.
- Check for root growth and comment on the kinds of root you find and how they are growing.
- Are there any impermeable layers in between the topsoil and subsoil? Describe what they look and feel like.
5. Make a drawing of the soil profile, or take a photograph.
6. Use the *Telling by Touch Table* (see Activity 1.11 above) to assess the texture of your topsoil and subsoil. Record the percentage of clay in each.
7. Describe the structure of your top- and subsoil. Does your soil come out in clods (lumps) or is it crumbly?
8. Will the topsoil support plant growth? What effect will the subsoil have on plant growth? Give reasons for your answers. What could be done to overcome some of the restrictions?
9. What can be done to overcome some of the negative effects of soils on plant growth?
### 1.4 Biodiversity as a natural resource
What is biodiversity? The word “biodiversity” is made up of two words, *bio* and *diversity*.
*Bio* means **living**
*Diversity* means a **large number of different things**.
*Biodiversity* therefore means the large number of different organisms (living things) on Earth.
There are millions and millions of different kinds of organisms on Earth. Organisms that are similar are placed into groups, such as the bacteria group, the fungi group, the plant group and the animal group.
Did you know that humans are also included in the animal group? Each one of these groups has members called *species* that are different from other species in the group. Each species has a
relationship with other species. Each one of these species has a role to play. Here are some of the roles they play in nature:
- Some species of bacteria clean the water, while other species of bacteria change substances in the soil to other forms, which can be utilised by other organisms. However, some bacteria are less useful and cause crop diseases.
- Some species of fungi break down waste materials to form humus in the soil. Other species of fungi can be used as food by other organisms. Some fungi cause plant diseases.
- All plant species clean the air. How do they do this? They use up the carbon dioxide which humans and other animals breath out as a waste gas, and in the process put oxygen into the air. Plants also cover the soil and prevent erosion and floods.
- Some species of insects pollinate plants, including crop plants. Other insect species control pest populations. Some insects are pests, and can destroy crops.
- Animals like jackals and vultures are called scavengers and clean the environment of dead organisms.
The list of roles can go on and on. Nobody in the world knows how many roles are carried out by the species that live on Earth. However we do know, that if we destroy biodiversity, natural systems will not be able to work properly. Without biodiversity, we would have no air to breathe, no clean water to drink, no crops to eat and we would be buried under a huge pile of waste material!
People have depended on the Earth’s biodiversity as a natural resource since the very beginning. They have hunted animals and caught fish for food. They have harvested plants for food, medicine and building materials. Even today people in rural areas rely on thousands of different species of plants and animals, to secure their food and keep them healthy.
Modern society has become separated from biodiversity as a resource. People in cities eat food that is grown with modern farming techniques. Farmers and scientists have taken plants and animals from the wild and bred them to become agricultural crops. Most things that we use in our lives are made in factories. However, even factories require raw materials from plants and animals. Many modern medicines are synthetic (man-made) but they are often copies of medicines from plants that are found in the wild.
**Activity 1.13 Using biodiversity as a resource**
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
**Aim:** Interpret information in a case study on the use of biodiversity as a resource.
**Time:** 2 hours
Do you remember Lesedi, the son of the local business man, whom you met in Module 1? Lesedi’s uncle, Jan Baadjies, lives in Calvinia in the Northern Cape, where he practises as a traditional healer. During the last school holidays, Lesedi went to visit his uncle, and was surprised by how different this
community is compared to the one that he comes from.
**What you must do**
1. Read the following case study of the Hantam community in the Northern Cape, and follow the instructions.
Lesedi is walking in the foothills of the Hantam mountains with his uncle, Jan. He is very interested in the plants that are able to grow the very dry and quite harsh conditions of the Northern Cape. He is also very impressed with his uncle’s knowledge of the plants, and how they are used. His uncle encourages him to collect small samples of the plants, and Lesedi makes notes on all the different plants his uncle tells him about. He also takes photos with a new camera that his mother brought him from money she got by selling produce from her homestead garden. Jan explains to Lesedi that, as a traditional healer, he needs to harvest the plants very carefully and not to take too many at once. The veld offers a variety of foods and medicines, but we should use these resources responsibly, Jan tells his nephew. That evening, Lesedi records all the plants he collected that day in a table like Table 1.8 below:
**Table 1.8 Indigenous plants used by the Hantam community**
*Key: S=Scientific name; E=English name; A=Afrikaans name*
| Name of plant | What it looks like | What it is used for |
|------------------------|--------------------|--------------------------------------|
| *Rhus lancea* (S) | | Fruit is eaten by people in Calvinia |
| Karee (A) | | |
| *Hydnora africana* (S)| | Edible fungus |
| Jakkolskos (A) | | |
| Plant Name | Common Name | Medicinal Uses |
|----------------------------|-------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Sutherlandia frutescens (S)| Cancer bush (E) | Medicinal uses - boosts the immune system, used to build an immune system amongst people suffering from cancer and HIV/AIDS. |
| | Kankerbossie (A) | |
| Hyobanche sp (S) | Soetprop (A) | Plant’s nectar (syrup) is drunk by people |
| Galenia africana (S) | Geelbos (A) | Medicinal plant used for toothache, skin infections and inflamed eyes. |
| Aloe spp (S) | | Put in drinking water of chickens, to ensure their good health; placed on human wounds |
**Questions**
1. Which plants that Lesedi recorded are used as food?
2. Which plants that he recorded are used for medicine and other purposes?
3. Do any of the plants Lesedi collected grow in your area? What does this tell you about the climate (temperature and rainfall) in your area? Refer to the rainfall maps in Figure 1.9.
4. If you do recognise the plants that Lesedi collected, what are they used for, or what other plants that you know are used for similar purposes?
5. Why did Lesedi’s uncle tell him to harvest the plants carefully and not to take too many?
6. In these modern times, why should we consider using plants from the wild to plant in homestead gardens?
Commenting on Activity 1.13
The climate in the western regions of our country where the Hantam is located, is generally drier than the climate in the eastern regions of our country. Climate has an influence on the kinds of plants and animals found in an area. Therefore, if you live in an area with more rain, you may not recognise the plants collected by Lesedi. It is therefore very important to plant the plants and keep animals that are best suited to the climate of an area. We will explore this topic in depth in Unit 3.
1.5 Natural energy resources
Everything we do on earth depends on energy. We use a lot of energy without really thinking of where it comes from. We get food from the shop or garden, petrol from the petrol station, and electricity through power lines. But where does the energy in these things come from in the first place? Green plants store the energy received from sunlight as food, during a process called photosynthesis. (Refer to the last section of this unit). Animals which eat these plants use most of the energy for their body activities and store the rest. Animals which eat plants and other animals are therefore using stored energy that came originally from the sun.
Most of our electricity comes from power stations, which burn coal to produce steam. This steam is then used to turn turbo-generators, which produce the electricity. The petrol which we use in our cars, buses and lorries is produced by the distillation of crude oil. Some people also use natural gas for heating. Coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels, which formed from plant and animal remains millions of years ago.
What is distillation?
Distillation is a process, which involves evaporating a liquid; then condensing the vapour in a separate container
1.5.1 Non-renewable energy sources
There is a major problem in using fossil fuels as a source of energy. They are non-renewable. They take millions of years to form from energy that originally came from the sun. However, once they are burnt in our cars, buses and other vehicles or in power stations, or homes they are gone forever. This is why we say they are non-renewable. The process of obtaining energy from fossil fuel is also not very efficient. More energy reaches the Earth in ten days of sunlight than is locked up in all the fossil fuels on Earth! This makes the sun an important source of energy that we can use.
1.5.2 Renewable energy sources
Instead of using non-renewable energy sources it makes better sense to use renewable energy sources that can be replaced as they are used. What are some sources of renewable energy that we can use to our advantage?
There are a number of creative ways in which natural resources can be used for energy. Figure 1.26 below gives some examples of how this can be done.
**Figure 1.26 Creative ways of using natural resources for energy**
Conclude this section on water, soil, biodiversity and natural energy resources by doing the next activity.
**Activity 1.14 Making choices regarding natural resources**
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
1. Read the following case study on the children, Peace and Sarah, whom you met in the previous modules.
Sarah’s household tried to make a homestead garden, but found the water too expensive to use. They planted vegetables that were not suitable for their area, since they required a lot of water. All the members of Peace’s household use their water sparingly, and make use of their used household water for their garden. They have also saved money to buy a good second-hand water tank, to collect rainwater. They plant traditional beans and other vegetables that do not need a lot of water. Peace’s household also uses all kitchen leftovers as well as leaves from trees in the garden, to make a compost heap. This provides them with organic matter that they work into the soil of the homestead garden to improve its fertility and water holding capacity.
Sarah’s household throws all the kitchen waste away, and every day, sweeps the area that can be used as a homestead garden. This compacts the soil to such an extent, that the soil cannot be used for gardening because it is too hard.
Peace’s household made a fence from branches collected in the veld to protect the vegetable garden. Sarah’s household did not build a fence, so the chickens and rabbits started to eat the vegetables.
Sarah’s household uses non-renewable fossil fuels to cook their food. She has to collect firewood from the nearby forest every day and as dry branches are becoming scarce, she takes live branches from the trees. Peace’s grandmother saved enough money from selling her produce from the homestead garden to buy a solar cooker, which uses energy from the sun to cook their food.
Questions
1. Which of the two households show best practices regarding the use of natural resources?
| Practices | Peace’s household | Sarah’s household |
|----------------------------|-------------------|------------------|
| Best planting practices | | |
| Bad planting practices | | |
| Best soil practices | | |
| Bad soil practices | | |
| Best energy choices | | |
| Bad energy choices | | |
| Best water practices | | |
| Bad water practices | | |
| Best gardening practices | | |
| Bad gardening practices | | |
2. Suggest other ways in which households can manage soil, water and living resources, which will contribute to food security.
3. Discuss the best and bad practices of the two households in your groups and write a paragraph explaining how natural resources should be used wisely to enhance food security.
1.6 How nature works
When we look at the bigger picture, we see that the sun and the Earth provide us with all the natural resources, as well as important processes that we need for survival.
Figure 1.27 The sun and the Earth as providers
(Adapted from Bowen, et al. 2005)
Activity 1.15 Natural resources and processes provided by the sun and the Earth
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Look at the figure above and answer the following questions:
Questions
1. What natural resources does the Earth provide us with?
2. What important processes are we provided with by the sun and the Earth?
3. Reflect on why we should understand and respect nature.
1.6.1 The cycle of nature
Are the natural resources and processes provided by the sun and Earth just for our direct benefit as humans, or do they also play a vital role in nature? Before we can give attention to producing and eating healthy food, we need to understand the role of natural resources, such as water, soil, air, plants, animals, including insects and other living things such as fungi and bacteria, in nature. Even though we use all of them as resources for our own well being, they work in a system in nature where they interact with each other to form a cycle, which plays a very important role in keeping nature in balance.
See figure 1.28 on page 49.
Why is it important for us to understand and respect the interactions in nature? Let’s use a simple example. Many flowers need pollinators such as bees to produce seed. We need seeds to grow crops that provide us with food. What would happen if the bees died in large numbers because of pollution, in the environment? Understanding how natural systems and cycles work helps us to live and work in a natural environment without disturbing the balance in the system. Then it is possible for us to have continued access to the resources that we need to stay alive.
The Cycle of Nature
LIFE
As the cycle of nature is strengthened, life begins to sustain and renew itself. As life passes on to death, it not only continues the cycle, but enriches and nurtures it.
DEATH
All things in nature eventually die. This process of death is not the end of the cycle, it is only the beginning. Without death there would be no life. Humans are not exempt from this cycle, we are part of it.
PLANT USE
All living things use plants and trees for food, shelter, fuel, building supplies, medicines and more! Plants give nutrients back to the rest of the nature cycle.
PLANT GROWTH
The healthier that the cycle of nature is, the healthier the plants will become. This allows them grow up strong, fight off pests and disease, and produce offspring with these same traits.
DECOMPOSITION
When organic matter dies, insects, animals and microorganisms break it down into smaller parts. This decomposition releases nutrients into the soil.
NUTRIENTS
As decomposition releases nutrients they are changed into a form that can be used by plants. The plants absorb these nutrients through their root systems.
SUN, WATER, AIR
Some of the nutrients must combine with other things before they can be used. Plants use nature’s gifts of sun, water, and air to convert their nutrients into energy. This energy allows plants to grow.
Figure 1.28 The cycle of nature
Adapted from Nordin, 2005
Activity 1.16 Your place in the cycle of nature
Complete this activity on your own in your workbook
Aim: Understanding the place of humans in the cycle of nature.
Time: 30 minutes
What you must do
1. Draw yourself in the centre of an A4 sheet of paper. Draw or write on the paper:
- all the different foods you eat.
- where your food comes from.
2. How do these things (that have become your food) get their own food? Use arrows to show the links between the different elements.
3. What will happen if one of these links is broken or damaged?
Comments on Activity 1.16
Your drawing will have made you more aware of how humans, plants, animals and other organisms of the Earth depend on each other to stay alive. In a natural system all the elements such as soil, water, plants, animals, wind and rocks interact to create the system. The system gets inputs such as energy from the sun, gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen from the air, water from rain and minerals from broken-down rocks. A natural system does not need artificial (human-made) inputs from the outside, such as chemical fertilisers or pesticides. The system produces waste material but recycles and reuses most of its own outputs. Although the system releases water, carbon and energy, these will be taken up by other systems in nature.
A natural system is called an ecosystem. According to Starr & Taggart 1987, an ecosystem can be defined as follows:
“An ecosystem is a community of organisms functioning together and interacting with the physical environment (soil, air, water) through a flow of energy and a cycling of materials.”
1.6.2 Feeding relationships in ecosystems
What did you eat for breakfast this morning? The food you eat supplies you with material for growth, and energy for your daily activities. Let’s find out where your breakfast food might have come from. Let’s take eggs as an example. Eggs are made by chickens (hens), which eat grains. The grains come from plants such as mealies, sorghum or wheat.
What is an ecosystem?
All the living things such as plants, animals and bacteria in a certain area in nature and the non-living things such as soil, water and air interact, through a flow of energy and a cycling of materials, to form a system called an ecosystem.
The figure above gives a **food chain**, which shows you the feeding relationships among organisms. One organism provides the food for the second. The second organism provides the food for the third, and so on. The food chain can be written simply as:
Grain (from plants) → Egg (from hen) → Human
The arrows show the direction in which the food passes.
In an ecosystem organisms feed on one another transferring energy and nutrients. How does this work?
- Green plants are able to capture the energy from the sun that falls on their leaves and to change it into a form of energy that can build the plant body. Together with the energy from the sun they also need carbon dioxide gas from the air, water and nutrients from the soil. No other organism on Earth can do this and that is why green plants are called **producers**. The crops in our example above (sorghum, mealies and wheat) are therefore producers.
- Animals that feed directly on plants get some of the energy from these plants to build their own bodies. Plant eaters are called **primary consumers**. Chickens, as indicated in our example, are therefore primary consumers.
- Animals that eat primary consumers get energy from these animals to build their own bodies. These animals that feed on primary consumers are called **secondary consumers**. If you were to eat the chicken in our example, you would be an example of a secondary consumer.
- Animals that eat secondary consumers get energy from these animals to build their own bodies. These animals that feed on secondary consumers are called **tertiary consumers**. If a jackal were to eat the chicken who fed on small worms, the jackal would be a tertiary consumer.
- Living things produce waste and eventually die, but why is the Earth not piled high with waste material and dead organisms? Organisms called **decomposers** break down the dead material into smaller and smaller bits, releasing nutrients into the soil, which can again be used by the plant. If any of the organisms in our example of a food chain were to die, decomposers such as small insects, fungi and bacteria would break down their bodies.
**What are herbivores and carnivores?**
*Plant eaters are called herbivores.*
*Meat eaters are called carnivores.*
All these feeding levels (producer, primary, secondary and tertiary levels) are called **trophic levels**. Organisms from each trophic level, feeding on one another in a linear series, make up a food chain.
**Living in a food web**
Let us take a look at the household of Peace. Her household has a vegetable garden, as we have seen in Module 1. A family member also surprised them with a lovely gift; a goat, and a few chickens. Peace was given a project from school, in which she had to draw a food chain that she had observed in her community, and one that she had observed in the natural environment. She observed that the chickens did not only eat grain, but also worms and other small insects. Peace’s grandmother was very upset when two of the chickens got into the vegetable garden, and fed on some seedlings. Disaster struck when a jackal caught one of the chickens.
We can show these events as a number of food chains:
1. Grains → Chickens → Humans
(Producers) (Primary consumers) (Secondary consumers)
2. Insects & worms → Chickens → Jackal
(Primary consumers) (Secondary consumers) (Tertiary consumers)
3. Vegetables → Humans
(Producers) (Primary consumers)
Peace then realised that there are connections between these food chains. She made the following connections:
1. Grains → Chickens → Humans
2. Insects & worms → Chickens → Jackal
3. Vegetables → Humans
4. Vegetables → Snails → Humans
To get a more complete picture of the feeding relationships, Peace observed that the food chains can be combined. In the natural environment we do not find single food chains but interconnected food chains which form a **food web**.
Peace observed the feeding relationships between the organisms in a dam and her grandmother’s vegetable garden.
She identified the following organisms:
**Dam:** Fish, frogs, snails, tadpoles (baby frogs), water insects, water plants
**Garden:** Plants, earthworms, snails, termites, birds and chickens, humans, water
1. Draw a food web, of either the dam or the garden, using the organisms Peace observed.
2. Use arrows to show what eats what, just as we have done in the example above.
3. Also identify which organisms are producers, and which are primary, secondary and tertiary consumers.
Draw your food web in the space below.
Questions
1. Which organisms in the dam or garden will be decomposers and on which trophic levels will we find them?
2. What will happen when human actions remove all the producers from an ecosystem?
3. What will happen when human actions remove all the consumers from an ecosystem?
4. How do healthy feeding relationships in ecosystems benefit humans?
Comments on Activity 1.17
Below is an example of the relationships between organisms that are present in and around an Acacia tree (thorn tree). These relationships keep the ecosystem in balance. The interaction between organisms in a dam is similar to those that occur in the Acacia tree.
The *Acacia sieberana* (umKhamba or paperbark tree)
*Acacia sieberana* is an indigenous African tree that is found in bushveld and grassland. Let us take a look at some of the relationships that exist around this tree.
- Cattle herders and cattle rest under these shady trees.
- Humans use dry branches for firewood.
- Many animals feed upon the tree:
- The flowers attract beetles, bees, wasps and butterflies. These animals provide food for birds and lizards.
- Buck, cattle and even elephants love to eat the seed pods, which are rich in nitrogen.
- When a browsing animal moves away the seeds are carried away from the parent tree to where there is more space to grow.
- The seed is dropped on the ground in a pile of dung. The stomach acids of the animal that ate the pods have broken down the hard seed coat of the seed. Now it can germinate. And the seed has plenty of nutrients in the pile of dung to enable it to germinate. Dung beetles roll the dung into balls. They lay their eggs in the dung balls. The young beetles hatch and feed on the dung balls. Baboons and honey badgers dig up the dung balls to eat the larvae of the beetles. Guinea fowl also search the dung for seeds and insects.
- The dung is decomposed by decomposers and becomes part of the soil nutrients. Microorganisms also feed on the dead leaves that fall off the tree. The roots of the tree obtain nitrogen in a form it can use with the help of certain bacteria that live in association with the tree roots. This nitrogen is released into the soil when the tree dies.
- The tree provides nesting holes for birds such as barbets.
- The tree also provides oxygen (clean air) for people and other organisms.
There are probably many more relationships that we do not even know about.
Humans can upset the fine balance that exists between all the organisms in and around the tree, when they:
- remove live branches from the tree
- remove or kill any of the animals that feed directly on the tree or on other animals
- pollute the environment in which the tree lives by using poisonous chemicals to kill pests and weeds
- cut down the tree.
Concluding remarks
So far you have become aware that soil, water and air form the basic building blocks of our ecology. We need healthy soil, clean water and clean air to produce the next level of building blocks; healthy plants and animals. With water, soil, air, plants and animals, people can live a good life.
If the soil is damaged or washed away, if the water or air is polluted, then plants and animals become weak and diseased. Their numbers in the ecosystem will no longer be balanced. Since people depend on the natural environment, they too can become weak and diseased. If nothing is done to restore the balance it will just be a matter of time before the whole ecological pyramid collapses. The cholera epidemic which swept through Zimbabwe at the end of 2008, and which is still claiming the lives of hundreds of people, shows what can happen if people do not have access to safe water. Where water is contaminated, due to waste that is not treated and managed properly, bacteria such as the *Vibria cholerae* bacteria can grow and multiply. This bacterium causes cholera, by infecting people’s intestines and causing diarrhea, vomiting and leg cramps.
When we as people live, garden and farm in an environment, we change it to suit ourselves and make use of the resources available to us. When we are managing a resource, we are consciously looking at, thinking about and caring for that resource. We need to find the warning and danger signs of overuse or incorrect use. In Unit 3 we will explore the topic of using resources wisely in more detail. However, we first need to zoom in to the link between natural resources and food security which is the topic for Unit 2.
The table below shows you the learning outcomes that you will notice are linked to the four sections which are addressed in this unit. They are also linked to the list of assessment activities for this unit. A time estimate is shown for the completion of each activity. This will help you to plan the use of your time. When you have completed the activities, write down the actual time you spent on them.
| Learning outcomes | Assessment Activities | Actual time spent |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|
| | Workbook activities | |
| 2.1 Linking availability, access and use of resources to food security | 2.2 Find out about the resources of two villages (2h) | |
| 2.2 Finding out about resources; participatory methods | 2.4 Draw a resource map of an area (2.5h) | |
| 2.3 Constraints regarding resources | 2.6 Draw a transect walk diagram (2.5h) | |
| | 2.8 The rapid transmission (spread) of HIV/AIDS (1h) | |
| | 2.10 The inheritance rights of women (1h) | |
| | 2.11 Gender-related use and control of resources (1h) | |
| | Assignment | |
| | Assignment 1: Information for this assignment is contained in Tutorial Letter 101. | |
Key Concepts
Resources
Access to resources
Control of resources
Ownership of resources
Gender
Intra-household dynamics
Macro-level factors
Complementary intervention
Technological environment
Socio-cultural environment
Natural environment
Beliefs, attitudes and values
Indigenous knowledge
Constraints
TB
Malaria
Protozoa
Route of transmission
Inheritance laws
Resource mapping
Transect walks
Ranking
Scoring
Physiology
Psychology
Do you remember the household of Dikgang whom you met in Module 1? The father has Grade 10, and the mother has few privileges in the household. Dikgang’s father was arguing with other male members of the family. The argument was about whether women should have access to and own all resources in a household. What are your immediate thoughts on this issue?
As we have seen in Unit 1, when we think of this or any other issue, we need to think scientifically and look at the issue from different perspectives before coming to a conclusion. You now know how to use the adapted version of Edward De Bono’s *Six Hat Thinking Strategy*. We used this adapted strategy in Unit 1 when we looked at an issue through different coloured lenses.
**White lenses:** White is the colour of paper. This lens means that a person would look at the facts (just as books represent facts).
**Red lenses:** Red is the colour of blood and the heart, and the red lens in a similar way represents emotion. What are my feelings (emotions) on the issue?
**Yellow lenses:** Yellow is a sunny and bright colour, and the yellow lens represents a view where one looks at the positive side of something. Think about the points in favour of the issue.
**Purple lenses:** Think critically about the issue, without allowing your emotions to dominate. What are the weaknesses in a issue? What are the problems associated with the issue?
**Green lenses:** Green is the colour of new growth in plants, and the green lens represents a creative look at things. Think creatively and suggest new solutions for the issue.
**Blue lenses:** Blue is the colour of the sky. The blue lens represents a big-picture view. Evaluate all the arguments and think about the bigger picture.
You will now use this adapted strategy for the second time, but this time for looking at a different issue.
**What you must do**
1. Work in groups and discuss the issue below to get your immediate thoughts.
**Should women have access to and own all the resources of the household?**
2. Each group now looks at the issue from the perspective represented by the:
- white lenses/hats
- red lenses/hats
- green lenses/hats
- yellow lenses/hats
- purple lenses/hats
- blue lenses/hats
3. Discuss each one and write the group’s ideas on the flipchart.
4. Come to a final decision on where you stand on the issue and write this down in the space below.
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You will gain much better insight on this issue as you work through this unit and the other units in this module.
2.1 Linking availability, access and the use of resources to food security
In Module 1 you learned that food availability, food access, food utilisation and food stability form the basic dimensions of the food security framework that we developed there. Figure 2.1 below reminds you of this framework and shows it as a structure (like a table) with the first dimensions as the three pillars (legs of the table).
Refer to Module 1 for definitions of food availability, access and utilization.
All three pillars in the framework shown in Figure 2.1 are necessary and none can sustain food security by itself. All three pillars must also act in a complementary way (be linked) to ensure stability. This means that any interventions that aim to strengthen any one pillar must also enhance or complement the other pillars. If this does not happen, food security will be compromised.
Let us consider the following example: A household increases its food production and income. However, this happens at the expense of taking proper care of the children in the household. The children’s food utilisation and health may therefore become at risk. The result will be that the children’s food security is compromised. (Source: Local capacity-building in Title II Food security Projects: a framework). The same is true for natural and other resources. The availability of, access to and sustainable use of resources need to complement each other to ensure stability and therefore enhance food security.
Although our focus in this module is on natural resources, you need to be reminded that the natural environment is but one component of the environment which influences what food people eat and therefore their food security.
2.1.1 The environment and food security
Why do the Sothos, who originally settled in the western parts of the country, and the Nguni’s, who settled in the eastern parts of the country, eat different food and follow different customs? To answer this question you first of all need to remember that both external environmental and internal environmental factors contribute to what people eat and therefore influence food security.
Activity 2.1 Environmental components that influence food security
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Look at the mind map below that gives you an overview of the components of the external and internal environment and answer the questions, that follow.
- **External environment**
- Components
- Technological environment
- Socio-cultural environment
- Natural environment
- **Internal environment**
- Components
- Knowledge
- Beliefs
- Attitudes
- Values
Questions
1. What aspects regarding food, do you consider form part of the technological, the socio-cultural and the natural environment?
The technological environment:
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The socio-cultural environment:
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The natural environment:
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2. What is your understanding of knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and values regarding the food people eat? How do these influence food security?
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3. Does any one of the components of the environment function on its own, or do all components influence each other with regard to what people eat? Give a reason for your answer.
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4. What is your role as an HFS facilitator in ensuring that all the components of the environment are taken care of?
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Comments on Activity 2.1
The technological environment includes aspects such as food processing, storage, and distribution, which will influence food availability.
The socio-cultural environment includes aspects of:
- culture which influences what people eat, especially during special events
- economy which will determine what types of food households can buy
- the educational level of the household members and its influence on food habits and;
- the social organisations within and outside the community and how they affect access to and use of natural resources.
Food processing, storage, and distribution, will be examined in detail in Module 6.
The natural environment in an area will determine whether there is availability of natural resources such as land, water, soil and biodiversity, which, in turn, will influence food production.
Knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and values are important internal environmental factors, which influence what people eat.
- Knowledge, for our purposes, refers to a person’s range of information gained by experience. Every person has indigenous knowledge about food. People learn about food from other people. They learn about their natural and social environments and build a store of knowledge, which determines what they eat.
- Beliefs about food are closely associated with ideas about sickness, health, social and emotional feelings and a physiological state such as pregnancy or breastfeeding.
- Attitudes toward food, determine whether a person will like or dislike a certain food.
- A value is a permanent belief resulting in certain actions being preferred instead of others. The values of a person or group will usually be part of the value system of the society in which they live. Some foods might be valued because they provide prestige, security, and/or hospitality. These values often differ from culture to culture.
What is your role as an HFS facilitator in ensuring that all the components of the environment are addressed?
All of the components of the environment, which we discussed above, influence each other. Therefore, when we examine the influence of the natural environment on food security, we cannot neglect the socio-cultural or the technological environments. When we work with households we thus need to consider the following factors:
• Households are different, in both composition and in socio-economic status.
• They may belong to different cultures, within a single community.
• The knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and values of household members.
• Which resources are available to them.
• Who has access to the resources.
• Who manages/uses the resources.
• Who controls the resources.
• Who benefits from the resources.
2.1.2 Availability of, access to and use of resources
Certain areas of South Africa such as where the Sothos settled, have a dry climate with little rainwater or other water available. There are specific wild plants, animals and other organisms adapted to live there. Other areas in our country, such as where the Ngunis settled, have a wetter climate with more rain and a large variety of wild plants, animals and other organisms adapted to live there. The natural environment in which people live needs to be considered when we look at the natural resources that are available to them. What natural and other resources are available in your area? You will have an opportunity to find out later in this unit when you use participatory tools specially meant for the purpose.
Thandi’s neighbour has twin daughters. The twin daughters married men from two different villages. The one twin moved with her husband to Village A. The second twin moved with her husband to Village B. We will use the case study of the villages in which the two sisters live to help you explore the availability of, access to and use of resources in different areas.
Figure 2.3 Different ways of using resources
Activity 2.2 Finding out about resources of two villages
Complete this activity on your own in your workbook
Aim: Assess and analyse the availability, access and utilisation of the natural and other resources of the two households in the different villages.
Time: Two hours
What you must do
1. Read the case studies below of Village A and Village B.
Village A
Overview
There is no headman or chief ruling the people, but the nearby municipality is responsible for the village in terms of issues such as land allocation for residential, business and project purposes. The village is partly peri-urban in the sense that a small number of households have homestead gardens in their yards.
Natural environment
The climate of the area is warm in summer and cold in winter. There is a good infrastructure and access to basic resources such as electricity and safe water, which is free. Most of the projects running in the village are funded and are successful. Some households have homestead gardens, which form part of a project. This is a way of producing food and the vegetables are sold to other people in the village. Households who participate in the homestead garden project are food-secure because they produce and sell the food and other products and get money to buy other necessities for the household.
Household activities
The household activities are the activities, which household members perform on a daily basis from the time they wake up until they go to bed in the evening. Most villagers are involved in project work during the day, from Monday to Friday. There are nine projects, which consist of the bakery, carpentry, dairy, sewing, poultry, egg and vegetable, brick-making, glass fitting and pillow making projects. In the evenings the women do the household chores, watch TV and socialise with their families.
Household food supply/acquisition
Most households buy their food from the local shops. Only a few households produce their vegetables in the yard. The food mostly purchased is maize meal, rice, flour, sugar, tea, meat (chicken) eggs, milk, vegetables (potatoes, cabbage, onions, tomatoes), tinned foods (fish, baked beans and spices). No indigenous wild fruit, vegetables or indigenous animals are used as a source of food.
Nutritional and indigenous knowledge (IK)
The primary caregivers (women), have little or no nutritional knowledge, and, in addition, have little indigenous knowledge about edible and non-edible plants in the environment. They prefer store-bought foods and do not consult with the older people who still have knowledge of indigenous foods.
Village B
Overview
One chief governs this rural village. External environmental factors play a very important role in the availability, production and distribution of food at the household level. Lack of access to the most important resources such as fuel (firewood) and water is a problem, which affects their food habits negatively. Without access to water, food production remains impossible. Many people are unemployed and depend on other household members to provide money to buy food. Lack of funds (sponsorship) prevents the development of gardening projects, which, in turn, delays development in the village.
The natural environment
The climate of the area is very warm and dry in summer and cold in winter. The villagers can only depend on rain, which has been scarce in the previous year. The people therefore use water from wells, but they are exposed to infection, because the well water is contaminated.
There is limited electricity in the village and firewood is still used as the main source of energy for preparing food. The women collect firewood in the bush (two hours there and back), but, since dry wood is scarce, they are using live branches from the trees or sometimes even cutting down the trees themselves. This is illegal and if the local authority catches them, they are fined.
Communal land around the village is used as grazing land for the animals. Only the households that have formed part of the village for a long time own a piece of land. The chief allocates land, but for newcomers there is no more land.
Household activities
The women face a number of specific constraints that prevent them from increasing their income. In order to prepare food they have to buy paraffin, gas or electricity or they have to steal wood. With the high unemployment rate their only hope for survival is the local forest, which is becoming more and more depleted. Apart from collecting water and firewood, the women are engaged in farming activities (seasonal) such as planting, harvesting and processing. The harvested crops are owned and controlled by their husbands.
Household food supply/acquisition
Basic food such as maize meal, sugar, tea, flour, potatoes and cabbage, is bought from the local shops and the nearest town. The women depend on money from their husbands and their mothers-in-law who are pensioners. Crops such as maize, sugar cane, cowpeas, njugo beans and pumpkin are planted. The food source is supplemented by indigenous foods, some of which are shown in Table 2.1 below.
Nutritional and indigenous knowledge (IK)
Although the women do not have nutritional knowledge, they have IK about edible wild foods. This IK was learned through socialising rather than from formal education. They depend heavily on wild foods, as resources are scarce. Foods prepared such as ‘tshima’ (sorghum), cow pea and njugo, which is a bean dish, are typical examples of foods, which form part of a balanced diet.
Table 2.1 Indigenous foods eaten by members of Village B
| Foods | Sotho/Pedi name | Xhosa/Zulu name | English name |
|-------------|-------------------|-----------------|-----------------------|
| Vegetables | Lerotho Mokolonyane | | African cabbage |
| | | | Black jack |
| Fruit | Mahlatswa Marula | | Wild plums |
| | | | Marula |
| Wild animals| Mmutla Pela | | Hare |
| | | | Rock dassie |
| Birds | Kgaka Mokowe | | Guinea fowl |
| | | | Grey lourie |
(Adapted from Masekoameng and Molotja, 2003)
2. Draw a table in your workbook, to compare the availability of, access to and utilisation of resources by the households of the two villages under discussion.
3. In your groups, discuss your findings and then individually write a summary of your findings.
**Questions**
1. Which village can be regarded as the most food-secure? Justify your answer.
2. What benefits are there in collecting indigenous foods from the natural environment?
3. What negative impact can the collection of firewood and indigenous foods have on the natural environment?
4. How can the negative impacts that you gave in Question 3 be reduced?
5. Assume that a major economic disaster strikes, that all the shops close down, and the transport is discontinued. Which of the two villages will be the most food-secure? Justify your answer.
6. Suggest long-term strategies to address the challenges faced by Village B.
**Reflect**
7. Reflect on your assessment and analysis of resources in the above activity and write down your answers to the following questions:
- What worked well?
- What did you find the most difficult?
- What changes would you make to this activity in the future?
- What have you learned from your experience?
**2.2 Finding out about resources; participatory methods**
In this section you will find out about a number of participatory methods and tools that can be used to assess the natural and other resources in an area. These are methods and tools that have been designed for use with groups of people to help them analyse their situations and come up with potential actions for change and improvement.
Initially your study group will practice using the participatory methods and tools among yourselves. Once you are thoroughly familiar with them they can be applied at the household and community levels. You can even use them as an individual to help you to understand people’s situations.
We use the term **assess** to mean observing, describing and recording the present local situation. As an HFS facilitator you will use a variety of skills such as observing, listening, interviewing, discussing and reflecting, in order to get a clear picture of the current situation. To assess and analyse the issues and relationships within resources use (e.g. availability, access, utilisation), we will look at two participatory methods and tools that you could use with your households.
- Resource mapping and
- Transect walks
Why are these methods important to you? In Unit 4 you will have to work together with a few households to help them assess available resources in their area, analyse their use of resources and come up with workable solutions to improve their use of natural resources.
2.2.1 Resources mapping
We examined the general principles of mapping in Module 2. Now you have an opportunity to apply it to resources by drawing a resource map. Resources might be available in a community, but they may not be accessible to households for reasons such as cultural taboo or ownership.
What is a resource map? A resource map is simply a drawing of the area, which can be used for different purposes. Resource maps can be used to achieve the following:
- To obtain a clear picture of the **physical features** of the area (hills, rivers, wetlands, roads and erosion.)
- To indicate the **natural resources** that are present (forests, grasslands, grazing areas, fields, land-use, types of crops planted, areas under cultivation and irrigation).
- To indicate problems in land-use and resource availability, or access of different groups to different resources.
- To compare the same area at different times. This is called a **historical resource map**.
- To show where actions can be taken to improve the situation. In this case the resource map can be used as a **planning tool**.
The following example shows a resource map of Nthunzi in KwaZulu-Natal.
**Figure 2.4 Resources map drawn in Nthunzi**
(Adapted from Cousins & Kruger, 1993)
Activity 2.3 Read a resources map
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Examine the Nthunzi map to find answers to the following questions.
Questions
1. From how many rivers can the community draw water?
2. Which natural resources are present in the community?
3. What physical features are shown on the map?
4. What do you think was the purpose of drawing this resources map?
Comments on Activity 2.3
Making a resources map can help people in an area gain a clear picture of the physical features and resources that they consider important. Maps drawn by local people can show their perspective and reveal much about local knowledge of resources and their use of the land, settlement patterns and who controls and makes decisions about the use of resources. The primary concern is not to draw an accurate map but to get useful information about local perceptions of the natural resources.
Drawing the map is only the beginning of the process of finding out about availability and present use of resources. The map is a tool that can be used to stimulate discussion. It is when members of a household or community discuss the issue that real learning takes place that can lead to improved use of resources.
By completing the next activity, you will be practising making a resource map of an area which you know well. This is a group activity.
Activity 2.4 Draw a resources map of your area
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim:
Practising in a group of three to five people how to make a resources map that focuses on specific features and issues.
Time: 2.5 hours
What you must do
Here are suggestions to guide you.
A. Plan
1. Decide on a suitable place where you can make your resources map. It can be one of the group member’s home villages or an area that all the group members know.
2. Discuss in your group why you want to draw this map. What is its purpose? Choose two or three features and issues that you will show on your resources map. If you try showing too many features and issues, it will become confusing. Look at this list for ideas:
- Physical features: hills, valleys, large rocks, erosion
- Types of natural vegetation such as grassland, bushes, trees
- Cultivated areas and agricultural lands showing cropping and crop types
- Land-use such as gardens, fields, grazing areas, forests
- Rivers and water points
- You can also include the village infrastructure such as the boundary, roads, houses, schools, markets, clinics, churches, special places such as sacred sites.
3. Draw up a list of questions to which you want to find answers. Here is a list to give you an idea:
- What resources are plentiful?
- What resources are scarce?
- Where do people go to collect water and who collects it?
- Where do people go to collect firewood and who collects it?
- Do people have vegetable gardens and who looks after their gardens?
- Do people have livestock and who looks after them?
- What kind of livestock is there?
- Where do the livestock go to graze?
- Which resource do people have most problems with?
- What are these problems?
- Why are there these problems?
- What is the community doing to solve these problems?
- What are households doing to solve these problems?
B. Do
4. Take a walk through the area and make notes of the features and resource issues that you want to investigate. Also note the resources important to your household?
5. As a group, you can make a drawing of the map on the ground first. Mapping on the ground has a number of benefits:
- It is easily visible to the group.
- It encourages a lot of discussion.
- It allows for a lot of detail.
- It can be changed or corrected easily.
- You can add to it as the space on the ground is not limited.
Of course the big disadvantage is that you cannot take your map away. If you want to keep a copy you have to copy it onto paper. If you have access to a camera, you can of course take a photograph of the map on the ground. The diagram below shows a group creating a resources map on the ground and it gives an idea of what it looks like on paper.
**Figure 2.5** A group creating a resources map on the ground
6. Draw your map on paper. You can use colours to show different features.
7. The map is a tool, which should lead to a discussion about resources. When the map is completed, discuss in your group what you have observed about the present availability and use of resources in the area. Use the set of questions you formulated to guide the discussion.
C. Reflect
8. Reflect on your resources mapping activity and write answers to the following questions:
- What worked well?
- What did you find the most difficult?
- What changes would you make to a resources mapping activity in future?
- What have you learned from your experience?
- What can your households do to use resources better?
Comments on Activity 2.4
The resources map is a good tool to begin a process with because it is an easy exercise that initiates dialogue among the community members and the facilitation team members. A large open space should be found and the ground cleared. It is easiest to start by placing a rock or leaf to represent a central and important landmark. Participants are then asked to draw other things on the map that are important in the village.
Participants should not be interrupted unless they stop drawing, in which case questions can be asked such as whether there is anything else of importance that should be added.
Finally, the facilitator may want to ask participants to indicate some things that they would like to see in their village that are not currently on the map – in other words to draw a picture of what they would like the future to look like. This allows for some initial planning ideas and encourages people to begin contributing their thoughts at an early stage in the participatory process.
2.2.2 Transect walks
A very useful participatory method for collecting information about an area is to take a transect walk. As you are aware from the information that was provided in Module 2, a transect walk consists of walking through an area and paying attention to specific environmental features, resources and human activities, as well as issues such as water scarcity, soil erosion or any other problem.
Transect walks are sometimes referred to as observational walks, because they give the people who participate in them an opportunity to observe, discuss and identify issues of concern to the community. The word transect, means a straight line that cuts across a piece of land or area.
Transect walks may be taken in a straight line using the compass points, e.g. north, south, east or west; whichever is the most suitable. Walks can also meander and follow a particular feature in the landscape such as dongas, trees, and water points.
Here is an example drawing or diagram of a transect walk in an area called Tsupaneng in KwaZulu-Natal.
The transect walk for household food security should include the homestead area(s) of the households and features that influence their homestead area and natural resources use. See Module 2.
Figure 2.6 An example diagram of a transect walk in Tsupaneng KwaZulu-Natal
(Adapted from Cousins and Kruger, 1993)
Activity 2.5 Read a transect diagram
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Examine the Tsupaneng transect diagram to find answers to the following questions.
Questions
1. What kind of soil did the group find in the valley floor, the donga floor and the homestead garden?
2. What kind of trees and plants can be found in the woodland?
3. What crops are grown in the homestead garden?
4. What are the problems occurring on the upper and lower slopes?
5. What suggestions did the group have for the valley floor that is currently a donga?
6. What features and issues did the group focus on in their transect walk?
7. Did you have any problems answering the above questions? Elaborate.
Purpose of transect walks
Before a transect walk is undertaken you have to be clear about the information you want to gather. The group in Tsupaneng, for example, decided to focus on observing and recording soils and soil erosion, which was a big problem in their area. They therefore recorded the natural vegetation and cultivated plants that are growing there. In any transect walk people discuss problems, opportunities and possible solutions and then they record these in their diagram.
Transect walks can be useful for the following reasons:
- They can identify issues related to land, such as land use, crops cultivated, local cultivation patterns, local technology used for irrigation, water/plant/soil conservation, erosion, soil types, local vegetation, use of wild plants, resources in disrepair, and dip tanks.
- They can identify issues related to other resources/facilities, such as the condition of the roads, problems and opportunities relating to water points, plotting water gravity systems.
- In a village or homestead area, they can encourage the discussion of land drainage, sanitation, use of the back yard space, the location of taps, household chores, the state of the dwellings (houses), and interactions between them.
You can use transect walks at any point during an intervention or project cycle:
- as an assessment to establish what the present situation is.
- as a planning device to identify what needs to be done to improve things.
- as a means of monitoring and evaluating resources management, and
- as a development tool to check how successful a project has been.
Activity 2.6 Draw a transect walk diagram
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Practise in a group of three to five people how to do a transect walk and finalise a transect diagram that focuses on specific features and issues.
Time: 2.5 hours
What you must do
Here are suggestions to guide you.
A. Plan
1. Decide on a suitable place where you can do your transect walk. It can be one of the group member’s home villages or an area that all the group members know.
2. Discuss the purpose of the transect walk in your group and decide upon what information you want to gather. Choose two or three features and issues that you want to explore. Look at this list given below for ideas:
- Land use: crops cultivated, local cultivation patterns, local technology used for irrigation,
water/plant/soil conservation, erosion, soil types, local vegetation, use of wild plants, resources in disrepair or are no longer in use such as dip tanks.
- Resources or facilities: state of roads, problems and opportunities with water points or plotting a gravity water system.
- Village or homestead areas: drainage and sanitation, use of back yard space, location of taps, household chores, state of dwellings and interactions between different groupings.
3. Write a list of questions to which you want to find answers.
B. Do
4. Take a walk across the area in a straight line and make notes on relevant features that you observe. The idea is to stop at regular intervals, say every 500 meters, or every 10 minutes, or whenever a particularly interesting feature is observed. Use the opportunity to get clarity about the issues and discuss the problems and opportunities.
5. After the walk, share the notes you have made with the rest of the group and refine your ideas on the problems for household food security and possible solutions.
6. Involve everyone in the group to help make a transect walk diagram. During this time you will continue to discuss the issues and sharpen your ideas. Check the final diagram. Does it reflect adequately what you have observed?
C. Reflect
7. Reflect on the transect walk and the making of the diagram.
- What worked well?
- What did you find the most difficult?
- What changes would you make to a transect walk activity in future?
- What have you learned from your experience?
2.2.3 Ranking and scoring
We examined the participatory methods and tools of ranking and scoring in Module 2. However, you need to keep these methods in mind and refer to them when you work with your households. It is important to know which resources are used most and which are scarce.
2.3 Constraints regarding resources
The resources map and transect walk which you carried out in the community have made you aware that there are many constraints regarding access to, control over and the use and management of resources. These constraints affect the livelihoods of individuals, households and communities. Some constraints are difficult to address by households or by the HFS facilitator. Other constraints can be overcome more easily as you will find out when you work through the next section.
Examples of factors that cause constraints include macro-level policies, HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases, as well as gender-linked constraints. Let us examine each of these in more detail.
2.3.1 Macro-level constraints
Policies, laws, regulations, decisions on pandemics (major epidemics such as HIV/AIDS and cholera) and the management of resources such as land, water and the natural environment are made on a macro-level and can cause constraints to food security. The individual, the household and even the HFS facilitator, have little control over these decisions. Refer to Module 1.
So what role can you, as a facilitator, play? Your role is that of a front-line worker who can observe first-hand the effects of macro-economic and other policies on households’ management of resources. Whenever possible you need to share your knowledge with higher management advising them on the safety nets required and on groups that are at particular risk of food insecurity.
2.3.2 Diseases and resources
Many of us know of households where the bread winners suffer from serious diseases that impact on the ability of these people to work and their ability to use natural resources effectively and efficiently. These problems affect the food security of such households. HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis (TB) are three of the major public health challenges facing the world today that impact on food security. While TB is common among adults, it is more serious in children and the youth. Children and unborn babies are very vulnerable to malaria. Early recognition and treatment increase the possibility of recovery without permanent damage. HIV/AIDS, presents its own challenges.
Activity 2.7 Interpret information on major diseases
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Look at Table 2.2 which shows statistics on three major global diseases that influence the sustainable use of resources and then answer the questions that follow.
Table 2.2 Major diseases of the world
| | Tuberculosis (TB) | Malaria | HIV/AIDS |
|--------------------------|------------------------------------|--------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| What causes the disease | The TB bacterium | The malaria protozoan parasite | The HI-virus |
| Main route of transmission| Air, (cough, sneeze and spit) by people with TB bacterium in their body | Bites of a mosquito with the malaria parasite in its body | Unprotected sexual intercourse (80%) |
| Vaccine | Yes | No | No |
| Cure | Yes | Yes | No |
| Globally infected | 2 billion | 300 million | 42 million |
(Adapted from FAO/WHO. 2002)
Questions
1. Which disease has infected the largest number of people?
2. What does route of transmission mean?
3. Is malaria caused by a mosquito? Give a reason for your answer.
4. Reflect on the impact of HIV/AIDS and other major diseases on the macro and meso levels.
5. In your groups discuss cultural practices with regard to HIV/AIDS. Write down one of these practices that you do NOT agree with, and one that you DO agree with, in the space provided below.
6. Discuss the link between major diseases and food security and write your response in the space below.
Commenting on Activity 2.7
Route of transmission means how the disease is spread from one person to the next or from one organism to the next. Chronic diseases have a great impact on all levels of society. On a macro level they cause a reduction in the labour force and a slowing of economic growth. Rural livelihoods often depend on managing resources such as livestock, smallholder agriculture, fishing and/or forestry and HIV/AIDS and other diseases affect production among the labour force and the staff of institutions and support services especially in the rural areas.
At the household level, HIV/AIDS and other diseases have a great impact on households and how they manage their resources and can cause:
- the loss of on- and off farm labour, leading to loss of productivity
- a decline in household income, and loss of assets, savings and remittances
- an increase in household expenditure (medical treatment, transport)
- the loss of indigenous farming knowledge and specialised skills, practices and customs.
- an increase in the number of dependents who rely on a smaller number of productive family members and a few scarce resources.
**So what do you as a facilitator have to do with HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases?**
Your role is first and foremost to listen to the affected men, women and youth, to assess their needs, such as the need for a balanced diet, safe water and appropriate care. Then decide who you can contact for help. You also need to create awareness and provide information on preventing and managing the diseases. The medical aspects should be left to people with expert knowledge in the field.
All of us are aware of the serious threat of HIV/AIDS. The following activity demonstrates just how rapidly HIV/AIDS spreads.
**Activity 2.8 The rapid transmission (spread) of HIV/AIDS**
**Aim:** Gain an understanding of the rapid transmission of HIV by doing an experiment
**Time:** 1 hour
**What you need**
A base solution such as NaOH, Ca(OH)$_2$ or KOH; phenolphthalein; test tubes or small glass bottles, water and a little milk.
**Cultural practices and HIV/AIDS**
‘Dry sex’ in which the vagina is not lubricated, is desirable in some cultures. However, dryness increases the risk of bleeding during intercourse, leading to increased risk of HIV transmission.
**AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, caused by the Human Immuno-deficiency virus (HIV), which attacks the immune system. People die of AIDS and therefore we refer to their offspring as AIDS orphans.**
What you must do
Part A
Read the following information and answer the questions that follow.
The AIDS crisis in Africa
It is estimated that 84% of the world’s deaths from HIV/AIDS have been in Africa. Some 90% of HIV-positive babies born are born in Africa. In 1999, the number of new cases of HIV infection in Africa was 300% higher than in the next worst area (Southeast Asia). More than 14 million Africans have already died of HIV/AIDS.
An ever-growing number of children are becoming AIDS orphans. These are children whose parents have died of HIV/AIDS and who have no one to care for them. One of their more serious problems therefore, is food insecurity. According to a former UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan: ‘By overwhelming the continent’s health and social services, and by creating millions of orphans, AIDS is causing social and economic crises which, in turn, threaten political stability.’
Questions
1. In groups discuss what can be done to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS in South Africa.
2. What can be done to help AIDS orphans?
3. Why do we talk of AIDS orphans and not of HIV orphans?
Part B
During the contact session you will be given a small bottle or test tube filled with a solution. As you know, HIV is transmitted through the exchange of body fluids. The liquid in the test tubes or glass bottles represents body fluid.
1. Choose four people in your class with whom you are going to share your ‘body fluid’. Go to the first person and pour your liquid into his or her test tube or bottle.
2. Shake this liquid in the test tube or bottle of the other person (to mix it), and pour half of it back into your test tube or bottle.
3. Do another three such ‘exchanges’.
4. Your tutor will now put a few drops of phenolphthalein in your test tube or beaker. Phenolphthalein is an indicator that colours a base solution pink. All people with pink test tubes or bottles will be considered ‘HIV-positive’.
Questions
1. How many learners were ‘HIV positive’ at the start of this activity?
2. How many learners were ‘HIV positive’ after exchanging ‘body fluids’?
3. Write the increase in the number of people ‘infected’ with HIV as a percentage.
4. What did you learn from this activity?
Comments on Activity 2.8
An interesting way to discuss the sensitive topic of HIV/AIDS in your groups is to use De Bono’s *Six Thinking Hats Strategy*. The table below gives you examples of what you can do.
**Table 2.3 De Bono’s hat strategy to look at the issue of HIV/AIDS**
| White lenses/hat (facts, questions) | Red lenses/hat (feelings, intuitions) |
|------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|
| • Brainstorm high-risk activities (multiple sexual partners, drug users sharing needles, etc.)
• Research statistics: How many people in South Africa/my province/our city/community are HIV-positive?
• What is being done to help people who suffer from HIV/AIDS? | • Feelings of anger because many people (maybe close relatives or friends) suffer from HIV/AIDS, sometimes because of unfortunate circumstances such as rape.
• Feelings of frustration because government is not seen to be doing enough to help people who are HIV-positive.
• Feelings of guilt: I may be part of the problem and not the solution. I might be HIV-positive, but I am still sexually active. |
| Yellow lenses/hat (positive, why it will work) | Purple lenses/hat (caution, weak points) |
|------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| • Greater focus on educational programmes to advise people about HIV/AIDS.
• Assisting people with HIV/AIDS (and their families) to cope with their status. | • The pandemic poses a serious threat to society and therefore to food security. We are losing many skilled people, and many children become orphans because both parents have died. Children become food-insecure. |
| Green hat/lenses (creative, alternatives) | Blue hat/lenses (overview, holistic) |
|------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| • People should be educated to avoid high-risk activities.
• Anti-retroviral medicines could be made available to all HIV/AIDS patients. | • Everyone has the responsibility to practise safe sex.
• We should support people with HIV/AIDS. It is our problem. |
### 2.3.3 Resources and gender-linked constraints
Have you ever had to fill out a form where they ask what sex you are? The word *sex* in that regard is incorrect and they should ask what your *gender* is. *Gender* therefore refers to whether a person is male (man) or female (woman). *Gender roles* refer to the socially constructed roles of men and women. For example, in certain parts of the world women collect only non-wood products such as herbs, mushrooms and medicinal plants, while the men collect firewood. In other parts of the world men and women
*Gender relations* are women’s roles in relation to those of men (and vice versa), rather than women’s or men’s roles separately considered.
both harvest all these products.
When we zoom in on the role of women in rural households we see that they play a triple role: reproductive, social and productive.
- **The reproductive role**, performed almost exclusively by women, includes child bearing and rearing, household maintenance such as cooking, fetching water and wood for fuel.
- **The social role** or community building is mostly dominated by women and includes arranging funerals, weddings and social events.
- **The productive role**, performed by both women and men, focuses on economic activities.
Why is it important to look in particular at the role of women? If we take into consideration the major roles women perform in households and communities and we want to enhance food and nutrition security in households, then the active engagement of women is absolutely necessary. To make this happen we need to understand who uses and controls the different resources.
Access to resources and services varies greatly among different household members and socio-economic groups. Women, youth and the landless are often at a disadvantage in terms of access to both resources and services. Constraints can therefore be gender-linked and decreased productivity is often the result of gender-linked differences in access to resources.
**Activity 2.9 Gender-related use and control of resources**
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
At a household resource management workshop held in Namibia in November 1998, participants from various countries in Southern Africa came up with the information shown in the table below. It shows general consensus regarding the roles of men and women in terms of ownership, control, use, management and access to resources in rural areas.
**Key**
M= men
W= women
Table 2.4 Gender-related access to and control over resources
| Resources | Owned by | Controlled by | Used by | Monitored by | Accessed by |
|-----------------|----------|---------------|---------|--------------|------------|
| Land | M | M | W/M | M | M/W |
| House | M | M/W | M/W | W | M/W |
| Water | | W | M/W | W | W/M |
| Wood for fuel | W | W | M/W | W | W |
| Livestock | M | M | M/W | M | M/W |
| Finances | M | M | M/W | M | M/W |
| Labour | M/W | M | M/W | W/W | M/W |
Discuss the information in the table in your groups and individually answer the following questions:
Questions
1. According to the table above, are more resources owned by men or women?
................................................................................................................................
2. Who controls most of the resources?
................................................................................................................................
3. At the household level, who do you think should have more say over resources? Give a reason for your answer.
................................................................................................................................
4. Should the government play a role in deciding on gender-related access to resources? Give a reason for your answer.
................................................................................................................................
5. If the information in the table above were for an urban (city) or peri-urban (outskirts of the city) area, how would the management of the resources differ for men and women?
................................................................................................................................
83
6. Discuss and give one example of gender-linked issues concerned with HIV/AIDS
"We as women and girls are often unable to negotiate safer sex with our partners. We often take on the role as care-takers of AIDS patients and orphans, which reduces our time to perform other tasks."
Comments on Activity 2.9
Your group may have different ideas as to who should manage resources on a household level. However, we cannot address the issue only from our own point of view. We need to look at it from a more scientific perspective. For example when we look at the access to, and management of water and land and inheritance rights, we find the following:
**Water:** In many parts of the world, women and girls assume much of the responsibility for carrying water for household use. The lack of water often limits production, and the dry season increases the time women spend on collecting water, especially when it has to be carried long distances. There can be conflicting demands for water within villages and households. For example, there may be a situation where water is needed for both household gardens and the irrigation of larger fields.
Many villages have water users' committees, which are responsible for managing water. The committees should have representatives from different levels and gender in the community, and try to agree on compromises over water needs. The importance of women's water needs compared with those of other activities requiring the same water supply, should be taken into consideration when decisions are made. There should be structures in place to ensure that water resources are not mainly for the benefit of only certain groups of people.
**Land:** Access to land is a highly sensitive issue, politically, religiously, legally and culturally. The poor in a community typically do not own land but can use it. In many countries, women have less access to and control over land than men. In some cases, legislation says women have a basic right to land, but customary laws and practices continue to prevent woman from exercising that right. In other cases, legislation has undermined women's access to land (FAO, 1998). Women's access is often limited to household and personal crop use through a male family member, and their landholdings are typically smaller than that of men.
**Weak inheritance rights:** People with weak inheritance rights are particularly disadvantaged if they lose a spouse (for example through death or divorce). Many households affected by HIV/AIDS have had their homes, land and other assets taken from them following the death of the household head. This worsens the situation of poor households, as you can see in the following case study.
Activity 2.10 The inheritance rights of women
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Identify constraints to and opportunities for better management of household resources.
Time: 1 hour
What you must do
1. Divide into small groups of three to four people.
2. Read the case study below and discuss the questions that follow in your group.
3. Each person then answers the questions in the workbook.
The Kantono case study
Kantono was a prosperous farmer in Naboa village, Pallisa, Uganda. He owned large tracts of land on which he grew a variety of crops and kept hundreds of cattle, sheep and goats. He had a large family to support, most of whom were relatives that could not maintain themselves. The family however, provided the labour that his farm required.
In 1998, Kantono’s health started deteriorating seriously. He was sickly, very weak and could no longer supervise work on his farm. His relatives blamed it all on his wife Balike, whom they accused of bewitching him to steal their clan’s wealth. Despite all the pressure imposed on her by her husband’s relatives, Balike remained committed to her 30-year old marriage, which had yielded thirteen children and seven grandchildren.
After some persuasion, Kantono agreed to visit Pallisa Hospital where he was diagnosed with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, locally known as O’silimu. He calmly accepted his fate but his relatives still blamed Balike for being a Malaya (prostitute) who had brought the disease into the home. Kantono’s health worsened and everything in the once well-to-do home, fell to ruin. The crop harvest declined and disaster loomed around the home.
Kantono died at the beginning of 2000 and no sooner had his body been lowered into the ground than his relatives, who had come from various parts of Pallisa, started wrangling over the property he had left behind. Balinke watched the scenes as they unfolded until after Kantono had been buried.
The Kantono case study, including questions for discussion, is reproduced with the permission of Household Agriculture Support Programme (HASP), Uganda (HASP, 2002).
Questions
1. What is the Kantono case study all about?
2. What factors may explain the decline in farm productivity in this case-study?
3. Why do you think Balike was treated in this manner by Kantono’s relatives?
4. What can be predicted for the future of the following people and property after Kantono’s death:
a) Balike?
b) Kantono’s thirteen children?
c) Kantono’s farm?
5. What lessons can we learn from this case-study?
Comments on Activity 2.10
You know that a real-life situation as presented in a case study, is a useful way to develop skills, discuss issues or find solutions to specific problems. For example, case study exercises can help to identify constraints to and opportunities for better management of household resources.
The Kantono case study gives people the opportunity to discuss and understand the socio-cultural and economic effects of HIV/AIDS on some of the most vulnerable members of rural households (women and children in particular). People are usually very touched by the Kantono story; many male participants have reacted by saying that they were going to call a family meeting to tell all their relatives what they wanted their wives to inherit in the event of their deaths – in other words, the men wanted to make sure that their wives inherited their land and houses. The following table gives you an overview of common constraints faced by women.
Table 2.5 Common constraints faced by women in relation to financial services and income generation activities
| CONSTRAINTS | At the individual and household level | At the intermediary level | At the national level |
|-------------|--------------------------------------|---------------------------|-----------------------|
| Economic | • Tend to work in the invisible sectors: casual work, piecework, seasonal work, home-based work | • May lack access to banks/financial services in their own right | • Lack of access to markets if mobility is constrained
• Perception of men as controllers of money/loans |
| Political | • Lack confidence to claim political and legal rights
• Lack leadership and lobbying skills
• Tend to have a weak bargaining position and to be isolated and less organised | • Women and men do not equally share power and authority in institutions
• The overall banking environment is hostile towards women | • May have no legal rights to household assets, hence cannot use these as collateral
• Lack political positions to establish/influence appropriate laws
• Lack legal rights to land, both traditional and formal |
| Institutional | • Apart from access to credit, lack facilities for training, and counselling on what to do with credit
• Often lack accounting and managerial skills, and have limited time for business development training
• Many technically competent implementing agencies have little or no experience of operating sustainable savings and credit programmes (are more used to dispersing grants) and lack business development skills
• National institutional procedures may entail bureaucratic delays for loan approval |
|---|---|
| Environmental | • Natural resources depletion and water scarcities mean women have to travel further to get water or fuel, hence they have less time for income-generating activities
• Governments are beginning to realize that it is impossible to separate development from environmental issues. Because of this interdependence, natural resource management is forming part of the economic decision-making |
| Socio-cultural | • Mobility constrained by social norms
• Have low self-esteem and may have difficulties valuing own work
• Have to balance multiple roles as mothers, economic producers and community workers
• View bankers as powerful and important
• The language of commerce can be confusing
• May not want to take risks
• May be too modest and not good at marketing their abilities
• Banks and financial institutions do not view women as a potential market, women’s entrepreneurial activities considered as hobbies
• Advertisement about sources of credit and application procedures might not reach women
• Women’s issues and constraints not viewed as a priority at the national policy level |
| Demographic | • Take greater responsibility for raising children
• Not enough banks per capita, not enough banks in remote or poor areas, so women have to travel to reach banks
• Large rural to urban migration, hence fewer people to serve in rural areas; policy-makers do not think rural areas require financial services |
(Source: Murray and Boros, 2002)
What is your role as a facilitator in identifying and addressing gender-linked constraints?
As an HFS facilitator you will need a good understanding of the roles and responsibilities of both men and women and of the issues surrounding their access to and control over resources. The facilitator must pay particular attention to reaching and supporting the groups who face the constraints. Participatory tools such as gender analysis can be used to identify constraints of men and women regarding natural and other resources. Gender analysis tries to answer fundamental questions such as who does or uses what, why, and how. It also involves looking at the division of labour in and among households, examines the access and control that men and women have regarding resources, and reviews the benefits of their labour. Using gender analysis can therefore improve our understanding of who in the household has the overall decision-making power over resource allocation and who has access to and control over these resources.
Activity 2.11 Gender-related use and control of resources in an area
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Conducting a gender-related exercise to establish the use and control of resources in your area
Time: One hour
What you must do
1. Brainstorm in your groups and compile a list of resources which you regard as important for your community.
2. Form a female and a male group.
3. Each group must compile a table similar to the one above (Table 2.5) Add columns to your table for different age groups (young, adult, aged) and disadvantaged groups.
3. Assign ticks to each of the resources according to the level of access and control for.
Questions
1. Which resources do women and men (and the young and old) use? Are there differences in their use according to gender, age, social group? What access and control do disadvantaged people have?
2. Who decides about the use of these resources?
What is meant by control of resources?
Someone decides how the resource can be used and by whom. This does not necessarily mean that they own the resources.
What is ownership of resources?
A resource such as land can be owned by someone while another person uses it or decides about its use.
3. Who has ownership over the resources (the right to sell or give them away)?
4. What are the main differences between women and men when it comes to the type of resources they use, control, or have ownership over?
5. Among women and men of different socio-economic groups, who are the resource-rich? Who are the resource-poor?
6. What is the relationship between women’s labour and their use and control of resources? What are the links between men’s labour and their use and control of resources? Give information on other relevant groups.
7. How will the death of a male (or female) adult in the household change the access, control and ownership rights over resources, including land, of the surviving partner? What happens to the children in a household when both parents die?
8. What services and structures in the community can support rural women and men in managing resources and improving their livelihoods? Give the same information for disadvantaged groups, different socio-economic groups, grandparent or child-headed households, as well as households taking care of sick relatives or orphans.
9. Discuss your data in your male and female groups and each student should then write a conclusion in his or her workbook.
Reflect
10. Reflect on the gender-analysis activity and write answers to the following questions:
- What worked well?
- What did you find the most difficult?
- What changes would you make to the activity in the future?
- What have you learned from your experience?
If we do not have good quality natural and other resources available, or access to them or do not use them sustainably, it can lead to various degrees of food insecurity.
Jiggins et al. (1997), summarises the constraints faced by rural women as follows:
- The legal and cultural status of women which affects the degree of control that they have over productive resources, inputs such as credit and the benefits that flow from these.
- Property rights and inheritance laws, which govern access to land and other natural resources.
- Ecological factors such as the seasonality of rainfall and the availability of wood for fuel.
- Economic factors such as product market failures.
- Gender-determined responsibilities such as feeding the family, which leave less time for other activities that generate income.
In Unit 4 you will get an opportunity to conduct a gender-related exercise regarding access to and control of resources with your households.
Concluding remarks
The main concern in this unit was to find the link between the natural and other resources and food security and to establish your role in using this link to contribute to food security of households. We use participatory methods such as resources mapping and transect walks to find out about the availability of, access to and use of resources in an area which is familiar to you.
An ongoing challenge for people in an area is to access and utilise the available natural resources in ways that are sustainable and which will contribute to the stability dimension of food security. There are many examples in South Africa and elsewhere of people in rural areas who have developed good practices and are using their resources responsibly. When you work with people in a community, try to find out as much as you can about their traditional or indigenous practices that are sustainable. There are of course also many examples of poor resource use actions and these will also become evident when you start to interact with people in an area. How to use our natural and other resources sustainably is the topic of our next unit.
Introduction
In Unit 1 we examined the natural resources of water, soil, biodiversity and natural energy that we have available to use to our advantage. In this unit you will discover how to use these resources sustainably (wisely) not only in day-to-day living, but also when you design a food or other garden in your area. Why is this important? As the number of people increases, our effect on the Earth becomes bigger and resources are coming under more pressure. Abuse of resources is causing major problems which in turn is impacting on our lives on many levels, including that of food security.
When we reflect on how we use our natural resources at present and what we can do to use them more sustainably, one place that we can go to for answers is to the rich indigenous knowledge our ancestors passed on to us. They enjoyed food security, because they knew how to use their natural resources wisely. What did our ancestors for example know about managing water resources? Read the following story on Sweet Water, and decide for yourself!
Sweet Water ("Amanzi amnandi").
(Water fit for household use)
Even before the time of the Zulu King Shaka, sweet water was called “amanzi amnandi”. Shaka’s mother was called Nandi and it is said that because it was not considered respectful to use the queen mother’s name in this way, Shaka referred to sweet water as “amanzi amtoti”.
(Comment: This is how the town of Amanzimtoti, south of Durban, got its name).
Before they use it many people of Nguni origin will first sniff, smell and taste water, collected from a river, spring or well for their daily household needs.
(Comment: Water quality scientists today still have people smell and taste household water. Our Human senses give us very good clue as to whether water is good, clean and fresh).
Historically, water was usually collected in areas where people could hear it running over stones or dripping down rocks.
(Comment: This water collects oxygen and well-oxygenated water helps natural biological processes that cleans the water).
A water source would always be approached with care so as not to frighten crabs and other small water animals. When disturbed, their movement would stir up sediment (mud from the bottom of the stream or river) and the water collector would have to wait for the sediment to settle. The surface film (top) of the water was brushed aside for “sweet water” to be collected.
(Comment: Sediments and surface films have a higher number of disease-causing bacteria than the middle waters of pools and rivers. Today scientists take water samples below the surface film, being careful not to suck up sediment. In this way, they obtain consistent (always the same) and reliable measures of bacterial contamination).
Clay pots were filled with water and covered with a collecting bowl, a piece of skin or a mat made from incema grass. The water would thus stay cool and fresh.
(Comment: Water absorbed through the sides of a porous clay pot will cool the contents. Most water bacteria cannot reproduce in cool, dark conditions. In earlier times, great care was taken to scour out the white build-up of calcium in water pots, so any harmful microorganisms living there were removed. Also of note is that when the grass “lids” and head rings for carrying pots became old they were simply thrown away (discarded) and new ones were woven. Discarded lids did not pollute the river like today’s bottle tops and plastic waste).
There were many other customs and traditional practices surrounding water. Children were warned that urinating in a river would change them to the opposite sex!
(Comment: This myth was probably sufficiently frightening to prevent people urinating in streams and rivers. This would have limited a disease like bilharzia. The bilharzia parasite is passed on from human urine and faeces to small water snails. From these, its life cycle directs the disease back to people through the river water).
It is also said that it was not advisable to collect water from a river after heavy rain at the start of the annual rainy season. Indigenous common sense told people to put out pots to collect rain-water. River water would again be collected four days after the rains stopped and the water had cleared.
(Comment: Heavy rains wash human and animal waste into rivers. This means that the harmful bacteria in the waste are also washed into the water. When people drink it they become ill. In KwaZulu-Natal, health workers have to warn rural people not to collect river water after heavy rains since few remember the earlier Nguni practice of collecting rain-water only four days after the rains have stopped).
Today human and livestock numbers have increased vastly, catchments have become degraded and rivers are often polluted dumping places. Why are the indigenous practices discussed above relevant for us today? Learning about historical water collection and storage practices can develop a respect for our ancestors and might also help our understanding of water quality issues.
(Adapted from Share-Net, 1996)
Reflect
Reflect for a moment on the Nguni way of managing water. Do your cultural group offer specific ways to manage water? Why is indigenous knowledge so important for us, even today? How can indigenous knowledge help us to manage our natural resources in such a way that it will enhance food security?
In this unit we are going to explore how you will be able to grow and eat more, using less!
This unit consists of the following sections:
3.1 Eating more using less (low input principles)
3.2 Water management
3.3 Soil management
3.4 Managing biodiversity
3.5 Managing energy resources
3.6 Thinking about a design plan for your homestead garden
**Specific outcomes and learning outcomes**
The specific outcomes for this unit are:
- to determine the impact of natural resource use on the environment and people, and
- to explore various knowledge systems for an alternative resource management option.
| Learning outcomes | Assessment Activities | Actual time spent |
|-------------------|-----------------------|------------------|
| | **Workbook activities** | |
| 3.1. Eating more; using less (low input principles) | Start-up activity (30 min) | |
| 3.2 Water management | 3.2 Audit of catchment areas (1h) | |
| 3.3 Soil management | 3.3 Selecting water-wise plants and animals (30 min) | |
| 3.4 Managing biodiversity | 3.5 Make a line level (1h) | |
| 3.5 Managing energy resources | 3.6 Using a line level to measure a slope (30 min) | |
| 3.6 Thinking about a design plan for your homestead garden | 3.9 Causes of soil erosion in your area (2 h) | |
| | 3.10 The wise use of biodiversity in your area (1 h) | |
| | 3.13 Making a solar cooker (1 h) (Optional) | |
| | 3.14 Creating a design plan (4 h) | |
| | **Assignment** |
| | Assignment 1: Information for this assignment is contained in Tutorial Letter 101. (3h) |
The table above shows you the **learning outcomes** that you will notice are linked to the six sections which are addressed in this unit, and also to the list of assessment activities for the unit. A time estimate is shown for the completion of each activity. This will help you to plan the use of your time. When you have completed the activities, write down the actual time you spent on them.
Key concepts
Sustainable use of resources Used water
Natural resources Grey water
Low input Irrigation
Deforestation Soil erosion
Insulated Desertification
Solar energy Tillage methods
Greenhouse effect Biomass
Pollution Green manure
Fossil fuels Gulley
Acid rain Mulch
Erosion Fire break
Water table Fire guard
Catchments Perennial plants
Riverine vegetation Legumes
Sink Compost
Swales Permaculture
Start-up activity
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Gain an understanding that the Earth is as fragile as an eggshell, when the resources it provides us with are not used sustainably.
Time: 30 minutes
What you will need
Two balloons, a streamer, three pieces of string, each 30 cm long, an A4 sheet of paper, a paper clip and an uncooked egg (a whole raw egg).
What you must do
1. Work in small groups, and use the materials provided to build a structure to protect the egg.
2. This structure should be strong enough, so that when the structure, with the egg in it, is dropped from a height of 2 meters by a member from another group, the egg should not break.
3. After you have done this activity, each person should answer the following questions.
Questions
1. Did your egg break, or was the structure effective in protecting the egg during the fall?
2. An egg can easily break. Are there any lessons from this activity that we can learn regarding our Earth? What is the link between an egg that can easily break, and our Earth and its resources?
3. Why is it important that we take good care of planet Earth and its resources? Reflect on this question.
You will gain a much better insight into human activities that impact negatively on natural resource as you work through this unit. We’ll also examine the sustainable management of natural resources and how this links to food security.
3.1 Eating more using less (low input principles)
Before we focus on how to implement low input methods when we are thinking about starting a homestead garden, a flower garden or any other project that uses natural resources, it is important to consider what *low input* means.
3.1.1 What does low input mean?
Low input is a way of thinking and living that encourages people to think about things and do in different ways than they have before. When we apply the low input method to the use of natural resources, this new way of thinking and living will result in using fewer resources, to get more and better results. Let us look at this more closely.
Life requires input – without input there wouldn’t be life! We must have ‘inputs’ of food, water and air, or our bodies will not provide us with ‘outputs’; for example, energy for life processes. We must ask the question, “Do we need to make a big input to get a big output?” The answer is *No!* For our purposes low input means using the natural resources that are available to us in such a way that they are sustainable (low input) for maximum benefit concerning food security (high output). In other words, we are going to examine how to use less (use fewer resources) and eat more by producing more food. Low input *is not* specifically for the poor or the rich. It is for anyone who cares about the Earth’s resources and leaving this Earth a better place, not only for the next generation, but also for our own future.
The low input method considers all impacts from each system, including the psychological, social, environmental and economic systems on sustainability. In other words, the choices that we make in life can affect ourselves, other people, the soil, the water, the air, biodiversity, energy resources and the local economy. Your role as a facilitator is to empower the people you work with, by helping them to gain an understanding that we are part of the cycle of nature. This means that all things are connected, and that what happens to the Earth, happens to all the living things on the Earth.
In 1885 the American Indian, chief Seattle, said the following, in a letter to the President (adapted):
*What are people without the plants and animals in the natural environment? If all the plants and animals were gone, people would die from a great loneliness of spirit, for whatever happens to the plants and animals, also happens to people. All things are connected.*
**Examples of low input thinking**
One example of a low input method would be to consider the impact of additional watering of your plants. If you put the additional time, energy and water into the plants, will they give you a higher yield? Is that higher yield worth your time, energy and water expenditures? Sometimes the answer will be *Yes*. At other times the answer will be *No*. It depends on your situation.
Do you remember what *psychological* means? If you do not, refer back to Unit 2
Another example is that you may decide to divert a stream to build yourself a fishpond that will improve your income, your diet and your water supply. However, if you divert the stream completely, without allowing the water to continue to flow in its original direction to people downstream, the impact on their lives could be very negative and their reactions may not be worth your inputs. Instead you may think of changing your design to eliminate or reduce such negative impacts.
3.1.2 Basic principles of low input
Before you start using the low input method, you need to consider a number of principles:
- **Focus on local resources**
You need to use what is available in your area, such as local trees and other plants and animals. Using local resources often takes less input (such as water, fuel, money and time). Resources such as local foods, trees, animals, and cultures are becoming lost and their importance is being forgotten.
- **Focus on solutions; not on problems**
It is easy to get side-tracked by problems concerning the availability of, access to and utilisation of natural resources. However, you need to stay focused on helping people move towards creative solutions for these problems. We will examine many solutions. Also, very often the people whom you work with will come up with creative solutions themselves.
- **Encourage creativity**
Help people think in different ways and develop common sense approaches when addressing problems regarding natural resources. You, and the people whom you work with, may discover new solutions to old problems through your creative thinking and discussions.
- **Help people explore different ways of thinking and doing**
There is an old saying: “There is more than one way to skin a goat”. This means that there is more than one way of doing things. When you consider natural resources for food security, take aspects such as the situation, the culture of the people, and the time of year into consideration. There are many outside influences that will guide you.
- **Look to nature for lessons**
Nature can teach us a lot from its systems, its way of interacting, its way of promoting health and survival without outside human inputs. We can gain ideas, understand issues better and build inspiration from time spent in nature.
- **Seeking diversity**
Natural ecosystems consist of many different plant and animal species interacting with one another. For example, different types of plants grow together to protect themselves against pest and disease attack. Animals feed off a variety of different plants at different times. We need to apply this principle of diversity when we decide on which plants to use for our homestead gardens.
When we want to successfully use low input methods, we need to consider all the resources in the area. We need to manage all the water resources including the grey water and potential roof catchments. We need to take into account the organic waste resources for soil health, the plants and animals from the wild and the alternative energy resources that are available. These topics are the focus of the rest of this unit.
3.2 Water management
Imagine it is the year 2015... and the Earth does not have sufficient fresh water. How will we and the natural environment that supports us, survive? Reflect for a moment on this question. What human actions might cause water to be so polluted and so unavailable that the Earth, and all things living on it will suffer? What can we do to manage this scarce resource?
3.2.1 How do we disturb the water cycle?
We explored the water cycle in Unit 1. Now we will look at human actions that cause the water cycle to be disturbed:
- **Polluted (poisoned) air**
If we pollute our air with chemicals, the burning of plastics and tyres, veld fires, or exhaust gases from cars, then precipitation (rain, dew, snow) will pick these harmful particles up along the way.
- **Clearing the land**
Removing all the ground cover by cutting trees and other plants, means that the rain does not slowly seep into the soil, but runs off the surface of the soil instead. Water is also unable to evaporate into the air without trees and other plants. Sweeping the soil is another problem that can cause it to become compacted and hard and also preventing rainwater from seeping into the soil. Covering the earth with tar and cement surfaces also prevents the water from sinking into the soil.
**What are some of the results of disturbing the water cycle?**
- **Acid rain:**
Precipitation that combines with certain pollutants (poisonous substances) in the air, causes the rain water to destroy plants, buildings, and is also bad for human health. The term *acid rain* is mostly used in ‘industrial’ countries that use a lot of fuel and chemicals, of which South Africa is one. Acid rain caused by industrial countries also affects other countries as well, as it moves along with the air currents.
- **Erosion and floods**
When plants are removed and surfaces are covered with tar and cement, or the soil is compacted, water runs off the earth, taking with it the top layer of soil. Some of this run-off, fills up our drainage ditches, causes dirt and chemicals to build-up in our rivers, and poisons our unprotected wells.
• **Low water table**
In Unit 1 you learned that the water table is defined as the upper boundary of the underground water. What should the normal water table in South Africa look like?
- **Normal rainy season water table**: The water table differs depending on the season for example during the rainy season in South Africa the soil should become completely saturated by the end of the rainy season. At this point, the water table would reach as high as the soil’s surface.
- **Normal dry season water table**: During the dry season, the water table eventually lowers as water is lost to evaporation and absorption. Many deep-rooted plants and trees, such as perennials, are able to tap into the water table to survive until the arrival of the next rains.
What is the impact of human activity on the water table? The water does not have time to sink into the soil because of the impact of human beings and the design of buildings. The result of this is that the ground water does not fill up, leaving living organisms, including humans, without sufficient water.
**Activity 3.1 Healthy and unhealthy water tables**
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Look at Figure 3.1 below, and answer the questions that follow.
**Figure 3.1. Human impact on the water table**
Questions
1. Write a paragraph in which you interpret the figure above.
2. Name at least five factors that could lead to the unfortunate situation depicted in sketch D.
3. Suggest ways to prevent the unfortunate situation shown in sketch D.
Comments on Activity 3.1
The shaded area in each box represents the level of the water table:
- **Box A** shows how the soil *should* look towards the end of the rainy season. The water table is fully saturated and the roots are able to go deep into the earth.
- **Box B** shows the dry season when the water table begins to lower. However, deep-rooted plants and trees can still survive.
- **Box C** shows the water table at the end of the rainy season, where there has been a lot of human interference. You can see that the soil’s surface has absorbed some moisture, but it has not seeped to the bottom layers. This results in plants not being able to grow successfully because of limited water. These trees and other plants are very vulnerable in any dry period.
- **Box D** shows what problems result during the dry season when not enough water seeps into the soil during the rainy season. The plants and trees have not had a chance to reach the lower levels of the water table so they can’t survive dry periods. In this situation, the water table and ground water have not had a chance to fill up, which will create problems such as wells drying up and rivers running dry. This makes it more difficult to find useable sources of water.
3.2.2 How do we disturb catchments?
In Unit 1 you learned that a watershed and its catchment consist of the land from which rainwater flows into wetlands, streams or rivers. What happens when we disturb our catchments?
Activity 3.2 Audit of a catchment in your area
Complete this activity in groups in your workbook
Aim: Use a checklist to identify the human activities in a catchment in your area
Time: One hour
What you must do
Work in groups and use the checklist in your workbook to observe what happens in your catchment area.
Example of a checklist
1. Describe the settlement pattern in the catchment (developed, developing or informal).
2. List land activities in the catchment (what people do and how the land is used)
3. Note the distance of human activities from the banks of rivers, streams or erosion gullies.
4. Note the condition of the riverbank vegetation. Observe any alien plant and erosion problems)
5. How do people dispose of waste? Are there landfills or rubbish dumps?
6. Note any loss of indigenous vegetation (in other words, changes due to farms and plantations such as pines and bluegums).
7. Note wetland and groundwater disturbance/contamination.
8. Other observations.
Questions
Answer the following questions in your workbook.
1. Has the catchment been changed and degraded over time?
Speak to older community members to find the answer.
2. Do the wetlands release clean water all year long?
3. Explain how the riverine vegetation (plants along the river) provides flood protection.
4. Is there pollution that might be prevent the river from meeting human needs and from supporting animal life?
5. How do the people in the catchment dispose of waste?
6. Rank the quality of your catchment according to the following score.
| BAD | NOT SO GOOD | GOOD |
|-----|-------------|------|
What are alien plants?
Alien plants are also called exotic plants. Examples are pines, bluegums and blackwattle. They were brought into an area by people. They grow in our natural areas and use large amounts of water.
Indigenous plants grow naturally in an area. They use less amounts of water than alien plants.
7. What influence can the quality of your catchment have on the quality of the lives of the people in your area?
8. How can the quality of the catchment in especially rural areas influence food security?
Reflect
9. Reflect on the above activity and respond to the following questions:
- What worked well?
- What did you find most difficult?
- What changes would you make to this activity in the future?
- What have you learned from your experience?
Comments on Activity 3.2
Many of the river catchments of southern Africa have been changed by historical land use practices, settlements and industrial growth to cater for a rapidly growing population. Why does it matter if catchments are abused? Wetlands in catchments filter and hold water, slowly releasing it into the surrounding habitats and communities. The natural riverine vegetation performs this function in catchments. The roots of the plants form an enormous sponge which serves not only to store the water in the rainy season but also to filter and release it during the dry season.
A number of factors have contributed to degradation of catchments of waterways, these include:
1. The drainage of wetlands
2. The destruction of vegetation in mountain catchments (through fires and farming)
3. The removal of riverine vegetation
4. The increase in erosion
5. The leaching of fertilisers from farmlands
6. The inflow of effluent
Catchments must therefore be managed carefully and a balance must be kept between land use and the conservation of sensitive areas. We therefore need to use catchments sustainably. Everybody can play a role in doing this. It is not only the responsibility of other people! This will ensure a good quality of life and a safe and healthy environment.
3.2.3 Water considerations when designing your homestead garden
In the final section of this unit you will design a plan for a homestead garden in your area. When you understand how to follow nature’s lead in managing water you can use it to your own advantage. At the same time you will be protecting the water cycle so that it can continue to function effectively. In this section we will examine practical and wise water considerations to bear in mind when designing your garden.
You need to consider the following:
- Use all sources of water
- Select water-wise plants and animals for your area
- Decide upon the type of beds you will use: sunken, raised or level
- Design to harvest rain and dew
- Design to harvest ‘used’ water
- Consider slopes, contours, aspect and ridges
**Something to do**
Before you continue reading, discuss the six low input water considerations named above and suggest how each one can be implemented. Some of you may have valuable inputs to make in this regard. When you work with households encourage them to share their own valuable experiences. The next section includes suggestions for implementing the six low input water considerations.
**Use all sources of water**
First we need to consider all sources of water. What does this mean? We normally think of sources of water as rain, dams, rivers, marshy areas (wetlands), and ground water. But are these our only sources of water? Think again! Can the water we use for washing dishes, clothes, our bodies, our homes, our cars, be used again? You therefore need to realise that we have many sources of water that could be used to help us grow foods.
**Select water-wise plants and animals for your area**
As part of water management, it is important to learn what types of plants and animals are suited to the area in which you live. Some plants need a lot of water. Others prefer dry sandy areas. People often blame other factors, such as the weather, or drought, crop failures or poor animal health, but often it is because people have selected a crop that will not do well under local conditions.
Activity 3.3 Selecting water-wise plants and animals for your area
Complete this activity on your own in your workbook
Aim: To identify suitable, water-wise choices of plants and animals in an area
Time: 30 minute
What you must do
1. In groups discuss and make a list of examples of crop plants and farm animals that have high, medium and low water needs.
2. Which of the plants and animals that you listed would be suitable for your area?
3. Do people in your area make water-wise choices in their selection of plants and animals? Give a reason for your answer.
Comments on Activity 3.3
| High water needs (marshy areas such as wetlands) | Medium water needs | Low water needs |
|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------|----------------|
| Bananas, sugar cane, fish, ducks | Maize, exotic plants (from other countries), vegetables, most cattle | Indigenous vegetables such as cowpeas, bambarra nuts, sorghum, millet, peanuts, pumpkins, tomatoes and many indigenous trees like the marula, chickens, Nguni cattle |
There are many more examples which you might have included in your answer.
Decide upon the type of beds you will use: sunken, raised or level.
You need to decide what type of beds you should make for dry or wet areas. Preferably you will design and make your beds at one go and never make them again, so some thought needs to go into what the area looks like in the dry and wet seasons.
| Dry areas: Sunken planting beds (basins) | Wet areas: raised planting beds | Level planting beds |
|-----------------------------------------|---------------------------------|---------------------|
| Basins help to collect water and guide it down to the roots of the plants. These can be large basins for larger trees and plants or small basins for smaller plants. Some people like to have sunken beds for their whole garden, but make sure that your soil can handle that, since there is a lot of rain that will gather in the beds which might flood and drown your plants! | If your soil has plenty of water, or the crops you have chosen do not like water, you would choose just the opposite of sunken beds. Raise your beds above the surface, so that the water runs away from the plants. | You may not need raised or sunken planting beds. Planting level with the earth, so that the whole area gets the same amount of water, may be the best option for your land. |
After digging a hole the size you need for your tree, seed or seedling, plant the item low in the hole so that the earth you replace in the hole is less than you took out of the hole. Adding compost to your bed means that even less of the hole’s original soil goes back into the hole. Extra soil can be used to create a ridge around the basin, or you can use the displaced soil somewhere else.
You can help to strengthen the basin by placing stones, soil or other material in a circle around the hole (or semi-circle, if you are on a slope), and/or by using a stone mulch in the basin, which is very useful when there are chickens around.
Always add mulch as the last step so that the soil is always covered! If you are using a stone mulch, you could also add a layer of organic matter before putting on the stones, to add a little more nutrition for the tree or other plants.
What is mulch?
Mulch is a layer of leaves, grass, husks or other organic matter that is placed on the soil between the plants. We will examine mulch in more detail in the next section.
Figure 3.2 Sunken, raised and level beds
Design to capture rain and dew
A lot of water goes to waste in the rainy season, when it runs off our roofs, our roads and down our drains. This water can be captured! We have already given you some examples a little earlier. Here are a few more examples of the capturing of rain and dew:
- **Water tanks**: Houses and other buildings can be designed so that all the water from the roof flows into water tanks. The tanks can have a tap so that people can use the water from the tank. It is helpful to use roof gutters to catch the water off the roof and guide it into the tank.
- **Other containers**: If you cannot install a tank, capture the water in whatever you have – large clay pots or drums.
- **Pits or banana circles**: At the end of any drain, appropriately sized pits filled with organic matter and planted with bananas or other appropriate plants and trees around the edge will stop the water from flowing away. In this way a wet, fertile area for clumps of plants will have been created.
- **Road drains**: All roads should have drains at appropriate intervals to guide water into pits or trees or other areas that can soak up the water. Removing water as it goes down the slope prevents it from building up and causing flooding at the bottom.
**Swales**: Swales are trenches that are dug to capture and manage water runoff, and increase rainwater infiltration. How do you make a swale?
- Dig a trench along the contour of the land. The trench size and length will depend on the slope of the land. You will dig deeper, longer trenches for steep places.
- Make a ridge along the downhill side of the trench using soil from the trench.
Fill the trench with organic matter to help cover the soil and absorb the rain water.
Plant along the ridge using strong-rooted, permanent plant species, preferably foodplants! Continue planting permanent species to fill about a metre below the ridge, using smaller plants close to the ridge and larger plants, like trees or shrubs, further down.
As rainwater flows down the slope it will enter the trench, spread out, and be allowed to sink into the soil. As this water is absorbed by the soil underground, it will provide the roots of the plants with the nourishment that they need, without washing the soil away in the process.
1. Dig a trench along the contour, to stop and spread water.
2. Fill trench with organic matter to help water sink into the earth.
3. Put soil from digging the trench to help stop any water from escaping.
4. Permanent species planted on ridge to hold soil in place and shade area.
5. Smaller species placed just below ridge to capture water absorbed by swale.
6. Larger species placed further from swale to capture water absorbed to deeper levels.
**Figure 3.3 Water-wise with swales** (Low Input, p 85)
**Design to capture ‘used’ water**
Used water is referred to as grey water. Take a look around your home, your place of work, and your community and ask: Is there any water that is being wasted? Is there standing water anywhere? Is there water that could be used more than once? Is there any water that could be directed into a homestead garden or be used to water trees? Often the answer to this is Yes! There is lots of water going down the drain or thrown on bare ground that could be used to produce food and perhaps make money! However before you use your grey water, bear in mind, at the very least, the following:
- **Consider what might be in the water.** If people are throwing dangerous chemicals down the drain, like chlorine bleach (Jik) or chemical cleaners (Vim and Handy Andy), the grey water might kill the trees and other plants. In this case you can change to natural cleaners such as natural soaps and wood ash that works like a scrubbing powder, sand, or other local solutions.
- **Consider the type of plants and trees to include in your design.** Do not use grey water on short leafy green vegetables such as spinach or marogo, since the leaves might then not be safe to eat. You can use grey water on climbing plants such as beans, or fruit trees and other plants where the food is not very close to the ground. The soil will filter the water and the roots of the plant will take up what they need and will produce delicious food!
• **Borehole / Wells / Taps**: Areas where people draw water will often have standing water or wet areas that can be used to grow plants. Standing water can breed malaria-carrying mosquitoes, so it is important to get this water to sink into the ground. By planting suitable plants you soak up the water, thereby preventing mosquitoes from breeding. Choose plants and trees that are suitable for moist conditions. If it is a community water site and there is a question over whose produce it will be, then the community can agree to sell it and put the proceeds towards the maintenance of the pump. They can also use all the produce for community projects, such as caring for orphans, widows, people with illnesses, and/or for the elderly.
• **Bath water**: Drains from bathing areas are very easy to convert into small gardens. Simply direct the flow to where you want it and plant! Even if people urinate in the bath, this urine is full of urea, which is something that many people buy and add to their fields! (Note: this does not mean that people should urinate on the plants, since this might kill them. Urea must be dissolved in water, and taken up by the roots first, for plants to be able to utilise it).
• **Wash water**: Many people travel long distances to collect water, which is then used once to wash the laundry or the dishes and then throw it away onto the bare ground. Don’t waste this water! It can be used to grow food, clean your home or community, or water trees that can give you wood for fuel and building supplies. It takes the same amount of work to throw water onto growing plants and trees as it does to throw it on the bare ground, but you will get so much more from it.
**How can you redirect water?**
You can use plastic bottles, bicycle tire tubes, old garden hoses, and various other odds and ends that are often lying around
**Activity 3.4 Be water-wise with dish drying racks**
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Most people in Malawi build a tall ‘Tandala’ rack to dry their dishes. A Tandala rack is shown in the figure below.
Questions
1. Do people in your area use similar structures to dry their dishes? Explain what they do.
2. Describe how you will use this rack for growing food plants?
Comments on Activity 3.4
People from Malawi put their dishes onto the Tandala rack soaking wet and the clean water drips onto the ground. This area is perfect for growing plants that like moisture and a bit of shade. The rack is a good choice for growing sweet potato vines. The water will drip down from the wet dishes, and allow the sweet potatoes to grow well until the next rainy season.
Consider slopes, contours, aspect and ridges when designing your homestead garden
You will recall that in Unit 1 we discussed contours, slopes, aspects and ridges. It is important to take the shape of your land into consideration, as this will affect your farming/gardening and how you use the land. Now we will actually measure the slope using a line level. A line level is a home-made instrument that can be used to measure contours (the levels across a slope).
To practise working with a line level, you first have to build one. Then you will need to practise measuring contour lines. These are lines that are on the same level on a slope (that is, on the same elevation above sea level).
What are slopes and contours?
In Unit 1 we examined slope and contours. You will remember the following:
Slope tells us how steep or flat our land is.
Contours are imaginary lines across a slope, indicating the steepness of the slope.
Activity 3.5 Using a line level
Complete this activity on your own in your workbook
Aim: Make a line level to measure contours and slope
Time: 1 hour
What you will need
20m fish line; a line level; two lengths of wood about 2 metres long (marked at 30, 40 and 50 cm from one end); a measuring tape.
Note: A spirit or line level is a small plastic tube that you can buy from the hardware, and is often used by builders.
What you must do
1. Using a measuring tape and a pencil, mark each piece of wood (pole) carefully along its length in 10 cm marks. Number these marks from the bottom.
2. The two pieces of wood are then linked by exactly 10 meters of string (after you have tied the string to the poles), which should be tied to each pole so that it can be slid up and down the pole.
3. Hang the spirit or line level in the middle between the poles. When the string is horizontal, the spirit level is also horizontal or level and the air bubble will be in the middle of the transparent tube. When you have assembled your line level, it should look like the picture in Figure 3.5 below.
Note: To use the line level to mark contours the string is placed at the SAME HEIGHT (on the same mark) on both pieces of wood.
Figure 3.5 Using a line level to mark contours.
(Note that the string is tied at the same height on each pole. The bubble of coloured liquid in the line level is in the middle when the poles are at the same height.)
It is common to start marking contours at the top of the slope where you are working. You start by marking the first contour. Once you have done that, you need to move down to where you will make the second contour. How far apart the contours are depends on the steepness of the slope. Figure 3.6 below shows you how to mark contours in a field.
**Figure 3.6** How to mark contours in a field
**Activity 3.6 Using a line level to measure slope**
Complete this activity on your own in your workbook
**Aim:** Use a line level to measure slope
**Time:** 30 minutes
**What you must do**
1. Two people should hold the poles you used in the previous activity.
2. Place the poles down the slope 20 metres apart. (See Figure 3.6 above) The string should be on the same mark from the bottom of the pole towards the top (on both poles) when you start. The people holding the poles must make sure that they keep the poles standing straight up (in other words, that they are upright).
3. One person now stands between the two poles in order to look at the spirit or line level.
4. The person on the higher ground moves the string down the pole until the line is level, that is, until the bubble is in the centre of the transparent tube of the spirit level.
5. When the line is level, count the number of marks you have moved the string down. Each mark shows a $1^\circ$ slope. For example, if you have to move the string down five marks you have a 5% slope. Once you know the percentage you can go back and look at the table (See Annexure B – Conversion of angles to degrees of slope and distance between contours) to work out how far apart the contours need to be. For a $5^\circ$ slope as in this example contours are about 19 meters apart.
The figure below gives you an indication of how to measure slope with a line level.
Why is it important to measure slope? Land that has a slope needs special attention to make sure you do not cause erosion. Using a mulch helps to hold soil in place, but with steeper slopes you will want to make sure that you have some permanent contours or terraces using rocks and strong rooted plants to keep the soil in place.
**Summary: The four S’s in water management**
To summarise the section on water considerations for your garden we can say that if we allow the water cycle to function properly, it will be able to give us all the clean water that we need to survive. How can we do this effectively? The answer is to remember the four S’s:
- **Slow or Stop** – slowing down the speed of the water gives the water more time to enter the soil. Ways to slow water include using ‘check dams’ made from rocks, logs, sticks, old maize bags filled with dirt. Be creative! Another way to slow down water is to catch it from roofs, roads, or other surfaces from which the water is running off. It can be caught in drums, clay pots, pits, or pond. You will have to consider if the water is free from chemicals or other harmful substances or not. This will then determine how you will use the water.
- **Spread** – Now that the water has been slowed down, you want it to spread out enough so that there is not too much water in just one place. Spread the water out across the slope (along the contour) in preparation for the next step, which is a process known as sinking.
- **Sink** – If the soil is healthy with lots of insect tunnels, micro-organism activity, organic matter, and there are plenty of roots in the soil, the water will be able to sink into it. This sinking process helps to filter the water so that it is clean by the time it reaches the ground water table. Sinking will depend on the type of the soil – clay soil absorbs water slowly whereas sand absorbs it very quickly. Knowing where there is clay soil can be to your advantage if you want to create a pond or tank in which to collect the water.
- **Shade** – Now that the water has sunk into the soil, you want to keep it there by using mulch, ground covering plants, and bushes or trees that provide shade.
3.2.4 Low input irrigation
When the word *irrigation* is used, most people think of systems that need money, labour and time to lead fresh water to the plants. This might be an appropriate choice in some places, but for most places, you will first want to use the water capturing methods listed above. In addition to these, there are many low-input irrigation methods that have been tested and shown to work well. Whatever method you choose for irrigation, you will want to bear in mind the following guidelines:
**Guidelines for low input irrigation**
- Water where it counts; water the roots.
- Plants absorb most water from their roots. They can absorb some moisture from the air through their leaves, but the bulk of their water intake is through the roots.
- Avoid over- or under-watering.
- Using the correct amount of water will depend on the type of soil you have, what design you’ve made, what types of plants you’ve selected and the age of the plants and trees.
- Try to water just before wilting starts.
- Don’t give plants frequent, short, shallow watering; rather water less frequently but give the plants a thorough soaking.
- Use furrows or paths to guide the flow of water.
Prevent the formation of salts
When using any irrigation method, you will want to prevent the water from evaporating into the air very quickly and leaving salts on the surface of the soil. These salts make it difficult for many types of plants to grow. In very hot, bare areas this risk of quick evaporation and salt deposits is the greatest.
Ideas to prevent salting include the following:
- Mulch garden beds to reduce evaporation by up to 90 percent.
- Improve soil water’s holding ability by adding compost, which will attract worms.
- Plant the right trees in the right place to provide the garden with shade and wind protection.
- Do not over-water the area; only give it as much as it can absorb.
- Group plants according to their water needs to prevent under or overwatering.
- Water in the morning or evening to reduce water loss through evaporation.
- Deep watering once or twice a week is much more efficient than sprinkling every day. This will also make plants more drought-tolerant.
- Avoid watering on very windy days.
- Avoid fine mist sprays or any sprinkler that sends water high into the air.
- Set up sprinklers and sprays to water plants at their base.
Low input drip irrigation methods
The following are some ideas for getting water to the roots of plants, to reduce evaporation of the water into the air, and to reduce the amount of time, water, and energy spent on irrigating. Most of these drip irrigation methods can be used from time to time with the green manure teas, compost tea or animal manure teas as described in the section on soil in this unit. Low input drip irrigation methods include the following:
- Using unglazed traditional clay pots buried in the ground up to their rim and then filled with water allows water to seep into the ground very slowly.
- Bottles without a lid, such as beer or wine bottles, can be filled with water and then pressed tightly into the ground, mouth side down. The water from the bottle will slowly enter the soil.
- Plastic bottles and tin cans can also be used in a similar way. For this method you make two or three very tiny holes in the bottom of a plastic bottle or tin can.
Figure 3.9 Drip bottles for irrigation
3.3 Soil management
Imagine it is the year 2015 and the Earth does not have sufficient healthy soil. How will we and the natural environment that supports us, survive? Reflect for a moment on this question. All living things rely on and eventually return to the soil. The health of our soil is directly connected to our own health. Whatever we do to the soil we are eventually doing to ourselves. If the soil becomes ruined, this will affect the nutritional value of our food. If we are able to learn from nature about methods that help the soil we will have taken the first step towards making our lives better.
In David Patient’s *Positive Health Manual*, he compares the soil to a savings account. The more we put into it, the wealthier we become. But if we continue to take from it, without making any deposits, we will eventually end up broke and hungry.
3.3.1 How do we abuse soil?
You may be aware of practices that have a negative influence on soil. Complete the next activity to give structure to your thoughts on this topic.
**Activity 3.7 Interfering with the balance in soil**
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
Take a minute to think what human beings are doing to interfere with the balance in soil.
1. Compile a list of these negative activities.
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2. Which of the negative activities, that you or the group listed, are relevant in your area?
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3. Reflect on how these negative practices can be changed by household members.
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Comments on Activity 3.7
Your list may include some of the following:
- Paving the earth
- Sweeping the earth
- Chemicals in the soil
- Unnecessary digging of the soil
- Disturbing useful insects
- Burning the bush or any organic matter
- Compacting the soil
- Mono-cropping forests and agricultural areas
- Clearing away plants and trees
- Overgrazing
- Soil erosion
What is mono-cropping?
Planting large areas with only one kind of crop, for example maize (mealies)
You may be aware of many more negative practices than those we discussed. Please share your ideas with others in your group and suggest solutions that you know can work.
What do we find if we look closer at farming or gardening practices that affect soil structure?
Farming or gardening practices that affect soil structure
There are many practices that harm soil structure such as:
- Burning vegetation (plants), which causes ash to form, or using mineral fertilizers, results in the over-activity of the soil microorganisms. At first the microorganisms multiply quickly because they are stimulated by the ash or fertilizer. They then start dying from a lack of food. We can compare this to a grassy area that has a fence around it where too many goats are grazing. What will happen to the goats after a time? The herd will quickly decline for lack of fodder.
- Heating of the soil surface through fire or prolonged sunlight. The ground dries up and the microorganisms are killed.
- Destruction of the crumbly structure of the soil through the splashing of raindrops on bare soil that is subjected to the frequent traffic of heavy, wheeled machinery.
- Too much water, too often causes permanent flooding. In such circumstances soil organisms and plants die from lack of air.
Water plants without damaging the soil structure
**WRONG way to water**
A concentrated stream of water disturbs the soil
**RIGHT way to water**
Light, broken spraying does not disturb the soil.
Figure 3.10 The potential destruction of soil structure through incorrect watering.
**The unnecessary poisoning of the soil**
Chemical products such as pesticides and fertilisers which many gardeners and farmers use to kill harmful organisms and weeds, poison the soil.
**Activity 3.8 The effects of chemicals on soil**
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
1. Look at the statements below and decide whether they are true or false.
- Chemicals are expensive to make. During manufacturing a lot of the earth’s resources such as fuel are used...........
- Chemical fertilisers do not feed the soil, they provide a treatment like ‘medicine’ for the plant or animal so it can survive in poor soil..........
- Chemicals can be toxic to human beings, especially to children, the elderly and those with weak immune systems such as with HIV/AIDS sufferers.........
- Special training is needed in how to handle chemicals without getting poisoned or burned..........
- Chemicals can poison the environment, especially our water sources and soil..........
- Chemicals can kill beneficial insects, worms and micro-organisms either directly or by the effect that chemicals have on their environment......
- Insect pests can develop resistance to chemicals (pesticides) i.e they are not affected by them.....
- Chemicals build up in the food web (refer to Unit 1), and people as top level consumers, ingest these chemicals, thereby poisoning themselves. (This also applies to other animals)............
- There are better options for designing our agricultural systems and homes so there is no need for these chemicals in the first place!.............
2. Suggest options that are better than using chemicals for your gardening or farming activities.
Comments on Activity 3.8
Hopefully you said that all of the statements above are true. You will learn more about other options, instead of using chemicals, in Module 5.
What else can go wrong with soil, and what solutions are there?
Soil health is influenced by more than just soil structure. When people live and farm in an environment, they usually change it to suit themselves and use the resources available to them. When we are managing a resource, we are consciously looking at, thinking about and caring for that resource. We need to be able to identify the warning and danger signs of overuse or incorrect use.
3.3.2 Desertification and soil erosion
We often read of or hear about soil erosion and desertification, but what exactly are they and what causes them to happen?
What is desertification and how does it develop?
Desertification can be defined as land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including variations in climate and human activities.
How does desertification develop? It is usually said that desertification develops because of a poor climate. There are however, more important causes such as the following:
- Overgrazing and over cultivation
- Incorrect tilling methods
- Poor irrigation techniques
- Burning of the area
- The tilling of soils which are not suitable for agriculture
- The clearing of vegetation and deforestation (We will examine deforestation later in the unit.)
Vegetation (plants) plays several roles in controlling the movement of water, both in the ground and over the ground (known as run off). When vegetation is removed the soil is bare. When more and more plants are removed each raindrop hits the ground like a bullet. The raindrops then loosen the soil particles that are blown or washed away. First the topsoil is lost. This is full of nutrients. The subsoil that remains is less fertile and it is difficult for plants to grow in it. The land becomes like a
desert. We therefore place our environment and ourselves in danger of much more severe floods and droughts, more extreme temperatures and worse soil erosion when we promote or accept these practices.
What is soil erosion and how does it develop?
Soil erosion is the loss of soil and its nutrients which impact negatively on plant growth.
How does soil erosion develop? Erosion can be caused by water or wind. Erosion caused by water is a problem in the wetter parts of South Africa such as KwaZulu-Natal. Erosion caused by wind is a problem in the dry areas such as Limpopo Province and the Karroo.
There are several factors that make erosion worse and these include:
- Bare soil
- Steep slopes
- Heavy rainfall
- Cultivation on steep slopes
- Cultivation down the slope instead of on the contour
- Sandy soil, which washes away more easily than do clay soils)
- Soil that is ploughed too much, and washes away more easily.
Why are we concerned about soil erosion? South Africa loses almost three tonnes of soil from each hectare of cultivated land each year. Natural processes create only 0,7 tonnes of soil on each hectare. We are thus steadily losing soil, which is not being replaced (in other words, replenished). This affects farming and living in rural areas in a very profound (serious) and negative way.
Figure 3.11 Disadvantages of bare landscapes, compared to the advantages of having vegetation in the landscape
Forms of erosion
Erosion can take the form of:
- sheet and rill erosion
- gullies and dongas.
It is important that you are able to identify these types of erosion and then to be able to recommend protective and erosion control measures. Below are some examples of forms of erosion and the control measures that can be used.
With **sheet flow and rill erosion** you will see bare earth that looks compacted. You will often also see collections of lines of organic matter and small stones, that look like **swales**. You may also see plants poking out of the ground with some of their roots exposed.
How can we address sheet flow and rill erosion? The lines of organic matter which you sometimes see, can help to show you where contour lines or structures can be built.
With the problem of exposed roots (plant pedestals) you will need to slow the run-off and increase infiltration of water into the ground. Examples of structures that can help you do this are:
- Berms (contour bunds and ditches, swales)
- Basins and infiltration basins
- Imprinting (small hollows] created in the ground for seeds to germinate
- Increased vegetation.
First you need to ensure that the sheet flow (water running on the surface) is spread out and that it can infiltrate above the rills. Berms and basins, vegetation and mulch can all be effective. Then try to ensure that the water can spread out and infiltrate within the rill itself, with a series of very small check dams constructed of branches and rock piles laid across the cut.
**Figure 3.12 Sheet flow erosion**
A. Sheet flow erosion indicated by arrows
B. A contour ditch and small infiltration pits that help to control sheet flow erosion.
**Figure 3.13 Rill Erosion**
A. Rill erosion indicated by arrows
B. Berms and basins and small check dams that control this type of erosion.
With **dongas/gullies** the run-off concentrates in channels or drainages. Now you will see the more familiar patterns of erosion: rills, gullies or dongas, and the head points of dongas/gullies. You may also see the cutting and collapsing of banks, deposits of different sediment sizes and exposed roots.
Within the gully, the flow needs to be spread and infiltrated as much as possible using permeable barriers. In larger gullies or dongas, strong barriers like **gabions** need to be constructed.
Using gabions to control water flow in a donga or gully
Figure 3.14 Rehabilitation of a typical gully
A. Formation of a typical gully with a head point that increases uphill over time
B. A contour ditch above the gully and gabion structures in the gully that help to control this form of erosion.
Activity 3.9 Causes of soil erosion in your area, and possible solutions
Complete this activity in groups in your workbook
Aim: Identify soil erosion in your area and suggest possible solutions
Time: 2 hours
What you will need
At least two people whom you can talk to and who will be prepared to walk around the areas with you and discuss causes of, and possible solutions to the problem of, soil erosion.
What you must do
Read through the notes on soil erosion and control measures above. Look for signs of soil erosion in your area. Look around the homesteads, croplands and grazing lands.
1. Using your notes, identify places where soil erosion happened. Make drawings and, if at all possible, to take a few photographs.
2. Describe the type of soil erosion that you can see. Is it sheet, rill or gully erosion?
3. What do you think are the causes of this erosion? Talk to people in your area about the erosion. Ask them for ideas about causes. Walk around the area and see if you can identify any causes.
4. Also talk to people about what can be done to control erosion. Make a list of their suggestions.
5. Write down some ideas of your own on how to control the erosion that you have seen. You will need to refer back to your notes as well.
Reflect
6. Reflect on the assessment and analysis of resources activity and write answers to the following questions:
- What worked well?
- What did you find most difficult?
- What changes would you make to this activity in the future?
- What have you learned from your experience?
3.3.3 Soil considerations when designing your homestead garden
You are now aware of soil problems concerning the structure of soil and are also aware of soil erosion. What positive soil practices can we apply that will conserve soil and also improve soil structure.
Practices to conserve soil
When we look at the bigger picture of how to conserve soil we can summarise this by saying that we need to do the following:
- Mulching
- Reduce sweeping the dirt!
- Eliminate bush burning
- Reduce tilling
- Plant perennial plants
Mulching: Dead or alive nature is always covered!
Nature is always covered! You know that mulching means placing a layer of leaves, grass, husks or other organic matter on the soil in between the plants. Dried leaves, stones, sawdust, and/or live vines are examples of mulch.
Mulching has many benefits, as follows:
- It keeps the soil cool and moist, even when the weather is hot. This reduces the number of times that you need to water plants in the dry season.
- It creates a soft layer of soil that is easy to plant directly into during the rainy season or when irrigating. No digging is needed! You can just make a small hole for the seed or seedling, depending on the situation.
- It keeps the soil protected from rain and wind so that it is not washed or blown away.
- It keeps the plants protected from being splashed with soil when it rains or during watering.
- It retains water during periods of drought, and protects the soil against flooding in the wet season.
- A heavy layer of thick mulch prevents unwanted plants from growing in between the plants.
- Best of all, mulching means less work each day!
Why doesn’t everyone mulch with all these great benefits?
Many people are very wary about mulching their soil for the following reasons:
- They fear that mulch is dirty. This is not true as uncovered soil is actually dirtier! It is dusty in the dry season and muddy in the rainy season.
- They fear that mulch will bring snakes. However snakes do not want to be around human beings. They prefer to be up in a tree, under a nice pile of rocks or sticks, or in a hole.
- They fear that mulching will bring termites that will hurt our plants. Think, for a moment, about termites and what they do in nature. Their job is to decompose the dead or dying organic matter and convert it back into soil. Their job is not to eat live healthy plants. However, if we sweep away and burn all the termites’ food, they are going to look for the other things they can find to eat, such as wood!
Reduce sweeping the dirt!
Sweeping removes organic matter from the topsoil, which, in turn, removes the food and protection the soil needs to stay healthy. Sweeping makes the earth hard and does not allow water to sink into it, causing erosion through wind and rain. When large areas are swept, it reduces the amount of land that we can use for growing food.
Eliminate bush burning
Most people will agree that burning the veld is harmful to:
- the air that we breathe;
- insects and micro-organisms that are trying to keep the soil healthy; and
- plants that are used for foods, medicines, fuel and thatching.
The hardest part is to get people to stop burning the bush! There are many ways to start reducing burning. We need to begin with ourselves, then next with the people who are closest to us. We need to help others understand the cycle of nature, the importance of the things that they are burning and the harm that the smoke does to organisms that breathe the air.
Reduce tilling
Hoes and other implements affect the decomposition stage of the cycle of nature. They disturb it by disturbing the insects, worms and micro-organisms that are busy working in the soil. So why would you want to disturb them? It is much better to feed the soil’s creatures with organic matter and not to disturb them.
Nature does its own tilling by means of plant roots that grow down and let water and air into the soil. Soil organisms make tunnels in the earth. We can mimic what nature does by inter-planting trees and other deep rooted plants; interplanting root crops such as yams or ground beans (*nzama*); allowing chickens to scratch around the mature plants; and by keeping the soil covered with organic matter to protect and feed the insects and worms.
A good way to clear the land is to do it carefully. Try to protect useful plants, used for foods, medicines, crafts and building supplies. Also protect leguminous plants that feed the soil. Dig only where you have to, and dig only small sections.
**Plant perennial plants**
Another way to conserve soil is to have some plants and trees that stay in the soil every year without replanting. These are known as perennials and they are excellent for many reasons:
- You only plant them once, but harvest for many years;
- They are usually very tolerant of fluctuating weather conditions such as flooding and droughts;
- The roots help water go down deep into the water table, which helps to retain water in our soil throughout the dry season;
- Their roots hold the soil and their stems trap organic matter;
- The taller perennials can block the wind.
You are now aware of practices to conserve soil, but how can we improve soil structure?
**Practices to improve soil structure**
**Control run-off.**
Structures that can slow down run-off water and help the water sink into the ground are needed. (Refer back to the section on water management.)
**Adapt tillage methods**
As we explained above, it is possible to farm in such a way that ploughing is minimised (in other words, it is used less often). This is called minimum or no-till farming (farming without ploughing). This process reduces the damage caused by ploughing the land over and over again.
**Make use of fallow intervals**
This means leaving areas of land, which are unexploited (in other words, not used) during cropping. This will allow plant species to re-occupy the unused areas. After some years, any badly structured soil will improve considerably.
**Cultivate soil-enriching crops such as legumes**
One nutrient that all plants including food plants need, is nitrogen. A legume is a type of plant that co-exists with a special type of bacteria that grows on its roots. These bacteria are able to ‘fix’ nitrogen in the soil, and change it to a form of nitrogen that the plant (the legume) can use. Human beings and other animals eat these plants and obtain nitrogen in this way. Some of this ‘fixed’ nitrogen leaks into the soil, thereby enriching it for the next group of crops that will be planted.
Examples of legumes are:
- **Edible legumes**: beans, peas, ground nuts and ground beans (see Annexure C)
- **Non-edible legumes**: acacia species (*msangu*, *mtete*, etc.), tephrosia, leuceana, cassia (some of which can be eaten by animals), and the rooibos tea plant.
**Spread animal manure**
You can use animal manure to enrich the soil in a food or flower garden. You must always be careful when handling fresh manure, since manure is made up of the waste products that the body did not want or need, such as harmful bacteria and worms.
**Encourage diversity (the growth of different kinds of plants).**
Soil structure improves when the soil is occupied by the roots of many different plants.
- Roots move the soil around.
- Roots create a network of living matter that dies and rots to create humus (compost).
- Roots, when they die off, leave tunnels in the soil that increase the aerated areas and this helps with drainage (water moving through the soil layers) of the soil.
- Roots help to control leaching, which will increase and hold minerals in the soil.
**Bury organic matter, straw and manure in the soil.**
This produces humus, which improves soil fertility and soil moisture. This is an essential part of soil water management. Figure 3.15 shows you two ways in which you can add organic matter into the soil.
**A. Fertility trenches**
**B. Double digging**
**Figure 3.15 Two examples of incorporating organic matter into the soil:**
A. Fertility trenches (left) and B. Double digging (right).
**Use low input composting**
Many projects and individuals decide to use compost to improve soil fertility and structure, but, there are many other ways to improve fertility and structure. Before choosing composting as a method for your land, consider other options and choose that which is best for the site. It may be better for you to combine mulching with a variety of materials, inter-planting leguminous plants and trees, integrating animals, and reducing tillage instead of composting. Most sites will have some level of composting.
integrated into them, but composting alone is not the answer to most of the soil problems that we are experiencing! Composting is a way of copying natural decomposition. Nature mulches the soil with a variety of different dead plants, trees, animals, and insects and then when moisture is present from dew or rain, the organic matter disappears into the soil very quickly. There are many different ways to make compost. None is really right or wrong, so choose the way that works best for your lifestyle. Most importantly, just get all organic matter back into the soil!
How does the soil work? Before talking about methods of composting, it is useful to review what happens inside the soil. Can we compare the process of composting, to digestion in the human body?
- **Breaking down**: Insects and animals break down the organic matter into smaller pieces just as we use our teeth to chew (in other words, break down) food into smaller pieces.
- **Digestion**: The smaller pieces mix with chemicals in the soil and release the nutrients from the food. This is similar to the chemicals (enzymes) in our saliva and other juices in our stomach that mix with our food.
- **Absorption**: The nutrients enter the plants and trees through the roots so that the plant can have energy to grow, breathe, and protect itself from disease. This is similar to the way in which we absorb nutrients in our intestines.
In Unit 4 you will make compost with your households. To prepare you for this, the figure below summarises how compost can be made.
**Figure 3.16 Making compost**
3.4 Managing biodiversity
What happens when we do not use our biodiversity wisely? It can result in a loss of biodiversity, which is called environmental degradation. This will have a negative influence on many aspects of our lives including food security.
3.4.1 Abusing biodiversity
As you know, the Earth and the sun provide us with many resources and processes, including biodiversity. (Refer to Figure 1.27 in Unit 1). When we abuse (that is, do not use wisely) any of these resources or processes, the balance in nature is upset, which will impact in a negative way on everything we do. This includes our farming and gardening activities. Which in turn will influence food security. Remember, what we do to the creatures (plants and animals) of the Earth, we do to ourselves. All things are connected.
One of the serious problems concerning the abuse of biodiversity that we have to deal with in South Africa is deforestation.
**What is deforestation?**
The destruction of forests is called deforestation. Forests are destroyed:
- for firewood
- to make way for urban development
- by logging companies for financial benefit, for the sale of wood for furniture and other products
- to make way for roads, tree plantations, farming and mining
- by flooding from human-made dams
What happens when we cut down forests?
**Catchments are disturbed**
Forests on mountain slopes are important catchment areas that replenish rivers and dams. No forests = less water in rivers and dams
**Gas balance is disturbed**
Plants give off oxygen during photosynthesis and use carbon dioxide. No plants = less oxygen = more carbon dioxide = greenhouse effect
**Biodiversity is lost**
Forests have many plants and animals. Destruction of one tree = destruction of many animals. (refer to Acacia tree in Unit 1)
**Soil is eroded and flooded**
Forests soak up rain like a sponge. No plants = no water soak into soil = soil erosion and flooding
Figure 3.17 The disaster of deforestation
Human beings not only destroy forests, but also grasslands, wetlands, catchments and other natural areas. Why does this matter? When we destroy natural areas we destroy the habitats of plants and animals and their food chains which result in their death. This means that less biodiversity is available to provide us with resources for food, medicines and building materials.
3.4.2 Considerations when using biodiversity
In Activity 1.13 in Unit 1 Lesidi’s visit to his uncle in Calvinia confirmed that the natural environment provides abundant indigenous plants, seeds and animals that can be used to enhance food security. Is this also true for the area in which you live? Consider those living resources that have traditionally been used in your area. The following activity will give you the opportunity to talk to older and other knowledgeable people in your community, to find out what living resources are available in your natural area and how you should harvest them wisely.
Activity 3.10 The wise use of biodiversity in your area
Complete this activity on your own in your workbook
Aim: Identifying wild plants, seeds and animals in your area which can be used to enhance food security, either directly or indirectly.
Time: 1 hour
What you must do
1. What plants do you and your family or households in the group use from the wild? Think about what you eat, what your animals eat, what you build with, what you use for craftwork, medicines, and traditional ceremonies.
2. If you do not use any plants from the wild, talk to an older person in your family, group or community and find out what kind of plants were used in the past and which of those are still available today.
3. Complete a table like the one below in your workbook, to indicate the utilisation of plants from the wild by you, your family, household, other group members or the community.
| | Plants from the wild (English name) | Plants from the wild (traditional name) | How can the plant be used sustainably? | What are the plant’s needs? How should I take care of it in my garden? |
|----------------------|-------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|---------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Food for humans | | | | |
| Food for farm animals or pets | | | | |
| Building material | | | | |
Questions
1. Is there a difference in the way the plants are used at present and how they were used in the past? Why do you think this is so?
2. Are the plants from the wild still as plentiful as they were in the past? Give a reason for your answer.
3. Why have most people stopped using wild plants?
4. Reflect on how plants from the wild could be used to enhance food security.
Reflect
Reflect on the assessment and analysis of resources activity and provide answers to the following questions:
- What worked well?
- What did you find most difficult?
- What changes would you make to this activity in the future?
- What have you learned from your experience?
What do you regard as good and bad practices regarding biodiversity? (You have made a number of suggestions in the previous activity, but if we take a closer look at this issue, we may find many wrong perceptions!)
Activity 3.11 Good and bad practices with regard to biodiversity
Complete this activity on your own in this study guide
1. Look at the following practices related to biodiversity, and decide whether you think they are good or bad practices.
| ACTIVITY | GOOD PRACTICE | BAD PRACTICE |
|-----------------------------------------------|---------------|--------------|
| Clearing for farmland, eg cutting down forests and other plants | | |
| Clearing all plants around the house | | |
| Collecting only dead wood as firewood | | |
| Activity | Good Practice | Bad Practice |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|--------------|
| Cutting live branches of trees for firewood | | |
| Keeping too many animals in a small area | | |
| Not hunting female animals who are nursing their young | | |
| Removing an entire plant from the veld, when mass collecting food and medicinal plants | | |
| Sweeping the area around the house every day | | |
2. Reflect on the influence the bad practices will have on people in communities and in particular on food security. Keep your place in the cycle of nature in mind when you answer this question.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
**Comments on Activity 3.11**
There are many examples of good and bad practices that can have an impact on biodiversity. Discuss this in your groups, and decide which of the following are useful in your area:
**Table 3.1 Examples of good and bad practices related to biodiversity**
| ACTIVITY | GOOD PRACTICE | BAD PRACTICE |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Clearing for farmland, for example, cutting down forests and other plants | | We are removing the habitats of wild plants and animals, and in this way we are upsetting the cycle of nature. Soil is left bare, which will wash away during heavy rains. |
| Clearing all plants around the house | | Compacting the soil; soil erosion; soil becomes poor. |
| Collecting only dead wood as firewood | Do not harm the living trees. This shows respect for the cycle of nature and our place in it. | |
| Cutting live branches off trees for firewood | | This will harm the tree, and lead to its death, influencing other organisms living off it as well. See Acacia example in Unit 1. |
| Keeping too many animals in a small area | | Leads to overgrazing, which in turn will lead to a shortage of food for the animals and soil erosion. |
|----------------------------------------|-----------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Not hunting females animals who are nursing their young | Will allow the species to keep on producing young preventing it from becoming extinct. | |
| Removing the entire plant from the veld, when mass collecting food and medicinal plants | | Can lead to the extinction (dying out) of species. |
| Sweeping the area around the house | | Compacting the soil, causing soil organisms to die, and soil to become impoverished. |
### 3.4.3 Consider permaculture groups when you choose plants for your area
Whether you decide to use plants or seeds from the wild or any other plants or seeds, or even a combination of wild and other plants, you should consider permaculture principles and permaculture groups.
What is permaculture? **Permaculture** is short for *permanent culture*. It can be defined as ‘design of our environment based on ecological principles’. (Mollison, 1992). It is one method used in sustainable conservation agriculture.
Permaculture, if used correctly, provides the maximum yield for minimum effort and costs. We can copy what nature does, and plant a variety of plants, and keep a variety of animals. This means that you should choose plants for food, medicines, building materials and other uses, to assist you in staying healthy and prosperous. Permaculture encourages people to work together and help each other to grow better food.
Permaculture works according to the principle that there are seven groups of plants that need to be included in your homestead garden. Refer to table 3.3 on the next page.
These are:
- Food for us
- Food for the soil
- Diggers
- Groundcover
- Climbers
- Supporters
- Protectors
**What is agroforestry?**
*Agroforestry is a form of agriculture using trees. It involves raising crops or grazing animals among mainly planted trees to conserve soil and improve crop yields. At the heart of any agroforestry project are multi-purpose trees which provide fruit, fodder, wood, other products and shade and which grow quickly on poor soil.*
**What is conservation agriculture?**
*It is a group of methods that include permaculture, organic and sustainable farming.*
Table 3.2 Permaculture: Seven groups of plants for a garden
1. **Food for us**. Based on food groups that you have learned about in Module 1.
2. **Food for the soil**. We covered this in the section on soil. This includes legumes such as beans and peas and using dead plant and animal matter such as compost, mulch and manure in your garden.
3. **Diggers**. Deep rooted plants will reach deep into the earth’s soil and bring minerals up to the surface. Examples of diggers include: cassava, sweet potatoes, yams and trees.
4. **Groundcover**. This protects the soil from the sun, and helps to hold moisture, and keep “weeds” (plants in the wrong place) down. There are many types of groundcover available. These include: sweet potato vines, pumpkin, cucumbers, and anything else that will vine or spread across the soil. Mulch is also a form of groundcover.
5. **Climbers**. These plants grow up and provide us with another area of food production. Examples of climbers that you can use include: beans, passion fruit, loofah, and cucumbers.
6. **Supporters**. These are strong plants that provide support for the climbers and make the most of the space available. They could be trees, bushes, crops with strong stalks such as maize or sunflowers. A supporter could also be a house, wall or fence on which other plants may grow.
7. **Protectors**. Anything that helps to protect your garden, such as thorns, smelly plants or other plants that could protect your produce from thieves or plant-eating animals. The protectors could also function to attract predators like frogs, birds and lizards that will eat the insect pests.
Keep these seven groups of plants in mind, when you design your garden.
**Activity 3.12 Plants for the seven permaculture groups**
Complete the following table, by providing examples of plants that you will use in the seven different permaculture groups. We have given you an example of each in the shaded column.
| Food for us | Food for the soil | Diggers | Groundcovers | Climbers | Supporters | Protectors |
|-------------|-------------------|---------|--------------|----------|------------|-----------|
| Fruits | Lima beans | Sweet potato | Pumpkin | Tomato | Sunflower | Garlic |
**Comments on Activity 3.12**
There are many examples, but the following figure will give you a good idea.
3.5 Managing energy resources
What happens when we do not use our energy resources wisely and what can we do to manage them in such a way that we will not run out of energy in the near future?
3.5.1 Abusing energy resources
We are fast depleting (using up) energy sources, such as coal, oil and gas. The use of these energy sources also contribute to serious environmental damage, such as the greenhouse effect, and widespread pollution of air, land and water. Using too much firewood, contributes to deforestation, which causes other environmental problems. If we want to look after our world, we have to conserve energy, we have to shift from using fossil fuels, which are non-renewable energy sources, towards renewable energy sources such as the sun, wind and water (refer to Unit 1).
You are aware of the serious energy crisis we are facing in South Africa. Who is responsible for addressing this issue? Is it only government, or the municipalities, or should every South African citizen contribute to saving energy? The answer is of course that government and municipalities should play a major role, but that every one of us needs to make a serious effort to minimise our energy use and to come up with creative ideas to do so.
3.5.2 Consider using renewable energy to cook your food
What are some creative ways to save energy when we cook our food? The following are short descriptions of a few types of energy-saving options.
**Paper charcoal “briquettes”**
You know how important recycling is. In nature waste is recycled continuously. Here is an interesting way of re-using paper and other materials such as dried leaves to be used as fuel for cooking. You can make charcoal-like products using recycled paper:
- Soak the paper in a bucket of water until it is soft. This usually takes a half day. Thicker paper takes longer to soften, so soak it overnight.
- When the paper is soft, pull out a large handful and squeeze the water out and make it into a ball.
- Let the paper balls dry in an airy place, preferably in the sun to speed up the drying time. After 1-3 days, depending on the drying conditions, the balls should be dry. They become very light weight when they are ready. Store the paper charcoal in a dry place, in an old bag or basket until you need it.
*(Adapted form Nordin, 2005)*
**Note:** The paper charcoal produces a lot of ash, so using the type of stove that has holes for the ash to drop away from the fire is helpful. There are many things that you can cook with paper charcoal, but we recommend cooking food in a covered pot because of the amount of ash it produces. Do not use the paper charcoal for grilling food directly on the fire – there may be chemical ink on the paper.
Fuel efficient stoves
One problem is the way that wood is burned - burning wood can be done sustainably if we are careful not to overuse the supply.
There are many styles of improved wood stoves, the basic idea of any of the improved wood stoves are:
- to control the amount of air flowing toward the wood
- to guide the flames to the centre of the pot’s base, and
- to hold the heat for as long as possible
Figure 3.20 Cooking with fuel efficient stoves
(Adapted from Nordin, 2005)
Basket cookers / food warmers / food coolers
Basket cookers work by conserving the temperature of an item for a long time. You have to initially make the food the temperature that you want to keep it. Basket cookers can be used to keep hot food hot or to keep cold food cold – so these Food Warmers are also Food Coolers!
How do these warmers/cookers work?
The basic idea is to put the item to cool or heat into an insulated basket or box. For the basket cooker shown in this picture, use a woven basket and line the bottom and sides of the basket with clean, dry material – this could be dried banana leaves, clean used paper, dried grass, or scraps of cloth. Leave a space in the middle of the dry material for the pot or other item. Make an insulated cover, again using dry material. You can use an old sack, cloth, or anything that will hold the dry material. The cover will be tucked into the inside edges of the basket to trap as much heat as possible.
Figure 3.21 Basket cooker with insulated cover
Solar cookers
There is plenty of sun in Africa and much of it is under-utilised. Using the sun to cook is very simple and solar cookers can be made from a wide range of material.
- The sunlight is the “fuel”. A solar cooker needs an outdoor spot that is sunny for several hours and protected from strong wind, and where food will be safe. Solar cookers don’t work at night or on cloudy days.
- Convert sunlight to heat energy: Dark surfaces get very hot in sunlight, whereas light surfaces don’t. Food cooks best in dark, shallow, thin metal pots with dark, tight-fitting lids to hold in heat and moisture.
- Retain heat: A transparent heat trap around the dark pot lets in sunlight, but keeps in the heat. This is a clear, heat-resistant plastic bag or large inverted glass bowl (in panel cookers) or an insulated box with a glass or plastic window (in box cookers).
- Capture extra sunlight with shiny silver: One or more shiny surfaces are used to reflect extra sunlight onto the pot, increasing the amount of sunlight hitting the pot. Shiny surfaces can be made from a sturdy support such as cardboard or tin sheet that are covered with anything silver such as that found on the inside of many types of food packaging or aluminium foil. Attach the silver material with glue, tape, a stapler or using other creative local ideas.
The next activity will demonstrate how the sun can be harnessed to heat water or cook food.
Activity 3.13 Making a solar cooker (Optional)
Complete this activity in groups or on your own in your workbook
Aim: Demonstrate how the sun can be used as an energy source to heat water
Time: 1 hour
What you will need
A cardboard box, aluminium foil (or silver paint), plastic (transparent) paper or clingwrap, a cold drink can that is painted black, water, scissors and glue.
What you must do
1. Decide upon a design for your solar cooker using the box, foil and plastic.
2. Fill the black can with water at room temperature, and place it in the solar cooker.
3. Decide upon a suitable place to put the solar cooker, where it will receive sufficient sunlight.
4. Leave it in the sunlight for 2 hours. Then touch the can with your bare hands, and feel the temperature. (Be very careful not to burn yourself. Some solar cookers are very effective!)
5. Answer the following questions:
Questions
1. What is the function of the aluminium foil?
2. What is the function of the clingwrap (or sheet of plastic)?
3. Why should the can be painted black?
4. Touch the can. What is your observation?
5. Write a paragraph on the advantages of solar cookers.
Figure 3.22 Making a solar cooker
Reflect
6. Reflect on the activity and write answers to the following questions:
- What worked well?
- What did you find most difficult?
- What changes would you make to this activity in the future?
- What have you learned from your experience?
3.6 A design plan for your area
You are now aware that you should consider improved water use, slope, aspect and ridges, healthy soil, wise use of biodiversity, permaculture groups, and alternative energy sources when you want to start a food or any other garden.
In this section we will look at farming practices that help farmers improve their natural resource management by using the principles, approaches and processes we have discussed so far in Module 3. The area being farmed could be your homestead, school or community garden.
Techniques for intensive food production and rainwater harvesting will be introduced through case studies and examples. These case studies will give you an idea of how natural resources can be used effectively and sustainably for the benefit of improving people’s livelihoods.
Mr Phiri and Mma Tshepho and a group of rural women used the concept of “their four corners” to make plans and take decisions to improve their livelihoods and provide better food for health. See below the simple concept of using “my four corners” for a homestead garden in a community.
**Figure 3.23** The four corners of every homestead and different ways of using resources.
(Adapted from DWAF, 2008)
The rural women’s group, whom Mma Tshepho worked with, declared ‘War on Hunger’. The first strategy involves what they call: ‘My Four Corners’, meaning their own homestead yards. They feel that in their own yards they are fully in control – they can take decisions without having to consult other members, and they can move at their own pace. In their ‘four corners’ their potential additional water sources and their uses are:
- recycling of household water (e.g. water used for washing can be used to grow plants);
- surface run-off can be turned into ‘run-on’ and channelled to ditches around her garden beds – preferably intensive beds like deep trenches;
- an underground Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) tank, as supported by DWAF (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry) can store enough water for year-round vegetable and fruit production of 100m², or for other productive uses; and
- clean water harvested from the roof into an above-ground water tank can be used for drinking and cooking.
The DWAF Homestead RWH Programme supports the rural household within its ‘Four Corners.’
3.6.1 Farming with Water Case Study: Mr Phiri
Mr Zephaniah Phiri Maseko has lived and worked on his family land holding (3 hectares), in one of Zimbabwe’s driest regions for over 30 years. He has created his own “garden of Eden” and over the years has taught many others to do the same.
The farm is on a north to east sloping face of a hill (providing good winter sun). The top of the hill is a large, exposed rock (a granite dome) that creates a lot of storm water run-off. The average annual rainfall in the area is around 570mm. Droughts occur often.
When Mr Phiri began, it was very difficult to grow crops successfully, or make a profit. He had no money for deep wells, pumps, fuel and other equipment. Mr Phiri started his farming with long and careful observation. He noticed that where the run-off from rain went unchecked (not slowed down) very little infiltration took place. He then noticed that the soil remained moist for longer in small hollows/depressions. This also happened above rocks and plants on the slope (where the rainfall runoff is slowed down and can infiltrate between rocks and plants). He realised that he could copy this process and enhance areas of his land where soil was remaining moist for longer. Thus began his water farming.
Beginning at the top of his catchment, Mr Phiri built low stonewalls here and there on the contours. These ‘check dam walls’ slow down and spread the flow of storm run-off water. This controlled runoff from the large rock (at the top of the hill) is then directed to two earth dams just below (one large and one somewhat smaller). These dams were dug out by hand.
The water in the larger dams seeps straight into the ground over a period of time. The overflow from the smaller dam is directed via a short pipe to an above ground ferrocement (steel reinforced concrete) tank that feeds the family’s vegetable garden during dry times. Another tank, shaded and cooled by a granadilla vine, collects drinking water from the roof of the house. Besides these two tanks, all water harvesting structures on the farm directly infiltrate water into the soil.
Numerous water harvesting structures act as nets that collect the flow of the surface run-off and quickly infiltrate the water into the soil, before it can evaporate.
These include:
- Check dams (small stone walls placed within drainages across the waters’ flow)
- Vegetation planted on contours
- Terraces (built-up level fields or beds)
- **Berm-n**-basins (dug out basins with earth and plant banks, laid out on contour)
- Infiltration basins
- ‘Fruition pits’. These are large basins dug out in the bottom of drainage lines (3 metres long, 2 metres wide and about 2 metres deep). When it rains, the pits fill up with water and the overflow fills one pit after another. Long after the rain stops, water remains in these pits, infiltrating into the soil. These fruition pits feed the **groundwater table** as well as the plants.
Thatch grass, fruit trees and timber trees have been planted in and around the fruition pits. Mr Phiri explains with a smile: “I am digging fruition pits and **swales** to plant the water, so that it can germinate elsewhere.”
*Figure 3.25 Sketch of Mr Phiri standing in a “fruion pit” full of thatch grass.*
Figure 3.26 Layout of Mr Phiri’s farm.
(Adapted from Lancaster, 2008)
Mr Phiri plants a diverse range of crops on his farm: basket reeds, pumpkin (squash), maize, peppers, eggplant, lettuce, spinach, peas, garlic, onions, beans, granadilla, mangoes, guavas and paw-paws, as well as a number of different types of indigenous trees. Indigenous trees are those that occur naturally in the area. They are the best suited to dealing with the particular natural conditions. (Exotic trees come from other places and may not grow as well. Sometimes exotic trees grow too well and compete with indigenous trees. They are then called invasive. This can be a big problem). Mr Phiri’s crops are planted on the terraces formed between the contour bunds and the swales. This diversity provides food security for his family: even if some crops fail, others will survive.
He only uses open pollinated varieties of crops and collects, keeps and plants his seed from one year to the next. Over time these crops become adapted to the drier conditions on the farm.
Mr Phiri has found that soils amended (improved) with local organic matter and nitrogen fixing plants (such as Pigeon Peas) infiltrate and hold water a lot better than those amended with synthetic/commercial fertilizers. He says: “You apply fertilizer one year but not the next and the plants die. Apply manure once and plant nitrogen fixing plants and the plants continue to do well year after year”. Note that another advantage of manure is that it is usually free manure compared to the costs of synthetic, commercial fertilizers.
Towards the bottom (the lower lying areas) of the farm are hand-dug, unlined wells (except for one, which is lined and has a small hand pump, for household use). These wells are situated in the wetland in the low-lying area. The wetland helps to filter and clean the water. That is why it is good for household use as well. There is almost always water in these wells and even during a drought it is possible to pump water up from the wells for irrigation. Mr Phiri uses a donkey-driven pump for his purpose. Below, in the box on the next page, is a further explanation of how management of your resources influences the groundwater table.
A wetland lies below the wells at the lowest point. Here three aquaculture (fish-farming) ponds/dams are surrounded by a soil-stabilising grove of bananas, sugar cane and reeds. The fish are harvested for food and their manure enriches the water used to irrigate the fields. The taller vegetation creates a windbreak around the ponds (reducing evapotranspiration). The shorter grasses filter incoming run-off water into the ponds and feed his cows when in calf.
For years, Mr Phiri found himself in opposition to the international aid and government programs that were pushing for ground water extraction and export crops as opposed to rainwater harvesting and local food production and distribution. As a response Mr Phiri formed a non-government organisation called the Zvishavane Water Resources Project that is spreading his techniques well beyond his area. He says: “It’s a slow process. But that’s life. Slowly implement these projects and as you begin to rhyme with nature, soon other lives will start to rhyme with yours”.
Figure 3.27 The water table and resource management.
A. The water table with deforestation and reduced groundcover.
(Dupreiz and De Leener, 1992)
Figure 3.27 A, illustrates what happens to the water table when resources in the environment are extracted or taken away without replenishing them. Because of the reduced groundcover the surface of the soil becomes hard and results in higher runoff rates and there is little or no infiltration of water. The area becomes drier all the time and it is difficult for plants and trees to survive, resulting in even less vegetation, again causing less infiltration. Boreholes and wells dry up. Other natural resource problems such as accelerated soil erosion, loss of fertile topsoil and the development of donga’s are also results of this cyclical process – all initially caused by loss of vegetation.
**Figure 3.27 The water table and resource management.**
B. The water table with improved plant growth and coverage. (Dupreiz and De Leener, 1992)
Figure 3.27 B, illustrates the effects of plant cover on the water table: With good ground cover and management there is little or no run-off and good infiltration of water into the soil. The groundwater table is recharged and has enough water to support plant growth and provides a stable amount of water from wells and boreholes.
### 3.6.2 Water for Food Case Study: MmaTsepho Khumbane
MmaTshepo Khumbane has lived and worked in impoverished rural areas of South Africa for more than 30 years. These areas are mostly dry and prone to droughts. People suffer from hunger.
MmaTshepo realised through long and thoughtful observation, that run-off water is one of our most valuable resources and set out to harness (catch) run-off into run-on. Her method for designing her run-on system is described in detail in Module 6, Unit 2. A further explanation follows in the box entitled **Rainwater Harvesting**, below.
She also soon realised that people weakened by hunger and lack of success need to be motivated
to work and try out new things. Over the years, she developed her "mind mobilization" process to celebrate the ability of people and the abundance they can create. (See Module 6, Unit 2 for a description of MmaTshepo’s mind mobilisation process) This concept has blossomed (grown quickly and beautifully) into the informal *Water for Food Movement* of women who share, celebrate and work together across deep rural areas of the country.
In her yard she slows down and spreads out water at the top of her catchment using a cut-off drain (trench). From there, overflow water from the trench is directed via sunken paths to her **fertility trenches** or **deep trenches** (see Module 6 Unit 3). Any further overflow is directed to the bottom corner of her homestead to be stored in an underground tank for later use.
She grows a diverse range of crops with the intention of always being able to provide a nutritious and balanced meal from the garden – right through the year.
Crops include:
- **Annuals**: onions, tomatoes, maize, sorghum, spinach, indigenous greens (imifino, morogo), peppers, eggplants, carrots, etc.
- **Medicinal and multi-purpose plants**: wormwood, garlic, chives, marigolds, bulbs, etc.
- **Fruit**: oranges, peaches, mangoes, bananas, paw-paws, etc.
All crops are **open-pollinated** and she selects, stores and replants her own seed. All the gardeners get together to share their different varieties of seeds among each other. In this way they ensure the survival of their crops. They also share recipes and have a celebration preparing food together and enjoying a meal.
The main aim of MmaTshepo’s gardening system is to have a diversity of food available in the homestead throughout the year.
**Rainwater Harvesting: A system for classification**
**Water collection:**
- Grey water collection (collecting used water from the house);
- *In-situ* rainwater collection (catching the rain where it falls and preventing it from flowing away/running off);
- External storm water run-off collection (from neighbouring fields, roads or roofs);
**Water storage: In the soil profile;**
- In structures, like above- and below-ground water tanks;
- In groundwater, through recharge of groundwater;
**Water use or application: Directly from the soil profile;**
- Through irrigation, i.e., by applying water to the plants from storage.
MmaTshepo’s water harvesting system is probably unique, because it combines all the possibilities for collection, storage, and use, as follows:
- Collection: grey water and in-situ and external run-off collection;
- Storage: in the soil profile and in tanks and groundwater recharge
• Use: directly from the soil profile and through irrigation from storage tanks and groundwater pumped from a borehole.
MmaTshepo’s rainwater harvesting system concentrates the runoff during a rainstorm directly into her vegetable beds, providing her crops with ‘automatic irrigation’. Overflow runs into underground storage for use during the dry winter months. Her crops can survive longer periods between rainstorms than do crops planted conventionally (in the usual way), because the vegetable beds can hold more water, because of their high organic matter content.
Figure 3.28 The multiple use of natural resources.
• A cut-off trench is dug across the runoff slope of the land to catch rainwater (1).
• Beyond the trench, the vegetable beds (2) are dug 1m deep and filled with organic matter – grass, leaves, manure and ash – and mixed with soil. The beds are fertile and absorb and retain moisture.
• The beds are edged with ridges (3). Some are reinforced with stones to stop the soil washing away.
• Between the beds, a network of depressions (5) connects the cut-off trench (1) to one lower down (7). The water flows along these channels (4) during a rainstorm.
• These channels (4/5) are also the footpaths to access the beds without having to step into the vegetables.
• Between the trenches the gradient is shallower (6), so that the water has more time to soak into the beds.
• If it rains too much, the second trench (7) is breached to prevent the beds from flooding.
• Catchment areas, concrete paving around the house is lipped and slopes to pipes (8) that lead to other deep trenches.
• Excess water flows into a water storage pit (9).
• Fruit trees (10) are planted on the lower side of a trench so that their deep roots can benefit from the extra soaking.
Similarities between the two case studies - Mr Phiri and MmaTshepo
Read through both of the case studies again carefully. Make notes of the main points of rainwater harvesting you can learn from each case.
The following questions will help to formulate your list of similarities.
- What was the first thing that both people did before they started harvesting rainwater? Where do they get their ideas?
- Where on the land did they start?
- What did they need to do to change the way that the water was flowing across the land?
- What was the aim of harvesting rainwater?
- Did they have lots of money to build their systems? How did money constraints affect the way they went about building their systems? (eg: where did they get labour?)
- What do they do with overflows?
- What kinds of plants/trees are used in the system? What purposes do the different plants serve (ie: only for food)?
- What varieties of crops are planted?
The 8 Rain Water Harvesting principles:
1. Start with long and thoughtful observation
2. Start at the top, or highest point of your watershed/catchment and work your way down.
3. Start small and simple.
4. Spread and infiltrate the flow of water.
5. Always plan for an overflow route and manage that overflow water as a resource.
6. Maximise organic and living ground cover.
7. Maximise beneficial relationships and efficiency by “stacking functions”.
8. Continually reassess your system: the “feedback loop”.
The above can be compared with the eight water harvesting principles given below:
In both cases:
- They decided to do the best they could within the limits of their available resources.
- They focused on a diverse and integrated land based livelihood strategy.
- They use plants with many different functions (such as nitrogen fixing shrubs/trees, that provide fodder and beans) along with their food crops.
- They decided on systems and methods that mimic natural processes that they have observed.
- They used practices that they could do themselves; they did the work themselves at a human scale – not waiting for larger interventions that they had no control over.
- They look after their environment, so that it can look after them. They do not extract or take resources out, but manage the resources sustainably.
- They produce foods first and then sell any surplus they have.
- They plant open pollinated varieties of crops adapted to local conditions.
The benefits of Communal Land and Restitution Act (CLaRA) will benefit households as they will have property rights. They can then invest in improvements to improve their livelihood on their ‘four corners’.
3.6.3 Creating a design plan for your area
After reading and thinking about the ideas that we examined in this module and doing several relevant activities, you should be able to plan (design) a food or any other kind of garden around your home, office, school or church in a way that it will help you to grow more food and medicinal plants using fewer resources. *Design* means where you put things and how you arrange things. A good design will need careful planning.
The design plan is your vision of where the plants and animals (including you!) will live. It will show where the pathways, driveways, buildings, water tanks, solar panels, toilets, and other structures will be placed in your area. Everything that you’ve learned about low input must be considered in the design.
Some key questions to continually ask yourself are:
- Low Input – How can I make the best use of resources in the most efficient way?
- Diet Diversity – How can I get a diverse diet throughout the year?
- Soil Health – What do I need to include to make my soil healthy?
- Water Management – How can I make the best use of all my water?
- Permaculture principles - What does each plant, tree, or animal need to live healthily? Where is the best place to put it and what should it go with it?
- Considerations – I also need to consider resources, space, labour, lifestyle, availability and weather.
At first, as with any new skill or way of thinking, it will take some effort to remember all of these pointers. However, after a while it becomes your way of thinking with very little effort at all. In this next section you will have the opportunity to start thinking about a design for your area. Design plans may change as you put the plan into action and it may take years to complete the overall design plan.
3.6.4 Steps for your design plan
There are many ways to create a design plan. However it is important to work in an orderly and structured way. We therefore suggest six main steps to consider when you create a design plan. These steps form part of the next activity.
**Note:** In the next unit you will be following the six steps with your households, so make sure you understand and do every step as well as possible.
Activity 3.14 Creating a design plan for your area
Complete this activity on your own in your workbook
Aim: Create a design plan of a food or any other garden for your area taking low input principles into consideration.
Time: 4 hours
What you do
Follow the steps explained below, and use any relevant information in this module to design a plan of action to enhance food security in your area.
Step 1: Revisit your helicopter plan
In Unit 3 of Module 2 you had to draw a helicopter plan showing how you would like your area (yard) to look in five year’s time. It is now time to revisit this helicopter plan to remind yourself of your expectations and to take them into consideration when you start your design plan.
Step 2: Revisit the map you compiled (Resources map and Transect walks)
In Unit 2 of this module, you used various tools to map your area. You will recall that we looked at resources mapping and transect walks. You now need to revisit this map to help you decide where you will make your garden.
Step 3: Decide where and how you will make your garden
Although you have a map of your community, and a list of your resources, you now need to decide on these important aspects:
1. Where will you make your garden?
2. How will you address the water needs?
3. How will you prepare your soil?
4. What plants you will you plant?
Where will you make your garden?
Walk around your own area, preferably with other people in your own household. You will want to do this several times at different times of the day to really understand the area. After ten years we still take what we call ‘garden walks’ to see how the designs are doing and to discuss what changes and additions we want to make.
You need to look at the following factors:
- The current layout of trees, the places where you keep your animals, and the buildings in your own area
- The life styles of your own household members
- The slope, aspect and ridges in your own area including where North, South, East and West are
- The direction of the usual winds and the position of trees throwing shade (which may change at different times of the year).
**How will they address their water needs?**
- Decide on how you will control run-off
- How irrigation can be implemented in the most effective way
- How to address your water needs in the most sustainable way (capturing rainwater, dew and ‘grey’ water)
**How will you prepare your soil?**
- Establish the type of soil you have and how you can improve it (compost and/or manure)
- What will you use as mulch?
- What types of beds will you make; raised, sunken or level?
- How will you prevent soil erosion?
**Which plants will you plant?**
- Decide on the best plants and animals to use according to permaculture groups and to enhance food security directly or indirectly. For example, you will be directly enhancing food security by planting a variety of vegetables and fruits to eat. You will be indirectly enhancing food security by planting medicinal plants, food plants and flowers to sell.
- Consider using indigenous plants and seeds which you have harvested in a sustainable way from nature.
**Step 4: Visualise or “draw” your plan:**
There are several ways that you can visualize or “draw” your plan:
- in your head,
- on paper such as a notebook, flip chart, poster board, old cardboard or chalkboard,
- outside in the actual area with rocks, broken bricks, sticks, or other markings to help you see your ideas and make changes by moving them around as you think through your plan.
- by using all of these methods, which is the best way to do it.
A. The bare homestead plot
B. The garden design using bricks
Figure 3.29 An example of a design plan laid out with bricks
Step 5: Discuss your design plan with other people
You have worked hard and have designed a plan which you are very proud of. It is however very important to discuss your design plan with other people; not only with members of your group or household, but also with other knowledgeable people. There are numerous people with experience that will add value to your plan. After discussions, revisit your design and adapt it where necessary. Keep in mind that the success of your project depends on a good design which takes all low input principles into consideration.
Step 6: Action plan
After you have mapped your area and created your design plan, you have to write an action plan for your area. When you are working in a team or community situation, a written list helps to create clear communication. You can brainstorm all the activities that need to be done then put them in order into a plan. Remember, things may change when you get out there and start doing. This action plan will form the main topic of Module 5.
Questions
1. What were the major changes that you made to your original map for your area, after you had walked through the area a second time? What made you change your mind?
2. Was there agreement in your group, regarding the priorities that need to be addressed in the area? Is it important that every member should have a voice? Justify your answer.
3. What problems do you think you will encounter when you put your design into action? How can these be addressed?
Concluding remarks
In this unit we have explored how natural resources are abused and in danger of becoming so scarce that we will not have enough to satisfy our future needs. However, there is hope if we use our resources in a sustainable way. We have therefore looked at ways to manage our precious soil, water, biodiversity and energy resources efficiently without harming the natural environment, while still enhancing food security.
We also started planning a design for a homestead garden and other projects that will contribute to food security in our specific area.
In Unit 4 you will have an opportunity to apply what you have learned when you work with households.
Introduction
You have now completed Units 1-3 of this module and have gained the basic knowledge regarding natural resources and how it should be used. Well done! This means you can now ‘speak the language’ used by people who work in the field of food security. You have also gained important skills, which you will need when you work in partnership with households as required in the modules that follow.
Before we continue, complete the table below and decide if you really do have a clear understanding of what you have learned in Units 1, 2 and 3.
| Key concepts | I still recall the basic definition and know the information can be found on page…….. of this study guide |
|-------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Tick ( ) |
| | Page number |
| UNIT 1 | |
| Natural resources | |
| Renewable resources | |
| Non-renewable resources | |
| Habitat | |
| Solar energy | |
| Recycling | |
| Water cycle | |
| Evaporation | |
| Evapotranspiration | |
| Transpiration | |
| Condensation | |
| Precipitation | |
| Infiltration | |
| Groundwater | |
| Water table | |
| Aquifers | |
| Catchment | |
| Drainage basin | |
| Fossil fuels | |
| Indigenous | |
| Organisms | |
| --- | --- |
| Soil texture, structure and type | |
| Humus | |
| Biodiversity | |
| Cycle of nature | |
| Food chain | |
| Food web | |
| Trophic (feeding) levels | |
| Ecosystem | |
**UNIT 2**
| Resources | |
| --- | --- |
| • Access to resources | |
| • Control of resources | |
| • Ownership of resources | |
| Gender | |
| Macro-level factors | |
| Technological environment | |
| Socio-cultural environment | |
| Natural environment | |
| Beliefs, attitudes and values | |
| Indigenous knowledge | |
| Constraints | |
| TB | |
| Malaria | |
| Protozoa | |
| Route of transmission | |
| Remittances | |
| Chronic diseases | |
| Inheritance laws | |
| Resource mapping | |
| Transect walks | |
| Ranking | |
| Scoring | |
| Physiology | |
| Psychology | |
**UNIT 3**
| Sustainable | |
| --- | --- |
| Low input | |
| Term | Definition |
|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Deforestation | The removal of trees from an area, especially on a large scale. |
| Solar energy | Energy derived from the sun, such as photovoltaic cells or solar thermal |
| Greenhouse effect | A phenomenon where gases in the atmosphere trap heat and warm the Earth's |
| Pollution | The introduction of harmful substances into the environment. |
| Acid rain | Rain that is acidic due to the presence of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen |
| Erosion | The wearing away of soil, rock, or other materials by natural processes |
| Riverine vegetation | Vegetation growing along the banks of rivers and streams |
| Sink | A depression in the ground that collects water |
| Swales | Small channels or ditches designed to collect and direct water |
| Used water | Water that has been used for some purpose and may be contaminated |
| Grey water | Water that has been used for domestic purposes but not for drinking |
| Irrigation | The process of applying controlled amounts of water to crops and plants |
| Soil erosion | The wearing away of soil by wind, water, or other natural forces |
| Desertification | The process of turning fertile land into desert |
| Tillage methods | Methods used to till or cultivate the soil |
| Biomass | Organic matter that can be burned to produce heat or electricity |
| Animal manure | The waste produced by animals |
| Gulley | A small channel or ditch designed to collect and direct water |
| Mulch | A layer of organic material spread over the soil to retain moisture |
| Fire break | A strip of land cleared of vegetation to prevent the spread of fire |
| Fire guard | A barrier designed to prevent the spread of fire |
| Perennial plants | Plants that live for more than two years |
| Legumes | Plants that produce seeds in pods |
| Compost | Decomposed organic matter used as a fertilizer |
| Permaculture | A system of sustainable agriculture and design based on natural principles |
In this unit you will get the opportunity to apply your knowledge and skills when you work in groups using certain tools and methods, that are commonly used in the field of food security.
4.1 Build good working relationships
No matter what path you take in your efforts to improve food security in your community, you will need to develop cooperative and constructive relationships with many different people. The people you engage may include politicians, public servants, people in your community, the media, policy makers, researchers, health professionals, and people in other organisations who are concerned about your issue.
To build good working relationships you need to consider the following:
4.1.1 Be honest
Be yourself and always tell the truth. Good relationships are built on trust. If the people you are working with or trying to influence think that they cannot trust you, you will not be effective. Honesty and sincerity are powerful tools.
4.1.2 Be calm and polite
Keep your temper in check and be polite to everyone you meet. Thank anyone who helps you. This includes secretaries, receptionists, administrators and other workers. People in these positions can be a big help if they are on your side so do not create a bad impression with them. Community action (for example, lobbying for policy change) can go on for a long time and you may see the same people again and again.
4.1.3 Be fair
If you are trying to influence people, lobby or change policy, there is great value in putting yourself in the shoes of the people you are trying to influence. Do not just ask them to see your side, try to see theirs as well. People will be more willing to listen to you if they see that you are willing to listen to them. You do not have to agree with their position, but you will be able to make your points more effectively if you understand their position. It is very effective if you can state your case as “we would like to work with you to solve this problem together”.
4.1.4 Be well informed
Many aspects of action on food security involve lobbying and advocating for changes in policy. Good policy is based on good information. Know your issue and come to meetings prepared to explain it clearly and answer questions. Advocacy is most effective when you not only bring a problem to the table, but you can also suggest a solution. Your insights, ideas and suggestions can contribute to good policy.
4.1.5 Be helpful
People will be more willing to help you if you are willing to help them. Look at activities like advocacy as an exchange. You want something from the people you are trying to influence. What can you offer in return? For example, public officials need to know about the outcomes and effects of the policies they are responsible for. You can offer information about the effects of policy on your community and people in your community from your group’s unique point of view.
4.1.6 Be patient, take the long view, and celebrate your small successes
Community action can sometimes be a long, drawn-out process. This is especially true of actions like lobbying or advocating for policy change, but applies to all kinds of community action. Before you start you need to be reasonably sure that you have the energy and enthusiasm to keep at the job for what could be a long time. Do not give up and do not expect things to fall into place immediately. Do not take conflicts and defeats personally. Keep talking. Keep coming back. Be willing to compromise as long as you’re still moving toward your goal. A small step in the right direction is better than no
4.2 Portfolio Activities and the “Triple A” Cycle
All the portfolio activities you do in this unit will be guided by the “Triple A” Cycle approach.
Do you still remember what the “Triple A” cycle approach is? To find out if you know the answer, complete the following sketch.
Figure 4.1 The “Triple A” Approach
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Your sketch should show the following:
**Step 1:** Assessment phase: Collecting current information on key issues/indicators.
**Step 2:** Analysis phase: Interpreting the information, making sense of it, identifying areas of success and areas that need improvement.
**Step 3:** Action phase: Developing strategies or action plans to address identified problems and improve implementation activities.
### 4.3 Your main tasks in this unit are Portfolio Activities
What are your main tasks for this unit? Your main tasks are the four activities shown in the table below. These activities are **compulsory Portfolio Activities**, which must be included in your portfolio.
You should also include other items, such as reflection items in your portfolio. Use the portfolio file you received especially for the purpose, for filing your completed portfolio activities.
**Note:** It is very important that you refer to the portfolio section in the General Information Letter when you compile your portfolio.
| Your task | Tools and methods | Portfolio activity |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|
| 1. Assessing information in partnership with your household (collecting | • Gender-related use and control of resources | 4.1 |
| information) | • Draw a Resource Map with households for their area | 4.2 |
| | or draw a Transect Walk diagram | |
| 2. Analyzing the information you collected in partnership with the group | • Analyse best water, soil and plant practices with households | 4.3 |
| and deciding which are positive and which are negative points | | |
| 3. Taking action together by coming up with an action plan that will | • Create a design plan with households for a homestead garden and make compost | 4.4 |
| address food security issues | • Write a reflection report | 4.5 |
How do you go about conducting (carrying out) the three tasks of gathering information, analysing information and taking action in partnership with your household for improved food security?
4.3.1 Assessing (collecting information)
You will need to collect a lot of information and there are several tools that make it easy to do so. You will be collecting information by using:
- a gender-related exercise to establish use and control of resources and
Then choose between
- doing a resource map
or
- doing a transect walk. (You may choose which one of these two methods you would like to use with your household).
Portfolio Activity 4.1 Gender related exercise to establish use and control of resources
Complete this activity on your evidence sheet in the portfolio file.
You have already done a similar activity in Unit 2 in your groups, but now will you get the opportunity to look at gender issues with your households. You may have to adapt this activity for the specific households you will be working with.
Aim: Conduct a gender-related exercise with your households, to establish use and control of resources in the area.
Time: One hour
What you must do
1. Brainstorm with your households and compile a list of resources which they regard as important in their community.
2. Form a female and a male group.
3. Interview the female group first. With their help, complete the table provided in the evidence sheet. Do the same with the male group.
4. If necessary, add columns to your table for different age groups (young, adult, aged) and disadvantaged groups.
Evidence sheet for Portfolio Activity 4.1 (Gender exercise)
This evidence sheet is ONLY an example. You have to complete the evidence sheet for Portfolio Activity 4.1, which is in your portfolio file.
| Resources | Owned by | Controlled by | Used by | Monitored by | Accessed by |
|---------------|----------|---------------|---------|--------------|-------------|
| Land | | | | | |
| House | | | | | |
| Water | | | | | |
| Fuel Wood | | | | | |
| Livestock | | | | | |
| Finances | | | | | |
| Labour | | | | | |
Questions
1. Which resources do women and men (and the young and old) use? Are there differences in their use according to gender, age, social group? What access and control do disadvantaged people have?
2. Who decides about the use of these resources?
3. Who has ownership over the resources (the right to sell or give them away)?
4. What are the main differences between women and men when it comes to the type of resources they use, control, or have ownership over?
5. What are the relationship between women’s labour and their use and control of resources? What are the relationship between men’s labour and their use and control of resources? Give information on other relevant groups.
6. How will the death of a male (or female) adult in the household change the access, control and ownership rights over resources, including land, of the remaining partner? What happens to children in a household when both parents die?
7. What services and structures in the community can support rural women and men in managing resources and improving their livelihoods? Give the same information for disadvantaged groups, different socio-economic groups, grandparent or child-headed households, households taking care of sick relatives or orphans.
Conclusion
Write a conclusion of your findings on this gender issue. What recommendations can you make?
Portfolio Activity 4.2 (Option 1) Draw a Resource Map of your area
Complete this activity on your evidence sheet in the portfolio file.
You have already done a Resource Map in your groups (Unit 2), but now you will get the opportunity to do it with your households. You may have to adapt this activity for the specific household you will be working with. Select only one option, Option 1 or option 2.
The Village/community Resource Map is a tool that helps us to learn about a community and its resource base. The primary aim is not to develop an accurate map, but to get useful information about local perceptions of resources. The household participants need to develop the content of the map, according to what is important to them.
The Village Resource Map is a good tool to begin with. It is easy and fun for the households to do. It helps start discussion among the household members and with you as a facilitator. We would like you to do this map with a separate men’s and women’s group. This is because women and men may use different resources as you have seen in the previous activity. The women will map the resources they think are important (like water and firewood). The men will map the resources they think are important, like grazing land and infrastructure.
**Aim:** Assess the households’ perceptions of what natural resources are found in the community, and how they are used.
**With whom:** Female and male focus groups
**Time:** 2.5 hours
**What you must do**
1. Find a large open space to work.
2. Start by placing a rock or leaf to represent a central and important landmark in the community, such as a school.
3. Ask the participants to draw the boundaries of the community.
4. Ask the participants to draw other things on the map that are important. Do not interrupt the participants unless they stop drawing.
5. Once they have finished, ask whether there is anything else of importance that should be added.
6. When the map is complete, ask the participants to explain and describe it. Ask questions about anything that is unclear.
7. Use the key questions given in the example of your portfolio evidence sheet below, to guide a discussion on the use of resources in the village.
8. Complete the questions on your evidence sheet, and put the **completed sheet** in your portfolio file.
9. Include the **resource map** you drew on paper in Unit 2, as well as a **photograph of the village resource map**, as further evidence.
Note: You may add any other additional information you regard as important. Although photos are expensive, you may use a cellphone or camera, and print photographs, to enhance your portfolio.
Example ONLY
Evidence sheet for Portfolio Activity 4.2 (Resource Map)
This evidence sheet is ONLY an example. You have to complete the evidence sheet for Portfolio Activity 4.1, which is in your portfolio file.
Questions
1. What resources are abundant?
2. What resources are scarce?
3. Does everyone have equal access to land?
4. Do women have access to land?
5. Do the poor have access to land?
6. Do the disabled have access to land?
7. Who makes decisions on land allocation?
8. Where do people collect water?
9. Who collects water?
10. Where do people go to, to collect firewood?
11. Who collects firewood?
12. Where do people graze their livestock?
13. What kind of development projects/activities do you carry out as community? Where does this happen?
14. Which resource do you have the most problems with?
Examples of resources:
- Physical features: hills, valleys, large rocks, erosion
- Types of natural vegetation such as grassland, bushes, trees
- Cultivated areas and agricultural lands showing cropping and crop types
- Land-use such as gardens, fields, grazing areas, forests
- Rivers and water points
- You can also include the village infrastructure such as the boundary, roads, houses, schools, markets, clinics, churches, special places such as sacred sites.
Portfolio Activity 4.2 (Option 2) Draw a Transect Walk diagram
Complete this activity on your evidence sheet in the portfolio file.
Aim: Do a Transect Walk with your households and compile a diagram of their major issues regarding natural resources
Time: 2.5 hours
What you must do:
This activity has a Part A and a Part B. Here are suggestions to guide you on what to do in each part.
Part A: Plan
1. Discuss with your households what the purpose of the transect walk is and what information you want to gather. Choose 2-3 features and issues you want to explore. Look at this list for ideas:
- Land use: crops cultivated, local cultivation patterns, local technology used for irrigation, water/plant/soil conservation, erosion, soil types, local vegetation, use of wild plants, resources in disrepair such as dip tanks.
- Resources or facilities: state of roads, problems and opportunities with water points or plotting a gravity water system.
- Village or homestead areas: drainage and sanitation use of back yard space, location of taps, household chores, state of living structures and interactions between different groupings.
2. Write a list of questions to which you want to find answers.
Part B: Do
3. Take a walk across the area in a straight line and make notes on relevant features that you observe. The idea is to stop at regular intervals, say every 500 meters, or every 10 minutes, or whenever a particularly interesting feature is observed. Use the opportunity to get clarity about the issues and discuss problems and opportunities with your households.
4. After the walk, share the notes you have made with your households and refine your ideas.
5. Involve everyone in the households in a making transect walk diagram. During this time you will continue to discuss the issues and sharpen your ideas. Check the final diagram. Does it reflect adequately what you observed?
The following example of your portfolio evidence sheet will help you to document in a structured manner, what you have discussed and decided upon.
Example ONLY
Evidence sheet for Portfolio Activity 4.2 (Transect Walk)
This evidence sheet is ONLY an example. You have to complete the evidence sheet for Portfolio Activity 4.2, which is in your portfolio file.
Land use:
Choose a few features you want to explore (see Part A: Plan above)
Resources or facilities:
Village or homestead areas:
Questions
1. What kind of soil do you have in the community?
2. What kind of trees and plants can be found in and around the community?
3. What crops are grown in existing homestead gardens?
4. If there are slopes in the community, what are the problems in the upper and lower slopes?
5. What features and issues did your households focus on in their transect walk?
NOTE: Include the transect walk diagram that you did in Unit 2, as well as a photograph of the transect walk that the households did, as further evidence in your portfolio.
4.3.2 Analysing information
You now need to analyse water, soil and plant use of households and discuss best practices. When you have completed the analysis, you have to come to a conclusion.
Portfolio Activity 4.3 Best water, soil and plant practices
Complete this activity on your evidence sheet in the portfolio file.
Aim: Analyse water, soil and plant use of households and discuss best practices
Materials: Flip chart and various coloured pens such as koki’s
Time: 1,5 hours
What you must do
1. Look at the example below, of the evidence sheet you have to complete in participation with your household. We have partly completed the example of a fictitious (imaginary) household, to show you how it can be done.
2. You need to complete the evidence sheet in the portfolio file.
3. Refer to unit 3, before doing this activity.
Example ONLY
| Household name: | Madiba |
|-----------------|--------|
| Where located: | Near Alice in the Eastern Cape |
| Date: | 10 April 2011 |
| Household members: | Single mother, three own children and an orphan |
| Water management |
|------------------|
| **Is all waste water harvested? (All grey water should be used)** | Discuss wet areas around boreholes, wells and taps, for plants. How can wash water be used to water plants? Discuss tandala racks. | Animals trample the area to get to the water. | Use fencing materials to keep animals out. |
| **Is all rain water harvested? (No rain water should leave the area)** | Discuss water tanks, other containers such as large clay pots or drums, pits or banana circles; swales. | No male member to climb on roof to install or fix gutters. Rubbish block road drains. | Form a community group to help with installation of gutters, e.g. for women and disabled people. Children can be asked to help clean road drains, and be rewarded with a story told by a gogo. |
| **Is irrigation used? If so, what methods?** | Discuss watering where it counts (the roots); avoid over- and under-watering. Use amount of water for soil type. Water just before wilting starts. Water less often, but give deep water. Discuss low input irrigation methods (refer to unit 3) | No irrigation tools, such as a watering can. | Use plastic containers with small holes for irrigation use low-input drip irrigation methods. |
| How much water is used for plants and animals? (e.g. 100 litres, or 20 cans). How much water is harvested? | Discuss whether there is harmony between the amount of water used and harvested. | More water is used than harvested. | Be creative in harvesting more grey water rainwater and dew. |
|---|---|---|---|
| When do you water the plants in your yard? (Morning, noon, late afternoon) | Discuss evapotranspiration, and that early morning or late afternoon is the best time to water. | Do not have time early morning or late afternoon, to water plants. | See how you can change daily activities to free time for watering plants early mornings or late afternoons. |
### Healthy soil
| Mulching | Brainstorm the importance of mulch, such as keep soil cool and moist, protect it from rain and wind, prevents unwanted plants from growing, etc. | Fears surrounding mulch- that it will bring snakes and termites | Lay fears to rest with case studies/participatory discussions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Compost and animal manure | | | |
| Reduced sweeping | Discuss that sweeping removes organic matter from top soil, which removes the food and protection the soil needs. Makes the soil hard, and prevents water from seeping into soil, causing erosion. | If people don’t sweep, snakes and mice will enter the house. | Discuss these issues, and get a cat! |
| Eliminate bush burning | | | |
| Reduced tillage | | | |
| Swales | | | |
| Consider slope aspects and ridges (and sunken, raised and level beds) | | | |
| Cultivate soil-enriching crops, such as legumes | | | |
| Use animal manure and compost | | | |
### Wise use of indigenous and other plants
| Use of indigenous plants and seeds | Brainstorm the value of planting indigenous plants, available in the area. | Don’t have tools to collect plants, or don’t have access to plants in the wild | Negotiate access through community structures. |
|-----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|
| Use permaculture groups when planting | | | |
| Harvest sustainably | | | |
| Are synthetic (man-made) chemicals used on plants (eg fertilizers and pesticides) | | | |
| Use of natural remedies for plant diseases | | | |
#### 4.3.3 Taking action
In Activity 3.14 in Unit 3 you had to create a design plan for your area in your class groups. You now have an opportunity to work with your households in creating a design plan according to their needs.
**Portfolio Activity 4.4 Creating a design plan for a homestead garden in your area**
Complete this activity on your evidence sheet in the portfolio file.
**Aim:** Work with your households to create a design plan based on their needs, for example, a homestead garden.
**Time:** 3 hours
**What you must do**
Use the following steps which we examined in Unit 3 with your households. Also use any other relevant information in this module when you work with your households to create a design plan to enhance food security.
**Step 1: Revisit the households helicopter plan**
In Unit 3 of Module 2 you had to draw a helicopter plan with households showing what they would like their area (yard) to look like in five year’s time. It is now time to revisit this helicopter plan to remind them of their expectations and to take them into consideration when designing a plan.
Step 2: Revisit the map the household compiled (Resource map and Transect walks)
In Activity 4.2 you have used various tools to map the households area. You will recall that we looked at resource mapping and transect walks. You now need to revisit this map to help them decide where they will make their garden.
Step 3: Decide where and how the household will make their garden
Although the household has a map of their community, and a list of their resources and issues regarding resources, they now need to decide on three important aspects:
1. Where is the best place to make their garden?
3. How will they address their water needs?
4. How will they prepare their soil?
5. What plants do they want to plant?
Where is the best place to make their garden?
Walk around your own area, preferably with other people in your household. You will want to do this several times at different times of the day to really understand the area.
You need to look at:
- The current layout of trees, places where you keep your animals, and buildings in your own area
- The life styles of household members
- The slope, aspect and ridges in your own area including where North, South, East and West are
- The direction of the usual winds (this may change at different times of the year)
How will they address their water needs?
Together with the household decide:
- How the household will control run-off and
- How irrigation can be done in the most effective way
- How to address their water needs in the most sustainable way (capturing rainwater, dew and ‘grey’ water)
How will they prepare their soil?
- Decide what type of soil they have and how to improve it (compost and/or manure)
- What will they use as mulch?
- What types of beds will they make - raised, sunken or level?
- How will they prevent soil erosion?
What plants will they plant?
- Decide on the best plants and animals to use according to permaculture groups that will enhance food security directly or indirectly. For example, directly enhance food security by planting a variety of vegetables and fruits to eat. Indirectly enhance food security by planting medicinal plants, food plants and flowers to sell.
- Consider using indigenous plants and seeds which have been harvested in a sustainable way from nature.
Step 4: Households visualize or “draw” their plan
There are several ways that households can visualize or “draw” their plan:
- On paper such as a notebook, flip chart, poster board, old cardboard or chalkboard,
- Outside in the actual area with rocks, broken bricks, sticks, or other markings to help you see your ideas and make changes by moving them around as you think through your plan. (Refer to Figure 3.23 in Unit 3)
- Or by using all of these methods, which is the best way to do it.
Step 5: Discuss the households design plan with other people
You and your household have worked hard and have designed a plan which you are very proud of. It is however very important to discuss their design plan with other knowledgeable people. There are numerous people with experience that will add value to their plan. After discussions, revisit the design and adapt it where necessary. Keep in mind that the success of this gardening project depends on a good design which takes all of the low input principles we examined in this module into consideration.
Step 6: Action Plan
After the household has mapped their area and created a design plan, you have to help them write an action plan for their area. When you are working in a team, a written list helps to create clear communication. You can brainstorm all the activities that need to be done then put them in order and form a plan. Remember, things may change when they get out there and start doing. Implementing this action plan will form the main topic of Module 5.
Questions
1. What were the major changes that households made to their original map for their area, after you walked through the area a second time? What made them change their mind?
2. Was there consensus in your household group, regarding the priorities that need to be addressed in the design plan? Is it important that every member should have a voice? Explain your answer.
3. What problems do you think households will encounter when they put your design into action? How can these be addressed?
Making compost with your households
In Unit 3 we briefly examined compost but now you now have to make compost with your households so it will be ready for use when they start planting plants or seeds in their prepared gardens in Module 5.
Basic Principles for making any type of compost
1. **Use a variety of different natural items** – anything natural can go into compost. The key is variety and balance. The compost needs a variety of foods to be healthy just like we need to eat a variety of foods to be healthy!
2. **Balance the amount of air, water and heat** to make the compost work quickly. With too much air or too little water the pieces will break down slowly, with too much water the pieces will become waterlogged and the composting process will slow down. Luckily, it is easy to learn this balance with a little practice.
3. **Do not use plastic or other items made from chemicals**, commonly referred to as ‘man-made’ terms. You will have to think about where the items came from – paper, leather, and cotton clothes all come from natural materials and will eventually be food for the soil (you will also have to think what happened to the item along the way, such as whether it was painted or dyed with chemicals).
4. **Put the compost pile where it will be most useful**. Do you have a tree you can put the pile near so the tree can protect the compost from sun and so the tree can benefit from the nutrients in the compost? Is it better for you to have your compost in your field or around your home? Or, better yet, have many compost piles/pits in many places! Be creative compost can go anywhere and can be any size!
You should recognize the following figure which is in Unit 3 and which shows you how to make compost. We repeat the figure here to make it easier for you when you make compost with your households.
Figure 4.2 Making compost
Now that you understand the basic principles of making any type of compost, you may choose to make pile compost or pit compost, or make the compost in your trench bed.
Pile composting
Making compost in a pile usually takes the least work as you just pile items on top of each other. However, to finish quickly they need a bucket or two of water every week in the dry season. You can just let the compost sit, but it will take longer and the process will slow down until there is moisture.
1. Start with the largest pieces to allow air to enter the pile from the bottom.
2. Layer different items changing from dry materials to wet materials (like fresh food, fresh manure, freshly cut grass). Always cover the wet materials well with dry materials so insects are not attracted to the pile. (Optional: Some people like to cut up items which will speed up the compost, but this means more work for you. Decide how quickly you need your compost!)
3. Keep layering until about chest height then stop adding new materials (start another pile with new materials). You can add a bucket of water in between layers if you have it (this can be ‘grey’ water, like from washing).
4. If it is a very dry area you can cover the pile with large fresh leaves (like banana, palm or papaya), or with mud to help keep moisture in the pile.
5. Heat monitoring pole. The compost should get hot inside after a few days. You can put a pole in the middle of the pile then pull it out after a few days. The pole should feel warm when touched.
6. After about 3 weeks turn the pile over and add water (if you have it and if the pile needs it). Observe the pile as you turn it. Use it after 1-2 turns (6-9 weeks). Allowing chickens or other animals to scratch through your pile will make a mess, but they also mix the materials up for you. Just pull together the pile with a rake, your hands, feet, or another tool.
Pit composting
Pit composting generally needs more input than pile composting, although this is not always the case.
1. You have to dig a pit, or use an existing pit, such as where bricks were made, or an old burning pit (since you are now making compost so you will burn a LOT less!).
2. Use the same concepts as for pile composts, layering a variety of different natural materials.
3. Add a bucket or two of water while it is being made, depending on how moist the area already is.
4. When the pit is filled, cover it with a layer of dirt and then mulching to help trap moisture and protect from sun and wind.
Pit composting may be the right choice for you, depending on your situation, but a few points to consider before digging a pit are:
- The pits require reaching down and getting the compost back out of the pit when it is done, which is more work than using the pile compost.
- This compost is not turned over; it just sits until it is ready. It also does not need water to be added after it is made as the pit prevents water from escaping as quickly from the compost.
- It takes longer for the compost to become ready.
Many people find it most useful out in their fields so they just layer in organic matter at harvest time and cover it, then it is ready for use in the next planting season.
Using compost: The nutrient levels in the compost will vary depending on what you used to make the compost. Compost can be used as:
- Food to fill planting stations for seeds, seedlings, pots, or planting tubes (or reused bags!).
- Top dressing for plants and trees (then add mulch to protect and hold the compost nutrients)
Portfolio Activity 4.5 Write a reflection report
Complete this activity on your evidence sheet in the portfolio file.
Aim: Reflect on your participation with households, and develop a plan for your own professional development as a facilitator in communities
Time: Two hours
What you must do
1. Read the following background information on reflection (and reflective practice), and answer the questions that follow.
What is meant by reflection?
It is important that you should strive to make the work that you do with households, more effective. We all make mistakes from time to time. However, it is important to learn from these mistakes you may have made when you worked with households, and prevent similar mistakes in future. On the other hand, you may realise that a certain way of approaching people, or brainstorming ideas with the households, are effective. You should build on this strength. We call this process, where you think about your own practice (way of doing things), *reflection*.
We examined the concept of reflection in Module 2 and now you have an opportunity to apply your understanding of reflection to your work with households in Module 3. In this activity you will have to reflect on your own practice.
When reflecting, keep the following questions in mind:
- What exactly happened during my participatory sessions with households?
- What could the reasons be for what happened?
- How did I respond? Why did I respond in this way?
- What are the key issues that I need to be aware of?
- Do I have the information available that will help me to act differently or to improve my actions in future? If not, what do I need to find out and how?
- Who else could/should I involve to assist me?
- How would I deal with a similar situation in the future?
Steps to guide reflection
There are several techniques to help you with your reflection. When reflecting we suggest you use the following steps:
**Step 1.** Describe what happened
**Step 2.** Analyse the situation
**Step 3.** Ask yourself: What does it mean for my practice (way of doing)? How should I act upon it?
Let us look at an example to illustrate the steps you need to follow when reflecting.
Sarah working with the Mtombeni household
Sarah is a UNISA student, who works in a rural community in KZN. One of her households, the Mtombeni family, wants to make a homestead garden, to enhance their food security. Sarah is a very good student who takes her work seriously, and she gets upset with Mr. Mtombeni, who she perceives as being very negative. The following is an account of a contact session they had.
**Sarah:** I think we should plant the following vegetables in your homestead garden. (Sarah shows the packets of seeds to the Mtombeni family).
**Mr. Mtombeni:** We don’t want to plant carrots. None of my children really like carrots.
**Sarah:** Oh, but you must! It is a rich source of Vitamin A. Listen to me, you clearly don’t know how to plan a balanced diet!
**Mr. Mtombeni:** You don’t ever listen to me, and you always think you know better. I think you should leave my house.
When Sarah reflected on this incident, she wrote the following:
**Step 1. Describe what happened**
Mr. Mtombeni and I had a confrontation today. I wanted him to plant carrots in their homestead garden, and he refused, saying that I am pushy and always know better.
**Step 2. Analyse the situation**
Thinking back, I realised that I should have perhaps followed a different approach. Perhaps I should have started by asking the household what vegetables they like to plant. Perhaps I should talk less, and listen more.
**Step 3. What does it mean for my practice? How should I act upon it?**
I realise that I excluded the household from the decision making process. I should ensure that I act as facilitator, so that people in the households feel that they have a voice.
2. Now do the following on the evidence sheet in your portfolio file.
Reflect on any incident that caused you some discomfort or stress when you worked with households, using the three steps mentioned above.
You have to complete the evidence sheet for Portfolio Activity 4.5, which is in your portfolio file.
Figure 1.14 Map showing December evapotranspiration potential in South Africa (See Annexure A)
Figure 1.15 Map showing the July evapotranspiration potential in South Africa (See Annexure A)
Figure 1.9 Average annual rainfall for South Africa (see Annexure A)
Figure 1.10 Seasonality of rainfall in South Africa (see Annexure A)
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Nordin, S. 2005. *Low Input Food and Nutrition Security: growing and eating more using less*. Malawi: World Food Programme, 2005.
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Stimie, CM, Kruger E, De Lange, M. and Crosby, CT. 2010. Agricultural Water Use in Homestead Gardening Systems Volume 2 Draft Report. Water Research Commission. WRC Report No: TT 430/09.
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AIDS: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, thought to be caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks the immune system, transmitted from one person to another by the exchange of body fluids.
Aquifers: Cracks or huge caves under the ground that are usually filled with water.
Bacteria: Are microorganisms that can be beneficial or harmful. For example, beneficial bacteria recycle waste or make beer, and harmful bacteria cause diseases such as tuberculosis and cholera.
Biodiversity: The richness and diversity of all living things on Earth.
Blossoms: Flowers
Carnivores: Meat eaters e.g. lions and dogs.
Catchment: A structure for catching or collecting water.
Coal: Is a solid fossil fuel found in the Earth and is a non-renewable source of energy.
Co-exists: To live or exist together at the same time or in the same place.
Condensation: The water vapor in the air condenses back into water when it cools down there. Clouds are formed that consist of very small droplets of water.
Condone: To approve, forgive, or overlook.
Consensus: An opinion or position reached by a group as a whole.
Consumers: Organisms that depend on plants (photosynthesizers) for a source of food e.g. animals.
Contours: Imaginary lines that are on the same level (at the same height or elevation), across a slope.
Compromised: Weaken by accepting standards that are lower than is desirable.
Crude oil: This oil is extracted from the crust of the Earth (underneath the surface of the Earth) and is used to make many products. The main products are related to energy – the production of fossil fuels such as petroleum and diesel.
Data: Results, often numerical, from scientific enquiry.
Dead organic matter in soil: The remains of plants (leaves, fruits, or grass), and animals (manure
or dead organisms), which enriches the soil.
**Decomposers:** Organisms such as bacteria and fungi that feed on dead organic matter.
**Deforestation:** The destruction of forests for firewood, to make way for urban developments, by logging companies for financial benefit, for the sale of wood for furniture and other products, to make way for roads, tree plantations, farming and mining, by flooding from human-made dams.
**Degraded:** reduced in quality over a period of time
**Depleted:** use up the supply of; exhaust the abundance of
**Desertification:** Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including variations in climate and human activities.
**Drainage:** Drainage is to seep or move away and usually refers to water moving to a lower point. So, water drains out of a basin into a pipe and water drains into the soil, or from high lying mountains down to the sea.
**Ecology:** the study of the Earth, our home. We share the Earth with millions of other living organisms such as plants, insects, bacteria and mammals. Ecology is also the study of the relationships between living organisms.
**Ecological Pyramid:** A diagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or matter, or numbers of organisms within each trophic level in a food chain or food web.
**Ecosystem:** a group of interdependent organisms (plants, animals and microorganisms) in a particular area together with the environment (sun, water, soil and air) that they live in and depend on.
**Effluent:** liquid waste flowing out from a sewer or sewerage system
**Element:** A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.
**Energy:** The capacity to do work; comes in forms such as solar, chemical and electrical.
**Evaporation:** Heated by the sun, water evaporates into the atmosphere from the surfaces of any open body of water such as oceans, lakes, rivers and dams.
**Evapotranspiration** from a given piece of land = evaporation on the ground surface + transpiration by plants
**Exotic plants/Alien plants:** Plants, from other countries that were brought into an area by people. Examples are pines, bluegums and blackwattles. They grow in our natural areas, and use large amounts of water.
**Food web:** A food network showing the interconnections between one organism and all other organisms to which it relates.
Fossils: remains of plants or animals from millions of years ago that have been preserved inside a rock or other geological deposit, often as an impression or in a petrified state).
Fossil fuels: The non-renewable resources of coal, oil and natural gas.
Gender: Refers to whether a person is male (a man) or female (a woman).
Gender relations: Women’s roles in relation to those of men (and vice versa), rather than women’s or men’s roles separately.
Gender roles: Refer to the socially constructed roles of, men and women. For example, in certain parts of the world women collect only non-wood products such as herbs, mushrooms and medicinal plants, while the men collect firewood. In other parts of the world men and women both harvest these products.
Global warming: Is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s lower atmosphere. It is caused by certain gasses such as carbon dioxide and methane which is called ‘greenhouse gases’. If the increase in temperature continues it cause dramatic changes in climate.
Grey water: Used water that could be directed into a food garden or be used to water trees.
Groundwater: The water that infiltrates into the soil becomes groundwater.
Habitat: The natural condition or environment in which an organism lives.
Herbicides: Chemicals, which are bad for the environment and human health and which are used to kill harmful plants especially weeds.
Herbivores: Plant eaters e.g elephants and donkeys.
Humus: Dead organic, decomposed material which enriches the soil and makes plants grow well.
Indigenous plants: Plants that grow naturally in an area. For example the Marula tree in Limpopo Province, Proteas in the Western Cape and cycads in the Eastern Cape.
Infectious disease: An abnormal and harmful condition affecting an organism, caused by another organism. E.g malaria caused by the malaria parasite.
Infinite: limitless or endless in space, extent, or size; impossible to measure or calculate
Infiltrates: The absorption and downward movement of water into the soil layer
Infiltration: Water falls on the land and infiltrates into the soil until all the pores/openings are filled and the soil is saturated.
Industrial processes: Industry is the large scale production or manufacture of a product, such as a car or petroleum.
**Inorganic**: Are considered to be of a mineral or chemical, not biological, origin.
**Impermeable**: not permitting fluids to pass through it
**Leaching**: A process to describe water moving through the soil, which dissolves and removes the salts to layers lower down.
**Leguminous**: a plant of the bean or pea family
**Livelihood**: Livelihood is a word that refers to ways and things that help people live and survive. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks (eg: unemployment, drought, floods), maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation.
**Macrolevel**: the most general level of a concept or process
**Manufacturing**: This is the process of producing or making a product using raw materials. It is the processing of certain materials to produce other materials or products, usually with monetary value and is the basis of modern business. Thus many materials or inputs are used to manufacture a car for example.
**Mulch**: A layer of leaves, grass, husks or other organic matter that is placed on the soil between plants.
**Natural environment**: Provides natural resources such as land, water, soil and biodiversity, which in turn will influence food production.
**Nitrogen-fixing bacteria**: certain bacteria that change nitrogen from the air into forms that can be used by plants and certain other organisms.
**Non-renewable resources**: A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be produced, re-grown, regenerated, or reused on a scale, which can sustain its consumption rate. These resources often exist in a fixed amount, or are consumed much faster than nature can recreate them. Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum and natural gas) and nuclear fuel are some examples. In contrast, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) or metals (which can be recycled) are considered renewable resources.
**Open pollinated**: plants that grow from seed and produce seedlings just like the parent plant
**Organic**: Is made up of biologic things, that are or were alive, as opposed to mineral, chemical or physical things.
**Organisms**: Living things e.g. bacteria, protozoa, fungi, plants and animals.
**Ownership of resources**: A resource such as land can be owned by someone while another person uses it or decides about its use.
**Pandemic**: Major epidemics where many people over a very large area suffer from an infectious disease such as HIV/AIDS and cholera.
**Permaculture**: Short for permanent culture, is the design of our environment based on ecological principles.
**Pest**: any unwanted and destructive insect or other animal that attacks food, crops, food or livestock
**Pesticides**: Chemicals, which are bad for the environment and human health and which are used to kill harmful insects and other organisms.
**Photosynthesis**: The process by which green plants and some other organisms such as algae, use energy from sunlight to synthesise (make) food from carbon dioxide and water.
**Physical resources**: Resources that make up an environment that are visible. They can be distinguished from natural resources to an extent as physical resources are usually the structural parts of an environment. Examples may include buildings, roads, water taps and other infrastructure. Some physical resources are also natural resources, but are the more structural ones (see physical features below). Examples are mountains, rivers and so on.
**Physical features**: Features that make up an environment that are visible, such as mountains, plains, rivers, towns, buildings and so on.
**Physiology**: Studies the functions of the body parts of living things, e.g your body parts such as your heart and kidneys.
**Plantations**: Large natural areas, for example in Mpumalanga and the Southern Cape, where the indigenous trees are removed and then planted with one kind of exotic tree (mono-culture), such as pine trees and eucalyptus (bluegum) trees which are exotic (not from South Africa)
**Pollution**: Is the unwelcome concentration of unnatural, harmful or poisonous substances that are beyond the environment's capacity to handle. These substances are harmful to humans and other living things. For example exhaust gases from cars, or pesticides to kill harmful insects.
**Potential**: That can, but has not yet, come into being.
**Potable water**: drinkable water
**Precipitation**: Water falls from the clouds back to Earth through rain, hail, sleet and snow. Dew, frost and mist are formed when water vapour condenses directly onto the land without first forming clouds.
**Proceeds**: money received through a sale or a loan
**Psychology**: Studies the functions of the human mind especially those affecting behaviour.
**Resource map**: A drawing of an area, which can be used to show the physical features, natural resources, issues concerning resources as well as actions to improve the situation.
**Rain-gauge**: An instrument for catching, collecting and measuring the amount of rainfall
**Recycle**: Save or collect used or waste materials in order to reuse them.
**Recycling**: Means processing waste material and using the material to make new items, such as melting down old plastic and using the plastic to make new containers, or placing kitchen waste on a compost heap.
**Renewable resources**: A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural processes at a rate comparable or faster than its rate of consumption by humans or other users. Solar radiation, tides, winds and hydroelectricity are perpetual resources that are in no danger of long-term availability. Renewable resources may also mean commodities such as wood, paper, and leather.
**Replenish**: To fill up or become available again. In this way renewable resources are replenished in a cyclical nature; plants and animals grow for example.
**Resource mapping, Transect walks, Ranking and Scoring**: Participatory tools to find out about resources and the issues concerning the resources in an area.
**Resources**:
- Access to resources: Having the possibility to use the resource, for example land or production equipment.
- Control of resources: Someone decides how the resource can be used and by whom. It does not necessarily imply ownership.
- Ownership of resources: A resource such as land can be owned by someone while another person uses it or decides about its use.
**Ridges and valleys**: Ridges are at the tops of hills or slopes. Valleys are at the bottom of hills or slopes.
**Rill Erosion**: the formation of many closely spaced small channels due to the uneven removal of surface soil by little streams of water
**Riverine vegetation**: Plants that grow along the banks of a river.
**Route of transmission**: How an infectious disease is spread from one person to the next or from one organism to the next.
**Sanitation**: This is the act of making or keeping something clean, for the sake of making it hygienic or healthy. This is especially important for reducing the spread of diseases and disease causing organisms.
**Seasonality**: According to the time of the year, spring, summer, fall, and winter or rainy or dry.
**Sheet flow**: a very slow acting form of erosion where a thin film of water transports soil particles away by rolling them along the ground
**Simulate**: to copy or replicate, to imitate the appearance or character of something
**Sleet**: a form of precipitation consisting of ice pellets, often mixed with rain or snow, similar to hail but usually smaller and more likely to occur in winter
Socio-cultural environment: Includes aspects of culture, economy, educational level and social organizations.
Soil erosion: The loss of soil and therefore of natural nutrients which impact negatively on plant growth.
Soil Profile: A soil profile is a cross section through the soil which reveals its horizons (layers). Soil generally consists of visually and texturally distinct layers.
Soil structure: Tells us how the soil particles are mixed or grouped together. It also tells us how well the smaller particles stick together in clusters. This influences how easily water and air (and plant roots) can move through the soil.
Solar energy: Energy from the sun and can be captured and turned into electricity with special solar panels.
Strategies: Strategies are plans, policies or tactics that are employed or acted upon to achieve a certain goal or end point. A strategy to reduce poverty for example could be to create employment for people.
Sustainability: Sustainability exists when a situation can sustain itself or keep on going or existing for a long period of time. For example, using renewable natural resources sustainably means using them no faster than they can be replenished.
Swales: Trenches that are dug to capture and manage water runoff, and increase rainwater infiltration into the soil.
System: A combination of elements that are related and organized to form a complex whole.
Natural resources: Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form (eg: minerals, energy, land, water, and living things).
Technological environment: Includes aspects such as food processing, storage, and distribution, which will influence food availability.
Terrarium: a closed container in which selected plants and sometimes small animals are kept and observed.
Threat: endanger or vulnerable to depletion, Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants, fungi, etc.) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future
Top dressing: a covering of fertilizer spread on soil without being ploughed under
Top and Subsoil: Topsoil is well decomposed organic matter, mixed with a smaller amount of minerals. Subsoil or mineral layers, the content of which varies according to the nature of the soil and its parent material.
Topography: Tells you about the shape of the land e.g slopes.
Transcribe: This means to copy or write. Here an image can be redrawn from one place to another. Information is transcribed from paper in handwritten form for example to computer in a digital form.
Transect walk: A participatory method for collecting information by walking through an area and paying attention to specific environmental features, resources and human activities, and issues such as water scarcity, soil erosion or any other problem. Transect walks are sometimes referred to as observational walks.
Transpiration. A process, by which plants lose part of the water in their bodies as vapour into the air, through pores (small holes) in the leaves.
Viruses: Are smaller than bacteria and can only reproduce when they are inside another living organism. They are therefore parasites which causes disease such as AIDS, other sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s) and influenza (flu).
Waste: Refers to the ‘leftovers’ or unwanted products from industries and other human activities.
Water cycle: Water constantly circulates around our planet moving from the oceans to the skies to the land and back to the oceans again in a pattern called the water cycle. This cycle is driven by heat energy from the sun.
Water shed: a ridge of high land dividing 2 areas that are drained by different river systems
Water table: The upper boundary of the underground water.
Wilt: To become limp, wither, droop or weak from heat or lack of water.
College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, c/o Christian De Wet and Pioneer Avenue, Florida
Private Bag x 6, Florida, 1710, South Africa
Telephone: +27 11 471 2143 / 3092, Facsimile: +27 11 471 3867
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Theatre for Youth and Outreach Program
Maxwell C. King Center for the performing arts
kingcenter.com
The Underwater B Bubble Show
Let Your Imagination Take You Places!
B-The Underwater Bubble Show
Monday, February 25, 10:30 am
With Special Thanks
For additional copies visit kingcenter.com
click Theatre For Youth section & proceed to Study Guides & Resources.
CULTURE BUILDS FLORIDA
FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF STATE
DIVISION OF CULTURAL AFFAIRS
BREVARD CULTURAL ALLIANCE
Brevard County
Rockwell Collins
Florida Theatrical Association
Publix Super Markets Charities
Suntree Rotary Club
3865 North Wickham Road • Melbourne, Florida 32935 • (321) 433-5718 • FAX: (321) 433-5817 • A 501(c)(3) Not-For-Profit Organization and a Direct Support Organization of Eastern Florida State College
Dear teachers and students,
Thank you for your interest in the King Center Theatre for Youth (TFY) Program. Our mission is to inspire, nurture and sustain a lifelong appreciation for the performing arts among our youth theatre guests. This is accomplished by the diverse array of entertaining and educational performance arts offerings.
The study resource guide is made possible by each artists and their management team to augment the live theatre experience. We hope you find the guide useful as you integrate the experience with your classroom learning.
A live theatrical experience can leave a memorable impact even after the show is over...now, Let Your Imagination Take You Places!
We are looking forward to your attendance at the show.
Yours in the arts,
Karen Wilson
Director,
Theatre for Youth Program
The Underwater Bubble Show
Artists management team has granted permission for duplication and distribution of this study guide that can be edited for local curriculum standards in same subject areas contained within the guide.
Dreamcatchers Teaching Guides align with the Common Core State Standards and New Mexico State Learning Standards.
Individually, we are one drop. Together, we are an ocean” – RYUNOSUKE SATORO
SYNOPSIS
This is a one-hour version of the full-length show.
B - The Underwater Bubble Show ... or... The Unexpected Journey of Mr. B in the Colorful Underwater World of Bubblelandia!
This show was created to tour the world for adults and children without barriers, especially language. Inspired by Cirque du Soleil, the show is rich in many elements of theater that work without speech including mime, puppetry, physical comedy, sand painting, and state-of-the-art special effects.
Kindled from childhood classics like Alice in Wonderland, The Little Mermaid, and Peter Pan, this show is a modern fairy tale with one major twist: each classic tale represents the journey of a child who grows up and learns something.
Mr. B is an average office worker who feels pressed by a thousand things to do in a world that seems too fast. When he discovers a little aquarium that appears like magic inside his briefcase, he becomes enchanted by the wondrous underwater world full of seahorses, dragon fish, starfish, mermaids, and lots of bubbles! It is a mystical place where he can sit back, relax, daydream, and enjoy life while experiencing a juggler in a huge plastic ball and dancers and acrobats playing as small colorful fish. Mr. B is performed by a skillful mime exaggerating his transformation from stressed out worker to blissed out wonder.
The latest laser technologies, massive LED screens, snow cannons, soap bubble tornadoes, theatrical fog, gigantic smoke rings, smoke-filled soap bubble machines, optical illusions, and many other surprises enrich the show. These elements make for a truly immersive “underwater” show. Add to that technology the work of Enrico Pezzoli and Dace Pecoli, two of the foremost bubble artists in the world. The pair have collaborated on countless projects since joining forces in 1998, including the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Olympics in Sochi.
**Vocabulary**
**bubbles** - air wrapped in a liquid. For this show, the artists sometimes use bubbles made from soap and water (or other liquid). The outside and inside surfaces of a bubble consist of soap molecules. A thin layer of water lies between the two layers of soap molecules, like a water sandwich with soap molecules for bread. They work together to hold air inside.
**evaporate** - become vapor, volatilize; dry up.
**glycerin** - A sweet, syrupy liquid obtained from animal fats and oils or by the fermentation of glucose. It is used as a solvent and can be made into sweeteners, antifreeze, explosives, and soaps. When added to soapy water, it can make the bubbles stronger.
**marine** - pertaining to or inhabiting the sea, ocean, or other salt water.
**oceanography** – the scientific study of the world’s ocean.
**SCUBA** – a device that lets a diver breathe air while underwater (letters stand for Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus).
**sea** - subdivision of the ocean, a smaller and shallower body of water than the ocean; often semi-enclosed or marginal between land and the ocean.
**shellfish** - aquatic animal with a shell; includes mollusks and crustaceans.
---
**Fun Ocean Facts for Students**
Nearly three-quarters of the world and 99 percent of the living space on this planet is made of water.
About 70% of the oxygen that humans breathe comes from our planet’s oceans.
**Starfish are not actually fish at all!** They do not have gills, scales, or fins like fish do. They move across the sea floor with hundreds of little “legs,” similar to millipedes.
The Mariana Trench descends to 36,070 feet below the ocean’s surface. To compare, Mt. Everest is only 29,029 feet tall.
Since the architecture and chemistry of coral are very close to human bone, coral has been used to replace bone grafts, helping human bones to heal quickly and cleanly.
Green turtles can migrate more than 1,400 miles to lay their eggs.
Alginates, derived from the cell walls of brown algae, are used in beer, frozen desserts, pickles, adhesives, ceramics, explosives, paper, and toys.
---
**Interesting Bubble Facts for Students**
The Pear Soap Company in England was responsible for the 19th century popularization of both soap and bubble blowing by altering a famous painting of a boy blowing bubbles to include a bar of its soap.
Bubble toys were largely limited to bubble pipes until the middle of the 20th century.
In the vacuum of space, a bubble wouldn’t be able to form due to the lack of exterior air pressure to counteract the pressure from inside the bubble.
A bubble gets its color from light waves reflecting between the soap film’s outer and inner surfaces. The distance between the layers gets smaller as the water evaporates, making the colors change.
Bubbles can reflect what’s around them, including any faces peering at them.
Like all water, a bubble will freeze below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, but they tend to burst after a few seconds.
Foam forms when many bubbles join together.
Bubbles can stretch and become all kinds of crazy looking shapes. The bubble always shrinks into a round shape because spheres have the smallest surface area for the amount of volume.
Bubbles pop when the water between the soap film surfaces evaporates.
The colder the outside temperature is, the higher a bubble made from your breath might fly. That’s because the warm air from your breath is lighter than cold air.
How to Make Awesome Bubbles
Materials
• 1 cup liquid dish soap like Joy or Dawn (not “ultra”)
• 6 cups distilled water inside a clean container that has a lid
• 1 tablespoon glycerin OR 1/4 cup light corn syrup
Procedure
1. Pour the dish soap into the water and mix it without letting bubbles form (that’s for later).
2. Put the glycerin or corn syrup into the mix and stir.
3. You can use it right away, but some bubble-lovers recommend covering and letting the bubble mix sit overnight.
4.
Link: Kidsdiscover
Under the Sea Imagination Jars
Lesson 1
Objectives
Students will:
• create an underwater magical world
Materials
• Mason jars (or baby food jars, wide mouthed plastic bottles, etc.)
• Blue food coloring
• Filtered water (tap water tends to give a cloudier look, but is fine to use)
• Ocean-themed plastic figurines. These can include plants, rocks, toy fish, treasure chests, etc.
• Blue and white glitter (optional)
• Glycerin (optional - this makes the glitter move more slowly when you shake the jar)
• Glue (Hot glue guns work the best, but any glue is fine)
Procedure
1. Paint the jar covers (optional).
2. In a separate container, mix the blue food coloring with the water (1 - 2 drops per quart).
3. Add the sand, rock, plants, and other figurines to the jar.
4. (Optional) Include a few dashes of glitter and glycerin (it doesn’t take much).
5. Fill the blue colored water all the way to the top of the jar.
6. Glue the lids on.
7. Shake gently - just like a snow globe!
Extensions/Modifications
• Have the children write or tell a story about their magical underwater place. Who visits? What happens there? Are there secrets? Begin with the basics of “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” “how,” and “why?” Older students may expand upon this. Share the stories in small groups or as a class.
• Have students keep a diary of what happens in their underwater world for one week. At the end of the week have them put the adventures together into the story based on the outline above.
Assessment
• Quality of participation
Sources
Hello Wonderful
Delia Creates
Objectives Students will:
• determine if temperature affects how long bubbles last before they pop.
• establish a hypothesis such as: bubble lifespan is not affected by temperature. (Remember: You cannot scientifically prove a hypothesis, but you can disprove one).
Materials
• identical clear jars, preferably with lids (baby food jars would work well)
• bubble solution (dish soap)
• measuring spoons
• thermometer
• stopwatch or clock that counts seconds
Procedure
1. Use a thermometer to find locations that are different temperatures from each other. Alternatively, you can prepare water baths for your jars by filling bowls with hot water, cold water, and ice water. Keep the jars in the water.
2. Label each jar with either where you are placing it or the temperature.
3. Add the same amount of bubble solution to each jar. The amount used will depend on the size of the jars. Use enough solution to totally wet the inside of the jar and form as many bubbles as possible while still having liquid at the bottom.
4. Construct a table/chart for each jar. Record the temperatures and how long the bubbles lasted here.
5. Place the jars in the different temperature locations. Give the liquid time to reach that temperature.
6. Shake each jar individually for the same length of time. Record the temperature and the total time it took for the bubbles to pop.
7. Repeat the experiment three times.
8. Add up the times for how long the bubbles lasted and divide that number by how many times you did the experiment. This will give you an average time for how long it took the bubbles to pop.
9. (Older students) Graph the data. The Y-axis should be the length of time your bubbles lasted (probably in seconds). The X-axis will show increasing temperature in degrees.
Ask the students if the temperature had an effect on how long the bubbles lasted. Did they pop more quickly in warmer or cooler temperatures or was there no apparent trend? Did there seem to be a temperature that produced the longest-lasting bubbles?
Ask these questions to help form conclusions:
1. Was their hypothesis accepted or rejected? Can they propose an explanation for the outcome?
2. Do they think they would get the same results if the bubble solution was made with a different brand, or a different ratio of soap to water?
3. Most liquids will form bubbles if shaken. Do they think the same results would be achieved with other liquids?
4. What effect do they think temperature and/or humidity had on the outcome of the experiment?
5. Can they name some examples of foam and bubbles they encounter in everyday life? Does it matter how long the bubbles last?
6. Do they think there are any practical applications for this experiment? For example, do they think dishwashing liquid would still work after all the bubbles pop?
Assessment
• Quality of participation
Sources
ThoughtCo
Questions to Engage & Connect
After seeing the show, ask your students to answer these questions:
When you are having a hard day, how do you relax? Do you go somewhere or do something special? How does it change your attitude?
What special effects did you observe in the show? What did they do? How did they enhance the show?
How do you think sea mammals—such as whales, seals, dolphins, and porpoises—stay warm in cold water?
Have you ever seen a show without talking before? Did you understand what was happening in the story? Why or why not?
What do you think it is about bubbles that everyone loves?
Have you ever been to the ocean? What was your favorite experience there?
What do you want to share with your family or friends about this show?
Bonus Explorations
Research a mermaid story from another country or from books, movies, or plays that have mermaid type creatures (Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, The Little Mermaid, Splash, etc.) Report on them. Compare and contrast. Next, have students create a mermaid myth of their own. Have students plan out the story carefully before they begin. Have them share their stories with the class. They can illustrate their own stories or have a partner do it.
Choose another sea creature from the show. Find out as much as possible about it. Look in reference books, on the Internet, etc. Create a fact file on the sea creature. Next, create a character/personality for that creature. These creatures can be funny, sad, smart, interesting, etc., as long as the personality is based on what they learned. Is it a male or female, young or old? Does it have good eyesight? Is it fast, slow, timid, aggressive? Have students give it a personality and a name and draw a picture of their creature. Present it to the class.
Sign Me A Story. Since there is no talking in this show, the actors have to find other ways to communicate the story. Have the students play a game of charades to communicate with each other without talking. Then, introduce how the deaf communicate with sign language. Explain how sign language, math, and music are universal languages. Go to the free link for the Sign Me A Story adventure series. There are animated characters and pop-up videos for easy learning of signs, while also learning that it is okay to be different.
Eight Things about Sharks. Have students brainstorm ideas and questions about sharks. Encourage them to do research to answer any questions they have. Have each student or group of students create a storyboard for a video documentary about sharks. Each student or group should fold a large sheet of paper into eight parts and illustrate or write eight of the important ideas about sharks they would want to show. Students should write captions for all drawings. Share with the class.
Resources
WEBSITES
Soap Bubbler 600 years of soap bubble fun, play, performance, science, tips, tricks, advice, facts & opinions.
Formulaes for making bubbles.
A link to National Geographic videos and stories about the oceans of the world.
Aquarium of the Pacific. Glossary, photos, habitat, marine life, stories, videos, webcam resource kits, etc.
The Ocean Conservancy. Ocean wildlife fact sheets, photos, and references.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services. Endangered species lists and information.
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Archimedes, the Center of Gravity, and the First Law of Mechanics
Andre K.T. Assis
Apeiron
Montreal
Published by C. Roy Keys Inc.
4405, rue St-Dominique
Montreal, Quebec H2W 2B2 Canada
http://redshift.vif.com
© Andre K.T. Assis 2008
First Published 2008
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Assis, André Koch Torres, 1962-
Archimedes, the center of gravity, and the first law of mechanics / Andre K.T. Assis.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-9732911-6-2
1. Center of mass--Textbooks. 2. Center of mass--Experiments.
3. Mechanics--Textbooks. 4. Mechanics--Experiments. I. Title.
QA839.A87 2008 531'.14 C2007-907265-8
Front cover: Oil painting of Archimedes by the Italian artist Domenico Fetti (1589-1624), painted about 1620.
Back cover: Photos of a few of the experiments described in this book. A horizontal pasteboard triangle supported at the barycenter by a vertical stick. A rectangle and a plumb line suspended by a needle. An equilibrist upside down supported at the head, with modeling clay on his hands. A lever in equilibrium with different weights on each arm.
# Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................... i
Chapter 1
The Life of Archimedes ................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2
The Works of Archimedes ............................................................................................. 11
2.1 Extant works ........................................................................................................ 12
2.2 *The Method* ....................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 3
The Center of Gravity .................................................................................................. 25
3.1 Geometry .............................................................................................................. 25
3.1.1 Materials ....................................................................................................... 25
3.1.2 Finding the centers of circles, rectangles and parallelograms .................... 25
3.1.3 The triangle centers ...................................................................................... 26
3.2 Experiments on and definition of the center of gravity ..................................... 30
3.2.1 Definitions ...................................................................................................... 31
3.2.2 Support for the experiments .......................................................................... 32
3.2.3 First experimental procedure to find the CG ............................................... 34
3.2.4 Experiments with concave bodies or pierced bodies .................................... 41
3.2.5 Experiments with three-dimensional bodies .................................................. 45
3.2.6 Plumb line, vertical and horizontal ............................................................... 47
3.2.7 Second experimental procedure to find the CG ........................................... 50
3.2.8 Third experimental procedure to find the CG ............................................... 56
3.2.9 Conditions of equilibrium for supported bodies ........................................... 58
3.2.10 Definitions of stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium ............................... 62
3.2.11 Conditions of equilibrium for suspended bodies ......................................... 66
3.2.12 Definitive definition of the center of gravity ............................................... 69
3.2.13 Summary ...................................................................................................... 74
3.3 Fun activities with the equilibrist ....................................................................... 75
3.4 Equilibrium toys ................................................................................................... 84
3.4.1 Equilibrium games in the pub ....................................................................... 87
3.4.2 Equilibrium of the human body .................................................................... 89
3.4.3 The ET ............................................................................................................. 94
Chapter 4
Historical Aspects of the Center of Gravity .........................................................97
Chapter 5
Theoretical Values of Center of Gravity Obtained by Archimedes ..................107
5.1 One-dimensional figures ...........................................................................107
5.2 Two-dimensional figures ..........................................................................107
5.3 Three-dimensional figures ........................................................................109
Chapter 6
Balances and the Measurement of Weight .....................................................111
6.1 Building a balance ....................................................................................111
6.2 Measurement of weight ............................................................................119
6.3 Improving balance sensitivity ..................................................................123
6.4 Condition of equilibrium of a suspended body .......................................132
6.5 Balances with the center of gravity above the fulcrum ............................135
6.6 Other types of balance .............................................................................136
6.7 Using weight as a standard of force .........................................................136
Chapter 7
Levers and the First Law of Mechanics ............................................................139
7.1 Building and calibrating levers .................................................................139
7.2 Experiments with levers and the first law of mechanics ........................141
7.2.1 First part of the law of the lever ......................................................144
7.2.2 Second part of the law of the lever ..................................................148
7.3 Types of levers ..........................................................................................151
Chapter 8
Mathematical Definition of Center of Gravity ...............................................153
Chapter 9
Explanations of and Deductions from the Law of the Lever ........................159
9.1 Law of the lever as an experimental result .............................................159
9.2 Deriving the law of the lever from the torque concept ............................161
9.3 Law of the lever derived from the experimental result that a weight $2P$ acting at a distance $d$ from the fulcrum is equivalent to a weight $P$ acting at a distance $d - x$, together with another weight $P$ acting at a distance $d + x$ from the fulcrum. .................................................................164
9.4 Law of the lever as derived by Duhem utilizing a modification of work attributed to Euclid .................................................................168
9.5 Proof of the law of the lever by an experimental procedure suggested by a work attributed to Euclid .................................................................170
9.6 Theoretical proof of the law of the lever attributed to Euclid ..................176
9.7 Archimedes’s proof of the law of the lever and calculation of the center of gravity of a triangle ................................................................. 177
9.7.1 Law of the lever ........................................................................... 177
9.7.2 CG of a triangle ........................................................................... 182
Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 187
Introduction
One of the goals of this book is to present the basic phenomena of mechanics through simple experiments performed with inexpensive materials. We present the fundamental experiments on falling bodies, equilibrium and oscillations around equilibrium positions. We also show how the theoretical concepts are formed and modified during this process, just as occurred in the formulation of the basic laws of mechanics.
We show how more complex phenomena can be explained and clarified by means of elementary experiments. Playful and curious experiments are also presented. They stimulate creativity, critical thinking and a sense of humour in science. They also relate everyday phenomena to the fundamental laws of physics.
The emphasis is placed on experimental activities. After the experiments we formulate the definitions, concepts, postulates, principles, and laws describing the phenomena. The materials utilized are very simple, easily found at home or in stores, all of them very inexpensive. Even so, we can carry out very precise experiments and construct sensitive scientific equipment. The reader need not depend on any school or research laboratory, as he can build his own equipment and perform all the measurements.
If the experiments presented here are performed in the classroom, each student should ideally perform all the tasks, even when working in a group. Each one should build his own equipment (support, plumb line, lever, etc.), cut out his geometric figures and then take all this personal material home. This procedure is richer in lessons than simple demonstrations of the effects by a teacher. It is essential that all students put their hands to the plough.
The book is also rich in historical information, which gives the context in which some laws were discovered, and also different approaches taken in discovering them. We are careful about in formulating concepts and physical principles. It will be seen, for example, how difficult is to find the correct words to precisely define the center of gravity so that this concept can encompass a
whole series of experiments. We distinguish clearly between definitions, postulates, experimental results, and physical laws. We also distinguish explanations from descriptions of phenomena. These aspects illustrate the sociological and human aspects of the formulation of physical laws.
This book is written for students and teachers of science, physics, and mathematics. It can be utilized at High Schools or at Universities, depending on the level at which each aspect is analyzed and explored. It has enough experimental and theoretical material to be employed in all levels of teaching. Each teacher should adapt the contents presented here to his own school environment. It can also be utilized in courses on the history and philosophy of science.
The best way to grasp the contents of the book is to perform the majority of the experiments described here in parallel with the reading. There are many philosophical, theoretical, and mathematical approaches relating to physical science. But physics is essentially an experimental science. It is the combination of all these aspects that make it so fascinating. For this reason we strongly recommend that the experiments presented in the book be repeated and improved. We hope that the reader will have the same pleasure in performing these experiments as we had in developing them.
When necessary we employ the sign $\equiv$ as a symbol of definition. We utilize the SI international system of units.
To all those who, down through the centuries, have worked to preserve, translate, interpret, and disseminate the works of Archimedes.
Acknowledgments
The motivation to write this book arose from courses we gave to high school science teachers over the past few years. The exchange of ideas with these teachers and with our collaborators at the University were very rich and stimulating.
The inspiration for the majority of the experiments on equilibrium and the center of gravity (CG) of bodies came from the excellent works of Norberto Ferreira and Alberto Gaspar.\(^1\)
We also thank for suggestions, references and ideas: Norberto Ferreira, Alberto Gaspar, Rui Vieira, Emerson, Dicesar Lass Fernandez, Silvio Seno Chibeni, César José Calderon Filho, Pedro Leopoldo e Silva Lopes, Fábio Miguel de Matos Ravaneli, Juliano Camillo, Lucas Angioni, J. Len Berggren, Henry Mendell, and Roy Keys, as well as our students at the Institute of Physics with whom we discussed these ideas. Steve Hutcheon read the whole manuscript and suggested many improvements. My daughter and Eduardo Meirelles helped with the figures.
Special thanks are due to the Institute of Physics, to the Institute of Mathematics, to the Grupo Gestor de Projetos Educacionais (GGPE) and to FAEPEX of the State University of Campinas, in Brazil, which provided the necessary conditions for the preparation of this essay.
Andre K.T. Assis
Institute of Physics, State University of Campinas
13083-970 Campinas-SP, Brazil
E-mail: email@example.com
homepage: http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
\(^1\) N. Ferreira, *Mecânica*, Projeto RIPE – Rede de Instrumentação para o Ensino (São Paulo: Instituto de Física, USP,); N. Ferreira, *Equilíbrio* (São Paulo: Instituto de Física, USP, 2007), http://www.ludoteca.if.usp.br/; A. Gaspar, *Experiências de Ciências para o Ensino Fundamental* (São Paulo: Ática, 2003).
Chapter 1
The Life of Archimedes
The account of Archimedes’s life given here is drawn essentially from Heath, Dijksterhuis, and Plutarch.
Archimedes lived from 287 to 212 B.C. He was born in Syracuse, on the coast of Sicily, where he spent most of his life. He was the son of Pheidias, an astronomer, who estimated the ratio of the diameters of the Sun and the Moon. Archimedes spent some time in Egypt. It is possible that he studied at the city of Alexandria, which was then the center of Greek science, with the successors of the mathematician Euclid, who flourished around 300 B.C. and published the book *The Elements of Geometry*. Many of Archimedes’s works were sent to mathematicians who lived in Alexandria or who had been there. The famous Museum in Alexandria, which housed a huge library, one of the largest in antiquity, was founded around 300 B.C. It is estimated that it had up to 500,000 papyrus scrolls, with an average of 20,000 words in each scroll. The city was under Roman rule from 30 B.C. to 400 A.D. When Cesar was besieged in the palace of Alexandria in 48 B.C., a fire may have reached the book repository, and in 391 A.D. the library may have been destroyed by decree of Emperor Theodosius I. There are no records of the existence of the library and museum after the fifth century. The Roman Empire was fragmented into two parts, Western and Eastern, in 395. Many works of Archimedes were irremediably lost in the ensuing period.
Archimedes is considered one of the greatest scientists of all time, and the greatest mathematician of antiquity. In modern times only Isaac
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1 T.L. Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes* (Dover, New York, 2002). T.L. Heath, *A History of Greek Mathematics*, Vol. II: *From Aristarchus to Diophantus* (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921).
2 E.J. Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes* (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).
3 Plutarch, *Marcellus*, http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/marcellu.html, translated by John Dryden, site available in 2007.
Newton (1642-1727) is comparable to him, both for producing experimental and theoretical works of great impact, and for his originality and immense influence. By utilizing the method of exhaustion, Archimedes was able to determine the area, volume, and center of gravity of many important geometrical figures, which had never been accomplished before him. He is considered one of the founders of statics and hydrostatics.
His concentration is well described in this passage from Plutarch (46-c. 122):
And thus it ceases to be incredible that (as is commonly told of him) the charm of his familiar and domestic Siren made him forget his food and neglect his person, to that degree that when he was occasionally carried by absolute violence to bathe or have his body anointed, he used to trace geometrical figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams in the oil on his body, being in a state of entire preoccupation, and, in the truest sense, divine possession with his love and delight in science.
Archimedes’s preoccupation with scientific matters in all aspects of life is also recounted by Vitruvius (c. 90-20 B.C.) in a famous passage in his book on architecture. It is related to the fundamental principle of hydrostatics, which deals with the upward force exerted upon bodies immersed in fluids. The passage illustrates how Archimedes arrived at this principle, or at least the origin of the initial intuition which led to the discovery. We quote from Mach:
Though Archimedes discovered many curious matters that evince great intelligence, that which I am about to mention is the most extraordinary. Hiero, when he obtained the regal power in Syracuse, having, on the fortunate turn of his affairs, decreed a votive crown of gold to be placed in a certain temple to the immortal gods, commanded it to be made of great value, and assigned for this purpose an appropriate weight of the metal to the manufacturer. The latter, in due time, presented the work to the king, beautifully wrought; and the weight appeared to correspond with that of the gold which had been assigned for it. But a report had been circulated, that some of the gold had been abstracted, and that the deficiency thus caused had been supplied by silver, Hiero was indignant at the fraud, and, unacquainted with the method by which the theft might be detected, requested Archimedes would undertake to give it his attention. Charged with this commission, he by chance went to a bath, and on jumping into the tub, perceived that, just in the proportion that his body became immersed, in the same proportion the water ran out of the vessel.
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4 Plutarch, *op. cit.*
5 E. Mach, *The Science of Mechanics* (La Salle: Open Court, 1960), 107.
Whence, catching at the method to be adopted for the solution of the proposition, he immediately followed it up, leapt out of the vessel in joy, and returning home naked, cried out with a loud voice that he had found that of which he was in search, for he continued exclaiming, in Greek, εὗρηκα, εὗρηκα. (I have found it, I have found it!)
Those works of Archimedes that have survived were addressed to the astronomer Conon of Samos (at that time living in Alexandria), to Conon’s disciple Dositheus after the death of Conon, to king Gelon, son of the king Hiero of Syracuse, and to Eratosthenes, librarian of the Library of Alexandria and famous for his precise estimation of the radius of the Earth.
Archimedes would send his works together with some introductory texts. Through these texts we can discover the order of some of his discoveries and a little of his personality. For example, in the introduction of his famous work *The Method*, he states:
Archimedes to Eratosthenes greeting.
I sent you on a former occasion some of the theorems discovered by me, merely writing out the enunciation and inviting you to discover the proofs, which at the moment I did not give. The enunciations of the theorems which I sent were as follows. (...) The proofs then of these theorems I have written in this book and now send to you. (...)
His habit of sending initially only the enunciations of some theorems, without demonstrations, may have led some mathematicians plagiarize Archimedes, claiming that his results belonged to them. It is perhaps for this reason that Archimedes on one occasion sent two false results, as he mentions in the preface of his work *On Spirals*:
Archimedes to Dositheus greeting.
Of most of the theorems which I sent to Conon, and of which you ask me from time to time to send you the proofs, the demonstrations are already before you in the books brought to you by Heracleides; and some more are contained in that which I now send you. Do not be surprised at my taking a considerable time before publishing the proofs. This has been owing to my desire to communicate them first to persons engaged in mathematical studies and anxious to investigate them. In fact, how many theorems in geometry which have seemed at first impracticable are in time successfully worked out! Now Conon died before he had sufficient time to investigate the theorems referred to; otherwise
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6 T.L. Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes* (New York: Dover, 2002), Supplement, pp. 12-13.
7 *Ibid.*, p. 151.
he would have discovered and made manifest all these things, and would have enriched geometry by many other discoveries besides. For I know well that it was no common ability that he brought to bear on mathematics, and that his industry was extraordinary. But, though many years have elapsed since Conon’s death, I do not find that any one of the problems has been stirred by a single person. I wish now to put them in review one by one, particularly as it happens that there are two included among them which are impossible of realisation\(^8\) [and which may serve as a warning] how those who claim to discover everything but produce no proofs of the same may be confuted as having actually pretended to discover the impossible.
Archimedes would often spend years trying to find the proof of a difficult theorem. We can see the perseverance with which he strived to reach his goal in the introduction to *On Conoids and Spheroids*:\(^9\)
Archimedes to Dositheus greeting.
In this book I have set forth and send you the proofs of the remaining theorems not included in what I sent you before, and also of some others discovered later which, though I had often tried to investigate them previously, I had failed to arrive at because I found their discovery attended with some difficulty. And this is why even the propositions themselves were not published with the rest. But afterwards, when I had studied them with greater care, I discovered what I had failed in before.
Although the works that have come down to us are related to mathematics and theoretical physics, the fame of Archimedes in antiquity is due to his work as an engineer and builder of war machines (catapults, burning mirrors, *etc.*). One of the inventions attributed to him is a water pumping system known as the *cochlias*, or Archimedes screw, which is used even to this day. The word *cochlias* is Greek, meaning snail. It is believed that he invented this hydraulic machine during his stay in Egypt, where it was used for irrigating fields and pumping water.
He built a famous planetarium that had a single hydraulic mechanism which moved several globes simultaneously, reproducing the motions of the stars, the Sun, the Moon, and the planets around the Earth. He also built a hydraulic organ in which the air fed to the pipes was compressed above water in an air chamber. Also attributed to him are the inventions of the compound pulley, machines for discharging showers of missiles, the Roman balance with unequal arms *etc.*
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\(^8\) Note by Heath: Heiberg reads τέλος δὲ ποθεσόμενα, but F has τέλονς, so that the true reading is perhaps τέλους δὲ ποτιδόμενα. The meaning appears to be simply ‘wrong.’
\(^9\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 99.
Several authors quote a famous sentence by Archimedes in connection with his mechanical devices and his ability to move great weights with a small force: “Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth.”\textsuperscript{10} Apparently he uttered this when he accomplished a feat ordered by king Hiero to launch a ship weighing many tons and carrying a full load. He succeeded in this unaided, with his hands and the aid of a few mechanical instruments. Plutarch relates this story as follows:\textsuperscript{11}
Archimedes, however, in writing to King Hiero, whose friend and near relation he was, had stated that given the force, any given weight might be moved, and even boasted, we are told, relying on the strength of demonstration, that if there were another earth, by going into it he could remove this. Hiero being struck with amazement at this, and entreating him to make good this problem by actual experiment, and show some great weight moved by a small engine, he fixed accordingly upon a ship of burden out of the king’s arsenal, which could not be drawn out of the dock without great labour and many men; and, loading her with many passengers and a full freight, sitting himself the while far off, with no great endeavour, but only holding the head of the pulley in his hand and drawing the cords by degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, as smoothly and evenly as if she had been in the sea.
Hiero was so amazed that he said: “From that day forth Archimedes was to be believed in everything that he might say.”\textsuperscript{12}
Plutarch continued:\textsuperscript{13}
The king, astonished at this, and convinced of the power of the art, prevailed upon Archimedes to make him engines accommodated to all the purposes, offensive and defensive, of a siege. These the king himself never made use of, because he spent almost all his life in a profound quiet and the highest affluence. But the apparatus was, in most opportune time, ready at hand for the Syracusans, and with it also the engineer himself.
During the second Punic war between Rome and Carthage, the city of Syracuse was allied with Carthage. Syracuse was attacked by the Romans in 214 B.C., under General Marcellus. Many histories about Archimedes have survived in a famous biography of Marcellus written by Plutarch. Marcellus attacked Syracuse by land and sea, heavily armed. According to Plutarch:\textsuperscript{14}
\textsuperscript{10} E.J. Dijksterhuis, \textit{Archimedes} (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 15.
\textsuperscript{11} Plutarch, \textit{Marcellus}.
\textsuperscript{12} Heath, ed., \textit{The Works of Archimedes}, p. xix
\textsuperscript{13} Plutarch, \textit{Marcellus}.
\textsuperscript{14} Plutarch, \textit{Marcellus}.
[All machines of Marcellus], however, were, it would seem, but trifles for Archimedes and his machines. These machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of any importance, but as mere amusements in geometry; in compliance with King Hiero’s desire and request, some little time before, that he should reduce to practice some part of his admirable speculation in science, and by accommodating the theoretic truth to sensation and ordinary use, bring it more within the appreciation of the people in general.
Elsewhere, Plutarch writes:
When, therefore, the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, fear and consternation stupefied the Syracusans, believing that nothing was able to resist that violence and those forces. But when Archimedes began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all sorts of missile weapons, and immense masses of stone that came down with incredible noise and violence; against which no man could stand; for they knocked down those upon whom they fell in heaps, breaking all their ranks and files. In the meantime huge poles thrust out from the walls over the ships sunk some by the great weights which they let down from on high upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron hand or beak like a crane’s beak and, when they had drawn them up by the prow, and set them on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the bottom of the sea; or else the ships, drawn by engines within, and whirled about, were dashed against steep rocks that stood jutting out under the walls, with great destruction of the soldiers that were aboard them. (...) In fine, when such terror had seized upon the Romans, that, if they did but see a little rope or a piece of wood from the wall, instantly crying out, that there it was again, Archimedes was about to let fly some engine at them, they turned their backs and fled, Marcellus desisted from conflicts and assaults, putting all his hope in a long siege.
Also connected with the defence of Syracuse is the famous story about burning the Roman ships with mirrors. Archimedes used a great mirror or a system of small mirrors in order to concentrate the sun’s rays and focus them on the ships. The two most famous accounts are due to Johannes Tzetzes, a Byzantine scholar, and John Zonaras, both of the twelfth century:
When Marcellus withdrew them [his ships] a bow-shot, the old man [Archimedes] constructed a kind of hexagonal mirror, and at an interval proportionate to the size of the mirror he set similar small mirrors with four edges, moved by links and by a form of hinge, and made it the centre of the sun’s beams--its noon-tide
\footnote{Plutarch, \textit{Marcellus}.}
beam, whether in summer or in mid-winter. Afterwards, when the beams were reflected in the mirror, a fearful kindling of fire was raised in the ships, and at the distance of a bow-shot he turned them into ashes. In this way did the old man prevail over Marcellus with his weapons. —J. Tzetzes.\textsuperscript{16}
At last in an incredible manner he [Archimedes] burned up the whole Roman fleet. For by tilting a kind of mirror toward the sun he concentrated the sun’s beam upon it; and owing to the thickness and smoothness of the mirror he ignited the air from this beam and kindled a great flame, the whole of which he directed upon the ships that lay at anchor in the path of the fire, until he consumed them all. —J. Zonaras.\textsuperscript{17}
Only after a siege of three years was Marcellus able to conquer Syracuse. Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier in 212 A.D. during the capture of the city. Marcellus had given express orders that Archimedes’s life should be spared, in recognition of the genius of this enemy who had caused him so many losses. In spite of this, a soldier killed him while he was trying to protect or finish some mathematical discoveries. The last words uttered by Archimedes seem to have been addressed to this soldier: “Fellow, stand away from my diagram.”\textsuperscript{18} Plutarch gives us three different versions of his death:\textsuperscript{19}
But nothing afflicted Marcellus so much as the death of Archimedes, who was then, as fate would have it, intent upon working out some problem by a diagram, and having fixed his mind alike and his eyes upon the subject of his speculation, he never noticed the incursion of the Romans, nor that the city was taken. In this transport of study and contemplation, a soldier, unexpectedly coming up to him, commanded him to follow to Marcellus; which he declining to do before he had worked out his problem to a demonstration, the soldier, enraged, drew his sword and ran him through. Others write that a Roman soldier, running upon him with a drawn sword, offered to kill him; and that Archimedes, looking back, earnestly besought him to hold his hand a little while, that he might not leave what he was then at work upon inconclusive and imperfect; but the soldier, nothing moved by his entreaty, instantly killed him. Others again relate that, as Archimedes was carrying to Marcellus mathematical instruments, dials, spheres, and angles, by which the magnitude of the sun might be measured to the sight, some soldiers seeing him, and thinking that he carried gold in a vessel, slew him. Certain it
\textsuperscript{16} C. Rorres (organizer), \textit{Archimedes}, http://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/contents.html. Site available in 2007.
\textsuperscript{17} Rorres, \textit{Archimedes}.
\textsuperscript{18} Dijksterhuis, \textit{Archimedes}, p. 31.
\textsuperscript{19} Plutarch, \textit{Marcellus}.
is that his death was very afflicting to Marcellus; and that Marcellus ever after regarded him that killed him as a murderer; and that he sought for his kindred and honoured them with signal favours.
During his lifetime, Archimedes expressed the wish that upon his tomb there should be placed a cylinder circumscribing a sphere within it, together with an inscription giving the ratio between the volumes of these two bodies. We can infer that he regarded the discovery of this ratio as his greatest achievement. It appears in Propositions 33 and 34 of the first part of his work *On the Sphere and Cylinder*. These two results are extremely important, and both are due to Archimedes. “Proposition 33: The surface of any sphere is equal to four times the greatest circle in it.”\(^{20}\) That is, in modern language, with \(A\) being the area of the surface of a sphere of radius \(r\): \(A = 4(\pi r^2)\). “Proposition 34: Any sphere is equal to four times the cone which has its base equal to the greatest circle in the sphere and its height equal to the radius of the sphere.”\(^{21}\) In modern language, with \(V_E\) the volume of a sphere of radius \(r\), and \(V_C = \pi r^2 \cdot r/3\), the volume of a cone of height \(r\) and base area equal to \(\pi r^2\), we have \(V_E = 4V_C = 4(\pi r^3 / 3)\). The inscription Archimedes requested for his tomb seems to be related to a Corollary presented at the end of this Proposition: “From what has been proved it follows that every cylinder whose base is the greatest circle in a sphere whose height is equal to the diameter of the sphere is a \(\frac{1}{2}\) of the sphere, and its surface together with its base is \(\frac{1}{2}\) of the surface of the sphere.”\(^{22}\)
Marcellus saw to it that this wish was fulfilled. Cicero (106-43 B.C.), the Roman orator, saw this tomb in a neglected state in 75 A.D. when he was quaestor in Sicily, and restored it. It has never been seen since. Cicero’ writes:\(^{23}\)
But from Dionysius’s own city of Syracuse I will summon up from the dust—where his measuring rod once traced its lines—an obscure little man who lived many years later, Archimedes. When I was quaestor in Sicily I managed to track down his grave. The Syracusians knew nothing about it, and indeed denied that any such thing existed. But there it was, completely surrounded and hidden by bushes of brambles and thorns. I remembered having heard of some simple lines of verse which had been inscribed on his tomb, referring to a sphere and cylinder modelled in stone on top of the grave. And so I took a good look round all the numerous tombs that stand beside the Agrigentine
\(^{20}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 39.
\(^{21}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 41
\(^{22}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 43.
\(^{23}\) Rorres, *Archimedes*.
Gate. Finally I noted a little column just visible above the scrub: it was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder. I immediately said to the Syracusans, some of whose leading citizens were with me at the time, that I believed this was the very object I had been looking for. Men were sent in with sickles to clear the site, and when a path to the monument had been opened we walked right up to it. And the verses were still visible, though approximately the second half of each line had been worn away. So one of the most famous cities in the Greek world, and in former days a great centre of learning as well, would have remained in total ignorance of the tomb of the most brilliant citizen it had ever produced, had a man from Arpinum not come and pointed it out!
Chapter 2
The Works of Archimedes
The works of Archimedes known to us are available in the original Greek and in Latin.\(^1\) English translations in modern notation have been published.\(^2\) A literal translation from the Greek to French can also be found.\(^3\)
Until one hundred years ago, the oldest and most important manuscripts containing works of Archimedes in Greek (with the exception of *The Method*, which did not appear in any manuscript) were mainly from the 15\(^{th}\) and 16\(^{th}\) centuries, housed in libraries located in Europe. They had been copied from two other 9\(^{th}\) and 10\(^{th}\) century Greek manuscripts. One of these manuscripts belonged to the humanist George Valla, who taught at Venice between 1489 and 1499. This manuscript disappeared between 1544 and 1564. It is not known if it still exists. It contained the following works, in this order: *On the Sphere and Cylinder*, *Measurement of a Circle*, *On Conoids and Spheroids*, *On Spirals*, *On the Equilibrium of Planes*, *The Sand-Reckoner*, *Quadrature of the Parabola*, Eutocius’s commentaries on the *Sphere and Cylinder*, *Measurement of a Circle*, and *On the Equilibrium of Planes*.
The last record of the second of the 9\(^{th}\) and 10\(^{th}\) century manuscripts was in the Vatican Library in the years 1295 and 1311. It is not known if this manuscript still exists. It contained the following works, in this order: *On Spirals*, *On the Equilibrium of Planes*, *Quadrature of the Parabola*, *Measurement of a Circle*, *On the Sphere and Cylinder*, Eutocius’s commentaries on the *Sphere and Cylinder*, *On Conoids and Spheroids*, Eutocius’s commentaries on the *Equilibrium of Planes*, *On Float-
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\(^1\) J.L. Heiberg, *Archimedis Opera*. Second edition, in 3 volumes (Leipzig: Teubner, 1910-1915).
\(^2\) T.L. Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes* (New York: Dover, 2002), E.J. Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes* (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).
\(^3\) C. Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède* (Paris: Budé, 1970-2). Vol. 1-4.
The latter work on floating bodies, in two parts, was not contained in the first manuscript.
The work *On Floating Bodies* was only known until 1906 from a Latin translation made by the Flemish Dominican Willem van Moerbeke in 1269, based on the second 9th or 10th century manuscript. He translated all of Archimedes’s works to which he had access into Latin, and this was very important in spreading of Archimedes’s ideas. The original manuscript containing Moerbeke’s translation was found again in Rome in 1884, and is now at the Vatican Library.
Archimedes wrote in the Doric dialect. In the manuscripts still extant his original language was transformed in some books totally, in others only partially, into the Attic dialect common in Greece. In the 9th century some of his works were translated to Arabic. The first Latin translations of the works of Archimedes and of several scientists and philosophers of Greece were made during the 12th and 13th centuries. Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press in Europe in the mid-15th century. The publication of Archimedes’s works in printed form began in the 16th century, the oldest being from 1503, containing the *Measurement of a Circle* and the *Quadrature of the Parabola*. Printed in 1544, the *editio princeps* contained the major known works by Archimedes, in Greek and Latin, with the exception of *On Floating Bodies*. The invention of the press was very important for the spread of his ideas. The first translations of some of his works to a living language, German, were published in 1667 and 1670, by J.C. Sturm. In 1807 the first French translation of all his known works was made by Peyrard. In 1897 and 1912 the first English translation was published by Sir T.L. Heath.
### 2.1 Extant works
We present here the extant works of Archimedes in the order in which they were written according to Heath.\(^4\) Much controversy surrounds this chronology. Knorr, for example, places *The Method* at the end of his works.\(^5\)
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\(^4\) T.L. Heath, *A History of Greek Mathematics*, Vol. II: *From Aristarchus to Diophantus* (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921), pp. 22-23.
\(^5\) W.R. Knorr, “Archimedes and the Elements: Proposal for a Revised Chronological Ordering of the Archimedean Corpus,” *Archive for the History of Exact Sciences* **19** (1978/79): 211-290
On the Equilibrium of Planes, or
The Centers of Gravity of Planes. Book I
Archimedes derives the law of the lever theoretically utilizing the axiomatic method and calculates the center of gravity of parallelograms, triangles, and trapeziums.
Quadrature of the Parabola
Archimedes finds the area of a parabolic segment. Proposition 24: “Every segment bounded by a parabola and a chord Qq is equal to four-thirds of the triangle which has the same base as the segment and equal height.”\(^6\) He presents two proofs of this result. In the first, he performs a mechanical quadrature, utilizing the law of the lever. In the second, he performs a geometric quadrature.
On the Equilibrium of Planes, or
The Centers of Gravity of Planes. Book II
Archimedes finds the center of gravity of a parabolic segment.
The Method of Treating Mechanical Problems, to Eratosthenes
This work is usually called simply The Method. Archimedes presents a mechanical method to obtain geometrical results (calculation of areas, volumes and centers of gravity) utilizing the law of the lever and concepts of the theory of the center of gravity. He presents several examples of this heuristic method which he created and employed, illustrating how to apply it. He thus obtains the quadrature of the parabola, the volume and center of gravity of any segment of a sphere, the center of gravity of a semi-circle, the center of gravity of a paraboloid of revolution, and several other results. This work will be discussed in more detail in a later Section.
On the Sphere and Cylinder, Books I and II
Archimedes shows that the area of the surface of a sphere is equal to four times the greatest circle passing through the center of the sphere; finds the area of any segment of the sphere; shows that the volume of the sphere is equal to two-thirds the volume of the circumscribed cylinder, and that the surface of the sphere is equal to two-thirds the surface of the circumscribed cylinder, including the bases. In the second part of this work, the most important result is how to divide a sphere by a plane in such a way that the ratio of the volumes of the two segments has a given value.
\(^6\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 251.
On Spirals
Archimedes defines a spiral through the uniform motion of a point along a straight line, this straight line rotating with a constant angular velocity in a plane. He establishes the fundamental properties of the spiral, relating the length of the radius vector to the angles of revolution that generate the spiral. He presents results related to the tangents of the spiral, and shows how to calculate areas of parts of the spiral.
As a curiosity we quote here the first two propositions and the main definition presented in this work. This spiral is represented nowadays in polar coordinates by the relation $\rho = k\varphi$, where $k$ is a constant, $\rho$ is the distance to the $z$-axis (or from the origin, considering the motion in the $xy$ plane) and $\varphi$ is the angle of the radius vector relative to the $x$ axis. In this representation the time does not appear. On the other hand, the historical relevance of the original definition given by Archimedes is the introduction of the time concept in geometry. This was crucial for the later development of classical mechanics.
Proposition 1: If a point move at a uniform rate along any line, and two lengths be taken on it, they will be proportional to the times of describing them.\footnote{Heath, ed., \textit{The Works of Archimedes}, p. 155.}
Proposition 2: If each of two points on different lines respectively move along them each at a uniform rate, and if lengths be taken, one on each line, forming pairs, such that each pair are described in equal times, the lengths will be proportionals.\footnote{\textit{Ibid}.}
Definition: If a straight line drawn in a plane revolve at a uniform rate about one extremity which remains fixed and return to the position from which it started, and if, at the same time as the line revolves, a point move at a uniform rate along the straight line beginning from the extremity which remains fixed, the point will describe a spiral in the plane.\footnote{\textit{Ibid}, p. 165.}
On Conoids and Spheroids
Archimedes studies the paraboloids of revolution, the hyperboloids of revolution (conoids) and the ellipsoids (spheroids) obtained by the rotation of an ellipse around one of its axes. The main goal of the work is to investigate the volume of segments of these three-dimensional bodies. He shows, for example, in Propositions 21 and 22, that the volume of a paraboloid of revolution is $\frac{3}{2}$ of the volume of the cone which has the same base and the same height. Analogous, but more complex results, are obtained for the hyperboloid of revolution and for the ellipsoid.
On Floating Bodies, Books I and II
Archimedes establishes the fundamental principles of hydrostatics, giving the weight of a body immersed in a fluid. He also studies the conditions of stability of a spherical segment floating in a fluid, and of a paraboloid of revolution floating in a fluid.
In the first part of this work, Archimedes creates the entire science of hydrostatics. We know of no other author who worked with this subject prior to him. His basic postulate reads as follows:
Postulate: Let it be granted that the fluid is of such a nature that of the parts of it which are at the same level and adjacent to one another that which is pressed the less is pushed away by that which is pressed the more, and that each of its parts is pressed by the fluid which is vertically above it, if the fluid is not shut up in anything and is not compressed by anything else.
Heath’s translation of this postulate reads as follows:
Postulate 1: Let it be supposed that a fluid is of such a character that, its parts lying evenly and being continuous, that part which is thrust the less is driven along by that which is thrust the more; and that each of its parts is thrust by the fluid which is above it in a perpendicular direction if the fluid be sunk in anything and compressed by anything else.
Heath’s translation, published in 1897, was based on the Latin translation by Moerbeke in 1269, as the original text by Archimedes in Greek had been lost. In 1906, Heiberg found another manuscript containing the original Greek text of this work. Some parts of this manuscript remain undecipherable, and others are missing. In any event it contains this basic postulate, which clarifies the meaning of the last passage. Instead of Heath’s “and that each of its parts is thrust by the fluid which is above it in a perpendicular direction if the fluid be sunk in anything and compressed by anything else,” the correct meaning is that of Dijksterhuis or Mugler, namely, “that each of its parts is pressed by the fluid which is vertically above it, if the fluid is not shut up in anything and is not compressed by anything else.”
Beginning with this postulate he arrives at an explanation for the spherical shape of the Earth, supposing it to be wholly composed of water. Then he proves the fundamental principle of hydrostatics, known today as Archimedes’s principle, in Propositions 5 to 7. When he says that a solid is heavier or lighter than a fluid, he is referring to the relative or specific weight, that is, if the solid is more or less dense than a fluid.
---
10 Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, p. 373; Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 3, p. 6.
11 Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 253.
Proposition 5: Any solid lighter than a fluid will, if placed in the fluid, be so far immersed that the weight of the solid will be equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.\(^{12}\)
Proposition 6: If a solid lighter than a fluid be forcibly immersed in it, the solid will be driven upwards by a force equal to the difference between its weight and the weight of the fluid displaced.\(^{13}\)
Proposition 7: A solid heavier than a fluid will, if placed in it, descend to the bottom of the fluid, and the solid will, when weighed in the fluid, be lighter than its true weight by the weight of the fluid displaced.\(^{14}\)
Based on these propositions at the end of the first book he determines the equilibrium conditions of a spherical segment floating in a fluid. In the second part, Archimedes presents a complete investigation of the conditions of equilibrium of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution floating in a fluid. His interest here seems very clear, namely, to study theoretically the stability of ships, although this is not explicitly mentioned. This is a work of applied mathematics, or theoretical engineering.
This is a monumental work which, for some two thousand years, was almost the only text on this topic. It was revived in the renaissance, influencing the works of Stevin (1548-1620) and Galileo (1564-1642).
**Measurement of a Circle**
This work does not come down to us in its original form. It is probably only a fragment of a larger text. Archimedes shows that the area of a circle is equal to the area of a right-angled triangle whose legs are the radius of the circle and the rectified circumference: “Proposition 1: The area of any circle is equal to a right-angled triangle in which one of the sides about the right angle is equal to the radius, and the other to the circumference, of the circle.”\(^{15}\) He also shows that the exact value of \( \pi \) is between \( 3\frac{10}{71} = 3.1408 \) and \( 3\frac{1}{7} = 3.1429 \). This he obtained by circumscribing and inscribing a circle with regular polygons of 96 sides. In his own words, “Proposition 3: The ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter is less than \( 3\frac{1}{7} \) but greater than \( 3\frac{10}{71} \).”\(^{16}\) In the middle of this proposition he presents precise approximations for the square roots of many numbers, without specifying how he arrived at these results. He
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\(^{12}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 257.
\(^{13}\) Ibid.
\(^{14}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 258.
\(^{15}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 91.
\(^{16}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 93.
states, for example, that $\frac{265}{153} < \sqrt{3} < \frac{135}{780}$, or, $1.7320261 < \sqrt{3} < 1.7320513$.
**The Sand-Reckoner**
Archimedes deals with the problem of counting the number of grains of sand contained in the sphere of the fixed stars, utilizing estimations by Eudoxus, his father Pheidias, and Aristarchus. He proposes a numerical system capable of expressing numbers equivalent to our $8 \times 10^{63}$. It is in this work that Archimedes mentioned that the addition of the orders of the numbers (the equivalent of their exponents when the base is $10^8$) corresponds to finding the product of these numbers.\(^{17}\) This is the principle that led to the invention of logarithms many centuries later.
Also in this work, Archimedes mentions the heliocentric system of Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310-230 B.C.). The work of Aristarchus describing his heliocentric system has not been preserved. Here we reproduce the introduction of the Sand-Reckoner. This introduction is the oldest and most important evidence concerning the existence of a heliocentric system in antiquity. Due to this extremely important idea, Aristarchus is often called the Copernicus of antiquity. At the end of the introduction, Archimedes refers to a work called *Principles*, which is probably the title of one of Archimedes’s works containing a system of expressing numbers that had been sent to Zeuxippus, and is quoted in the introduction. This work is not extant. Archimedes writes:
There are some, king Gelon, who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited. Again there are some who, without regarding it as infinite, yet think that no number has been named which is great enough to exceed its multitude. And it is clear that they who hold this view, if they imagined a mass made up of sand in other respects as large as the mass of the earth, including in it all the seas and the hollows of the earth filled up to a height equal to that of the highest of the mountains, would be many times further still from recognising that any number could be expressed which exceeded the multitude of the sand so taken. But I will try to show you by means of geometrical proofs, which you will be able to follow, that, of the numbers named by me and given in the work which I sent to Zeuxippus, some exceed not only the number of the mass of sand equal in magnitude to the earth filled up in the way described, but also that of a mass equal in magnitude to the universe. Now you are aware that ‘universe’ is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere whose centre is the centre of the
\(^{17}\) Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, pp. 360-373.
earth and whose radius is equal to the straight line between the centre of the sun and the centre of the earth. This is the common account (τὰ γραφόμενα), as you have heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus of Samos brought out a book consisting of some hypotheses, in which the premises lead to the result that the universe is many times greater than that now so called. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the earth revolves about the sun in the circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same centre as the sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the centre of the sphere bears to its surface. Now it is easy to see that this is impossible; for, since the centre of the sphere has no magnitude, we cannot conceive it to bear any ratio whatever to the surface of the sphere. We must however take Aristarchus to mean this: since we conceive the earth to be, as it were, the centre of the universe, the ratio which the earth bears to what we describe as the ‘universe’ is the same as the ratio which the sphere containing the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears to the sphere of the fixed stars. For he adapts the proofs of his results to a hypothesis of this kind, and in particular he appears to suppose the magnitude of the sphere in which he represents the earth as moving to be equal to what we call the ‘universe.’
I say then that, even if a sphere were made up of the sand, as great as Aristarchus supposes the sphere of the fixed stars to be, I shall still prove that, of the numbers named in the Principles, some exceed in multitude the number of the sand which is equal in magnitude to the sphere referred to, provided that the following assumptions be made(...)
It is also known that Archimedes wrote other works which exist today only in fragments or in references by other writers:
**The Cattle-Problem**
This is contained in an epigram communicated by Archimedes to the mathematicians of Alexandria in a letter to Eratosthenes. It is a problem of algebra with 8 unknowns. The complete solution leads to a number with 206,545 digits.
**Book of Lemmas**
A collection of important lemmas relating to planimetric figures.
**Semi-Regular Polyhedra**
The regular polyhedra were known by Plato and are described by Euclid in his book *The Elements of Geometry*. Their faces are composed of
---
18 Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, pp. 221-2.
regular equal polygons, equilateral and equiangular. There are only 5 regular platonic solids: the tetrahedron, the cube, the octahedron, the dodecahedron and the icosahedron.
In this work Archimedes describes the construction of the semi-regular polyhedra which he discovered. Its faces are regular polygons, but with different numbers of sides, such as squares and equilateral triangles. There are only 13 of these solids, all discovered by Archimedes. They are called Archimedean polyhedra.
**The Stomachion**
This is a game like tangram, with 14 pieces which together form a square. Archimedes probably tried to find the number of ways in which these 14 pieces can be put together in order to form a square.
**Area of the Triangle**
Some authors consider that Archimedes discovered the expression usually attributed to Heron in the first century A.D. for the area of a triangle in terms of its sides.
**Construction of a Regular Heptagon**
Archimedes presents the construction of a heptagon inscribed within a circle.
Other works mentioned by Archimedes or by other authors are not extant. In some cases we know only the title, or have a general idea of their content. The same work may be cited with different names:
**Principles, or Naming of Numbers**
On how to express large numbers.
**On the Centers of Gravity**
**Elements of Mechanics**
On the center of gravity and law of the lever. The work *On the Equilibrium of Planes* is probably only a small part of this larger work.
**Equilibria**
On the CG of solids.
**Book on Columns, or Book of Supports**
According to Heron, Archimedes dealt here with bodies supported by two or more columns. He solved the problem of finding which part of the total weight of the body was supported by each pillar.
On Balances, or On Levers
On the center of gravity and the law of the lever.
One work on optics
Including the law of reflection and studies on refraction.
On Sphere-Making
A mechanical work describing the construction of a sphere representing the motions of the celestial bodies, probably a description of the famous planetarium built by Archimedes.
On the Calendar
On the length of the year.
On Circles Touching One Another
On Parallel Lines
On Triangles
On Properties of Right-Angled Triangles
On the Assumptions for the Elements of Geometry
Book of Data or Definitions
2.2 The Method
Of all the Archimedes’s works known today, the one that has received the greatest attention is *The Method*. One of the few things known about this work until 1906 was its title. Between 1880 and 1881 the Danish scholar J.L. Heiberg (1854-1928), a professor of classical philology at Copenhagen University, published the complete works of Archimedes then known, in Greek and Latin, in three volumes. This book was utilized as the basis for the modern translation of his works into many living languages, such as the English made by T. L. Heath (1861-1940) and published in 1897. When he described the lost works of Archimedes, Heath quoted *The Method* in a single sentence:¹⁹ “7. ἐφόδιον, a Method, noticed by Suidas, who says that Theodosius wrote a commentary on it, but gives no further information about it.” Suidas was a Greek encyclopedist who lived in the 10th century, when Theodosius (*c.* 160-90 B.C.) was a mathematician in Anatolia. But in 1899 Heiberg read about a palimpsest of mathematical content found in Constantinople. The word “palimpsest” means “scraped again.” Normally it is a parchment that
¹⁹ Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. xxxvii.
has been used two or three times, after being scraped or washed each time, due to a shortage of parchment or to its high price. This specific parchment contained a Euchologion written in the 12\textsuperscript{th}, 13\textsuperscript{th}, or 14\textsuperscript{th} century, over a mathematical manuscript of the 10\textsuperscript{th} century. From a few specimen lines to which he had access, Heiberg suspected that it contained an Archimedean text. He traveled to Constantinople and examined the manuscript twice, in 1906 and 1908. Fortunately the original text had not been completely washed out and Heiberg was able to decipher much of the contents by inspecting the manuscript and taking photographs. The manuscript contained 185 leaves with Archimedes’s works in Greek. Beyond the texts already known, it contained three treasures: (I) fragments of the \textit{Stomachion}, (II) a large part of the Greek text of the work \textit{On Floating Bodies}. (Until then it was believed to have survived only in the Latin translation made by Willem von Moerbeke in 1269 from a Greek manuscript which is now believed lost.) (III) Most of \textit{The Method} by Archimedes! A work that had been lost for two thousand years (the last person to study it seems to have been Theodosius), of which we did not know even the contents, appeared out of nowhere, greatly expanding our knowledge about Archimedes. Even the comments on this work by Theodosius are no longer extant.
In 1907 Heiberg published the Greek text of \textit{The Method}, and a German translation with commentary by Zeuthen. In 1912 Heath published a complement to his English translation of Archimedes’s works, now including \textit{The Method}. Between 1910 and 1915 Heiberg published a second edition of the complete works of Archimedes, in Greek and Latin, in three volumes. This second edition is much better than the first, and was republished in 1972.\footnote{Heiberg, \textit{Archimedis Opera}} Heiberg’s discovery was featured on the first page of The New York Times in 1907.
But the story does not end here. In the period between 1908 and 1930 the manuscript disappeared, probably having been stolen. Around 1930 a French antiquities collector bought the manuscript, without the knowledge of the external world. In 1991 the collector’s family put this manuscript on sale in an auction. Only then was it realized this was the manuscript discovered by Heiberg in 1906 and which was supposed to have been lost. In 1998 it was sold by Christie’s, in New York. It was bought for 2 million dollars by an anonymous billionaire and lent to Walters Arts Gallery, of Baltimore, USA. A group of scholars, directed by Nigel Wilson and Reviel Netz, of Stanford University, are working on the restoration, digitization and publication of the manuscript, which
contains the only still surviving copy of *The Method*—a work that had been lost for 2,000 years!
The work’s great importance is due to the fact that it contains practically the only report of a mathematician of antiquity describing the method he utilized in discovering his theorems. In all other surviving works we have only the theorems presented in final form, derived with a rigorous logic and with scientifically precise proofs, beginning with axioms and other theorems. This dry presentation conceals the method or the intuition that led to the final result. *The Method* changed all this. For here, Archimedes describes the path he followed to arrive at several significant results on quadrature and cubature (calculation of areas and volumes by integration), as well as the center of gravity of several important two- and three-dimensional geometric figures. Here are Archimedes’s own words:
Archimedes to Eratosthenes greeting.
I sent you on a former occasion some of the theorems discovered by me, merely writing out the enunciations and inviting you to discover the proofs, which at the moment I did not give. The enunciations of the theorems which I sent were as follows.
(...)
The proofs then of these theorems I have written in this book and now send to you. Seeing moreover in you, as I say, an earnest student, a man of considerable eminence in philosophy, and an admirer [of mathematical inquiry], I thought fit to write out for you and explain in detail in the same book the peculiarity of a certain method, by which it will be possible for you to get a start to enable you to investigate some of the problems in mathematics by means of mechanics. This procedure is, I am persuaded, no less useful even for the proof of the theorems themselves; for certain things first became clear to me by a mechanical method, although they had to be demonstrated by geometry afterwards because their investigation by the said method did not furnish an actual demonstration. But it is of course easier, when we have previously acquired, by the method, some knowledge of the questions, to supply the proof than it is to find it without any previous knowledge. This is a reason why, in the case of the theorems the proof of which Eudoxus was the first to discover, namely that the cone is a third part of the cylinder, and the pyramid of the prism, having the same base and equal height, we should give no small share of the credit to Democritus who was the first to make the assertion with regard to the said figure though he did not prove it. I am myself in the position of having first made the discovery of the theorem now to be published [by
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21 Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, pp. 12-14.
the method indicated], and I deem it necessary to expound the method partly because I have already spoken of it and I do not want to be thought to have uttered vain words, but equally because I am persuaded that it will be of no little service to mathematics; for I apprehend that some, either of my contemporaries or of my successors, will, by means of the method when once established, be able to discover other theorems in addition, which have not yet occurred to me.
First then I will set out the very first theorem which became known to me by means of mechanics, namely that
Any segment of a section of a right-angled cone (i.e., a parabola) is four-thirds of the triangle which has the same base and equal height,
and after this I will give each of the other theorems investigated by the same method. Then, at the end of the book, I will give the geometrical [proofs of the propositions]...
[I premise the following propositions which I shall use in the course of the work.] (...)
After this introduction about the life and work of Archimedes, we present several experiments that lead to a precise conceptual definition of the center of gravity of bodies.
Chapter 3
The Center of Gravity
3.1 Geometry
We begin our work with a little mathematics. We will cut out some plane figures and find their main geometrical properties. Later we will utilize these figures in experiments. The dimensions we present here are adequate for individual activities. Larger sizes should be used for demonstrations in the classroom, talks, and seminars.
3.1.1 Materials
Paper board, light cardboard, thick card, or pasteboard. Light wood/plastic/metal/styrofoam plane and rigid sheets can also be utilized.
White sheets of paper.
Ruler, pen, T-square and protractor.
3.1.2 Finding the centers of circles, rectangles and parallelograms
From a pasteboard we draw and cut out a circle 7 or 8 cm in diameter. If the circle is drawn with compasses, the center should be marked with a pen, and marked with an “X”.
If the circle is drawn with a glass turned upside down, the center can be found by the intersection of two diameters. The diameters can be drawn with a ruler. But it is difficult to be sure if the ruler passes exactly through the center when we do not know exactly where the center is located.
An alternative procedure to find the diameter and center of the circle involves the paper. Later we will perform experiments with the pasteboards, so it is better not to fold them. For this reason the folding we discuss here should be done with similar figures made from sheets of
paper. For example, we place the pasteboard circle on a sheet of paper and cut out a similar circle of paper. We then fold the paper circle in two equal halves. We fold it once more so that it is divided into four equal parts, as in Fig. 3.1. We can then use a pen to draw the diameters in the paper circle. The center of the circle is the intersection of the diameters. A hole should be made at the center. By placing the paper circle on the pasteboard circle, we can mark the center of the circle on the pasteboard.
We cut out a pasteboard in the shape of a rectangle with sides of 6 cm and 12 cm. There are two ways to find the center. The simplest one is to connect the opposite vertices. The center of the rectangle is the intersection of these diagonals, marked with the “X”.
The other way is to find (with a ruler or by folding) the central point of each side. We then connect the middle points of opposite sides. The center is the intersection of these straight lines.
The parallelogram is a plane quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel to one another. A parallelogram is cut out from a pasteboard with sides of 6 cm and 12 cm, with the smallest internal angle being $30^\circ$ (or $45^\circ$). The center of this parallelogram can be found by the two methods we used for the rectangle, as in Fig. 3.2.
### 3.1.3 The triangle centers
There are three types of triangle: equilateral (three equal sides), isosceles (only two sides of the same length), and scalene (with three different sides). Every triangle has four special centers: circumcenter (C), barycenter or triangle centroid (B), orthocenter (O), and incenter (I). We will find these four special points in the case of an isosceles triangle with a base of 6 cm and height of 12 cm. With these dimensions each one of the equal sides has a length of 12.37 cm.
We draw and cut out a triangle of this size from a pasteboard. We also cut out four equal triangles from a sheet of paper. Each one of these four paper triangles will be used to draw the straight lines and locate one of the special points. When necessary, also the folding should be done with these paper triangles.
The circumcenter is the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors. A perpendicular bisector of a straight line AB is a straight line perpendicular to AB and passing through its midpoint M. To find the midpoint of each side we can use a ruler. With a T-square or using the pasteboard rectangle we draw a straight line perpendicular to each side through its midpoint. The intersection of these lines is the circumcenter (C), as in Fig. 3.3.
Another way of finding the midpoint of each side is by folding. In this case we only need to join the vertices two by two. The folding will be orthogonal to the side, passing through the midpoint.
An important property of the circumcenter is that it is equidistant from the vertices. It is therefore the center of the triangle’s circumcircle, as in Fig. 3.3.
In every acute triangle (a triangle in which all angles are acute, that is, smaller than $90^\circ$), the circumcenter is inside the triangle. In a right-angled triangle the circumcenter is located at the midpoint of the hypotenuse. In every obtuse triangle (a triangle which has an obtuse angle, that is, larger than $90^\circ$), the circumcenter is outside the triangle.
The barycenter or triangle centroid (B) is the intersection of the medians, which are the lines connecting the vertices to the midpoints of the opposite sides. It is also called the median center. The midpoint of each side can be found with a ruler or by folding. After finding them, all you need to do is join these midpoints to the opposite vertices. The intersection of these medians is the centroid (B), as in Fig. 3.4. The barycenter is always inside the triangle and has an important property. The distance from the vertex to the centroid is always twice the distance from the centroid to the midpoint of the opposite side.
The orthocenter is the intersection of the altitudes of a triangle, which are the straight lines connecting the vertices to the opposite sides, orthogonal to them. The easiest way to find these lines is to use a T-square or pasteboard rectangle. We slide the base of the T-square or the rectangle along one leg of the triangle until the perpendicular side of the T-square or the rectangle meets the opposite vertex of the triangle. At this point we draw the perpendicular to the leg, connecting it to the opposite vertex, as in Fig. 3.5.
The orthocenter is the intersection of the altitudes, as in Fig. 3.5. The altitudes also represent the smallest distances between the vertices and the opposite sides. Depending upon the dimensions of the triangle, the orthocenter may be inside or outside the triangle.
The incenter is the intersection of the angle bisectors of the triangle, which are the straight lines dividing the vertices into two equal angles. These lines can be obtained with a protractor. But the easiest way
is by folding. In this case you only need to join the adjacent sides through the vertex. Folding divides each vertex into two equal angles. The intersection of the straight lines is the incenter (I), as in Fig. 3.6.
The incenter is always located inside the triangle. It is equidistant from all sides of the triangle. It is thus also the center of the incircle (the inscribed circle of the triangle, tangent to all three sides), as in Fig. 3.6.
After locating these four centers with the paper triangles, we make holes in the papers at these centers. We then superimpose each of these paper triangles upon the pasteboard triangle and mark these points. The final result in the case of an isosceles triangle with a 6 cm base and 12 cm height is shown in Fig. 3.7. We can see that these four points are different from one another, with the orthocenter closer to the base, then the incenter, the barycentre, and the circumcenter. These four points are along a straight line which is the angle bisector, altitude, median, and perpendicular bisector.
For an equilateral triangle these four centers superimpose on one another, as in Fig. 3.8.
Fig. 3.7. Isosceles triangle and its centers.
For an isosceles triangle with 12 cm base and 7 cm height the order of the centers relative to the base is opposite to the order for a 6 cm base and 12 cm height isosceles triangle, as in Fig. 3.8.
For a scalene triangle these four centers are not along a single straight line. Moreover, they are not all necessarily inside the triangle. In Fig. 3.8 we show an obtuse triangle with sides of 7 cm, 10 cm and 14 cm. We can see that the barycenter and the incenter are inside the triangle, while the circumcenter and orthocenter are outside it.
### 3.2 Experiments on and definition of the center of gravity
Thus far we have dealt only with geometry. Now we will begin to perform experiments. The majority of the experiments described here were inspired by the excellent works of Ferreira and Gaspar, highly recommended.\(^1\).
We will use a few primitive concepts, that is, concepts that we cannot define without avoiding vicious circles. These are: body, relative orientation of bodies (body B located between bodies A and C, for instance), distance between bodies, change of position between bodies, and time between physical events.
**Experiment**
We hold a coin above the surface of the Earth and release it. We observe that it falls to the ground. The same happens with the pasteboard circles, rectangles and triangles.
This is one of the simplest and most important experiments of mechanics. Not all bodies fall to the ground when released in air. A helium filled balloon, for example, rises when released in air, moving away from the surface of the Earth. On the other hand, if it is released in a high vacuum it also falls to the ground. In this work we will perform
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\(^1\) N. Ferreira, *Mecânica*, Projeto RIPE – Rede de Instrumentação para o Ensino (São Paulo: Instituto de Física, USP); N. Ferreira, *Equilíbrio* (São Paulo: Instituto de Física, USP). Available in 2007 at: http://www.ludoteca.if.usp.br/; A. Gaspar, *Experiências de Ciências para o Ensino Fundamental* (São Paulo: Ática, 2003).
experiments in open air. All the bodies we analyze here fall to the ground when released at rest.
3.2.1 Definitions
We now define a few concepts that will be employed throughout this work.
Rigid body: Any body whose parts do not change their relative orientations and distances when this body moves relative to other bodies. The triangle pasteboard, for instance, can be considered as a rigid body for the purposes of this book. Even when the triangle falls and rotates relative the surface of the Earth, the parts of the triangle remain fixed relative to one another (the distance between any two points belonging to the triangle remain constant in time). On the other hand, a cat walking on the sidewalk cannot be considered a rigid body. The distance between its feet, or between a foot and the tip of the tail, does not remain constant in time. Most experiments in the first part of this book will be performed with rigid bodies. When we say “body,” normally we refer to a “rigid body,” unless specified otherwise.
Motion and rest: We say that two bodies A and B are in relative motion (or rest), when the distance between any particle i of body A and any particle j of body B does (does not) change with the passage of time. In this work we will often speak of the motion and rest of a body relative to the Earth. When we say simply that a body is at rest or in motion, we normally mean that it is at rest or in motion relative to the surface of the Earth. The same should be understood for all the parts of a body in relation to all the parts of the Earth.
Equilibrium: We will normally understand equilibrium of a body as its state of rest relative to the surface of the Earth. That is, when we say that a body is in equilibrium, we mean that all of its parts remain at rest relative to the Earth with the passage of time. When a triangle is in our hands, we say that it is in equilibrium. When it is falling to the ground, it is no longer in equilibrium.
Gravity: Name given to the property which makes the bodies fall toward the surface of the Earth when released at rest. This can also be expressed by saying that gravity is the tendency of bodies to be attracted toward the center of the earth.
Go down and up: When we say that a body is going down (up), we mean that it is moving toward (away from) the surface of the Earth. Instead of these verbs we can also employ analogous terms, like fall and rise.
On top and bottom, above and below: When we say that body A is above body B, we mean that B is between the Earth and body A. When we say that body A is below body B, we mean that A is between the Earth and body B. When we refer to the top (bottom) part of a body, we mean its part farthest (closest) to the surface of the Earth.
Vertical: Straight line defined by the direction followed by a small dense body (like a metal coin) when it falls toward the Earth due to the action of gravity, beginning from rest. It is also the straight line followed by a body which moves upward when released from rest (like a helium balloon, in a region without wind). That is, the vertical is not an arbitrary straight line. It is a very specific straight line connected with the Earth’s gravity. Here we are neglecting the influence of wind.
Horizontal: Any straight line or plane orthogonal to the vertical line.
It should be stressed that all these concepts are connected to the Earth, indicating physical properties related to the gravitational interaction of the bodies with the Earth. That is, they are not abstract or purely mathematical concepts. They are defined beginning from mechanical experiments performed at the surface of the Earth.
It is important to introduce all these concepts explicitly because they will be utilized throughout this book. Nevertheless, it should be stressed that they are idealizations which are never found exactly like this in nature. For example, no body is perfectly rigid. Even when a book is resting above a table, its molecules are vibrating. In this sense, no body is actually in equilibrium according to the definition above, as parts of this body will always be moving relative to the surface of the Earth, even when the body as a whole, macroscopically, is at rest. When we support a body from below with a stick, the body will suffer a small curvature, even if it is a metal plate. However, for phenomena at a macroscopic scale, these details (the vibration of the molecules, or the small curvature of the body) are not easily observable, or may not be relevant for the case under consideration. For this reason the concepts already defined make sense at the macroscopic scale and should be understood as such.
3.2.2 Support for the experiments
After these definitions we can go on with the experiments. We concentrate on the phenomena leading to the definition of center of gravity. To this end we will need a stand to support the plane pasteboard figures we made earlier. There are several ways to make a stand.
A bamboo barbecue skewer: We use children’s modeling clay as a base and fix the bamboo skewer vertically, with the tip down, as in Fig. 3.9. It is important to stress that the tip should be pointing toward the Earth; otherwise it will be very difficult to perform the equilibrium experiments. The bamboo skewer can also be fixed in rubber or another appropriate base.
A pencil stand: We fix a pencil vertically in a sharpener, with its tip down.
A bottle stand: If the pasteboard figures are large (with lengths of the order of 20 cm or of 40 cm, an appropriate size for demonstrations in the classroom), you can use a glass or plastic bottle as a stand, with the pasteboard resting above the cover. If the bottle is made of plastic, it should be water filled to prevent it from falling over during the experiments, as in Fig. 3.9.
A wire stand: Another interesting possibility is to utilize a thick, solid vertical wire with a spiral base, as in Fig. 3.9. If the wire is rigid but thin, it may be difficult to balance the figures horizontally above it. Moreover, the wire could pierce a hole in styrofoam sheets, etc. As a result, a thick, rigid wire is preferred.
A nail stand: In this case we only need a nail fixed in a cork, rubber, wooden board, or other convenient base. The head of the nail should be horizontal, with the point fixed in the base.
There are many other possibilities. The important points are that the stand should be rigid, fixed in an appropriate base, and remain vertical, and its top should be flat and remain in a horizontal plane. Moreover, the size of the top should be small compared with the dimensions of the figure which is balanced on it. But it cannot be extremely small, or pointed (such as, for instance, the bamboo skewer, pencil or nail with the tip pointing upward). The top end has to be small in order
to clearly locate the equilibrium point of the body, but should not be too small, otherwise many of the experiments will be impracticable. (If it has a negligible area, it is very difficult to keep a body at rest above it.) With a little practice we can easily find appropriate dimensions.
3.2.3 First experimental procedure to find the CG
Experiment
We try to balance the circle, rectangle, and parallelogram pasteboards in a horizontal plane by supporting them on a vertical stand. We take the circle, for example, lay it horizontal, and place it with the stand under one of its points, releasing the circle from rest. We observe that it always falls to the ground except when the support is under the center of the circle. With all these plane figures we observe that there is a single point in each one which must be on the vertical stand in order for the figure to remain at rest after release. Experience teaches us that for the rectangle and parallelogram, this special point is also the center of these figures, as happened with the circle, as in Fig. 3.10.
As an historical curiosity, it is worth noting that Archimedes was the first to prove theoretically that the center of gravity of a circle is its center, and that the center of gravity of a parallelogram is the intersection of its diagonals (rectangles and squares are particular cases of parallelograms). Lemma 6 of *The Method* says: “The center of gravity of a circle is the point that is also the center [of the circle].”\(^2\) Proposition 9 of his work *On the Equilibrium of Planes* states: “The centre of gravity of any parallelogram lies on the straight line joining the middle points of opposite sides.”\(^3\) And finally, proposition 10 of the same work states:
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\(^2\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 15.
\(^3\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 194.
“The centre of gravity of a parallelogram is the point of intersection of its diagonals.”
These bodies are balanced only when the stand is under their centers. This equilibrium is connected with the Earth’s gravity. Our first reaction would be to call the centers of these bodies their “centers of gravity.” But from the result of the next experiment and its analysis, we will see that this definition has to be modified. But for the time being we can say from the experiments performed thus far that only when these specific bodies are supported by their centers do they remain in equilibrium when released from rest. We thus give a first provisional definition.
**Provisional definition CG1:** We call the center of gravity of a body its geometric center. This point will be represented by the letters CG.
**Experiment**
We now equilibrate an arbitrary triangle (equilateral, isosceles or scalene) in a horizontal plane above a vertical stand. As a concrete example we will consider the pasteboard isosceles triangle of base $a$ and height $b$ ($a = 6 \text{ cm}$ and $b = 12 \text{ cm}$). This triangle has its four special centers (orthocenter, circumcenter, barycenter and incenter) well separated from one another. We utilize now a barbecue bamboo skewer as the vertical stand. In this way we can locate clearly the equilibrium point of the triangle. That is, the point below which the bamboo skewer should be placed in such a way that the triangle remains in equilibrium, after placed in a horizontal plane and released from rest. Experiment teaches that the triangle always falls to the ground, except when supported by the barycenter, as in Fig. 3.11. Even when supported by the circumcen-
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4 *Ibid.*, p. 195.
ter, by the orthocenter, by the incenter, or by any other point (except the barycenter), the triangle always falls after release from rest.
Once more Archimedes was the first to prove theoretically that the center of gravity of any triangle coincides with the intersection of the medians. Proposition 13 of his work *On the Equilibrium of Planes* reads: “In any triangle the centre of gravity lies on the straight line joining any angle to the middle point of the opposite side.”\(^5\) Proposition 14 states: “It follows at once from the last proposition that the centre of gravity of any triangle is the intersection of the lines drawn from any two angles to the middle points of the opposite sides respectively.”\(^6\)
Can we say that the barycenter of a triangle is its geometric center? Does every triangle have a geometric center? In order to answer these questions we need to know what we mean by “geometric center.” Intuitively we think of a geometric center as a point of symmetry of the body. In order to quantify this qualitative idea of symmetry, we can think of the center X of a rectangle. Let us consider a straight line AXB passing by X, making an angle $\theta$ with the base, and dividing the rectangle into two parts of areas $A_1$ and $A_2$, as in Fig. 3.12.
There are two criteria by which we can say that X is the geometric center of the rectangle. (I) The straight line AXB is always divided in two equal segments by X. That is, $AX = XB$ for every angle $\theta$. (II) The straight line AXB always divides the rectangle into two equal areas. That is, $A_1 = A_2$ for any angle $\theta$. These two properties will not be valid for any other point of the rectangle—only for its center X. Let P be another point of the rectangle. A straight line APB may be divided in two equal segments $AP = PB$ when it is inclined by a specific angle $\theta_i$ relative to the base of the rectangle, but this will no longer be valid when we
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\(^5\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 198.
\(^6\) Ibid., p. 201.
change the angle $\theta_I$. Another straight line CPD may divide the rectangle into two equal areas when it is inclined by an angle $\theta_{II}$ relative to the base of the rectangle. But once again, this will not be valid when we change the angle $\theta_{II}$. We then conclude that the rectangle has only a single geometric center, the same being true of a circle and some other symmetric figures, such as a parallelogram or an ellipse.
On the other hand, criteria (I) and (II) in the previous paragraph will not be true for any point P of a given triangle. That is, given an arbitrary triangle, there is no point $P_1$ belonging to it such that all straight lines passing through $P_1$ will satisfy criterion (I). Moreover, there is no point $P_{II}$ belonging to it such that all straight lines passing through $P_{II}$ will satisfy criterion (II). In this sense we can say that no triangle has a geometric center. On the other hand, every triangle has four special centers (circumcenter, barycenter, orthocenter, and incenter).
In order to illustrate this fact we consider the isosceles triangle $V_1V_2V_3$ with base $a$ and height $b$. The area of this triangle is $ab/2$. The median connecting the center of the base to the vertex $V_2$ is divided into two equal parts by a point $P$ located at a distance $b/2$ from the base and from the vertex $V_2$. A straight line parallel to the base and passing through $P$ and limited by the sides of the triangle is also divided into two equal parts by $P$. On the other hand, the straight line $V_1PQ$ (where the point $Q$ is the intersection of the side $V_2V_3$ with the extended line $V_1P$) is not divided into two equal parts by $P$, as in Fig. 3.13. That is, criterion (I) is not satisfied by $P$. The same is true for any other point on the triangle.
Fig. 3.14. A straight line parallel to the base and passing through the barycenter divides the triangle into two figures having different areas.
Nor is criterion (II) satisfied by P. The straight line passing through $V_2$ and P divides the triangle into two parts of equal area. On the other hand, the straight line parallel to the base and passing through P does not divide the triangle into two parts of equal areas, as in Fig. 3.13. The upper triangle has only a quarter of the total area, while the lower trapezium has three quarters of the total area.
The barycenter B is located at a distance $b/3$ from the midpoint of the base and at a distance $2b/3$ from the upper vertex. This shows at once that it does not satisfy the previous criterion (I). The extended straight lines connecting B to any one of the vertices divide the triangle in two parts of equal areas. But this will not be the case, for example, for a straight line parallel to the base and passing through B, as in Fig. 3.14.
In this case the area of the upper triangle is equal to $\frac{4}{9}$ of the total area, while the area of the lower trapezium is equal to $\frac{5}{9}$ of the total area. In order to confirm this without performing the calculations, all we need to do is cut out nine equal isosceles triangles, each with a base of $a/3$ and height of $b/3$ (area of $ab/18$). We can fill the superior triangle with four of these small triangles, and the inferior trapezium with five of these small triangles, as in Fig. 3.14.
Even the most symmetrical triangle, the equilateral triangle, has no geometric center that satisfies criterion (I) or criterion (II). In this case the four special centers coincide at the barycenter B of the triangle. And we just saw that the barycenter of an isosceles triangle does not satisfy any of these criteria. As the equilateral triangle is a particular case of an isosceles triangle, it follows automatically that the barycenter of an equilateral triangle will not satisfy any of these criteria. Nevertheless,
we can say that the equilateral triangle has a center of symmetry given by \( C = B = O = I \). Although this point does not satisfy criteria (I) and (II), there is symmetry of rotation around an axis orthogonal to the plane of the triangle and passing through this point. That is, any characteristic of the triangle is repeated with a rotation of 120° around this point. For this reason it is possible to say that the barycenter of an equilateral triangle is its center of symmetry, yet not its geometric center.
We then conclude that a triangle has no geometric center defined according to criteria (I) and (II). Nevertheless, experience teaches us that every triangle can be balanced horizontally when supported by a thin vertical stand placed under its barycenter, but not when we place the support under any other point of the horizontal triangle. This suggests that we should change our previous definition of center of gravity. We now give a second, more precise provisional definition of a CG.
**Provisional definition CG2:** The center of gravity is a certain point in the body such that if the body is supported by this point and released from rest, it remains in equilibrium relative to the Earth.
Later on we will need to change this definition yet again for a more general concept. But for the time being it is a suitable definition. From the experiments performed thus far it follows that any body has only a single point satisfying this definition. If the body is released from rest when supported by any other point, it does not remain in equilibrium, but falls to the ground. For circles and parallelograms the CG is the center of these bodies, while for the triangles it coincides with the barycenter.
Another way of looking at CG has to do with the weight of the bodies. Later on in this book we will quantify this concept and show how it can be measured. But we all have an intuitive notion of the weight of a body as a quantitative measure of gravitational force. We say that body A is heavier than body B when it is more difficult to keep A at a certain height from the ground than it is to keep B at rest at the same height. This difficulty can be indicated by our sweat, by the fatigue we feel in an outstretched arm, or by the deformation created by bodies A and B upon the body supporting them (in the case of a flexible support like a spring, for example).
In the previous Figures we saw that the whole weight of the circle, rectangle, parallelogram or triangle was supported by the bamboo skewer placed at a single point below each of these bodies. We can then give a new provisional definition of the CG.
Fig. 3.15. Although the upper triangle and the lower trapezium have different areas and weights, this figure can be kept in horizontal equilibrium by a support passing through the barycenter.
**Provisional definition CG3:** The center of gravity of a body is the point of application of the gravitational force acting upon it. That is, it is the point of the body upon which all the gravity acts when it is at rest, the point where the weight of the body is located or concentrated. It can also be called the center of weight of a body.
As we have seen, a triangle has no geometric center. This leads to an important conclusion which will be explored in the following experiment.
**Experiment**
We have seen that not all straight lines passing through the barycenter of a triangle divide it into two equal areas. As we are dealing with homogeneous plane figures, the weight of any part is proportional to its area. This fact suggests a very interesting experiment. We cut out a pasteboard triangle with base $a$ and height $b$ (for example, with $a = 6$ cm and $b = 12$ cm). The barycenter is located along the median connecting the superior vertex to the midpoint of the base, at a distance $\frac{2b}{3}$ from the superior vertex. We can then cut this triangle in two parts with a pair of scissors, cutting a straight line parallel to the base and passing through the barycenter. We then connect the two parts only by the central region around the old barycenter utilizing a small piece of pasteboard. Alternatively, we can remove two narrow strips parallel to the base on either side of the barycenter, keeping only a small region around the barycenter, as in Fig. 3.15.
We then try to equilibrate this figure horizontally above a vertical stand. We observe that the body only remains balanced horizontally
when the stand is placed below the barycenter. That is, although the area and weight of the trapezium are larger than the area and weight of the small triangle (which goes from the superior vertex to the straight line passing through the barycenter), the system as a whole remains in equilibrium. If these two parts were not rigidly connected, each one of them would fall to the ground after release. We then conclude that the CG is not, necessarily, the point which divides the body in two equal areas or in two equal weights. We will discuss this aspect in more detail in a later section.
**Experiment**
There is another way to perform this experiment without cutting the larger triangle. We take the original triangle of base $a$ and height $b$ and balance it horizontally by placing the triangle on the edge of a ruler in the vertical plane. The edge of the ruler should be parallel to the base of the triangle, passing through its barycenter. The extended vertical plane passing through the ruler divides the triangle into two different areas, that is, into two different weights. Nevertheless, the triangle remains in equilibrium when supported by this ruler, as in Fig. 3.15.
### 3.2.4 Experiments with concave bodies or pierced bodies
We now cut out some concave figures, such as a letter C, a first quarter Moon, a boomerang, etc. Some pierced bodies should also be prepared, such as a washer (a metal washer is easily found). To cut the interior circumference of a pasteboard washer, a radial cut can be made between the exterior and interior circles. But with a pair of pointed scissors this is unnecessary. The outside diameters of these figures can be 8 cm or 10 cm, for instance. The interior diameters can be of the order of 4 cm or 6 cm. But these dimensions are not so important. For the following experiments you will need to cut out at least two equal figures of each model (two letters C of the same size and shape, two Moons, two washers, etc.). One set of these figures will be used in the next experiment, while the other set of identical figures will be used in later experiments (with sewing threads attached to these figures with adhesive tape).
**Experiment**
We try to balance these figures in a horizontal plane by placing them above a vertical stand, as we did with the triangle. We observe that we cannot balance any of them. They always fall to the ground, no matter where we place the support, as in Fig. 3.16.
Fig. 3.16. The washer falls to the ground when we try to support it horizontally or vertically by an edge. But we can support it by a horizontal bamboo skewer passing through its hole.
Even when we try to balance them on an edge, by placing the figures in a vertical plane above the support, we do not succeed; they always fall to the ground, as in Fig. 3.16.
The only way to balance them is to hold the bamboo skewer horizontally and the figures in a vertical plane, with the bamboo skewer passing through a hole in the bodies, or supporting the concave part of the figures, as in Fig. 3.16.
There are different ways to analyze this experiment. The first is to conclude that some concave or pierced bodies do not have a specific center of gravity, but do have an entire line of gravity. The washer, for instance, can remain balanced in a vertical plane when supported by any point belonging to its interior circumference. On the other hand it cannot be balanced when the vertical bamboo skewer is placed exactly at the empty center of the washer, which is its geometric center. If we follow definition CG2 rigorously, we must say that the washer has a line of gravity, namely, its interior circumference. In this case we cannot say that it has a specific CG located at a single point.
The same can be said of definition CG3. After all, the horizontal bamboo skewer in Fig. 3.16 is holding the whole weight of the vertical washer supported at a point on the interior circumference of the washer. But a vertical bamboo skewer cannot support a horizontal washer when the end of the bamboo skewer is located at the empty center of the washer. If we follow definition CG3 rigorously, we should say that the washer has a line of weight or a line of gravity, but not a specific point that could be called its CG.
Another way to analyze this experiment is to say that the CG does not need to be located “in the body.” That is, we may say that it does not need to be located at any point coinciding with a material part of the body. The CG might then be located in empty space, at a point in some definite spatial relation with the body (like the geometric center of the washer, for instance), even though not physically connected to the body.
If we adopt this alternative, we will need to change our definition CG2. We will also need to find another way of experimentally locating the CG in these special cases, as presented in the procedure of the next experiment.
**Experiment**
We attach two taught sewing threads to the washer with adhesive tape, as if they were two diameters intersecting each other at the center of the washer. Now we can balance the washer in a horizontal plane by placing the vertical support under the intersection of the threads, as in Fig. 3.17. We can also find a similar point for the Moon or for letter C, by trial and error, i.e., the intersection of two taught threads attached to the figures so that they remain in equilibrium horizontally when the support is placed vertically under this intersection.
If we accept this second alternative, we need to generalize our definition CG2 to include these special cases. A more general definition is presented now.
**Provisional definition CG4:** We call the center of gravity of a body a point in the body or outside it such that, if the body is supported by this point and released from rest, it remains in equilibrium relative to the Earth. When this point is located outside the body, a rigid connection must be made between this point and the body in order for the body to remain in equilibrium when released from rest.
This definition has a problem. After all, when we make this material rigid connection (like the taught threads attached with adhesive tape) the original body has been modified. But provided the weight of this material connection is small in comparison with the weight of the body, this is a reasonable procedure.
Fig. 3.18. The washer can also be supported along its axis of symmetry utilizing loose threads.
Even so there is another problem with this definition, as we will see in the next experiments.
**Experiment**
We now attach two loose threads of the same length to the washer with adhesive tape. The length of each thread should be greater than the external diameter of the washer. They are attached as in the previous experiment, at the same locations, i.e., the straight line joining the two pieces of adhesive tape attaching each thread passes through the center of the washer. The only difference is the length of the threads. In this case we can also balance the whole system on a support. But now the intersection of the two threads touching the support is along the axis of symmetry of the washer, as in Fig. 3.18. It is no longer located at its geometric center.
If we follow the second alternative discussed above (where the CG does not need to be located in the body, and could be located in empty space), we must conclude that the washer has not just one center of gravity, but an infinite set of them located along its axis of symmetry. That is, the whole axis of symmetry of the washer might be called its “axis or line of gravity.” This would be true both according to definition CG3, and according to definition CG4.
Definition CG3 has also problems with concave or pierced bodies. According to this definition the CG is the point of application of the gravitational force, that is, the point where gravity acts. The problem with this definition is that we normally consider gravity to be a force acting upon material bodies due to an interaction between the body and the Earth. It would be difficult to say that the point of application of the gravitational force on a washer was acting on the empty space where its geometric center is located. The force of the Earth cannot act on empty
space. As a result, definition CG3 will have to be modified. It might, for instance, go something like the following.
**Provisional definition CG5:** The center of gravity is one point inside or outside the body which behaves as if all gravitational force where acting at this point. When this point is located outside the body, there must be a rigid connection between this point and the body in order to perceive or measure the entire gravitational force acting at this point.
This is a very reasonable definition. The greatest difficulty we encounter when dealing with it is how to locate this point. Let us consider the washer with loose threads, for instance. It is supported by four pieces of adhesive tape attached to it. These pieces of tape are supported by two taught threads. These threads, meanwhile, are supported at their intersection by a base or hook. That is, the washer behaves as if all its weight were supported along its axis of symmetry, at the intersection of the threads, away from the geometric center of the washer, provided we utilize threads attached to the washer. So it would make more sense to talk of a line of gravity, or a line of weight, instead of a center of gravity or a center of weight.
In the next experiments we will see another problem that arises even with the more general definitions CG4 and CG5.
### 3.2.5 Experiments with three-dimensional bodies
Thus far we have performed experiments with “plane” figures, or two-dimensional bodies. However, every material body is three-dimensional. When we say that a figure is plane or two-dimensional, we mean that its thickness is much smaller than the other dimensions involved in the problem (the thickness $d$ of the pasteboard rectangle, for example, is much smaller than the length of its sides $a$ and $b$). We now perform experiments with bodies in which all three dimensions are of the same order of magnitude.
The bodies we will consider are a cube or die with plane faces, a sphere, a metal screw-nut and an egg. For lighter bodies we use children’s modeling clay and the barbecue bamboo skewer as support. For the egg (and other heavy spheres) we can use the table as a support, since it only touches the table in a small region due to its convex shape at all points.
**Experiment**
We release these bodies upon a horizontal support and observe the points at which they remain in equilibrium. In the case of the cube we
find six points of equilibrium, namely, the centers of the faces, as in Fig. 3.19.
For the metallic screw-nut we also find six points of equilibrium, the centers of the six external faces. Moreover, using the procedure involving the intersection of sewing threads (which we used above with the washer), it can be shown that all points along the axis of symmetry are also points of equilibrium of the screw-nut. It also remains balanced by any point along the internal circumference or cylinder surface if the barbecue bamboo skewer is fixed in a horizontal position, as was the case with the washer.
The sphere remains in equilibrium at all points of its surface. Therefore it has an infinite number of equilibrium points.
The most interesting case is that of the egg, which has a whole line of equilibrium. This line forms a circumference on the shell, such that the plane of this circumference is orthogonal to the axis of symmetry of the egg, as in Fig. 3.19.
From this experiment we conclude that many geometric bodies have more than one center of gravity if we follow definitions CG2, CG3, CG4 or CG5. The cube, for instance, would have six centers of gravity, the egg would have a whole line and the sphere its entire surface. The screw-nut would have six of these centers, the centers of the external faces, in addition to its internal circumference and to all points along its axis of symmetry. In order to be consistent with this discovery we should talk of points, lines or surfaces of gravity, instead of speaking of a single “center” of gravity for each body.
Fortunately there is another experimental procedure involving gravity with which we can find a single and specific point in each rigid body related to its condition of equilibrium relative to the Earth. By utilizing this second experimental procedure we can obtain another definition of the CG which avoids the previous problems and which has a relevant physical meaning. As this new procedure employs a plumb line, we first explain the instrument.
3.2.6 Plumb line, vertical and horizontal
Plumb line: This is the name given to any thread fixed at its upper end (this end remains at rest relative to the Earth) and which has a body fixed at its lower end. The plumb line must be free to oscillate around the extreme upper end.
The point of suspension, represented in some Figures by the letters PS is the point at which the body is hanging or suspended, as we will see in the next experiments. (Often it will coincide with the location of the pin or needle holding the body and the plumb line.)
The stand or aid point, represented in some Figures by the letters PA, is the upper end of a stand on which the body is supported, like the end of the bamboo skewer used as a support in some of the previous experiments.
The upper end of the plumb line can be held by our fingers, or tied to a bar or a hook, etc. In our experiments we will fix this top end to a rigid support at rest relative to the Earth. We stick a pin or needle into the upper part of our bamboo skewer placed in a vertical position, as in the experiments performed earlier. On the pin we will hang pierced pasteboard figures and also a plumb line. The plumb line will be a sewing thread with a weight at the bottom. We could simply tie or fasten it to the pin, but we will need to remove and replace the plumb line on the pin several times. Therefore it is best to make a small loop at the top of the thread. At the bottom of the thread we tie a plumb or a piece of modeling clay. The device to be used in the experiments is shown in Fig. 3.20.
One of the advantages of this device is that it allows us to repeat the previous experiments in which we supported pasteboard figures horizontally on a vertical bamboo skewer. In order to avoid the hindrance of the pin (touching the figure placed horizontally above it), the pin should be stuck in a little below the end of the bamboo skewer. In
addition, the pin should not be perfectly horizontal, but inclined with its head a little above the point stuck in the bamboo skewer, in order to prevent the pasteboard figures from sliding off.
If we wish to perform experiments only with the plumb line, a bamboo skewer should be tied to it, in a horizontal position. This way we avoid the pins, which can be dangerous if we perform these experiments with children. The bamboo skewer is laid on a table, half of it extending beyond the table. The part on the table is kept in its place by a book or other weight on it. The plumb line hangs from the part of the bamboo skewer outside the table, free to oscillate, as shown in Fig. 3.20. The pierced pasteboard figure will also hang from the bamboo skewer, instead of being suspended by the pin.
Another practical alternative is to use a thread or lace tied to a bar or broomstick fixed in a horizontal position. At the bottom of the thread we attach a hook, from which we will hang the plumb line and the pierced pasteboard figures, as in Fig. 3.21.
**Experiment**
We hang the plumb line from the support and wait until it reaches equilibrium. Then we release a coin from rest close to the plumb line. We observe that the direction of fall is parallel to the plumb line, as in Fig. 3.22.
This is the main function of a plumb line. When it is at rest relative to the Earth, it indicates the vertical direction. In this sense it is a better indicator than a falling body, as it has a visible line, permanent and stable (when there is no wind blowing, *etc.*) Bricklayers often use plumb lines to determine whether a wall is vertically true.
There are three principal methods for finding the horizontal direction.
A) We first find the vertical, V, with a plumb line. Then we place a large T-square parallel to the plumb line. The direcFig. 3.22. Finding the vertical (V) and the horizontal (H) with a falling body or with a plumb line.
tion orthogonal to the line indicated by the T-square is then, by definition, the horizontal direction, H, as in Fig. 3.22.
B) With a spirit level. Usually it has the shape of a small parallelepiped with an internal cylindrical transparent vessel containing a liquid with a bubble. There are two straight marking lines along the axis of the cylinder, symmetrically located relative to the center. The spirit level is placed on a surface. When the bubble remains in the middle of the two marks the surface is horizontal, as in Fig. 3.23. When the bubble remains at one of the ends of the vessel, the surface is not horizontal. The side where the bubble is located is higher than the opposite side. The spirit level works due to the action of gravity and the upward thrust exerted in a fluid (the principle of Archimedes).
C) We use a transparent hose open at both ends and partially filled with a liquid, such as water. The hose is kept at rest relative to the Earth and we wait until the liquid reaches equilibrium. The straight line connecting the two free surfaces of liquid indicates the horizontal direction, as in Fig. 3.23. It works based upon the equilibrium of liquids under the action of gravity.
As a curiosity it is worth mentioning here how bricklayers build orthogonal walls. After finishing a wall, they mark two points on it 4 m
Fig. 3.23. Finding the horizontal with a spirit level and with a transparent hose.
apart horizontally, A and B. The first point, A, is at the end of the wall where the other wall is to be built. Next they find a third point C such that the distance between A and C is 3 m and the distance between B and C is 5 m. The straight line connecting AC is then orthogonal to the straight line connecting AB. Instead of these specific distances, any multiple of them can be used (30 cm, 40 cm and 50 cm, for instance). The principle behind this method is the theorem of Pythagoras. That is, in a right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other sides. And a triangle with sides 3 m, 4 m and 5 m satisfies this theorem. The same holds for a triangle with sides of lengths proportional to these numbers.
### 3.2.7 Second experimental procedure to find the CG
The first method for finding the center of gravity was described in the previous experiments of balancing circles, parallelograms and triangles horizontally above a vertical bamboo skewer. This is the simplest and most intuitive way to understand the meaning of the center of gravity. With this procedure we can also perceive that it is a single point for each body. Experiment shows that these bodies only remain in equilibrium when supported by a single point called the CG. But there were conceptual problems with this approach, as we saw before. We return to these geometric figures and perform another set of experiments.
We now present the second method for finding the CG of these figures, which avoids the problems already presented. We use plane pasteboard figures of the same shape and size as before. But now we make two or three holes in each figure with nails or a single-hole punch-pliers. The diameters of the holes should be small compared with the dimensions of the figures (so that they will not change the weight or matter distribution of the figures appreciably), but large enough for these figures to hang freely on the pin or hook. That is, the friction between the pin and the figures should be very small, such that the figures can oscillate freely around the pin. Single-hole punch-pliers are very practical and work very well with pasteboard figures with dimensions larger than 5 cm. The circular holes they make allow the figures to swing freely when they hang by a pin or even on a horizontal barbecue bamboo skewer.
**Experiment**
We make a small hole in a pasteboard circle equal to the one used before. The hole should be made in an arbitrary position which does not coincide with the center of the circle. We then hang this circle on a pin
stuck into a vertical bamboo skewer. That is, with a horizontal pin the plane of the circle will be vertical. The location of the pin will be represented in the next Figures by the letters PS, indicating that it is the point of suspension. The plumb line is also placed on the pin. We wait until the system reaches equilibrium. Experience shows that in equilibrium the center X of the circle will be vertically below the pin, as indicated by the plumb line, as in Fig. 3.24.
This is also a preferential position in the sense that, if the circle is released from rest from this position, it remains in equilibrium. If the circle is released from rest with its center outside the vertical passing through the pin, we observe that the center of the circle swings around this vertical until it stops in the preferential position due to friction, as in Fig. 3.24.
Instead of hanging the circle on the pin, we could also tie the pierced circle with a thread passing through its hole. The upper end of the thread is then attached to a support above the circle. We again observe the same phenomena as before, provided the circle is free to oscillate around the thread. That is, the downward extended vertical along the thread will pass through the center of the circle when it reaches equilibrium.
We can now present the second experimental procedure for finding the CG.
We consider a pasteboard circle with two or three small holes pierced in arbitrary locations. We hang it with the pin passing through one of its holes, and release the circle from rest. Normally it oscillates and reaches equilibrium. We hang a plumb line by the pin and wait for the whole system to reach equilibrium. We then use a pencil to draw a
straight line in the circle coinciding with the vertical indicated by the plumb line. We call it $PS_1E_1$, where $PS_1$ is the point of suspension indicated by the pin (these letters should be written at the side of the first hole) and $E_1$ is the bottom end of the body along this vertical, as in Fig. 3.25.
The plumb line and the circle are removed from the pin. We now repeat the procedure, this time hanging the circle by a second hole $PS_2$. We hang the plumb line, wait for the system to reach equilibrium and draw a second vertical $PS_2E_2$, as in Fig. 3.25.
Experience shows that the two straight lines $PS_1E_1$ and $PS_2E_2$ intersect at a point which coincides with the center of the circle. If we repeat the procedure by hanging the circle and plumb line by a third hole $PS_3$, the third vertical $PS_3E_3$ will also pass through the center of the circle. It is convenient to draw three or more lines like this in order to find the point of intersection with greater precision. This procedure also shows that all verticals intersect at a single point.
But this coincidence of all points of intersection is not always perfect. One reason for this fact is the friction that always exists between the circle and the plumb line while the system is oscillating, before reaching equilibrium. Sometimes this friction prevents the plumb line from reaching a vertical direction when at rest, as the line can stick on irregularities in the pasteboard. But the main reason for a lack of coincidence of all points is the difficulty in drawing the verticals upon the figure to coincide with the plumb line. We have to attach the thread with our fingers in order to draw the lines. At this point we could change the real direction indicated by the plumb line very slightly.
Fig. 3.26. Second experimental procedure to find the CG of a rectangle, of a parallelogram, of a triangle and of a washer.
But with a little practice and patience we can optimize this procedure. Then we can say with certainty that all verticals intersect at the center of the circle. Remember that we are considering holes of small diameters as compared with the size of the figure. This means that these holes do not significantly disturb the weight or the matter distribution of the figure.
**Experiment**
This procedure is repeated with a rectangle and a parallelogram, by piercing two or three small holes in each figure. The verticals are drawn and we observe that their intersections coincide with the centers of these figures, as in Fig. 3.26.
By repeating the same procedure with a triangle we find that the intersection of the verticals coincides with the barycenter of the triangle, as in Fig. 3.26.
**Experiment**
We can repeat the procedure with a pasteboard washer by piercing two or three holes in it and hanging it by a pin. Alternatively the washer can be hung by its interior circumference, keeping the washer in a vertical plane. We then hang the plumb line by the pin and draw the first vertical line. By repeating the procedure with another point along the internal circumference, we find that the intersection of the verticals coincides with the center of the washer, as in Fig. 3.26. This agrees with the intersection of the two stretched threads performed before. We can also compare the present experiment with the one in which we used two loose threads. In this case the vertical passing through the intersection of the loose threads coincides with the direction of the vertical bamboo skewer placed below them or with the downward projection passing through the hook holding the threads. That is, this vertical coincides with the axis of symmetry of the washer. And this axis of symmetry also passes through
the geometric center of the washer. This means that all verticals drawn in this experiment intersect at the center of the washer.
**Experiment**
We now repeat this procedure utilizing a pasteboard Moon in first quarter or with a pasteboard letter C. Once more we observe that the intersection of all verticals coincides with the previous experiment performed with stretched threads.
**Experiment**
We cut out a plane pasteboard figure of arbitrary shape, devoid of any symmetry. Two or three small holes are pierced in the figure. We then localize its CG by the first procedure. That is, we try to find the specific point at which the vertical stand must be placed in order for the figure to remain in equilibrium in a horizontal plane when released from rest. We mark this point with a pen in both sides of the pasteboard. Then we use the second procedure to locate the CG. That is, we hang the figure in a vertical plane by a horizontal pin passing through one of its holes and wait for equilibrium. We then draw a vertical line with the help of a plumb line. We observe that it passes through the CG obtained with the first procedure, although the figure lacks symmetry. The same happens when we hang the figure by the second or third hole.
The essence of these experiments can be stated as follows. A rigid body hangs by a point of suspension $PS_1$, such that it is free to rotate in all directions around this point. For each PS there will be a preferential position such that the body will remain in equilibrium when released from rest. If it is not let go in this preferential position, when released from rest it will oscillate around the vertical passing through PS, until it stops due to friction. After the body reaches equilibrium, a vertical is drawn passing through $PS_1$. Choose a second point $PS_2$ outside this vertical. The body is suspended by $PS_2$ and the procedure is repeated. Experience shows that the two verticals obtained in this way intersect at a single point. The same happens when the body is suspended by any other point PS. That is, all verticals passing through the points of suspension intersect at a single point.
**Practical definition CG6**
These facts lead us to a more general definition of the CG:
**Practical Definition CG6:** The center of gravity of a body is the intersection of all verticals passing through the points of suspension when it is in equilibrium and is free to rotate around these points.
The detailed procedure for finding the CG by drawing the verticals through the points of suspension has already been presented. It is illustrated in Fig. 3.27 for a body of arbitrary shape.
Experience teaches us that the CG is unique for each body. Moreover, it does not need to coincide with any material part of the body, as we have seen with concave or pierced figures. It is important to emphasize two points in this practical definition. (A) The body must be free to rotate around the point of suspension. We can keep a homogeneous ruler in equilibrium horizontally, for instance, by holding it at one end with our fingers, provided we press our fingers together to prevent the ruler from rotating. In this case we should not draw the vertical line through the point of suspension because the figure is not free to rotate. If we let the ruler oscillate around our fingers, it will not remain in this position when released. Instead it will oscillate, stopping with its larger axis in the vertical direction. (B) We should only draw the verticals in order to find the CG after the body has reached equilibrium, that is, when all its parts are at rest relative to the Earth. No vertical should be drawn while it is oscillating around the equilibrium position.
This last definition of the CG is much more abstract than CG2. Definition CG2 is more intuitive and clearly indicates the existence of a single, specific point in each body, such that it remains in equilibrium under the action of gravity when supported by this point. But definition CG2 has problems when dealing with concave or volumetric bodies, as we saw before. Definition CG6 is more general and can be applied to all cases considered here.
A three-dimensional body must be suspended by a thread attached to one of its external points PS₁. We wait until the body reaches equilibrium. Then we must imagine the vertical extended downward through PS₁ until it reaches the end E₁ of the body. We then suspend the body by
the thread attached to another external point $PS_2$. We wait until the body reaches equilibrium and imagine the vertical extended downward through $PS_2$, reaching another external point $E_2$ of the body. The intersection of these two verticals is the CG of the body. This procedure is illustrated for the case of a cube in Fig. 3.28.
Now that we have a clear and general practical definition of the CG, we can clarify the concepts related to the support and suspension of a body.
**Definition:** We say that a body in equilibrium is supported by a point (or by a small region or surface) when this point of support is below the CG of the body. This aid or support point will be represented by the letters PA.
**Definition:** We say that a body in equilibrium is suspended by a point (or by a small region or surface) when this point of suspension is above the CG of the body. This point of suspension will be represented by the letters PS.
### 3.2.8 Third experimental procedure to find the CG
We now analyze the experiments performed earlier with three-dimensional bodies. The cube or die remained in equilibrium when the vertical bamboo skewer was placed under the center of each one of its sides. By extending these six verticals upward from the support point PA (the center of each face), we find that they intersect at the center of the cube. The same happens with the verticals extended upward from the centers of the six external faces of the screw-nut: they intersect at the center of symmetry of the nut. The sphere remains in equilibrium when supported by any point on a flat table. The verticals extended upwards from these points of support all meet at the center of the sphere. The egg
remained in equilibrium on a horizontal table when supported by any point along a specific circumference of its shell. By supporting the egg by two or three of these points belonging to this specific circumference and extending the verticals upward through these points of support, we can see that they all meet at a specific point inside the egg.
We first support the body by a point of support $PA_1$. We extend the vertical passing through $PA_1$ upward to $E_1$, where $E_1$ is the upper end of the body along this vertical line. We then support the body by another point of support $PA_2$ which is not along the first vertical line. We extend the second vertical passing through $PA_2$ upward to $E_2$, where $E_2$ is the upper end of the body along this second vertical line. The intersection of these two verticals is the CG of the body, as in Fig. 3.29.
That is, it is possible to locate the CG of a body both by the intersection of the downward verticals drawn from the points of suspension, and by the upward verticals drawn from the points of support.
**Practical definition CG7**
This suggests another practical way of finding the CG:
**Practical Definition CG7:** The center of gravity of a body is the intersection of the verticals extended upwards from the points of support when the body is in equilibrium and is free to rotate around these points.
The center of gravity obtained by practical definition CG6 always coincides with the center of gravity obtained by practical definition CG7. This can be seen, for instance, by hanging any of these three-dimensional bodies by threads connected to a rigid support. The thread can be tied to the bodies if they have holes, or attached to them with chewing-gum or with a piece of modeling clay.
Let us suppose, for instance, that we tie the upper end of a thread to a fixed support and attach the lower end to a sphere with chewing-gum. We release the system and wait until it reaches equilibrium. In this case the point of suspension (where the chewing-gum touches the sphere) will be vertically above the center of the sphere. The same is true for other bodies.
3.2.9 Conditions of equilibrium for supported bodies
We now conclude this initial section with a few more experiments. They are very simple but extremely important. We will work with bodies for which the centers of gravity have already been determined experimentally. Some of these new experiments (or parts of them) were performed above. Here we will establish the conditions of equilibrium and motion for bodies supported from below, that is, for which the CG is above the PA.
Experiment
We will work with a triangle, but the experiment can be performed with any plane figure for which the CG coincides with one of its material points. We first use a pen to mark the CG (barycenter) of the triangle. We then try to balance it horizontally by placing it on several supports and releasing it from rest. We begin with a vertical bottle. Equilibrium occurs whenever the CG of the triangle is above the bottle cap. If the vertical through the CG falls outside the bottle cap, the triangle falls down, its CG approaching the surface of the Earth. Next we use a vertical pencil placed standing on its tip inside a sharpener. Once more, equilibrium occurs only when the CG of the triangle is above the horizontal end of the pencil. We now utilize a vertical bamboo skewer with its tip stuck in a clump of modeling clay. Once more we can balance the triangle horizontally as before, but there is not much freedom left here. That is, any small horizontal motion of the CG which removes it from the upper end of the bamboo skewer makes the triangle fall to the ground. When we use a vertical bamboo skewer with its tip pointed upward as a stand, it is very difficult to balance the triangle. Any shaking of our hands when we release the triangle is enough to unbalance it and cause it to fall. The same happens with any leaning or quivering of the bamboo skewer due to wind or some other factor. Finally, it is extremely difficult to balance the triangle on the tip of a vertical pin or needle. Sometimes we can only succeed if we stick the pin in the pasteboard (finishing with the experiment) or deform the triangle a little. Many people
never succeed in balancing the triangle horizontally on the tip of a vertical needle, no matter how long they try.
Other examples of this fact can be found in one of the previous experiments in which a cube or a metal screw-nut was balanced on a vertical bamboo skewer with its tip downward. Equilibrium was achieved only when its CG (the center of symmetry of the cube or nut) was placed vertically above the upper horizontal surface of the bamboo skewer.
We conclude that a body can only remain in equilibrium if its CG is vertically above the region of support. Moreover, it is extremely difficult to balance a body when its CG is vertically above the support in cases where the area of upper end of the support tends to zero, approaching a mathematical point. This can be shown clearly in the next experiment.
**Experiment**
We make a small circular hole in the pasteboard triangle of the previous experiment. We hang it on a pin stuck in a vertical bamboo skewer. The horizontal pin passes through the hole and the plane of the triangle is vertical. We turn the triangle in such a way that its CG and the pin are aligned vertically, with the CG above the pin. We release the triangle from rest, holding the base of the bamboo skewer firmly. Experience shows that the triangle does not remain in this position. Its CG begins to swing widely around the vertical extended downward through the pin, until the triangle reaches equilibrium, as in Fig. 3.30. In the final position the pin and the CG are vertical, but with the CG below the pin.
**Experiment**
We now consider a homogeneous sphere on a horizontal table. We can release it from rest in any position, and it remains in equilibrium. If we give it a small horizontal motion, it rolls until it stops due to friction.
**Experiment**
An analogous experiment can be performed with any cylindrical homogeneous container with its CG along the axis of symmetry (a cylindrical metal can or plastic bottle, for instance). It remains in equilibrium when released from rest in any position. If it is given a small horizontal motion so that it begins to roll around the line of support, it moves until it stops due to friction.
We now perform a series of three experiments analogous to what we did with the egg earlier, but now with a slightly different symmetry which shows more clearly what is happening. We will deal with a cylindrical shampoo bottle with an elliptical cross section (for which $b$ is half
the large diameter or major axis and $a$ is half the small diameter or minor axis, with $b > a$). The center of gravity is along the axis of symmetry of the bottle, passing through the center of the two elliptical bases.
**Experiment**
The shampoo bottle is set down on a horizontal surface and released from rest. We observe that it only remains in equilibrium when released in such a way that the line of support is along the end of the minor axis $2a$, as in Fig. 3.31. In this position the CG is vertically above this line of support. By definition we will call this configuration the preferential position of the vessel.
**Experiment**
If we turn the vessel slightly around this line and release it, it does not remain at rest. Instead, the straight line connecting the centers of the ellipses will begin to oscillate around the previous vertical line, as shown in Fig. 3.31, until the container reaches equilibrium after stopping due to friction. The final position it reaches is the preferential position. This experiment is analogous to what happens with a rocking chair.
Fig. 3.31. The CG oscillates around the vertical through PA.
Fig. 3.32. When a body is released from rest the direction of motion is such that the CG moves downwards. The central position is that of stable equilibrium.
We can see in Fig. 3.32 that when we rotate the container around the line below the preferential position, the CG will no longer be along the vertical line passing through the new point or line of contact. Moreover, the CG will be higher in this new position than it was in the preferential position. When the container is released from rest in this new position, the initial direction of motion (that is, the side toward which the vessel will turn) is such that the CG will approach the surface of the Earth. The final position reached by the container, which coincides with the preferential position, is the configuration for which the CG is in the lowest possible position.
**Experiment**
The container is now released from rest in a position for which the CG is vertically above the lower end of the major axis $2b$. It is practically impossible to balance the container in this position if the floor is flat and smooth. The container always falls toward one or the other side. To find out the side toward which it will fall, we only need to release it from rest with the CG slightly away from the previous vertical line. In this case the initial direction of motion always causes the CG move closer to the ground, as in Fig. 3.33. The final position of equilibrium is once again the preferential configuration.
These and other analogous experiments can be summarized as follows. Suppose a rigid body is placed on flat horizontal surface and released from rest. It will remain in equilibrium only if its CG is vertically above the surface of contact. If the downward projection of the CG lies outside the region of contact, the body will not remain at rest. The initial
Fig. 3.33. The central position is that of unstable equilibrium.
direction of motion in this case is such that its CG will approach the ground.
3.2.10 Definitions of stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium
These experiments suggest the following definitions.
**Stable equilibrium:**
This occurs when the CG is vertically above the region of contact and, moreover, any perturbation in the position of the body increases the height of its CG. We call this configuration the preferential position of the body. It is observed experimentally in these cases that any perturbation in the body will cause the CG to oscillate around the vertical passing through the region of support in the preferential configuration, with the body swinging until it reaches equilibrium, because friction will decrease the amplitude of oscillation. In the final position it returns to the initial configuration of stable equilibrium.
**Neutral equilibrium:**
This occurs when the CG is vertically above the region of support and, moreover, any perturbation in the position of the body does not change the height of its CG relative to the ground. In these cases the body remains in equilibrium for any position in which it is released from rest. If the body is given a small push and begins to move, it will continue to move in this direction until it stops due to friction.
**Unstable equilibrium:**
This occurs when the CG is vertically above the region of support and, moreover, any perturbation in the position of the body decreases the height of its CG relative to the ground. Any perturbation in the position of the body will move its CG away from the initial position, and it will not returning to that position.
Yet another property connected with the equilibrium of a body supported from below can be derived from these conditions of stable and unstable equilibrium. This property can also be verified experimentally. To do so, we use a rectangular parallelepiped of sides $a$, $b$ and $c$. It can be a brick, a homogenous wood block, a match or shoe box, etc. We will always work with the surface $bc$ in a vertical position. From symmetry considerations, and also experimentally, it is easy to verify that the CG of the homogeneous parallelepiped is located at its center. We place a plumb line at the center of the face $bc$. If the body is a homogenous wood block, the simplest procedure is to put a nail at the center of the surface and tie the thread attached to a plumb onto it. If the parallelepiped is a shoe box, we can pass a bamboo skewer through the centers of both parallel faces of sides $b$ and $c$. We then tie a plumb line onto it. For a match box we can pass a pin or needle through the centers of both faces, and then tie a plumb line to it. To prevent the parallelepiped from falling to the ground due to the weight of the plumb line, it is important for the weight of the plumb line to be much smaller than the weight of the parallelepiped. The experiment does not work as well if the parallelepiped is very thin, that is, if side $a$ is much smaller than sides $b$ and $c$ (as is the case with a pasteboard rectangle, where the thickness of the rectangle is much smaller than its sides). In these cases it is difficult to balance the body with surface $bc$ in a vertical plane. After everything has been prepared we begin the experiments.
**Experiment**
We begin with the parallelepiped at rest above a horizontal table, with side $c$ vertical and side $b$ horizontal. Surface $ab$ is horizontal, together with its four vertices $V_1$, $V_2$, $V_3$ and $V_4$, as in Fig. 3.34.
We define rotation in the vertical plane around the horizontal axis $V_1V_2$ when $V_5V_6$ moves down and $V_3V_4$ moves up as indicating a positive angle, as in Fig. 3.34.
If we rotate the parallelepiped around the axis $V_1V_2$ of an angle $\theta$ and release it from rest, its initial motion is such that its CG falls, as we saw in the conditions for stable and unstable equilibrium. It is easy to see that there will be a critical angle $\theta_c$ for which the straight line passing through $V_1V_2$ and by the CG will be vertical, coinciding with the direction of the plumb line, as in Fig. 3.34. In this situation the CG is in its highest position. If the parallelepiped is released at rest from an initial angle smaller than the critical angle, it will tend to return to the position with side $c$ vertical and side $b$ horizontal, $\theta = 0^\circ$, as a rotation in this
sense will lower the CG. If the initial angle is higher than the critical angle, the body will tend to move away from the initial position, falling toward the side where $c$ tends to a horizontal position and $b$ tends to a vertical position, $\theta = 90^\circ$. The position of the critical angle is always unstable equilibrium.
From Fig. 3.35 we can see that the tangent of the angle $\alpha$ between the base $V_1V_4$ and the straight line connecting the vertex $V_1$ to the CG is given by $c/b$, $\tan \alpha = c/b$. The magnitude $r$ is given by $r = (c^2 + b^2)^{1/2}/2$.
From Figs. 3.34 and 3.35 we can see that the critical angle $\theta_c$ is given by $90^\circ - \alpha$. This means that $\tan \alpha = \tan (90^\circ - \theta_c) = c/b$.
From Fig. 3.35 we can see that in general the value of the height of the CG is given by $h_{CG} = r \sin(\alpha + \theta)$. When $\theta = 0^\circ$ we have $h_{CG} = c/2$, when $\theta = 90^\circ$ we have $h_{CG} = b/2$. The highest value acquired by the CG relative to the ground happens for $\alpha + \theta = 90^\circ$, when $h_{CG} = r = (c^2 + b^2)^{1/2}/2$.
When $c = b$ we have $\alpha = \theta_c = 45^\circ$. In this case the smallest value for the height of the CG is given by $h_{CG} = b/2 = c/2 = 0.5c$. The highest value is given by $h_{CG} = 2^{1/2}c/2 = 0.71c$. If $c = 3b$, $\alpha = 71.6^\circ$ and $\theta_c = 18.4^\circ$. In this case we have $h_{CG} = c/2 = 0.50c$ when $\theta = 0^\circ$, $h_{CG} = 10^{1/2}c/6 = 0.53c$ when $\theta = \theta_c$, and $h_{CG} = c/6 = 0.17c$ when $\theta = 90^\circ$. In the case for which $c = b/3$ we have $\alpha = 18.4^\circ$, $\theta_c = 71.6^\circ$, $h_{CG} = c/2 = 0.50c$ when $\theta = 0^\circ$, $h_{CG} = 10^{1/2}c/2 = 1.58c$ when $\theta = \theta_c$ and $h_{CG} = 3c/2 = 1.5c$ when $\theta = 90^\circ$.
From these conditions we see that the stability of a body supported from below in stable equilibrium increases when the height of its CG decreases. That is, the critical angle increases when we decrease the height of the CG.
We can control this experiment by working with a body of the same weight and external shape, but for which we can change the position of its CG. The idea here is to use a hollow rectangular box of sides $a$, $b$ and $c$ which has the CG at the center of the box. We will suppose that the side $bc$ is always vertical. We then place another body inside the box, suspended at a height $h$ from the base, as in Fig. 3.35.
What is important now is that we can control this height. For a match box, for instance, we can attach a number of fishing sinkers with modeling clay to the lower or upper part of the box. We can then check that the CG of the system box-sinkers is located at some intermediate point between the center of the box and the center of the sinkers. Let us suppose that it is at a height $h_{CG}$ from the base of the box over a horizontal surface, situated along the axis of symmetry of the lower base $b$ of the box, as in Fig. 3.35.
**Experiment**
We place sinkers inside a match box, along the bottom side, and place the match box on a horizontal surface. We rotate the system around one of the axes of the base, releasing it from rest. We observe that for some angles the system returns to the position for which $\theta = 0^\circ$, while for angles greater than a certain critical angle $\theta_{cl}$ the box falls to the other side, towards $\theta = 90^\circ$, moving away from the initial position. We now invert the position of the shots, in such a way that they remain attached internally to the match box, but on its top side. We repeat the same procedure, and now obtain another critical angle $\theta_{cS}$. It is found experimentally that this new critical angle is much smaller than the previous critical angle, or, $\theta_{cS} < \theta_{cl}$.
By the previous definition of equilibrium we conclude that the match box is in a position of stable equilibrium whether the sinkers are below or above. The reason for this is that any small perturbation of this position, for clockwise and for anti-clockwise rotation with initial angles smaller than the critical angle, the box returns to the initial position when released from rest. Nevertheless, we can say that the box with the sinkers on the bottom is more stable than the box with the sinkers on the top, as the critical angle in the first case is much larger than the critical angle in the second case. The size of this critical angle can then be considered the degree of stability of the system.
We now want to know the value of the critical angle $\theta_c$ for this system. When the box rotates around the axis $V_1V_2$ of an angle $\theta$, as in the previous experiment, it returns to the position for which $\theta = 0^\circ$ when released from rest if $\theta < \theta_c$. If $\theta > \theta_c$, the box does not return to the position for which $\theta = 0^\circ$ when released from rest, but falls to the opposite side, towards $\theta = 90^\circ$. Let $\alpha$ be the angle between the horizontal base $b$ and the straight line connecting $V_1 V_2$ to the CG. We then have
$$\tan \alpha = h_{CG}/(b/2)$$
and
$$\alpha = \arctan (2h_{CG}/b),$$
as in Fig. 3.36.
At the critical angle we have $\alpha + \theta_c = 90^\circ$. That is,
$$\theta_c = 90^\circ - \arctan (2h_{CG}/b).$$
If the height of the CG, $h_{CG}$, is very small, much smaller than $b$, the critical angle will be very high, close to $90^\circ$, which indicates high stability of the body. If $h_{CG}$ is much larger than $b$, the critical angle will be very small, close to $0^\circ$. Any perturbation in the system will make it fall, moving away from the initial position. From this last equation we conclude that to increase the stability of a system we must decrease the ratio $h_{CG}/b$. There are two basic ways to do this: (A) Decrease the height of the CG (as we saw for the match box with the sinkers in the lower side), and (B) Increase the base around which the system rotates.
We can then define the stability of a system by its critical angle: the larger this critical angle, the greater the stability of the system. That is, for two systems in stable equilibrium, the system which has the greatest critical angle will be said to have greater stability.
### 3.2.11 Conditions of equilibrium for suspended bodies
We now consider the main conditions of equilibrium and motion for bodies suspended from above. That is, with the point of suspension PS above the CG of the body. We will consider convex bodies or bodies pierced so that they can hang from a pin passing through a hole or by a thread tied to a hole. Once again we will consider bodies whose centers of gravity we determined earlier, and those where the hole does not coincide with the CG. Some of these new experiments, or parts of them, have already been performed. But they will be repeated in order to
clearly establish the conditions of equilibrium and motion of suspended bodies. We will work with a triangle, but similar experiments can be performed with other bodies.
**Experiment**
We hang a triangle by a pin passing through one of its holes, releasing it from rest. We observe that it only remains in equilibrium if its CG is vertically below the PS. This configuration is called the preferential position of the suspended body.
**Experiment**
We now rotate the triangle around the PS a certain angle, such that the CG and the pin are no longer along a vertical line. The triangle is released from rest. We observe that the CG oscillates around the vertical passing through the PS, as shown in Fig. 3.37. The amplitude of oscillation decreases due to friction. When the triangle stops, it returns to the preferential position with the PS and CG along a vertical line. Moreover, in equilibrium the CG is below the PS.
From this Figure we can see that the preferential position has the CG in the lowest position. Any clockwise or anti-clockwise rotation of the triangle around the PS increases the height of the CG.
**Experiment**
We begin with a symmetrical bicycle wheel (that is, one with the CG at the center of the wheel), at rest, suspended by a horizontal axis. The wheel is attached to the axis by a ball-bearing, in such a way that it is not loose on the axis. We could also use a pasteboard disc pierced at the center. We pass a nail through the center of the disc, with a diameter a little smaller than the diameter of the hole, in such a way as to leave little room between them, only enough space for the disc to rotate around the axis. The plane of the disc or bicycle wheel should be vertical, with the axis horizontal. We can release the wheel or disc from rest in any position and it remains in equilibrium. If we rotate the wheel or disc slowly one way, giving it a small angular rotation, it continues to rotate in this sense, its angular velocity decreasing due to friction, until it stops.
In these cases the wheel and the disc are suspended by the upper part of the axis, which is a little above the CG of the bodies (located at the center of the wheel or disc). Nevertheless, any rotation of the wheel or disc around the axis does not change the height of the CG relative to the ground.
These experiments suggest the following definitions:
**Stable equilibrium:**
When the CG is vertically below the PS and, moreover, when any perturbation of this position moves the CG upwards. If this happens, experience shows that the body returns to the preferential configuration.
**Neutral equilibrium:**
This occurs when the CG is vertically below the PS and when any perturbation in this position does not change the height of the CG relative to the ground. In this case the body remains in equilibrium in any position where it is released from rest. If it receives a small impulse and begins to rotate around the PS, it will continue to turn in this direction until it stops due to friction.
Before we move on, another experiment is worth performing. We cut out a pasteboard figure in the shape of the letter T. The length from the tip of one arm of the T to the tip of the other arm should be 15 cm. The height of the T should be 15 cm or 20 cm. The width of the arms and body of the T should be 2 cm. We pierce 10 or 11 holes along the axis of symmetry of the T. We call them $F_1$ to $F_{11}$, with $F_1$ at the intersection of the arms and with $F_{11}$ at the end of the figure. We can also make holes at the hands of the two arms, as in Fig. 3.38.
**Experiment**
To begin with, we locate the CG of the T. This can be done, for instance, by hanging it by the holes at the hands and drawing the verticals in equilibrium. The CG is the intersection of these two verticals, which should be along the axis of symmetry of the T, closer to $F_1$ than to $F_{11}$. The T will then be released from rest, hung by a hole along its axis of symmetry, with the arms horizontal and its body below the arms (that is, with $F_1$ above $F_{11}$). When it is suspended by holes above the CG, such as $F_1$ or $F_2$, it remains in equilibrium at the position in which it was released. On the other hand, when it is released from rest by holes below the CG, such as $F_{10}$ or $F_{11}$, it turns to one side or the other, swings a few times with decreasing amplitude, and stops with $F_{11}$ above $F_1$. This experiment again illustrates that the configuration with the CG vertically above the PS is unstable if the area of support is very small, like a point. On the other hand, the configuration with the CG vertically below the PS is stable, even when the area of support is very small, like a point. Although the explanation for this experiment is based on principles we have already seen, it is very interesting. After all, all holes have the same diameter and allow the same rotation around the PS. But only in certain cases will the body rotate when released from rest, inverting the position of the arms relative to the body of the T.
### 3.2.12 Definitive definition of the center of gravity
**Cases in which the CG coincides with the PS**
It may be impossible to do a real experiment in which a body is suspended or supported by a point which passes exactly through its CG, and is free to rotate around this point. Even when we try to approximate this situation from below, the CG will be always slightly above the point of support PA. This is the case, for instance, where the pasteboard triangle is horizontal and supported by a vertical base placed below the barycenter of the triangle. Here the point of contact between the base and the
pasteboard is slightly below the CG of the triangle, which is located at a point at the middle of the pasteboard. When we try to approximate this situation from above, the CG will always be slightly below the PS. This is the case, for instance, of a triangle in the vertical plane suspended by a horizontal pin passing through a hole made at the barycenter of the triangle. The diameter of the hole must be slightly larger than the diameter of the pin, in order to allow free rotation of the triangle. In this case the PS will be the point of contact between the pin and the upper part of the hole, while the CG will be at the center of the hole.
Another difficulty arises for three-dimensional bodies. For instance, if we have a solid parallelepiped, we can only support it by a stick touching its outside surface, or by a thread tied to its outside surface. Its CG is located in the middle of the parallelepiped, inside the brick. In order to suspend or support it by this point we need to make a hole in the parallelepiped; and this would change its distribution of matter. But if the width of this hole is very small compared with the sides of the parallelepiped, we can neglect this modification to the matter of the brick.
From what we have already seen, we can imagine what would happen if we could perform this experiment. We have already seen that the CG of any rigid body released from rest tends to move toward the surface of the Earth. If the body is suspended exactly by the CG, being free to rotate around this point, any rotation of the body will not change the height of the CG relative to the ground. In this case the body would remain in equilibrium for all positions in which it was released, no matter what its orientation relative to the ground.
Let us consider an idealized experiment with a triangle in a horizontal plane suspended from above exactly by its barycenter by a vertical string, or supported by a vertical stick under it. If released from rest
the triangle will remain in this position regardless of the orientation of any of its vertices relative to ambient objects (e.g., pointing toward a tree or a house, or pointing toward North or West).
Let us now suppose that the triangle is released from rest in a vertical plane with a horizontal axis orthogonal to its plane passing exactly through its CG and attached to the triangle. This axis is supported in both sides around the triangle by two vertical stands. The triangle is considered free to turn in any direction around this axis. After release the triangle will remain in its initial position regardless of the orientation of any of its vertices relative to a vertical passing through the CG. Let us call $V_1$ one of its vertices and $\alpha$ the angle between the segment connecting $V_1$ and the CG with the vertical passing through the CG, as in Fig. 3.39. In other words, the vertical triangle supported by the CG and free to rotate around an axis passing through this point would remain at rest after release, regardless of the value of $\alpha$. We can approximate this situation experimentally by passing a needle or toothpick through the barycenter of a triangle, orthogonally to its plane. It is difficult to pass the needle exactly through the CG. This means that in general there will be a preferential position for the stationary situation with the CG of the triangle below the needle. But we can then place a very small amount of modelling clay on the upper edge of the triangle vertically above the needle in order to adjust the CG of the whole system to coincide approximately with the needle’s axis. In this case we can obtain a result like that of Fig. 3.39 in which the triangle will remain at rest regardless of the angle $\alpha$ of release.
Let us now consider an axis in the plane of the triangle and passing through its CG, rigidly connected to the triangle. We can imagine it extended on both sides beyond the edges of the triangle and supported horizontally at both ends by two rigid vertical stands placed under them. The plane of the triangle is free to rotate in any direction around this axis. The rigid triangle defines a plane. We consider a straight line orthogonal to the plane of the triangle and passing through its CG. We call $\beta$ the angle between this straight line and the vertical line passing through the CG, as in Fig. 3.39. If released from rest and supported by the CG, free to rotate around the horizontal axis passing through this point, the triangle should remain at rest in this position regardless of the value of $\beta$.
We have seen from the previous real experiments that the CG of any rigid body tends to move closer to the surface of the Earth when it is released from rest. This means that if a body hung exactly by its CG were released from rest, being free to rotate about this point, it would
not move, no matter what its initial position or orientation relative to the ground. After all, if it did begin to rotate in any direction, the CG would remain at the same height. As the tendencies to rotate in opposite directions cancel one another, it will not begin to rotate when released from rest. This leads to a new and definitive definition for the CG.
**Definitive Definition CG8:** The center of gravity of any rigid body is a point such that, if the body is suspended from that point, and is released from rest and free to rotate in all directions around this point, the body so suspended will remain at rest and preserve its original position, no matter what the initial orientation of the body relative to the ground.
If this point is located in empty space, as for concave or pierced figures, we have to imagine a rigid structure connecting the body to this point, so that the body can be suspended from the point.
Later on we will see that Archimedes seems to have defined the CG in this way.
The main difference between definition CG8 and definition CG4 is that in CG8 we say that the body will remain in equilibrium when released from rest no matter what the initial orientation of the body relative to the ground. Let us consider a washer, for example. It can remain in equilibrium when released from rest in a vertical plane, suspended by any point on its internal circumference, as in Fig. 3.40. In this case the axis of the washer makes an angle $\theta = 90^\circ$ with the vertical line. We define the angle $\theta$ as the smaller angle between the axis of the washer and the vertical line.
According to definition CG4, this point of suspension PS along the inside circumference could be considered a center of gravity for the washer. We now suppose that the washer is released from rest when suspended by the same point, but with its axis no longer orthogonal to the vertical line. This means that the body will be released from rest with $\theta$ different from $90^\circ$. In this case the washer does not remain in equilibrium. After release the plane of the washer will oscillate around the vertical line, until it stops due to friction. In the final position $\theta = 90^\circ$, as in Fig. 3.40.
According to definition CG8, this point of support along the internal circumference cannot be considered the CG of the washer. We have already seen in the practical procedure given by CG6 that the real CG of the washer is its center of symmetry at the center of the washer. When the washer hangs by a point PS located on the inside circumference, the CG will be at its lowest position when it is vertically below this PS, where $\theta = 90^\circ$. This is a position of stable equilibrium. When we decrease the angle $\theta$, the CG moves upward. If it is released from rest in this new position, gravity will cause it to move downward.
Suppose now we attach some spokes in the washer, like the spokes of a bicycle wheel. This can be done with taught threads, or we can consider a real bicycle wheel. Let us suppose the washer or wheel is suspended by its center and is free to rotate in any direction around this point. If it is released from rest with its axis making an angle $\theta$ with the vertical line, it remains in equilibrium for any $\theta$, as in Fig. 3.41.
By definition CG8, we can now conclude that this is the real CG of the washer. The reason why it remains in equilibrium for any value of $\theta$,
when suspended by its center, is that the height of the CG is independent of $\theta$. And this is the main property of the neutral equilibrium.
We called definition CG8 as definitive. The word definitive should be understood as between quotation marks. The reason is that it is strictly valid only in regions of uniform gravitational forces. These are the regions in which a certain test body is always under the action of the same gravitational force (in intensity and direction) at all points of the region. This is true for small bodies in the vicinity of the Earth. The gravitational forces acting upon each particle of the test body can be considered parallel to one another, and all vertical.
But there are situations in which this is not valid. Let us present a specific example in which we make several assumptions: (A) The body exerting the gravitational force is like the Earth, but shaped like an apple, with the greatest distance between any two particles of this apple-earth given by $d_E$; (B) the body under the action of the gravitational force is like the moon, but shaped like a banana, with the greatest distance between any two particles of this banana-moon given by $d_M$; (C) the distance between an arbitrary particle $i$ of this apple-earth and another arbitrary particle $j$ of the banana-moon being given by $d_{ij} = d_E + d_M + \varepsilon_{ij}$, with $0 < \varepsilon_{ij} << d_E + d_M$. In this case a unique center of gravity will not exist. Depending upon the relative orientation between the banana-moon and the apple-earth, there will be distinct lines of equilibrium. In cases like this, the concept of a center of gravity looses its meaning.
Still, definition CG8 may be used for a test body of small dimensions when compared with the radius of the earth.
3.2.13 Summary
We now present the main conclusions we have reached thus far.
**Definitions:** Equilibrium of a body is when the body and its parts do not move relative to the Earth. The vertical is the straight line traced by a body in free fall at the surface of the Earth, beginning from rest. The horizontal is any straight line or plane orthogonal to the vertical. The center of gravity of any rigid body is a point such that, if the body were to be suspended from that point, released from rest and free to rotate in all directions around this point, the body so suspended would remain at rest and would preserve its original position, no matter what its initial orientation relative to the ground. The CG can be found in practice by the intersection of all the vertical lines passing through the points of suspension of the body when it remains in equilibrium, and is free to rotate around these points of suspension.
Experimental results: The CG is unique for each rigid body. Free bodies fall to the ground when released from rest. The direction of free fall coincides with the direction of a plumb line in equilibrium. Any body can remain in equilibrium after released from rest, provided it is supported from below with its CG located vertically above the surface of contact. Any body can also remain in equilibrium after released from rest if it is suspended by a point PS around which the body is free to rotate, provided the CG is vertically below the PS. Equilibrium will be stable, unstable, or neutral, respectively, when any perturbation in the position of equilibrium of the body increases, decreases, or does not change the height of the CG relative to the ground. When there is stable equilibrium, any perturbation in the position of the body will cause it to oscillate around the position of equilibrium, with decreasing amplitude of oscillation due to friction, until it stops at the position of stable equilibrium. When there is unstable equilibrium, any perturbation in the position of the body will move it away from this position. The initial direction of motion for the perturbed body released from rest will be such that its CG moves downward from its initial height in the position of unstable equilibrium.
Until now we have only described these facts. We are not explaining the experimental data; we are merely summarizing the main results. We will now utilize these basic experimental facts to explain other phenomena that are more complex, but that can be derived from these observations.
3.3 Fun activities with the equilibrist
One of the most interesting classroom activities utilizes a pasteboard equilibrist. It makes the students assimilate and incorporate all the concepts we have seen thus far. It is also fun, especially if performed with several people simultaneously. The idea is to give a problem to the students and to let them solve it by themselves. The teacher should not tell them how to solve the problem and should not explain the causes of the phenomena observed. Only the sequence of tasks needs to be given. This activity should be performed after the students have performed the main experiments. Each student should prepare his own equipment (bamboo skewer, plumb line, a pasteboard equilibrist, etc.), and also perform all the procedures described here. At the end of the activity the students can keep their apparatus.
Materials: A support with a plumb line. A pasteboard equilibrist, as in Fig. 3.42, with the dimensions in centimeters. Some modeling clay. Single-hole punch-pliers.
The support with the plumb line could be a barbecue bamboo skewer with the tip stuck in modeling clay, with a pin or needle stuck in the top of the bamboo skewer. The plumb line can be made with sewing thread and a plumb or modeling clay at the bottom, as before. When the equilibrist becomes too heavy with the clay, so that the pin or needle slips out of the bamboo skewer, or the plumb slips off the needle, we can support it with a horizontal bamboo skewer on a table, sticking out from the table, with the plumb line tied to it. In this case the equilibrist will hang by the bamboo skewer itself passing through a hole in the pasteboard, instead of being suspended by the pin, as in the previous case.
The exact dimensions of the equilibrist are not so relevant. The most important for the time being is that it should be symmetric around the body’s axis, with the arms pointing up and the legs down, as in Fig. 3.42. The arms should be longer than the legs, as in most situations the equilibrist will be upside down. The dimensions shown in the Figure are appropriate for the activities to be described, in which the paper puppet is balanced by hand by the students.
Another very important property of the equilibrist is that it should be rigid, non-deformable. If we put a large amount of clay on it, a pasteboard equilibrist could bend. In order to prevent this, the pasteboard should be rigid. We can even have an equilibrist made of stiff plastic,
which is not so difficult to obtain. If the equilibrist is bent by the clay used in this experiment, what is described will not be observed in some cases.
Initially several identical equilibrists should be cut out from a pasteboard, so that each student receives a figure. The students should pierce the hands and feet of the equilibrist with single-hole punch-pliers, as shown in Fig. 3.42. After this the first task is to locate the CG of the puppet using the two procedures already learnt. (I) We find the point on which the equilibrist should be supported so that it remains in equilibrium horizontally above a vertical stand after released from rest. (II) We suspend it by a needle passing through its two hands, drawing the verticals in each case with the help of a plumb line. The CG should be marked on the pasteboard, preferably on the front and back sides, as in Fig. 3.43.
We then begin with the most interesting part of the game. We ask the students to try to balance the puppet upside down, by placing it above the pointing finger. The finger should be extended horizontally, below the head of the equilibrist. After a few minutes of trials, no one succeeds. Some think that the problem is the curved shape of the head.
We then ask the students to try to balance the puppet with the head upwards and the pointing finger extended horizontally, as if the puppet was sitting on the finger. After several trials, no one succeeds, although now the line of contact is straight and horizontal. For the time being we should not try to explain why they have failed. The idea is to go on with the game.
Fig. 3.44. We can keep an equilibrist upside down in our finger by placing enough modeling clay on both of the puppet’s hands.
We now ask them to balance the puppet in a horizontal position, placing the pointing finger vertically below it. Now all of them succeed. They easily observe that the puppet’s CG is above the finger.
After this we again ask them to balance the puppet horizontally, but now with the pointing finger placed vertically below the head of the puppet. Once more no one succeeds.
Now comes the most stimulating part of the game. We give a piece of modeling clay to each student. We again ask them to try to balance the puppet upside down, on the horizontal pointing finger placed below the puppet’s head. We tell them that they can now attach the clay anywhere on the puppet, except on the “hair” of the puppet, that is, on the lower part of the head, to prevent it from sticking to the finger. They can put it on the CG, on the hands, on the legs or wherever they wish. We also tell them that the clay can be attached to the equilibrist as a single
Fig. 3.45. Equilibrating the puppet in a vertical plane with the head on top or in a horizontal plane by placing the pointing finger vertically below the head. In both cases the trick is where to put the modeling clay and how much to use.
whole, or in two or more pieces. The idea here is to encourage the students to experiment, without giving recipes for the solution to the problem. They are shy and leery about what to do at first. But little by little they begin to relax and play the game. After a few minutes one or two students succeed in balancing the puppet upside down on their fingers. The others begin to see what they have done, and in a short time all of them succeed. The secret of success is to place enough clay on both of the puppet’s hands, until it remains upside down balanced on our horizontal pointing finger, as in Fig. 3.44.
When an equilibrist does not stay exactly on the vertical, all we have to do is move the clay away from the head (placing it at the tips of the hands, or even hanging from the hands), or increase the amount of clay on the hands. Eventually it will hang vertical and upside down.
After all the students have managed to do the experiment, we ask them to remove the clay and put it somewhere else on the puppet until it stands vertical with the head on top, sitting upon the horizontally extended pointing finger. One or two students will manage this more quickly than before. The others see what they have done and sooner or later all have managed to get the puppet vertical. The secret of success is to place the clay on the feet of the equilibrist, as in Fig. 3.45.
We then ask them to change the position of the clay again until the puppet remains balanced horizontally, supported on the pointing finger extended vertically, placed under the head of the puppet. We ask them to avoid placing clay on the head of the puppet, to prevent it from sticking to the pointing finger. After some effort all of them succeed. (Some students need to see what the others have done before they pick up the trick.) In this case they can attain the final result in several ways, as there is more than one possibility. A common technique is to place clay on the hands and feet in the right amounts until the equilibrist remains horizontal, as in Fig. 3.45.
After this part of the game, we again ask them to change the location of the modeling clay until the puppet remains upside down vertically, supported on the pointing finger extended horizontally under the head of the puppet. Now they will all quickly place enough clay on the hands of the puppet until it reaches the desired position. To show that the equilibrium in this position is very stable, we ask them to rock or blow the equilibrist gently. We can also ask them to balance it over the flat tip of the bamboo skewer, then raise everything with their hands until the arms are stretched. We can even balance the puppet upside down supported on the horizontal needle attached to the bamboo skewer! Even in this case they can rock or blow air on the puppet gently, and it will
not fall, but only oscillate around the equilibrium situation, always returning to its vertical position upside down. Everyone admires this. This is a remarkable experience that gives a deep impression. The stability of this equilibrist is really amazing.
We then ask them about the location of the center of gravity in this new situation (equilibrist upside down with clay on the hands). A few of them may think it is located in the same place as before (in the middle of the chest), but the majority will believe that it is located in the head of the puppet, more specifically in its hair. In other words, they believe it is located at the point where the head touches the finger. Without giving the correct answer, we ask them to locate the CG exactly using the second method mentioned above, by suspending the equilibrist (with clay on his hands) through the needle in the support. We first suspend it by the hole in one foot and draw the vertical line with the help of a plumb line. Then we suspend it by the hole in the other foot and draw the second vertical, as in Fig. 3.46. We must tell the students that it is important to locate the CG precisely. This should be done carefully. When they try to do this, some of them say that the method “does not work,” because the vertical lines do not seem to intersect (that is, they do not intersect where they expected). Despite this initial reaction, we ask them to continue with the experiment. The final result, when the verticals are carefully drawn, is something like the result shown in Fig. 3.46.
If we extend these two verticals, we see that they intersect outside the head, at a point along the axis of symmetry of the puppet, between the head and the hands (or between the hair and the lower part of the clay).
It is interesting to ask the students to make a drawing like this in their notebooks, full size, utilizing their own puppet with clay on the hands as a model. In order to locate the CG of the puppet with clay on the hands exactly, we ask the students to balance the puppet sideways, in a vertical plane, resting some point of the arm on the horizontal needle, until the body of the puppet stays parallel to the floor. The CG is located at the intersection of the axis of symmetry of the body with the vertical line passing through the needle, obtained with the help of a plumb line, as in Fig. 3.47.
Only after the students have performed all these activities should the teacher explain what has happened. The explanation is that in the cases without clay it was not possible to equilibrate the puppet upside down, nor seated upon the finger with the head at the top, because the CG located at the chest of the equilibrist was always above the point of support PA. And these are conditions of unstable equilibrium. Any shaking of the finger or puppet causes the equilibrist to fall to the ground, because the tendency of the CG is always to approach the surface of the Earth, as in Fig. 3.48. By the same token, it was not possible to balance the puppet horizontally with the vertical finger under its head, because there was no support below the CG located in the middle of the chest. Therefore, when the puppet was released, the CG always fell to the
Fig. 3.48. Unstable equilibrium.
ground.
On the other hand, when clay was placed on the hands of the puppet and it was balanced upside down on a finger placed under its head, the CG was located below our finger. That is, below the point of suspension, PS. This is a position of stable equilibrium. If we turn the puppet clockwise or anti-clockwise, we raise the CG relative above its height in the position of equilibrium, as in Fig. 3.49.
The same happens when we lean the puppet forward or backward, that is, with the nose or the back of the neck approaching the ground. Again we are raising the CG. This means that any rotation of the puppet around the point of suspension PS increases the height of the CG. As the tendency of the CG is always to fall due to gravity, the puppet tends to return to the position of stable equilibrium after it is released. In this upside down configuration the CG is in its lowest possible position.
When the puppet is sitting on our finger with modeling clay on the feet, the CG is again located between the bottom of the clay and the
Fig. 3.50. Another situation of stable equilibrium.
point of suspension PS (point of contact between our finger and the puppet), as in Fig. 3.50.
Any rotation of the puppet around the PS raises the CG. Gravity causes the CG to fall to the ground, with the puppet seated on our finger once more.
When we put clay on the hands and feet of the puppet, so that it stays lying down in a horizontal position, supported by our vertical pointing finger under its head, the CG is also located vertically below the point of suspension. In this case it is difficult to locate the CG exactly. But in Fig. 3.51 we show a deformed puppet in order to illustrate the location of the CG.
The body is horizontal, the head is raised a little, the arms are inclined downward a little, and the clay is placed on the hands and feet. The point of suspension PS is represented by a small triangle placed below the head. The CG is located vertically below the PS.
All the phenomena observed with the equilibrist can be explained with the basic experimental data and properties of the CG we have already presented. But it is extremely important that all students perform these experiments themselves in the classroom, each with his own equilibrist and clay, because this creates a deep impression upon them. The feelings of mystery and awe stimulated by this experiment are really
Fig. 3.52. A female equilibrist.
remarkable. With this playful experiment they learn the main concepts relating to the CG.
3.4 Equilibrium toys
In addition to a male equilibrist, we can also make a female equilibrist, as in Fig. 3.52. Instead of using modeling clay on the hands and feet, we can also use fishing sinkers or other appropriate material. For a more durable figure, it is best to use thin sheets of wood or plastic instead of the pasteboard.
Other symmetric figures can also be made, such as a butterfly, a parrot or a frog. The black points in these Figures represent extra weights (modeling clay, for example), as in Fig. 3.53.
Some shops sell the bird equilibrist supported by its beak. Normally it is made of plastic, with shot hidden in the wings, and sometimes in the tail. It can also be made of pasteboard, as in Fig. 3.54.
In this case we put clay or small shot in the wings and tail until it remains in equilibrium horizontally, supported on a vertical stand under the beak. Most people believe that in this case the CG is on the end of the beak, where it touches the vertical stand. But as we have already
seen, in a situation of stable equilibrium the CG is not exactly at the beak, but a little below it, between the beak and the lower part of the shot in the wings. When we remove the bird from this equilibrium position (by raising or lowering one of its wings, or by lifting or bringing down its tail), releasing it from rest, it oscillates around the equilibrium position, its amplitude of oscillation decreasing due to friction, until it returns to the horizontal position. In this stable position the CG is in its lowest possible location.
The pasteboard equilibrist works exactly like this bird when the puppet is balanced horizontally with the pointing finger placed vertically under its head. The appropriate weights placed at the hands and feet of the puppet lower the CG of the system, so that in horizontal equilibrium it is vertically below the head. The advantage of the pasteboard equilibrist as compared with the bird bought in shops is that by changing the amount and location of the clay we can use the equilibrist both horizontally, like the bird, and sitting on our hands with the head at the top, or upside down balanced vertically on our finger.
There are also equilibrium figures made of homogeneous sheets of wood or plastic which do not require any additional weights. Some of
Fig. 3.56. The roly-poly doll.
the most interesting examples are the macaw and toucan, as in Fig. 3.55.
These figures can also be made of rigid pasteboard. The foot can be a toothpick or a needle. In the toucan, the foot is only the pasteboard in the shape of a triangle. The important thing is that the macaw and toucan should have a large tail, such that the CG is located in the empty space between the foot and the tail. When this happens, the toucan remains balanced vertically supported by the tip of its foot. Any perturbation causes it to oscillate around this situation of stable equilibrium in which the CG is in its lowest position.
Another toy that is known to everyone is the roly-poly doll. It is based on the same principles that we have seen thus far. To build a roly-poly we need only two hemispheres or styrofoam spherical shells, plus some shot, modeling clay, or another weight. The CG of the homogeneous sphere is located at the center of the sphere. The CG of the extra weight is located at the center of the extra weight, assuming it is spherical in shape. When we place the shot at the bottom of one of the hemispheres, the CG of the whole system is located between the shot and the center of the sphere, as in Fig. 3.56.
This is the position of stable equilibrium for the roly-poly doll, as the CG for the whole system is at its lowest position. By tipping the roly-poly clockwise or anti-clockwise, we shift its CG away from the vertical, passing through the new point of support, raising the CG. Grav-
Fig. 3.58. The flip-flop turtle.
The flip-flop turtle is another interesting toy, as in Fig. 3.58.\(^7\) It is a different type of roly-poly in which the extra weight is placed asymmetrically relative to the equator of one hemisphere.
In this case we use only one hemisphere, the extra weight and a plane pasteboard figure having the same diameter as the hemisphere, but with four legs and a head simulating the shape of a turtle. The weight should be placed opposite to the head. We can hold the turtle upside down with its legs in a horizontal plane, pressing it by its chin. When we release it in this position, it turns over, returning to upright position, as in Fig. 3.59.
The reason for this is that the initial position is not a situation of equilibrium, because the CG is not in its lowest location. In the position of stable equilibrium the plane of the base and legs remains inclined relative to the vertical line. Small perturbations around this position cause the turtle to wobble around it. When we place it upside down with its base horizontal and release it from rest, it begins to move, lowering its CG. But as it acquires enough kinetic energy and we have only one hemisphere (unlike the roly-poly doll which has an external spherical or symmetrical shape relative to the position of equilibrium), the turtle turns over when the plane of the base and legs go beyond the vertical line.
### 3.4.1 Equilibrium games in the pub
Equilibrium games are often found in pubs and bars. All of them can be explained by the principles presented here. Even so the observed effects are very surprising and remarkable.
One of the most common is a needle or toothpick passing through the axis of a cork.\(^8\) We then stick two metal forks in the cork, inclined
\(^7\) Gaspar, *Experiências de Ciências* pp. 151-153.
\(^8\) Gaspar, *Experiências de Ciências* pp. 144.
downward toward the tip of the needle. The whole system can be balanced by placing the tip of the needle above a bottle, as in Fig. 3.60.
Most people think that the CG is at the tip of the needle. However, as a matter of fact, the tip of the needle is only the point of suspension PS of the system. In stable equilibrium, as we saw before, the CG is located vertically below the PS. In order to show that this is a condition of stable equilibrium, we can blow lightly on one of the forks so that the system turns around the vertical axis. It is also possible to blow vertically from top to bottom on one of the forks (or to lower it a little with our finger, releasing it from rest). The system will oscillate around the horizontal plane, finally stopping at the equilibrium configuration.
Another interesting situation is a full bottle, with cap, supported at the edge of a thin table by a bottle opener, as in Fig. 3.60.\(^9\) The PS along the plane of the bottle opener is once again vertically above the CG along the axis of symmetry of the bottle. To try this experiment, it is wise to place a pillow or cushion below the bottle. This will prevent it from breaking if it falls to the ground while we are performing the experiment.
One of the most remarkable experiments utilizes a metal fork with its teeth connected to a spoon. A toothpick is passed partly through the teeth of the fork. At this point we can equilibrate the system by placing
\(^9\) Gaspar, *Experiências de Ciências* pp. 144.
our pointing finger vertically under the toothpick, as in Fig. 3.61.
This localizes the appropriate PS for the toothpick. We can then go on with the game. We now support a second toothpick in the mouth of an open bottle. Supporting it firmly with our hands, we place the first toothpick with the PS above the upper tip of the second toothpick. With a little practice we can then finally release the system so that it remains in equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 3.61.
Once more the CG of the system is located vertically below the PS. The amazing fact about this game is that the PS is supported by a single point, namely, the upper tip of the second toothpick. Many people are surprised by this equilibrium, because they incorrectly believe that the CG is exactly at the point of contact of the two toothpicks. Moreover, this is a highly stable equilibrium. In order to show this, we only need to blow on the spoon horizontally, so that the system turns around the vertical direction passing through the PS. It is also possible to blow on the spoon from above (or lower it slightly with our finger, releasing it from rest). In this case the system oscillates around the horizontal plane, coming back to the original position of equilibrium.
### 3.4.2 Equilibrium of the human body
Several interesting experiments can be made on equilibrium of the human body. The legs and arms of a person can move independently from the rest of the body, moving forwards, backwards, upwards or downwards. All these movements change the location of the person’s CG.
Let us consider initially the situation in which a person is standing above a flat surface. The CG is located above the ground. As we have seen before, equilibrium is only possible in this case when the CG is vertically above the region of support. When a person is standing, the CG is approximately at the center of the chest. The person can then remain in equilibrium in this situation provided the vertical projection of the CG falls inside the region bounded by the feet, as in Fig. 3.62.
When the person stands with feet spread apart (wide support base), this region expands, as in Fig. 3.62.
In the first game we ask the person to bend at the waist, keeping knees straight, and touch the toes. Once this has been done, we ask the person to repeat the procedure, but this time, standing with the back up against a wall, with buttocks and heels touching the wall. This time it can’t be done, as in Fig. 3.63. In order to understand what happens, it is best to ask the student to stand at the side of the classroom, in profile. The situation can be depicted on the blackboard. When the person is
Fig. 3.64. Another situation of equilibrium of the human body.
standing, the downward vertical projection of the CG passes through the feet. The person can only touch the toes by moving the buttocks backward and the head forward, in such a way that the projection of the CG continues to fall through the region enclosed by the feet. Now suppose the person stands with the back up against a wall. The person can no longer bend fully at the waist. When the arms and waist are lowered, the vertical projection of the CG falls outside the region between the feet, because the wall prevents the buttocks from moving backwards. The person looses equilibrium and falls forward.
Another game involves raising the left foot to the side while standing on the right foot. Everyone can do this. We then ask for the person to repeat the procedure, but now standing with the right shoulder and right foot against the wall. No one can raise the left foot and stand on the right foot for a few seconds in this new situation, as in Fig. 3.64. The explanation is the same as in the previous case. When the person is standing with both feet on the ground, the vertical projection of the CG falls between the feet. The person can only balance on the right foot while raising the left foot to the one side by leaning to the opposite side, in such a way that the vertical projection of the CG falls over the foot which is on the ground. Now let us consider the case in which the person is standing with the right shoulder and right foot against the wall. When the person lifts the left foot, the body has a tendency to move to the opposite side, in order to maintain balance. But the rigid wall prevents the upper part of the body from moving. The vertical projection of the CG when the left foot is raised to the side now falls outside the reregion of the right foot. The CG then starts moving toward the ground, the person looses balance, and cannot complete the movement.
A third game is based on the same principle. We ask the person to stand on the toes. Everyone can do this. We then ask the person to repeat the procedure, but now standing facing a wall, keeping the nose and toes touching the wall. Now the person cannot remain in equilibrium while standing on the toes, as in Fig. 3.65. The explanation is the same as in the other cases, but now with movements of smaller magnitude. That is, the wall prevents the forward motion of the body. When the person stands on the toes, the vertical projection of the CG falls behind the toes. The person looses equilibrium and can no longer stand on the toes for a few seconds.
One of the most interesting experiments of this kind shows a distinction in the location of the CG for men and women of the same height. As women have larger hips than men, their CG is a little lower than the CG of men. We ask a woman to kneel down and touch the elbows with the knees, with the hands on the ground, as if praying. We place a match box on the ground, touching the tip of her fingers. We then ask the woman to place her hands at the back and to try and knock down the match box with her nose, and then to come back to her initial position without touching the ground with her hands, as in Fig. 3.66.
The majority of women can do this after a few trials. But men cannot normally do this. Let us consider the situation where the woman
touches the match box with her nose. The vertical projection of her CG falls over the region occupied by her knees and feet. The CG of standing men is normally higher than the CG of standing women of the same height. If we suppose a man touching the match box with his nose, the vertical projection of his CG falls outside the region occupied by his knees and feet, and inside the region between the knees and the match box. As the tendency of the CG is to fall when there is no support below it, the man looses balance and cannot knock the match box down. If he tries to do this, he will fall to the ground and will not come back to his original position with his hands at his back, without first touching the ground with his hands.
Other situations of equilibrium occur when the CG is below the point of suspension PS. The most interesting example is an acrobat on a tightrope in a circus. The CG of a person is normally in the middle of the chest. If the person is standing above a tight rope, it is difficult to keep the projection of the CG from falling above the small region occupied by the feet. Normally this is done by a continuous deformation of the body in order to achieve balance. An alternative procedure is to hold a long curved stick with weights at the tips, as in Fig. 3.67.
The goal of this curved stick is to lower the CG of the system (person plus stick) below the feet. Any disturbance in the person’s position will raise the CG. This will happen not only for clockwise and anticlockwise rotations, but also when the person leans forward or backward. As the tendency of the CG is to fall, the equilibrist ends in stable equilibrium, in which the acrobat stands vertically above the CG.
This is the ideal situation of equilibrium for rigid bodies, as in some toys. For a real acrobat in a circus, the stick is sometimes straight and the CG of the system may be located above the feet of the tumbler. The person tends to fall after any disturbance. In order to maintain balance, the acrobat needs to be constantly in motion, bending and stretching his body in order to keep changing all the time the position of his CG. When the person is falling to one side, he moves the stick to the other side. The person and stick need to stay constantly in motion.
The fun game we played with the pasteboard equilibrist presents a situation analogous to this for a rigid body. Normally we cannot keep the pasteboard in balance seated on our finger. But when we place enough clay on the feet of the equilibrist, we can keep it balanced on our finger, with the body of the equilibrist in a vertical plane. No matter which direction it wobbles, it always returns to the position of stable equilibrium. In this condition the CG is in the lowest position, vertically below the PS.
3.4.3 The ET
Another curious toy is the ET.\(^{10}\) It can be made with two corks, two toothpicks, and four bamboo barbecue skewers, pieces of pasteboard for the hands and feet, plus a vertical stand to support it. Instead of the toothpicks we can also employ nails or needles.
The ET has two independent parts. If one of the corks is smaller than the other, it should be utilized in the upper part. We pass a toothpick, nail or needle through the axis of the cork. The bamboo barbecue skewers will form the arms of the ET, when inserted into the cork. They should be inclined downward, to the same side where the toothpick is pointing outward. This will also be the general shape of the body and legs of the ET, as in Fig. 3.68.
On the outer tips of the bamboo skewers we attach pieces of pasteboard in the shape of hands. After finishing the upper part of the ET, we try to balance it on our finger placed under the toothpick. If it falls to one side, we can increase the weight or size of the hands, or we can change the inclination of the bamboo skewers by placing them closer to the vertical direction (in order to lower the CG of the upper part). The important point is that the CG of the upper part should be below the lower tip of the toothpick in order to achieve stable equilibrium.
The lower part of the ET is made similarly. We may have to increase the weight of the feet relative to the weight of the hands in order to significantly lower the CG of the whole system. Once more, the lower part should be well balanced in a vertical plane before we proceed with the experiment.
We can then support the upper part of the ET on the lower part, by balancing the upper toothpick on the lower cork. We next support the
\(^{10}\) Ferreira, *Equilibrio*
lower toothpick on a rigid support. The final setup should be similar to Fig. 3.68.
This puppet is not a rigid body, as its two parts are free to wobble and turn independently of one another. Nevertheless each part of the ET can be considered, separately, a rigid body. By rocking or blowing the ET we produce some very curious motion.
Each one of these parts will only be balanced if its CG is below the upper tip of its toothpick. Moreover, the CG of the whole ET must be located below the bottom tip of the lower toothpick. Nevertheless, there are two possible alternatives. In the first, the CG of the upper part is below the bottom tip of the lower toothpick. In the second, the CG of the upper part is above the bottom tip of the lower toothpick.
This is an amusing toy that can raise many questions from the students.
In the next Chapter of this book we will see several definitions of the CG that have been presented through the centuries. We will see that it has always been difficult to find appropriate words to define the CG in a general way. Several important authors have dealt with this subject. In a latter Chapter of this book we will deal with the theoretical calculation of the CG. For the time being it is important to keep in mind the general definition CG8 and the practical procedures to locate the CG given by CG6 and CG7.
Chapter 4
Historical Aspects of the Center of Gravity
We now discuss a few historical aspects of the concept of center of gravity, CG. In particular, we will analyze how the concept was defined and how it was obtained experimentally. We are interested in the period in which this concept originated and was established. The information here is drawn essentially from the original works of Archimedes, Heron and Pappus, and from the books by Heath, Duhem and Dijksterhuis.\(^1\)
The observation that bodies fall to the ground when released from rest above the Earth is extremely old. The same can be said of the fact that rigid bodies can remain in equilibrium after release when they are supported by a rigid stand placed below some specific point. It is probable that all ancient civilizations knew this. Nevertheless, the systematic and scientific treatment of the conditions which determine the equilibrium of bodies upon the surface of the Earth originated in Greece. At least Greece is the origin of the oldest documents dealing with the CG that give theoretical results on the subject.
Archimedes is the main person who investigated this concept in ancient Greece. The CG is also called barycenter. The prefix “bary” is a Greek root meaning weight or heavy. The literal meaning of the word barycenter is “center of weight.” The simplest way to understand this expression and the concept behind it is to observe the experiment where we supported a pasteboard triangle in a horizontal plane, standing on a
\(^1\) T.L. Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes* (New York: Dover, 2002); T.L. Heath, *A History of Greek Mathematics*, Vol. II: *From Aristarchus to Diophantus* (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921); C. Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède* (Paris: Budé, 1970-72), Vol. 1-4; Pappus d’Alexandrie, *La Collection Mathématique* (Paris: Blanchard, 1982); Héron d’Alexandrie, *Les Mécaniques, ou, L’Élévateur des Corps Lourds* (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1988); E.J. Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes* (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987); P. Duhem, *The Origins of Statics* (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1991).
vertical support placed under its centroid. The triangle only remains in equilibrium after released from rest when supported by this point. The whole weight of the figure is supported by this point, as if it were concentrated in it. It is then natural to call this specific point the center of weight, or barycenter, of the triangle.
The oldest extant work of Archimedes is called *On the Equilibrium of Planes*, or *On the Center of Gravity of Planes*. The center of gravity appears in postulates 4 to 7, without any prior definition:
Postulate 4: When equal and similar plane figures coincide if applied to one another, their centers of gravity similarly coincide.
Postulate 5: In figures which are unequal but similar the centres of gravity will be similarly situated. By points similarly situated in relation to similar figures I mean points such that, if straight lines be drawn from them to the equal angles, they make equal angles with the corresponding sides.
Postulate 6: If magnitudes at certain distances be in equilibrium, (other) magnitudes equal to them will also be in equilibrium at the same distances.
Postulate 7: In any figure whose perimeter is concave in (one and) the same direction the centre of gravity must be within the figure.
In all likelihood the CG had been defined by Archimedes in one of his other works on mechanics that is no longer extant, namely, *On the Centers of Gravity, Elements of Mechanics, On Equilibria, On Balances* or *On Levers*, and *Book of Supports*.
In Proposition 6 of his work *Quadrature of the Parabola*, Archimedes writes: “Every body, suspended by any point, assumes an equilibrium state when the point of suspension and the center of gravity are on the same vertical line. This has been demonstrated.” This shows that Archimedes’s knew the practical procedure CG6 of how to find the CG experimentally. That is, we suspend the rigid body by a point of suspension PS₁, wait until the body reaches equilibrium and draw the vertical passing through the PS₁ with the help of a plumb line. We suspend the body by another point of suspension PS₂ which is not along the first vertical, wait until it reaches equilibrium, and draw a second vertical through PS₂. The intersection of the two verticals is the CG of the body. But it is important to emphasize that to Archimedes this was not a definition of the CG. Instead, he proved this result theoretically utilizing
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2 Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 189; Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, p. 286.
3 Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, pp. 189-190.
4 Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 2, p. 171; Duhem, *The Origins of Statics*, p. 463.
a previous definition of the CG of a body, as well as some postulates that are now unknown.
The crucial sentence in the previous paragraph does not appear in its full generality in Heath’s translation of Archimedes’s work. Heath’s work is a paraphrase, that is, it conserves Archimedes original ideas, but rephrases them in modern notation and omits parts of the text which he did not consider essential. Here is Heath’s presentation of Archimedes’s key Propositions 6 and 7 of his work *Quadrature of the Parabola*.\(^5\) In these Propositions the expression $\Delta BCD$ means the area of the triangle $BCD$, which is supposed to have uniform density. That is, its weight is proportional to its area, the same holding for the area $P$ of the rectangle, which he will use in this Proposition.
**Propositions 6, 7**
Suppose a lever $AOB$ placed horizontally and supported at its middle point $O$. Let a triangle $BCD$ in which the angle $C$ is right or obtuse be suspended from $B$ and $O$, so that $C$ is attached to $O$ and $CD$ is in the same vertical line with $O$. Then, if $P$ be such an area as, when suspended from $A$, will keep the system in equilibrium,
$$P = \frac{1}{3} \Delta BCD.$$
Take a point $E$ on $OB$ such that $BE = 2OE$, and draw $EFH$ parallel to $OCD$ meeting $BC$, $BD$ in $F$, $H$ respectively. Let $G$ be the middle point of $FH$.
Then $G$ is the centre of gravity of the triangle $BCD$.
Hence, if the angular points $B$, $C$ be set free and the triangle be suspended by attaching $F$ to $E$, the triangle will hang in the same position as before, because $EFG$ is a vertical straight line. “For this is proved.”\(^6\)
Therefore, as before, there will be equilibrium.
Thus
$$P : \Delta BCD = OE : AO = 1 : 3,$$
or
$$P = \frac{1}{3} \Delta BCD.$$
\(^5\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 238.
\(^6\) Note by Heath: In Prop. 6 Archimedes takes the separate case in which the angle $BCD$ of the triangle is a right angle so that $C$ coincides with $O$ in the figure and $F$ with $E$. He then proves, in Prop. 7, the same property for the triangle in which $BCD$ is an obtuse angle, by treating the triangle as the difference between two right-angled triangles $BOD$, $BOC$ and using the result of Prop. 6. I have combined the two propositions in one proof, for the sake of brevity. The same remark applies to the propositions following Props. 6, 7.
\(^7\) Note by Heath: Doubtless in the lost book περὶ ζωγων. Cf. the Introduction, Chapter II., *ad fin.*
Eutocius of Ascalon (480-540) wrote commentaries on three works by Archimedes: *Measurement of a Circle*, *On the Sphere and Cylinder*, and *On the Equilibrium of Planes*. Apparently he did not know the other works. In his comments on book I of the equilibrium of planes, Eutocius clarifies a few points regarding the CG. These ideas are from Eutocius, not Archimedes, but are interesting nevertheless. We translate them from the French version published by Charles Mugler in 1972, which is a literal translation from the Greek:
Commentaries of Eutocius relative to Book I of Archimedes’s work On the Equilibrium of Plane Figures. Introduction to book I. (...) In this work Archimedes defines the center of motion of a plane figure as the point such that, when we suspend the figure by this point, it remains parallel to the horizon, and defines the center of motion or of gravity of two or of several plane figures as the point such that, when we suspend the figures by this point, the beam (connecting the figures) remains parallel to the horizon.
Let, for instance, $AB\Gamma$ be the triangle and inside it the point $\Delta$, such that when the triangle is suspended by this point, it remains parallel to the horizon. Therefore, it is clear that the parts $B$ and $\Gamma$ of the triangle balance one another and that none of them inclines more than the other relative to the horizon. In the same way, let $AB$ be the beam of a balance and $A$ and $B$ the magnitudes suspended by it. If the beam, being suspended by $\Gamma$, keeps $A$ and $B$ in equilibrium, and remains parallel to the horizon, $\Gamma$ will be the point of suspension of the magnitudes $A$ and $B$.
These are clear and intuitive definitions, as we saw in the experiments presented earlier. But they are limited, because they do not deal with concave or pierced figures, for which the CG is located in empty space. Moreover, they do not apply to three-dimensional bodies. In spite of this, they illustrate many important aspects of the CG. It is also interesting to see the alternative expressions utilized for the CG: center of motion and point of suspension.
---
6 Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 4, pp. 166-7.
To form an idea how the concept of CG might have been defined by Archimedes, we quote here a few passages from the work *Mechanics* by the mathematician Heron (first century A.D.), from the *Mathematical Collection* by the mathematician Pappus (fourth century A.D.), and from the *Commentaries* of the philosopher Simplicius (sixth century A.D.), about *On the Heavens*, of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). These authors discussed Archimedes’s works, quote some of his works no longer extant and, probably, follow his concepts and lines of reasoning when dealing with the barycentric theory.
There is much controversy about the period in which Heron of Alexandria lived, but nowadays it is agreed that he flourished in the first century A.D. There are only fragments of his book *Mechanics*, in three parts, in Greek. But a complete Arabic translation of this work has been preserved. Translations have been made to other modern languages (French, in 1893, and German, in 1900) from this Arabic version.
Heron presents a definition of the CG as given by the stoic Poseidonius, who probably lived before Archimedes: “The center of gravity or of inclination is a point such that, when the weight is suspended by this point, it is divided in two equivalent portions.”\(^7\) Heath translates this sentence as: “The centre of gravity or of inclination is a point such that, if the body is hung up at it, the body is divided into two equal parts.”\(^8\) This definition is vague and problematic. In the first place it is difficult to know how a point, or even a vertical line passing through this point (if we interpret Poseidonus sentence thus) can divide a three-dimensional body into two parts. Even if the body is a plane figure, a point will not divide it into two parts. And a straight line will only divide a plane figure into two parts if it lies in the same plane as the figure. Therefore, we would need to imagine a triangle, for instance, suspended in a vertical plane. But even in this case not all verticals passing
\(^7\) Héron d’Alexandrie, *Les Mécaniques, ou, L’Élèvateur des Corps Lourds* (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1988), Chap. 24, p. 93.
\(^8\) Heath, *A History of Greek Mathematics*, p. 350.
through the CG will divide the triangle into two parts with equal area or with equal weight. Let us suppose a homogeneous triangle suspended in a vertical plane. We have seen before that a straight line passing through the CG and through a vertex divides the triangle into two parts with the same area and the same weight. On the other hand, a straight line parallel to the base of the triangle and passing through the CG does not divide the triangle into two equal parts. Despite this fact, a triangle hanging in a vertical plane will remain in equilibrium after being released from rest if it hangs by the CG or by any other point which is vertically above the CG. The same problem will arise with Poseidoniuss’s definition even if we interpret it as saying that the CG is a point such that, if the body is suspended from it, the body is divided by any vertical plane through the point of suspension into two equal parts. In this case we can imagine a triangle equilibrated in a horizontal plane, supported on a vertical plane placed below it (as a matter of fact the support needs to have a small thickness, like the edge of a ruler). If the vertical plane passes through a vertex and the CG, the body will remain in equilibrium and the upward projection of this plane will divide the triangle into two equal areas or into two equal weights. On the other hand, if the vertical plane is parallel to the base of the triangle and passes through the CG, its upward projection will not divide the triangle into two equal areas nor into two equal weights. Yet the triangle will also remain in equilibrium after being released from rest.
Another expression utilized by Heron to designate the CG, apart from “center of gravity,” is “center of inclination” or “center of fall.” This expression was probably also utilized in ancient Greece. This is a very interesting and instructive expression. We saw that any body heavier than air tends to fall toward the ground when released from rest. If the body is suspended by a PS and released from rest, so that it can turn around this point, the initial motion of the CG (supposing that it does not coincide with the PS) is toward the ground. Therefore, it behaves as if the tendency to fall were concentrated at the CG of the body.
Heron then says that Archimedes distinguished between the “center of inclination” and the “point of suspension.” Heron continues: “The point of suspension is a point on the body or on a non corporeal figure such that, if the body is hung up at this point, its parts remain in equilibrium, that is, the body does not oscillate or incline in any direction.”
9 Héron d’Alexandrie, Les Mécaniques, Chap. 24, p. 93; Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics, p. 350.
“point of suspension” here and the definition Heron gave of it may have been how Archimedes defined the center of gravity. Later on we will see an analogous definition by Pappus.
Heron also writes: “The center of inclination in each body is one single point to which converge all the vertical lines through the points of suspension. The center of gravity in certain bodies is outside the substance of these bodies; this is what happens, for instance, in arches and in bracelets. All the lines following the projections of the ropes converge at a common point.”\(^{10}\) Here he seems to be describing the practical procedure CG6, *i.e.*, to find the CG through the intersection of all verticals passing through the points of suspension when the body is in equilibrium, at rest relative to the Earth. This is the most important practical way to locate the CG. Heron mentions that this CG may be located in empty space, outside the substance of the bodies, as is the case for rings or wheels.
Heron mentions that Archimedes solved problems like the following in his book *On Columns* or *On Supports*:\(^{11}\) A heavy beam or a wall supported on a number of pillars, equidistant or not, even or not even in number, and projecting or not projecting beyond one or both of the extreme pillars, finding how much of the weight is supported on each pillar. Heron also says that the same principles can be applied when the body (beam or wall) is suspended by cables. In another part of his book Heron considers the problem of a triangle of uniform thickness, with its plane horizontal, supported by a pillar under each vertex. He then finds the weight supported by each pillar in several cases: (a) when they support only the triangle, (b) when they support the triangle plus a given weight placed at any location over the triangle. Then Heron finds the CG of the system when known weights are placed over the vertices of the triangle. He then extends his analysis to polygons.
Pappus presents an explicit definition of the CG, namely: “We say that the center of gravity of any body is a point within that body which is such that, if the body be conceived to be suspended from that point, the weight carried thereby remains at rest and preserves its original position.”\(^{12}\) In another context he writes: “It is also clear that, if we imagine the body suspended by its center of gravity, it will not turn and will remain at rest preserving the initial position it acquired by the solicita-
\(^{10}\) Héron d’Alexandrie, *Les Mécaniques*, Chap. 24, p. 95.
\(^{11}\) Héron d’Alexandrie, *Les Mécaniques*, Chaps. 25-31; Heath, *A History of Greek Mathematics*, p. 350.
\(^{12}\) Pappus d’Alexandrie, *La Collection Mathématique*, Book 8, p. 815; Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, p. 299.
A vertical triangle suspended through its CG remains in equilibrium whatever the angle $\alpha$. The same happens for any angle $\beta$ when the plane of the triangle is inclined relative to the ground in an arbitrary manner, provided it is suspended by the CG.
By solicitation here he means tendency to fall toward the Earth due to gravity.
Simplicius quotes a similar definition by Archimedes: “The centre of gravity is a certain point in the body such that, if the body is hung up by a string attached to that point, it will remain in its position without inclining in any direction.” (quoted by Heath)\(^{14}\)
We can illustrate this definition with a triangle suspended by its CG. This is a thought experiment, as it may be impossible to suspend a body exactly by its CG, allowing the body to simultaneously rotate around this point in any direction. In any event, the idea is that if we could perform an experiment like this, what would happen is that the body would remain in equilibrium for all orientations in which it was released from rest. In the first situation we have a triangle in a vertical plane. The segment connecting one of its vertices and the CG makes an angle $\alpha$ with the vertical through the CG. If the triangle is released from rest, it will remain in equilibrium no matter the value of $\alpha$. In the second situation the plane of the triangle (or a straight line orthogonal to it) is inclined relative to the vertical line. Let us call $\beta$ the angle between the previous segment and the vertical through the CG. If the triangle is released from rest suspended by its CG, it will remain in equilibrium no matter what value $\beta$ takes.
In a real experiment in which the body is suspended by a point of suspension PS which does not coincide with the CG, being free to rotate around the PS, the body will only remain in equilibrium after being released from rest if it is in the preferential position in which the PS and the CG are along a vertical line. If this is not the case, the body will turn
\(^{13}\) Pappus d’Alexandrie, *La Collection Mathématique*, Book 8, p. 818.
\(^{14}\) Heath, *A History of Greek Mathematics*, p. 350.
around the PS after release in such a way that the CG approaches the ground. In equilibrium the PS and the CG will be along a vertical line, with the CG below the PS.
Pappus describes a practical procedure for locating the CG.\textsuperscript{15} He imagines a rectangular vertical plane over which a body will be suspended, balanced on the upper horizontal edge of the plane. The plane extended upwards divides the body into two parts which equilibrate one another. Next the body is supported over the same upper horizontal edge of the plane again, but this time with the body in a different orientation relative to the ground. The plane extended upward again divides the body into two parts which equilibrate one another. These two planes extended upward meet at a single vertical line. The body also remains in equilibrium when supported by a vertical line extended upward, as if it were supported at a point by a vertical stick. He repeats the procedure of balancing the body over the vertical rectangle in two new orientations of the body and obtains another vertical line (the intersection of these two new planes extended upwards). The intersection of both vertical lines is the CG of the body. According to Pappus, this is the most essential part of the barycentric theory. Moreover, Pappus says that the points demonstrated by this experiment were given in Archimedes’s book \textit{On Equilibria} and in Heron’s book \textit{Mechanics}. The procedure described by Pappus is analogous to our practical definition CG7. In other words, if a rigid body is supported at a point PA\textsubscript{1} by a vertical stick, the line of the stick extended upward (that is, the vertical V\textsubscript{1} passing through PA\textsubscript{1}) must pass through the CG. We now imagine that the body with a new orientation relative to the ground is balanced at another point PA\textsubscript{2} by the same stick. The line of the stick extended upward is another vertical V\textsubscript{2} passing through PA\textsubscript{2}. The intersection of these two verticals is the CG. This is analogous to the intersection of two verticals extended downward by two points of suspension, described by the practical procedure CG6.
Everything we have seen so far suggests that Heron, Pappus and Simplicius directly consulted certain treatises by Archimedes that are no longer extant. The underlined definitions by Heron, Pappus and Simplicius are analogous to our definition CG8. These authors also proposed practical procedures for locating the CG analogous to our CG6 and CG7.
\textsuperscript{15} Pappus d’Alexandrie, \textit{La Collection Mathématique.}, Book 8, pp. 816-818.
Chapter 5
Theoretical Values of Center of Gravity Obtained by Archimedes
Here we cite the theoretical values obtained by Archimedes for the centers of gravity of several one-, two- and three-dimensional figures. There are proofs of most of these results in the known works of Archimedes. In some cases, such as the CG of the cone, Archimedes gives only the results, stating that they had been proved previously. However, the calculations are not to be found in any of his extant works. It is presumed that he calculated them in another work which has been lost during the last two thousand years.
5.1 One-dimensional figures
A) “The centre of gravity of any straight line is the point of bisection of the straight line.” (The Method)\(^1\) In Heath this is Lemma 3, while in Mugler it is Lemma 4.
5.2 Two-dimensional figures
B) “The centre of gravity of a parallelogram is the point of intersection of its diagonals.” (On the Equilibrium of Planes, Book I, Prop. 10)\(^2\)
“The centre of gravity of any parallelogram is the point in which the diagonals meet.” (The Method)\(^3\) In Heath this is Lemma 5, while in Mugler it is Lemma 6.
---
\(^1\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 14; Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 3, p. 85.
\(^2\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 195.
\(^3\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 14; Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 3, p. 85.
C) “The centre of gravity of any triangle is at the intersection of the lines drawn from any two angles to the middle points of the opposite sides respectively.” (On the Equilibrium of Planes, Book I, Prop. 14)\(^4\) “The centre of gravity of any triangle is the point in which the straight lines drawn from the angular points of the triangle to the middle points of the (opposite) sides cut one another.” (The Method)\(^5\) In Heath this is Lemma 4, while in Mugler it is Lemma 5.
D) “In any trapezium having two parallel sides the centre of gravity lies on the straight line joining the middle points of the parallel sides, in such a way that the segment of it having the middle point of the smaller of the parallel sides for extremity is to the remaining segment as the sum of double the greater plus the smaller is to the sum of double the smaller plus the greater of the parallel sides.” (On the Equilibrium of Planes, Book I, Prop. 15)\(^6\) Heath presents this proposition as: “If AD, BC be the two parallel sides of a trapezium ABCD, AD being the smaller, and if AD, BC be bisected at E, F respectively, then the centre of gravity of the trapezium is at a point G on EF such that GE: GF = (2BC + AD) : (2AD + BC).”\(^7\)
E) “The centre of gravity of a circle is the point which is also the centre [of the circle].” (The Method)\(^8\) In Heath this is Lemma 6, while in Mugler it is Lemma 7.
F) In Proposition 12 of The Method Archimedes finds the center of gravity of half a cylinder, that is, of a cylinder divided into two equal parts by a plane passing through the center of the cylinder. This result is analogous to obtaining the CG of a semicircle. See the discussion by Heath.\(^9\)
G) “The centre of gravity of any segment comprehended by a straight line and an orthotome [parabola] divides the diameter of the segment in such a way that the part towards the vertex of the segment is half as large again as the part towards the base.” (On the Equilibrium of Planes, Book II, Prop. 8)\(^10\) Heath states this Proposition as follows: “If AO be the diameter of a parabolic segment, and G its centre of gravity, then AG = (\(\frac{3}{2}\))GO.”\(^11\) Here A is the vertex of the parabolic segment.
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\(^4\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 201.
\(^5\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 14; Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 3, p. 85.
\(^6\) Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, p. 312.
\(^7\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 201.
\(^8\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 15; Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 3, p. 85.
\(^9\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, pp. 38-40.
\(^10\) Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, p. 353.
\(^11\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 214.
5.3 Three-dimensional figures
H) “The centre of gravity of any cylinder is the point of bisection of the axis.” (The Method)\(^{12}\) In Heath this is Lemma 7, while in Mugler it is Lemma 8.
I) “In any prism the center of gravity is the point of bisection of the axis.” (The Method)\(^{13}\) In Mugler this is Lemma 9. This lemma does not appear in Heath.\(^{14}\) The “axis” here refers to the line segment joining the centers of gravity of the two bases, as appears from the application of this lemma in Proposition 13 of The Method.\(^{15}\) A prism is a solid figure with similar, equal and parallel ends, and with sides which are parallelograms.
J) “The centre of gravity of any cone is [the point which divides its axis so that] the portion [adjacent to the vertex is] triple [of the portion adjacent to the base].” (The Method)\(^{16}\) In Heath this is Lemma 8, while in Mugler it is Lemma 10.
K) “Let the axis of the segment of the paraboloid [of revolution] be AN (...) Let C be the centre of gravity of the paraboloid BAB’ (...) Then, since \(AN = \left(\frac{3}{2}\right)AC\) (...)” (On Floating Bodies, Book II, Prop. 2)\(^{17}\) “The centre of gravity of a segment of a right-angled conoid (i.e., a paraboloid of revolution) cut by a plane at right angles to the axis is on the straight line which is the axis of the segment, and divides the said straight line in such a way that the portion of it adjacent to the vertex is double of the remaining portion.” (The Method, Prop. 5)\(^{18}\) This is also discussed by Dijksterhuis.\(^{19}\) That is, if the paraboloid of revolution has an axis of symmetry AN, with A being the vertex, the center of gravity C is located along AN in such a way that \(AC = 2CN\), or \(AN/AC = \frac{3}{2}\).
L) “The centre of gravity of any hemisphere [is on the straight line which] is its axis, and divides the said straight line in such a way that the portion of it adjacent to the surface of the hemisphere has to the remaining portion the ratio which 5 has to 3.” (The Method, Prop. 6)\(^{20}\) That is, if the hemisphere has a radius R and its plane face is along the xy plane,
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\(^{12}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 15; Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 3, p. 85.
\(^{13}\) Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 3, p. 85.
\(^{14}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement.
\(^{15}\) Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, p. 316, note 1.
\(^{16}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 15; Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*, Vol. 3, p. 85.
\(^{17}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, pp. 264-5.
\(^{18}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 25.
\(^{19}\) Dijksterhuis, 1987, p. 326.
\(^{20}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 27.
centered at the origin, the center of gravity will be along the $z$-axis (axis of symmetry) at a point $z_{CG}$ such that $z_{CG} = 3R/8$.
M) “The centre of gravity of any segment of a sphere is on the straight line which is the axis of the segment, and divides this straight line in such a way that the part of it adjacent to the vertex of the segment has to the remaining part the ratio which the sum of the axis of the segment and four times the axis of the complementary segment has to the sum of the axis of the segment and double the axis of the complementary segment.” (*The Method*, Prop. 9)\(^{21}\)
N) Archimedes finds in Proposition 10 of *The Method* the center of gravity of any segment of an ellipsoid.
O) Archimedes finds in Proposition 11 of *The Method* the center of gravity of any segment of a hyperboloid of revolution.
The only point to be emphasized here is that all of these results were derived theoretically by Archimedes, beginning from his postulates. In other words, they were derived mathematically. In an earlier section of this book we saw how to obtain some of these results (such as the CG of a circle, rectangle, and triangle) experimentally. At the end of the book we will discuss how Archimedes calculated the CG of the triangle, as well as a modern mathematical definition of the CG.
\(^{21}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, Supplement, p. 35.
Chapter 6
Balances and the Measurement of Weight
By now we have arrived at a definition of the CG given by CG8, and two practical ways of finding it experimentally, CG6 and CG7. But these formulations do not enable us to calculate theoretically the CG of any discrete nor continuous distributions of matter. In order to do this we will need the concept of weight, a procedure to measure it, and also the law of the lever. This is our goal here.
We have seen in the experiments with the triangle in equilibrium, and in the geometrical analysis following it, that not all straight lines passing through the CG of a plane homogenous figure divide it into two equal areas. In the experiments with the pasteboard equilibrist we saw that by changing the location of the modeling clay attached to the equilibrist we could change the position of the CG of the whole system (pasteboard plus clay). This suggests that the CG has to do not only with the weight of the body, but also with the distribution of the matter around the body.
We will arrive here at a mathematical expression with which we can calculate the CG of any distribution of matter. To this end we need first to quantify the intuitive concept of weight. That is, to find a clear and objective way of measuring the weight of a body. This is the subject of the next few Sections.
6.1 Building a balance
The more basic or fundamental quantitative concepts we have in physics are those of the size of a body (or the distance between bodies), time between physical events, and weight of a body.
In order to measure the size of a body, or the distance between two bodies, we utilize essentially a rigid standard of length. By definition we say that two bodies have the same size when their extremities coincide. For example, we say that person A has the same height as person B if, when they are placed back to back, the heels and heads coincide with one another. By definition we say that body A is $N$ times the size of body B if it is possible to superimpose in linear sequence $N$ times body A between the extremities of body B. The simplest example of this is a 1 meter ruler divided into centimeters. We see that the ruler has 100 units of 1 cm between its ends, with these units stamped along the ruler. Utilizing a graduated ruler we can also measure the length of a body, or the distance between small bodies.
Time is the concept created by man in order to measure the changes which happen in nature. Any standard that repeats itself periodically can be utilized as a measure of time. Historically the most important and precise clock utilized in astronomy was the rotation of the Earth in relation to the background of stars seen with the naked eye. These stars are usually known as fixed stars, because they do not change noticeably their relative positions between one another while the Earth rotates relative to them. This leads to the definition of the unit of a sidereal day. Other astronomical clocks are given by the rotation of the Earth relative to the Sun, yielding the unit of a solar day, the phases of the Moon, or the variation of the position of the sunset in relation to the mountains and other terrestrial bodies, yielding the unit of a solar year. There are clocks with different degrees of precision. The simplest distinguish between darkness and light; others, the phases of the Moon, or the shadows of a gnomon. A gnomon is a vertical stick fixed in the ground which measures the height of the Sun in the sky through the orientation and size of its shadow. It is the basis of the construction of the sundials. Several other periodic phenomena have been utilized through the centuries to measure time: water clocks, mechanical clocks (based on a pendulum or a spring), electromagnetic clocks, atomic clocks, etc.
But the main concept we want to analyze in more detail here is the weight of a body. We all have an intuitive notion of the weight of a body as a quantitative measure of the gravitational force. We say that body A is heavier than body B if it is more difficult to keep body A in our hands at a certain height from the surface of the Earth than to keep body B at the same height. This difficulty can be indicated by our sweat, or by the fatigue we feel in our outstretched arm. We also say that body A is heavier than body B when we need to make a larger physical effort to raise body A to a certain height $h$ than to raise body B to the same height $h$.
This sensorial and subjective notion can also be indicated by certain phenomena affecting other material bodies. For instance, the deformation caused by body A upon a material support holding it at rest relative to the ground. Let us suppose that this support is a spring. We can say that body A is heavier than body B if the same spring is more compressed supporting A than supporting B. In this case we would utilize a flexible and deformable body such as a spring as a weight indicator. It is better to use an objective phenomenon like the deformation of a spring in order to quantify the notion of weight than to use a subjective phenomenon like our sensation of fatigue.
But historically the oldest and most important instrument utilized to quantify the notion of weight was the equal arm balance. Balance is the name given to any instrument which determines quantitatively the weight of a body. The equal arm balance has been known since ancient Egypt, if not longer. In Fig. 6.1 are paintings from the time of the Pharaohs showing balances in use around 1500 B.C. It is interesting that three paintings show people holding a plumb bob to measure when the beam of the balance is horizontal.
According to Steve Hutcheon (private communication, which he obtained from Thompson\(^1\)), the earliest record of the balance in Astronomy is from circa 1350 B.C. when the Akkadians of Mesopotamia
\(^1\) G.D. Thomson, *The origin of the Zodiac*, available in 2007 at: http://members.optusnet.com.au/~gtosiris/page9a.html.
called a star group Zibanitum (the scales). These stars later became known as the Zodiac constellation Libra. In that period Zibanitum gave the location of the Sun at sunrise on the Autumnal Equinox when the lengths of day and night, and the seasons, were in balance.
The main components of a balance are: (A) a homogeneous rigid beam free to rotate around a horizontal axis which is orthogonal to the beam, located halfway between the extremities of the beam (this axis is sometimes called the fulcrum of the balance), (B) a rigid support which keeps the fulcrum of the balance at rest relative to the ground, and (C) two scale pans, suspended at equal distances to the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. An example is given in Fig. 6.2. The objects to be weighed are placed in these pans. The fulcrum may be part of the support, such as a horizontal needle fixed to the support, with the beam hanging from the needle. Or the fulcrum may be part of the beam, such as a horizontal needle fixed to the beam, with the needle supported by the fixed stand. We call the arm of the balance, the horizontal distance, $d$, between the point of suspension of the pan from the beam and the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum of the balance. In some balances we will build, no scale pans will be employed, as the bodies to be weighed will be suspended directly from the beam of the balance.
Before weighing any body, the balance must be adjusted in such a way that its beam is horizontal without the scale pans. If necessary, this can be done by changing the location of the fulcrum on the beam, or the length of the arm on one side of the beam. In addition, the beam must remain horizontal with the scale pans added. If necessary, this can be adjusted by changing the exact location of the nails where the scale pans are hanging. If the beam does not remain horizontal after these adjustments, we can sometimes succeed by placing a small counterweight at
some point on one side of the beam. This counterweight can be a piece of thread, wire, or clay.
We have seen that by definition the direction followed by a falling body is called vertical, which coincides with the direction of a plumb line in equilibrium. Horizontal is any straight line or plane perpendicular to the vertical. We also defined the equilibrium of a body as the situation in which the body and all its parts remain at rest relative to the Earth.
**Definition of a balance in equilibrium:**
We define the meaning of the expression “balance in equilibrium” as the situation in which its arms remain at rest horizontally. This is the meaning given by most people to the equilibrium of balances, and we adopt it here. That is, even when the beam and scale pans are at rest relative to the ground, we will not say that the balance is in equilibrium if the beam is not horizontal.
Before utilizing the balance to measure weights, we must build it and to place it in equilibrium without the bodies to be weighed, only with its arms and scale pans. It is also important to verify that the threads holding the pans to the arms of the balance are at the same horizontal distance to the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. In order to have a sensitive and precise balance, it is essential for it to be free to rotate around the fulcrum, without the hindrance of friction.
We have seen before that a rigid body suspended by a point is in stable equilibrium when the point of suspension PS is vertically above the CG of the body. If the CG is above the point of support PA, the equilibrium tends to be unstable, unless the PA is not a point but an area of support. For the time being we will deal only with balances suspended by a fulcrum located vertically above the CG of the empty balance. In some figures we will represent this fulcrum by the letters PS. One of the most important points in the construction of a balance is that the fulcrum must be vertically above the CG of the beam (without the scale pans and weights to be measured). This will guarantee the stable equilibrium of the beam. That is, it will return to the horizontal position after release from rest, no matter what the initial inclination of the beam relative to the horizontal.
The beam of the balance can be made of any rigid material like wood, plastic, metal, or even pasteboard. It can be cylindrical (a bamboo barbecue skewer or a broomstick), rectangular (a ruler or a rectangular pasteboard), or like a parallelepiped (a lath of wood). Close to the extremities of the beam, at equal distances to the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, we can fix two equal nails, two needles or two
hooks, which will support the scale pans by the threads. Instead of this, we can also make two equal holes at the extremities of the beam, where we will hang the pans (utilizing hooks). The pans of the balance may be two small bottle lids, two small plastic cups, or any other adequate supports for the bodies. We should make three holes symmetrically located around the edges of the lids or cups, where the threads will be tied. The threads holding the pans on each side of the beam should have the same length and should be made of the same material. Instead of lids or cups, we could also use small plastic or cloth bags suspended from the beam. Inside the bags we place the bodies to be weighted.
Here we present several types of equal arm balances that are very sensitive and precise, even though they are made with cheap and easy to find materials. They illustrate different possibilities, and can also be adapted to levers.
There are many ways in which the balance can have freedom of rotation around the fulcrum. One possibility is to have a hook on the upper part of the beam, above its midpoint. Another possibility is to make a horizontal hole halfway between its extremities, with the hole above the CG of the beam. In these two cases the balance hangs by a nail, needle, or bamboo skewer fixed horizontally in the rigid support, passing through the hook or hole made in the beam, as in Fig. 6.2.
One of the simplest balances found in every home is the coat-hanger. The cylindrical horizontal bar holding the coat-hanger is the fulcrum of the balance, and we can hang objects to be measured on the beam of the coat-hanger:
A simple and instructive balance model which we will utilize for some activities is made with a pasteboard in the form of the letter T. It has several holes along the body, as well as holes symmetrically located along the arms of the T, as in Fig. 6.3. By the method of the plumb line
we can easily find the CG of the pierced figure. The T should be suspended by a fulcrum passing through a hole located above its CG. The scale pans can be suspended by any two holes along the arms, provided they are at equal distances from the vertical plane passing through the axis of symmetry of the T.
Another way to reduce friction from the wobbling of the balance is to use a horizontal stick fixed to the beam, orthogonal to it, supported on both sides by rigid, smooth stands of the same height. One example is made of a short cork (that is, a cork cut in half on a plane parallel to its faces), a needle (or toothpick), and a bamboo barbecue skewer. Initially we pass a nail longitudinally through the cork, parallel to its axis of symmetry, but outside it. We represent the axis of symmetry of the cork by the letter E. We remove the nail and pass the bamboo barbecue skewer through this hole. We then remove the tip of the bamboo skewer so that it becomes symmetrical. We then pass a needle or toothpick through the cork. The needle should be perpendicular to the bamboo skewer and parallel to the faces of the cork. We represent the needle by the letter A. The center of the cork must be located between the center of the bamboo skewer and the center of the needle. The bamboo skewer and the axis of the cork should be parallel, with the needle orthogonal to the plane formed by the axis and the bamboo skewer, as in Fig. 6.4.
We support both sides of the needle on the back of a chair, above two cans or over another appropriate stand. We adjust the center of the bamboo skewer in relation to the center of the cork in such a way that the bamboo skewer remains horizontal. We then make two cuts on the upper part of the bamboo skewer, perpendicular to its axis, symmetrically located relative to the needle. The scale pans should be hung from these cuts. The friction of the needle rotating over the smooth stands is very small and this balance allows good precision. The needle works as the fulcrum of the balance, that is, the horizontal axis around which it can turn, as in Fig. 6.5.
Another way to reduce friction during the oscillation of the balance is to fix vertical nails or needles in the beam, which will be supported
over smooth stands. Fig. 6.6 illustrates a balance of this kind made with cork, bamboo barbecue skewers, and pins or needles.
Initially we use a knife to cut equal pieces of the cork from both ends, each one $\frac{1}{3}$ of the length of the cork, in such a way as to remove $\frac{3}{4}$ of the circular part of the cork. Then we pass a bamboo barbecue skewer through the lower part of the cork, orthogonal to its axis of symmetry E. The bamboo skewer should be in a plane parallel to the plane of the longitudinal cuts of the cork, parallel to its axis of symmetry, but below the axis. We then remove its tip to make it symmetrical. Before passing the bamboo skewer through the cork we can pass a nail of the same thickness through the cork, in order to facilitate the insertion the bamboo skewer. We attach two vertical pins or needles in such a way that their tips are above the original axis of symmetry E of the cork. The bamboo barbecue skewer is set to horizontal, with the tips of the pins supported over appropriate stands of the same height. In order to stabilize the balance it is crucial that the tips of the pins be above the CG of the system composed of cork, pins and bamboo skewer. We can make small cuts close to the extremities of the bamboo skewer, perpendicular to the beam and on its upper side, in order to attach the threads for the scale pans.
There are several other possibilities, but what we have shown here should give a good idea how to build sensitive balances.
Fig. 6.6. Another kind of balance with very small friction.
6.2 Measurement of weight
We now show how to utilize a balance to weigh bodies. We will suppose that we have already built our equal arm balance and that it is completely free to turn around the fulcrum. Moreover, we will assume that it is in equilibrium; i.e., the beam is horizontal without other bodies, only with the scale pans suspended at equal distances to the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum.
**Experiment**
We place body A (for example, a large paper clip) in the left pan of the balance and a sequence of $N$ other bodies B (for example, a small paper clip, a large paper clip, a coin, a piece of modeling clay, etc.) in the right pan of the balance. In each trial we place only one of the $N$ bodies B in the right pan, always releasing the balance from rest with its beam in a horizontal position. We observe that in some cases A goes up while B goes down, in other cases both bodies remain at rest with the beam horizontal, and in other cases A goes down while B goes up.
**Definition:** We say that bodies A and B have the same weight $P$ if, when A is placed on one pan of this balance and B is placed on the other pan, and the beam is released from rest horizontally, it remains at rest, as in Fig. 6.7.
In order to obtain better precision with the balance, it is important to swap the position of the bodies on the scale pans. If it remains in equilibrium, we can say that the two bodies really have the same weight. There is one main reason for this precaution. It may happen that one of the arms (let us call it arm 1) is shorter than arm 2, this difference in lengths being difficult to detect with the naked eye. That is, the distance between the thread on arm 1 and the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum may be larger than the distance between the thread on arm 2
and the fulcrum. Let us suppose that these arms have different lengths. We further suppose that body A placed on pan 1 balances body B placed on pan 2. If the arms have different lengths, then body A placed on pan 2 will not balance body B placed on pan 1. The scale will only balance in both cases (A on pan 1 with B on pan 2; and A on pan 2 with B on pan 1) if the two arms are at the same distance from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. Switching the objects between scale pans is also necessary in the other cases where an equal arm balance is used. We will not mention this again, and simply suppose it is implied in other definitions and procedures.
We said before that body A (or B) has weight P, as if the weight belonged to it or were a property of the body A. However, as a matter of fact, the weight arises from an interaction of A with the Earth (or B with the Earth). We call this interaction gravity. The tendency of gravity is to unite the bodies with the Earth. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to say that when the balance remains in equilibrium, the interaction of A with the Earth has the same value P as the interaction of B with the Earth. In any case, we will keep the previous definition of the weight P of A and B, as this is the usual way of expressing it. But it should not be forgotten that weight is really an interaction of each body with the Earth.
The previous definition is an operational procedure for finding two bodies of the same weight. But it is not an experimental law. We are merely utilizing an empirical observation (the equilibrium of the balance supporting two bodies A and B) in order to arrive at a conceptual (or operational) definition.
This could only be an experimental law if we had some other way of knowing when two bodies have the same weight. If this were the case, then we could say that experiment teaches us that two bodies of the same weight keep an equal arm balance in equilibrium. But historically it was with the equal arm balance that we first found an objective procedure for quantifying the notion of weight. Therefore, the equality of weight of two bodies by this first procedure must be established by definition. Once we know one procedure for defining the equality of weight of two bodies, we can apply it to obtain other experimental laws. For instance, suppose we utilize the previous experimental procedure with an equal arm balance to find two bodies A and B of equal weight. Then we can raise to an experimental law the empirical result that these two bodies compress a spring by the same amount when each one of them remains at rest above the ground and above a vertical spring supported from below.
The previous definition is the main operational procedure for quantifying the equality of weight of two bodies. We might think of an alternative procedure such as: we define two bodies made of the same material and having the same size and shape as having the same weight. But this alternative procedure has problems and limitations, for two principal reasons. The first is that it is difficult to know in practice if the two bodies are really made of the same material. After all, microscopic differences may arise during the manufacturing process (impurities, internal bubbles, etc.) which are difficult to detect. Even disregarding this prospect, there is a second, even more serious problem. There is not the slightest possibility of comparing the weights of two bodies made of different materials, such as iron and wood, or corn and water, by this alternative definition. That is, when we have bodies of different chemical composition, we cannot compare their weights by this alternative definition.
Let us illustrate this point with a specific example, as this is a relevant issue that is rarely discussed in textbooks. When we buy a box of paper clips we observe visually that they have the same shape and size. As they are made of the same material, it is reasonable to suppose that they have the same weight. Despite this fact, there are always some microscopic variations between two clips which are difficult to detect macroscopically. In any event, even forgetting this fact, there is not the slightest possibility of visually comparing the weight of one of these clips with a certain amount of clay. After all, the clip and the clay have different shapes, sizes, volumes, textures, colors, etc. But the main difference is that they are made of different chemical substances. The only way of knowing if they have the same weight or not is to utilize a measurable effect arising from the gravitational interaction. The first quantitative instrument that was devised historically to determine the weight of bodies was the equal arm balance. Therefore, we say, by definition, that a clip and a certain volume of clay have the same weight if, when released at rest on the pans of the balance, the beam remains horizontally at rest.
In principle the previous definition is only strictly valid when the balance is placed in a high vacuum. The reason is that if bodies A and B are immersed in a fluid like air, an upward force will be exerted upon them by the air. And this force is equal to the weight of the displaced air, as discovered by Archimedes himself. Therefore, the body with the larger volume will receive a larger upward force from the air. This force of the air will distort the comparison of weights of A and B. In our previous definition we are neglecting the effect of this upward force, considFig. 6.8. The weight does not depend upon the height of the body.
erling only the downward forces upon A and B due to their interaction with the Earth.
**Definition:** We place two bodies A and B on different pans of an equal arm balance, with the beam initially horizontal, releasing the system from rest. If the balance does not remain in equilibrium, but inclines towards one of the sides, we say that the body which moves toward (away from) the ground is the heavier (lighter).
**Experiment**
We utilize an equal arm balance with threads of equal length holding the two pans. We find two bodies A and B which keep the balance in equilibrium. We then shorten one of the threads, placing the excess thread on the pan to which it belonged, and again release the beam from rest with bodies A and B on the two pans. We observe that the balance remains in equilibrium as in Fig. 6.8. In other words, experimentally the weight of a body does not depend on its height above the ground.
Since Newton’s theory of universal gravitation we have known that this result is only an approximation, since the gravitational force between two spherical bodies falls as the inverse square of the distance between their centers. But due to the huge radius of the Earth, compared with the difference in length between the two threads in this experiment, the change of weight is negligible. Thus, it cannot be detected in this kind of experiment. We can therefore assume as an experimental result that the weight of a body upon the surface of the Earth does not depend upon its height above the ground.
Now that we have defined the equality and inequality of weight between two bodies, we can continue to quantify the notion of weight with another definition.
**Definition:** We say that $N$ bodies of the same weight placed together on a scale pan have $N$ times the weight of one of these bodies.
For example, suppose that with an equal arm balance we discover that the bodies A, B, C and D all have the same weight $P$ ($P_A = P_B = P_C = P_D = P$). Suppose we place these four bodies over one of the pans of a balance and verify that they equilibrate another body E placed on the other pan. Then we say, by definition, that the weight of E is four times the weight of A, or, $P_E \equiv 4P_A$.
This may seem a trivial definition. But this is not the case. In order to see this, let us compare it with the temperature of a body. We define two bodies as having the same temperature $T$ if, when they are placed in contact, they remain in thermal equilibrium. That is, their macroscopic variables, like the pressure or volume in the case of gases, do not change with the passage of time. But if we place $N$ bodies together at the same temperature $T$, the system as a whole will also have the same temperature $T$, and not a temperature $N$ times higher than $T$. The same holds for density. That is, when we place $N$ cubic solid homogeneous bodies of the same density $\rho$ together, the system as a whole will have the same density $\rho$. The system will not have $N$ times this density.
Based on this definition we can prepare a set of standard weights. We choose a specific object, such as a small paper clip, as our standard, and define its weight as 1. With a balance we can find many other objects (e.g., pieces of clay) which have the same weight. We then put five of these equal weights on one side of a balance and on the other side we place an appropriate amount of clay to balance these 5 objects. This clay will have, by definition, weight 5. We can mark this number in the clay. We can find other standards of weight: 10, 50 and 100, for instance. Now suppose we want to weigh an apple. We put it on one side of the balance and find how many units we need to place on the other side to balance it. If it is 327 units, we will say that the weight of the apple is the same as the weight of 327 paper clips, or simply 327 units.
We now present a series of experiments that show how to improve the sensitivity of balances.
### 6.3 Improving balance sensitivity
We now perform four experiments. Their results will show how to build balances with greater sensitivity.\(^2\) All of them utilize pasteboard figures in the shape of the letter T, as in Fig. 6.3. This pierced pasteboard T will
\(^2\) N. Ferreira, *Equilibrio* (São Paulo: Instituto de Física, USP). Available in 2007 at: http://www.ludoteca.if.usp.br/.
function as a balance. Its arms of equal length will be the beam of the balance. We will suppose that when we hang the T by the hole located at the intersection of the arms with its body, supporting it on a horizontal pin fixed in a vertical stand, the arms of the balance remain horizontal after the T stops swaying. We then find two bodies that keep the T in equilibrium when they are placed on opposite sides at equal distances from the axis of symmetry of the T. The balance is being utilized here to determine the equality of weight of these two bodies. But we can also use a balance to determine whether two bodies A and B have different weights. How should we build a balance capable of distinguishing, for instance, a difference in weight of 1% between A and B? We are interested here in finding the main features that increase the sensitivity of a balance, so that it can easily show that two bodies A and B have different weights. This is the goal of the next experiments.
Suppose we hang two bodies A and B, having different weights, from opposite arms of a balance 1 and a balance 2. We will say that balance 1 has a higher sensitivity than balance 2 if we can more easily distinguish the difference of weight in balance 1 than in balance 2. The sensitivity of a balance can be established quantitatively by the angle $\theta$ its arms make with the horizontal when it holds bodies A and B at equal distances to its fulcrum. The greater the value of $\theta$, the greater the sensitivity of the balance.
In order to unbalance the beam we will use a paper clip placed on one of its arms. We want to know what makes the disequilibrium more visible, that is, what increases the angle $\theta$ indicated by the T.
The dimensions of the T do not need to be exactly as indicated. In the model used here, the length between the end of one arm and the end of the other arm is 15 cm. The height of the T is 16.5 cm. The width of the arms and body of the T is 3 cm. Holes separated by 1.5 cm are made along the axis of the arms and along the axis of symmetry of the T. Let us call the 10 holes along the axis of symmetry $V_1$ to $V_{10}$, with $V_1$ at the intersection of the arms with the body, and $V_{10}$ at the bottom end of the body. The holes along the arms are called $H_1$ to $H_8$, with $H_1$ at the left of Fig. 6.3 and $H_8$ at the right.
After making these holes we locate the CG of the T. The simplest way to do this is to hang it by a pin passing through $H_1$, and draw the vertical with the help of a plumb line after the system has reached equilibrium. This procedure is repeated with the T hanging by $H_8$. The intersection of the two verticals is the CG of the T. With the previous dimensions it is located between $V_3$ and $V_4$, as indicated in Fig. 6.3.
Fig. 6.9. The greater the distance between the point of suspension PS and the CG, the smaller the sensitivity of the balance.
**Experiment**
Initially we have a balance in equilibrium, with its arms horizontal, suspended by hole $V_1$. We now disturb this equilibrium by placing a small piece of paper or clay, or a paper clip, at the end of one of the arms. The system turns around $V_1$, oscillates a few times, then stops with the extra weight lower than the opposite arm. Let us call the smaller angle between the horizontal and the arm with the extra weight when the T is at rest $\theta_1$, as in Fig. 6.9. We repeat the experiment, but now with the T suspended by $V_2$. Initially the system is in equilibrium with the arms horizontal. We then disturb this equilibrium by placing the same extra weight in the same place as before. After the system has come to rest we measure the angle between the horizontal and the arm with the weight, calling it $\theta_2$. We repeat the procedure with the T suspended by $V_3$. In this case, the angle when the system is at rest is called $\theta_3$. Experimentally it is found that the smaller the distance between the point of suspension (in this case, the pin) and the CG of the T, the greater the final angle when the system is at rest. That is, experiment shows that $\theta_1 < \theta_2 < \theta_3$.
If we try to keep the T in its normal position (with the arms above the body) by suspending it by holes which are below the CG, we do not succeed. In other words, if we try to suspend it by $V_4$, $V_5$, ..., $V_{10}$, the system turns and remains at rest only with the horizontal arms below the body of the T. But even in these cases we can break the equilibrium as before, and obtain the same experimental results. That is, if we suspend the T by $V_{10}$ and place an extra weight at the end of one of its arms, the system will reach a new position at rest with the arm inclined by an angle $\theta_{10}$ from the horizontal, as in Fig. 6.10. We now hang the T by $V_9$, ..., $V_4$, then put the same extra weight at the end of its arm, and wait until the system reaches equilibrium. In these cases the smaller angle between
the horizontal and the arm with the extra weight is given by $\theta_6$, ..., $\theta_4$, respectively. Experimentally it is found that $\theta_{10} < \theta_9 < ... < \theta_4$.
In all these cases we placed the same weight acting at the same distance from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum of the balance. And we discovered experimentally that the smaller the distance between the PS and the CG, the greater the angle of inclination of the beam with the horizontal after the system reached rest. Therefore, the sensitivity of a balance increases with decreasing distance between the PS and the CG. As the distance between the PS and the CG gets smaller, it is easier to perceive that the beam is unbalanced, supporting different weights on both arms.
This experiment suggests that balances should be built to allow a variable distance between the PS and the CG, in order to control sensitivity. An example of a balance of this kind utilizes a cork, two bamboo barbecue skewers and two pins or needles. Initially we pass a bamboo skewer through the cork, orthogonally to its axis, at a distance of $\frac{1}{3}$ of its length from one end. We remove the tip of the bamboo skewer and make two cuts on the upper face of the bamboo skewer, at the same distance from its center, in order to support the threads fixed to the scale pans. We then pass another bamboo skewer at a distance of $\frac{1}{3}$ of its length from the other end, in such a way that it remains orthogonal to the axis of the cork and the first bamboo skewer. This second bamboo skewer will work as the pointer of the balance. We place a pin parallel to this second bamboo skewer, passing close to the center of the cork, to serve as the fulcrum of the balance. In order to prevent the beam from falling toward the ground when we place the threads and scale pans, raising the pointer, we place another pin parallel to the first one, this time in the front part of the cork, after the horizontal bamboo skewer.
We then have along the length of the cork, from back to front: a vertical pointer, a vertical pin, the horizontal beam and another vertical pin, as in Fig. 6.11. We fix the two scale pans and adjust the arms so that the beam becomes horizontal when supported by the two pins. We then support the balance with the two pins on the lid of a can or other convenient support. The balance is then complete. By raising or lowering the vertical bamboo skewer we can change the height of the CG of the balance. In this way we can change its sensitivity, as desired. This vertical bamboo skewer works as well as the pointer of the balance. For example, when the balance is equilibrated with its arms horizontal, we can make a small mark on the stand parallel to the location of the pointer indicating the zero (0) of the balance.
Another extremely creative idea to connect two bamboo skewers or two plastic straws, without a cork, is to make a loop out of pieces of a plastic straw.\(^3\) To do this, we cut three small pieces of straw, one 4 cm in length and two 5 cm in length. The larger pieces are folded in two and we introduce them into the smaller piece. The angle between the planes of the two loops should be 90°, as in Fig. 6.12. We pass a whole straw or bamboo skewer through each loop and stick two pins or needles in the 4 cm long straw. The two bamboo skewers or whole straws should be orthogonal to one another. The bamboo skewer parallel to the two pins or needles will be the pointer of the balance. In this way we can support the two pins over a rigid stand. The horizontal bamboo skewer will be the beam of the balance. The length of its two arms should be adjusted with the beam remaining horizontal at rest. After this we draw one mark on each arm at equal distances from the point of intersection. On these
\(^3\) N. Ferreira, *Equilibrio*.
marks we hang the threads with scale pans. The vertical bamboo skewer (the pointer) can be adjusted at will, so that we can change the distance between the points of suspension (lower tip of the pins) and the CG of the system (composed of bamboo skewers, pieces of straw, pins and scale pans). In this way we can control the sensitivity of the balance. In order to prevent the balance from falling when we put objects on the scale pans, the objects should be very light, with a weight no larger than the weight of the system. If we wish to balance heavier bodies, then we will need to put extra weights over the pointer in order to prevent the whole balance from falling.
It is important to improve the sensitivity of a balance. But this has a side effect. When we remove a balance from its position of stable equilibrium and release it from rest, it oscillates a few times until it stops due to friction, returning to its position of stable equilibrium. But the smaller the distance between the PS and the CG, the longer will be the period of oscillation. It will therefore take a longer time for the balance to complete each oscillation. When the PS is very close to the CG, we sometimes need to wait a long time until the balance stops swinging. This creates problems because it takes a long time to make each reading of the balance. This makes certain measurements impractical, as small perturbations in the position of the beam are inevitable (due to air currents, tremors of the room, perturbations when we place bodies over the scale pans, etc.) To prevent this problem some balances have a damper or shock-absorber (such as a pointer inside a vessel of oil) which quickly decreases the amplitude of oscillations. In this way we can move the CG close to the PS, increasing the sensitivity of the balance,
without significantly increasing the time for each reading of the balance due to perturbation.
In the next experiment we analyze another effect which shows how to increase the sensitivity of a balance.
**Experiment**
In this experiment we always hang the T by the same hole, such as $V_1$. Let us suppose that it remains at rest in this position with its arms horizontal. We now disturb this equilibrium by placing an extra weight (a piece of paper or clay, or a paper clip) over the hole $H_8$, releasing the system from rest. The T oscillates a few times, stopping with $H_8$ below $H_1$. Let $\theta_8$ be the smaller angle between the horizontal and the beam in this final position. We now remove the extra weight from $H_8$, and place it over $H_7$, releasing the beam from rest in a horizontal position. After a few oscillations the system stops with $H_7$ below $H_1$. Let $\theta_7$ be the smaller angle between the beam and the horizontal in this final position. The procedure is repeated with the extra weight over $H_6$ and over $H_5$. These experiments show that $\theta_8 > \theta_7 > \theta_6 > \theta_5$, as in Fig. 6.13.
We can imagine that in these four situations we have the same balance, but with the scale pans hanging by equal arms of different lengths in each instance (by $H_1$ and $H_8$ in one situation, by $H_2$ and $H_7$ in another situation, by $H_3$ and $H_6$ in another situation, and by $H_4$ and $H_5$ in another situation). We conclude that the longer the arms of a balance, the greater its sensitivity. That is, by comparing two balances with the same distance between the PS and CG, the more sensitive balance is the one with the longer arms. After all, the longer the arm with the extra weight, the more visible will be the lack of equilibrium of this balance caused by objects A and B of different weight. This lack of equilibrium is indicated by the angle of inclination of the beam with the horizontal.
The results of these two experiments can be combined in a single expression. Let $h$ be the vertical distance between the PS and the CG of the balance. Let $d$ be the arm of the balance (horizontal distance between the point of suspension of the scale pans and the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum). The larger the ratio $d/h$, the greater the sensitivity of the balance. Or the larger the angle $\theta$ of inclination of the beam to the horizontal when there are different weights on the scale pans.
**Experiment**
A third effect that illustrates how to improve the sensitivity of a balance can also be easily seen with a pasteboard T. In this case we cut out three or four equal T figures, of the same size and shape. Two or three of them should be glued together, making a T of the same size as the original one, but now two or three times thicker than a single T. The two systems (the single T and the thick T) have holes in the same locations ($V_1$ to $V_{10}$ and $H_1$ to $H_8$). We can determine the CG of both systems experimentally. They coincide with one another, being located between holes $V_3$ and $V_4$. We hang the single T by $V_1$ and wait until the system reaches equilibrium with its arms horizontal. We then suspend an extra weight, like a paper clip, at the extremity of one of its arms. We wait until the system stops its oscillations, with the arm containing the extra weight lower than the other arm. We measure the angle $\theta_S$ between the horizontal and this arm. We remove the T from the support and hang the thick T by $V_1$. We suspend the same extra weight at the end of one of its arms. We wait for the system to stop moving and measure the angle $\theta_E$ between the horizontal and this arm. Experimentally we observe that $\theta_S > \theta_E$, i.e., the heavier the beam of a balance in comparison with the extra weight, the less sensitive it will be. In this experiment the distance between the PS and the CG of the balance was the same, and the extra weight always hung at the same distance from the vertical passing
through the fulcrum. The different sensitivity of the two balances can only be due to the difference in their weights. We conclude that the lighter a balance is; the more sensitive it will be to distinguish the same difference of weight between two bodies, as illustrated in Fig. 6.14.
**Experiment**
It is also easy to observe experimentally that the greater the extra weight placed upon one of the arms of a balance, the more inclined the beam will be from the horizontal. For example, we hang an extra weight upon one of the arms of a balance and wait until the system stops its oscillations. Let $\theta_L$ be the angle between the horizontal and this arm. We now place two extra weights upon the same arm, at the same distance from the fulcrum. Once again, we release the balance from rest, with its beam horizontal, waiting until it stops its oscillations. Let $\theta_P$ be the new angle between the horizontal and this arm. Experimentally it is found that $\theta_L < \theta_P$, as in Fig. 6.15. This means that the greater the difference in weight between the bodies on the two equal arms of the balance, the more easily we will notice it, or, the greater the final angle of inclination between the beam and the horizontal.
Once more we can combine the results of these last two experiments in a single expression. Let $\Delta P = |P_A - P_B|$ be the magnitude of the difference of weight between A and B. Let us represent the weight of the beam by $P_A$. Therefore, the greater the value of $\Delta P/P_A$, the greater will be the sensitivity of the balance, or, the greater the angle $\theta$ of inclination of the beam from the horizontal when $\Delta P$ is different from zero. If $\Delta P$ is the same for two different balances, the balance with a lighter beam will be more sensitive.
6.4 Condition of equilibrium of a suspended body
Before studying levers it is worth making another experimental observation. Let us consider the balance with bamboo skewer, needle (A) and cork, where the axes of symmetry of these three bodies are in the horizontal position, as in Figs. 6.4 and 6.5.
Experiment
The balance is in stable equilibrium when the needle is above the center of the cork and above the center of the bamboo skewer, with or without the scale pans. That is, when we lower one of the sides of the bamboo skewer and release it from rest, the balance sways a few times, stopping with its arms horizontal (supposing there are equal weights on its scale pans suspended at equal distances from the fulcrum). It is easy to understand this fact by observing that in the position of stable equilibrium the CG of the system is in its lowest possible position, below the needle, along the vertical line passing through the center of the needle. Any perturbation raises the CG. Therefore, if the system is free to rotate after release, it will return to the position of stable equilibrium.
Experiment
We now consider the opposite case in which the center of the needle is below the center of the cork and below the center of the bamboo skewer. Let us suppose initially that there are no scale pans on the beam, as in Fig. 6.16. In this case the equilibrium is unstable with the horizontal needle. In other words, we cannot keep the balance at rest in this position after release; it tends to turn in the clockwise or in the anticlockwise direction after being released from rest. If the balance can make a complete turn, it will end up in the previous position of stable equilibrium. It is also easy to understand the phenomenon by observing that in the position of unstable equilibrium the CG of the system is in its highest possible position, above the needle, along the vertical line passing through the center of the needle. Any perturbation in the system tends to lower its CG. Therefore, if the balance begins to turn in the clockwise direction
after being released from rest, it will continue to turn in this direction, as the tendency of the CG is to fall toward the ground.
**Experiment**
The most curious situation is when the center of the needle is in the previous position, below the center of the cork and below the center of the bamboo skewer, but now with equal weights M and N placed on arms of equal length. Let us suppose that the balance has the bamboo skewer (the beam) initially horizontal. Moreover, let us suppose that the weight of the set of threads and scale pans, together with objects M and N placed on these pans (CG of this first set located at P) is larger than the weight of the set of cork, needle and bamboo skewer (CG of this second set located at T), in such a way that the CG of both systems together is located at C, below the needle A, as in Fig. 6.17. Even in this case the system is in unstable equilibrium in this initial configuration. That is, if released from rest it tends to turn in the clockwise or in anticlockwise direction. The beam of the balance does not remain in this initial position if there is any perturbation in the system.
Let us try to understand what is happening here. We first analyze the situation for which the beam has turned an angle $\theta$ from the horizontal, in such a way that body M moves downward and body N upward, as in Fig. 6.17. Body M, together with its pan and thread, fell a distance $H(\theta)$ relative to its original height above the ground. At the same time body N rose, together with its pan and thread, a distance $h(\theta)$ relative to its original height above the ground. As the center of the cork also fell below original height, we have $H(\theta) > h(\theta)$. This means that the CG of the first set (bodies M and N, together with their plates and threads) fall relative to its original height above the ground, from P to P'. The same happened with the CG of the second set (cork, needle and bamboo
skewer), moving from T to T', and with the CG of the whole system, which moved from C to C'. This means that the tendency of the system will be to increase the angle $\theta$ even more, as this will lower the CG of the whole system.
If the system had turned an angle $\theta$ relative to the horizontal in such a way that N went downwards and M upwards, the CG of the whole system would have again moved downward relative to its original position. And the system would tend to increase angle $\theta$ even more. And this explains the unstable equilibrium in this case.
We call attention to this case because it brings something new. When we were considering the equilibrium of rigid bodies, we could only obtain unstable equilibria with the CG above the point of support PA (as, for instance, the case of the parallelogram turning around one of its edges). This happened when any perturbation in the position of the body lowered its CG. On the other hand, we had seen stable equilibrium with the CG above the PA (as, for instance, a rocking chair oscillating on a flat surface). We had also seen stable equilibrium with the CG below the PS (plane figures suspended by a needle passing through one of their holes). In these latter two cases the stable equilibria arose when any perturbation in the position of the body raised its CG.
In the present case we no longer have a rigid body. When the beam turns by an angle $\theta$ relative to the horizon, the angle between the beam and the threads supporting the scale pans is modified (it is no longer a right angle). Moreover, the distance between the center of each pan and the center of the beam has also been changed. We are now seeing a new kind of unstable equilibrium, a case where the CG of the whole system is below the PS. And we again conclude, but now in a more general situation not restricted to rigid bodies, that there will be stable (unstable) equilibrium whenever the CG of the whole system rises (falls) when there is any perturbation in the configuration of the system. There will be neutral equilibrium when the CG of the system remains at the same height for any perturbation of the system.
The key to obtaining stable equilibrium of a balance which is free to turn around a horizontal axis is that the PS should be located vertically above the CG of the beam. We mentioned this earlier, but it is important to emphasize it here once more. For example, if the beam is a rectangular beam of wood or a cylindrical rod, the fulcrum should not be placed at the center of the beam or cylinder. In order to obtain stable equilibrium, the fulcrum or PS of the balance should be located above the center of the beam. This will guarantee the stability of the balance when it is placed with its beam horizontal. If the fulcrum is placed exFig. 6.18. A balance with its CG above the fulcrum.
actly at the center of the beam, a procedure that will produce stable equilibrium is to fix an extra weight on the beam, located vertically below the fulcrum. This will lower the CG of the beam, in such a way that the new CG will be lower than the fulcrum (or PS).
6.5 Balances with the center of gravity above the fulcrum
Before moving on, we briefly mention balances which have the CG of the beam above the fulcrum. As there is unstable equilibrium in this case, the only way to build a working balance is to support it on a surface, not on a point or single horizontal line without thickness. An example of a balance of this kind is a horizontal ruler supported by a domino piece placed below its center, as in Fig. 6.18. The ruler can only remain at rest if the width of the domino touching the ruler is not too small in comparison with the thickness of the ruler. For example, it is extremely difficult to balance a horizontal ruler on the edge of a vertical razor blade. In this case the ruler falls to one side or another even before we put the weights on it.
This setup limits the precision or sensitivity of the balance. After all, the surface on which the beam is supported does not allow a single distance between the weights above the pans and the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. The distance of each arm from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum can take any value between a minimum and a maximum. As a result, with this apparatus we can balance bodies of the same weight and bodies of different weights (as established by the precise balances already presented, for which the fulcrum was above the CG of the beam).
Another problem with these balances is that the supports for the weights to be measured (small cups, bottle caps, etc.) are normally attached to the beam. Therefore, the weights are not supported by a single point, as they are spread over a small region. This is another reason why it is difficult to find a single distance between each arm (or each weight) and the vertical passing through the fulcrum.
6.6 Other types of balance
Apart from the equal arm balance there are other types which utilize other measurable effects due to the action of gravity. A common balance for home use is made of springs. It utilizes the compression of a spring due to a body at rest in a pan as a weight indicator. Some high-precision piezoelectric balances utilize a phenomenon observed in anisotropic crystals as a weight indicator. Some crystals, when mechanically compressed, become electrically polarized in certain directions. This can be measured and calibrated to indicate the weight compressing the crystal. Some electronic balances transform mechanical deformations arising from the weight of a body into electrical voltage, which is measured electronically. There are several other kinds of balance, but we will not consider them here.
6.7 Using weight as a standard of force
It is possible to keep the beam of an equal arm balance horizontal by placing a body of weight $P$ on one side, while on the other side, at the same distance from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, another mechanism sets the balance. In order to simplify the analysis we will suppose that the balance has no scale pans, in such a way that the weight $P$ is suspended directly by the beam. The mechanism which counterbalances the weight $P$ can be, for instance, the finger of a person exerting a downward force. It can also be a tensed spring fixed at the
Fig. 6.20. Different ways of equilibrating a weight.
ground below the balance, or a taught thread fixed to the ground, as in Fig. 6.19. Several other mechanisms can operate on the other side to the weight $P$ in order to equilibrate it (mechanisms depending upon electric or magnetic effects, for instance). This leads to an important definition.
**Definition:** Suppose body A of weight $P$ acting at a distance $d$ from the fulcrum of a balance, being equilibrated by a second body B acting on the other side of the balance, at the same distance $d$ from the fulcrum. We define that this second body B exerts a force of magnitude $F$ equal to the weight $P$ of the body A, regardless of the nature of this force (it can be elastic, electrical, magnetic, etc.) That is, $F \equiv P$.
In this case we stipulate that the finger (or spring, or thread, or magnet, etc.) exerts a force of magnitude $F$ equal to the weight $P$ of the body. As a result, we can calibrate or measure forces of different kinds, not necessarily gravitational, by comparing them quantitatively with the force due to the weight.
This concept does need not be limited to an equal arm balance. We have seen that when we release a body from rest above the surface of the Earth, it falls to the ground. But this can be prevented by different means, for instance, by placing a rigid support or spring under the body, or suspending it by a thread or spring, etc. Fig. 6.20 illustrates a few possibilities.
Let us consider a spring at rest vertically, fixed at its upper end, with a total length $L_0$ in this vertical position, as in Fig. 6.21. When a body of weight $P$ is suspended and kept at rest at the lower end of this spring, the spring acquires a length $L_1 > L_0$. Another way to keep this body at rest relative to the ground is to support it on the upper end of a vertical spring, which has its bottom end fixed on the ground. In this case, the spring is compressed to a length $L_2 < L_0$. By definition we say that in these cases the tensed or compressed spring exerts an upward force $F$ upon the body of weight $P$ given by $F \equiv P$. This also holds if, instead of the spring, the body is suspended by a thread, supported by a
We have seen that if an object A is released from rest, it falls to the ground. In the previous experiments we saw that we can prevent this by connecting this body to an equal arm balance and placing another body B on the other side of the balance. We define that these two bodies have the same weight if the balance remains in equilibrium. But body A is not connected directly to body B, as it is in contact only with the pan of the balance. We can then see that the downward weight acting upon A, due to the Earth’s gravity and acting as if it were concentrated at the CG of A, is balanced by a normal upward force of magnitude $N$ exerted by the pan of the balance acting upon A at the region of contact. That is, $N \equiv P$, as in Fig. 6.22. This normal force $N$ has its origin in the downward weight of body B, being transmitted by the curved pan and taught thread holding B, by the curved rigid beam, and then by the taught thread and curved pan holding A. The threads holding the scale pans are taught (that is, under tension) due to the gravity acting upon A and B. The scale pans are also under stress or tension, with the threads forcing them upward, while A and B force them downward. We can then say that a first condition of equilibrium in order for a body to remain at rest relative to the ground is that the downward weight $P$ must be counterbalanced by an upward force $N$ of the same magnitude as the weight.
We can also investigate weight and forces in general by considering algebraic magnitudes, that is, positive and negative. We deal here with forces along the vertical direction and choose the downward direction as positive. In other words, forces exerted toward the Earth, such as the weight, are considered positive, while upward acting forces are considered negative. We can also choose, for instance, the right and forward directions as positive, while the left and backward directions will be negative. We then postulate that a body is in equilibrium when the sum of all forces acting upon it, in all directions, goes to zero. If this sum is different from zero, we postulate that the body will move toward the direction of the net force.
Chapter 7
Levers and the First Law
of Mechanics
7.1 Building and calibrating levers
The lever is one of the simple machines studied in ancient Greece. The other simple machines were the windlass, the pulley, the wedge and the screw. The lever consists of a rigid body, normally linear, the beam, capable of turning around a fixed axis horizontal to the ground. This axis is called the fulcrum or point of suspension, PS, of the lever. This axis is orthogonal to the beam. The lever is like a balance, but now with the possibility of placing weights at different distances from the fulcrum. The models which we will consider here are analogous to the balances built earlier. We will consider only levers in stable equilibrium for which the fulcrum is vertically above the CG of the beam when it is at rest horizontally. We will suppose that the lever is symmetrical about the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, with the beam horizontal and orthogonal to this vertical plane when there are no bodies supported by the lever. As we did with the balance, we will define the expression “lever in equilibrium” when its beam remains at rest horizontally relative to the ground. We call the arm of the lever the horizontal distance $d$ between the point of suspension of a body upon the beam and the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. For brevity we sometimes say, simply, “distance between the body and the fulcrum;” but in general this should be understood as meaning the horizontal distance between the point of suspension of the body upon the beam and the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. When we talk about the two arms of a
lever, these should be understood as the opposite sides in relation to the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum.
In order to arrive at the first law of mechanics in a precise and quantitative way we need a sensitive lever. The conditions to obtain this are the same as for the balance: freedom of rotation around the fulcrum; a high ratio $\Delta P/P_A$ (where $\Delta P$ is the difference of weight between the bodies suspended on the two sides of the lever, and $P_A$ is the weight of the lever); and a high ratio $d/h$ (where $h$ is the vertical distance between the PS and the CG of the beam, while $d$ is the smaller arm of the lever).
We also need to mark precisely upon the two arms several points at equal distances from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. There are two ways to do this. (A) The first is to establish the fulcrum of the lever (by making a hole or attaching a hook from which it will hang; or passing a needle through the beam, in such a way that it is attached to the beam so it can be supported over a stand, etc.) After this, we adjust the beam so that it lies horizontal without additional weights. We then make marks upon both sides of the beam, at equal distances from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. (B) The second is to make the marks on the beam initially. This can easily be done, for instance, by utilizing a graduated ruler as the beam, or by attaching graph paper to a strip of wood, or by marking points equally spaced on a broomstick or bamboo stick, etc., with a pen and ruler. We then fix the nails or hooks above these marks. And finally we place the fulcrum on the plane of symmetry that divides the beam into two equal parts. As we saw before, the fulcrum should not be at the center of the beam. The best place for the fulcrum is along the plane of symmetry, but above the center, in such a way that it is vertically above the CG of the beam, in order to produce a stable equilibrium. After this we must check that the beam remains horizontal when the lever is free to rotate around the fulcrum. If this is not the case, we can attach an appropriate extra weight (a piece of wire, thread or clay) at some point along one of the arms in order to make the beam horizontal.
In Fig. 7.1 we present several kinds of lever, analogous to the balances already built.
Before experimenting with the lever we must test it in order to see if it is calibrated. Let us suppose that it remains horizontal after release without any bodies upon it. We then suspend two equal weights ($P_A = P_B = P$) over two equal arms of the lever ($d_A = d_B = d$). The lever must remain in equilibrium when released from rest horizontally. After this, as we did with the balance, the positions of bodies A and B must be swapped and the lever must remain in equilibrium after release. Moreover, equilibrium must be maintained for all marks on the lever, that is, for all values of $d$. From now on we will assume that we are working with calibrated levers.
### 7.2 Experiments with levers and the first law of mechanics
We now begin experimenting with levers.
**Experiment**
We place a paper clip at the distance of 4 cm from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum of the lever and another clip of the same weight at a distance of 6 cm from the fulcrum, on the other side of the lever. After the lever is released from rest horizontally, the clip at the larger distance from the fulcrum is observed to fall, while the other rises, as in Fig. 7.2.
The same phenomenon happens for other distances. That is, we place equal weights on arms of different lengths of the lever, $D > d$, releasing the lever from rest horizontally. We again observe that the weight at the larger distance, $D$, falls, while the other weight rises, as in Fig. 7.2.
Fig. 7.2. A weight at a greater distance from the fulcrum has a larger power to turn the lever than an equal weight at a smaller distance from the fulcrum.
This experiment shows that in order to obtain equilibrium, it is not enough to have equal weights on both sides of the fulcrum of a lever. The experiment shows that another relevant factor is the horizontal distance of the weights from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. Only experience tells us this; it does not come from theory. That is, experimentally we learn that for the equilibrium of two bodies on a lever the relevant factors are their weights and distances from the fulcrum. On the other hand, other factors do not affect the equilibrium of the lever. Experience teaches that these other irrelevant factors are their colour, shape, texture, chemical composition, volume, etc.
This is one of the simplest and most intriguing experiments in mechanics. After all, there are equal weights on both sides of the lever. In spite of this, we observe that the weight at a larger distance from the fulcrum has a greater tendency or power to rotate the lever than the weight at a smaller distance. Although this fact is observed in everyday life, it is still extremely curious.
**Experiment**
We place 4 paper clips of the same weight at a distance of 6 cm from the fulcrum, equilibrating 4 other identical clips placed at 6 cm from the fulcrum on the other side of the lever. Experience shows that this equilibrium is not disturbed if on one of the sides we place 2 clips at a distance of 4 cm from the fulcrum, and the other 2 clips at a distance of 8 cm from the fulcrum. Equilibrium remains if one of the clips is at a distance of 3 cm from the fulcrum, another at the distance of 5 cm from the fulcrum, while 2 clips remain at a distance of 8 cm from the fulcrum, as in Fig. 7.3.
We can generalize this result as follows. We place $N$ bodies of the same weight at a distance $d$ from the fulcrum, and $N$ other identical bodies at the same distance $d$ from the other side of the fulcrum. The lever remains in equilibrium. Experimentally it is shown that it remains in
equilibrium when we divide one of these groups into two or three parts, with $M$ bodies at the distance $d$ from the fulcrum ($M$ can be equal to zero in the special case), $(N-M)/2$ bodies at a distance $d-x$ from the fulcrum and $(N-M)/2$ of these bodies at a distance $d+x$ from the fulcrum. On the other hand, equilibrium will not occur if we place $(N-M)/2$ bodies at a distance $d-x_1$ from the fulcrum and $(N-M)/2$ of these bodies at a distance $d+x_2$ from the fulcrum, if $x_1$ is different from $x_2$. Equilibrium will remain in the first case if we can divide one or more of the first groups of $(N-M)/2$ bodies into two or three sub-groups, by placing $Q$ of them at the distance $d-x$ from the fulcrum, while $((N-M)/2-Q)/2$ are placed at a distance $(d-x)-y$ from the fulcrum and $((N-M)/2-Q)/2$ are placed at a distance $(d-x)+y$ from the fulcrum. And so on. In the previous example we had $N=4$, $M=Q=0$, $d=6$ cm, $x=2$ cm and $y=1$ cm.
This experiment is not trivial. It shows that a weight $P$ placed at a distance $d$ from the fulcrum is equivalent to a weight $P/2$ placed at a distance $d-x$ from the fulcrum, together with another weight $P/2$ at a distance $d+x$ from the fulcrum. That is, these two weights $P/2$ on one side of the fulcrum, at distances $d+x$ and $d-x$ from it, equilibrate a weight $P$ on the other side of the fulcrum at a distance $d$ from it. This experiment indicates that, as regards the rotation of the lever, the weights act independently of one another, following the principle of superposition, with a linear influence of their distances from the fulcrum. If the influences of their distances to the fulcrum were not linear but followed another law (quadratic, cubic, inverse of the distance, inverse square, sinusoidal, logarithmic, etc.), then the equivalence already observed would no longer hold. Once more, this comes from experiment; no logical argument obliges nature to behave like this.
We now analyze the equilibrium of a lever with different weights on its two arms.
**Experiment**
We take 5 paper clips of the same weight. We place 2 of these clips at a distance of 6 cm from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. We place the other 3 clips at a distance of 6 cm from the other side of the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, releasing the lever from rest horizontally. We observe that it turns around the fulcrum, with the 3 clips falling downward and the 2 clips rising upward, as in Fig. 7.4.
This experiment can be generalized to other cases. That is, suppose we have $N$ bodies of equal weight $P$ at a distance $d$ from one side of the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum of a lever, and $M$ other bodies
of equal weight $P$ at the same distance on the other side of the fulcrum, with $M > N$. If we release the lever from rest horizontally, it turns around the fulcrum, with the set of $M$ bodies falling downward and the set of $N$ bodies rising upward. By the definitions we introduced earlier, we say that the set of $M$ bodies is heavier than the set of $N$ bodies.
Now comes one of the most important experiments of all.
**Experiment**
We consider 5 clips of the same weight. We place 2 of these clips at the same distance of 6 cm from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. We want to find the distance from the other side of the fulcrum at which we should place the 3 other clips together in order to place the lever in equilibrium (that is, at rest horizontally after released). Experiment shows that this only happens when they are at a distance of 4 cm from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, as in Fig. 7.4.
If we place the 2 clips at the same distance $d_A$ from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, we observe that the balance only remains in equilibrium after release if the other 3 clips acting together on the other side of the fulcrum are located at a distance $d_B$ as given by the following table.
| $d_A$ (cm) | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
|------------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
| $d_B$ (cm) | 4/3 | 2 | 8/3 | 10/3| 4 | 14/3| 16/3|
### 7.2.1 First part of the law of the lever
The result of this experiment is also verified in other cases. We place $N_A$ bodies of the same weight $P$ together on the arm of length $d_A$ of a lever. Their total weight is given by $P_A = N_A P$. We place $N_B$ other bodies of the same weight $P$ together on the other side of the lever at a distance $d_B$ from the fulcrum, releasing the lever from rest horizontally. Experiment shows that it only remains in equilibrium if
$$\frac{d_B}{d_A} = \frac{P_A}{P_B} = \frac{N_A}{N_B}.$$
This is the initial part of the first law of mechanics. Sometimes it is called the law of the lever. Archimedes expressed it as follows in Proposition 6 of the first part of his work *On the Equilibrium of Planes*: “Commensurable magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances reciprocally proportional to the weights.”
By “magnitudes” we understand that Archimedes was referring to physical bodies. The idea behind commensurable magnitudes is measurement by comparison. That is, to measure two or more magnitudes with the same unit or standard of measure. If the ratio between the weights of two bodies is equal to the ratio of two integers, like $\frac{5}{3}$, we say that the weights are commensurable. The reason for this is that in this case it is possible to find a common measure, so that the weight of each one of these bodies is an integer multiple of this common measure. The body A might measure, for instance, 5 N (five Newtons), while body B might measure 3 N. In this example the unit of measure might be one Newton = 1 N, or 0.01 N, or ... The same ratio of $\frac{5}{3}$ would occur if the weight of A was 20 N and that of B was 12 N. Also in this case the unit of measure might be 1 N, or 0.01 N, etc. If the ratio of the weights of two bodies is equal to the ratio between an irrational number (like the square root of 2, or like the number $\pi$) and an integer, we then say that these two weights are incommensurable. In this case it is not possible to find a common measure such that the weight of each one of these bodies would be an integer multiple of this common measure. The length of the diagonal of a square, for instance, is incommensurable with the length of a side of the square. The same holds for the ratio between the area of a circle of unit diameter and the area of a square of unit sides.
Archimedes generalized this result for incommensurable magnitudes in Prop. 7 of this work: “However, even if the magnitudes are incommensurable, they will be in equilibrium at distances reciprocally proportional to the magnitudes.”
In his English translation of Archimedes’s work, Heath combined these two propositions in a single one, namely: “Propositions 6, 7. Two magnitudes, whether commensurable [Prop. 6] or incommensurable [Prop. 7], balance at distances reciprocally proportional to the magnitudes.”
As this is one of the most important laws of classical mechanics, it is worth while calling attention to some experimental errors which prevent the verification of this result.
---
1 E.J. Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes* (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 289.
2 E.J. Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, p. 305.
3 T.L. Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes* (New York: Dover, 2002), p. 192.
Let us suppose that the lever remains initially at rest horizontally without the scale pans and also without bodies A and B. Let us suppose that both scale pans and their threads have the same weight. The most frequent mistake is to place weight $P_A$ on one of the scale pans at a distance $d_A$ from the fulcrum, and another weight $P_B$ on the other scale pan at a distance $d_B$ on the other side of the fulcrum. In this case, the lever does not remain in equilibrium after release even if $\frac{d_B}{d_A} = \frac{P_A}{P_B}$. What happens is that the larger arm moves downward (assuming a lever with high sensitivity, with negligible friction, totally free to rotate around the fulcrum), as in Fig. 7.5.
The explanation of this phenomenon is related to the law of the lever itself. Although bodies A and B balance one another when placed at distances inversely proportional to their weights, the same does not hold for the two equal scale pans. Here we have two scale pans of the same weight placed at different distances from the fulcrum. By the previous experiments we know that they do not balance one another. Instead of this, the larger arm moves downward. In order to prevent this common mistake, we did not employ any scale pans in the experiments with levers performed thus far. Instead, we suspended the bodies directly from the beam. But it is possible to utilize scale pans in a lever, provided they are equal in number on both sides, with each pair of equal scale pans placed at the same distance from the fulcrum. For example, we can have 6 equal scale pans, three of them placed at distances of 2 cm, 4 cm and 6 cm from one side of the fulcrum, and the other three placed at the same distances on the other side. In this case the lever remains in equilibrium even after A and B are placed on the scale pans, provided $\frac{d_B}{d_A} = \frac{P_A}{P_B}$, as in Fig. 7.5.
Another common mistake that is made even without scale pans is as follows. Suppose that a lever remains in equilibrium when the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum divides the homogeneous beam into two equal parts. We now place two bodies of different weights at the extremities of the beam and change the location of the fulcrum in such a way that $\frac{d_B}{d_A} = \frac{P_A}{P_B}$. The lever does not remain in equilibrium
Fig. 7.6. This is not the correct way to observe the law of the lever.
in this case. Instead of this, the side with longer arm falls downward, as in Fig. 7.6.
Once more, the explanation for this behaviour is related to the law of the lever itself. Let us suppose that there are no scale pans and that the bodies A and B are suspended directly from the beam following the previous relation. Therefore they balance the fulcrum in its new position because they satisfy the relation \( \frac{d_B}{d_A} = \frac{P_A}{P_B} \). But the beam itself is not in equilibrium for the new position of the fulcrum. When we changed the position of the fulcrum in relation to the center of the beam, the beam became unbalanced, regardless of the positions of bodies A and B. The longer arm of the homogeneous beam tends to fall downward, as it is heavier than the other side, which moves upward. Even placing bodies A and B on the beam satisfying the previous relation does not balance the beam. In order to avoid this mistake, the correct procedure is to balance the beam without bodies A and B, adjusting the fulcrum over the CG of the beam in such a way that it remains horizontally at rest relative to the ground. After this, without changing the position of the fulcrum in relation to the beam, we can place bodies A and B. In this case it will be seen that they will keep the beam in balance provided that \( \frac{d_B}{d_A} = \frac{P_A}{P_B} \).
These two mistakes are related to the fact that the scale pans and the beam itself are material bodies with weight. Therefore, they may also influence the equilibrium of the lever. This aspect cannot be neglected when we work with sensitive levers and wish to identify precisely which quantitative factors determine the equilibrium of bodies.
Suppose now that \( \frac{P_A}{P_B} \) is different from \( \frac{d_B}{d_A} \). In this case there will be no equilibrium when the lever is released from rest. One of the bodies will move downward, and the other, upward. The experimental results already presented can be summarized by saying that if
If \((P_A/P_B)(d_A/d_B) > 1\), then A will fall and B will rise. If \((P_A/P_B)(d_A/d_B) < 1\), then A will rise and B will fall.
### 7.2.2 Second part of the law of the lever
**Experiment**
We take 16 paper clips of the same weight. On one side of the lever we place 1 clip at a distance of 10 cm from the fulcrum, 2 clips at 8 cm from the fulcrum, and 3 clips at 4 cm from the fulcrum. On the other side of the lever we put 1 clip at 2 cm from the fulcrum and 9 clips at 4 cm from the fulcrum. It is observed that the lever remains in equilibrium, as in Fig. 7.7.
This experiment shows that as regards rotation of the lever, the weights act independently of one another, proportionately to their distances to the fulcrum. That is, the rotation effects due to the weights follow the law of addition. This is expressed in physics by saying that the law of the lever follows the principle of superposition.
The result of this specific experiment is also true in other cases, and can be generalized as follows. We place \(N\) weights \(P_1, P_2, ..., P_N\) on one side of the lever, at distances \(d_1, d_2, ..., d_N\), respectively, from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. We place \(M\) other weights \(P_{N+1}, P_{N+2}, ..., P_{N+M}\) on the other side of the fulcrum, at distances \(d_{N+1}, d_{N+2}, ..., d_{N+M}\), respectively, from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. We observe that the system only remains in equilibrium after release from rest horizontally if
\[
\sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \frac{d_i}{d_0} = \sum_{i=N+1}^{N+M} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \frac{d_i}{d_0}.
\]
Here \(P_0\) and \(d_0\) are a weight and a distance, chosen arbitrarily. We can have, for instance, \(P_0 = P_1\) and \(d_0 = d_1\). Or we can choose \(P_0 = P_2\) and \(d_0 = d_2\), and so on.
This is the final part of the first law of mechanics, i.e., the law of the lever combined with the principle of superposition.
To illustrate, in the previous example let $P_0$ be the weight of a clip and $d_0 = 1$ cm. The left side the previous relation yields: $1 \times 10 + 2 \times 8 + 3 \times 4 = 38$. On the right side we have: $1 \times 2 + 9 \times 4 = 38$. This demonstrates the state of equilibrium.
**Experiment**
We suspend a lever by the fulcrum on one of the sides of a balance with equal arms, in such a way that the lever remains horizontal without extra weights. On the other side of the balance we suspend a weight $P_{tr}$ equal to the weight of the lever, such that the balance remains in equilibrium horizontally. We then take 10 paper clips of the same weight. We place 3 of them on one arm of the lever at a distance of 4 cm from the fulcrum, and 2 of them on the other side of the lever at a distance of 6 cm from the fulcrum. We then try to find how many clips of the same weight we need to suspend on the other side of the balance in order to keep it in equilibrium. Experimentally it is found that this only happens by hanging 5 clips, as in Fig. 7.8.
This and other analogous experiments show that the fulcrum of a balance in equilibrium with weights $P_A$ and $P_B$ at the distances $d_A$ and $d_B$, respectively, on opposite sides of the fulcrum, in such a way that $\frac{P_A}{P_B} = \frac{d_B}{d_A}$, supports a total weight of $P_{tr} + P_A + P_B$. Here $P_{tr}$ is the weight of the lever. We can then see that there are four forces acting upon the beam of a lever in equilibrium: (A) the downward weight of the beam acting as if it were concentrated at the CG of the beam; (B) the downward weight of body A acting at a distance $d_A$ from the fulcrum; (C) the downward weight of body B acting at a distance $d_B$ from the other side of the fulcrum; and (D) the normal upward force N acting along the fulcrum, as in Fig. 7.9.
The weights of the beam and of bodies A and B are due to their gravitational interactions with the Earth. The normal upward force is exFig. 7.9. Conditions of equilibrium for a lever.
erted by the support upon the beam and arises due to the tension or compression of the support. The support will be stretched or under mechanical tension when it is a hook (or a thread, or a spring) attached to a rigid support at its upper end, holding the fulcrum of the lever at its lower end, as in the previous experiment. The support will be compressed when it is a rigid stand or a spring placed below the fulcrum, as in the majority of the situations considered up to now. We then see that there are two conditions for a balanced lever:
\[ N = P_{Tr} + P_A + P_B, \]
\[ \frac{P_A}{P_B} = \frac{d_B}{d_A}. \]
The latter relation needs to be generalized if the fulcrum is not along the same vertical plane passing through the CG of the beam. Let us suppose that the CG of the lever is along the same side of the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum as the body B, at a distance \( d_{Tr} \) from this plane, as in Fig. 7.10.
In this case the conditions for balancing the lever are given by:
\[ N = P_{Tr} + P_A + P_B, \]
\[ \frac{P_A}{P_0} \frac{d_A}{d_0} = \frac{P_{Tr}}{P_0} \frac{d_{Tr}}{d_0} + \frac{P_B}{P_0} \frac{d_B}{d_0}. \]
Once more, \( P_0 \) and \( d_0 \) are a weight and a distance, chosen arbitrarily.
If \( d_{Tr} = 0 \), or if we can neglect the weight of the lever in comparison with the weights of bodies A and B, we return to the previous case.
When we have several bodies acting on the lever we can utilize the principle of superposition given earlier in order to establish the equilibrium conditions.
Complement to the law of the lever: The downward force exerted by the fulcrum upon the support when the lever is in equilibrium is given by the sum of the weights of the suspended bodies, plus the weight of the lever (that is, of its beam, threads, and scale pans).
7.3 Types of levers
We saw earlier how to utilize a balance of equal arms in order to compare the force due to weight with other forces of any nature (contact forces, elastic forces, electromagnetic forces, etc.) That is, a force $F$ acting on one side of a balance and equilibrating a weight $P$ on the other side is defined as equal to this weight. This operational definition of force, together with the law of the lever, is related to the utilization of the lever as a simple machine. The law of the lever shows that a small weight can equilibrate a large weight provided it is at a greater distance from the fulcrum than the large weight. A simple machine is a device that can multiply the intensity of a force in order to do work.
In this section we will neglect the weight of the lever as compared with the other forces acting upon it.
The law of the lever states that a weight $P_A$ located at distance $d_A$ from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum equilibrates another weight $P_B$ at distance $d_B$ from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum if $\frac{P_A}{P_B} = \frac{d_B}{d_A}$. When we utilize a lever as a simple machine, it is more convenient to talk of forces than of weights, as the forces acting upon the lever do not need to be gravitational in origin. Let $F_A$ be the force exerted upon the machine by the operator (a man, an animal, or a mechanical device) and $F_R$ be the resistive force. That is, $F_R$ is the force exerted by the machine upon the load (weight to be raised or pushed, body to be compressed or stretched, figure to be cut out, etc.) To simplify the analysis we will suppose that the points of application of $F_A$ and $F_R$ are aligned with the fulcrum of the lever, and that these two forces act orthogonally to this straight line. The arms of the lever (that is, the distances between the points of application of these forces and the fulcrum) will be represented by $d_A$ and $d_R$, respectively. The equilibrium of the lever is then given by $\frac{F_A}{F_R} = \frac{d_R}{d_A}$.
We can see that there are three main elements to a lever working as a simple machine: the applied force (the effort), the resistive force (the load) and the fulcrum, which remains at rest relative to the Earth. Depending upon the position of the fulcrum in relation to the applied and resistive forces, there will be three basic kinds of lever, as in Fig. 7.11.
A. Lever of the first class, with the fulcrum between the load and the effort.
B. Lever of the second class, with the load between the effort and the fulcrum.
C. Lever of the third class, with the effort between the fulcrum and the load.
Up to now we have worked only with levers of the first kind. Examples of this kind of lever are the equal arm balance, Roman balance, seesaw, the crowbar, salad tongs, pair of pliers, scissors, handle of a water pump, hammer used to pull a nail out of wood, etc.
Examples of levers of the second class are the wheelbarrow, bottle opener, door, pair of nutcrackers, punching machine, paper cutter, etc.
Examples of levers of the third class are a pair of tweezers, broom, pair of barbecue tongs, forceps, jaws, the human forearm, fishing pole, stapler, etc.
Chapter 8
Mathematical Definition of Center of Gravity
The law of the lever and the principle of superposition allow a mathematical definition of the center of gravity of a body or of a system of bodies. We saw earlier that the condition of equilibrium of any body suspended by a horizontal axis (the fulcrum or PS) is that this axis and the CG of the body should be along a vertical. The equilibrium will be stable (unstable) if any perturbation in the position of the body raises (lowers) the CG from its previous position.
We now consider a lever in stable equilibrium with its beam resting horizontally, without other bodies suspended on it. We imagine a homogeneous beam in such a way that the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum divides it into two equal halves. The CG of the beam is vertically below the fulcrum. We have seen that this equilibrium is not disturbed if two bodies A and B of weights $P_A$ and $P_B$, respectively, are suspended on opposite sides of the fulcrum, provided that $\frac{d_B}{d_A} = \frac{P_A}{P_B}$. Here $d_A$ and $d_B$ are the horizontal distances between the points of suspension of A and B, respectively, and the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. This means that the CG of these two bodies is also along the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. If the ratio $\frac{d_B}{d_A}$ is different from $\frac{P_A}{P_B}$, the beam does not remain in equilibrium after being released.
In order to find an algebraic expression yielding the location of the CG of the bodies A and B we can imagine a horizontal axis $x$ along the beam. The origin $x = 0$ can be chosen at any point, arbitrarily. Let us suppose that the ends of the beam of length $L$ are located at $x_E$ and $x_D = x_E + L$. Let $x_A$ and $x_B$ be the points of suspension of bodies A and B along the $x$ axis, respectively, as in Fig. 8.1. Moreover, let us assume
that the lever continues in equilibrium after being released from rest horizontally with A and B acting upon these points.
The CG of this system must be along the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, in such a way that $d_B/d_A = P_A/P_B$. Let $x_{CG}$ be the location of the CG of bodies A and B along the x axis. From Fig. 8.1 we have $d_A = x_{CG} - x_A$ and $d_B = x_B - x_{CG}$. From the law of the lever we can then define, mathematically, the position $x_{CG}$ of the center of gravity of this system of two bodies along the x axis as given by
$$\frac{x_B - x_{CG}}{x_{CG} - x_A} \equiv \frac{P_A}{P_B}.$$
That is,
$$x_{CG} = \frac{P_A}{P_T} x_A + \frac{P_B}{P_T} x_B,$$
where $P_T \equiv P_A + P_B$ is the total weight of the two bodies.
This theoretical definition of $x_{CG}$ is made in such a way that it coincides with the previous experimental results on the CG of rigid bodies. In other words, in equilibrium the CG of the system of two bodies stays along the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum of the lever. If $P_A = P_B$, we can see from this expression that $x_{CG}$ will be at the midpoint between $x_A$ and $x_B$. On the other hand, the larger (smaller) the value of $P_A/P_B$, the closer (farther) $x_{CG}$ will be from body A.
From now on we will use the approximation of particles or point bodies. We consider bodies A and B as particles when the greatest dimensions of either (their diameters, or the greatest distance between any material points belonging to each one of these bodies) are much smaller than the distance between A and B. In this case we can treat the bodies
as being concentrated in small regions as compared to the distance between them, as if they were concentrated into mathematical points.
Let us now imagine a rigid system of orthogonal axes xyz with origin O at \(x = y = z = 0\). The spatial location of body A will be represented by \((x_A, y_A, z_A)\), and that of body B by \((x_B, y_B, z_B)\). In this way we can generalize the previous relation for the CG of the system for the \(y\) and \(z\) axes. We then define the \(y\) and \(z\) coordinates of the CG, \(y_{CG}\) and \(z_{CG}\), respectively, by the relations
\[
y_{CG} = \frac{P_A}{P_T} y_A + \frac{P_B}{P_T} y_B,
\]
\[
z_{CG} = \frac{P_A}{P_T} z_A + \frac{P_B}{P_T} z_B.
\]
In this way we can also utilize vector notation. We call \(\vec{r}_A = (x_A, y_A, z_A)\) the position vector of body A, as in Fig. 8.2, and \(\vec{r}_B = (x_B, y_B, z_B)\) the position vector of body B.
The position vector of the CG, \(\vec{r}_{CG}\), is defined by:
\[
\vec{r}_{CG} \equiv \frac{P_A}{P_T} \vec{r}_A + \frac{P_B}{P_T} \vec{r}_B.
\]
By the principle of superposition these relations can be extended to a set of \(N\) particles. Let \(P_i\) be the weight of body \(i\) located at \((x_i, y_i, z_i)\), with \(i = 1, 2, ..., N\). The \(x\) component of the CG of this system of particles is defined by (with \(P_T\) being the total weight of this system of particles)
\[
x_{CG} = \sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{\sum_{j=1}^{N} P_j} x_i \equiv \sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_T} x_i.
\]
Analogous expressions are defined for the \(y\) and \(z\) components of the CG.
The position vector of the CG of this system of point particles is defined by
$$\vec{r}_{CG} \equiv \sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_T} \vec{r}_i.$$
This is the modern mathematical definition of the CG of a system of particles. It makes a theoretical calculation of the CG possible, if the locations of particles and their weights are known.
If we have continuous distributions of matter, as in the case of one-, two- and three-dimensional bodies, the procedure is the same. In the first place we replace the summation by line, surface or volume integrals. And instead of the weight $P_i$ of particle $i$ we utilize an infinitesimal element of weight, $dP$, located at $\vec{r} = (x, y, z)$. This element of weight $dP$ represents the weight contained in an infinitesimal element of length, area or volume. The total weight is given by $P_T = \iiint dP$. In this case the position vector of the CG can be defined by
$$\vec{r}_{CG} \equiv \iiint \vec{r} \frac{dP}{P_T}.$$
These volume integrals should be performed over the whole space occupied by the body. If we have matter distributed continuously along a line or surface, we replace these volume integrals by line or surface integrals, respectively.
If we have combinations of discrete and continuous distributions of matter, we only need to add the corresponding expressions in order to obtain the CG of the system as a whole, because the CG follows the principle of superposition.
We will not go into mathematical details here, nor will we calculate the location of the CG for any distribution of matter, as this is not the goal of this book.
We can summarize the modern mathematical definition of the CG as follows.
**Mathematical definition CG9:**
$$\vec{r}_{CG} \equiv \sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_T} \vec{r}_i,$$
or
$$\vec{r}_{CG} \equiv \iiint \vec{r} \frac{dP}{P_T}.$$
These are the theoretical definitions in current use to calculate the CG of discrete and continuous distributions of matter, when the weights and locations of the bodies are known.
An important theorem which simplifies the location of the center of gravity states the following, adapted by Symon.\(^1\) If a body is composed of two or more parts whose centers of gravity are known, then the center of gravity of the composite body can be calculated by regarding its component parts as single particles located at their respective centers of gravity. It was essentially this theorem that Archimedes utilized to calculate the centers of gravity of many geometric homogeneous figures. He considered it a postulate, as we will see later on.
A proof of this theorem, beginning with definition CG9, can be given as follows. Let a body be composed of \(N\) parts of weights \(P_1, \ldots, P_N\). Let any part \(P_k\) be composed of \(N_k\) parts of weights \(P_{k1}, \ldots, P_{kN_k}\), whose centers of gravity are located at the points \(\vec{r}_{k1}, \ldots, \vec{r}_{kN_k}\). Then the center of gravity of the part \(P_k\) is located at the point
\[
\vec{r}_k = \sum_{\ell=1}^{N_k} \frac{P_{k\ell}}{P_k} \vec{r}_{k\ell},
\]
where
\[
P_k \equiv \sum_{\ell=1}^{N_k} P_{k\ell}.
\]
The center of gravity of the entire body is located at the point
\[
\vec{r}_{CG} = \sum_{k=1}^{N} \sum_{\ell=1}^{N_k} \frac{P_{k\ell}}{P_T} \vec{r}_{k\ell},
\]
where
\[
P_T \equiv \sum_{k=1}^{N} \sum_{\ell=1}^{N_k} P_{k\ell}.
\]
This means that the center of gravity of the entire body can be written as
\[
\vec{r}_{CG} = \sum_{k=1}^{N} \sum_{\ell=1}^{N_k} \frac{P_{k\ell}}{P_T} \vec{r}_{k\ell} = \sum_{k=1}^{N} \frac{P_k}{P_T} \left( \sum_{\ell=1}^{N_k} \frac{P_{k\ell}}{P_k} \vec{r}_{k\ell} \right) = \sum_{k=1}^{N} \frac{P_k}{P_T} \vec{r}_k,
\]
where the total weight can also be written as
\[
P_T \equiv \sum_{k=1}^{N} \sum_{\ell=1}^{N_k} P_{k\ell} = \sum_{k=1}^{N} P_k.
\]
These two last equations embody the mathematical statement of the theorem to be proved.
\(^1\) K.R. Symon, *Mechanics* (Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1971), third edition, p. 221.
Chapter 9
Explanations of and Deductions from the Law of the Lever
9.1 Law of the lever as an experimental result
What we have seen so far constitutes the most important aspects of statics. We can summarize the subject as follows:
Definitions: We say that an equal arm balance and a lever are in equilibrium when their arms remain at rest horizontally, with the beam free to rotate around the fulcrum. Two bodies A and B have the same weight $P$ if they keep this balance in equilibrium after being placed on its separate scale pans and released from rest. The body which equilibrates $N$ other bodies of the same weight $P$ on an equal arm balance has $N$ times the weight $P$.
Experimental results: Two bodies of weights $P_A$ and $P_B$ equilibrate one another on opposite sides of a horizontal lever which has the CG of the beam along the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, if $\frac{P_A}{P_B} = \frac{d_B}{d_A}$. Here $d_A$ and $d_B$ are the horizontal distances between the points of suspension bodies A and B, respectively, and the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. If we have $N$ bodies acting upon one side of the lever and $M$ bodies acting on the other side, the equilibrium can be obtained by the principle of superposition, assuming that the weights act independently of one another in such a way that we can add their individual contributions. This means that there will be equilibrium if the following relation is valid:
$$\sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \frac{d_i}{d_0} = \sum_{i=N+1}^{N+M} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \frac{d_i}{d_0}.$$
Here $P_0$ and $d_0$ are a weight and a distance, chosen arbitrarily. We can derive an interesting result from this latter condition of equilibrium. Let us suppose that on one of the sides of a lever in equilibrium we have two equal weights $P_1 = P_2 = P$ acting at distances $d_1 = d - x$ and $d_2 = d + x$ from the fulcrum. It is easy to see that
$$\frac{P_1}{P_0} \frac{d_1}{d_0} + \frac{P_2}{P_0} \frac{d_2}{d_0} = \frac{P}{P_0} \frac{d - x}{d_0} + \frac{P}{P_0} \frac{d + x}{d_0} = \frac{2P}{P_0} \frac{d}{d_0} = \frac{P}{P_0} \frac{2d}{d_0}.$$
These two weights $P_1$ and $P_2$ are equivalent to a single weight $P_3 = 2P$ acting at a distance $d_3 = d$ from the fulcrum, or to a single weight $P_4 = P$ acting at a distance $d_4 = 2d$ from the fulcrum. The equivalence here refers to the tendency to rotate the lever. In other words, if $P_1$ and $P_2$ keep the lever in equilibrium, then $P_3 = 2P$ acting at $d_3 = d$ will also keep it in equilibrium. The same is valid for $P_4 = P$ acting at $d_4 = 2d$. Later on we will see that we can invert this situation. We can begin with the equivalence of $P_3$ to the set $P_1$ and $P_2$, and arrive at the law of the lever.
With the previous mathematical law of the lever we can explain the experimental result that in equilibrium, the CG of a rigid body is along the vertical line passing through the PS. Because the mathematical expression of the CG, i.e., CG9, was defined according to the law of the lever, this result follows automatically.
It is possible to utilize the law of the lever to deduce more complex situations. That is, we do not need to explain the law of the lever; we can simply accept it as an empirical fact of nature. We postulate the mathematical relation by saying that it agrees with the experimental data. We then utilize this law in order to explain the mechanism behind many types of toys and simple machines (such as the equilibrist and toys we saw earlier, or levers of the first, second and third classes). This is the simplest procedure, and there are no problems in assuming this point of view.
Another alternative is to try to derive the law of the lever experimentally or theoretically. For this, we need to begin with other experimental results, or we need to create other concepts and theoretical postulates. One motivation for following this route is that we want to find a simpler way to arrive at the law of the lever. An opposite motivation might be to begin with something more complex or more abstract than the law of the lever itself, in order to arrive not only at this law but also at other relevant results. For instance, it may be possible to utilize these new concepts and postulates to also arrive at results which are independent of the law of the lever, like the law of the inclined plane. Another reason to follow this new procedure is that we can utilize these
new concepts and postulates in order to arrive at other laws and physical results which are valid not only in conditions of equilibrium but also, for instance, when the bodies are in motion in relation to the Earth. This might be the case, for instance, if we were studying the more general laws that govern the rotation and acceleration of rigid bodies relative to the Earth.
Whenever we follow this alternative procedure, it should be kept in mind that we cannot explain everything. We can postulate the law of the lever (L) without explaining it and derive consequences \((C_1), (C_2), etc.\), from it. Or, alternatively, we can postulate some other law (P) without explaining it and derive the results \((L), (C_1), etc.\), from it. The crux is that in all procedures we always need to begin with some axiom or postulate (which has no explanation) in order to explain other things from it. The only justification of the basic axioms or postulates may be that they agree with experimental data or that they lead to verifiable experimental data.
In the next Sections we will see different ways to derive the law of the lever from other experimental results, or from other theoretical postulates. There are still other ways to derive this law which will not be considered here.
### 9.2 Deriving the law of the lever from the torque concept
Earlier we saw the first condition of equilibrium for a body to remain at rest relative to the Earth, in the presence of gravity. This condition is that the downward weight \(P\) acting upon the body must be counterbalanced by another upward force \(N\), of the same magnitude as the weight. This prevents the motion of the body as a whole relative to the ground, if it begins from rest. In the case of the balance or lever, we have a horizontal axis fixed relative to the ground, its fulcrum. Therefore, the weight of the bodies placed upon the beam, together with the weight of the beam itself, must be counterbalanced by an upward normal force \(N\) acting at the fulcrum, exerted by the support of the lever. Nevertheless, the balance or the lever can turn around the fulcrum.
We have seen that the concept of weight is not sufficient for the equilibrium of the lever. After all, two bodies of the same weight but placed on opposite sides of the fulcrum, at different distances from it, disturb the equilibrium of the lever. In this case the body acting at a larger distance from the fulcrum will fall toward the ground, with the other weight moving away from it, even though the fulcrum remains at rest.
relative to the ground. This shows that equal weights acting at different distances from the fulcrum tend to turn the lever.
Due to this fact we conclude that we need another concept, beyond the net force acting upon a rigid body, in order to establish the conditions of equilibrium of this body. This rigid body could be, for instance, the beam of a lever. We can utilize the lever in order to define this new concept related to the rotation of a rigid body around a horizontal axis which is fixed relative to the ground. Let us suppose the simplest case in which the fulcrum of the lever (that is, the horizontal axis around which it can turn) is vertically above the CG of the lever. We then suppose two new forces $F_A$ and $F_B$ acting in the same sense, vertically downwards, at horizontal distances $d_A$ and $d_B$, respectively, from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. The experimental law of the lever informs us that if this lever is released from rest horizontally, being free to rotate around the fulcrum, it will remain at rest under the action of these two forces only if $F_A/F_B = d_B/d_A$.
We then define what causes the rotation of a rigid body around a horizontal axis which is fixed in relation to the ground as the “torque or moment of a force.” We will represent this torque or moment by the letter $T$. The experimental law of the lever allows us to define the quantitative ratio $T_A/T_B$ between the magnitudes of the torques exerted by the two forces $F_A$ and $F_B$ already mentioned as
$$\frac{T_A}{T_B} \equiv \frac{F_A}{F_B} \frac{d_A}{d_B}.$$
This definition was suggested by an experimental result. But now that we have this definition, we can reverse the argument. The usual procedure is to postulate that the lever will remain in equilibrium if $T_A = T_B$. This postulate and the previous definition of the ratio of the magnitudes of two torques leads to the law of the lever, namely, $(F_A/F_B)(d_A/d_B) = 1$. If $T_A/T_B > 1$ and the lever is released from rest horizontally, we postulate that body A will move towards the ground and body B will move away from it. If $T_A/T_B < 1$ and the lever is released from rest horizontally, we postulate that body A will move away from the ground and body B will move towards it.
It may seem that we do not gain anything with this theoretical deduction. After all, we are defining the ratio of torques according to the law of the lever. And in the end we are arriving at the law of the lever itself, by postulating that in equilibrium the torques acting on both sides of the lever have the same magnitude. But as already mentioned, this procedure may have some advantages if we utilize this concept not only
for the case of a lever in equilibrium, but also as a basis for the study of more complex phenomena like the rotational motion of rigid bodies, etc.
With this torque concept we can also derive the empirical result that in equilibrium the CG of a rigid body must be along the vertical line passing through the point of suspension. To this end we need to postulate that the weight of any body behaves as if it were concentrated at its CG, acting downwards. As the force exerted upon the fulcrum or PS does not exert any torque upon the lever (because it acts at zero distance to the support and, therefore, has an arm of zero length), there remains only the torque exerted by the body. And this torque only goes to zero when the PS and the CG are along a vertical line.
We can also deal with the torque algebraically. In this case we define a tendency to rotate in one direction (for instance, the rotation of the lever in the vertical plane lowering body A and raising body B at the other side of the lever) as due to a positive torque. We also define a tendency to rotation in the opposite direction as due to a negative torque. In the case of the Fig. 9.1, for instance, the weight of A would exert a positive torque upon the lever, while the weight of B would exert a negative torque. In this case the fundamental postulate might be expressed as follows: The algebraic sum of all torques acting upon a rigid body must be null in order for the body to remain in equilibrium after release from rest, without rotation around a fixed axis.
If we have $N$ bodies on one side of the lever and $M$ bodies on the other side, the basic postulate can be generalized by the principle of superposition. That is, we postulate that the lever will remain in equilibrium if
$$\sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \frac{d_i}{d_0} = \sum_{i=N+1}^{N+M} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \frac{d_i}{d_0}.$$
Here $P_i$ is the weight of body $i$ acting at a horizontal distance $d_i$ from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum of the lever. In addition, $P_0$ and $d_0$ are a weight and a distance chosen arbitrarily. We can choose, for
instance, \( P_0 = P_1 \) and \( d_0 = d_1 \), etc. If one of these sums is bigger than the other, we postulate that the side with the greater sum will move toward the Earth if the lever is released from rest, with the other side moving away from it.
Although this theoretical deduction of the law of the lever beginning with the previous definitions and postulates is correct, it should be emphasized that the concept of torque of a force was suggested historically by empirical knowledge of the law of the lever. That is, it was the experimental fact that two bodies equilibrate one another upon a lever when the ratio of their distances to the fulcrum is inversely proportional to the ratio of their weights which suggested the creation of the torque concept. Suppose, for instance, that nature behaved in such a way that the experimental law of the lever were given by the relation \( P_A/P_B = (d_B/d_A)^m \), with \( m = 2 \) or another value. In this case it would be natural to define another magnitude proportional to \( (P_i/P_0)(d_i/d_0)^m \), instead of the usual torque proportional to \( (P_i/P_0)(d_i/d_0) \). We could then postulate that the net algebraic value of this new magnitude must go to zero in order to have equilibrium. In this case we could derive the new law of the lever theoretically.
What we want to emphasize is that the traditional definitions of torque and center of gravity (as proportional to the distance between the fulcrum and the point of application of the force), together with the postulate that the algebraic sum of all torques acting upon a body in equilibrium must be zero, are only justifiable because they lead to the correct law observed in nature. These definitions and postulates were suggested by the experimental law. When we discover the limits of validity of any specific law, the relevant concepts and postulates must be modified or generalized in order to adapt to the new experimental knowledge.
### 9.3 Law of the lever derived from the experimental result that a weight \( 2P \) acting at a distance \( d \) from the fulcrum is equivalent to a weight \( P \) acting at a distance \( d - x \), together with another weight \( P \) acting at a distance \( d + x \) from the fulcrum
A very simple way to arrive at the law of the lever utilizes two basic ingredients: (I) Equal weights on opposite sides of the lever equilibrate one another when they act at equal distances from the fulcrum. (II) A weight \( 2P \) acting at an horizontal distance \( d \) to the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum is equivalent to a weight \( P \) acting at a distance \( d - x \) from the fulcrum, together with another weight \( P \) acting at a distance
$d + x$ from the fulcrum, as in Fig. 9.2. Here we are utilizing a coat-hanger as a lever. In this case the fulcrum or PS is the horizontal axis passing through the hook of the hanger. We assume that in equilibrium this axis is vertically above the CG of the hanger and above the center 0 of the horizontal section of the hanger. The equivalence mentioned in ingredient (II) refers to the tendency of the lever to rotate around the fulcrum. Ingredient (I) may be considered a definition of equality of weights, while ingredient (II) may be considered an experimental result, or a theoretical postulate. For the moment, we will utilize it as an experimental result. We will treat it as a primitive experimental fact, without trying to explain it.
Ingredient (I), a definition of equality of weights, is represented in the middle of Fig. 9.2. The experimental condition (II) is represented at the right of Fig. 9.2. Experience teaches us that this situation is also a condition of equilibrium.
Assuming condition (II), it is easy to arrive at the law of the lever without imposing any limit upon the possible values of $x$. To see this we begin with two equal weights $P$ acting at the same distance $d$ on one side of the fulcrum, equilibrated by two other equal weights $P$ acting at the same distance $d$ on the other side. By moving one of the weights on the right hand side to the position $d - x$ and the other weight on the right hand side to the position $d + x$, with $x = 2d$, we end up with the situation shown in Fig. 9.3: i.e., a lever in equilibrium with a weight $3P$ at the distance $d$ from the fulcrum, together with a weight $P$ at the distance $3d$ in the other side of the fulcrum. This is a particular case of the law of the
Fig. 9.3. A particular case of the law of the lever for which $P_A/P_B = d_B/d_A = 3$.
lever, since we have \( P_A/P_B = d_B/d_A = 3 \).
If we had made \( x = d \) we would arrive at the equilibrium situation shown on the left side of Fig. 9.4. As one of the weights is along the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum and CG of the lever, it can be removed without affecting the equilibrium. In this case we end up in the situation of equilibrium shown on the right hand side of Fig. 9.4. That is, a lever in equilibrium with a weight \( 2P \) at the distance \( d \) from the fulcrum, together with another weight \( P \) at the distance \( 2d \) on the other side of the fulcrum. And this is another particular case of the law of the lever for which \( P_A/P_B = d_B/d_A = 2 \).
We now begin with three bodies of equal weight \( P \) acting at the same distance \( d \) on one side of the fulcrum, equilibrated by three other bodies of equal weight \( P \) acting at the same distance \( d \) on the other side of the fulcrum. We do not touch the bodies on the left side and consider only the bodies on the right side. We can preserve equilibrium by moving one of these bodies to the right, away from the fulcrum by a distance
\[
\text{Fig. 9.5. A particular case of the law of the lever for which } P_A/P_B = d_B/d_A = 2.
\]
$x = 2d$, provided that we move one of these bodies to the left by the same distance $2d$ at the same time, while the third body remains fixed in its present position. We end up in the intermediate case shown in Fig. 9.5, i.e., a weight $4P$ at the distance $d$ on one side of the fulcrum, a weight $P$ at the distance $d$ on the other side of the fulcrum, and a weight $P$ at a distance $3d$ on the same side of the fulcrum. We can preserve equilibrium by joining the latter two bodies at their midpoint, as in the last situation of Fig. 9.5. We then end up with another special case of the law of the lever for which $P_A/P_B = d_B/d_A = 2$. This is the same value obtained before, although this time we did not need to remove a body from the lever.
We now begin once more with three bodies of equal weight $P$ on either side of the lever, acting at a distance $d$ from the fulcrum. By moving one of the bodies on the right hand side to the distance $d - x = 0$ from the fulcrum and another one to the distance $d + x = 2d$ from the fulcrum ($x = d$), we end up in the equilibrium situation shown in Fig. 9.6. As the body which is along the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum and CG of the lever does not disturb the equilibrium, we can remove it from the system. By joining the two weights on the right hand side at their midpoint, we end up with the third case of equilibrium shown in Fig. 9.6, i.e., a weight $3P$ acting at a distance $d$ from the fulcrum and another weight $2P$ acting at a distance $1.5d$ on the other side of the fulcrum. This is another special case of the law of the lever for which $P_A/P_B = d_B/d_A = 3/2 = 1.5$.
If we had begun with 5 equal clips in either side of the lever, acting at the same distance from the fulcrum, we could have arrived at the same relation without removing a body from the lever.
It is easy to extend this analysis to other cases. This shows how to derive the law of the lever starting from the experimental result that a weight $2P$ acting at an horizontal distance $d$ to the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum is equivalent to a weight $P$ acting at a distance $d - x$ from the fulcrum, together with another weight $P$ acting at a distance $d + x$ from the fulcrum.
### 9.4 Law of the lever as derived by Duhem utilizing a modification of work attributed to Euclid
The previous procedure seems to be at the origin of one of the oldest theoretical proofs of the law of the lever known to us. This information is taken from Duhem and Clagett.\(^1\) The main idea here is to consider the experimental condition (II) introduced above as a theoretical postulate.
Here we present the main elements of a work of mechanics attributed to Euclid, the famous author of the book *The Elements of Geometry*, who lived in Alexandria around 300 B.C. Although no works on mechanics were attributed to Euclid in Antiquity, many Arabic authors mention works by Euclid on this subject. Three fragments which survived are attributed to him. The titles given to these works are: *Book on the Balance*; *Book on the Heavy and Light*; and *Book on Weights According to the Circumference Described by the Extremities*. What interests us here is the first of these books, which was translated into French in 1851 from its Arabic version (there is no known version of this book in Greek or in Latin). An English translation of this work has been made.\(^2\)
The book begins with a definition and two axioms.\(^3\) Text between square brackets is Clagett’s:
1. [Definition] Weight is the measure of heaviness and lightness of one thing compared to another by means of a balance.
2. [Axiom I] When there is a straight beam of uniform thickness, and there are suspended on its extremities two equal weights, and the beam is suspended on an axis at the middle point between the two weights, then the beam will be parallel to the plane of the horizon.
---
\(^1\) P. Duhem, *The Origins of Statics* (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1991), Chap. V; M. Clagett, *The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages* (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1979), Chap. I and Document I.I.
\(^2\) Clagett, *The Science of Mechanics*, Document I.I, pp. 24-30.
\(^3\) *Ibid.*, p. 24.
3. [Axiom II] When two weights – either equal or unequal – are placed on the extremities of a beam, and the beam is suspended by an axis on some position of it such that the two weights keep the beam on the plane of the horizon, then if one of the two weights is left in its position on the extremity of the beam and from the other extremity of the beam a straight line is drawn at a right angle to the beam in any direction at all, and the other weight is suspended on any point at all of this line, then the beam will be parallel to the plane of the horizon as before.
This is the reason that the weight is not changed when the cord of one of the two sides of the balance is shortened and that of the other is lengthened.
[Propositions] (...)
The author of this work demonstrates four propositions. The last one contains the law of the lever. In the next section we will discuss this procedure.
For the time being we will follow a modification of this argument which was proposed by Pierre Duhem when he analyzed this work.\(^4\) Duhem postulates two extra axioms, namely (text between square brackets is ours):
Axiom III. If the weights are maintaining the beam of a balance parallel to the horizon and if one suspends an additional weight to the beam’s point of suspension, the beam remains parallel to the horizon.
Axiom IV. If any number of weights maintain the beam of a balance parallel to the horizon, and if Z and D are two of these weights [equal to one another] suspended from the same arm of the beam and if one moves weight Z by a given length away from the point of suspension of the balance and if one moves weight D by the same length towards the point of suspension, then the beam will remain parallel to the horizon.
These axioms lead to an elegant demonstration of the law of the lever. It can be summarized as follows. Let BD be the beam of a lever with C being its fulcrum or point of support, and BC = CD. Suppose four equal bodies of weight P, one suspended at B, another at D, and two at C, as in Fig. 9.7. By axioms I, II and III, the lever will remain in equi-
\(^4\) Duhem, *The Origins of Statics*, pp. 47 to 51.
librium, with its beam at rest horizontally. We divide CD into three equal parts by the points A and E, such that CA = AE = ED = CD/3. We now move one of the bodies which was at C to the point A, while simultaneously moving the body which was at D to the point E, as in the middle of Fig. 9.7. By axiom IV the lever will remain in equilibrium horizontally. By axiom IV it will remain in equilibrium if we move the body that remained in C to the point A, provided we simultaneously move the body that was at E to the point A, as in Fig. 9.7. We then see that the lever in its final configuration of equilibrium will have a weight P at a distance d from the fulcrum and another weight 3P at a distance d/3 on the other side of the fulcrum. In other words, we arrive at a particular case of the law of the lever. It is easy to generalize this demonstration.
This demonstration of the law of the lever depends both upon the condition of equilibrium given by equal weights acting at equal distances on opposite sides of the fulcrum, and upon axiom IV. And this is not an obvious axiom. It is justified only because it is in agreement with experimental results. Suppose that nature behaved in such a way that equilibrium resulted when
\[
\sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \left( \frac{d_i}{d_0} \right)^\alpha = \sum_{i=N+1}^{N+M} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \left( \frac{d_i}{d_0} \right)^\alpha,
\]
with \( \alpha \neq 1 \). In this case axiom IV would no longer hold.
As we will see in the next Section, the original procedure attributed to Euclid contains only the first two axioms. Euclid derived an analogous to Duhem’s axiom IV as proposition 2 of his work, based on the first two axioms.
### 9.5 Proof of the law of the lever by an experimental procedure suggested by a work attributed to Euclid
We present here some experiments which illustrate how to derive the law of the lever in a very interesting way. These experiments were suggested by the *Book on the Balance*, attributed to Euclid.
Up to now we have been dealing with levers composed of horizontal beams which can turn in a vertical plane around a horizontal axis which is orthogonal to the beam. The procedure we will assume here is a different one. We now use a homogeneous rigid rectangle (or square) which remains in equilibrium in a horizontal plane, supported on a vertical stick placed under the center of the rectangle. We place three equal bodies upon this horizontal plane, studying the conditions in which the plane remains in equilibrium. We should attach a sheet of graph paper to
the rectangle. This simplifies the analysis as we have now a Cartesian plane above it. We place two orthogonal axes, $x$ and $y$, parallel to the sides of the rectangle and to the lines of the sheet of paper. We choose the origin of the coordinate system, $(0, 0)$, to be at the center of the rectangle.
**Materials:** The rectangle can be made of pasteboard and the lines drawn upon it. An alternative procedure is to attach a sheet of graph paper to the pasteboard. The three bodies to be placed upon the rectangle should have the same size and weight. For instance, they could be three equal screw-nuts. During the experiments these nuts will slide over the plane and fall to the ground many times. To prevent this hindrance we should place some glue under the nuts, or attach a thin layer of modeling clay below them, so that they can be attached to any point of the rectangle. Another very interesting alternative is to utilize a metal rectangle (like the picture frame). In this case the three bodies can be small magnets like the ones used to attach the pictures to these frames. The size of the rectangle could be, for instance, $10 \text{ cm} \times 15 \text{ cm}$. The separation between the lines of the graph paper can be $0.5 \text{ cm}$ or $1 \text{ cm}$. The vertical stick to be placed below the center of the rectangle can be a bamboo barbecue skewer with its tip stuck in a piece of clay. Any other appropriate stand can be used. The important point is that the upper plane surface of the support (bamboo stick, bottle cap, etc.) should not be too small or too large. If it is too small, the equilibrium becomes too unstable and it may be difficult to balance the rectangle on it. If it is too large, it will be very easy to balance the rectangle on it, but it will be difficult to establish the precise conditions which yield the equilibrium of the three equal bodies. As a convenient measure we can use a support such that, when the rectangle remains in equilibrium with the three pieces in adequate positions above it, this equilibrium will be disturbed when a single body moves one or two units of length along the $x$ or $y$ axes, i.e., in such a way that the rectangle falls to the ground with this change of configuration, so that the lack of equilibrium can be easily perceived.
Let us then suppose that we have our graph paper rectangle. The first thing to do is to balance it horizontally, supporting it upon the stick placed under the origin $(0, 0)$ of the rectangle. Next, we equilibrate the rectangle with the three pieces of equal weight placed above it. Let us call them $P_1$, $P_2$ and $P_3$. Initially we put them at $(x, y) = (-5, 0)$, $(0, 0)$ and $(5, 0)$, respectively, as in Fig. 9.8. Because this is a symmetrical configuration around the origin, equilibrium must be established. If this does not happen we must first find the reason before we proceed. It may be due to the fact that the three pieces do not have exactly the same
weight; or the stick may not be placed exactly below the center of the rectangle; or it is not vertical; or its upper surface is not horizontal, etc.
We are now ready to begin the main experiments.
**Experiment**
We move piece $P_2$ to the location $(x, y) = (0, 2)$. It should be observed that the system falls to the ground, with this piece moving toward the Earth. On the other hand, when we move $P_2$ to $(x, y) = (0, 2)$ and $P_1$ to $(x, y) = (-5, -2)$, leaving $P_3$ at $(x, y) = (5, 0)$, the system remains in equilibrium horizontally after being released from rest, as in Fig. 9.9.
The result of this experiment can be generalized to other cases. Suppose that we have a set of bodies in equilibrium above a horizontal plane supported by a vertical stick placed below one of its points. We consider the position of this stick the origin of an orthogonal system of coordinates $(x, y)$. If we move one of the bodies from position $(x_1, y_1)$ to position $(x_1 + d, y_1)$ and, simultaneously, move another body of equal weight from position $(x_2, y_2)$ to position $(x_2 - d, y_2)$, the system will remain in equilibrium. It will also remain in equilibrium when we move two pieces of the same weight the same distance in the opposite direction along the $y$ axis, or in any other direction.
Fig. 9.9. Experimental condition of equilibrium when this rectangle is supported by a vertical stick below the origin.
Experiment
Let us now invert the order of the movements. We again begin with the three bodies $P_1$, $P_2$ and $P_3$ located at $(x, y) = (-5, 0)$, $(0, 0)$ and $(5, 0)$, respectively. We now move only piece $P_1$ to $(x, y) = (-5, -2)$, holding the rectangle in place with our hands. We now look carefully at the rectangle. When we release the system slowly from rest, what is observed is that the whole side with $y < 0$ tends to fall to the ground, while the side $y > 0$ moves away from the Earth. On the other hand, we perceive no difference between the sides with $x > 0$ and $x < 0$. In other words, none of these sides tends to fall, as indicated by Fig. 9.10. And this is somewhat surprising because body $P_1$ is not located symmetrically in relation to the origin of the axis $x$, as it is offset from the vertical extended upwards through the stick.
We can express this finding as follows. Suppose we have a rigid system in equilibrium in a horizontal plane, capable of turning in any direction around a vertical stick, with several bodies on the horizontal plane. If only one of these bodies is moved in a certain direction on the horizontal plane, the system looses equilibrium only in this direction, tending to move closer to the ground, without disturbing the equilibrium in any direction orthogonal to this displacement. For instance, in the previous example the body $P_1$ moved along the negative $y$ direction. The side of the rectangle characterized by $y < 0$ tended to fall to the ground, while the side $y > 0$ tended to move upwards. This experiment gives empirical support to the second axiom of Euclid presented above.
Experiment
We draw two circles of the same radius on the rectangle in such a way that they touch one another at a single point. If the circles have a radius of 5 units, for instance, the centers of the circles can be located at $(x, y) = (-5, 0)$ and $(5, 0)$. In this case the point of contact is the origin
Let $ACB$ be the straight line passing through the points $A = (8, -4)$, $C = (0, 0)$ and $B = (-8, 4)$. Let $H$ and $T$ be the edges of the circles along the $x$ axis, that is, with $H = (-10, 0)$ and $T = (10, 0)$. We draw three parallel straight lines $HB$, $CE$, and $AT$, with $E = (2, 4)$. The projections of $E$ and of $A$ on the $x$-axis are called $Z$ and $W$, respectively, such that $Z = (2, 0)$ and $W = (8, 0)$, as in Fig. 9.11. Experiment shows that this rectangle remains in equilibrium horizontally when supported on a stick placed under its origin. This can be understood by considerations of symmetry.
**Experiment**
We place three bodies $P_1$, $P_2$, and $P_3$ of equal weight at positions $B$, $C$, and $A$, respectively. Experiment shows that this rectangle remains in equilibrium after being released from rest when supported under its origin $(0, 0)$, as in Fig. 9.11. This can also be understood by considerations of symmetry.
We now move $P_1$ from $B$ to $H$ and, simultaneously, $P_2$ from $C$ to $E$, while keeping $P_3$ at $A$. As these displacements were orthogonal to the straight line $BCA$, were of the same length, in opposite directions and, moreover, as $P_1$ and $P_2$ have the same weight, the system remains in equilibrium, based on what we discussed earlier, as in Fig. 9.12.
Experiment
We now consider the straight line HCT. We begin with the previous equilibrium configuration with the three equal bodies at H, E, and A. We now move $P_2$ from E to Z, while simultaneously moving $P_3$ from A to W, keeping $P_1$ at H. Once more the system remains in equilibrium. After all we have displaced two equal weights by the same amount in opposite directions along the straight line HCT. We end up in the equilibrium configuration shown in Fig. 9.13, in which the three equal weights are located at $H = (-10, 0)$, $Z = (2, 0)$, and $W = (8, 0)$.
By changing the inclination of the straight line BCA to the x-axis and repeating the previous procedure, we will end up with the three equal bodies at the following positions: $P_1 = (-10, 0)$, $P_2 = (a, 0)$, and $P_3 = (10 - a, 0)$, where magnitude $a$ can have any value between 0 and 10. We conclude that a weight at a certain distance $d$ from the origin is balanced by two other equal weights placed on the other side of the fulcrum at the following distances from the origin: $a$ and $d - a$.
As we saw previously, from this last result it is possible to derive the law of the lever experimentally. A particular example is where $a = d/2$. In this case we arrive at the equilibrium condition of a body $P$ at a distance $d$ from the fulcrum equilibrated by another weight $2P$ at a distance $d/2$ on the other side of the fulcrum, which is a particular case of the law of the lever.
The interesting aspect of this experimental procedure utilizing a rectangle in horizontal equilibrium is that we did not need to begin with this last result. Rather than start from it, we derived this result beginning from the fact that when we displace a body over a system which was originally in equilibrium supported on a vertical stick, the plane looses equilibrium only in this direction. That is, this displacement does not affect the equilibrium of the plane in directions orthogonal to the displacement.
9.6 Theoretical proof of the law of the lever attributed to Euclid
In the theoretical work attributed to Euclid, available in English,\(^5\) the law of the lever is derived from the theoretical postulate of the previous experimental result. This is the essence of the second postulate presented earlier, namely:
2. [Axiom I] When there is a straight beam of uniform thickness, and there are suspended on its extremities two equal weights, and the beam is suspended on an axis at the middle point between the two weights, then the beam will be parallel to the plane of the horizon.
3. [Axiom II] When two weights—either equal or unequal—are placed on the extremities of a beam, and the beam is suspended by an axis on some position of it such that the two weights keep the beam on the plane of the horizon, then if one of the two weights is left in its position on the extremity of the beam and from the other extremity of the beam a straight line is drawn at a right angle to the beam in any direction at all, and the other weight is suspended on any point at all of this line, then the beam will be parallel to the plane of the horizon as before.
This is the reason that the weight is not changed when the cord of one of the two sides of the balance is shortened and that of the other is lengthened.
[Propositions] (...)
The main aspect of this second axiom is the postulate that the equilibrium of a horizontal beam is not disturbed when a body moves orthogonally to this beam “in any direction at all.” Suppose the beam is along the \(x\)-axis in horizontal equilibrium, supported by a vertical stick placed under one of its points. In this case a body suspended on the beam can move a distance \(d\) in the vertical \(z\) direction, or along the horizontal \(y\) axis, or in any direction in the \(yz\)-plane, without disturbing the equilibrium of the beam along the \(x\)-axis. That is, displacement of the body along the \(yz\)-plane will not cause the side \(x > 0\) of the beam to move upward or downward, the same being true for the side \(x < 0\).
These two postulates are presented as follows in the English translation of Duhem’s book:\(^6\)
Axiom I. When two equal weights are suspended from the two extremities of a straight beam of uniform thickness which, in turn, is suspended at the midpoint between the two weights, the beam remains parallel to the plane of the horizon.
\(^5\) Clagett, *The Science of Mechanics*, Document I.I, pp. 24-30.
\(^6\) Duhem, *The Origins of Statics*, p. 50.
Axiom II. When two equal or unequal weights are attached to the two extremities of straight beam which at one of its points is suspended from a fulcrum so that the two weights maintain the beam parallel to the horizon, and if then, we leave one weight in its place at one extremity and draw a straight line from the other extremity of the beam which forms a right angle to the beam on either side of the beam and if one suspends the other weight from any point at all on this line, the beam will remain parallel to the plane of the horizon. This is the reason why the weight does not change if one shortens the strings of one of the two scale pans or lengthens the strings of the other.
The crucial words “in any direction at all” are replaced in this translation by “on either side of the beam.”
As it is an axiom, we cannot derive it from other axioms. We simply postulate it, without explaining the axiom. And we derive consequences from it.
This theoretical axiom can be visualized by the experiments presented earlier. From this axiom we can derive theoretically that a weight $P$ at the position $x = -d$ on one side of the fulcrum, located at $x = 0$, is equilibrated by two other equal weights placed at positions $x = a$ and $x = d - a$. And from this result we can derive the law of the lever, as is done in the work attributed to Euclid.
### 9.7 Archimedes’s proof of the law of the lever and calculation of the center of gravity of a triangle
#### 9.7.1 Law of the lever
Archimedes presented a theoretical deduction of the law of the lever in his works *On the Equilibrium of Planes*, and *The Centres of Gravity of Planes*. It is available in English.\(^7\)
What has reached us seems to have been only a part of a larger work. His proof of the law of the lever is based upon the concept of the center of gravity, which does not appear explicitly defined in any of his works now extant. But from what we have seen in the quotations of Heron, Pappus and Simplicius, who had access to works of Archimedes that are no longer extant, he seems to have defined the CG along the lines of CG8, namely: The center of gravity of any rigid body is a point such that, if the body were to be suspended from that point, released from rest and free to rotate in all directions around this point, the body
---
\(^7\) T.L. Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes* (New York: Dover, 2002), pp. 189-220; E.J. Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes* (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 286-313 and 346-360.
so suspended will remain at rest and preserve its original position, no matter what its initial orientation relative to the ground.
In Proposition 6 of his work *Quadrature of the Parabola*, he mentions the following: “Every body, suspended by any point, assumes an equilibrium state when the point of suspension and the center of gravity are on the same vertical line. This has been demonstrated.” The proof of this proposition was probably included in his lost work *On Balances or On Levers*. This proposition offers a practical procedure for finding the CG of a body, as we saw in CG6 and CG7.
In order to prove the law of the lever in his work *On the Equilibrium of Planes*, Archimedes begins with seven postulates, namely:
I postulate the following:
1. Equal weights at equal distances are in equilibrium, and equal weights at unequal distances are not in equilibrium but incline towards the weight which is at the greater distance.
2. If, when weights at certain distances are in equilibrium, something be added to one of the weights, they are not in equilibrium but incline towards the weight to which the addition was made.
3. Similarly, if anything be taken away from one of the weights, they are not in equilibrium but incline towards the weight from which nothing was taken.
4. When equal and similar plane figures coincide if applied to one another, their centres of gravity similarly coincide.
5. In figures which are unequal but similar the centres of gravity will be similarly situated. By points similarly situated in relation to similar figures I mean points such that, if straight lines be drawn from them to the equal angles, they make equal angles with the corresponding sides.
6. If magnitudes at certain distances be in equilibrium, (other) magnitudes equal to them will also be in equilibrium at the same distances.
7. In any figure whose perimeter is concave in (one and) the same direction the centre of gravity must be within the figure.
The fundamental postulate which allows Archimedes not only to derive the law of the lever, but also to theoretically locate the CG of many two-dimensional (triangles, parallelograms, trapeziums, circles, semi-circles, parabolic segments) and three-dimensional figures (cones, hemispheres, semi-ellipsoids, paraboloids of revolution, hyperboloids of revolution), is his sixth postulate.
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8 C. Mugler, *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède* (Paris: Budé, 1971). Vol. 2, p. 171; Duhem, *The Origins of Statics*, p. 463.
9 Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, pp. 189-190.
The meaning of this crucial postulate has been clarified by Vailati, Toeplitz, Stein and Dijksterhuis.\(^{10}\) By “magnitudes equal to other magnitudes,” Archimedes wishes to say “magnitudes of the same weight.” And by “magnitudes at certain distances,” Archimedes wishes to say “the centers of gravity of the magnitudes are at the same distances from the fulcrum.” Suppose a system of bodies keeps a balance in equilibrium. According to this postulate, Archimedes can replace a certain body A suspended by the beam through its center of gravity located at a horizontal distance \(d\) from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, with another body B which has the same weight as A, without disturbing equilibrium, provided it is also suspended by the beam at its CG which is at the same horizontal distance \(d\) from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. Instead of bodies A and B, we can also think of a set of \(N\) bodies \(A_i\) and \(M\) bodies \(B_i\). Equilibrium will not be disturbed when we replace the \(N\) bodies \(A_i\) with the \(M\) bodies \(B_i\), if the total weight of the two sets is the same and if the CG of the set of \(M\) bodies \(B_i\) acts at the same distance from the fulcrum as the CG of the \(N\) bodies \(A_i\).
The algebraic statement of this theorem was given after the mathematical definition CG9. Utilizing this mathematical definition, we can derive this result. In this case it would no longer be a postulate. This theorem can also be stated as: If a body is composed of two or more parts whose centers of gravity are known, then the center of gravity of the composite body can be calculated by regarding its component parts as single particles located at their respective centers of gravity.
A particular example of this postulate is the replacement of a body of weight \(P\) located at the distance \(d\) from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum of a lever in equilibrium by a set of two other bodies, namely: a weight \(P/2\) located at the distance \(d + x\) from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum, and another weight \(P/2\) located at the distance \(d - x\) from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. In this case the two systems have the same total weight \(P\). Moreover, the centers of gravity of the two systems are located at the same distance \(d\) from the vertical plane passing through the fulcrum. In the case of the second system composed of two weights \(P/2\), this was proved by Archimedes in the fourth proposition of this work: “If two equal weights have not the same centre of gravity, the centre of gravity of both taken together is at the middle point of the line joining their centres of gravity.”\(^{11}\) From this particular example we can arrive at the law of the lever,
\(^{10}\) Dijksterhuis, *Archimedes*, pp. 289-304 and 321-322.
\(^{11}\) Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. 191.
as we saw earlier in the procedure attributed to Euclid. Archimedes presented a general proof of the law of the lever which is valid for commensurable magnitudes as well as incommensurable magnitudes.
The advantage of the postulate due to Archimedes as compared with the analogous postulate from Euclid is the generality implied by Archimedes’s approach. Using this postulate, he derived both the law of the lever and the correct calculation of the CG of all one-, two-, and three-dimensional figures, as discussed above.
We now present the main elements of his proof of the law of the lever. He considers three situations, namely: (A) A set of $2N_1$ magnitudes of the same weight $P$ suspended by their centers of gravity along a rectilinear lever, with these magnitudes evenly spaced. We present a concrete example with $N_1 = 3$ and with the spacing between adjacent magnitudes given by the length $w$. The CG of this system of magnitudes is the point $E$, which is at the midpoint of these magnitudes, as in the first situation in Fig. 9.14. (B) A system of $2N_2$ magnitudes of the same weight $P$ suspended by their centers of gravity along a rectilinear lever, with these magnitudes evenly spaced. We present a concrete example with $N_2 = 2$ and with the spacing between adjacent magnitudes given by $w$. The CG of this system of magnitudes is the point $\Delta$, which is at the midpoint of these magnitudes, as in the second situation in Fig. 9.14. (C) A system of $2N_1 + 2N_2$ magnitudes of the same weight $P$ suspended by their centers of gravity along a rectilinear lever, with these magnitudes evenly spaced. We present a concrete example with $N_1 = 3$, $N_2 = 2$ and with the spacing between adjacent magnitudes given by $w$. The CG of this system of magnitudes is the point $\Gamma$, which is at the midpoint between these magnitudes, as in the last situation in Fig. 9.14.
That the CG of these three situations are located at the points E, Δ and Γ, respectively, was proven by Archimedes in Corollary II of Proposition 5 of his work: “If there be an even number of magnitudes with their centres of gravity situated at equal distances on one straight line, and if the two middle ones be equal, while those which are equidistant from them (on each side) are equal respectively, the centre of gravity of the system is the middle point of the line joining the centres of gravity of the two middle ones.”\textsuperscript{12} But this fact does not depend upon the linear aspect of the usual law of the lever. That is, this result can be proved by considerations of symmetry, even if the law of the lever were given by
$$\sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \left( \frac{d_i}{d_0} \right)^\alpha = \sum_{i=N+1}^{N+M} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \left( \frac{d_i}{d_0} \right)^\alpha,$$
with $\alpha = 1$ or with $\alpha \neq 1$. That is, suppose that it is found experimentally that a lever only remained in equilibrium when the previous relation was valid with a specific value of $\alpha$. Even if this were the case, the CG of the three situations presented earlier would be located at the points E, Δ, and Γ, regardless of the value of $\alpha$.
\textsuperscript{12} \textit{Ibid.}
But now we must appeal to the crucial postulate 6. It stipulates that in the third situation already presented the set of $2N_1$ bodies can be replaced by a single body A of weight $P_A = 2N_1 P$ acting at point E, as shown in the first situation of Fig. 9.15, which we will call situation (D). That is, if situation (C) was an equilibrium situation, then postulate 6 guarantees that situation (D) will also be an equilibrium situation. It is also possible to replace the set of $2N_2$ bodies with a single body B of weight $P_B = 2N_2 P$ acting at point Δ. This is shown in the second situation of Fig. 9.15, which we will call situation (E). That is, postulate 6 guarantees that situations (D) and (E) will be equilibrium situations, as was the case with situation (C).
This is the law of the lever, because the weight $P_A$ is to the weight $P_B$ as the distance $\Delta \Gamma$ is to the distance $E \Gamma$.
Suppose now that nature behaved in such a way that the law of the lever were of the type
$$\sum_{i=1}^{N} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \left( \frac{d_i}{d_0} \right)^{\alpha} = \sum_{i=N+1}^{N+M} \frac{P_i}{P_0} \left( \frac{d_i}{d_0} \right)^{\alpha},$$
with $\alpha \neq 1$. That is, suppose that a lever only remained in equilibrium when this equation was satisfied. In this case situation (C) would still be an equilibrium configuration. But when we tried to go to situations (D) and (E), equilibrium would be disturbed. These two configurations would not remain in equilibrium when the system was released from rest. This shows that in this hypothetical situation Archimedes’s postulate 6 would no longer be valid.
### 9.7.2 CG of a triangle
We now analyze certain aspects of the calculation of the CG of a triangle given by Archimedes. This CG coincides with the intersection of the medians, which are the straight lines connecting the vertices to the midpoints of the opposite sides. The importance of this result is that it is only valid for a law of the lever which is linear with distance. On the other hand, the CG of a circle or rectangle would still be the geometric centers of these figures even if the law of the lever were quadratic or cubic in distance, as can be seen by arguments of symmetry. This means that the calculation of the CG of a triangle is the first non trivial result for the CG of a two-dimensional figure.
Archimedes considers a generic scalene triangle ABI. In Proposition 13 he then shows that the CG must be along the straight line connecting any vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side: “In any triangle the centre of gravity lies on the straight line joining any angle to the
middle point of the opposite side.”\textsuperscript{13} In Proposition 14 he concludes that “the centre of gravity of any triangle is at the intersection of the lines drawn from any two angles to the middle points of the opposite sides respectively.”\textsuperscript{14} If $\Delta$ is the midpoint of the side $B\Gamma$ in the next triangle, this means that the CG must be at some point $G$ along the straight line $A\Delta$, as in Fig. 9.16. Archimedes presents two proofs of this fact. The two proofs suppose that the CG is not along this line $A\Delta$, which leads to a logical contradiction. This means that the CG must be along the line $A\Delta$, which is what he wanted to prove.
Here we explore the opposite viewpoint. We begin supposing that the CG of the triangle is at some point $G$ along the line $A\Delta$ connecting the vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. We then show that we do not arrive at any logical contradiction with this reasoning. Moreover, we arrive at the ratio between $AG$ and $G\Delta$. With this simplified analysis we can make comprehension of Archimedes’s original proof easier. We present all the postulates which used in the proof explicitly.
From Postulate 7 we conclude that the CG must be inside the triangle $AB\Gamma$. We then suppose that it is at a point $G$ along the straight line $A\Delta$, where $\Delta$ is the midpoint of the side $B\Gamma$. Let $E$ be the midpoint of the side $AB$ and $Z$ the midpoint of the side $A\Gamma$, as in Fig. 9.17. We join the segments $E\Delta$, $Z\Delta$, and $EZ$. The segment $E\Delta$ is parallel to the side $A\Gamma$; the segment $EZ$ is parallel to the side $B\Gamma$; and the segment $\Delta Z$ is parallel to the side $AB$. This leads to the result that $B\Delta = \Delta \Gamma = EZ = B\Gamma/2$, $BE = EA = \Delta Z = BA/2$, $AZ = Z\Gamma = E\Delta = A\Gamma/2$. We then obtain four
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{triangle_center_of_gravity.png}
\caption{Center of gravity of a triangle.}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{triangle_step.png}
\caption{Step in finding the CG of a triangle.}
\end{figure}
\textsuperscript{13} Heath, ed., \textit{The Works of Archimedes}, p. 198.
\textsuperscript{14} \textit{Ibid.}, p. 201.
equal triangles: $EB\Delta$, $Z\Delta\Gamma$, $AEZ$, and $\Delta ZE$, as in Fig. 9.17. These four triangles are similar to the original triangle $AB\Gamma$. The area and weight $P$ of each one of them are equal to a quarter of the area and weight of the original triangle $P_{EB\Delta} = P_{Z\Delta\Gamma} = P_{AEZ} = P_{\Delta ZE} = P_{AB\Gamma}/4$.
Let $M$ be the midpoint of the segment $EZ$, which is also the midpoint of the segment $A\Delta$. Let $M_1$ be the midpoint of the segment $B\Delta$ and $M_2$ be the midpoint of the segment $\Delta\Gamma$. We join $EM_1$, $ZM_2$ and $A\Delta$. By postulate 5 the centers of gravity of the triangles $EB\Delta$, $Z\Delta\Gamma$, $AEZ$ and $\Delta ZE$ will be at the points $G_1$, $G_2$, $G_3$, and $G_4$ along the straight segments $EM_1$, $ZM_2$, $AM$, and $\Delta M$, respectively, situated in such a way that $EG_1 = ZG_2 = AG_3 = \Delta G_4 = AG/2$, as in Fig. 9.18.
By postulates 1 and 6 we conclude that if the original triangle $AB\Gamma$ was in equilibrium when supported by point $G$, then it will remain in equilibrium supported by $G$ when we replace the two triangles $EB\Delta$ and $Z\Delta\Gamma$ by a single body of weight equal to the sum of the weight of these two smaller triangles, acting at the midpoint of the straight line $G_1G_2$. Let $S$ be this midpoint, located along $A\Delta$. As a matter of fact, in Proposition 4 of this work Archimedes proves the following result: “If two equal weights have not the same centre of gravity, the centre of gravity of both taken together is at the middle point of the line joining their centres of gravity.”
By the same token, we can replace the two triangles $AEZ$ and $\Delta ZE$ with a single body of weight equal to the sum of the weights of these two smaller triangles, acting at the midpoint of the segment $G_3G_4$, i.e., at the point $M$. This means that the system will remain in equilibrium supported by $G$ after this replacement.
We then have only two equal weights acting at $M$ and $S$. Once again we can replace these two weights with a single body having the total weight of the original triangle, acting at the midpoint of the segment $MS$. And this midpoint of $MS$ must be the CG of the original triangle, the point $G$. By postulate 5 we have $S\Delta = G_1M_1 = G_2M_2 = G_3M = G_4M = G\Delta/2$. As $G$ is the midpoint of the segment $MS$, we have
\footnote{Heath, ed., \textit{The Works of Archimedes}, p. 191.}
GΔ = (MΔ + SΔ)/2. Combining the last two equalities, we obtain: GΔ = (MΔ + GΔ/2)/2. As a result, 2GΔ – GΔ/2 = 3GΔ/2 = MΔ. Since MΔ = AΔ/2, we obtain finally AΔ = 3GΔ. Since AΔ = AG + GΔ we also find that AG = 2GΔ.
We can then conclude that the supposition that the CG of the triangle is along the straight line joining each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side is a coherent supposition. Moreover, this procedure shows that the CG given by the point G will divide this straight line AΔ in such a way that AG = 2GΔ.
On the other hand, as ΔG4 = AG/2, we deduce from the last result that ΔG4 = (2GΔ)/2 = ΔG. In other words, the CG of the triangle ΔZE, which is located at the point G4, coincides with the CG of the original triangle ABΓ, which is located at the point G.
We consider these achievements of Archimedes to be some of the greatest scientific accomplishments humankind has produced.
Clagett, M. *The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages*. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1979.
Dijksterhuis, E.J. *Archimedes*. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.
Duhem, P. *The Origins of Statics*. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1991.
Ferreira, N. *Mecânica*. Projeto RIPE – Rede de Instrumentação para o Ensino. São Paulo: Instituto de Física, USP.
Ferreira, N. *Equilíbrio*. São Paulo: Instituto de Física, USP, 2007. http://www.ludoteca.if.usp.br/
Gaspar, A. *Experiências de Ciências para o Ensino Fundamental*. São Paulo: Ática, 2003.
Heath, T.L. *A History of Greek Mathematics*. Vol. II: From Aristarchus to Diophantus Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921.
Heath, T.L., ed. *The Works of Archimedes*. New York: Dover, 2002.
Heiberg, J.L. *Archimedis Opera*. Second edition, in 3 volumes. Leipzig: Teubner, 1910-1915.
Héron d’Alexandrie. *Les Mécaniques, ou, L’Élèvateur des Corps Lourds*. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1988.
Knorr, W.R. “Archimedes and the Elements: Proposal for a Revised Chronological Ordering of the Archimedean Corpus.” *Archive for the History of Exact Sciences* 19 (1978/79): 211-290.
Mach, E. *The Science of Mechanics*. La Salle: Open Court, 1960.
Mugler, C. *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède. Paris*: Budé, 1970. Vol. 1: De la Sphère et du Cylindre, La Mesure du Cercle, Sur les Conoïdes et les Sphéroïdes.
Mugler, C. *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*. Paris: Budé, 1971. Vol. 2: Des Spirales, De l’Équilibre des Figures Planes, L’Arénaire, La Quadrature de la Parabole.
Mugler, C. *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*. Paris: Budé, 1971. Vol. 3: Des Corps Flottants, Stomachion, La Méthode, Le Livre des Lemmes, Le Problème des Bœufs.
Mugler, C. *Les Oeuvres d’Archimède*. Paris: Budé, 1972. Vol. 4: Commentaires d’Eutocius et Fragments.
Pappus d’Alexandrie. *La Collection Mathématique*. Paris: Blanchard, 1982.
Plutarch. *Marcellus*. http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/marcellu.html, translated by John Dryden, site available in 2007.
Rorres C. (organizer), *Archimedes*. http://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/contents.html. Site available in 2007.
Symon, K.R. *Mechanics*. Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1971, third edition.
Thomson, G.D. *The Origin of the Zodiac*. Available in 2007 at: http://members.optusnet.com.au/~gtosiris/page9a.html.
Errata of the book “Archimedes, the Center of Gravity, and the First Law of Mechanics,” by A. K. T. Assis (Apeiron, Montreal, 2008), ISBN: 9780973291162.
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Syracuse. Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier in 212 B.C. during
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75 B.C. when he was quaestor in Sicily, and restored it. It has never
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This work has not come down to us in its original form. It is probably
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Heath, ed., *The Works of Archimedes*, p. xxxviii.
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pedist who lived in the 10th century, while Theodosius (c. 160-90 B.C.)
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outside the body which behaves as if all gravitational force were acting
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FEMEF’s Plans for Butterfly Hill Submitted to County Parks
By Dave Bowlus, Ph.D., FEMEF Treasurer
Butterfly Hill is a unique feature of the Elfin Forest. To help FEMEF fulfill its mission to protect and preserve the forest, a proposal is moving forward. The FEMEF Board of Directors has approved a plan created by FIRMA Consultants, a landscape design firm in San Luis Obispo, and has forwarded it to Sean Cooper, Senior Planner at the SLO County Department of Parks and Recreation. The FIRMA design is the result of several meetings with FIRMA’s Lindsay Corica, the Board, and other interested parties. An in-person on-site meeting was described in Oakleaves’ December-January issue.
County Parks will evaluate the plan and then send it out to other regulatory agencies, including County Planning and Building, County Public Works, California State Parks, U.S. Fish and Wildlife, and, finally, the California Coastal Commission. With luck and maybe some modifications along the way, the plan may be approved, and Parks will obtain a permit. Then FEMEF volunteers and/or the California Conservation Corps will perform the installation.
Butterfly Hill is the name given to the point of highest elevation alongside the 11th Street trail. Here male butterflies duel with
The panorama view from Butterfly Hill of the estuary and beyond is magnificent. Photo by Dave Bowlus.
The FEMEF Mission: Recovery and Beyond
By Skip Rotstein, FEMEF Chair
The best place to start a walk in El Moro Elfin Forest is on the upper boardwalk. Here one can see the dense coastal scrub blend into groves of ancient oaks. The walker feels the cool onshore wind blowing sea mist through the trees and brush and sees moisture drip from the branches, as it has for thousands of years.
I went to the Forest to start my year as Chair of the Friends of El Moro Elfin Forest Board. I wanted to look at the Forest and appreciate what volunteers and the Board of SWAP, now FEMEF, have accomplished in over 20 years of stewardship. I saw how the Forest’s scars have healed. I saw people coming to enjoy and learn about the Forest, seldom leaving footprints beyond the Boardwalk and the entrance trails. I looked at the Forest and saw what remains to be done.
During my walk I remembered learning that SWAP began recovery efforts in the Elfin Forest in 1994, when our organization purchased the southern 38.7 acres of the Forest and turned it over to the County. In 2003, County Parks hired the Morro Group (now known as SWCA) to prepare a Recovery Action Plan for the Forest. Fifteen years later, in 2018, SWAP employed Terra Verde Environmental Consulting to conduct a Biological Assessment and to determine which the Recovery Action Plan goals had been achieved. The Survey found
FEMEF Mission cont. from page 1
many Recovery goals had been achieved and it recommended new goals for the future.
Our name change to Friends of El Moro Elfin Forest came at an inflection point where we are ready to take the Forest beyond Recovery. Successful recovery activities will continue. Removal of invasive plants will always be important, as will maintenance of the Boardwalk and trails. We will continue work to reduce hillside erosion, both natural and human caused. Two long planned projects have been submitted for permitting and final approval, to County Parks. One project we call Butterfly Hill (see article on page 1) will bring benches, a new fence and an educational display to Butterfly Hill. The other is the removal of obsolete plastic fences. We will complete the projects when they are approved. A new project for 2021 – 2022 is the creation of new interpretive panels and entry signs.
Beyond Recovery, community education and involvement is part of our mission and our future initiative. After Covid, our Saturday walks and workdays will return. We can then actively encourage visitors, teachers and their students to walk the Forest, and scientists to conduct research in and about the Forest. We can begin a series of El Moro Elfin Forest community lectures to share knowledge of the Forest with the community and showcase research about the Forest.
When the wind blows and the mist moistens and the snails take shelter beneath those dripping branches in the years to come, we will have a community that knows about and cares for the Forest.
Extreme Weather and Our Part of the Planet
By Dave Bowlus, Ph.D., FEMEF Treasurer
As I write this in February 2021, we’re being told that the Polar Vortex swooped south to deliver snow and frozen pipes to Texas. Here in Los Osos, meanwhile, a persistent area of high pressure, said to be squatting over the western United States, is providing strong, dry winds from the northeast and temperatures of 80 degrees Fahrenheit.
Seven-and-a-half inches of rain fell here in a single storm this past January, almost three-fourths of all the precipitation Los Osos has had in ten months since last May 1st. And how much of that rain soaked into the ancient sand dune that underlies the Elfin Forest and the rest of Baywood Park? I dug a hole in an undisturbed spot to find out. All those inches of rain wetted only the top one inch of sand.
Plants that succeed in drought-prone but sometimes foggy areas like ours probably absorb some moisture that hits the surface of their leaves. (Coast Redwoods are known to do “foliar water uptake.”) Yet it still would appear that much of January’s long-wished-for rain just ran downhill into the bay.
Why doesn’t our sand soak up rain? Geologists call the small polished grains under our feet, “Baywood Fine Sand.” Is it the grain size or the shape that prevents rain from soaking in? Or could it be an accumulation in the sand of waxy debris left behind from generations of drought-tolerant plants that lived and died here over the eons? Or something else? Geologists I’ve asked couldn’t say.
Our Elfin Forest, of course, reminds us that all things are not equal. Although the Coast Live Oaks that tower 30 feet over visitors at Los Osos Oaks State Reserve on Los Osos Valley Road are known to be genetically identical to the elfin oaks we know so well in our forest, the hydrophobic sand, or salty sea breeze, or something else, keeps Elfin Forest trees stunted. (“Stunted” is not so fun-sounding as “elfin.”)
Earth Day is April 22, a day to recognize how much our home planet means to us and a day for each of us to resolve to do what we can to keep it a hospitable place for all life forms. There isn’t any “Planet B.”
Weed Warrior Report
By Jeff Reifel, Conservation Committee Co-Chair
We received 10 inches of rain in January, but we had prepared. Vicky Johnsen, Dean Thompson, Dave Bowlus and Jeff Reifel worked to construct water diversions along the sand trails with overwhelming success.
Joshua Crawford volunteered to make some laser engraved wooden ONE WAY arrow signs to help persuade visitors to circulate in a clockwise direction around the Boardwalk loop, and to better maintain social distancing. The new signs look beautiful. Some of the Boardwalk Trail Guide signs have weathered and are being slowly replaced. We will likely need some new plexiglass covers as well.
Jeff installed another 15 pounds of screws in the Boardwalk, replacing the old screws that had rusted and popped up.
Vicky spent some time removing the invasive Veldt Grass along the South Bay Boulevard slope. The Forest is greening up from the rains, and the weeds can’t be far behind. We will carry on individually until it is safe again to work as a group.
Jeff Reifel replaced aging signs along the boardwalk rails with new ones during February. Photo by Jeff Reifel.
Butterfly Hill Plans cont. from page 1
rivals while on the lookout for lady friends. The butterflies do not impact the site when they visit—most often in Spring and early Summer—but humans do. Some human visitors have trampled the surrounding native vegetation while watching butterflies, enjoying the wide-wide view of the Morro Bay Estuary, or witnessing a spectacular sunset. Sometimes, visitors may have wandered the site while searching for the trail to the boardwalk because the trail that turns off to Butterfly Hill is indistinguishable from the continuation of the 11th Street Trail.
Proposed improvements to Butterfly Hill are intended to enhance a visitor’s experience and provide more protection for the site itself without changing it in any major way. Two signs will offer information, one giving directions to the boardwalk and the other telling about butterfly behavior. A graceful permanent fence, with a top rail suitable for resting one’s elbows when taking in the view, will replace an unsightly green plastic, “temporary,” fence that has been in place for many years. The existing “symbolic fence,” a knee-high cable between suspending posts, will be relocated to define the human-access area. The addition of a pair of benches, like those found along the boardwalk, will provide places to relax while a visitor waits for the sun’s red ball to touch the distant dunes or hopes to see the elusive green flash. Finally, additional native shrubs will be planted to fill gaps among existing vegetation. Both nectaring plants (providing refreshments for busy butterflies) and host plants (providing food for hungry caterpillars) are included in the plans.
So now the regulatory agencies will do what they have to do. And we guardians of the Elfin Forest, but not the butterflies, will have to wait.
First Friday work parties will resume when COVID-19 restrictions are lifted. We look forward to seeing our Weed Warriors back in full force!
(See more about Cape ivy on page 7.)
Funereal Duskywing Skipper
Text by Jean D. Wheeler, Ph.D. Photo by Pat Brown, who normally leads a very fun and informative butterfly walk for us in April, but not this year given Covid limitations.
These insects get both their rather morbid names, the common Funereal Duskywing label and the scientific *Erynnis funeralis*, from their somber dark coloring, characteristic of both the top and bottom of both the forewings and hindwings.
The species is described in butterfly field guides as about 1 ¼ to 1 ¾ inches in wingspan. The forewing is longer and fairly slender, somewhat pointed at the outer ends, brown on top mottled with mostly blacker markings. It does have a few lighter brown patches, one fairly large toward the outer end of the leading edge of each forewing.
In contrast, the hindwing appears rather larger and triangular and is almost uniformly blackish brown except for a startlingly bright but narrow white outer fringe. The undersides of both wings are lighter in shade but still, well—dusky, but the narrow white fringe at the outer edge of the hindwing is still startlingly distinctive.
Butterflies and Moths belong to confusingly many families within Order Lepidoptera. Quite a few of these families are considered “true butterflies,” with our familiar monarchs, checkerspots, swallowtails, painted ladies, etc. Some other families in Lepidoptera are moths, which are not considered butterflies. In between are a group called “true skipper butterflies,” which look like something between a “true butterfly” and a “moth.” They are given their own Family Hesperiidae between the several “true butterfly” families and the “moths.” Funereal Duskywings belong to that family, the “true skippers.”
The Duskywing species (there are several in the genus) are often mistaken for moths, having larger and hairy-looking bodies and heads, and large eyes. Unlike most “true butterflies” they have antennae curved or club-shaped at the tip, which I can clearly see in Pat’s photo. They’re called “skippers” because their flight pattern is rapid, darting, and appearing to skip erratically for short distances. They don’t glide, aren’t good at flying long distances, and few species migrate.
Funereal Duskywings occur from Southern California east to Texas, into the Great Plains and Mississippi Valley and south to Argentina and Chile. The eggs, less than a millimeter in size, are deposited on legumes, especially alfalfa, vetch, and lotus. The adults skip around widely seeking plants on which to lay their eggs and are common over wide areas in three generations from March to December. Their caterpillars, green with yellow side lines, rely heavily on alfalfa in most of their range.
In Southern California, they generally use deerweed (lotus scoparius), which is common in our Elfin Forest. One source noted the adults are known to visit Black Sage (*Salvia mellifera*) for nectar. Pat’s photo confirms that, as her Funeral Duskeywing had indeed landed and spread its wings on leaves of Black Sage. Spreading the wings out wide in resting is habitual in Duskywing Skippers, which makes them a bit easier for us to spot them. You might want to watch out for them on Black Sage or Deerweed plants as you walk clockwise around the boardwalk this spring!
Photos from the Forest
*The Morro Blue Butterfly lays its eggs on Silver Dune Lupine that grows at Bush Lupine Point and also at Butterfly Hill in the Elfin Forest. Photo by Dave Bowlus.*
While doing trail-trimming work, Conservation Co-Chair Vicky Johnsen came across this cluster of interesting lichens and moss growing close to the ground at the base of a shrub. The lichens are Cladonia asahinae, Pixie-cup lichen and Flavoparmelia caperata, Common Greenshield lichen. Also, needle-like green leaves are beginning to sprout from the base of the shrub. We don’t have an identification for the moss.
Western or Cobweb Thistle
By Dirk Walters, Ph. D. Drawing by Bonnie Walters.
(Ed. Note: Revised by Dr. Walters from the June/July, 2009 issue)
The plant profiled in this issue is our common native thistle, *Cirsium occidentale*, commonly known as western or cobweb thistle. The genus name, *Cirsium*, is a Latinized version of the Greek word, *kirision*, which also refers to a kind of thistle. “Occidentale” is Latin for western so the common name western thistle is simply a translation of its scientific name. Cobweb thistle is more interesting. It refers to the multitude of long, white, interwoven trichomes (hairs) with which the plant and especially the spiny bracts surrounding the head of flowers are coated. It makes the head appear to be held together by the work of many spiders. The name thistle is derived from Middle English, “thistle,” which itself comes from the Old English, “distel,” and is a direct cognitive from the German, “distel”. All these name variations can be used to refer to any spiny herb. There is also an implication that the referred to plant is worthless, i.e. weedy. However, this species is NOT a weed. Not only is it native, but it does not show any of the characteristics of weeds. It isn’t prone to invade human modified habitats and it usually occurs in reasonable numbers even in its natural habitat of coastal dunes, grass and shrub lands as well as oak woodlands.
The genus *Cirsium* is one of the more difficult genera in which to identify species. Every recent flora mentions how difficult the genus is due to the fact that the species are poorly defined, extremely variable, and/or engage in inter-specific hybridization. Dr. David Keil continues to work on the California thistles and will hopefully straighten them out. Cobweb or western thistle is one such taxonomic mess. It is extremely variable. The problem is that this variation tends to be continuous and overlapping which makes designation of variants somewhat arbitrary. The form used as a model for Bonnie’s drawing is the coastal dune form. Its distinguishing characteristic is the tendency for the bracts surrounding the flower head to have their tips bent so far backward that they point downward (recurved). This is the variety *occidentale* whose type locality is Santa Barbara. A type locality is the place where the collection was made upon which a scientific name of the plant is based. The more widespread interior varieties have their bracts spreading but not recurved. North of San Simeon, on the coastal benches, the species dwarfs to less than a foot tall with a large skirt of leaves laying on the ground (Rosette).
We give the name thistles to many different kinds of often totally unrelated spiny plants. What they all have in common is their spines which say “don’t touch me!” These spines are deterrent for large herbivores but not for smaller ones such as insects, which simply crawl between the spines. Believe it or not, true thistles such as the genus *Cirsium* have a history of being eaten by people. Of course, first the spines are removed by peeling the stems. Other references note the edible roots in some species. All indicate that thick stemmed and/or rooted species were the most commonly used. Charlotte Bringle Clarke in her book, *Edible and Useful Plants of California*, states that “In general, I try all thistles that are large enough to gather.” Thistles do have a famous cousin -- the artichoke, *Cynara cardunculus*. In this case, we eat the expanded receptacle to which all the flowers and bracts are attached.
Thinking of Switching to Online Oakleaves?
If you use your computer a lot, we encourage you to take a look at the online Oakleaves at www.elfin-forest.org. Being able to see the 20 or so photos in full color makes it a very attractive alternative to the black-and-white printed copy. If you miss an issue for some reason, it is there, waiting for you. Simply click on “Forest Library,” then “Oakleaves Index” and finally the year and month of the issue that you want to read. Just e-mail us at email@example.com with the subject: Switch me to online.
Monarch Population Plunges; How to Help
By Yolanda Waddell; photos by Jean Wheeler
Note: Sources for this article were KCBX news report, “Central Coast congress members call for monarch butterfly protection,” 2/22/21; The Tribune, “Help research migratory western monarch butterflies,” 2/23/21; Los Angeles Times, “You can guide monarchs back to their throne,” 2/27/21.
Oakleaves is joining other media in sounding the alarm about the catastrophic decline in Monarch Butterfly numbers since the mid-1990s. Both Eastern and Western Monarchs have declined, but Western Monarch numbers have dropped about 99%. The 2020 Western Monarch Thanksgiving count totaled 1,914 butterflies total. Stephanie Little, an environmental scientist for the State of California who monitors the butterflies at the Pismo State Beach Butterfly Grove, counted 180 butterflies there compared to 6,700 in 2019.
Causes of the precipitous decline include habitat destruction, wildfires, insecticides, herbicides, the changing climate and yes – a bad milkweed. Milkweed is the sole food plant for Western Monarchs. But tropical milkweed, *Asclepias curassavica*, an attractive plant with feathery green leaves and deep orange flowers, continues to grow and bloom instead of dying back in temperate climates like the Central Coast and Southern California. That allows protozoa parasites to multiply on the plants and to be eaten by Monarch caterpillars. When caterpillars consume too many of the parasites, scientists believe it sickens and weakens adult monarchs, messing up their migration patterns, mating success, flight ability and lifespan.
*If you, your family or your neighbors are growing milkweed to feed Monarch caterpillars, make sure it isn’t the tropical milkweed.* On sale right now are native milkweeds that are safe and equally delicious for Monarch caterpillars. Narrow-leaf milkweed, *Asclepias fascicularis*, a native milkweed, is available at Los Osos Valley Nursery.
What else can one person do to help the Monarchs? At this time, it is up to many “one persons” because the US Fish and Wildlife Service is unable, due to insufficient staffing, to place the Monarch Butterfly on the Endangered Species List. First: don’t use pesticides or herbicides in the garden. Second: plant butterfly nectar flowers that feed monarchs as well. These include black sage, bluedicks, sunflowers, manzanita, and native buckwheats. The Elfin Forest is visited by occasional monarchs because all except sunflowers grow there. However, there are no native milkweed plants in the Elfin Forest to support their caterpillars. Third: help to track the monarchs. When Monarchs leave their overwintering groves, scientists don’t know where they go. Scientists at Washington State University have developed an online mapping method for citizen scientists. They encourage anyone who sees a Monarch Butterfly elsewhere than in a butterfly grove to take a photo (perfection isn’t the goal) and send it with when and where it was taken to monarchmilkweedmapper.org. This is a way to make a contribution to conserving and restoring monarchs in the West.
You can scarcely see any tree leaves in this photo of Monarch butterflies, taken in January 2002 at the Pismo Beach Butterfly Grove, because the leaves are covered with crowded butterflies.
In this January, 2019 photo, also taken at the Pismo Beach Butterfly Grove, only 9 butterflies show up in the color version on our website (they are almost invisible among the leaves in the black/white printed version of this newsletter).
There was concern about the far fewer butterflies even in 2019.
Please Report Sightings
Have you observed any unusual birds in the Elfin Forest? Mammals? Reptiles? Amphibians? Insects? Interesting activities or footprints of wildlife in our Elfin Forest? Unusual plants? Taken a good photo? Please report any interesting sightings to your Oakleaves editors at: firstname.lastname@example.org or leave a message on FEMEF’s answering machine, (805) 528-0392.
Cape Ivy Lurks Behind the Scenes
Text & photos by Pete Sarafian, Certified Pesticide Applicator and Morro Shoulderband Snail Recovery Permit Holder
Many of those who visit or work in the Elfin Forest are unaware of the sinister curtains of vines covering most of the northern periphery by Morro Bay. Above the salt marsh in trees and brush is found a nasty, invasive weed called Cape ivy (*Delairea odorata*). This ivy, one of many invasive plants from South Africa, is commonly called the “kudzu of the west.” It is capable of covering and smothering forests and killing our prized pygmy oak trees (*Quercus agrifolia*) and federally threatened Morro manzanitas (*Arctostaphylos morroensis*). The vines even are found smothering shrubs in open chaparral. They can be seen flowering with bright yellow clusters of blossoms in the winter. All one has to do to find them is look in the trees along Morro Bay State Park Road and South Bay Boulevard along Chorro Creek. In the thick tangle of undergrowth are the curtains of vines. Each winter and spring the vines accumulate length, increased diameter and more leaves. New vines use the dead or partially dead vines from previous years as step ladders to achieve height faster. They coil counter clockwise up along the older vines. That results in curtains of old and new vines climbing up into tree or shrub canopies. Only frost or weed abatement efforts stem the tide of the invasion.
Cape ivy is similar in appearance to native Wild cucumber or Manroot (*Marah Fabaceus*). Cape ivy has shiny, smooth surface leaves. Manroot has more rough surfaced leaves. Manroot also has climbing tendrils that grasp onto other plants for climbing. Cape ivy has very bright yellow flowers in tight clusters in the winter while Manroot has cream-colored flowers in the spring that are more singular. Cape ivy stems and vines are smooth, green and purple while Manroot vines are always green and not as smooth and round. For decades SWAP and FEMEF have implored visitors not to pull up the Manroot showing signs and visual comparisons at entrances, but the misdeeds continue each year.
Unfortunately, most Cape ivy in the Elfin Forest is in areas of limited accessibility. In some cases, there are steep bluffs, masses of poison oak and thick trees and brush that block access. That means the vines will remain no matter what efforts are made to eradicate them. The best that can be obtained is a measure of control. A biocontrol insect has been used elsewhere in SLO County, but so far has not been used around Morro Bay. The only pesticide allowed to be used in the Elfin Forest by or under the supervision of a Recovery Permit holder to control the infestation is pure glyphosate, the main active ingredient in Roundup. The best time to spray is after blooming in late summer and fall before the vines die and while the plants are sending food down to the roots. That is when the chemical can migrate down to kill the roots the best.
It also is a good practice to pull down the vines from trees before spraying to minimize collateral damage. Digging the vines up is a good practice but is much more labor intensive than chemical use. Removing all of the root is difficult. It tends to break before all of it can be recovered. A big problem with mechanical weed removal is that leaves, stems and vines are easily broken off and can re-root in the soil. Like the weeds in our gardens, we will be living with the invasive Cape ivy forever.
Friends of El Moro Elfin Forest Mission:
Preserve and maintain El Moro Elfin Forest Natural Area; inform and educate about the natural history of the Elfin Forest and the Morro Bay Estuary; promote and support scientific research in the Forest.
Coming Up in the Elfin Forest
Story and Photos by Jean Wheeler
April and May are two of the best months to look for “flying flowers” in the Elfin Forest. A species commonly seen during these months in most years is the Variable Checkerspot Butterfly (pictured). Their bristly black caterpillars with orange dots may sometimes be spotted grazing on the sticky leaves of their host plant, the sticky monkey-flower. Gabb’s Checkerspot shows much more orange and cream rectangles with less of the brown-black background than the Variable Checkerspot.
Other butterflies to look for are the smaller green Coastal Bramble Hairstreak and Silvery Blues, the large yellow and black Anise Swallowtail, and the black and cream Pale Swallowtail. Page 4 has Pat Brown’s photo of a Funereal Duskywing illustrating my natural history article about that species. Small Morro Blue Butterflies (pictured on page 4) seek the silver dune lupines near Bush Lupine Point, as they are host plants for its larvae. Both that lupine and its dependent butterfly have been severely reduced in area along our coast in recent decades because of housing development. The stands of this lupine supported along the border of the estuary in our Elfin Forest are therefore important in assisting their survival.
Possibly the most widespread and obvious flowers around our boardwalk in April and May are the sticky monkey-flower shrubs with lots of bright orange blossoms. Their name is slightly misleading, however. It is the leaves that are sticky, not the flowers! Other yellow and/or orange flowers include California poppies, deerweed, fiddleneck, golden yarrow, and suffrutescent wallflowers. Pink tones are provided by the blossoms of cobwebby thistles (pictured, and this species is the subject of Dirk Walters’ botany article on page 5) and California hedge nettles. Red fuchsia-flowered gooseberries are nearing the end of their long blooming season but cardinal catchflies in the undergrowth (red flowers appearing to have been cut by pinking shears) should continue to bloom all summer.
Purple nightshade plants add that color, while Pomona milk vetch has creamy flowers on low plants. White to lavender flowers may still be seen on buck brush, also called California lilac, or clustered like white pompoms on black sage. Other white-flowered native plants are California croton, chamise, and wedgeleaf horkebia. California blackberry and poison oak each have white flowers with green leaves in threes, but the blackberry plants have thorny stems while poison oak stems are smooth.
While admiring butterflies and flowers from the boardwalk and sand trails, your eyes will no doubt also be attracted by the flight of avian residents. Especially likely to be seen and heard are the bright blue California Scrub Jays, plump California Quail with their amusing head plumes, orange and black Spotted Towhees, chattering flocks of tiny fuzzy gray Bushtits and Blue-gray Gnatcatchers, and similarly talkative little brown birds including several species of sparrows and wrens. Avian migrants passing through on their way north from winter homes farther south may include Warbling Vireos, Hooded Orioles, Black-headed Grosbeaks, and Yellow, Townsend’s, and Wilson’s Warblers.
Among other residents increasingly active as summer approaches are Western Fence Lizards, Brush Rabbits, Ground Squirrels, and Coyotes.
April and May are months of renewal in the plant and animal world all over our country. Since 1970 we have celebrated April 22 as Earth Day, a time to respect and commit to protecting our global environments everywhere. EARTHDAY.ORG has expressed honor that the Biden Administration has decided to convene a global climate summit on Earth Day 2021. As we enjoy the beauty and lively activities of nature that our organization works to preserve in the Elfin Forest, let us also dedicate ourselves to continue contributing here and worldwide toward progress to Restore Our Earth.
New Bulletin Board Feature: Plant and Bug of the Month
By Yolanda Waddell; photos by Jeff Rafeil
Regular Elfin Forest visitors enjoy checking the Bulletin Board, located near the 16th Street extension, for interesting bits of information. In pre-Covid times, we would post dates and topics of our 3rd Saturday nature walks, dates for Weed Warrior work parties, etc. Bulletin board caretaker Jean Wheeler also posted color photos of birds and plants that could be seen in the Elfin Forest during the month.
In January, volunteers Barb Renshaw and Jeff Reifel introduced a monthly poster featuring “Plant of the Month” with drawings by Barb, and “Bug of the Month” showing photos and drawings by Jeff.
Accompanying this article are Jeff’s photos of Milkweed Assassin Bug nymphs and an adult. These insects devour other insects that feed on the Coffeeberry (Frangula californica) shrubs that grow in the Forest. The long-legged nymphs molt six times as they grow into adults and start the cycle again. Barb’s elegant drawing of Fuchsia-flowered gooseberry (Ribes speciosum) was the Plant of the Month for January.
WALKS in the ELFIN FOREST
Keep an eye on our website home page, www.elfin-forest.org or check outgoing messages each month at 805-528-0392 for any update about walks.
Elfin Forest Watchers Wanted
By Vicky Johnsen, Conservation Committee Co-Chair
ATTENTION ALL FEMEF MEMBERS: Your presence is requested in our Elfin Forest!
All you’ll need is a smile, an Elfin Forest Trail Guide and a cell phone, if you have one. There’s a need to keep an eye on the “state of the forest,” that is, to report problems, to encourage visitors to stay on paths, stay off the elfin oaks, etc. The County Parks Ranger can’t walk through the Forest daily. Our Board members and Conservation Committee members visit the Forest as often as they can, but more eyes and ears are needed.
I like to think of myself as a “Forest Caretaker” for Friends of El Moro Elfin Forest (FEMEF) when I walk around the boardwalk and on some of the sand trails. It can be rewarding to make sure there is no trash lying around, and to greet visitors and answer their questions.
Generally, most visitors to the Elfin Forest know to enjoy the Forest’s plants, birds and animals from the boardwalk. However, some need reminding to walk only on the boardwalk and trails, not to ride a bike on boardwalk or trails, not to climb the fragile oak trees, and to keep dogs on leash.
If you want to help us keep a presence in the Elfin Forest, call us at 805-528-0392 and we’ll get you started. FEMEF will give you an orientation and will provide you with a T-shirt and cap.
Thank You to Our Generous Members
Compiled by Betsy Kinter,
FEMEF Database Coordinator
NEW MEMBERS:
Christopher Bianco
Patrice Promack
RENEWING MEMBERS:
Christine and David Braun*
John Brunner &
Michele Neilson*
Katy Budge*
Mary & Allan Conkling*
Ms. Ileen Doering*
Bonnie Heikes*
Jane Johnson*
Penny Koines*
Jennifer & Larry Levine*
Hector Montenegro
Karen O’Grady*
Carolyn Schanberger
Katherine Tennant
Alice Welchert*
DONATIONS:
Karen O’Grady Remembering Maj. John O’Grattan
*Thanks to those listed above who donated more than the $25 (regular) or $15 (senior or student) membership dues. The additional donations will be used for special projects in the Elfin Forest. If you recently sent a donation to FEMEF and don’t see your name in this issue’s New and Renewing list, be assured that your gift will be acknowledged in the next bimonthly issue. Gifts are processed by two different volunteers before reaching our editors, and newsletter copy deadline is one month before the date of the issue.
FEMEF Board Officers Elected
By Yolanda Waddell
With three added members as of January 1, the now-six-member FEMEF Board of Directors includes Dave Bowlus, Albert Calizo, Steve Hendricks, Jeff Reifel, Skip Rotstein and Yolanda Waddell. Beverly Boyd is a non-voting board member, serving as Acting Recording Secretary. The Board elected officers at the beginning of this year and they are: Skip Rotstein, Chair; Steve Hendricks, Vice Chair; Dave Bowlus, Treasurer; Yolanda Waddell, Secretary
Dave Bowlus and Yolanda Waddell have served in their positions for more than two years. Because Skip Rotstein and Steve Hendricks are new to their positions, we are providing biographical information showing what they bring to their positions on the Board:
Skip Rotstein, FEMEF Chair
I am a retired secondary school Biology teacher. After retirement I worked a year starting The Desert Institute at Joshua Tree National Park, a program with outdoor learning activities for the public and public lectures to showcase research in the Park. My wife Leslie and I moved to Los Osos eight years ago. I became a Weed Warrior and learned that this Forest is a preserve for endangered species and, like Joshua Tree National Park, is threatened by invasive species. I became a member of the Conservation Committee and learned how SWAP saved the Forest from development and assumed responsibility for its recovery. I served as Conservation Chair and with other Board members commissioned the 2018 - 2019 Biological Assessment of the El Moro Elfin Forest, to provide benchmarks and recommendations for Forest recovery and beyond.
Steve Hendricks, Vice-Chair
My qualification to be Vice Chair of FEMEF is the experience I’ve had with the Central Coast Biological Society. I have been part of the CCBS board off and on for years, but was asked to be Co-Chair three years ago. In that position I have been responsible for setting up and running board meetings, recruiting speakers, and introducing speakers at our quarterly meetings. I also spent some time as the part-time union faculty representative at Cuesta College, where I worked on the executive board of the union. As part of that position, I was also on the college’s Council of Representatives. Both positions required me to work closely with other faculty on a variety of issues.
Coffee Mugs with Mural
are Great for Yourself or as Gifts!
Our 15-ounce beverage mug has Barbara Rosenthal’s gorgeous Elfin-Forest mural wrapped all around the cup. Microwave safe, it’s great for coffee, hot chocolate, or just about any other beverage you chose. Hand washing is suggested.
FEMEF Shoppers’ Order Form
See Photos of All Items at www.elfin-forest.org
All Prices Include Sales Tax
1. MURAL SHIRTS
Mural design by artist Barbara Rosenthal on both front and back. Words on shirt: “El Moro Elfin Forest Natural Area” above mural and “Small Wilderness Area Preservation” and “Los Osos, California” below mural.
Circle Sizes:
___ Short Slv. T-Shirt (S, M, L, XL) @ $20.00 = $____
___ Short Slv. T-Shirt (XXL, XXXL) @ $23.00 = $____
___ Long Slv. T-Shirt (S, M, L, XL) @ $25.00 = $____
___ Long Slv. T-Shirt (XXL, XXXL) @ $27.00 = $____
___ Sweatshirt (S, M, L, XL) @ $35.00 = $____
___ Sweatshirt (XXL, XXXL) @ $37.00 = $____
2. POCKET GUIDE
Useful 56-page guide to plants and animals of the Elfin Forest. Lists for mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds, arthropods including moths and butterflies, gastropods, vascular plants, lichens, and mushrooms. Some with charts for seasonality, color and more.
_____ @ $3.00 = $_____
3. ELFIN FOREST MURAL PRINTS
Signed prints by artist Barbara Rosenthal, image size 4 1/2 x 16 1/2 in; mounted on foamcore
_____ @ $35.00 = $_____
4. ALPHABET BIRD BOOK
With clever verses and superb photos, this book is sure to please young and old.
_____ @ $20.00 = $_____
5. MURAL MUG
15-ounce beverage mug with wrap-around mural design. Microwave safe, hand wash suggested.
_____ @ $15 = $_____
6. ELFIN FOREST CAPS
One size fits all caps with adjustable straps in back, 100% cotton. Two colors, forest green and maroon. Specify color when ordering.
_____ @ $15 = $______ Color(s) ____________
SUBTOTAL OF ORDER $______________
(Please print when filling order, and indicate how many of each.)
SHIPPING COSTS: Within and near Los Osos, free delivery may be possible. Shipping costs otherwise depend on zip code and package weight.
Please call 805-528-0392 to arrange for delivery or shipping.
TOTAL OF ORDER WITH APPLICABLE SHIPPING COSTS $______________
Name: ___________________________________________________________
Address: _________________________________________________________
City/State/Zip: ____________________________________________________
Email ____________________________________________________________
Phone (w/ area code): ______________________________________________
Make checks payable and mail to:
FEMEF, P.O. Box 6442, Los Osos, CA 93412-6442.
Call-in orders may also be made: (805) 528-0392.
Help Boost FEMEF Membership
When we apply for grants to finance our work in the Elfin Forest, agencies want to know how many members we have. The more members we have, the greater is our ability to obtain grants for continuing restoration of the Elfin Forest. Check the currency of your own membership, and then urge friends to join FEMEF. Share this newsletter with them. Take them on a walk in our Elfin Forest to see how much there is to enjoy.
You can use the membership form at the right for your renewal or for new memberships for your friends. Checking the box for only the online version reduces our printing and mailing costs, and you can see newsletter photos in full color! Our basic membership fee covers our operating costs and brings members this bimonthly newsletter, the Oakleaves. Donations above that level provide funds to help us with projects to control weeds, prevent erosion, and restore habitat.
Thanks for your help!
MEMBERSHIP FORM
Name ____________________________________________
Address __________________________________________
City/State/Zip ______________________________________
Email ____________________________________________
Phone ____________________________________________
☐ New Member ☐ Renewing Member
☐ Member $25 ☐ Defender $100
☐ Steward $50 ☐ Champion $250
☐ Protector $75 ☐ Guardian $500
☐ Seniors/Students $15 ☐ Life Member $1000
Donation only $ __________
☐ I want to help, please call me!
Memberships include a subscription to
FEMEF’s bimonthly newsletter, Oakleaves.
☐ Check here to receive the online version only.
All donations to FEMEF are tax-deductible.
EVERY membership counts!
Make checks payable to: FEMEF
Mail to: Friends of El Moro Elfin Forest,
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Produced by the United States Geological Survey
Compiled from USGS 1:24,000-scale topographic maps dated 1958–1980. Planimetry revised from aerial photography, ground control points and reference data. Revised information no field checked.
Map edition 1986
Projection and 10,000-meter grid, zone 14 Universal Transverse Mercator
150,000-meter grid, Texas coordinate system, north central zone. 1927 North American Datum
To place map in true position on the ground, move the projection lines 11 meters south and 25 meters east.
There may be private holdings within the boundaries of the National or State reservations shown on this map.
NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM OF 1929
ELEVATIONS SHOWN TO THE NEAREST METER
THIS MAY COMPLY WITH NATIONAL MAP ACCURACY STANDARDS
CONVERSION TABLE
| Meters | Feet |
|--------|--------|
| 1 | 3.281 |
| 2 | 6.562 |
| 3 | 9.843 |
| 4 | 13.124 |
| 5 | 16.404 |
| 6 | 19.685 |
| 7 | 22.966 |
| 8 | 26.247 |
| 9 | 29.528 |
| 10 | 32.808 |
To convert meters to feet multiply by 3.2808
To convert feet to meters multiply by .3048
DECLINATION DIAGRAM
| | |
|--------|--------|
| 1 | 2 |
| 3 | 4 |
| 5 | 6 |
| 7 | 8 |
UTM grid convergence
1. 0° 0' 0"
2. 0° 0' 0"
3. 0° 0' 0"
4. 0° 0' 0"
5. 0° 0' 0"
6. 0° 0' 0"
7. 0° 0' 0"
8. 0° 0' 0"
Aligning Maps
1. Mt. Kinney
2. Mt. Kinney
3. Mt. Kinney
4. Bull Worth
5. Bull Worth
6. Bull Worth
7. Caddo Lake
8. Tyler
Topographic Map Symbols
Primary highway; hard surface
Secondary highway; hard surface
Light duty road; paved street, hard or improved surface
Other road; dirt; gravel; track
Route marker; Interstate, U.S., State
Bridge; standard gauge; narrow gauge
Tunnel; road; railroad
Built up area; locality; settlement
Airport; landing field; landing strip
National boundary
State boundary
County boundary
National or State conservation boundary
Land use; forest
U.S. public lands; survey; range; township; section
Range, township; section line; projected
Power transmission line; pylon
River; stream; brook
Cemetery; building
Reservoir; dam; water
Mine shaft; adit or open; mine; quarry; gravel pit
Compass rose; point; U.S. elevation benchmark
State off-road vehicle trail
Diatomaceous surface; strip mine; low; sand
Contours; index; intermediate; supplementary
Administrative boundaries; townships; cities
Stream; lake; perennial; intermittent
Rapids; large and small; falls; large and small
Area of water; reservoir; lakes; ponds
Land subject to conversion; woodland
Gravel; impervious
Orchard; vineyard
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Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa: Key findings from consultation and engagement
Crown copyright ©
See Copyright and terms of use for our copyright, attribution, and liability statements.
**Citation**
Stats NZ (2019). *Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa: Key findings from consultation and engagement*.
Retrieved from www.stats.govt.nz.
ISBN 978-1-98-858322-8 (online)
**Published in April 2019 by**
Stats NZ Tatauranga Aotearoa
Wellington, New Zealand
**Contact**
Stats NZ Information Centre: [firstname.lastname@example.org](mailto:email@example.com)
Phone toll-free 0508 525 525
Phone international +64 4 931 4600
[www.stats.govt.nz](http://www.stats.govt.nz)
Contents
Purpose and summary ........................................................................................................... 7
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 7
Indicator selection process and key findings ..................................................................... 9
Public consultation ....................................................................................................... 10
Technical workshops .................................................................................................... 12
Indicator selection event .............................................................................................. 13
Peer review .................................................................................................................. 14
Appraisal panel ............................................................................................................ 16
Government Statistician indicator sign-off ................................................................. 18
Conclusions and next steps ............................................................................................... 18
Māori partnership and design ....................................................................................... 18
Relationship with the Treasury’s Living Standards Framework .................................. 19
Data gaps ...................................................................................................................... 19
Ongoing technical developments ................................................................................ 19
Release of website tool ................................................................................................. 19
Appendix 1: Choosing a framework ................................................................................ 20
Criteria used in evaluating frameworks: ....................................................................... 20
Appendix 2: Public consultation results and methodology ............................................. 21
Results ......................................................................................................................... 21
Methodology ............................................................................................................... 30
Appendix 3: Engagements with interested groups .......................................................... 34
Meetings ...................................................................................................................... 34
Presentations at workshop/conferences: ..................................................................... 35
Appendix 4: Technical workshop results .......................................................................... 36
General comments influencing proposed indicators .................................................. 36
Comments from specific workshops ............................................................................ 37
Appendix 5: Guiding principles and technical criteria for indicator selection ............... 38
Guiding principles ....................................................................................................... 38
Technical criteria ......................................................................................................... 38
Appendix 6: Indicator selection event results ................................................................... 39
Comments relating to specific topics ............................................................................ 39
Appendix 7: Peer reviewers of potential indicators .......................................................... 44
Appendix 8: Te ao Māori subject matter expert review – indicator ranking criteria ........... 45
Appendix 9: Peer reviewer consolidated results .............................................................. 46
Summary of feedback from review ............................................................................. 46
Appendix 10: Summary of appraisal panel recommendations for indicators .................... 50
Subjective wellbeing .................................................................................................. 50
Health ....................................................................................................................... 50
Work ......................................................................................................................... 51
Leisure ..................................................................................................................... 51
Social connectedness ............................................................................................... 51
Governance ............................................................................................................... 52
Safety ....................................................................................................................... 52
Identity ..................................................................................................................... 53
Culture ..................................................................................................................... 53
Cities and settlements ............................................................................................... 53
Economic standard of living ..................................................................................... 54
Education and skills .................................................................................................. 54
Energy resources ...................................................................................................... 55
Water and sanitation .................................................................................................. 55
Air quality ................................................................................................................ 55
Climate ..................................................................................................................... 56
Land ......................................................................................................................... 56
Ecosystems ............................................................................................................... 56
Waste ....................................................................................................................... 56
Social capital ............................................................................................................ 57
Human capital .......................................................................................................... 57
Natural capital .......................................................................................................... 58
Produced capital ....................................................................................................... 58
Impact on the rest of the world (transboundary impact) ........................................... 59
Appendix 11: Signed-off list of indicators ....................................................................... 60
Current wellbeing ..................................................................................................... 60
Future wellbeing ....................................................................................................... 62
Impact on the rest of the world (transboundary impact) ........................................... 62
Contextual indicators ................................................................................................. 63
Glossary ................................................................................................................................. 64
References ......................................................................................................................... 67
List of figures
1 Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa: Indicator sign-off process ........................................... 9
2 Community engagements across New Zealand ........................................................................................................ 11
3 Online submission for responses on what is most important for wellbeing, 2018 ................................................. 21
4 Online submission form respondents, by age group, 2018 .................................................................................. 23
5 Online submissions form responses, by location, 2018 ...................................................................................... 24
6 Online poll responses to ‘What is most important to you?’, 2018 ..................................................................... 25
7 Example of a postcard response from the public consultation, 2018 ................................................................. 27
8 Postcard responses to “What matters most to you?”, 2018 ............................................................................... 28
Purpose and summary
*Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa: Key findings from consultation and engagement* summarises the outcomes from our approach to develop a suite of indicators that measure New Zealand’s progress – using a wellbeing and sustainable development ‘lens’. This document outlines the steps we took to develop the initial set of indicators.
Introduction
Internationally, there has been a move to measure wellbeing beyond GDP. Stats NZ has done this by developing a comprehensive suite of social, cultural, environmental, and economic indicators – *Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa* (Indicators Aotearoa NZ). The indicators will provide an independent and transparent picture of wellbeing in New Zealand.
These measures cover New Zealand’s current wellbeing, future wellbeing (what we are leaving behind for future generations), and the impact New Zealand is having on the rest of the world (transboundary impact). They build on international best practice and are tailored to New Zealand.
The indicators support the government’s wellbeing vision to provide a more holistic view of wellbeing and sustainable development than a purely economic measure does. Establishing a comprehensive suite of indicators that show how New Zealand is progressing is needed for several reasons.
- To improve decision-making by providing a wider view of progress.
- To enable government investment to be more effectively directed towards improving the overall wellbeing of New Zealanders, alongside economic growth.
- To enable the public to monitor New Zealand’s wellbeing progress and sustainable development.
- To empower non-government organisations and community groups to make informed decisions, and help them advocate for the wellbeing of specific groups and communities.
- To support New Zealand’s contribution to international reporting requirements, such as the UN Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development and UN Human Rights Reporting.
The core set of indicators will signal blind spots and highlight areas of progress. The Treasury will use Indicators Aotearoa NZ to help inform their [Living Standards Framework](#) (LSF), and as a key user, the Treasury’s development of the LSF will feed into future development of the indicator suite.
Given the broad nature and applications for the indicators, Stats NZ designed a process that would consider the views of the New Zealand public and bring in subject matter experts to contribute to the indicator selection. The intended result was to create indicators that would be useful and applicable to a wide range of organisations, groups, and individuals.
Development of the indicators was based on the Conference of European Statisticians (CES) framework. The CES framework allows flexibility in the topics that are included. We adjusted the framework throughout our indicator selection process to ensure its fit and relevance to New Zealand.
[Appendix 1: Choosing a framework](#) has more information about the framework selected.
Partnership with Māori
Early in the project, we agreed that Indicators Aotearoa NZ would co-design with Māori. We planned, developed, and considered aspects of the ‘co-design’ model, alongside deliberate action to incorporate te ao Māori perspectives into the indicator selection process.
However, it became apparent that the planned approach would not fully achieve this goal, and a new strategy was developed to ensure robust ongoing relationships with key partners from te ao Māori.
Acknowledging the challenges of achieving a full and meaningful partnership with Māori, while still delivering to a committed timeframe of June 2019, the project took steps to bring te ao Māori views into the indicator selection process through other initiatives.
- Establishing a Māori Advisory Panel, whose first hui was held in October 2018. They provided advice on te ao Māori values for wellbeing and strategic partnership considerations.
- Initiating correspondence with Tūhono affiliates to share information about the project and create a short poll about wellbeing. (Tūhono is a charitable trust that advocates for, and contributes to, a network of over 160 Māori individuals, iwi organisations, and other entities who work together to foster positive Māori identity, wellbeing, and potential.)
- Researching Māori and iwi wellbeing frameworks to understand te ao Māori wellbeing concepts.
- Conducting an international indigenous peer review, to review the selected indicators from indigenous perspectives.
- Conducting a te ao Māori subject matter expert review of the indicators from a te ao Māori perspective.
The Māori partnership and design (MPD) strategy provides a foundation to forge a stronger partnership with te ao Māori and allow Stats NZ to continue to develop Indicators Aotearoa NZ.
Indicator selection process and key findings
This section outlines the steps we took and key findings during the consultation and engagement phase of Indicators Aotearoa NZ, which led to the sign-off of the first set of indicators intended for publishing on the website in June 2019. See figure 1 for the indicator selection process.
Figure 1
Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa:
Indicator sign-off process
- Public consultation
- July 2018 – end of 2018
- Technical workshops
- October – November 2018
- Indicator selection event
- December 2018
- Peer review
- January – March 2019
- Appraisal panel
- March 2019
- Government Statistician indicators sign-off (initial set)
- April 2019
Māori partnership and design
- Ongoing
Text alternative for figure 1
The process flow diagram shows the consultation and engagement steps taken leading up to the indicator sign-off process. This starts with public consultation from July 2018 to the end of 2018, followed by technical workshops in October to November 2018, an indicator selection event in Dec 2018, peer review from January to March 2019, an appraisal panel in 2019 and ends with the Government Statisticians sign-off (initial set) in April 2019. Down the side of the entire process flow diagram is Māori partnership and design, which is ongoing.
Public consultation
Research and evidence that recognises the need for engaging with society and citizens when developing measures about the progress of a country/society has been growing (OECD, 2009). Before identifying indicators, Stats NZ sought to understand what was important to New Zealanders – using a ground-up approach rather than a top-down one. To do this, we launched a nationwide public consultation in July 2018.
Recognising the diversity of New Zealand, we invited the public to engage using:
- submissions – through an online submission form on Stats NZ’s website, email, social media, or physical post
- an online poll on Stats NZ’s website
- postcards – which we provided to schools, local councils, libraries, Department of Conservation regional offices, rest homes, and regional Ministry of Social Development sites (to be returned by freepost).
A te reo version of the online submission form and online poll were also available to the public.
In addition to the above channels, we ran 61 community engagements across New Zealand (see figure 2). This allowed us to understand what wellbeing meant to different community groups, for example Māori, Pasifika, school children, and the elderly.
Community engagements across New Zealand
17 August to 4 October 2018
By territorial authority
*Auckland covers West and South Auckland*
Text alternative for figure 2
The map of New Zealand shows community engagements across New Zealand between 17 August and 4 October 2018. Each territorial authority visited is represented by a circle. From north to south they are: Far North, Whangarei, Kaipara, Auckland (covers west and south), Hamilton, Waikato, Gisborne, Wairoa, Napier/Hastings, Whanganui, Porirua, Wellington, Nelson, Greymouth, Hokitika, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill.
Key findings
- Health came through consistently – its importance for wellbeing was often mentioned across all submission types.
- Many respondents acknowledged the different types of health – physical and mental health were acknowledged as separate aspects, as well as spiritual health and family health, the four cornerstones of health as recognised by the Te Whare Tapa Whā Māori health model (Ministry of Health, 2017).
- Mental health was frequently noted for a variety of topics, suggesting its importance across many aspects of wellbeing.
- ‘Family and whānau’ also came through consistently as being important in most submission types.
- High-level polls showed ‘our society’ and ‘our environment’ were ranked highest in terms of what matters most.
- In submissions containing te reo Māori, this Māori proverb was regularly referenced: “He aha te mea nui o te ao? He tāngata, he tāngata, he tāngata”. “What is the most important thing in the world? It is the people, it is the people, it is the people”.
- Submissions related to the environment commonly mentioned the words: clean, natural, and healthy.
We used the results of the public consultation to inform the rest of the indicator selection process. We provided summary exploratory analysis at technical workshops, and high-level preliminary results at the indicator selection event, where subject matter experts provided advice on indicator selection.
Appendix 2: Public consultation results and methodology.
Alongside the public consultation, the Indicators Aotearoa NZ project team met with many groups including central and local government, and the social sector, to present and discuss the project. Throughout the whole of the indicator selection process, meetings, presentations and workshops were held with a number of groups.
Appendix 3: Engagements with interested groups lists the groups we met with.
Technical workshops
Following the public consultation, we held technical workshops and consultations to bring together subject-matter and technical experts to propose indicators.
From mid-October to early November 2018, 19 technical workshops were attended by over 200 individuals from central government, local government, business, academia, and community groups. Subject matter and technical experts discussed potential indicators, data sources, and technical
challenges in measuring wellbeing. The workshop discussions were informed by the preliminary findings from the public consultation.
The first 15 workshops focused on specific wellbeing topic areas. In each workshop, people identified a set of potential indicators for each topic area. The final four ‘cross-cutting’ workshops looked across all topics and provided further input into the potential indicators.
**Key findings**
- Robust, and often highly technical discussion on fundamental concepts, frameworks, definitions, and measurability challenges.
- Strong support for measuring how wellbeing outcomes are distributed across groups in the population.
- Most workshop discussions on the social-related topics reached broad consensus about a prioritised list of indicators for further consideration by Stats NZ.
- Environmental topics were more challenging, with considerable discussion on whether the indicators should focus on pressure, state, or impacts (as described in the environmental reporting framework, MfE, 2014).
- Selecting indicators on the four ‘capitals’ (social, human, natural, and produced) was challenging – some participants raised concerns with the ‘capital’ concept and its relationship to wellbeing.
*Appendix 4: Technical workshops results* has more information.
**Indicator selection event**
Each indicator proposed at the technical workshops was evaluated against how well it related to the relevant topic definitions and if it met indicator selection criteria.
*Appendix 5: Guiding principles and technical criteria for indicator selection* has more information.
We presented this evaluation at the indicator selection event in December 2018. Preliminary findings from the public consultation were also presented and available for technical experts to use while evaluating indicators.
Discussion focused primarily on endorsement of the indicators assessed as ‘recommended’ and determining which of the ‘maybe’ indicators should be elevated to ‘recommended’.
**Key findings**
- The event was attended by just under 200 individuals; 40 percent of them had attended at least one technical workshop.
- Participants agreed on adding ‘family and whānau’ to the topics (as recommended during the technical workshops), and supported splitting ‘culture and identity’ into two separate topics: ‘culture’ and ‘identity’.
- Debate was rigorous during the topic-based discussions, including around indicators on: ‘spiritual health’, ‘suitability of land use’, ‘population living in hazardous areas’, ‘democratic participation’, ‘waterborne disease outbreaks’, ‘illness attributable to air quality’, ‘educational attainment’, ‘fish stocks’, and ‘global CO₂ emissions’.
- The event resulted in a draft list of 111 unique indicators across 24 topics.
The indicators agreed at the event were reviewed against findings from the public consultation and written submissions provided during and after the event. The indicators were also assessed against the results of other recent wellbeing consultations, including consultation by the Children’s Commissioner and Oranga Tamariki (Ministry for Children on children and young people’s views on wellbeing), and consultation by the Social Investment Agency on wellbeing. Appendix 6: Indicator selection event results has more information.
**Peer review**
A review of the indicators was conducted in three ways. Firstly, by local and international experts on wellbeing. Secondly, from the perspective of nations with an indigenous population. Finally, a panel of te ao Māori subject matter experts reviewed them from a te ao Māori perspective. These peer reviews occurred between January and March 2019. They are discussed separately as each were given different instructions.
Appendix 7: Peer reviewers of potential indicators lists the agencies.
**Review by national and international subject matter experts**
The peer review panel of international and national subject matter experts provided feedback on whether the proposed indicators are a robust and balanced set for monitoring New Zealand’s progress. We provided reviewers with the potential list of indicators and supporting documentation and requested feedback on three questions.
- Do the proposed indicators provide a robust and balanced set for monitoring the progress of New Zealand?
- Are there any major gaps in the topics and indicators, noting that we have still to develop indicators for the Family and whānau topic and that work on incorporating indicators that reflect te ao Māori perspectives is ongoing? We would value your thoughts on potential indicators for the Family and whānau topic.
- Do you have any feedback on the outcome indicators noted above which did not make it into the proposed suite of indicators?
**Key findings**
The reviewers considered the indicators generally provided a comprehensive and balanced suite for monitoring the progress of New Zealand. Their comments also included:
- a need for greater clarity around the project’s purpose and how it relates to other key frameworks
- recommending we select a subset of headline indicators to tell the story of New Zealand’s progress
- suggesting we eliminate using the same indicator under several topics where possible
- a proposal to include some critical input and output measures (ie to expand our guiding principles beyond ‘outcome focused’).
Some key gaps identified include:
- indicators specific to children and older people
- indicators reflecting te ao Māori perspectives
- access to justice
bullying and harassment
digital inclusiveness
resilience (including psychological, emotional, financial, social)
biodiversity.
Review from an indigenous perspective
The reviewers tasked with peer reviewing the project from an indigenous perspective came from:
- Data and Statistical Standards branch of Stats NZ
- Social and Aboriginal Statistics Division of Statistics Canada
- Indigenous and Social Information Branch of the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
The instructions to these peer reviewers were similar to those given to local and international peer reviewers, although the questions asked were different.
- Do you have any advice for achieving a robust process that appropriately includes both general and indigenous aspirations?
- Do the proposed indicators so far provide a balanced set for monitoring the progress of Aotearoa New Zealand?
- Are there any major gaps in the topics and indicators? We would value your thoughts on any potential indicators for the ‘family and whānau’ topic, and any others you recommend as important to indigenous people’s wellbeing aspirations.
Key findings
- CES framework (the framework used as the basis for the suite of indicators) is too Eurocentric to accurately reflect te ao Māori.
- Engagement with Māori is paramount to developing meaningful indicators.
- Māori wellbeing is underpinned by different concepts and values than those used; therefore, the current definitions are too narrow.
Review from a te ao Māori perspective
A te ao Māori analysis included subject matter experts from across the six domains of the He Arotahi Tatauranga – Māori Statistical Framework (Stats NZ, 2014).
He Arotahi Tatauranga has information about Māori information needs.
This analysis included all indicators identified during the selection process, including those from the technical workshops that had been ruled out through the indicator selection process. This review was led by Stats NZ’s Māori Advisory Group and included additional Māori experts.
We asked the reviewers to consider the indicators from a te ao Māori perspective and evaluate them according to a set of ranking criteria. We also asked them to note any gaps, and provide comments or recommendations on the indicators, the process, and the underlying concepts.
Appendix 8: Te ao Māori subject matter expert review – indicator ranking criteria.
Key findings
- Acknowledgement that Māori have not been involved from the beginning of the process (eg framework selection).
- The indicators are broadly appropriate (they reflect core matters of recognised importance to Māori), but are an incomplete reflection of dimensions of wellbeing that are important to Māori.
- The indicators are not sufficiently comprehensive to serve the needs of Māori and require additional measures.
- Some indicators could be reframed to capture more meaningful conceptions of Māori wellbeing. (eg using values-based measures/ frameworks and aligning with the foundational aspirations of Māori wellbeing reflected in Whānau Ora – opportunities, choice, and self-determination).
Appendix 9: Peer reviewer consolidated results has a comprehensive description of the results.
Appraisal panel
The Government Statistician convened a panel of experts to partner with Stats NZ to discuss and make recommendations based on the peer review feedback. The panel members were selected for their expertise in wellbeing and across the social, economic, and environmental domains. A balance of Māori and non-Māori perspectives was an important consideration in selecting panel members.
The panel members approached the peer review feedback from two perspectives:
- recommendations for indicators in each topic area
- feedback on Indicators Aotearoa NZ from a te ao Māori perspective.
The panel initially discussed broader issues raised from the peer review feedback (from general, indigenous, and Māori perspectives). This allowed smooth and focused discussion of the indicators, unhindered by bigger issues that had caused some confusion for peer reviewers.
The key themes discussed included:
- **The purpose of the indicators** – the panel agreed the indicators are a ‘core set’, rather than a ‘toolbox’. The core set should be the high-level signal of progress; supplementary domain-level statistics would tell the fuller picture.
- **Outcome indicators vs other measures such as contribution or outputs** – the panel agreed that framing the purpose of the indicators will help explain why outcome indicators are more appropriate than other measures.
- **Te ao Māori indicators** – the panel supported Stats NZ’s intention to partner with Māori and continue to develop Indicators Aotearoa NZ. The panel agreed this should not prevent the current set being released, as they have application and relevance for all New Zealanders. The panel provided recommendations to the Government Statistician on how to partner with Māori to further develop Indicators Aotearoa NZ. These recommendations included:
- Formally commit to review the indicator suite from a te ao Māori perspective and in accordance with a te ao Māori process.
- The process for the te ao Māori review align with a revised Māori partnership and design strategic approach.
- The review of Indicators Aotearoa NZ to be led by te ao Māori.
Stats NZ support te ao Māori to design and implement a te ao Māori review process.
An outcome after the June 2019 website release be a distinct te ao Māori framework that complements and links with the national framework.
To develop and implement the MPD Strategy, Stats NZ will work closely with te ao Māori and draw on a range of Māori wellbeing frameworks, including He Arotahi Tatauranga, the Māori Statistical Framework.
Panel members supported the comments from peer reviewers regarding the need for further work to embed a te ao Māori view and supported the direction of the refreshed process that Stats NZ is taking.
- **Differences between our framework and the Treasury’s LSF Dashboard** – panel members were reassured there is commitment from Stats NZ and Treasury to move towards aligned indicators and frameworks. There was also a more general call to government for consistency of approach, specifically in having shared definitions and descriptions of elements of wellbeing.
**Key recommendations**
The panel’s recommendations included:
- that further work is needed to develop indicators that reflect te ao Māori perspectives; this should be done following the indicators’ release in June 2019.
- that further work be done after the release to identify life cycle-specific indicators for all relevant topic areas, particularly indicators relating to children and older people.
Changes we made to the list of indicators in partnership with the panel included:
- moving several environmental indicators previously listed under ‘current wellbeing’ to ‘natural capital’
- Adding these indicators:
- health equity
- suicide
- justice equity
- commuting time to work
- access to natural spaces
- active stewardship of the land
- biodiversity/native species
- net migration by skill type.
- Removing these indicators:
- access to lifestyle services
- access to essential services
- healthy life index
- income certainty
- lifelong learning
- emissions
o indoor air quality
o adaptive skills.
Appendix 10: Summary of appraisal panel recommendations for indicators.
Government Statistician indicator sign-off
Following the recommendations of the appraisal panel, the revised list of indicators was presented to the Government Statistician for sign-off. She considered the panel’s response, alongside all other information outlined earlier, in making her decision on the initial set of indicators.
Appendix 11: Signed-off list of indicators lists the final indicators approved on 4 April 2019.
Conclusions and next steps
Development of the indicators started in November 2017 and the first stage ends in June 2019, when the initial set of indicators is released on a purpose-built website.
The measures cover current wellbeing, future wellbeing (what we are leaving behind for future generations), and the impact New Zealand is having on the rest of the world (transboundary impact).
The first set of indicators was signed-off by the Government Statistician on 4 April 2019 after consultation and engagement with the public, and international and national subject matter experts. During development, there was strong support for some indicators, but acknowledgement that further work was required to clearly define these before they could be included.
Any future iterations of the indicators or changes to the set will also require sign-off by the Government Statistician.
International views and frameworks for measuring wellbeing are continually developing and evolving. It is important that we consider feedback on the initial set of indicators, particularly around their usefulness.
The initial set of indicators includes data gaps, such as a complete absence of any data, or limitations on the ability to break information down to useful and meaningful levels for different communities.
The next steps for Indicators Aotearoa NZ are outlined below.
Māori partnership and design
Incorporating wellbeing from te ao Māori perspectives is seen as vital for Indicators Aotearoa NZ. This will enhance the relevance and richness of the indicator set for Aotearoa New Zealand. The idea of wellbeing is an intrinsic and fundamental part of te ao Māori. A range of frameworks define wellbeing outcomes from a te ao Māori viewpoint and capture the essence of wellbeing in a holistic manner.
Stats NZ is committed to further developing the set of indicators to incorporate concepts of wellbeing from a te ao Māori perspective. This development process will be led by te ao Māori in partnership with Stats NZ.
Relationship with the Treasury’s Living Standards Framework
Indicators Aotearoa NZ and the Living Standards Framework (LSF) and its dashboard are related, but they have different functions. Stats NZ’s indicator suite is a data source that will serve domestic and international reporting needs.
The LSF is a Treasury tool to support the analysis of wellbeing when developing policy advice. The LSF dashboard will broadly draw from Indicators Aotearoa NZ but may also use other datasets that support the Treasury’s policy analysis.
A future focus for Stats NZ is to continue working with the Treasury to align these two initiatives where relevant and possible.
Data gaps
The entire indicator selection process has been deliberately non-data-driven. The process set out to identify ‘ideal’ indicators, not merely a collection of existing measures. This ensures balance and future-thinking. Stats NZ, in collaboration with other agencies, will work on the information gaps identified in developing the initial indicators. In addition to gaps for specific indicators, we will also document issues about presenting the indicators at the required level of disaggregation.
Ongoing technical developments
While the indicators we deliver in June 2019 will be robust and useful, and presented on an easily navigable website, Stats NZ will continue with technical developments behind the scenes. Some will be unseen (eg continuing to enhance our internal data flow processes), while other developments may be more obvious, (eg providing greater disaggregation for indicators, or alternative dashboard views). These developments will be based on customer feedback.
Release of website tool
We will present Indicators Aotearoa NZ through a webtool that enables customers to see the high-level indicators and drill down into the data. Where possible, people can view the indicators by (for example) region, gender, ethnicity, and other key variables. The underlying data will also be downloadable. The website will have associated metadata and be grouped by topic/domain and by relationship to current wellbeing, future wellbeing, and wellbeing elsewhere.
We envisage the website will enable indicators relating to other initiatives, such as the Treasury’s LSF dashboard and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, to be viewed separately. We also intend it to include links to other sets of indicators, such as Environmental Reporting indicators or health indicators.
Indicators Aotearoa NZ will be enduring. It will continue to provide an independent and transparent picture of wellbeing in New Zealand as we look beyond GDP to develop a more holistic view of New Zealand’s wellbeing.
Appendix 1: Choosing a framework
The starting point for developing the suite of indicators was to agree on a framework. There has been a growing view nationally and internationally that economic measures need to be balanced with environmental and social measures to provide a more holistic understanding of the state of a nation. Many existing frameworks were available.
Criteria used in evaluating frameworks:
- Flexible – can be used for a range of purposes and needs
- Enduring – reflects broader themes than the issues of the day
- Enabling – supports international obligations and domestic policy frameworks
- Meaningful – New Zealanders can connect and relate to it; has wide acceptance
- Complete – covers all dimensions of sustainable development and wellbeing
- Coherent – ensures the selection of indicators is relevant, balanced, and aids the complicated links between indicators
- Conceptually sound – a clear rationale in the selection of the indicators, avoiding an eclectic mix
- Scientifically based – enables selection of indicators that are measurable against scientifically accepted targets.
We reviewed several frameworks against the criteria above and found one framework was best suited to our need. This framework is the Conference of European Statisticians Recommendations on Measuring Sustainable Development (CES framework) (UNECE, 2014).
Under the CES framework, sustainable development is about making choices: between using resources to maximise current wellbeing or preserving resources for future use, or between maximising the wellbeing of one country at the expense of others.
The framework distinguishes three conceptual dimensions of sustainable development: wellbeing of the current generation in one country (ie here and now), the wellbeing of future generations (later), and the wellbeing of people living in other countries (elsewhere).
Another element of the framework is the importance of looking at how wellbeing is distributed across different groups in the population.
Conference of European statisticians recommendations on measuring sustainable development [PDF, 226p] has further information about the CES framework.
The CES framework allows flexibility in the topics included. We adjusted the framework throughout our indicator selection process to ensure its fit and relevance to New Zealand.
Appendix 2: Public consultation results and methodology
Results
We analysed the feedback we received during the public consultation using quantitative and qualitative methods.
Methodology has information about the analytical process used.
This section summarises the comments and suggestions made during the public consultation.
Online submission form
The online submission form was designed to allow people to make a detailed submission in either English or te reo Māori. We received 879 submissions this way – from 828 individuals and 51 organisations. We asked respondents to select which five of 18 categories they thought were most important for the wellbeing of New Zealanders.
The top 10 selections included health; relationships with friends and whānau; housing; neighbourhood and community; and wildlife, forests, and the bush (see figure 3).
Figure 3
Text alternative for figure 3
Figure 3 is a horizontal bar graph that shows the results of the online submission form, 2018. Ranking of the 18 categories is in the order respondents thought they were most important for the wellbeing of New Zealanders. Respondents could select up to five categories. Health received the most responses with 676, followed by Relationships with friends and whānau (489), Housing (472), Financial security (340), and Education, skills and training (322).
We asked, “What is about your choice you think contributes the most to wellbeing?”
To answer this question, we analysed the free-text responses.
Most-frequently used words or terms associated with the top 10 categories (and associated quotes):
**Health:** good health, mental and physical health, health care, enjoy life, healthy.
“If you’re not healthy you can’t access all the other things which contribute to wellbeing, like friendships, the environment, learning, and other activities which make you feel good”
**Relationships with family and whānau:** mental health, good relationship, support network, have people, social connection.
“Whānau represent the essence of our wellbeing”
**Housing:** human need, affordable housing, feel safe, warm dry, quality housing, human right, home, health, security.
“Adequate housing is one of the basic human needs. Poor housing leads to significant problems, such as health issues, inability to go to school and work, and feelings of inadequacy and unfairness”
**Financial security:** have enough, enough money, basic need, mental health, less stress, healthy food, financial insecurity, life, people.
“I think wellbeing is significantly improved when you have less worries about money”
**Education skills and training:** good education, enable people, financial security, quality education, give people, life, society, opportunity.
“Education enables each individual to reach towards their potential in all areas: better jobs and income, better health and fitness, awareness of place in society and the world”
**Work, jobs, and careers:** financial security, mental health, self-esteem, people need, meaningful work, living wage, purpose, life, society, income.
“Working gives people a sense of purpose (and dignity), which is correlated to having a higher quality of life”
**Rivers, lakes, and oceans:** clean water, water quality, natural environment, future generation, life, health, healthy.
“Wellbeing is about the wellness of our natural world around us as much as it is about physical human markers. Ko au te awa ko te awa ko au. If the river is sick, so too the people will be unhealthy”
**Personal safety:** feel safe, mental health, feel unsafe, people have, fear, community, life.
“How can you be happy, if you are not free from fear? If you fear for your personal safety, you are essentially in survival mode and don’t have the capacity to enjoy or engage in life’s pleasures.”
**Neighbourhood and community:** feel connect, strong community, safe neighbourhood, people feel, feel safe, mental health, social, support, family/whānau.
“A sense of belonging in our local neighbourhood and community, connectivity with others, contributes to a sense of well-being and ownership for individuals in the environment in which they live”
**Wildlife, forests, and the bush:** natural environment, mental health, healthy environment, physical health, natural world, future generation.
“Our land is Taonga and we must treat it with respect as a healthy land contributes to health[y] people”
When reviewing submissions made using te reo Māori, the Māori concept kaitiakitanga was mentioned as being important to wellbeing:
“Water quality is reliant on good riparian vegetation. Good water quality means the mauri of our wai is maintained, allows for mahinga kai gathering and lets ecosystem services continue to be upheld. The sense of responsibility/kaitiakitanga is good for mental health as it provides a purpose.”
**People who completed the online submission form**
Only the online submission form collected information about the people completing the form. Providing this information was optional – 667 respondents provided some demographic information.
Of those who provided demographic information, most were aged 35–64 years. Almost a quarter were aged 45–54; 22 percent 35–44 years; and 18 percent 55–64 years (see figure 4).
**Figure 4**
*Online submission form respondents, by age group, 2018*
Note: Not all submissions included information on age ranges as this was an optional field.
**Text alternative for figure 4**
Figure 4 is a vertical column graph that shows the number of respondents in each age range, for those who reported their age, in this optional field on the online submission form, 2018. The graph shows that 96 respondents reported their age as 25–34, 133 respondents as 35–44, 150 respondents as 45–54, and 112 as 55–64. A total of 81 respondents reported their age as 65+ and 42 reported their age as under 25.
We received responses from Northland to Southland, including the Chatham Islands and overseas. Of those providing their region, the largest proportion was from Auckland, closely followed by Wellington (see figure 5).
Figure 5
Online submissions form respondents, by location, 2018
Note: Not all submissions included information on location as this was an optional field.
Text alternative for figure 5
Figure 5 is a horizontal column graph that shows the number of respondents by location, for those who reported their location, in this optional field on the online submission form, 2018. The graph shows that the highest number of respondents reported they were from Auckland (168 respondents) closely followed by Wellington (164). The next highest location was Canterbury with 65 respondents followed by Otago and Waikato with 39 respondents each.
Of those who provided their ethnicity most (71 percent) identified as New Zealand European and 9 percent as Māori. The remaining 20 percent identified as either Chinese, Indian, Samoan, Cook Island Maori, or Other (eg Tongan, Niuean).
Organisational submissions were dominated by non-government organisations (43 percent), but included charities (12 percent) and local government (12 percent).
Online poll
The online poll was designed to allow people to make a high-level or quick online submission in either English or te reo Māori. We received 844 submissions through the online poll. We asked respondents to select which one of the four options provided was most important to them, and to explain what it was about their selected option they thought contributed the most to wellbeing.
Respondents ranked the four options as: our society, our environment, our economy, our impact on the rest of the world (see figure 6).
Figure 6
Online poll responses to 'What is most important to you?', 2018
| Category | Responses |
|---------------------------|-----------|
| Our environment | 310 |
| Our society | 402 |
| Our economy | 70 |
| Our impact on the rest of the world | 54 |
Text alternative for figure 6
Four rectangles in the diagram show responses to the online poll question “what is most important to you”. The size of each represents the number for each option. ‘Our society’ had most responses, with 402. ‘Our environment’ had 310 responses, 70 people chose ‘our economy’ as being most important to them while 54 selected ‘our impact on the rest of the world’.
We asked, “What is it about your choice you think contributes the most to wellbeing?”
To answer this question, we analysed the free-text responses.
Most-commonly used words or terms provided by respondents:
**Our society**: healthy society, mental health, feel safe, social cohesion, health care, basic need, people, community, family/whānau.
Several responses used this Māori proverb: “He aha te mea nui o te ao? He tāngata, he tāngata, he tāngata”. “What is the most important thing in the world? It is the People, it is the people, it is the people”.
**Our environment**: healthy environment, clean air, natural environment, clean water, natural resource, green space, future generation, clean environment, life.
The need to respect and care for Papatuanuku (mother Earth), was reflected in the submissions.
Our economy: strong economy, healthy economy, provide job, negative effect, more people, family member, life.
Our impact on the rest of the world: other country, indigenous culture, human rights, good thing, people, family/whānau, economic, happy, need.
Free-text only responses
We received 16 responses to our online poll that were not associated with a specific category. Many mentioned more than one category as being important to wellbeing.
“Our environment coupled with a robust economy”
This pattern occurred in many responses to the online poll – people acknowledged the interactions and the effects of one category on another.
“Wellbeing is a holistic concept and all of these factors listed are important for New Zealanders…”
Several submissions questioned the need to choose between priorities.
“This is a leading question that betrays a narrow view of the world we live in. All these elements are interdependent”.
Tūhono partnership
In October 2018, we partnered with Tūhono by developing a separate online poll aimed at raising awareness of Indicators Aotearoa NZ through their affiliates. Tūhono is a national network of Māori individuals, iwi organisations, and other entities that foster the identity, wellbeing, and potential of Māori.
This poll was posted online and asked one question, with a free-text box for responses:
He aha te mea nui mō te oranga o tō whānau, o tō hapū, o tō iwi hoki?
What is important for the wellbeing of your whānau, your hapū, your iwi?
The project continues to work with Tūhono and will progress further opportunities to gain Māori input.
Postcards
Postcards were designed as an alternative approach to an online method, and allowed people to provide a quick snapshot of their views on wellbeing. We sent them to organisations, including schools, libraries, and rest homes. They were also used at community engagement sessions. We received 715 postcards with 561 responses to the multiple-choice tick-box question.
We asked “what matters most to you?” People could choose one to four categories and provide free-text responses to help us tell the story about what mattered to them and their whānau (see figure 7).
Measuring our well-being – te ine i tō tātou toiora. What does well-being mean to you as a Kiwi, and what do you care about most?
Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa will shine a light on our well-being by measuring how we are doing environmentally, socially, and economically.
These measures will support many cross-government initiatives and drive decisions that will affect all New Zealanders.
Tick what matters most to you
Our environment
Our society
Our economy
Our impact on the rest of the world
Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand is shining a light on well-being in New Zealand
Help us tell the story about what matters most to you and your whānau.
My Favourite animals and life and LEARNING new things and my FAMILY
The image shows an example of a returned postcard from the public consultation process. On one side of the postcard, in response to the question “what matters most to you” the respondent has ticked the option “our environment” and has left blank the options our economy, our society, and our impact on the rest of the world. On the other side of the postcard, the respondent is asked to “help tell the story about what matters to you and your whānau”. They responded “my favourite animals and life and learning new things and my family”.
Postcard responses were ranked: our environment, our society, our impact on the rest of the world, our economy (see figure 8).
**Figure 8**
Post-card responses to 'What matters most to you?', 2018
- **Our environment**
- 317 responses
- **Our society**
- 250 responses
- **Our impact on the rest of the world**
- 138 responses
- **Our economy**
- 132 responses
Note: Respondents could select multiple categories
Text alternative for figure 8
Four rectangles in the diagram show responses to the postcard question “what matters most to you”. The size of each rectangle represents the number of responses for each option. ‘Our environment’ had most responses, with 317. ‘Our society’ was second, with 215 responses. The results for ‘our impact on the rest of the world’ and ‘our economy’ were similar – 138 and 132 people respectively chose these options.
We asked, “What matters most to you and your whānau?”
To help us understand this question, we analysed the free-text responses.
Family/whānau was referenced the most. Other commonly used words or terms included good health, mental health, fresh water, healthy food, have fun, happy, friend.
**Community engagements**
We held 61 community engagement sessions, from Far North to Invercargill and from the east to the west Coast. These sessions targeted harder-to-reach areas and groups to ensure we heard from a broad range of individuals. The team connected with 1,218 people, 85 community organisations, and 16 community segments.
Community engagement focused on two main questions: “What does wellbeing mean to you?” and “What matters most to you?”. Results are summarised below.
**Health**
‘Health’ was mentioned most frequently when people stated what wellbeing meant to them. Health was also the second most-frequently mentioned word for what matters most to people.
The words ‘good’, and ‘physical’ and ‘mental’ were often used alongside health, suggesting that people distinguish between these two forms of health.
We had several references to the Māori health model – Te Whare Tapa Whā, which takes a holistic view of Māori wellbeing and focuses on the four cornerstones of Māori health – taha tinana (physical health), taha wairua (spiritual health), taha whānau (family health), and taha hinengaro (mental health) (Ministry of Health, 2017).
**Family and whānau**
‘Family/whānau’ was used most frequently in answer to the question “What matters most to you?” and was the third most-frequent (after health and healthy) when we asked, “What does wellbeing mean to you?”.
The words quality, time, and healthy were often used alongside family, suggesting a connection between family/whānau and these things.
**Email and social media submissions**
Email and social media submissions allowed people to provide feedback that was not restricted by pre-determined categories or formatting, and as an alternative for the online submission form. We received 64 email submissions and several social media submissions. Around one-third were from individuals and the remainder from organisations such as local councils, NGOs, religious groups, and university departments. A large proportion of group submissions were from health-related organisations such as special interest groups, district health boards, and public health organisations.
Health came through strongly as an important part of wellbeing. Approximately two-thirds of submissions referred to a health-related topic:
“We contend that health is a key pillar of wellbeing”
Health aspects included mental and physical health, nutrition, and health risk factors (eg smoking, gambling, alcohol).
Many submitters, particularly local and regional councils, wanted the indicators to deliver a wide range of indicators at the local level (including rural), to assist local monitoring and planning. Several respondents wanted to disaggregate the indicators by sub-populations.
“Special measures must be taken to ensure the voices of disadvantaged and marginalised populations, including Pasifika, LGBTQI, and people living with disabilities, all of who have their own ideas about wellbeing, are actively included…”
Several submissions emphasised the importance of including indicators on the wellbeing of infants, children and adolescents, and the elderly.
The importance of culture and identity was seen in many submissions, with some stressing the importance of a te ao Māori view and a few noting the importance of honouring Te Tiriti o Waitangi.
“We also support the work to ensure te ao Māori perspectives are embedded into the set of wellbeing indicators.”
A few submissions expressed support for only using objective measures, while substantially more stressed the importance of including subjective measures of wellbeing. “…both objective and subjective measures of health are important and that there is a close relationship between the two.”
People frequently talked about the importance of social connections and family/whānau.
“Humans are social animals whose wellbeing is dependent on being in a supportive community.”
The contribution of loneliness to poor wellbeing was seen within a number of submissions.
“Loneliness prevents people from reaching their potential as it affects how they work, how they study, and how they live their everyday lives.”
Finally, having the ability to meet basic needs was mentioned by many as being an important aspect of wellbeing.
“Every individual and family needs to know they can afford health, homes, warmth and food.”
**Methodology**
This section outlines the methods used to collect and analyse feedback from the public consultation.
The Government Statistician and the Minister of Statistics launched the consultation on 31 July 2018. Public consultation ran officially until 30th September 2018, however we continued to accept submissions through to the 20th December 2018 acknowledging that some people and organisations had directly requested an extension on the deadline.
A working group within Stats NZ, which included the Indicators Aotearoa NZ project team, questionnaire design experts, strategic communication advisors, and the publishing team, developed the consultation documents.
We used different forms of engagement to ensure the consultation would include many New Zealanders.
**Online submission form**
People could make a submission using the online form on the Indicators Aotearoa NZ consultation webpage, or by emailing directly. We included factsheets and an online video in [te reo Māori](#) and [English](#) on the website to provide background information for people.
The online submission form was developed in Survey Gizmo, an internet-based tool. The respondent could choose up to five of 18 given categories they considered to be the most important for the wellbeing of New Zealanders and write the reasons why.
The categories on the online submission form were chosen by considering:
- the framework used for Indicators Aotearoa NZ. This framework is based on the [Conference of European Statisticians Recommendations on Measuring Sustainable Development](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/sustainable-development) (CES framework)
- other similar overseas consultations (eg UK Office for National Statistics)
- being relevant for New Zealand.
The final categories were user tested to ensure they were fit for purpose.
We deleted the submissions from Survey Gizmo weekly, giving each a unique code identifier and storing them in a secure area in Stats NZ’s IT system.
**Online poll**
The online poll aligned with the postcards, to provide a quick way for people to respond. It aimed to provide a ‘pulse check’ on what matters to people at a high level. We asked people to choose the one most important aspect of wellbeing from four categories (our environment, our society, our economy, our impact on the rest of the world) and what it was about that aspect that mattered most to wellbeing. This tool was also available in te reo Māori.
The online poll was built in Survey Gizmo. Submissions were deleted weekly and each given a unique code identifier and stored in a secure area in Stats NZ’s IT system.
**Postcards**
We provided postcards to organisations such as schools, local councils, libraries, rest homes, and regional Ministry of Social Development sites. They were a quick and easy way to ask peoples’ thoughts on wellbeing and an alternative to the online approach. People could select from four given topics about what matters most to them (our environment, our society, our economy, our impact on the rest of the world) and could also provide free-text answers. The categories were a simple way to explain the broad spectrum of what the indicators would cover.
**Email submissions**
Individuals or groups could submit email responses, either by requesting a Word version of the online submission form or as a general response to the Indicators Aotearoa NZ email address. The email option was provided as an alternative for people who did not want to use Survey Gizmo.
**Social media submissions**
A number of submissions were received through social media. The majority of these were in response to posts by Stats NZ directing people to online submissions.
Community engagement
The Stats NZ Community Engagement team met with communities and community groups to understand what wellbeing meant to them. The team had 61 meetings across the country. The groups provided feedback for discussion and understanding of wellbeing.
We engaged with targeted groups, in targeted geographies across New Zealand. These included: community groups, students, youth, the elderly, cultural groups, mothers’ groups, men’s groups, leisure groups, community health groups, community action groups, trusts, religious groups, Māori, Pasifika, and other ethnic groups. We met in venues that included schools, libraries, community centres, churches, tertiary institutions, and public agencies.
Tūhono partnership
This poll was posted on the project website and asked one question in te reo, with a free-text box for responses:
He aha te mea nui mō te oranga o tō whānau, o tō hapū, o tō iwi hoki?
What is important for the wellbeing of your whānau, your hapū, your iwi?
This question was developed and tested by the questionnaire design team at Stats NZ, then reviewed by an external Māori language expert who guided an appropriate framing. The question was actively promoted through Tūhono.
The poll was built in Survey Gizmo. Submissions were downloaded to the Stats NZ environment daily and deleted from Survey Gizmo. We gave each a unique code identifier and stored submissions in a secure area in Stats NZ’s IT system.
Analytical process
We stored all respondent information in a secure location in Stats NZ’s IT system and imported it to Excel where necessary. We analysed most submissions using the statistical software package R, which provided quantitative analysis. We used a natural language processing toolkit to analyse the free-text responses and extract the most-frequent single and co-occurring words. During analysis single words were defined as nouns or adjectives, and co-occurring words as nouns, adjectives, and verbs that occurred adjacent to each-other. We excluded nonsensical and non-informative words, which ensured useful and informative words were output during our analysis.
This report focuses on the top five single and co-occurring words used by respondents in their free-text answers. Community engagement responses were analysed differently because we collected them in a different way. For this reason, we reported only the top single words and created a word network to provide context when we analysed the community engagement responses.
Where a co-occurring word included a top single word, only the co-occurring word was mentioned; for example if ‘feel safe’ and ‘safe’ were in the top words/terms, only ‘feel safe’ was reported. In addition to this if more than three words/terms were ranked fifth equal, only the top four words/terms were included in these results. Results were split by submission type and question.
We counted single and co-occurring words once per submission to ensure the results were not biased towards those mentioning the same words/terms multiple times.
Where appropriate, words from te reo Māori were translated to English, in consultation with the Māori dictionary, to ensure they were captured in the natural-language processing toolkit. For example, replacing ‘tamariki’ with ‘children’. However, translation was not always suitable for some Māori concepts or proverbs; for example, the translation of Te Whare Tapa Whā (a Māori health model) (Ministry of Health, 2017) was not meaningful. We considered each example manually and summarised them qualitatively.
**Manual processes**
Email submissions were read, summarised and logged by Stats NZ analysts before the analytical phase. We used the information provided to inform indicator selection.
A small proportion (less than one percent) of responses from the online poll did not select one of the four categories and submitted free-text only. Where appropriate a team of analysts imputed a category. In a small number of cases imputation was not appropriate, due to the responses mentioning more than one category – these cases are referenced separately.
All manual processes were peer reviewed by experienced Stats NZ analysts.
Appendix 3: Engagements with interested groups
As we developed Indicators Aotearoa NZ, we held meetings and workshops with these groups. Note: some engagements are not listed here. This list does not include engagement with other organisations by email and phone.
Meetings
Note: We held several meetings with some organisations.
Central government agencies
- Department of Conservation
- Department of Internal Affairs
- Department of Prime Minister & Cabinet
- Land Information New Zealand
- Maritime New Zealand
- Ministry for Women
- Ministry of Culture and Heritage
- Ministry of Defence; New Zealand Defence Force
- Ministry of Education
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade
- Ministry of Housing and Urban Development
- Ministry of Health
- Ministry of Justice
- Ministry of Social Development
- Te Puni Kokiri
- The Treasury
- Ministry for the Environment.
Other public sector agencies
- Auckland District Health Board
- Canterbury District Health Board
- Capital Coast District Health Board
- Commission for Financial Capability
- Horowhenua District Council
- Local Government New Zealand
- Waikato Regional Council.
Non-government agencies
- Akina (hosted by Department of Internal Affairs)
- Allen & Clarke (contracted to Sports NZ)
- Business New Zealand
- Horizon Research Limited/Foundation for Progress and Wellbeing
- Hui-E (included other organisations)
- Loneliness Charitable Trust NZ
- NZEI Te Rui Roa
• Pasifika New Zealand
• Spirits NZ; NZ winegrowers; NZ brewers.
Presentations at workshop/conferences:
Note: We list only the hosting organisations.
• Auckland Regional Public Health Service/ Tamaki Community
• Data summit (hosted by Stats NZ)
• Injury Information Working Group (hosted by Stats NZ)
• Ministry for Women’s International Caucus
• Measuring and Evaluating Wellbeing Group (hosted by Ministry of Social Development)
• Ministry of Health Workshop on the Sustainable Development Goals
• Natural resources sector (hosted by Ministry for the Environment)
• NZ Society of Local Government Managers Well-being Indicator Workshop
• Senior Finance Leaders Forum
• Sustainable Development Goal Interagency workshop (hosted by Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade)
• Te Maruata Local Government New Zealand
• Third International Conference on Wellbeing and Public Policy
• Treasury’s Living Standards Framework Challenge Panel.
Appendix 4: Technical workshop results
Workshop participants had robust and highly technical discussion about fundamental concepts, definitions, and measurability challenges. They were committed to selecting indicators that covered all aspects of a topic area.
We used the feedback received during these workshops to inform a list of proposed indicators for the indicator selection event.
This appendix summarises the key themes from the comments and suggestions made during the technical workshops.
General comments influencing proposed indicators
There was widespread support for a mix of objective and subjective indicators, and for the indicators not to be deficit-focused. Participants acknowledged the need for a balance between positive and negative measures.
Contextual factors, such as population demographics, can affect wellbeing outcomes. Contextual indicators will be included to assist with interpreting the indicators.
Participants recognised that indicators should cover all life stages and age groups, including children, so they are not geared towards an adult population. They should also cover people in the 65 years and over population. Participants supported breakdowns of the indicators for all genders, not just males and females.
There was strong support for the indicators to capture equity and fairness. Indicators Aotearoa NZ will provide an equity ‘lens’ through breaking down indicators by variables such as ethnic groups and disability status where possible.
Some workshops discussed whether output indicators should be included, such as smoking prevalence, hazardous alcohol consumption, and food security. Many participants accepted these are intermediate outcomes and contribute to wellbeing outcomes, but are not outcomes themselves.
Indicators relating to access to goods and services were considered – such as access to education or to credit. The conclusion was that access may affect the wellbeing of individuals and families but is not a wellbeing outcome.
Workshops debated which topic area some indicators should be placed in, which resulted in some appearing under more than one topic. For example, ‘ability to be yourself’ was included under both subjective wellbeing and identity. Similarly, ‘sense of purpose’ was under subjective wellbeing and social capital.
The connections between topic areas was noted. For example, health is closely linked to safety, income, and housing. Reconciling a holistic indigenous understanding of wellbeing in a segmented western approach was considered a challenge, but also an opportunity.
Comments from specific workshops
In addition to overarching comments, several crucial comments and suggestions came from specific workshops. These are summarised below.
There was support for including an additional topic *family and whānau* in the Indicators Aotearoa NZ framework and some indicators for this topic were proposed. There was also support for combining the *energy* and *mineral resources* topics into one, and for the *work* topic to cover both paid and unpaid work.
Discussion in the *safety and crime* workshop focused on safety from a crime and safety point of view, rather than from broader concepts of safety.
The *education* and *health* workshops discussed whether to include indicators of system performance, but concluded they are not relevant to the purpose of Indicators Aotearoa NZ.
Workshops on *environmental topics* discussed the relationship of each topic to wellbeing, and whether the indicators should focus on pressure, state, or impacts. Participants considered a mix of indicators was needed to present a complete picture. It was also important to cover the services humans derive from the environment, as they provide a strong link to wellbeing. Participants acknowledged the importance of cultural aspects for environmental topics (eg the cultural dimension of water and stewardship of land and natural resources).
At the *culture and identity* workshop the topic was split into *culture* and *identity* as people acknowledged the topic area was broad. Discussion covered the following dimensions in selecting the indicators:
- arts and media as forms of expression and representation
- ethnic tradition and heritage, with Māori heritage being a unique element for New Zealand
- identity, including gender and sexual orientation.
The significance of ‘technology’ to the wellbeing of New Zealanders was discussed. It was regarded as an important enabler of wellbeing outcomes, rather than an outcome itself.
Some participants struggled with the concept of the four ‘capitals’ (*social, human, natural, and produced capital*). However, they recognised the importance of measuring capital stocks to provide a picture of what we are leaving behind for future generations.
Participants also discussed specific *data limitations*, which included commentary on household surveys (eg NZ General Social Survey) limiting the amount of disaggregation that is possible, including making it hard to obtain data at a low level of geographical breakdown. The 12-year frequency of the Time Use Survey was also highlighted as a significant data gap.
Appendix 5: Guiding principles and technical criteria for indicator selection
Guiding principles
- Indicators should be outcome focused.
- They should be relevant to New Zealand and incorporate te ao Māori views.
- Movement should be unambiguously associated with progress.
- Objective and subjective indicators should be included.
- Parsimony should guide the selection process – ‘less is more’.
- Selection of the indicators should not be data driven.
- The indicator set should provide a complete picture.
Technical criteria
The indicators should be:
- relevant to the underlying phenomena of interest
- sensitive to change in the underlying phenomena
- statistically sound
- able to be disaggregated
- intelligible
- consistent in time and space.
We evaluated the indicators proposed at the technical workshops using the guiding principles and technical criteria above. This led to a recommendation as to whether the indicator should be included in the suite of indicators:
- Recommended – the indicator was relevant to the topic definition and was assessed as meeting all or most of the selection criteria.
- Maybe – the indicator was generally relevant to the topic definition but met only some of the selection criteria.
- Not recommended – the indicator was either not relevant or did not meet many (or any) of the guiding principles and technical criteria.
Appendix 6: Indicator selection event results
Participants at the indicator selection event supported the indicators being based on what is important to New Zealanders – people need to see themselves in the indicators. The importance of covering equity and fairness was highlighted and most participants were satisfied this would be adequately covered by providing distributional breakdowns of the indicators – by variables such as age, ethnicity, and disability status.
For some indicators, discussion was around the most appropriate topic each should be associated with. For example, should ‘unpaid work’ be associated with **work**, **economic standard of living**, or **social capital**. Similarly, should the ‘NEET’ (not in employment, education, or training) rate sit under **work, education and skills**, or **human capital**.
We also received feedback on specific topics and indicators.
The indicator selection event resulted in a draft list of indicators that we sent for international and national peer review.
**Comments relating to specific topics**
We received several crucial comments and suggestions that were specific to certain topics. These are summarised below.
**Family and whānau**
There was strong support for including **family and whānau** as an additional topic in the indicator suite. However, participants considered that more consultation was needed on the scope of this topic, how it fits with other topics, and selecting the indicators.
**Health**
Discussion on the indicator ‘spiritual health’ was contentious. Some participants suggested it belonged under the **culture** topic; others that it should stay under **health**. One participant felt strongly that it had no place in the indicator suite, as it is not something government can influence.
A separate ‘food security’ indicator was strongly supported. Diet is a component of the healthy life index, a composite measure that will also cover smoking, hazardous drinking, and exercise. Most participants supported including ‘premature mortality from non-communicable diseases’ as a recommended indicator, although one participant questioned what it adds.
**Leisure**
Participants argued strongly for ‘time spent on leisure’ to be included as an indicator under **leisure**, alongside ‘satisfaction with leisure time’. Some participants considered ‘access to leisure opportunities’ could also be an indicator, but most thought ‘satisfaction with leisure time’ would capture this.
Work
There was consensus that ‘unpaid work’ should be covered. These indicators were recommended for inclusion under work.
- employment rate
- NEET rate (not in employment, education, or training)
- median hourly earnings
- job strain.
Economic standard of living
Discussion highlighted the importance of covering wealth, poverty, and inequality under economic standard of living, in addition to income. Participants supported adding ‘income adequacy’ and ‘income certainty’ to the recommended indicators. There was debate about whether financial capability should also be included, but the consensus was that it was more relevant to the human capital topic.
Education and skills
Covering both the quality and quantity of education was supported. Some participants objected to using NCEA level 2 as the threshold for the ‘educational attainment’ indicator. The group supported ‘informal education/lifelong learning’ and ‘participation in quality ECE’ being added to the recommended indicators for this topic.
Safety
There was debate around whether there should be separate indicators on ‘bullying’ and ‘elder abuse’, which was unresolved. Some participants thought acts of bullying could be covered under ‘child harm’.
Governance
Participants supported including an indicator on ‘corruption’. While they were generally supportive of an indicator on ‘democratic participation’, some disagreed with using ‘voting’ as a measure of this. ‘Transparency’ and ‘representation in government’ were proposed as other potential indicators for this topic.
Subjective wellbeing
There was strong support for including indicators on ‘whānau wellbeing’, ‘ability to be yourself’, and ‘experienced wellbeing’ to those recommended for this topic. How whānau will be defined in the ‘whānau wellbeing’ indicator was discussed.
Culture and identity
It was proposed that culture and identity be separate topics. ‘Sense of identity’ was considered an important indicator of identity. For culture, adding four indicators to those recommended was
supported: ‘engagement in cultural activities’, ‘language development and retention’, ‘preservation of heritage assets/taonga’, ‘intergenerational transfer of knowledge’.
**Social connectedness**
There was strong support for including ‘loneliness’ as an indicator under the **social connectedness** topic.
**Cities and settlements**
Discussion on the **cities and settlements** topic led to ‘homelessness’ and ‘access to essential and lifestyle services’ being added to the recommended indicators for this topic. A potential indicator, ‘population living in hazardous zones’, was contentious. Participants recommended this indicator focus on resilience.
Discussion on a ‘suitability of the housing stock’ indicator did not promote it to be a recommended indicator. A new measure on ‘use of active transport modes’ was recommended. The most appropriate measure to use for the recommended indicator on ‘housing affordability’ was discussed, but no agreement was reached.
**Climate**
Participants thought there should be more indicators than those recommended at the event. The recommended indicator on ‘net greenhouse gas emissions’ was strongly supported, although it could be broken into three separate measures: production, consumption, and absorption rate.
Rigorous debate around whether to include an indicator on ‘temperature-related illness’, had strong support from a medical school representative. Ultimately, the group agreed not to recommend it, along with indicators on ‘extreme temperature change’, ‘vector-borne diseases’, and ‘infrastructure impacts’.
**Air quality**
Participants generally supported the recommended indicators on **air quality**, although they had concern about how the indicator on ‘indoor air quality’ will be measured. We acknowledged this indicator is a placeholder, waiting on developing a robust methodology for measuring it.
The ‘illness attributable to air quality’ indicator was debated, since it can be difficult to attribute ill health to air quality. However, participants agreed to retain it as a recommended indicator because short-term health effects of daily air quality changes are relatively easy to measure.
**Land**
The **land** topic generated a lot of discussion on the topic’s scope and whether the focus is now or intergenerational. The recommended indicator on ‘suitability of land use’ was contentious; participants questioned the scope of the indicator and its measurability. Changing the name of this indicator to ‘land use relative to capability’ was recommended. There was general support for including an indicator on ‘iwi participation in land management (kaitiakitanga)’.
Waste
Participants proposed that potential indicators on ‘recycling’ and the ‘second-hand economy’ be wrapped into the recommended ‘material intensity’ indicator. There was general support for the recommended indicators on ‘waste generation’ and ‘waste flows in coastal marine environments’, but also that the latter indicator should include waste flows in all waterways.
Water and sanitation
The group considered it important to distinguish between drinking water quality and the quality of water for other activities. They recommended the proposed indicators on ‘access to safe water for recreation’ and ‘access to water for food gathering’ become a single indicator; ‘water quality’ should look at the quality of drinking water.
The ‘water stress’ and ‘water abstractions’ indicators should be a single indicator. A potential indicator on ‘waterborne disease outbreaks’ was contentious – some participants saw it as a good indicator on how well we are managing our water quality; others thought we have a lot of disease resulting from poor water quality that is not identified. An indicator on ‘perceptions of water quality’ was not supported.
Ecosystems
The central debate in the ecosystems discussion was whether the indicators for this topic should measure the state of ecosystems and assume the flow of services, or whether they try to measure the flow of services. Participants decided to focus on the services obtained from ecosystems and measure their flow.
Energy and mineral resources
Participants recommended that indicators on the stock of these resources should be with the natural capital indicators. Including indicators on energy consumption and on the use of renewable energy under natural capital was supported.
They recommended the indicator on ‘annual extraction’ be changed to ‘utilisation, efficiency, sustainability, and security of resources’. The participants also discussed potential indicators on ‘energy affordability’ and ‘offshore energy footprint’ but views on the usefulness of these indicators were mixed.
Social capital
Group discussion supported including indicators on ‘volunteering’ and ‘democratic participation’ but was divided over using ‘voting’ as a measure of ‘democratic participation’. Other potential indicators were discussed but not generally supported: ‘sense of belonging’, ‘positive and equitable inter-group relations’, ‘transparency’, and ‘valuing diversity’. Using ‘capital’ in the context of wellbeing was questioned by some participants.
Human capital
Indicators on ‘educational attainment’ and ‘core competencies’ were supported, although concern was expressed about the former covering both the quality and quantity of attainment.
Some participants saw the recommended indicators as quite narrow, and agreed an indicator on ‘adaptive capacity’ would widen the set. The group discussed potential indicators on ‘te reo speakers’ and ‘cultural knowledge’ and recommended these be considered further for inclusion under this topic.
Natural capital
Participants in the natural capital discussion supported the recommended indicators on ‘total water resources’ and ‘global CO₂ concentrations’, subject to the former covering both the quality and quantity of water resources. They discussed whether the indicator on CO₂ concentrations should be only national greenhouse gas emissions, but agreed since New Zealand’s emissions are being captured under climate, the global measure stayed.
Participants agreed on the need for an indicator on ‘productive land’ and that this should capture slope of land. An indicator on ‘fish stocks’ was also supported but the proposed measure was criticised. The group noted that planetary boundaries are missing from the recommended indicators on natural capital.
Produced capital
The produced capital topic discussion traversed a range of indicators including ‘housing stock’, ‘knowledge capital’, ‘public space,’ ‘digital connectivity’, ‘livestock’, ‘converted (improved) land’, and ‘household net worth’. The outcome of the discussion was support for indicators on ‘infrastructure’ and ‘modified land’.
Appendix 7: Peer reviewers of potential indicators
National and international experts reviewed our draft suite of indicators. Government agencies also commented on the proposed indicators along with te ao Māori subject matter experts.
Peer review included feedback from:
- Statistics Canada / Government of Canada
- Office for National Statistics, United Kingdom
- University of Melbourne, Australia
- University of British Columbia, Canada
- Statistics Sweden
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
- Australian Bureau of Statistics
- Stats NZ
- Lincoln University
- University of Auckland
- Planetary Boundaries
- Treasury
- Ministry for the Environment
- Ministry of Health
- Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade
- Ministry of Social Development
- Department of Internal Affairs
- Waikato Regional Council
- Office for Māori Crown Relations – Te Arawhiti
Appendix 8: Te ao Māori subject matter expert review – indicator ranking criteria
During the peer review process, we asked subject matter experts to evaluate the indicators from within te ao Māori – using the following ranking scale and criteria.
- Recommended: the indicator is very relevant within te ao Māori, and will provide a valuable contribution to the story of Māori wellbeing.
- Potential: the indicator has some relevance within te ao Māori, and has some contribution to the story of Māori wellbeing.
- Maybe: the indicator is somewhat relevant within te ao Māori, and may or may not contribute to the story of Māori wellbeing.
- Low potential: the indicator is not relevant within te ao Māori will not contribute to the story of Māori wellbeing.
- Not recommended: the indicator is not at all relevant within te ao Māori, and may contribute negatively to the story of Māori wellbeing.
Appendix 9: Peer reviewer consolidated results
The reviewers considered the indicators did provide a comprehensive and balanced set for monitoring New Zealand’s progress. A couple commented there was a heavy focus on the environment ahead of other domains.
This section summarises the general comments made by peer reviewers and is broken down by theme.
Summary of feedback from review
Purpose
The purpose of the project was not clear to all reviewers.
‘The core purpose of Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa needs to be clarified. Is it to be primarily a comprehensive suite of indicators which can be generally used and referred to, or is it intended to define the key elements and goal of sustainable societal progress and wellbeing in New Zealand and provide regular measures of progress towards them,’ one reviewer commented.
Another saw the purpose was to provide a “comprehensive ‘diagnostic’ wellbeing dashboard that is suitable for detailed monitoring of wellbeing across a wide variety of topics.” They noted that large dashboards serve many purposes.
Framework
Reviewers took interest in our using the Conference of European Statistics Recommendations on Measuring Sustainable Development (CES) as the foundational framework for Indicators Aotearoa NZ. Some reviewers supported this, and the conceptual distinction between ‘current wellbeing’, ‘future wellbeing’, and ‘wellbeing elsewhere’. It was noted that the framework helps to clarify the relationship between the different components. However, others suggested other frameworks may have been more appropriate, eg Māori Statistical Framework could have provided a good basis from which to develop a framework appropriate for Aotearoa New Zealand.
One reviewer commented the measures are quite siloed, with social topics measuring social things and environment topics measuring environmental things, with little overlap. It was also mentioned that the framework needs to go beyond measuring transactions and physical processes to measuring the relationships between capitals and services (eg there are measures of housing, but not of the sense of community). This reflected feedback through other channels (meetings and presentations).
Reviewers were generally supportive of our work to modify the CES framework so it better reflects what is important to New Zealand.
Te ao Māori perspectives
Feedback from te ao Māori subject matter experts generally assessed the current indicators as being a robust general set; however, they acknowledged there were significant gaps that needed to be filled to make this a useful set of indicators for te ao Māori.
- The indicators could be framed on a values basis eg consider kaitiakitanga and the environment along with the relationship that people have to the environment.
• We can explore more holistic and integrated approaches to framing indicators and measures.
o when measuring wellbeing, Māori emphasise the contribution to relationships and the ability to participate (rather than proficiency or quantity).
o framing and developing the indicators can be informed by te ao Māori epistemology (knowing), ontology (being), and methodology (doing), all of which support interrelated and interconnected approaches.
• The indicator suite can be framed according to te ao Māori informed frameworks eg alignment with Whānau Ora indicators and the foundational principles of He Arotahi Tatauranga is recommended.
• Some definitions and measures are understood differently within te ao Māori eg what constitutes ‘overcrowding’ is a culturally defined understanding.
Several reviewers stressed the importance of co-developing indicators through collaboration, and then validating with those who provided input. They should not be developed then presented to Māori.
Reviewers recommended a comprehensive engagement process that would allow Māori to define wellbeing for Māori, and to identify unique properties that may not be comparable to the general population. These unique indicators may be added to the general set of indicators, or may necessitate a separate framework altogether.
**Headline indicators**
A couple of reviewers remarked that 100+ indicators is too many to tell a story of progress. They suggested selecting a subset of around 20 indicators for more-frequent monitoring/reporting.
**Indicators under multiple topics**
Several reviewers noted some indicators appear under more than one topic (eg ability to be yourself under **subjective wellbeing** and **identity**) and some topics appear under more than one of the framework’s dimensions (eg **climate** under ‘wellbeing today’ and ‘future wellbeing’).
They suggested we reduce multiple listing of indicators and topics where possible by assigning them to where they conceptually fit best.
**Distribution of wellbeing**
Some peer reviewers commented on the need to break down the indicators (eg life cycle stage, sex, ethnic group) to show how different groups in the population are faring, particularly more vulnerable groups.
**Outcomes versus inputs and outputs**
The absence of input and output measures in the recommended indicators was remarked on.
One reviewer stated we should include some output measures because they pre-empt later outcomes and allow policy development and understanding. He cited an example, that ‘childhood anxiety will manifest in mental health disorders appearing 10–30 years later’.
Another suggested focusing on outcomes was broadly correct but we should include measures of critical inputs and outputs, particularly:
- where there is a strong and direct enabling relationship between inputs/outputs and wellbeing outcomes
- if the framework is to have a broader policy analysis and diagnostic function and the capacity to identify key drivers of progress and regression (which he recommends).
**International comparability**
Ensuring international comparability is important for international benchmarking and for contributing to international reporting requirements (eg the UN Sustainable Development Goals).
**Gaps in indicators**
The reviewers were invited to comment on any major gaps in the topics and indicators. The gaps identified included:
- child and youth wellbeing
- post-retirement population needs (eg personal savings, provision for retirement, health insurance)
- crime and access to justice (crime rates, Māori imprisonment, gang membership, mental health issues in prison)
- social cohesion and community wellbeing
- governance – having a say
- bullying and harassment
- early school leavers
- long-term unemployment
- benefit receipt
- commuting time
- health measures pertaining to malnutrition (obesity in particular)
- agriculture and food security
- financial capability
- inequality (including gender inequalities)
- changing technological environment and its impacts (eg being a victim of cybercrime, hacking)
- digital inclusiveness
- knowledge capital
- resilience in all its dimensions (psychological, emotional, financial, and social)
- human rights – the extent to which they are enjoyed
- national security
- biodiversity (protected areas and threatened species)
• the impact of chronic health conditions on wellbeing
• stressful experiences/stress management eg experience of discrimination
• sport and recreation sector, as this a critical part of physical and mental wellbeing
• indicators specifically about immigration or migration (this may be captured through disaggregation)
• measures of gender, disability, and other nationally relevant vulnerable populations (this may be captured through disaggregation)
Appendix 10: Summary of appraisal panel recommendations for indicators
Subjective wellbeing
The panel discussed the importance of ‘whānau connectedness’ and ‘loneliness’, both of which were highlighted in the te ao Māori review, and concluded they are covered under the social connectedness topic.
The significance of whenua for Māori was raised. It was agreed that this would fit better under either the land or identity topic.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- life satisfaction
- sense of purpose
- ability to be yourself
- whānau wellbeing
- experienced wellbeing
- hope for the future.
The panel recommended the ‘locus of control’ indicator be included as a placeholder until further investigation of the robustness of the measure is done.
Health
The panel highlighted the lack of lifecycle-specific indicators, particularly for child health and the health of older people.
Members supported the proposed indicator on ‘spiritual health’, which is particularly important from a te ao Māori perspective.
The panel recommended the ‘healthy life index’ be removed from the proposed indicators as it is not an outcome measure.
Given the importance of mental health to the wellbeing of New Zealanders, the panel felt that there should be an indicator on ‘suicide’, in addition to the proposed indicator on ‘mental health’.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- self-reported health status
- health expectancy
- mental health
- premature mortality from non-communicable diseases
- spiritual health.
Recommended that:
- new indicators on ‘health equity’ and ‘suicide’ be included
- lifecycle-specific indicators be investigated (after the June 2019 website release) across all relevant topic areas, including health
- the ‘healthy life index’ be removed from the proposed indicators as it is not an outcome measure.
**Work**
The panel acknowledged that the work indicators cover the three most-important aspects in relation to work: access to work, quality of work, and returns from work.
It supported changing the indicator on ‘unpaid work’ to ‘value of unpaid work’ and shifting it to the economic standard of living topic.
It considered the number of indicators under this topic could be reduced if the overall number of indicators is deemed to be too large.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- job satisfaction
- employment
- underutilisation
- NEET rate
- hourly earnings
- workplace accidents
- job strain
- work-life balance.
Recommended the indicator on ‘unpaid work’ be changed to ‘value of unpaid work’ and moved to the economic standard of living topic.
**Leisure**
Discussion focused around the difference between leisure time and free time.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- leisure time
- satisfaction with leisure time.
**Social connectedness**
The panel supported including the indicator on ‘contact with family and friends’ once it covers whānau.
It discussed the importance of ‘digital contact’ but acknowledged that it can be positively or negatively associated with progress and might fit better as a context indicator.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- social support
- loneliness
- contact with family and friends.
Recommended the indicator on ‘contact with family and friends’ should cover both the quantity and quality of contact.
**Governance**
The panel agreed the ability to have a say in decision making would be a better measure of ‘democratic participation’ than ‘voting’ is.
They noted the proposed indicators do not cover the procedural impacts of the justice system on wellbeing, which they viewed as an important omission.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- institutional trust
- democratic participation
- corruption.
Recommended that:
- Stats NZ undertake methodological work on developing a measure of ‘democratic participation’ that moves beyond ‘voting’
- a new indicator on ‘justice equity’ be included under governance.
**Safety**
The panel considered the indicator on ‘victimisation’ needs further development, particularly the threshold for this indicator. There was support for this indicator to focus on serious victimisation. They noted the LSF dashboard includes an indicator on ‘homicide’, an internationally comparable measure that is often used when good victimisation data is absent.
The panel discussed including an indicator on ‘bullying’, which was raised by several peer reviewers. They agreed ‘bullying’ is a serious issue, particularly for children and youth, and warrants further investigation. National security was also discussed, but the panel was unable to identify a suitable indicator.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- victimisation
- perceptions of safety
- injury prevalence
- family harm
- harm against children
- experience of discrimination.
Recommended that:
- there should be agreement between Stats NZ and Treasury on an indicator of either ‘homicide’ or ‘victimisation’ so there is alignment between the agencies
- Stats NZ undertake methodological work to develop a robust measure of bullying.
**Identity**
There was considerable discussion around the proposed indicator on ‘valuing diversity’. The panel thought this indicator was already captured by the indicators on ‘ability to be yourself’ and ‘discrimination’.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- ability to be yourself
- sense of belonging.
Recommended that Stats NZ undertake methodological work to develop a robust measure of ‘valuing diversity’.
**Culture**
The panel agreed that **culture** and **identity** are related but distinct topics, and should be retained as separate topics.
They endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- engagement in cultural activities
- te reo speakers
- intergenerational transfer of knowledge.
Recommended that:
- the indicator on ‘preservation of heritage assets’ move to the **produced capital** topic as it is a stock measure, and the indicator on ‘language development and retention’ move to the **identity** topic
- the indicator on ‘engagement in cultural activities’ become a placeholder – we should identify activities that are in scope for this indicator, and consider using the Time Use Survey as the data source.
**Cities and settlements**
The panel discussed how the indicator ‘access to lifestyle services’ will be measured. Because of the lack of clarity around its measurement, it should be replaced by an indicator on ‘access to natural space’.
The panel had a robust discussion around the indicator on ‘resilience’, covering infrastructure resilience, the risk of adverse events such as earthquakes or floods, and the perceived risk of adverse events. Members agreed risk can be measured well but questioned the ability to define and measure resilience.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- housing quality
- housing affordability
- overcrowding
- homelessness
- resilience (infrastructure only).
Recommended that:
- the indicator on ‘access to lifestyle service’ be replaced with one on ‘access to natural space’
- the indicator on ‘use of active transport modes’ be replaced because there is empirical evidence that ‘commuting time’ is negatively associated with wellbeing.
The panel questioned the value of trying to measure access to all essential services in one indicator. Recommended that Stats NZ undertake methodological work to develop a robust measure of ‘access to essential services.’
**Economic standard of living**
The proposed indicators do not include a specific measure of child poverty. However, the indicator on ‘low income’ can be disaggregated by age to provide a child poverty measure but there will need to be clear messaging around this.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- material wellbeing
- income
- income inequality
- net worth
- income adequacy
- low income.
Recommended that Stats NZ undertake methodological work to develop a robust indicator on ‘income certainty’, with a focus on income volatility.
**Education and skills**
The panel was strongly of the view that we include a measure of equity of educational outcomes under this topic, with a focus on measuring how education outcomes are dispersed.
The panel endorsed the inclusion of the following proposed indicators:
- Educational attainment
- Early childhood education
- Literacy, numeracy and oral skills
- Core competencies.
Recommended that:
- the indicator on ‘literacy, numeracy, and oral skills’ be expanded to include science skills
- a new indicator on the equity of educational outcomes be included under the education and skills topic
- the indicator on ‘lifelong learning’ be removed.
**Energy resources**
The panel considered the proposed indicators under this topic do not relate to current wellbeing and should move to the natural capital topic.
The panel recommended the following proposed indicators be moved to the natural capital topic:
- energy consumption
- energy intensity
- renewable energy.
**Water and sanitation**
The mana of water was considered important from a te ao Māori perspective, and the panel recommended we do further work on it.
The panel endorsed including these proposed indicators:
- water quality
- access to safe water for recreation and food gathering.
Recommended that:
- the indicator on ‘water quality’ be renamed to make it clear that it is drinking water quality
- the indicator on ‘water stress’ be moved to the natural capital topic as it doesn’t relate to current wellbeing
- Stats NZ investigate Te Mana o te Wai after the June 2019 website release.
**Air quality**
The panel questioned the feasibility of measuring ‘indoor air quality’. It recommended dropping it because of the measurement issues and that it is inherently captured through ‘illness attributable to air quality’ indicator.
The panel endorsed including this proposed indicator:
- illness attributable to air quality.
Recommended that:
- the proposed indicators on ‘emissions’ and ‘indoor air quality’ be dropped
- the indicator on ‘levels of pollutants’ be moved to natural capital.
Climate
The panel struggled to see how the indicators on ‘gross greenhouse gas emissions’ and ‘net greenhouse gas emissions’ are related to current wellbeing and suggested they move to the natural capital topic.
They discussed the indicator on ‘extreme weather events’ in a wellbeing context, and what should be captured – frequency or intensity. Members agreed this indicator be further considered during work on resilience being done after the June 2019 website release.
The panel endorsed including the proposed indicator:
- costs of extreme weather events
Recommended that:
- the proposed indicators on ‘gross greenhouse gas emissions’ and ‘net greenhouse gas emissions’ move to natural capital.
- further work on ‘extreme weather events’ be undertaken in phase 2 during work on ‘resilience’.
Land
Much discussion under this topic was around the ‘kaitiakitanga’ indicator. Some panel members felt uncomfortable with this indicator because it does not match the Māori concept of ‘kaitiakitanga’. There was strong support for it to be replaced by an indicator of ‘active guardianship of the land’, which would demonstrate people’s connection to the land.
The panel recommended:
- the indicator on ‘kaitiakitanga’ be replaced with one on ‘active guardianship of the land’, and the reference to iwi in the description be dropped
- the indicators on ‘efficiency of land use’ and ‘soil health’ be moved to the natural capital topic.
Ecosystems
There is a gap between the flow of ecosystem services and wellbeing, and as a result the proposed indicators do not fit conceptually under current wellbeing.
The panel recommended including an indicator(s) that captures existence values under this topic. For example, people’s wellbeing is connected to the existence of native species such as the kakapo.
The panel recommended:
- the proposed indicators on ‘provisioning ecosystem services’, ‘regulating ecosystem services’, and ‘cultural ecosystem services’ be moved to the natural capital topic
- a new measure of ‘biodiversity/native species’ be included under the ecosystems topic.
Waste
The panel noted that all proposed indicators are placeholders and acknowledged the lack of international standards around measuring waste.
It considered the amount of waste that is being generated and actions to minimise waste are the key points, both of which are covered in the proposed indicators.
The panel recommended nano-sized materials (particularly plastics) as well as micro- and macro-sized materials be included under waste.
The panel endorsed the proposed indicators on:
- material intensity
- waste flows into waterways and coastal marine environments.
Recommended the indicator on ‘waste generation’ be moved to the natural capital topic.
**Social capital**
The panel considered the proposed indicators on ‘volunteering’, ‘institutional trust’, and ‘generalised trust’ are good indicators of social capital. However, the indicators on ‘democratic participation’ and ‘sense of belonging’ did not add much value.
The panel endorsed these proposed indicators:
- volunteering
- institutional trust
- generalised trust.
Recommended that:
- the indicator on ‘democratic participation’ be dropped
- Stats NZ undertake methodological work to develop a robust measure of ‘sense of belonging at the local community level’.
**Human capital**
The panel questioned the value of the indicator on ‘adaptive capacity’ and proposed that it be replaced by an indicator of ‘self-determination/autonomy’, to capture the extent to which people feel empowered and have the skills to take control of their lives.
The panel endorsed the following proposed indicators:
- educational attainment
- health expectancy
- literacy and numeracy skills
- core competencies
- te reo speakers.
Recommended that:
- the indicator on ‘literacy and numeracy skills’ be expanded to include science and digital skills
- the indicator on ‘adaptive skills’ be dropped
Stats NZ undertake work to investigate whether ‘financial capability’ warrants being a separate indicator.
**Natural capital**
The panel noted it has proposed a significant number of indicators move from other topics to **natural capital** and suggested that these be organised by subtopic (eg energy and mineral resources, water quality, climate).
Members noted the ‘stock of water’ indicator should relate to fresh water and the ‘quality of water resources’ should cover both fresh and coastal waters.
The panel endorsed these proposed indicators in addition to those that it recommended be moved from other topics to this one:
- land assets
- productive land
- ocean acidification
- ecological integrity
- stock of water resources
- quality of water resources
- global CO\textsubscript{2} concentrations
- fish stocks
- energy resources
- mineral resources.
Recommended that: the indicator on ‘total water resources’ be confined to fresh water, and the indicator on ‘quality of water resources’ should cover both fresh and coastal water.
**Produced capital**
The panel discussion included the need to:
- include digital infrastructure in the ‘infrastructure’ indicator
- include sites of cultural significance under **produced capital**
- modify the definition of ‘modified land’ to include ‘from natural to production’, and ‘from production to other uses’.
The panel endorsed these proposed indicators:
- modified land
- infrastructure
- net fixed assets
- net international investment position.
Recommended that:
- if intangible assets are not included under ‘fixed assets’, further work be done to include them
• the indicator on ‘land assets’ include wetlands
• digital infrastructure be considered as a separate indicator a count of sites of cultural significance be further investigated
• produced capital be changed to financial and physical capital
Impact on the rest of the world (transboundary impact)
The panel considered the absence of an indicator on the net migration of human capital was an important omission.
The panel endorsed these proposed indicators:
• export of waste
• net greenhouse gas emissions
• consumption of net greenhouse gas emissions
• official development assistance
• net international investment position
Recommended that:
• the indicator on ‘remittances to Pacific island countries’ be expanded to include remittances to all countries, and the indicator on ‘offshore investment to developing countries’ be replaced with one on ‘net direct foreign investment’
• a new indicator on ‘human capital migration by skill type’ be included under this topic.
Appendix 11: Signed-off list of indicators
This appendix summarises the initial set of indicators signed off by the Government Statistician on 4 April 2019.
We intend to publish those indicators with readily available data in June 2019. Further work will be required to fill the data gaps.
A more detailed list is available for download at Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa.
Current wellbeing
Air quality
Illness attributable to air quality.
Cities and settlements
Access to natural spaces, Commuting time to work, Homelessness, Housing affordability, Housing quality, Overcrowding, Resilience of infrastructure.
Climate
Costs of extreme weather events.
Culture
Engagement in cultural activities, Intergenerational transfer of knowledge, Te reo Māori speakers.
Economic standard of living
Child poverty, Income, Income adequacy, Income inequality, Low income, Material wellbeing, Net worth, Value of unpaid work.
Ecosystems
Biodiversity/native species.
Governance
Corruption, Democratic participation, Institutional trust, Justice equity.
Health
Health equity, Health expectancy, Mental health status (psychological distress), Amenable mortality, Self-reported health status, Spiritual health, Suicide.
Identity
Language development and retention, Sense of belonging.
Knowledge and skills
Core competencies (non-cognitive skills), Early childhood education (ECE) participation, Educational attainment, Inequality of educational outcomes, Literacy, numeracy and science skills of 15-year-olds.
Land
Active stewardship of land.
Leisure
Leisure and personal time, Satisfaction with leisure time.
Safety
Domestic Violence, Experience of discrimination, Harm against children, Injury prevalence, Perceptions of safety/feelings of safety, Victimisation.
Social connections
Contact with family and friends, Loneliness, Social support.
Subjective wellbeing
Ability to be yourself, Experienced wellbeing, Hope for the future, Life satisfaction, Locus of control, Sense of purpose, whānau wellbeing.
Waste
Material Intensity, including recycling, land fill inflows, second hand economy; Waste flows in waterways and coastal marine environments.
Water & sanitation
Access to safe water for recreation and food gathering, Drinking water quality.
Work
Employment rate, Hourly earnings, Job satisfaction, Job strain, Not in employment, education or training (NEET), Underutilisation, Unemployment, Work/life balance, Workplace accidents.
Future wellbeing
Financial and Physical Capital
Heritage assets, Infrastructure, Modified land, Net fixed assets, Net international investment position, Productivity.
Human capital
Health expectancy; Literacy, numeracy, and science skills of 15-year-olds; Te reo Māori speakers.
Natural capital
Cultural ecosystem services, Ecological integrity, Efficiency of land use, Energy consumption, Energy intensity, Energy resources, Fish stocks, Global CO₂ concentrations, Gross greenhouse gas emissions, Land assets, Levels of pollutants, Mineral resources, Net greenhouse gas emissions, Ocean acidification, Productive land, Provisioning ecosystem services, Quality of water resources, Regulating ecosystem services, Renewable energy, Soil health, Stock of fresh water resources, Waste generation, Water stress.
Social capital
Generalised trust, Institutional trust, Volunteering.
Impact on the rest of the world (transboundary impact)
Climate
Consumption of net greenhouse gas emissions.
Economic standard of living
Official development assistance, Remittances to other countries.
Financial and physical capital
Foreign direct investment, International investment position.
Human capital
Net migration by skill type.
Natural capital
Net greenhouse gas emissions.
Waste
Export of waste (net and gross).
Contextual indicators
Population
Age and sex structure, Disability status, Ethnic composition, Family composition, Fertility, Geographic distribution, Household composition, Migration, Overseas born population, Population size and growth, Sexual identity, Sexual orientation, Urban/rural distribution.
Production
Components of final use, National income, Production by industry, Regional production, Returns for factors of Production, Total New Zealand production.
Glossary
dashboard – a dashboard is a way to present indicators in a simple way, understandable by the public.
demographic information – Characteristics of a group of people or a human population such as sex, age, marital status, ethnic origin, education, income, religion, and place of residence.
determinants – precursors to wellbeing, including all standard socio-economic and health factors, and importantly for Māori including awareness of, and access to, things that contribute to wellbeing.
exploratory analysis – This is the first step in the data analysis process. It is used to summarise the main characteristics of the data, often with visual methods.
financial and physical capital (produced capital) - Financial capital includes assets and liabilities that have a degree of ‘liquidity’ and tradability as a discrete store of value. They come in many forms and include currency, deposits, debt, company shares, government bonds and other financial instruments. Physical capital includes fixed assets that are used repeatedly or continuously in production processes. They include tangible assets (e.g. machinery, buildings, roads, harbours, airports) and non-tangible assets (e.g. computer software, intellectual property, and other specialised knowledge used in production).
free-text – Words and sentences supplied by the responders.
hapū – Kinship group, clan, tribe, sub-tribe; section of a large kinship group.
human capital – Refers to the knowledge, skills, competencies, and attributes embodied in individuals that facilitate the creation of personal, social and economic wellbeing.
iwi - Extended kinship group, tribe, nation, people, nationality, race; often refers to a large group of people descended from a common ancestor.
kaitiakitanga – The exercise of custodianship by an iwi or hapū over land and other taonga within the tribal rohe (territory).
natural capital – Refers to the elements of nature that produce value or benefits to society and all living things (directly or indirectly). It includes non-renewable resources; like minerals and fossil fuels; unconditionally renewable resources, like sunlight; and conditionally renewable resources, like soil aquifers, forest and fisheries.
natural language processing – Also known as “NLP”, applies computational techniques to analyse and gain meaning from natural language/free text responses.
objective measures – An objective measure is not influenced by emotions, opinions, or personal feelings - it is a perspective based in things that are quantifiable and measurable.
Papatūānuku – In te ao Māori Papatūānuku is the land. She is a mother Earth figure who gives birth to all things, including people.
planetary boundaries - a concept of nine earth system processes which have boundaries that mark the safe zone for the planet to the extent that they are not crossed. Scientists assert that once
human activity has passed certain thresholds or tipping points, defined as ‘planetary boundaries’, there is a risk of irreversible and abrupt environmental change.
**produced capital** – see financial and physical capital
**qualitative analysis** – The process of analysing, understanding, and interpreting meaning in non-numeric, textual data. This includes the analysis of naturally expressed opinions or views by people.
**quantitative analysis** – A technique that seeks to understand behaviour by using mathematical and/or statistical modelling, measurement, and research. Quantitative analysis aims to represent a given reality by using a numerical value.
**R** – A programming language and environment for statistical computing and graphics.
**social capital** – Refers to networks together with shared norms, values and understandings that contribute to societal wellbeing by building trust and facilitating cooperation within and between individuals and groups.
**subjective measures** – based on a respondent’s personal judgement; refers to personal perspectives, feelings, or opinions.
**survey Gizmo** – An online tool that is used to create and conduct surveys and questionnaires.
**te ao Māori** – The world as perceived by Māori.
**te reo Māori** – The Māori Language
**Te tiriti o Waitangi** – Treaty of Waitangi
The Treaty of (the Treaty of Waitangi) (the ‘Treaty’) is New Zealand’s founding document; it’s part of the fabric of New Zealand society. It is one of New Zealand’s constitutional documents, its principles have been included in Acts of Parliament and its text and principles have framed New Zealand policy making. It provides a principle basis upon which the New Zealand government agencies (including Stats NZ) partners with Māori tribes and organisations.
The Treaty provides a blueprint for New Zealand’s future growth and development. First signed on 6 February 1840, the Treaty is an agreement, in Māori and English, that was made between the British Crown and about 540 Māori rangatira (Māori tribal chiefs). The Treaty is a broad statement of principles on which the British and Māori made a political compact to found a nation state and build a government in New Zealand.
The Treaty has three articles. In the English version, Māori cede the sovereignty of New Zealand to Britain; Māori give the Crown an exclusive right to buy lands they wish to sell, and, in return, are guaranteed full rights of ownership of their lands, forests, fisheries and other possessions; and Māori are given the rights and privileges of British subjects. In the Māori version, the Treaty was deemed to convey the meaning of the English version, but there are important differences. Most significantly, the word ‘sovereignty’ was translated as ‘kawanatanga’ (governance). Some Māori believed they were giving up government over their lands but retaining the right to manage their own affairs. The English version guaranteed ‘undisturbed possession’ of all their ‘properties’, but the Māori version guaranteed ‘tino rangatiratanga’ (full authority) over ‘taonga’ (treasures, which may be intangible). Māori understanding was at odds with the understanding of those negotiating the Treaty for the Crown, and as Māori society valued the spoken word, explanations given at the time were probably as important as the wording of the document.
**whānau** – Extended family, family group; a familiar term of address to a number of people; in the modern context the term is sometimes used to include friends who may not have any kinship ties to other members.
**word network** – a data visualisation technique that displays the frequency of co-occurring words. In this publication we have defined this as nouns, adjectives and verbs which occur directly adjacent to one-another.
References
Ministry for the Environment (2014). *A framework for environmental reporting in New Zealand*. Retrieved from http://www.mfe.govt.nz.
Ministry of Health (2017). *Māori health models – Te Whare Tapa Whā*. Retrieved from www.health.govt.nz.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2009). ‘*Measuring the progress of societies: what is the relevance for Asia and the Pacific*’, Paper to UN ECOSOC, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved from www.unescap.org.
Statistics NZ (2019). *Indicators Aotearoa New Zealand – Ngā Tūtohu Aotearoa*. Retrieved from www.stats.govt.nz.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (2014). *Conference of European Statisticians recommendations on measuring sustainable development*. Retrieved from https://www.unece.org. | ae4bed88-2ebc-42a4-af44-0b81a0666140 | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Indicators-Aotearoa-New-Zealand-Nga-Tutohu-Aotearoa-Key-findings-from-consultation-and-engagement/Downloads/indicators-aotearoa-new-zealand-nga-tutohu-aotearoa-key-findings-from-consultation-and-engagement.pdf | 2024-03-02T09:08:22+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947475806.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20240302084508-20240302114508-00377.warc.gz | 981,267,554 | 23,522 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.902972 | eng_Latn | 0.968306 | [
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A dot is a simple thing.
A simple thing that represents something else.
Like an idea, a person, an action.
Seen from a distance, a dot can even represent a planet. Like our own.
110k Ecochallengers
2.3m actions taken
3k cities
101 countries
creating environmental + social good across the world
A dot may be a simple thing, but when it starts to multiply, it can represent infinite opportunity.
All it takes is an understanding of its potential, and a vision for connecting it with other dots.
From there, anything is possible.
| Impact Metric | Details |
|-------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| Hours volunteered | 12,943 |
| Sustainable meals eaten | 242,596 |
| Miles not traveled by car | 381,712 |
| Energy audits conducted | 315 |
| Pounds of CO2 saved | 726,485 |
| Plastic items not sent to landfill | 427,170 |
| Gallons of water saved | 1,744,412 |
| Donations to environmental and social causes | 3,213 |
| Minutes spent learning | 814,080 |
That’s what we do here at Ecochallenge.org. And that’s what you do, when you support us.
Your simple act inspires other simple acts. Your simple act allows incremental change to activate exponential change.
Small moments catalyze a larger movement that opens eyes, breaks down barriers, and warmly welcomes the participation of others.
In July 2019, Ecochallenge.org teamed up with 40+ zoos & aquariums across North America to encourage employees, patrons, and the general public to break free from single-use plastic. The impact was incredible and contributed to the global movement of plastic-free living. Sponsors included Columbus Zoo & Aquarium, Monterey Bay Aquarium, Calgary Zoo, Alaska SeaLife Center, and Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium.
15,236 engaged participants refused
310,666 total plastic pieces
- 76,915 pieces of litter collected
- 69,637 plastic bottles refused
- 63,837 food containers refused
- 51,475 plastic cutlery refused
- 48,802 plastic straws refused
Personal revolutions of thought & deed create micro-communities of purpose and inspiration and optimism and, yes, a little good-natured competition among peers. Right in our own backyards. In our own hometowns. In the places where we work and gather and share. Global change on a one-to-one, human scale.
And together, we connect intentions with actions, and hopes with real, measurable solutions. We create a global community of advocates and changemakers, each doing what we can, in ways that are most relevant to us, to make this beautiful spinning dot we call home a healthier, more equitable, more sustainable place.
Together, we have connected millions of dots since we began this effort. And the numbers show that our connections are having a lasting & life-changing impact. And there is still so much work to be done.
That’s why we need you. We need you and your support to help us connect every single one of us in this movement together.
Visit Ecochallenge.org/Connect-Every-Dot and donate.
a campaign to connect every dot.
150,000 changemakers
Your simple act of giving will help us reach our goal of engaging 150,000 participants in 2020.
$450,000 fundraising goal
Help us make our Ecochallenge Platform and programming more accessible than ever. Support our vision so we can activate the millions of people who are ready to take action.
$250,000 for major expansions to Ecochallenge Platform
$200,000 for program development and new personnel
connect every dot campaign
ecochallenge.org/connect-every-dot
firstname.lastname@example.org
ecochallenge dot org
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Our studies demonstrate that if you engage in helping activities as a teen, you will still be reaping health benefits 60-70 years later. And no matter when you adopt a giving lifestyle, your well-being will improve. Generous behavior is closely associated with reduced risk of illness and mortality and lower rates of depression. Even more remarkable, giving is linked to traits such as social competence, empathy and positive emotion that undergird a successful life.
Stephen Post and Jill Neimark in “Why Good Things Happen to Good People”
Service-learning can provide young people with experiences that are eye-opening, challenging and satisfying. It allows them to see the influence and impact that each individual can have on their community and, ultimately, it empowers them to use that influence toward the creation of a better, more humane world for all. To engage in service-learning is to directly address human rights in your community and the world.
To quote Cathryn Berger-Kaye, an international service learning consultant:
Well-designed and implemented service-learning works for kids, students, teachers, parents, and communities. It infuses relevance, skill development, and concept knowledge across multiple curricular areas. And service-learning develops intrinsic knowledge rather than relying on extrinsic rewards, prizes, or competition.
What is exciting is how the service-learning experience can vary depending on student interests, subject matter, and community need – it’s continually fresh and purposeful. Whether students are visiting people with Alzheimer’s, restoring wetlands, developing a city bicycle policy, or writing children’s books for parents, service-learning lets them become engaged citizens.”
You may ask, “Why go global?” The world is becoming a much smaller place due to technology, business and political connections. A global project provides the opportunity for students to:
• Enhance critical thinking to stretch beyond local community
• Connect with people and issues around the world that take on a relevancy because of the development of relationships
• Develop a global view of the world to become a more educated, engaged global citizen
• Recognize our interdependence as nations in a global society
Serving others is not just a form of “do-goodism”, it is a road to social responsibility and citizenship. It is an ideal setting for bridging the gap between the classroom and the street. Service-learning enables learners to apply the academic skills and knowledge they learn in the classroom to real world situations. Service-learning projects require the use of research, analytical and writing skills, organizational and leadership skills, and artistic expression.
“Imagine,” in John Lennon’s immortal words, “all people living a life in peace.” Then begin through incremental changes to make that dream a reality. THIS is the foundation of human rights service-learning.
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A SLOW AND STEADY COMEBACK: CELEBRATING 25 YEARS OF PROTECTING NATIVE TURTLES
WE ARE ALL KEEPERS
How is it that animals have such intense effects on our emotions? What drives our connection to them? Researchers say that over millennia we’ve become hardwired for biophilia—a love of animals and the natural world.
Recently I experienced a stirring moment of this emotional affiliation. While taking a colleague from the Wildlife Conservation Society on a WPZ tour, we happened upon our three Malayan tiger brothers in Banyan Wilds. A tangle of orange and black, they were consumed in play with a tree trunk. Suddenly, one tiger wrenched it away with his giant mandible and leapt into the water. As my colleague and I filled up with admiration, and families and children got closer in awe, the keepers cheered the tigers on—they’ve been working hard to help these felines thrive in their new home, to be big cats in all their cat glory.
Having been a keeper myself, I know it’s a huge job. I also know that our keeper staff know the animals in their care better than you or I know our pets. Their devotion, compassion and knowledge are unparalleled. That’s why they often participate in species research and conservation projects in the wild. In June, WPZ led its first multi-zoo delegation of keepers into Peninsular Malaysia’s ancient forest where they helped deploy camera traps to collect wildlife data and combat illegal tiger poaching.
As members and supporters, you know that saving species and landscapes requires complex, often dogged problem solving. Here, I want to stress a simple but profound point: we are all keepers.
We’re keepers when we renew our memberships, sign up for a zoo program, donate, or watch a live stream to stay connected. We’re keepers when we make our local landscapes more wildlife friendly, as we have been for a quarter century of native turtle recovery and now with our Otter Spotter citizen science project. As I write, we celebrate National Zoo Keeper Week, honoring our shared passion to protect the animals and habitats we all deeply care for.
This team’s determined spirit inspired me to join WPZ. I feel privileged to have you as our partners in helping this admired institution achieve even greater impact.
Alejandro Grajal, PhD
President and CEO
LETTER FROM THE EDITOR
Like a cozy blanket, fall has wrapped itself around the zoo. It’s the season of golden sunlit afternoons, soothing chai and crunchy leaves underfoot. Some say autumn is the very best time to visit; the animals are more active in cooler temperatures and summer crowds have dispersed. It’s time to celebrate our roots with a look at some of our most iconic Northwest natives—river otters of the Duwamish, Western pond turtles in the south Sound and our favorite wolf pack. We are eager to show off some zoo-inspired artwork and share a Q & A with new President and CEO Alejandro Grajal. With endless opportunities for great photography, bountiful fall foliage, and a host of festive events—Brew at the Zoo, Pumpkin Bash and WildLights—mark your calendars for a beautiful autumn visit.
ON THE COVER
A true Northwest ambassador, this Western pond turtle is one of many that will be released into ponds in south Puget Sound. Now large enough to avoid the mouths of predators such as invasive bullfrogs, this turtle has a big role to play.
CONTENTS
ON THE NORTHERN TRAIL ................................................. 4
LIVING NORTHWEST ....................................................... 8
SENTINELS OF THE DUWAMISH RIVER .......................... 10
CONSERVATION FOR EVERYBODY ................................. 12
DRAWING FROM NATURE ............................................... 14
ANIMAL SPOTLIGHT: WOLVES ........................................... 18
A SLOW AND STEADY COMEBACK:
CELEBRATING 25 YEARS OF PROTECTING NATIVE TURTLES .... 20
VOLUNTEER GIVING ...................................................... 22
INSPIRED TO LEARN ..................................................... 24
CLASSES AND CAMPS .................................................... 26
MYZOO KIDS: INTO THE WOODS .................................... 28
OUR MISSION
WOODLAND PARK ZOO SAVES ANIMALS AND THEIR HABITATS THROUGH CONSERVATION LEADERSHIP AND ENGAGING EXPERIENCES, INSPIRING PEOPLE TO LEARN, CARE AND ACT.
ZOO HOURS
MAY 1 – SEPTEMBER 30
9:30 a.m. – 6:00 p.m.
OCTOBER 1 – APRIL 30
9:30 a.m. – 4:00 p.m.
CLOSED CHRISTMAS DAY
FIND US ON
@woodlandparkzoo
MyZoo Fall 2016. Volume 18, Issue 3.
Woodland Park Zoo. Seattle, WA
General Information: 206.546.2500 Membership Department and Admissions: 206.546.5482/400. firstname.lastname@example.org
Editor-in-Chief: Kirsten Pisto, email@example.com
Design Editor: Misty Fried, firstname.lastname@example.org
Lead Designer: Kelly Harpison, email@example.com
Photo Editors: Jeremy Dwyer-Lindgren, firstname.lastname@example.org
For Advertising Information: email@example.com or 206.546.2625
Comments or questions? Write 5500 Phinney Ave. N., Seattle, WA 98103-5865 or email firstname.lastname@example.org
Woodland Park Zoo is a City of Seattle facility managed and operated by the nonprofit Woodland Park Zoological Society. MyZoo (ISSN 1531-7459) is published quarterly for $6.00 per year for Woodland Park Zoo (WPZ) members from membership dues by WPZ at 5500 Phinney Ave. N., Seattle, WA 98103-5865. Periodicals postage paid at Seattle WA.
POSTMASTER send address change to MyZoo, WPZ, 5500 Phinney Ave. N., Seattle, WA 98103-5865
All photos are property of Woodland Park Zoo unless otherwise noted.
Stepping into the Northern Trail, you are welcomed to a subarctic forest—tall, dark conifers flank the rugged path—then, as if by magic, your eyes meet the gaze of a wolf. There are many such moments found in the exhibit’s award-winning design. Evoking the habitat of Alaska’s tundra and taiga regions, the Northern Trail delivers the feeling of wild, untouched nature. The hard work it takes to pull off such an exhibit is hidden; but a very passionate, dedicated crew of keepers is at the heart of this seemingly effortless experience.
Four zookeepers make up the dynamo team that cares for the 10 species that call the Northern Trail home. The keepers all have a special area of expertise, but they take turns working with every species, ensuring that everyone can assess the welfare and needs of each individual. From weighing blueberries for a bear’s breakfast to putting fresh straw in the wolves’ den, the hard work behind the scenes is what makes this corner of the zoo such a gem. Here’s a look at just one day on the Northern Trail shadowing lead keeper Amy Brandt and keeper Allison Barr.
GRIZZLY BREAKFASTS AND PORCUPINE PICNICS
Keepers begin their day on the northwest side of the slope where Albert waits patiently for his morning browse. The young, male mountain goat spends the night in a quiet, shaded barn. While keeper Allison scatters the browse, she is also doing a visual health check on Albert; multitasking is a recurring theme.
Lilly the arctic fox is adjacent to Albert. Lilly gets what looks like kibble as well as moist meat and poultry for breakfast. She is shy, but also curious.
Next, the grizzly bears greet us. Keema and Denali stand up on their hind legs and make sure we know they are really big, tall bears who are hungry. I tell them I think they are going to eat soon, and Allison agrees.
Giving the bears their breakfast is complicated. Like all animals at the zoo, the bear’s nutrition is an exact science. The kitchen consists of food scales and a fridge full of fresh blueberries, carrots, yams, celery, salmon, trout, apples, and a freezer stocked with a smorgasbord of meats and even more berries. In the kitchen, I help Allison measure out what I guess must be their monthly rations, but no, this is only for the next two days. Bears eat a lot, especially during the fall.
While the bears receive their breakfast inside, we clean their yard. There is no shortage of bear poop. After Allison gives the ok that their yard is up to snuff and we are safely back inside, she opens the doors to let Keema and Denali outside. Keema heads out first to claim his favorite spot near the cave. Once Denali follows, we spray down their inside dens and sweep. Cleaning is also a recurring theme.
Now that the bears are full and ready to start their day, we head into the behind-the-scenes station at otters where they splash excitedly as we hose down their beds. Everything is soaked and slippery. Good shoes are key.
Otters have super-fast metabolisms and like fish for breakfast, lunch and dinner. The otters get fish one at a time from their keeper. Keepers maintain this routine for a few reasons: to ensure the otters are actually getting enough to eat and to establish a trusting bond with the animals. Appetite is one of the easiest ways to tell if an animal is doing well. The otters are doing great. We sweep their inside dens and do another visual check of the exhibit. Have any branches or litter fallen into the exhibit? Is the water flow correct? Everything checks out.
Don’t forget to feed the trout that live in the stream!
We then head to the elk barn. The barn looks to be in pristine condition, but Amy instructs me to start sweeping. Keeping up with these large animals is key.
On to the wolf yard where we scoop poop, clean their den and place fresh straw inside to keep it cozy. The wolves are quite timid, but curious. We set out a meat snack for them.
After we feed the wolves and elk it’s time to feed the otters, again. Then we feed the porcupines, including the baby; they get a bunch of biscuits and fresh, organic roses, which they love. A porcupine picnic is hard to beat. We clean there too, more hosing down and watering and sweeping.
Then we stop by the great gray owls and snowy owl to deliver mice.
As we head back into the office we pass the grizzly bears which means it’s time for another biscuit feeding. I think I count 1,000 biscuits eaten by Keema, but it’s probably closer to 20. The bears are very good at eating and then making a face as if to say they’ve never had a single biscuit. This reminds me of some dogs I have known. The bears also like grapes and eat them one at a time from my hand; they are amazingly gentle (although I feed them through the mesh wall of their indoor enclosure). I think when this day is done I will have spent the majority of it feeding the bears, but there is so much more to do.
To be a keeper on Northern Trail you must be energetic and strong. You need patience and the ability to adapt to situations quickly.
After all of the feeding and cleaning and watching, it’s time to go back to the office where keepers make notes for tomorrow. It’s the end of the day, but we find Allison at the otters again, feeding them a few more fish. Allison and Amy take me down to the lower level of the otter exhibit where the female otter Valkyrie peeks out from her nest of upcycled car wash strips and behind-the-scenes hammock. She is flirting with us and running all around, so fast, so agile. She runs the length of the building and then dashes back to dive into her pool, swirling around and popping out again at high speed. I could watch her for hours; these are the moments the keepers work for.
To be a keeper on the Northern Trail you must be energetic and strong. You need patience and the ability to adapt to situations quickly. You need to be detail oriented and able to cope when things don’t go the way you’d like. Most of all you have to be compassionate and caring; and the right pair of shoes makes a world of difference.
Kirsten Pisto, Editor
Photos by Dennis Dow and Jeremy Dwyer-Lindgren, WPZ
UPCOMING EVENTS AT WOODLAND PARK ZOO
ZOOFARI: Member Appreciation Evening .......................... SEPTEMBER 13
BREW AT THE ZOO .................................................. OCTOBER 6
PUMPKIN BASH presented by Delta Dental of Washington .... OCTOBER 29-30
VETERANS DAY DISCOUNT ........................................ NOVEMBER 11
TURKEY TOSS ......................................................... NOVEMBER 19
*WILDLIGHTS presented by Sound Credit Union ............... NOVEMBER 25, CLOSED DECEMBER 24-25, OPEN THROUGH JANUARY 1
WINTER CELEBRATION ENRICHMENT .......................... DECEMBER 10-12, 17-19
ZOO CLOSED CHRISTMAS DAY ................................. DECEMBER 25
*Indicates a separately ticketed event. All other events are free with regular zoo admission or membership.
BREW AT THE ZOO
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 6
Join us for the sixth annual Brew at the Zoo beer-tasting event. Sample imports, domestics, microbrews and even ciders from over 40 different breweries.
Get tickets at zoo.org/brew
PUMPKIN BASH
OCTOBER 29-30
9:30 a.m. - 3:00 p.m.
PUMPKINS FOR ANIMALS! TRICK-OR-TREATING! FEATURING BOOMAZIUM!
FREE with zoo admission or membership. Visit zoo.org for more information.
Kids in costume get in FREE with a paid adult.
WILDLIGHTS
SEE THE ZOO BRIGHTER THAN EVER!
NOVEMBER 25 – JANUARY 1
5:30 – 8:30 P.M. NIGHTLY
Free parking in zoo lots on WildLights event nights. Closed December 24 & 25
WWW.ZOO.ORG/WILDLIGHTS
The Pacific Northwest, fondly dubbed PNW, stretches from the snowy peaks of the Rocky Mountains to the salty beaches of the Pacific Coast. In between lay temperate forests, rain forests, grasslands and desert shrublands—all of which host a variety of creatures that call the Northwest home.
We live in a Pacific Rim bioregion with a national and global reputation for its scenic beauty and relative wilderness. Surrounded by waterways, forests and mountains, we connect with nature all around us. Those connections run deep, as our everyday choices have an impact.
Woodland Park Zoo’s Living Northwest conservation program focuses on native species restoration, habitat protection, wildlife education and human-wildlife conflict mitigation across the Pacific Northwest. These strategies improve the health of our wildlife populations, the health of our ecosystems, and the health of our communities.
Here are just a few things your zoo is doing to ensure a healthy, species-rich Pacific Northwest.
1,078 students participated in Coexisting With Carnivores during the 2012-2016 school years. Bears, cougars and wolves, oh my!
10 Focal species observed in the Washington Urban-Wildland Carnivore Project include cougars, black bears, bobcats, coyotes, raccoons, red fox, opossum, deer, elk and domestic cats. The study is exploring ways to promote coexistence among humans and carnivores in King County.
265 research hours
zookeepers have logged at wind turbine sites in Oregon. Their field role is to observe nesting hawks and record any interaction a raptor has with a wind turbine.
50,000 PEOPLE attended Bear Affair: Living Northwest Conservation Day over the last 12 years to learn how to hike, camp and BBQ safely while coexisting with NW wildlife.
80 YEARS GRAY WOLVES WERE ABSENT from Washington state. Woodland Park Zoo supports the natural recolonization of wolves and teaches solutions to coexistence. As of June 2016, there are 19 confirmed wolf packs and 90 wolves.
15 YEARS
the zoo has been part of the Oregon silverspot butterfly recovery plan, and releasing this endangered NW native.
80 COMMUNITY MEMBERS committed their backyard as a research site for remote camera studies that track how carnivores use habitat from urban to wildland areas.
566% increase of endangered Western pond turtles living in Washington today after 25 years of recovery efforts. Tiny hatchlings are reared at the zoo each year until large enough to avoid predation, then released into protected wetlands to recover populations.
1996 was the year of the last confirmed sighting of a grizzly bear in the U.S. Cascades. Federal agencies are exploring recovery options. WPZ supports efforts that use sound science and community input.
From the wildlands of the Cascade Mountains to the industry of Seattle’s waterfront, the Green-Duwamish River carves a path through some of Washington’s rawest natural sights to its heaviest hub of manufacturing.
As the river passes through the pristine to the polluted before spilling out into Elliott Bay, there’s one witness to it all worth a closer look: the North American river otter.
Found along much of the 85 mile river route, the little studied North American river otter may serve as a telling indicator of the health of this critical waterway. Otters populate the full gradient of diverse habitats along the river including the final 5 miles known as the Lower Duwamish Waterway, a federal Superfund cleanup site troubled by a long history of industrial pollution. Woodland Park Zoo Field Conservation Associate Michelle Wainstein, PhD, is studying otter population trends and behaviors, and analyzing the toxic levels in their scat to understand how levels of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and other contaminants change along the river. The empirical data can ultimately help shape targeted conservation strategies as large-scale river cleanup efforts continue.
By Rebecca Whitham, Staff Writer
In search of otters from the lush Green River Gorge (top left) to the Lower Duwamish (top right), researcher Michelle Wainstein follows tracks (bottom left) and sets up remote cameras (bottom right) for closer observation.
BECOME AN OTTER SPOTTER
WE NEED YOUR EYES
If you observe a river otter in Washington, please report your sightings to help us capture data on otter range and behavior.
Submit your sightings at zoo.org/otterspotter
Alejandro Grajal began an exciting new chapter at Woodland Park Zoo on May 16 as president and CEO. To the helm he brings deep and global expertise in conservation science, environmental education and animal welfare advocacy. A strong voice for the power of zoos, he believes they are essential to help humanity develop a new relationship with nature. We explore what brought him to the Pacific Northwest via Venezuela, Florida, New York and Chicago, and his vision for Woodland Park Zoo. He is also an accomplished nature artist. See an example of his work, Laughing Gull, on page 14.
Alejandro Grajal has a big goal: to make “conservation for everybody.” As our new president and CEO, he’s convinced that Woodland Park Zoo is the best place to achieve it.
**BW:** You started your career as a biologist in the field. How did your trajectory turn to leadership roles in zoos?
**AG:** I’m a water man—I love anything in the water. I graduated with a degree in marine biology, working on coral reefs. You know I thought I was going to be the next Jacques Cousteau! But he already had his job, so I went to work at a research station in the Llanos of Venezuela (the expansive plains and watershed of the Orinoco River) where I worked with the Smithsonian Institution.
It was a time of huge effervescence in the field of conservation biology, especially conservation and development. That was my emphasis at the University of Florida where I did my doctorate and published in *Science* and *American Naturalist*. People like Michael Soulé, founder of the Society for Conservation Biology, and Russ Mittermeier, who was just starting up the nonprofit Conservation International, inspired me. I realized a hybrid role—research and applying knowledge in the real world—was what I really wanted to do. Fortunately, straight out of graduate school I was hired by the Wildlife Conservation Society in New York as the director of Latin American and Caribbean programs and I dove into a zoo career.
**Diving into a Zoo Career:** Sometimes called the “Serengeti of South America,” the extraordinary terrestrial and aquatic wildlife of the Venezuelan Llanos (the Orinoco River floodplains) was the perfect springboard for Alejandro to launch a career in conservation.
**BW:** What has working in zoos taught you?
**AG:** It has taught me that if you really want to change society’s opinions and behaviors, and how we treat the planet, you need to understand human motivation. We are all inextricably part of the same fabric of life. Conservation ultimately is about people and the choices we make. How do we get people excited about possibilities? So, I had to integrate the social science side of conservation with the biological side, and of course the organizational and policy sides. After 25 years, I now see that my leadership role is more of an untier of knots. Maybe it doesn’t sound very sexy, but it’s exciting to me because possibilities are like puzzles, and I love solving puzzles.
**BW:** You were most recently senior vice president for conservation, education and training at Chicago Zoological Society/Brookfield Zoo, one of the largest zoos in the U.S. What attracted you to WPZ and the Pacific Northwest?
**AG:** I’ve been watching the evolution of zoos for a long time. Like many others, I’ve always admired WPZ’s reputation in the industry as a leader and innovator. It pushed us to design naturalistic landscapes for animals, to pay attention to social groupings, play, psychological health, and using research and science to drive innovation in animal well-being. Today good zoos take these things for granted, but WPZ began setting these standards decades ago. That’s part of why it has such loyal members and donors and so many repeat visitors. There’s an amazing team running WPZ, expert and passionate, and the zoo community is discerning and demanding. All that really appeals to me.
Then there’s the attraction of the Pacific Northwest itself. There’s this mix of love of nature and conservation ethic, social and technological innovation, and people willing to invest in what they really care about. All this can be leveraged to create a future where everybody’s interests matter, including those of other species, even the entire planet. I’m on fire for that.
And right in the middle of it all is WPZ. We’ll find the best balance of high-tech and hands-on. We’ll turn 1.3 million people a year into social innovators and partners in real-time conservation. We’ll grow peoples’ capacity as agents of change. We’ll do it better with more diverse segments of our society involved, because only with multiple perspectives can we see clearly. We’ll make conservation for everybody. That will define the 21st century zoo.
**BW:** What excites you most as a zoo leader?
**AG:** A good zoo is a powerful place and instrument for conservation. Close connections with animals are what set zoos and aquariums apart—nothing inspires caring like the poignancy and power of thriving animals. So, it won’t surprise you that at WPZ I see myself as the head of a great conservation organization.
What really excites me on a day to day basis is: How do ordinary people engage in conservation? Why or why not? What information or experiences are the most effective motivators? These are important questions that social science is working on, and they’re crucial to the future of our planet.
And we at zoos are at the leading edge of this! The 180 million people a year that North American zoos and aquariums attract are a fascinating universe of the how and why of conservation choices. Our research with these audiences has major implications for sharing the influences that work, whether it’s our friends and neighbors that influence us, larger social norms, or the existence of consumer incentives or barriers, just to name a few.
For example, we’ve learned that once we get beyond our reptilian brain—existing chiefly to reproduce, eat, be free from harm or pain—we then access the next layer, the biggest motivator of human behavior: our emotions. They drive our choices way more than rational information. Zoos have a special power because they foster emotional connections between people and animals and remove barriers to taking action. WPZ is pushing this further by studying how empathy, in particular, moves people to help wildlife. What can be more exciting than that?
*Bettina Woodford, PhD, Staff Writer*
The practice of drawing and painting from nature is a tradition that dates back to the beginning of human creativity. In Indonesia, a 35,400-year-old cave drawing depicts babirusa pigs and in the limestone caves of France, hundreds of animal paintings—some of which are over 35,000 years old—offer sketches of lions, bears, panthers, hyenas, horses, mammoths and even rhinoceroses.
Since our prehistoric ancestors first put charcoal to rock, artists have been drawing, painting, sculpting and photographing animals. As people refined scientific discovery, the study of the animal world was supplemented with what we now call natural science illustration. John James Audubon, Beatrix Potter and John Muir each relied on their observational skills to document the natural world.
Throughout time artists have been fascinated with depicting the creatures around them. We’ve drawn animals to trace migration for hunting, to express our spiritual connection to them, to record new species, to study their behavior, to enhance education, to plead for their preservation and at last to depict the wonder and awe we feel in their presence.
Whether you are a novice or a practiced artist, Woodland Park Zoo offers hundreds of opportunities to polish your skills. Many visitors, members, volunteers and staff can be found sketching in quiet corners of the zoo’s 92 acres.
Good luck sketching and remember to share your drawings with us on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram! #woodlandparkzoo
By Kirsten Pisto, Editor
“I am a natural science illustrator, and I wanted to depict the male Temminck’s tragopan with and without his mating display. I’ve included the sketches I made while at the zoo that were the first step in creating the final piece.”
Jess Landers, member
Tragopan temminckii, watercolor and colored pencil by Jess Landers, member.
Follow her on Instagram @jess_landers or visit jesslanders.com
Found object series, watercolor by Jenny Pransuk, WPZ.
Follow her on Facebook: Seattle Urban Naturalist
Buck, ballpoint by Misty Fried, WPZ
Red panda, pencil by Joshua Pettitt, WPZ
Sketches from the Tropical Rain Forest, pencil by Sarah Crumb, WPZ. Follow her on Instagram @captain_phantasmic
Flamingos, oil pastel by Kristin Folger, member
WOODLAND PARK ZOO
Ryan Hawk, WPZ
ANIMAL SPOTLIGHT
SISTER WOLVES
Deep in the heart of Woodland Park Zoo at the Northern Trail, four sisters, gray wolf sisters to be exact, inhabit the high tundra that overlooks the award-winning forested exhibit. The four canids were born on April 27, 2010, at New York State Zoo and arrived at Woodland Park Zoo in September 2010. Their majestic appearance and playful behavior have been delighting visitors ever since.
Wolves keep in touch by howling. This type of communication among wolves has several meanings. A howl may serve as a warning to other packs to stay away from their territory or to call the pack together after a hunt is over. Sometimes wolves howl just for the pleasure of it, and to reinforce ties between members of the pack.
The zoo’s gray wolves can be viewed from a number of locations at the zoo’s Northern Trail exhibit. They can be heard occasionally howling in the early morning and late afternoon and sometimes when sirens go by the zoo, but not in response to visitors. The best way to observe them is to stand quietly and watch the natural behaviors of a wolf pack. Visitors can spot the wolves in the foreground and elk in the background, demonstrating a predator-prey relationship. The elk add daily enrichment for the wolves and even venture down to the fence line and stand nose to nose with the girls.
Despite the name, gray wolves can be all white like our sisters or sport gray, brown or black colorations.
The sister wolves are conservation ambassadors representing the complex and volatile story of the return of the wolf to Washington state and the challenges their endangered cousins in the wild face. Given the rising political pressures and conflict between wolves and people in the Northwest and Northern Rockies, it’s important for people of all ages to connect with wolves at the zoo and learn about the challenges these predators face in the wild, the unwarranted fears and their contribution to our ecosystems.
Alissa Walken, Staff Writer
Photos by Dennis Dow and Ryan Hawk, WPZ.
Top photo, left to right: Kaya, Shila, Aponi and Daba.
GET TO KNOW THE PACK
Doba (Doh-ba)
As the “alpha” of the group, Doba is the most comfortable around people and new enrichment items. She is often visible front and center of the exhibit, where she can keep track of the other wolves. If you see a wolf gathering bones or toys that is likely to be Doba!
Shila (Shy-la)
Shila is wary of people in her space. She spends most of her time lying a bit distant from the pack or in the far north end of the exhibit along the perimeter. Shila is usually hesitant to feed with the pack, but will wait until the others are finished eating then forage for the leftovers.
Aponi (Uh pawnie)
Aponi and Kaya are in the middle of the pack and at different times will take on the “beta” position. Aponi has a very playful disposition and frequently will be seen jumping up and down with her crooked tail held high. She is the most food motivated and will frequently steal food from her sisters.
Kaya (Kie yah)
Kaya acts a bit more wary around keeper staff. She is the easiest to recognize by her facial features that resemble a German shepherd.
AGE: 6 years old | WEIGHT: range from 80 to 100 pounds
Woodland Park Zoo has been home to wolves for more than 50 years. Since 1976, 24 wolves have been born here!
Washington is home to only two native freshwater turtles, the painted turtle and one you are much less likely to see—the endangered Western pond turtle.
Once common from Baja California to Puget Sound, Western pond turtles lost ground to invasive predators, disease and habitat loss. Their condition became so dire that by 1990 only about 150 Western pond turtles remained in Washington as wetlands quickly disappeared.
To bring Western pond turtles back from the brink of extinction, Woodland Park Zoo is giving these turtles a head start during the first, most vulnerable months of their lives. For 25 years, turtles have been raised here at Woodland Park Zoo, and released into protected Washington wetlands to recover the population.
Each year, state biologists collect eggs from protected sites and volunteers deliver them to Woodland Park Zoo. The turtles hatch and are cared for by zookeepers until they grow big enough to avoid the mouths of predators such as invasive bullfrogs. Then they are returned to wild, protected sites.
The effort is paying off. Working with government and conservation partners, the recovery project has saved Washington’s last two wild Western pond turtle populations, established four new populations, and head started and released more than 2,000 turtles in 25 years. By tracking them over the years, biologists believe more than 1,000 of those have survived and continue to thrive in addition to a number of wild hatchlings.
Pond turtles can live up to 50 years. It takes a long investment to see populations recover and thrive, even as new threats emerge. But if turtles have taught us anything, slow and steady wins the race.
We don’t know what the next 25 years hold for the species, but Woodland Park Zoo is fighting to ensure there are turtles released today that will be part of that future.
SMALL IN SIZE, BIG IN IMPACT
It may seem that the survival of a small, seemingly insignificant species like the Western pond turtle is less important compared to the hundreds of other species fighting off extinction; but, as Woodland Park Zoo Curator Jenny Pramuk explains, the survival of every species matters when it comes to erasing extinction. “For the turtle or any culturally undervalued species (which in
“It is part of our biological heritage. The turtle is symbolically important to many indigenous tribes who inhabit this region.”
Jenny Pramuk, Curator
Western cultures broadly applies to all ectotherms), I like to use the metaphor of Paul and Anne Ehrlich who likened an ecosystem to the wing of an airplane. With the loss of one rivet, the plane will be fine and no one is the wiser; however, with each successive rivet lost in the plane’s structure, the plane becomes increasingly more likely to crash. So, you might not notice if the turtle goes extinct, but with the extinction of each successive species, ecosystem collapse becomes more inevitable.”
Western pond turtles require wetlands to live. Wetlands are vital to the environment because they help to filter impurities and toxins from our local waters. The turtles hold an important role in this delicate ecosystem, serving as a predator keeping invertebrate populations in check and as prey for other animals such as birds, muskrats, raccoons and other carnivores. Biologists see the turtle as a potent indicator of ecosystem health which is intrinsically linked with human health. Restoring the population of the Western pond turtle will help the ecosystem return to its natural state, which inevitably impacts human health.
**POND TURTLES NEED WETLANDS, AND WETLANDS NEED POND TURTLES**
These turtles eat algae and keep insects in check, which keep wetlands healthy. Wetlands keep us healthy by acting like the kidney of the environment. They cleanse the system and control water flow and flooding.
Puget Sound has a wet reputation, but in reality wetlands are fast disappearing as human communities expand. If we think of the Western pond turtle as a sentinel for the health of Washington’s wetlands, then their recovery becomes a beacon of hope for the entire natural system.
**EMERGING THREATS**
Ulcerative shell disease, seen by biologists at all sites in Washington, causes lesions on the turtle’s shell and can lead to mortality and fewer offspring. WPZ works with project partners, employing science-based methods to help identify the cause of this disease and develop appropriate treatments. State-of-the-art technologies such as computerized tomography (CT) scans and microbiome sequencing are being used by our state and zoo veterinarians to pinpoint the cause of this troubling disease. WPZ is also supporting research by Washington State University’s College of Veterinary Medicine.
**TAKE ACTION TODAY!**
You can help the effort to save endangered species like the Western pond turtle. Reduce pollutants to native habitat by eliminating chemical pesticides from your gardening practices. Pesticides get into water, which runs away from your garden and flows into surrounding water systems, bringing contaminants into wildlife habitat. To learn more about how you can help, visit [www.zoo.org/conservation](http://www.zoo.org/conservation).
*Alissa Walken, Staff Writer*
*Photos by Jeremy Dwyer-Lindgren, Kirsten Pisto and Ryan Hawk, WPZ*
Visit the zoo and you are likely to run into one of our 750+ volunteers. They may be zoo ambassadors or docents and they give thousands of hours each year to ensure your visit is as informative and special as can be. Recently, a very generous bequest gift from a retired docent highlighted just how passionate and giving our volunteers are. I asked several volunteers to share why they’ve included the zoo in their estate plans. Their comments mirror what many of you feel about our zoo.
Naturally, all of our volunteers are passionate about wildlife and wildlife conservation, as are our keepers, educators, and all of us who work at the zoo. One volunteer shared that “I have never met more dedicated, caring, loving and wonderful people in my lifetime.” Those experiences led her to include the zoo in her estate plans by indicating the zoo as a recipient in one of her IRAs.
Many volunteers have a favorite animal and direct their bequest gift to the care and upkeep of those specific areas of the zoo. In one case, the decision to do so came from concern after witnessing sloth bears used as “dancing bears” and begging for alms during a trip abroad. Our volunteers become a very passionate group as they learn about the vast and varied plight of wildlife throughout the world.
Most legacy donors plan to benefit multiple charitable groups, but they often list the zoo as their major interest. Being a volunteer gives them a better understanding of how important zoos are in educating guests about the importance of conservation. It reinforces the love for zoos that evolved from their childhoods; going to the hometown zoo was an immensely enriching and special experience. They are especially thankful for the zoo’s international leadership role in pioneering the creation of naturalistic exhibits which allow wildlife to express their naturalistic behaviors.
If you want to help ensure that future generations benefit from the wonder that is Woodland Park Zoo, contact Sarah Valentine at 206.548.2624 or email@example.com to learn more about how best to remember our zoo in your estate plans.
Anne Knapp, Planned Giving
The WORLD is a book, and those who do not TRAVEL, read only a page.
Explore the Galapagos with the Tip Top Fleet, including luxury marine Catamaran Tip Top II, first class yachts Tip Top III and Tip Top IV, or diving ship Nortada.
Follow in the footsteps of Darwin, explore the legendary islands and see amazing animals under the guidance of an experienced naturalist. It’s the trip of a lifetime.
Mention Woodland Park Zoo and 15% of your cruise fees will be donated to support the zoo’s world-wide conservation work.
Tip Top Travel and Rolf Wittmer Turismo believe in environmentally sound operations, using bio products derived from renewable resources, meeting international standards for quality management and environmental management systems.
www.rwittmer.com
firstname.lastname@example.org
(+593 2) 256-3181 • (+099) 813-3772
INSPIRED TO LEARN
As a first grader new to Seattle, Roxanne Sanders found herself at Woodland Park Zoo’s summer camp with a little encouragement from her parents and the idea that it might be a great place to make some friends.
Roxanne made more than friends. She began an adventure that would shape a lifelong love of animal conservation. That summer she was introduced to the grizzly bears, a jaguar and a very special gorilla. Her curiosity for the natural world and inclination to keep exploring cemented her love for the zoo and she found herself back at zoo camp year after year.
“The instructors taught you lessons about the animals, where they came from, how they live,” Roxanne says. “We got to see what the animals were doing and how they reacted to different stimuli.”
Zoo camps became part of Roxanne’s life. She attended Zooper Day Camp and Zoo U, then became a counselor in training, and now, as a high school student, she’s working as a camp assistant.
“Throughout elementary school, I knew I wanted to work with animals,” Roxanne said. “When I started thinking about college a few years ago, my parents were pushing me into medical jobs, but that wasn’t what I was interested in. I decided to go with what I wanted to do—zoology.”
“Next year I’ll be studying zoology and conservation biology in college. I am hoping to be in Africa a few years after college as well. I want to go to different countries and actively help the animals and their environment. Lab research is helpful; it gives us information and successful ways to complete certain procedures. But in the field, I will get a lot of in-your-face inspiration. That motivates me more than writing on paper ever could. That’s what I like about the zoo. They don’t just give you books about animals, you actually get to see them, and observe how they behave. You get to build relationships with these animals that really stick with you.”
Roxanne’s experiences at the zoo have inspired a passionate career. “I really empathize with animals. They haven’t done anything to compromise their planet. We cut down forests, we emit harmful gasses. They are suffering from what we have done. Being a zoologist gives a voice to the voiceless. I want to share stories from other countries since people here might not know much about what is going on throughout the world,” explains Roxanne.
“There are millions of doctors out there, but how many field conservationists and zoologists are out there? It’s not your beliefs, it’s your actions that make a difference. I really want to do something about that.”
By Jessie Maxwell, Education
On Friday, July 15, more than $1.46 million was raised at Woodland Park Zoo’s premier fundraiser, Jungle Party! These funds help underwrite your zoo’s world-class animal care, education programs for people of all ages, and conservation collaborations in the Pacific Northwest and around the world.
Each year, Jungle Party attracts nearly 1,000 generous civic and philanthropic leaders from the Puget Sound region. This summer, Michael Katz, U.S. Bank Puget Sound Market President and Stephanie Lucero Katz chaired the event. Their leadership and enthusiasm helped make Seattle’s wildest fundraiser a roaring success, providing important philanthropic support that ensures our ability to continue offering exciting and educational wildlife experiences for our entire community.
We extend our wildest thanks to all of our friends and supporters who helped make Jungle Party a night to remember!
GRIZZLY BEAR CO-TITLE SPONSORS
Boeing
Brown Bear Car Wash
US Bank
GRAY WOLF SPONSORS
Cigna
Comcast
Costco
Snoqualmie Tribe
Sound Community Bank
Starbucks
SILVERSPOT BUTTERFLY SPONSORS
Columbia Bank
Deloitte
Iron Springs Resort
Moss Adams
NBBJ
Union Bank
USI Kibble & Prentice
PREMIER AIRLINE PARTNER
Alaska Airlines
EXCLUSIVE WI-FI SPONSOR
Cisco
DINNER WINE SPONSOR
For a Song Wines
www.zoo.org
EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSES
Designed for parents/caregivers to attend with their children.
See our website for class descriptions.
WALKIN’ AND ROLLIN’
Ages: Birth – 18 months
Time: 9:00 – 10:30 a.m.
Fee: $100/6-week session each adult/child pair
9326: Thursdays, Sept 8 – Oct 13
TINY TYKE TIME
Ages: 18 – 36 months
Time: 9:00 - 10:30 a.m.
Fee: $100/6-week session each adult/child pair
9316: Wednesdays, Sept 7 – Oct 12
ZOO SPROUTS
Ages: 3 – 5 years
Time: 10:00 – 11:30 a.m.
Fee: $25 each adult/child pair; $10/ additional child 3-5 years
3356: Sept 13, Plucky Penguins
3366: Sept 27, Terrific Tails
3416: Oct 11, Big Brown Bears
3426: Oct 19, Exploring the Evergreens
3436: Oct 25, Spooky Spiders
3446: Oct 27, Farm and Foliage
3456: Nov 2, Zoo Vets
3466: Nov 3, Hungry, Hungry Hippos
SCOUT CLASSES
Each class is designed to meet scout award requirements for Girl Scout Brownies, Girl Scout Juniors or Cub Scouts. One adult for every 6 scouts is required and included in the registration fee.
See our website for more information at www.zoo.org/scoutclasses
Age: 5 – 12 years
Time: 10:00 a.m. – noon
Fee: $18/scout, $10/additional adult
1416: Oct 15, Bugs (Girl Scout Brownies Badge)
NEW 1426: Oct 22, Fur, Feathers and Ferns (Cub Scout Bear Requirement)
1436: Nov 12, Animal Habitats (Girl Scout Juniors Badge)
PARENTS’ NIGHT OUT
Kids will enjoy a fun-filled evening with zoo staff inside Zoomazium or the African Village/Education Center while you enjoy a night out on the town. Supervised activities include games, an educational film, a live animal encounter, plus pizza for dinner!
Ages: 4 – 11 years
Time: 5:30 – 10:00 p.m.
Fee: $30/child, $22 each additional sibling
1326: Saturday, Aug 27 – African Village
4336: Friday, Sept 16 – Zoomazium
4416: Saturday, Oct 15 – Zoomazium
1416: Saturday, Oct 29 – African Village
4426: Saturday, Nov 5 – Zoomazium
BUG CLUB
Ages: 5 – 12 years
Time: 10:00 a.m. – noon, Oct 23, Nov 20 and Dec 18
Fee: $55 per quarter plus a one-time $12 materials fee for new members
PRESCHOOL AND KINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS FOR SCHOOL GROUPS
Bring your young learners to the zoo for a fun-filled class including a guessing game with animal specimens and a short tour! Programs are 45 minutes to one hour long and available to kindergartens, preschools, daycare centers and other groups of 10-18 children and one adult for every four children. Offered Sept.-April each year, please call for availability.
Fee: $10.25 per person, includes admission
WHO AM I?
• African Savanna
• Tropical Rain Forest
• Family Farm
SENIOR PROGRAMS
SENIOR CLASSES
Each class generally includes an educational presentation and an activity before heading on grounds for a short zoo tour.
See our website for class descriptions at www.zoo.org/education/adult
Time: 10:00 – 11:30 a.m.
Fee: $20
5336: Sep 7, Chilean Flamingos
5416: Oct 5, Grazers of Africa
5426: Nov 2, Snow Leopards – Ghosts of the Mountains
5436: Dec 7, Trip to the Taiga
SENIOR ZOO WALKERS
For individuals 55 and older; please see our website for information at www.zoo.org/education/adult
ZOO OVERNIGHT AND EVENING ADVENTURES
Reserve your 2017 Zoo Adventure Now!
All Zoo Adventures include a pizza dinner and an exclusive after hours look at the zoo! Overnight Adventures also include a light breakfast. Zoo Adventures are offered March through mid-November. Program runs rain or shine so come prepared for any weather.
Ages: 7 years and up
Time: Overnight Adventures run 6:30 p.m.–9:30 a.m.
Evening Adventures run 6:30 – 10:00 p.m.
Fee: Prices range from $38-58/person, depending on program selected.
For more information and to register, visit www.zoo.org/overnights. Questions? Email email@example.com
ADVENTURES FOR YOUR GROUP OF 22 OR MORE:
• A Zookeeper’s Life for Me!
• Stealthy Science: Research After Dark
• Living Wild!
SCOUTS FOR ADVENTURE
All fall scout Zoo Adventures will be held in Zoomazium.
Sep 9: Girl Scouts, Stealthy Science: Research After Dark
Sep 17: Girl Scouts, A Zookeeper’s Life for Me!
Sep 30: Girl Scouts, Living Wild!
Oct 1: Cub Scouts, Stealthy Science: Research After Dark
Oct 14: Girl Scouts, A Zookeeper’s Life for Me!
SCHOOL YEAR CAMPS
These camps coincide with select days off of school for several local school districts. PM Extended Day is available for all full-day sessions.
ANIMAL SUPERHEROS
(1-Day Camp)
Everyone can be a superhero for animals! Together we’ll use our new found powers to find out what kids like us can do to help the animals and plants we love.
Ages: 5–9 years
Fee: $85
6416: Oct 14, 9:00 a.m.–4:00 p.m.
IT’S RAINING CATS AND DOGS
(3-Day Camp)
Ever noticed how many different species of cats and dogs we have at the zoo? They seem to be everywhere! Join us as we learn about some of the numerous wild cat and dog species in the world. We will even talk about that domesticated cat or dog you might have at home!
Half-Day Session:
Ages: 4–6 years
Fee: $135
6426: Nov 21–23, 9:00 a.m.–noon
Full-Day Session:
Ages: 5–9 years
Fee: $215
6436: Nov 21–23, 9:00 a.m.–4:00 p.m.
WORLD TRAVELERS
(5-Day Camp)
Travel the world without ever leaving Seattle and explore the plants, animals and cultures of a new place each day. Through crafts and activities we’ll learn how animals and plants have special adaptations to match their habitats. Pack your bags for this awesome week at zoo camp!
Half-Day Session:
Ages: 4–6 years
Fee: $180
6446: Dec 19-23, 9:00 a.m.–noon
Full-Day Session:
Ages: 5–9 years
Fee: $295
6456: Dec 19–23, 9:00 a.m.–4:00 p.m.
WORLD WIDE WEBS
(4-Day Camp)
We’re all connected in this world! Discover how living and non-living things are intertwined within ecosystems.
Half-Day Session:
Ages: 4–6 years
Fee: $165
6466: Dec 27–30, 9:00 a.m.–noon
Full-Day Session:
Ages: 5–9 years
Fee: $265
6476: Dec 27–30, 9:00 a.m.–4:00 p.m.
NATURE EXPERIMENTS
(1-Day Camp)
Animal scientists do experiments all the time. Become a scientist as you conduct your own experiments to learn about nocturnal animals, tracking, vegetation and more.
Ages: 5–9 years
Fee: $100
6117: Feb 1, 9:00 a.m.–4:00 p.m.
SPRING CAMPS
Visit our website at www.zoo.org/school_year_camps and read future publications for details.
Bears need to eat lots of calories during the fall season to put on enough weight to stay healthy through their winter hibernation. Grizzlies eat anything they can find including berries, roots, insects and grubs as well as salmon and other fish. Their diet depends on what foods are around each season.
Add up the food points for each bear every time its path crosses a meal. Write the total food points above each bear’s name.
**POINT VALUES:**
- Root = 1
- Berries = 2
- Salmon = 8
- Grub = 4
**BONUS:** When bears hibernate, their heart rate slows from 40 beats per minute to ________ beats per minute. This majorly deep snooze allows the grizzlies to save precious energy. Solve the bonus problem above by replacing the bear’s name with their food points.
Benxi – Beatrix = ______ = X
Bronx – X = ______ = the answer!
**ANSWERS:** Benxi ate 36 food points, he is the winner! Beatrix ate 25 food points. Bronx only ate 19 food points. Bonus: 8 heartbeats per minute.
North American river otters have large teeth with especially sharp canines. Their large molars (back teeth) are used for crushing hard objects like clam shells and crab claws.
Adult river otters have 36 teeth! Their powerful jaws can crush bones.
Wolves use body language to communicate. In addition to howling and scent marking, wolves have a wide range of body language to let their pack know what’s up. They rely on their posture, facial expression, ear and tail positioning, and more to communicate. They have a different move for play, aggression, submission and even ambivalence. If you’ve ever been to the dog park, you might have seen this behavior in Fido too.
This book is TURTLEY AWESOME!
Baby animals are sometimes hard to find. They stay hidden in dens and nests where they are safe. Use these baby animals to play hide and seek with a twist. On his or her turn, the seeker will pick an animal and the hiders must move and make sounds like that animal. Switch animals on the next turn. Good luck!
Where would a baby turtle like to hide? What about a gosling or a porcupette?
MAKE A NATURE JOURNAL
Keeping a journal is a good way to remember all the wonderful things you’ve seen in nature!
1. Collect small items from the ground (leaves, sticks or small rocks)
2. Decorate with your words or art (leaf rubbings or drawings)
3. Remember to write down the location and date on each page
For 25 years Woodland Park Zoo has been helping endangered Western pond turtles grow big enough to escape the mouths of predators. When they are released back into the wild the turtles have a head start on survival!
ROOSEVELT ELK inhabit Pacific coastal rain forests of the Olympic mountains, as well as the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains. Roosevelt elk are the largest of North American elk, with a powerful physique that enables them to swim, break through deep snow and climb into high elevations.
Meet Goodwyn
Here you can see our male (bull) elk, Goodwyn, and watch the growth of his magnificent antlers over a 5 month period.
The antlers of a bull elk grow during spring and summer, underneath a fuzzy covering known as velvet. In late summer the velvet dries and falls off to reveal bonelike fully grown antlers. Elk shed their antlers in February and then new antlers begin to grow.
Lookin’ good, Goodwyn!
The antlers of Roosevelt elk are thick and have vertical points, with a distinctive three-point tip. Their antlers average 4 feet in length!
Draw your own!
Use the space provided to fill in and draw your own elk antlers.
Have you met the newest member of our red panda family? Adopt Carson, our 2-year-old male and resident heart-stealer, and receive a plush animal, adoption certificate and more. Best of all, your support will fund the daily care and feeding of all the zoo inhabitants.
YOUR ADOPTION PACKAGE INCLUDES:
• Red panda plush
• Personalized adoption certificate
• Animal fact sheet
• Color photo of animal
• ZooParent window decal
• Online recognition for one year
Or, upgrade your adoption to the $100 level and get two one-time use admission passes and your name on the ZooParent recognition sign on grounds for a full year, starting March 2017!
Visit Carson in the Temperate Forest (look for his uniquely pale face and lighter coat), and then go online at zoo.org/zooparentspecial to adopt him today!
Special available through October 31, 2016.
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Things move and change all the time. Why? The answer is energy. Energy is the ability to do work or cause change. There are two kinds of energy, kinetic energy and potential energy.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Larger moving objects have more kinetic energy than smaller objects moving at the same speed. Faster moving objects have more kinetic energy than slower moving objects with the same mass.
An object does not have to be moving to have energy. Non-moving objects can have potential energy. Potential energy is stored energy, or energy that is not being used.
work – the result of a force moving an object in the direction of the force
kinetic energy – the energy of motion
potential energy – stored energy
An object can have stored energy because of its condition. Photo A shows the string wound around the yo-yo’s center. The wound string gives the yo-yo the potential to spin as it unwinds and rewinds.
An object can also have potential energy due to its position. Before a yo-yo is dropped it has potential energy due to position.
Photos B, C, and D show how the yo-yo’s energy can change from potential to kinetic energy, or from kinetic to potential energy.
A yo-yo can have potential energy due to position and due to condition.
B Potential energy can change to kinetic energy.
C Potential energy due to position is zero.
D Kinetic energy can change to potential energy.
KEY IDEA There are two kinds of energy, kinetic energy and potential energy.
Different Forms of Energy
Kinetic energy and potential energy can be found in many different forms.
The chart below summarizes some important forms of energy.
vibrations – quick back and forth movements
| Form of Energy | Description | Example |
|----------------|-------------|---------|
| Thermal | Energy resulting from the movement of particles of matter | ![Image] |
| Light | Energy we can see that can travel through space | ![Image] |
| Chemical | Energy produced in some kinds of matter | ![Image] |
| Electrical | Energy stored inside the particles of some kinds of matter | ![Image] |
| Mechanical | The sum of an object’s kinetic and potential energy | ![Image] |
| Sound | Energy formed by vibrations that can be heard | ![Image] |
Changes in Energy Form Produce Heat
Energy often changes from one form to another. Look at photos A and B. When the flashlight is turned on, light energy travels through the glass. Some of the light energy changes to mechanical energy, which makes the toy’s arms turn.
Nearly every change in energy form produces heat. As a light bulb changes electrical energy to light energy, the light bulb also produces heat. Heat is the transfer of energy from an object with a higher temperature to an object with a lower temperature.
**heat** – the transfer of energy from a higher-temperature object to a lower-temperature object
**SHARE IDEAS** Compare the toy’s arms in photos A and B. Explain what has happened.
**KEY IDEAS** There are many forms of energy. A change from one form of energy to another can produce heat.
Heat transfer can occur in three different ways: by conduction, convection, or radiation.
Conduction transfers heat through the tiny particles that make up matter. Heat moves through most solids by conduction. Metals are good heat conductors. Wood and plastic are poor heat conductors.
Heat moves through many liquids and gases by convection. The hotter liquid or gas rises while the cooler liquid or gas sinks.
Radiation transfers heat through air or empty space. Matter is not needed. Heat from the sun travels through space to warm Earth by radiation.
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"Why Am I So Thirsty?"
Questions & Answers About Being Thirsty for Folks on Dialysis
The ESRD Network of Texas
Q: Why am I so thirsty between my dialysis treatments?
A: There are many reasons why you could be thirsty. Here are some:
1. You could be eating foods that have salt added, or are made with salty ingredients. Salt will make anyone thirstier!
2. If you have diabetes and your blood sugars are running higher than they should be, you will be thirsty!
3. You could be taking certain kinds of medicines that make your mouth dry.
4. If the weather is hot, you could be getting overheated.
Remember, the urge to drink is natural, especially for people with kidney failure. Thirst can be changed by many things (including some dialysis medicines, such as saline given during a treatment).
Perhaps even knowing that you’re not supposed to drink very much may make you want more!
Q: Now that I know what could make me thirsty, what do I do next?
A: Think about the reasons for being thirsty, and imagine how to solve each one.
1. Use unsalted seasonings, herbs and spices in your cooking. There are some commercial spice blends that are good. Basic flavorings like pepper, garlic and onion are enough for some people, while others like fresh jalapeño, red pepper, lemon or vinegar in certain foods.
Buy meats that are fresh, not smoked or cured. Pickled foods are salty! If you eat restaurant meals or have fast foods, these are almost always cooked with salt. Also, canned meats, canned soups and many condiments and sauces are salty. Watch out for chips and crackers! Ask your dietitian for more helpful tips.
2. If you have diabetes and have high blood sugars, then you will be more thirsty. There are many things that can affect your blood sugar, such as food, exercise, medicines and infection. Talk to your doctor, nurse and dietitian about ways to improve YOUR blood sugar levels.
If you are having trouble getting supplies to manage your diabetes, talk with your social worker.
3. Ask your doctor if one or more of your medicines could be causing you to have a dry mouth. Is there a possibility that this drug could be changed? Your doctor may want to try certain medicines that could possibly decrease your thirst.
4. In warm weather, be prepared to keep cool if you don’t have air-conditioning! Try to stay out of the sun! One trick is to keep a spray bottle of fresh water handy. Spray your face and arms to cool off quickly under a fan.
Q: My doctor told me not to drink much water, and I don’t. In fact, I don’t drink ANY water, and I still gain too much weight between my treatments. Why is that?
A: It could be that you are eating other things that count as fluid.
- Many people enjoy chewing ice. Ice melts down to water!
- Gelatin (Jello ®), popsicles, snow cones, ice cream, sherbet, watermelon, soup, gravy and other “juicy” foods can all add up to a high fluid intake.
- Of course, ALL kinds of drinks are counted just like water.
- Don’t forget to count ANY drink you use to take your medicines.
"Why Am I So Thirsty?"
You can keep track of all the liquids you drink in a day.
- Start with an empty liter-sized bottle or a quart jar.
\[ 4 \text{ cups} = 1 \text{ Quart (1 Liter)} \]
- Each time you drink, pour the same amount that you just drank into the bottle. When that bottle is full, you may be done with your fluid allowance for the day!
You can also keep an easy chart. Use the chart shown on the next 2 pages as a guide to get you started.
Check with your dietitian about the fluid limit that's right for you.
MY FLUID for the DAY
| Day | 1 cup | 2 cups | 3 cups |
|---------|-------|--------|--------|
| Monday | | | |
| Tuesday | | | |
| Wednesday| | | |
| Thursday| | | |
| Friday | | | |
| Saturday| | | |
| Sunday | | | |
Color in as you drink.
Q: Those are good tips. Do you have anymore ideas that you could share?
A: Sure! These are ideas that have worked for other people on dialysis. See if these work for you:
- Try sucking on small bits of ice instead of drinking larger amounts of water.
- Use a smaller glass with meals.
- Take your medicines with your mealtime beverage.
- How about refreshing your mouth by brushing your teeth more often?
Some people enjoy keeping a bottle of minty mouthwash in the refrigerator for a cold swish and gargle any time of the day!
Athletic chewing gum can help your thirst for a short time because your mouth will make more saliva.
A frozen lemon slice or frozen grape may be just enough to take the edge off your thirst. (Keep in mind that a whole lemon or 15 grapes is a serving of fruit).
Managing fluid may not always be easy, especially when there are other pressures in your life. If you’re feeling down about your struggles with kidney failure, like limiting your fluids, your social worker can help you.
Any trick that YOU can think of to better manage your thirst could be a good idea. When you control your fluid intake, your rewards will be:
“Better dialysis treatments, and keeping your heart in better condition?”
“Yes! With less swelling and less shortness of breath between treatments!”
Share YOUR SUCCESS with your dietitian, so that your ideas can be shared with others. Published by Network #14 while under contract with the Health Care Financing Administration, Baltimore, Maryland. The Network contract no. is 500-97-EO 32.
The ESRD Network of Texas
14114 Dallas Parkway, Suite 660
Dallas, Texas 75240
(972) 503-3215
Supported by:
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WOOL
For 10,000 years they have provided humanity with food and clothing. Sheep were one of the first domesticated animals on earth. They have no natural defense to protect them against predators other than the sheep producers who care for them.
Sheep are gentle creatures. They tend to stay together in groups. They have poor eyesight, an excellent sense of smell and hear very well. Often a lead sheep wears a bell to guide the flock. Their hooves are split allowing them to climb steep inclines if necessary. They have no top front teeth, which permits them to eat vegetation located very close to the ground. Their unique bite also prevents them from pulling up the roots and destroying the lands they graze. Sheep give us food and fiber. The food is called lamb and the fiber is called wool.
Wool comes from sheep. The farmer or rancher must shear the sheep. This means they give the sheep a "haircut." Shearing time is an important time for producers. Sheep are shorn carefully to protect the valuable fleece (the wool) and to protect the sheep. A good shearer can shear 125 sheep a day. In some climates, sheep need shelter after being shorn. However, within a week, their fleeces have grown back to provide them with protection from the weather. The wool is usually about 3 to 3 1/2 inches long.
The 8 to 12 pounds of wool on each animal must be shorn every year to keep the animal comfortable and healthy. The sheep stay cooler in the summer without their heavy coats. Wool fibers have an outer layer of tiny scales. If examined up close you would see they look like a pine cone. These scales keep dirt away from the sheep's skin and keeps the cloth from getting dirty. Wool fibers have the ability to act like coil springs. If pushed together, the wool springs back. Crimps or waves in the fiber trap millions of tiny air pockets within the wool. The layer of air keeps out the cold. Wool fibers act like an umbrella. The fibers are covered with a thin coating which helps keep the wool dry when it rains. Certain parts of the sheep's wool are better for cloth than others.
The fleeces are then bagged and shipped to a warehouse to be sold. Once sold the wool is washed to remove dirt, vegetable matter and grease. The grease is separated from the wash water and purified to produce lanolin, the natural ingredient in cosmetics, creams and lotions. Then the wool is brushed and the fibers are straightened. The wool is then spun into yarn and later knit or woven into woolen fabrics.
Coarser wools produce woolen fabrics often used in carpeting and upholstery. Finer wools produce worsted fabrics such as crepe and garbadine used to make quality suits and dresses. Wool is produced naturally, continually and without chemicals from natural resources. Wool is a pure organic product and is unlike any other fiber in the world. It's naturally durable, resilient and absorbent. Wool is easy to care for.
In a world filled with disposable products and chemical substitutes for nearly everything, the American sheep producers are proud of the high-quality food and clothing they produce from nature's renewable resources.
QUESTIONS
1. Why do some sheep wear bells while in a flock?
2. Why do sheep have split hooves?
3. What 2 main products do we get from sheep?
4. Where does wool come from?
5. How does a farmer get the wool from the sheep?
6. Does a sheep regrow his wool?
7. What is lanolin?
8. Name 4 products that we have as a result of shearing sheep?
SHEEP BY-PRODUCTS
Other parts of sheep such as bones and hooves are used to make many useful items. These other parts are called by-products. Sheep by-products help make the following items:
* cellophane wrap * dice * paint
* instrument strings * chewing gum * medicines
* creams and lotions * crayons * candles
* shampoo * piano keys * buttons
* wallpaper and * insulation * cosmetics
wallpaper paste * nitrogen fertilizer * biodegradable detergents
Sheep Industry
Sheep were one of the first domesticated animals. They provided their herder with his basic needs of food, clothing, and shelter. Columbus brought the first sheep to America. In fact, the sale of wool helped pay his way.
The mother sheep is called an ewe and each year she has 1 to 3 lambs. The father sheep is called a ram.
Once each year before summer, the farmer shears his sheep. Shearing is like giving the sheep a haircut. The wool comes off in one piece which is called the fleece. The wool is then washed, dyed, and spun into yarn to make clothing, rugs, and blankets.
Sheep are also raised to provide meat. The meat from a grown sheep is called mutton and that from a young sheep is called lamb. Lamb is a very popular meat on the east and west coasts of the United States.
ACTIVITY:
The wool industry has added to our language. Try this mix and match activity to learn some of the ways.
1. When a person has a timid or guilty look we say they look______________________.
2. March comes in like a lion and goes out like a _______________________________.
3. To fool someone is to______________________________________________________.
4. We sometimes refer to the Old West as_______________________________________.
5. Years ago, a college diploma was sometimes called a __________________________.
6. If your name is______________________, one of your ancestors probably operated a loom.
7. Sometimes we say people are “______________________________as a lamb.”
8. To go to sleep, some people count__________________________________________.
A. Lamb
B. Meek
C. Pull the wool over their eyes.
D. Sheep
E. Sheepish
F. Sheepskin
G. Weaver
H. Wild and Wooly
A female sheep is called an ewe. A male sheep is called a ram. A baby sheep is called a lamb. Sheep grow fluffy wool all over their bodies. Wool keeps them warm and dry. Sheep must have a haircut once a year. This is called shearing. Sheep have split hooves so that they can climb rocky hills. They do not have any top front teeth. The roof of their mouth is hard so that they can eat grass. They are gentle animals and do not bite.
Sheep make a bleating sound. A baby lamb can identify its mother by her bleat. Sheep like to graze. Graze means the sheep eat growing grasses.
Sheep give us food and fiber. The food is called lamb and the fiber is called wool. Wool fiber is used to make clothes.
Answer the following questions about what you have read:
1. What is an ewe?
2. What is a ram?
3. What is a lamb?
4. What does shearing mean?
5. Why do sheep have split hooves?
6. Name one thing sheep eat.
7. How do lambs find their mothers?
8. What products do we get from sheep?
9. What do we use wool for?
LEARNING ABOUT SHEPHERDS
Sheep are raised all over the United States. New Mexico has many sheep. Sheep are raised on farms and ranches. Large sheep ranches often have shepherds—men or women who care for the sheep on the range. Shepherds feed and protect the sheep. If a sheep gets sick, the shepherd helps it get well. Shepherds live alone, often in a tent. Shepherds are nomadic which means they move from place to place with their sheep. They move to find fresh grass for the sheep to eat. Shepherds provide salt blocks for the sheep to lick. They also herd the sheep to water so they can drink.
Often a shepherd has a dog that works with him. Working dogs are very intelligent and work with the shepherd to herd the sheep. They will bark and run around the sheep to make them move. Most young working dogs first learn how to herd sheep by watching their mothers. A dog trainer will also help them learn. Shepherds may have two to three dogs for every 1,000 sheep.
Guarding dogs are used to protect the sheep from wild animals such as coyotes, bears and cougars. Guarding dogs prefer to be with sheep and are very protective of them. Guarding dogs stay with the sheep at night and bark to scare wild animals away.
Answer the following questions:
1. What does a shepherd do?
2. What does nomadic mean?
3. How do the sheep dogs help the shepherd?
4. How does a sheepdog learn to work?
5. Would you like to be a shepherd? Why or why not?
DO YOU KNOW . . . there are many environmental and economical advantages to Wool?
1. Wool is biodegradable and can safely break down in approximately five days to five months, depending on climatic conditions.
2. Wool is a great choice for mopping up both marine and land oil spills. Wool soaks up oil while repelling water.
3. Wool can absorb oil at a rate of 16 to 30 times its own weight.
4. Wool can be re-used as many as eight times, and the oil squeezed from the wool can be utilized for normal use.
5. Wool can be used to clean oil from wildlife, such as birds, without removing their natural body oils and fluids.
6. Wool is a natural, replenishing material.
7. Wool is fire-resistant.
8. Wool is produced and manufactured in the USA!
SHEARING: Spring is usually shearing time for sheep. Sheep have their wool removed in one piece called a fleece.
SCOURED: The fleece is washed in big tubs to remove dirt, grease and grass.
CARDING: The clean dry wool is then carded. Carding means to comb the wool to straighten the fibers.
SPINNING: The wool is spun into yarn. Coarser wool is spun into woolen yarn. Finer wool is spun into worsted yarn.
KNITTING/WEAVING: The yarn is knit or woven into fabric.
WOOLEN: Woolen yarn is usually used in carpets or thick sweaters.
WORSTED: Worsted yarn is usually used to make lightweight fabrics for suits and dresses.
WORD SEARCH
There are 12 words here - can you find them?
DAWEAVINGZHJ CARDING
GZKPWOOLENHH KNITTING
RPBSVPMEDIUM SPINNING
NKPZMOFKJHPY WOOLEN
PGBXRCKDZWWA COARSE
WWQVXQLXLHSR MEDIUM
OORQUKFUGDN WEAVING
ROKNITTINGHC WORSTED
SLUNYCARDING FINE
TCOARSEFINEZ SCOURED
EGPASPINNING WOOL
DSCOUREDHGW YARN
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Does it sometimes seem like your child is lost in another world? Teens and tweens often are. Here’s why—and what you can do to connect.
Teens and tweens face a lot of pressure—from parents, peers, school, and everywhere else.
Kids this age are:
- Developing their identities
- Discovering their sexuality
- Facing competing priorities
- Trying to meet parents’ and teachers’ expectations
- Making big decisions about their future
- Comparing themselves to others on social media
...all while their bodies are changing and their brains are still developing.
Warning signs of problems:
- Frequent and intense mood swings
- Risky behavior
- Changes in eating habits
- Withdrawing from friends
- Poor grades
- Increased irritability
- Sleeping too much or too little
- Cutting or otherwise hurting themselves
What to do: 9 tips
1. Start the conversation.
Look for times to talk one-on-one when your child isn’t busy doing something else, like when you’re in the car. It helps if they don’t have to make eye contact.
2. State the facts.
Avoid giving an opinion. Be specific about what you’ve observed: “I noticed you’ve failed your last two math tests and I remember how you used to love math.”
3. Stay calm.
Use your normal voice. Don’t let your concern come out as anger or fear—it can make them feel defensive.
4. Stick to the present.
Don’t dig up past mistakes or lecture them about how their actions now may affect their future. Kids’ brains aren’t developed enough to think through long-term consequences.
5. Ask what you can do to help.
It’s important to ask first rather than simply announce what you plan to do—even if you’ve thought long and hard about it. Kids want more independence as they grow up, not less.
6. Suggest ideas.
If they’re not sure what to do, try saying something like “I have some ideas that might help—would you like to hear them?” It will make them feel more in control.
7. Ask for help.
Treat mental health issues the same way you treat physical health issues: See a doctor. If your child has thoughts of hurting themselves, call 911 or go to your nearest emergency room.
8. Be a good role model.
Show your child it’s ok to talk about mental health problems. Let them see how you take care of yourself, too. You can even bring up times when you’ve struggled with the problems they’re facing right now.
9. Find support.
You and your child are not alone. One in five kids has a mental health problem. Reach out to your child’s doctor, a mental health professional, or local or online groups.
Help is out there! Register today for more mental health resources.
Already registered?
Log in now: rewardsforhealthyliving.com
Still need to sign up?
Go to rewardsforhealthyliving.com and follow the instructions.
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TABLEAU
: snapshot or still scene created by a group
Successful tableaus have:
* students who work well as a team and listen to each other.
* students who use facial expressions to show how their character is feeling in the scene.
* students who use their bodies to create a person/thing by standing completely still.
* students who move quietly and stay silent once in position.
* students who place themselves at high, middle, and low levels.
AND.......ACTION!
Can you guess which scene these students created from the fairy tales listed?
Jack and the Beanstalk
Sleeping Beauty
The Princess and the Frog
Cinderella
You decide.....Are they showing all 3 levels? Are they using their bodies and facial expressions?
HOT SEAT
Step into character. Answer questions and respond using character’s point of view.
Character
*student steps into role as a character
*student portrays the character’s traits
*student talks as the character would
*student responds to questions and comments using the character’s point of view
*student steps out of role as a character
Audience
*student accesses prior knowledge to ask character questions
*student greets character before interacting
*student asks thoughtful seeking questions
*student stays away from one word answer questions
Glue 3D Origami Hot Seat Chair here
Or illustrate character in Hot Seat
What is your favorite thing to do in the summer?
I am going to tell you about my favorite animal. It is a _________. I like it because it can _________.
I am going to tell you about my favorite animal, the elephant! Elephants are very big and they have long trunks. They use their trunks to pick up things and to drink water. Elephants live in Africa and Asia. They like to eat grass and leaves. Elephants are very smart animals. They can remember where to find food and water. Elephants are also very social animals. They live in groups called herds. Elephants are gentle animals and they do not like to fight. Elephants are endangered animals because people are taking away their homes and food. We need to protect elephants so that they can continue to live in the wild.
I love to sing!
I am going to tell my friends about the new playground equipment.
I am excited to share my ideas with others!
I'm excited to share my ideas with everyone!
I am going to sing a song about my favorite animal, the elephant!
I am excited to share my ideas with others and learn from their perspectives.
I am going to tell you about my favorite animal, the elephant.
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IMPACT REPORT 2019
TELETHON KIDS INSTITUTE
Discover. Prevent. Cure.
INTRODUCTION
4 Message from our Director
6 Our award-winning researchers
8 Our research at a glance
TRANSLATION
16 Smooth sailing for Drina thanks to burden-breaking technology
19 New focus on type 2 diabetes
20 Friendly Schools goes from strength to strength
22 Landmark folate research recognised as major public health achievement
24 Unique ClinKids a marriage of research and practice
26 New friend to improve social attention of kids with autism
27 National Guideline provides uniform approach to autism diagnosis
28 Campaign pays off as alcohol labelling gets green light
30 Banksia Hill Project’s ripple effect
32 Alcohol screening tool transforming treatment and practice
35 Allen makes a pathway to happy, healthy childhood
36 New drug therapy provides hope for kids with cystic fibrosis
38 Game aims to alleviate depression for trans youth
40 Helping hand on home stretch to adulthood
PARADIGM SHIFT
46 Rapid response to e-cigarette findings
49 Let the sun shine in
52 Grant giving wings to a generation of Indigenous leaders
55 Horses helping healing
56 Graduation goals for community researchers
58 Pioneering research could be key to keeping cancer in check
61 WA-first technique fast tracks urgent vaccine policy
62 Researchers unlock key to slowing leukaemia progression in kids
COLLABORATING FOR IMPACT
66 Early Years Initiative off to strong start
68 Bobbie brings baby’s brain to life
70 ‘Mama’ Deb’s dedication to saving children in Papua New Guinea
73 Wardjanga Maniti Warranjia – together we walk on country
76 FASD conference unites policy, science and lived experience
78 Parents helping to put FASD into perspective
79 Driving a vaccine revolution
81 Vital role for Telethon Kids
82 Global consortium aims to protect babies from their first week of life
83 Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation grant aims to prevent deadly infections in early life
84 People power takes tiny study to the next level
86 Kardinya family jump at chance to join star study
88 Collaboration key to wet cough prevention
92 Child removal data fuels case for change
IN THE PIPELINE
96 Embracing the mental health of our children and young people
100 Busting myths around stillbirth
102 WA data crucial to key stillbirth finding
103 Helping kids get the most out of school
106 Energy drinks not OK for kids
108 Predicted analytics propel rare disease diagnoses
110 Ending the cycle of ‘not knowing’
111 Big data science may help unlock simple test for asthma
114 Ending deadly heart disease finally within our sights
117 Finding answers for Tenaya: from a sore throat to open-heart surgery
119 Guidelines struggle to keep pace with technology
121 ORIGINS Project grows in leaps and bounds
Our special thanks to those who have contributed to this report: Tamara Blunter, Amy Birch, Caroline West, Tammy Brown, Elizabeth Beattie, Helen Campbell, Amanda Chilcott, Alison Stanley-Campbell, Kate Hayhurst, Mary Edwards, Alison Rattray, Karen Smith, Georgie Schorp, Pauline D’Arcy, Tony McDonough, Ross Swanborough, and the researchers and families whose stories we have shared.
In 2012, we committed to creating a new blueprint for a medical research institute – one that judges itself by its ability to make a difference. We wanted to ensure our research was being translated into real-life outcomes for kids, young people, families and communities. While there is still a long way to go, we have taken big strides forward in delivering on that promise.
Fast forward to 2019, and our new strategic plan has an even stronger and bolder focus on impact.
Our mission is clear: to improve the health, development and lives of children and young people through excellence in research – and importantly, the application of that knowledge.
Impact, making a measurable difference, is the first of the four strategic pillars that underpin our work.
For our research to have impact, it not only needs to be high quality and innovative, it must be useful and used.
That’s why we are working closely with community, practitioners and policy makers to set research priorities. Research also needs to be translated and disseminated locally, nationally and internationally so it can lead to meaningful changes to policy and practice.
Our Impact! Report shows that this is more than simply rhetoric. It highlights research that is making a difference. Some of our research is already being applied to improve real world outcomes for kids. Some is well along the impact pipeline and some research is changing the way we think about complex problems.
Collaboration and partnerships are integral to achieving our mission so we also highlight some of the special partnerships we have with the community, government, service providers and industry.
Making a difference inspires all our work at Telethon Kids and I am grateful to have committed staff who are passionate about living up to that promise, as you will see from the stories in this report.
To find out more, visit our website at telethonkids.org.au
Jonathan Carapetis AM
Director
Professor Jonathan Carapetis with Nirvana in the Discovery Centre, supported by Lotterywest
The excellence of Telethon Kids Institute researchers has been recognised at multiple State and National awards ceremonies over the past year, including the Queen’s Birthday Honours, the WA Premier’s Science Awards, and the annual WA Business News 40under40 Awards.
**Professor Jonathan Carapetis AM**
*Member of the Order of Australia (AM)*
In June 2018, Institute Director Professor Jonathan Carapetis was made a Member of the Order of Australia (AM). The award, made as part of the annual Queen’s Birthday Honours, recognised his significant contribution towards paediatrics and medicine – specifically his commitment to diagnosis, treatment and prevention of rheumatic heart disease. Later that month, Professor Carapetis and Head of Aboriginal Health Research, Glenn Pearson, were finalists at the 2018 Western Australian of the Year Awards.
**Dr Melissa O’Donnell**
*Woodside Early Career Scientist of the Year*
Dr Melissa O’Donnell was named Woodside Early Career Scientist of the Year at the 2018 Premier’s Science Awards, in recognition of her internationally respected research on child abuse and neglect. Dr O’Donnell, co-lead of the Institute’s Linked Analytics and Social Policy Team, is one of few researchers in Australia to have extensively utilised linked government data to investigate factors that increase vulnerability to child maltreatment, and outcomes for these children (see stories on her work, pages 40 and 92).
**Dr Hannah Moore**
*TEDx Speaker*
Infectious diseases researcher Dr Hannah Moore had a chance to share her passion for the power of data to help fight disease, when she was chosen to speak at TEDx Perth in November. Dr Moore, who is Chief of Infectious Disease Epidemiology for the National Centre of Vaccines and Infectious Diseases, spoke to a sold-out crowd about the unmatched power of data in providing the answers we need to keep kids out of hospital.
**Dr Shannon Simpson**
*2019 Business News 40under40 Awards*
Internationally recognised lung health researcher Dr Shannon Simpson was named one of WA’s top professionals under the age of 40 at the 2019 Business News 40under40 Awards. Dr Simpson won the Community/Social Enterprise category in recognition of her significant findings around the long-term lung health of babies surviving preterm birth, her substantial contribution towards including the community’s voice in research, and her volunteer work with young people going through the health system.
**Dr Asha Bowen**
*L’Oréal-UNESCO Women in Science Fellowship*
Telethon Kids skin researcher Dr Asha Bowen was awarded a prestigious L’Oréal-UNESCO Women in Science fellowship. Her dedication to ending skin infections in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children made her a clear choice as one of the most outstanding early-career female scientific researchers in Australia. She was later featured in the February issue of Vogue Australia, in a spread on talented women scientists.
**Dr Sally Brinkman**
*NHMRC Research Excellence Award*
Dr Sally Brinkman, Head of the Child Health Development and Education team and Director of the Fraser Mustard Centre in Adelaide, was honoured with an NHMRC Research Excellence Award for being the nation’s top-ranked applicant in the Population Health (Level 1) category of the 2018 Career Development Fellowship scheme. The awards recognise excellence in the health and medical research sector by celebrating individual achievement, leadership and the exceptional contributions of Australian researchers to their fields of research. Dr Brinkman’s research is focused on improving the healthy development of young children, particularly those living in highly disadvantaged communities.
**Penelope Strauss**
*AMP Tomorrow Maker*
Trans Pathways researcher Penelope Strauss was named an AMP Tomorrow Maker – the first researcher from the Telethon Kids Institute to win one of the annual grants. She was one of 43 young innovators chosen to share in the $1 million Tomorrow Fund. Ms Strauss’s grant will help her undertake the next phase of the ground-breaking Trans Pathways project, which found that young trans people are at high risk for suicide, anxiety and serious depression.
The impact of research can be measured in many ways. For us at Telethon Kids, it’s about how we make a difference for children, families and communities.
Here, we delve into the metrics that help define our success. This includes traditional indicators as well as the broader ways our research contributes to the global understanding of disease, influences policy and practice, builds capacity and collaboration, and has a direct effect on the lives of children.
We are committed to training the next generation of researchers and ensuring we build collaborative networks to support child health and development research in Western Australia and beyond.
**In 2018, we had 126 students**
- **12** Honours
- **4** Masters
- **20** MD
- **90** PhD
**Enrolled through:**
| University | Number |
|----------------------------------|--------|
| Curtin University | 15 |
| Edith Cowan University | 2 |
| Murdoch University | 5 |
| The University of Western Australia | 100 |
| University of Notre Dame Australia | 1 |
| Other | 3 |
| **Total** | **126**|
**STUDENTS FROM AROUND AUSTRALIA AND ABROAD CHOOSE TO STUDY AT THE TELETHON KIDS INSTITUTE**
Over the past 5 years, **64 PhD students** have successfully obtained their doctorate.
Our researchers contribute significantly to the global bank of information on child health and development.
We are actively collaborating with colleagues and organisations around the world in a united effort to discover more about child health and development. Some of our collaborations include:
**NORTH AMERICA**
- British Columbia Children’s Hospital
- Children’s National Health Center
- Columbia University
- Harvard University
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine
- McMaster University
- St Jude Children’s Research Hospital
- Stanford University
- University for Systems Biology
- University of Washington
- Yale University
**EUROPE**
- Imperial College London
- Erasmus University
- Gustav Roussy Institute
- Karolinska Institute
- REACH
- University Children’s Hospital Zurich
- University of Amsterdam
- University of Berlin
- University of Cambridge
- University of Helsinki
- University of Milan
- University of Oxford
- World Health Organization
**ASIA**
- Banaras Hindu University
- Chinese University of Hong Kong
- Hong Kong University
- International Vaccine Institute, Seoul Korea
- James Cook New Guinea Institute for Medical Research
- Menzies School of Health Research
- Reit Syndrome Comprehensive Research Institute
- RIKEN
**AUSTRALIA and NEW ZEALAND**
- Australian National University
- Children’s Cancer Institute
- Children’s Hospital Westmead
- Howard Florey Institute for Medical Research
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute
- QIMR-Berghofer Medical Research Institute
- SA Health and Medical Research Institute
- Starship Children’s Hospital
- The University of Auckland
- University of Otago
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute
**SOUTH AMERICA**
- Instituto Nacional de Cancer
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte
- Universidade de Sao Paulo
**AFRICA**
- Baylor College Malawi
- Uganda Heart Institute
- University of Cape Town
We are successful at securing a diverse mix of funding to do great research which builds knowledge on health and development.
- Philanthropic income $24,316,487
- Government grants and contracts $24,640,661
- Non-Government grants and contracts $21,635,754
- Other income $6,390,380
Top industry partners work with us to make a difference for children
- Johnson & Johnson
- Roche
- Pfizer
- Novartis
- GlaxoSmithKline
- Sanofi
We are collaborating with 6 of the TOP 10 international pharmaceutical companies worldwide.
Our knowledge benefits child health and development researchers worldwide, we share and publish our findings.
We PUBLISH in the most INFLUENTIAL JOURNALS around the world.
Publications over the past 5 years
| Year | Total Journal Articles* | Top 10% Journals in their field | Total Articles in journals with Impact Factor >10 |
|------|------------------------|--------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| 2014 | 320 | 78 | 31 |
| 2015 | 348 | 82 | 35 |
| 2016 | 341 | 85 | 24 |
| 2017 | 361 | 99 | 41 |
| 2018 | 398 | 106 | 39 |
*articles, letters, editorials, case reports and reviews
Scientists around the world use our work on child health and development to advance their knowledge and research.
In the last 5 years our publications have been cited more than 74,000 times.
- 2018: 17,861
- 2017: 17,291
- 2016: 15,530
- 2015: 13,298
- 2014: 10,856
Citation refers to a quotation or reference of our work in a scientific article written by other researchers around the world.
Telethon Kids has a Normalised Citation Impact (NCI) of 2.56 which is two and a half times higher than the world average.
NCI is a valuable and unbiased indicator of impact irrespective of our subject focus or document type. Therefore, it allows comparisons between entities of different sizes and different subject mixes.
Source: Clarivate Analytics report for Telethon Kids Institute, Sept 2018
19.8% of Telethon Kids papers are categorized as highly cited.
Our researchers are regarded as international leaders in their field.
14 of our RESEARCHERS have a Scopus H-index* GREATER than 40.
*H-index of 40 is proposed to characterise outstanding scientists likely to be found only at the top universities or major research laboratories (Hirsch 2005 PNAS)
We are working with the most relevant people around the world to ensure we make a difference for children, families and communities.
**INFORMING DECISION-MAKING**
- We work closely with government to ensure our research has an impact on government policy.
- We provide commissioned reports to government on topics such as:
- Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
- Early years development
- Bullying
- Youth health
- We partner or collaborate with state and federal government agencies in the areas of health, education, justice, mental health and communities.
- In 2018 at Telethon Kids we had:
- 258 community members involved with committees and community groups
- 47 committees, projects and programs
**TRANSLATE EFFECTING CHANGE**
We ensure our research is translated into real-life outcomes that make a tangible difference to the lives of children, families and communities.
- Our clinical researchers are working to discover and trial new interventions to improve the health of children. We are actively involved in intervention studies in the following areas:
- Vaccines including influenza, Hib, meningococcal and pneumococcal
- Allergic disease
- Asthma
- Rheumatic Heart Disease
- Group A streptococcal infections
- Skin infections
- Hep B infections
- Infections & vaccines
- Ear disease
- Language development
- Newborn encephalopathy
- Obesity
- Nutrition
- Hypoplasias
- Asthma
- Developmental origins of child health
- Genetic disorders
- Long-term health outcomes of young adults born preterm
- Diabetes
- Obesity
- Autism
- Cystic fibrosis
- Biomarkers of obesity
- Diabetes
- Skin infections
- Rheumatic Heart Disease
- Asthma
- Bronchiolitis
- Dermatitis
- Chronic Fatigue
- Autism spectrum disorders
- Gastroenteritis
- Rett syndrome
- Skin infections
- Mental and youth health
- Infectious diseases
- Allergy
- Cancer
- Disability
- Our research drives real-world changes through contributions to guidelines, policy and practice in 2018, we contributed to:
- A national guideline for the assessment and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in Australia
- Australian Immunisation Handbook
- Pregnancy warning labels on packaged alcoholic beverages
- WA Youth Health Policy 2018-2023
- Preschool Multiple Breath Washout Testing: An official ATS Technical Standard
- Tools for implementing rheumatic heart disease control programmes - Quick Tips - 2nd Edition
- NSW Anti-bullying Strategy
- National Healthy Skin Guidelines for the Prevention, Treatment and Public Health Control of Impetigo, Scabies, Crusted Scabies and Tinea for Indigenous Populations and Communities in Australia
- Our research has direct commercial relevance, which we protect to ensure that the inventions have the potential to make it to the clinic.
This research has been actively translated into policy or practice
Soon-to-be teenager Drina Bucktin loves hanging out with her friends and making the most of her new-found independence. This freedom hasn’t always been a given, however. Drina has type 1 diabetes, a chronic disease which means every mouthful of food — or exercise, sleeping, stress or puberty — can affect her blood glucose levels.
Thankfully, recent diabetes technology is helping the 12-year-old keep on top of her condition and be independent, while significantly easing the disease burden on her family.
A few years ago, Drina’s family took part in the Children’s Diabetes Centre’s CGM and Everyday Diabetes Care* trial – a study which explored the effect of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) with remote monitoring on psychosocial outcomes in parents of children with type 1.
The system works by transmitting blood glucose readings every five minutes via Bluetooth to a mobile phone or smartwatch. It can also share readings with other devices and send push notification alerts of highs (hyperglycaemia) and lows (hypoglycaemia).
The study, published in the prestigious Diabetes Care journal, found the technology reduced parents’ stress and anxiety and improved their sleep and family functioning.
“Life is a lot less stressful on everyone and I have a lot more freedom since using the CGM with remote monitoring – I love it,” Drina said.
Drina’s mum, Heidi, said the technology had been life-changing for the family.
“Since I can share the management of her blood glucose levels (BGL) with the school nurse and coaches, it (CGM) has allowed me to pursue my professional career as I’m not hanging around the school or constantly on the phone providing advice or ready to drop everything to attend to Drina,” Heidi said.
“It’s been great for my sanity, my own professional development and contribution to the family income.”
Heidi said Drina had taken on more of her own disease management knowing she had support from those around her, while her ‘nagging’ mum could monitor from a distance.
The technology had particularly made an impact on Drina’s competitive sailing, which included representing Australia in a competition in New Zealand recently.
“We can monitor Drina’s BGL during a race without the fear of her crashing dangerously low, and without dosing her with sugar to make sure she doesn’t go low,” Heidi said.
“We can also share the Dexcom (CGM with remote monitoring) with her coach so we don’t have to be on the water every time she trains or races.
“We actually get a small part of our life and sanity back while Drina gets to join in with the other kids without mum or dad hanging around all the time.”
- Drina’s mum Heidi
Children’s Diabetes Centre Co-Director Professor Tim Jones said this was the first CGM study to assess psychosocial outcomes as a primary outcome.
“Parents of a child with type 1 diabetes live in constant fear that they will put their child to bed at night, but they won’t wake up in the morning because their blood glucose levels have dropped to dangerously low levels overnight,” Professor Jones said.
“Some diabetes technologies have the potential to make life more stressful so we wanted to find out if this technology might improve glucose levels and improve quality of life.
“This study has demonstrated unequivocally that the use of CGM with remote monitoring can improve the quality of life of families living with type 1 diabetes — parents sleep better, family stress is reduced, and anxiety is reduced.”
- Professor Tim Jones
Professor Jones said it was important to note that at the time of the study, CGM was not publicly funded in Australia and usage was low (CGM became fully subsidised for children in April 2017).
“While many families who participated in the study could not have afforded to pay for it [approximately $5,000 annually], almost all of the participants decided to continue once the funding came through — this is telling,” he said.
“Before this subsidy, only 5 per cent of our patients used CGM but this has risen to 70 per cent.
“We’re putting our patients on CGM from diagnosis now — we are about improving outcomes and reducing the disease burden and this technology is doing that.”
Professor Jones said results from this study were influencing CGM usage globally.
“We are a world-recognised centre for this type of research so what happens here will be published and disseminated internationally and it will add to the evidence for CGM use,” he said.
He also predicted the technology would take over from finger pricking – something families have until now had to perform on children six to eight times a day.
This study was performed at the Children’s Diabetes Centre, a JDRF/National Health and Medical Research Council-funded Centre of Research Excellence based at the Telethon Kids Institute.
NEW FOCUS ON TYPE 2 DIABETES
Researchers at the Children’s Diabetes Centre at the Telethon Kids Institute have begun researching type 2 diabetes to tackle the rising incidence of the disease among young people in Australia.
Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a serious and costly disease with chronic complications including accelerated development of heart, kidney and eye complications, as well as limb amputations.
In the past, the disease was usually only diagnosed in people as they got older but now, younger people, including children, are getting it.
Our researchers have reported the incidence of T2D in children and adolescents in Western Australia and found Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and adolescents aged under 18 years have a more than 20 times greater risk of being diagnosed with T2D compared to those of non-Indigenous descent.
Centre researcher Dr Aveni Haynes is currently working alongside investigators in northern Australia to try and establish the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children, teenagers and young adults (less than 25 years) with T2D living across Northern Australia (WA’s Kimberley region, Northern Territory and Far North Queensland).
Professor Liz Davis, Co-Director of the Children’s Diabetes Centre and head of type 2 diabetes research, said the role of food insecurity — the state of being without reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food — in childhood, was another key research area as it had been shown to play a major role in the development of chronic diseases in kids, including obesity and T2D.
“Previous research has shown that up to one in five Australian children experience food insecurity,” she said.
“In one of our research projects, we are seeking to determine the prevalence of food insecurity in WA’s communities, and how it links to dietary quality, quality of life, degree of over-eating, and obesity.
“The primary outcome of this project will help to inform clinicians across WA of the barriers faced by children and families who struggle with food insecurity and help them devise individualised treatment plans around weight management, both to prevent T2D and manage the disease.”
“What’s Next
“We still need to learn who benefits the most from this technology, how we can make it acceptable so we have 100 per cent uptake and how we can get the data to be more easily interpretable for families so they can manage it themselves.” — Professor Tim Jones
“By working out how many young people there are with T2D, this can be used to plan how to prevent more young people getting T2D in the future and how to provide health services to those who already have it, and to reduce their chances of getting other diabetes-related diseases and complications.”
- Professor Liz Davis
What began as a small formative research project 20 years ago has grown into a universal bullying prevention and social skills development program which has helped countless Australian children and their families. Now the Friendly Schools project is evolving to meet new challenges.
Friendly Schools, led by Professor Donna Cross and the Telethon Kids Health Promotion and Education Research (HPER) Team, was first developed in 1999 after research revealed a clear need to help and support children who are bullied, as well as their families and teachers.
Focused on understanding bullying, developing and evaluating school strategies to reduce all forms of bullying, and informing national and international policy and practice, the program is now spread across 14 large empirical trials.
In 2005, significant interest from schools led to resources developed by the program being commercialised and disseminated, with training and support, to schools Australia-wide. It’s estimated more than 3,000 Australian schools have used the resources to improve their school policies and practices and the wellbeing of their students.
The resources have also been taken up by schools in the United States, Singapore and New Zealand, with Scandinavia, Canada and the United Kingdom investigating whether it would transfer to their schools as well.
In their 20th year of Friendly Schools’s research, the research team are focusing on the needs of sub-populations of more vulnerable children and youth. Also, the increasing prevalence of digital technology use by children is also shaping ongoing research efforts.
Professor Cross said that as digital technology had evolved, so too had Friendly Schools.
“We’re increasingly working to meet the needs of schools and parents in managing children’s safe use of digital technology, in ways that improve their development and learning opportunities; and reduce harmful outcomes, including cyber bullying,” Professor Cross said.
“With children using digital technology from increasingly younger ages, urgent action is required to promote positive digital behaviours and to reduce potential risks of harm.”
Professor Cross said that despite growing research investigating children’s use of technology and the internet, and the consequences of this increased engagement, little research had been conducted with parents to determine their needs and effective ways of enabling them to guide their children’s digital behaviour.
“Likewise, many school staff lack the confidence and skills to teach and foster safer digital technology use by their students, and schools have indicated they need support in this regard,” she said.
However, she said if previous results were anything to go by, the Friendly Schools research would continue to make a positive difference in the lives of children and their families for many years to come.
School students across Australia are benefitting from Professor Donna Cross’s Friendly Schools project
“When this project began in 1999, we never envisaged that our work would have the impact it has had on school policy and practice and children’s social development not only across Australia, but internationally.”
- Professor Donna Cross
“This is due to the important work being conducted by the Friendly Schools staff here at Telethon Kids, without whose passion, skills and willingness to build a better life for children, many of these results would not have been achieved.”
A review of 80 international studies indicated that 15% of young people experienced cyber bullying
More than one quarter of students aged 8 to 14 reported being bullied every few weeks or more often, while 9% reported bullying others every few weeks or more
Modecki, K.L et al (2014)
WHAT’S NEXT
• This pipeline of research is continuing, led by The University of Western Australia and Telethon Kids, with the aim of further developing and testing interventions to improve social and emotional learning practice in schools.
• Next steps will include the development of an app to deliver cyber safety advice and coaching to parents.
The Public Health Association of Australia has rated mandatory folic acid fortification – which led to a dramatic decline in neural tube defects – as one of the top 10 public health achievements of the past two decades.
The move, announced in November 2018, honoured the paradigm-shifting work of Professors Carol Bower and Fiona Stanley, who in 1989 made a landmark discovery about the vital role of maternal dietary folate in early pregnancy in reducing the risk of neural tube defects such as spina bifida.
Not content to establish the science – and determined to see that the whole WA population could have access to adequate dietary supplementation – they followed their research up with decades of dedicated campaigning and advocacy.
Their efforts paid off, leading initially to a health promotion campaign around the importance of folate. It’s estimated that about 4,000 Australian children have been saved from debilitating and deadly birth defects since health promotion efforts began in 1993.
When data collection showed health promotion wasn’t having the same impact in Aboriginal populations as in the wider Australian population, however, the researchers continued to push for changes in government policy to address the health needs of all prospective mothers and their babies in the community.
Partly in response to their continued advocacy, in 2009 Food Standards Australia New Zealand introduced national mandatory fortification of wheat flour for breadmaking. This change had a swift impact, resulting in a significant 14.4 per cent national decline in neural tube defects (NTD) such as spina bifida from 2011 to 2016, regardless of a mother’s culture, age, education or choice of hospital system.
“This drop in neural tube defects is seen across the country and is ‘spot on’ with our modelling for the level of fortification that has been introduced – so it is working as expected,” Professor Bower said.
Importantly, she said fortification reduced neural tube defects in the Aboriginal population by 68 per cent, with rates dropping from 2.43 cases per 1,000 births between 2007 and 2009, to 0.82 cases per 1,000 births between 2011 and 2016 – similar to that of the non-Aboriginal population.
“In the Aboriginal population, health promotion to take folic acid supplements before and in early pregnancy had no effect. However, with mandatory fortification, the rate of neural tube defects has fallen to that of the general population,” Professor Bower said.
“That gap has now been closed between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal rates of neural tube defects.
“One of the reasons for fortifying was that you reach everybody regardless of pregnancy planning, and it’s equitable because everybody gets additional folate if they eat fortified products.”
DATA KEY TO POLICY WIN
A key tool in the push to achieve mandatory folic acid fortification came in the form of data provided by the Western Australian Register of Developmental Anomalies (WARDA) – originally established by Professors Carol Bower and Fiona Stanley as the WA Congenital Malformations Registry in 1986.
The first of its kind in Australia, the Registry was eventually merged with the WA Cerebral Palsy Register to become WARDA, with the State Government making it compulsory to report developmental anomalies.
WARDA – now seen as a national exemplar and one of the most complete registers of developmental anomalies in existence – provided vital, high-quality data demonstrating that rates of NTD remained high in the Aboriginal population despite health promotion campaigns for voluntary maternal folic acid supplement use.
The register continues to enable the ongoing monitoring of the impact of mandatory fortification, as well as providing data for other kinds of research and serving as an important source of information for policymakers and health service providers.
“It was established as a general birth defects register but the very first research project we undertook with the data being collected was a study of NTD and folate,” Professor Bower said.
“It has since been an important source of information for many, many other projects, such as our work in the area of FASD, which includes plans to extend the age at which FAS can be noted to the register from six to 15 years of age.”
Autism now accounts for 47 per cent of children on the National Disability Insurance Scheme, making it a key health priority for Australia. A unique new model developed by the Telethon Kids autism research team marries cutting-edge research with clinical practice to offer families innovative, evidence-based interventions designed to help kids reach their full potential.
Launched in January this year and located at Telethon Kids’ former home on Roberts Road, Subiaco, Clinikids is a warm and modern clinic for children with developmental delays and/or autism spectrum disorders.
The model is an Australian first, not only providing families with diagnostic and clinical psychology, occupational and speech therapy services, but also giving them an important opportunity to be part of novel research.
Clinikids General Manager Gemma Upson said the new service aimed to address the enormous gap between research findings in the field and their translation into clinical practice. One research paper has put the lag between research and practice at 12 years; another a staggering 17 years.
“That’s massive in a child’s life,” Ms Upson said.
“Research is obviously conducted in a very controlled environment and sometimes that can’t be easily translated into the messy real world we live in.
“The Clinikids model has the ability to innately feed clinical expertise into our research and vice versa, so that we can trial interventions in a real-life setting and also evaluate the financial implications.”
An estimated 2 per cent of Australian children have an autism diagnosis, and extensive research has shown that commencing therapy in early childhood will reduce their level of disability. Early intervention could be the difference, for example, between a child developing speech or remaining non-verbal.
The Institute’s autism research, led by Professor Andrew Whitehouse, is regarded as world-leading – however, Ms Upson said advances had been limited by the absence of a centre like Clinikids, dedicated to new diagnosis and intervention methods in young children.
“It’s early days yet and we are busy building our programs and data collection systems, however feedback from families so far has been very positive,” Ms Upson said.
Families felt reassured that services were provided in a judgement-free atmosphere, and in a modern, purpose-built clinic where everyone was treated with compassion.
“Our families have the confidence too, that our interventions are backed by a skilled research team which uses highly evidence-based interventions,” she said.
Clinikids is supported by many donors including the Angela Wright Bennett Foundation, Rowley Foundation and the Australian Government.
NEW FRIEND TO IMPROVE SOCIAL ATTENTION OF KIDS WITH AUTISM
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder sometimes find it difficult to look at faces or understand what others may be thinking or feeling. But an attention-training game developed by researchers at the Telethon Kids Institute is helping to improve social skill development in school-aged kids with autism.
Researchers, led by Dr Gail Alvares, designed and evaluated an app-based game that rewarded children for selecting faces and not objects and ignoring pictures of objects, like trains or clocks. Using a machine called an eye-tracker, children were measured on how they looked at faces and objects before and after playing the game.
After playing the game for 15 minutes, children more frequently looked at pictures of faces first rather than objects, and this was compared to a group of children who played a similar version of the game without being rewarded for selecting faces.
Although the research is still ongoing, Dr Alvares said the results suggested this kind of training early in a child’s life may have the potential to improve their social behaviours in later years.
“We believe that difficulties in social development for kids with autism may be due to difficulties in visual attention that develop very early, within the first few years of life,” she said.
“The results from this research may indicate that games could be used to help improve social cognitive development for children on the autism spectrum, such as understanding faces.”
Dr Gail Alvares
NATIONAL GUIDELINE PROVIDES UNIFORM APPROACH TO AUTISM DIAGNOSIS
One of the most important policy changes ever implemented in the area of autism research and practice came into effect in October 2018 when the Autism CRC released A National Guideline for the Assessment and Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Australia.
Telethon Kids Autism Research Team Head Professor Andrew Whitehouse—who is also Chief Research Officer of the Autism CRC—and Telethon Kids autism researcher Dr Kiah Evans led the development of the Guideline, sitting on the executive committee responsible for the document.
Dr Evans said the Guideline brought disparate state and territory assessment and diagnostic practices together into a coherent, streamlined benchmark practice, with the aim of providing consistency for people on the autism spectrum nationally.
“Since being launched in October the Guideline has already been downloaded more than 9,500 times – both by people in Australia and overseas – and is being used by major diagnostic services providers around Australia,” Dr Evans said.
In addition, an interdepartmental working committee is meeting at a Federal level to discuss ways of implementing use of the Guideline, and two new research projects have kicked off, examining clinicians’ uptake of the Guideline and its implementation in a rural setting.
To download the Guideline, go to https://www.autismcrc.com.au/knowledge-centre/resource/national-guideline. Once you’ve registered your details, you’ll receive a link via email.
Professor Andrew Whitehouse and Dr Kiah Evans
Following strong evidence and lobbying by Telethon Kids Institute researchers, along with others including the Western Australian Government, labels to warn women about the risks of drinking during pregnancy are to become mandatory on all alcohol sold in Australia and New Zealand within two years.
Leading Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) researcher Professor Carol Bower, who was instrumental in presenting evidence to support the decision, said mandatory labelling was part of multiple actions required to reduce birth defects caused by prenatal alcohol use.
“This is one important step in a suite of health promotion and public health approaches because this is a product that actually causes birth defects,” she said. “Women ought to be given that information and there is no more immediate place than on the product.”
In early 2018, the Food Regulation Standards Committee invited Professor Bower to make a submission as a public health stakeholder to the targeted consultation regarding policy options for pregnancy warning labels on packaged alcoholic beverages.
Professor Bower, along with Dr Roslyn Giglia and Dr Martyn Symons, made the submission on behalf of the Institute and the FASD Research Australia Centre of Research Excellence, of which Professor Bower is Director. A voluntary trial of voluntary labelling since 2011 had been unsuccessful, with testing revealing that labels were hard to read and had unclear messages that could be easily misinterpreted to mean it was okay to consume alcohol during pregnancy.
In October 2018, health ministers around Australia, with strong support from WA Health Minister Roger Cook, agreed to introduce mandatory labelling at a meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Ministerial Forum on Food Regulation.
Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (FSANZ) are now developing consistent labels and standardised messages, with consumer testing and input from the researchers, industry and public health organisations. These are expected to be ready by the end of 2019.
“This is a major win for clarity – every alcohol product will have the same message on the bottle and packaging, with specifications to the size, colour and wording so there will be consistency,” Professor Bower said.
Following a ‘wash-in’ period of 12 months to allow time for existing alcohol product to leave the shelves and industry to work to get the new labels on, it is expected that all alcohol will carry the new labelling by 2020.
“Once in place, the mandatory labelling needs to be evaluated to determine if women are seeing the labels and clearly understanding why not drinking alcohol in pregnancy is the safest option,” Professor Bower said.
“We are concerned to ensure there is good evidence supporting what the message is and then to find out how well it has been seen and taken note of.”
BANKSIA HILL PROJECT’S RIPPLE EFFECT
Eighteen months on from the publication of its findings in *BMJ Open*, the game-changing Banksia Hill Project is continuing to reshape the way authorities manage and support vulnerable young people within the justice system.
The two-year study, which was the first in Australia to assess and diagnose young people in a youth custodial setting for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD), revealed that more than one third of young people assessed by the team had FASD – the highest known prevalence in a justice setting worldwide.
The team, led by Professor Carol Bower, also found 89 per cent of the young people examined had at least one form of severe neurodevelopmental impairment – providing evidence that youth with neurodisability are grossly over-represented in youth detention in WA.
The results are still rippling through government departments, police, custodial authorities, and the Children’s Court, and have led not only to changes in policy and practice, but increased community understanding of FASD and widespread interest in Australia and overseas.
“The delivery of training resources, pioneered by Hayley Passmore, to more than 100 Banksia Hill custodial staff means they are now better equipped to be able to recognise and work effectively with young people with neurodevelopmental impairment,” Professor Bower said.
“We’re also seeing moves to improve the way police and the Children’s Court interact with young people with a communication disorder or a different language who come into the justice system – another important finding.”
The research also found considerable language diversity, with less than a third of the young people assessed speaking Standard Australian English as a first language.
Ms Kippin said these communication barriers meant many young people were going through highly verbal legal and rehabilitation processes at a significant disadvantage.
The findings have led to interest in the provision of intermediaries to help respond to language and communication needs when young people are engaging with police and the courts.
The training resources developed, delivered and evaluated by Ms Passmore were a key outcome of the Banksia Hill Project, and are now in hot demand.
The Department of Justice has commissioned further paid training sessions for staff including newly recruited youth custodial officers and community youth justice officers, and other sectors, including police, child protection and education, are also keen to receive the training. In addition, Ms Passmore has received requests to access the resources from researchers, service providers and agencies worldwide.
“Here in WA the findings, and the continuing advocacy and analysis by team members, have changed the way the justice workforce engages with these young people.”
- Professor Carol Bower
“These requests are increasing rapidly given the global interest in FASD and justice-involved youth. I’m now seeking funding to evaluate the effectiveness of the training with other workforces, and to develop a ‘train the trainer’ model to ensure the training remains sustainable.”
- Hayley Passmore
The Children’s Court is also changing the way it responds to young people coming before it, thanks to the study’s findings. Judicial officers have relied on assessment reports prepared by the team to better understand mitigating factors for sentencing; and there’s growing recognition of the language and other barriers faced by many young people as they try to navigate the justice system.
Follow-on research led by Banksia Hill Project team member and speech pathologist Natalie Kippin revealed significant levels of language difficulty among young detainees, with almost half meeting the criteria for language disorder. Much of that language disorder was associated with FASD.
WHAT’S NEXT
- Professor Bower and team are now advocating for further collaborations with government, community and service providers to better respond to the needs of young people in the justice system. This includes strengthening health and neurodevelopmental assessments, evaluating rehabilitation programs, training the justice workforce, and reducing the over-representation of Aboriginal people in custody.
- Ms Passmore and members from the Telethon Kids leadership team are meeting with the heads of seven WA State Government departments, to discuss a cross-government approach to upskilling frontline professionals in the justice, police, health, education and child protection sectors, to better manage neurodevelopmental impairments.
- The team will host a WA Youth Justice and Health Forum in November, to discuss the intersection between the justice, health and education sectors and collate priorities from community, service providers, researchers and government.
A screening tool to help midwives and other health professionals contribute to the prevention of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) is changing maternity practice across WA public hospitals and expanding knowledge about the risks of drinking alcohol in pregnancy.
Alcohol risk screening and preventive education are now being embedded into routine maternity care after the validated AUDIT-C (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test – Consumption) and associated Learning Guide were rolled out across WA Health.
The AUDIT-C project, funded by the WA Department of Health and led by Associate Professor Tracy Reibel during her time as a senior research fellow at the Institute, comprises three resources that screen women’s alcohol intake in pregnancy, with the total score indicating either low, medium or high risk for both herself and for her baby.
Midwives had reported in a previous study that they were concerned about their capacity to effectively ask women about their alcohol use in pregnancy, thus hampering their ability to provide advice and support. The Learning Guide was then developed to improve knowledge, understanding and effective use of the AUDIT-C screening tool.
Midwives who participated in an evaluation of the Learning Guide indicated it provided them with the skills to ask women routinely use AUDIT-C in a non-judgemental way with all pregnant women, and offer brief interventions as required. A companion survey of pregnant women showed that routine questions about alcohol use were positively accepted, prompting them to ask more about the impact of alcohol on their baby’s development.
In July 2018, it became mandatory to record alcohol risk into the WA Health Midwives Notification Form completed for every birth in Western Australia. To help with this change, WA Health provided open access to the AUDIT-C Learning Guide to all health professionals likely to care for pregnant women, including nurses, general practitioners, obstetricians and Aboriginal health workers.
“By asking women about alcohol, health professionals can then advise why the Australian guidelines recommend they should not drink alcohol during pregnancy,” Associate Professor Reibel said.
“We know women want to be told why we are recommending that they don’t drink. By advising them based on the best evidence, referred to in the Learning Guide, we hope to reduce the rates of women drinking in pregnancy and therefore bring down the rates of FASD.”
Associate Professor Reibel said making alcohol risk screening standard for all pregnant women reduced the risk that woman may feel stigmatised and singled out in being asked about their alcohol use.
Pregnancy medical records incorporating this information also provided valuable information for retrospective reference, in future cases where a child’s developmental problems were being investigated.
“If a child comes in at age seven with developmental issues, for example, doctors will be able to refer to records to establish if AUDIT-C was applied and then assess any history of alcohol use for its relevance in diagnosis,” Associate Professor Reibel said.
Heather Jones, senior manager of FASD projects at the FASD Research Australia Centre for Research Excellence (FASD CRE), said another key outcome of the AUDIT-C project was a move to add information gathered as part of alcohol risk screening to state and national data bases.
“Thanks to successful advocacy by FASD CRE co-directors, Professors Carol Bower and Elizabeth Elliott, along with others, to establish national mandatory reporting of alcohol use in pregnancy in each state and territory, data collected via the Midwives Notification Form will now contribute to the WA Health Perinatal Data Base and Australian Institute of Health and Welfare’s National Perinatal Data Collection,” Ms Jones said.
“This not only adds strength to ongoing advocacy work, but enables researchers and policymakers to monitor the success of interventions and campaigns.”
Although already available to all health professionals, the resources in the AUDIT-C Learning Guide are now being specifically updated for general practitioners. This project, funded by the Western Australian Primary Health Alliance, will produce three short videos adapting the message to prompt doctors to ask, assess and advise women using AUDIT-C.
“It’s three routine questions doctors can ask during their consultations with women to promote a healthy pregnancy, that we hope will become part of their normal interaction with all pregnant woman,” Ms Jones said.
She said such conversations could be challenging but needed to be embraced, both by midwives and medical practitioners, for the best outcomes for both mothers and their babies.
“With women who have high alcohol use it becomes quite a careful conversation – they need to be cognisant about why they might be drinking,” Ms Jones said.
“Alcohol might be being used to self-medicate for a whole range of reasons related to mental health issues or domestic violence. If they want to stop drinking but can’t, they can be referred on to appropriate services for help.”
She said women who were assessed as low or medium risk commonly raised concerns about damage from drinking and binge episodes before realising they were pregnant, sometimes even asking if they should consider abortion.
“It’s about not scaring them but advising them that the best way forward now they know they are pregnant is to try and stop drinking, and the reasons why.”
Ms Jones said broader use of AUDIT-C and its resources would also improve understanding of FASD among health professionals, including those who were trained overseas and less aware of the Australian drinking culture.
ATLAS MAPS A PATHWAY TO HAPPY, HEALTHY CHILDHOOD
Collaboration is at the heart of everything Colab does – after all, it’s the grounding of its name.
It’s no wonder, then, that the Child Development Atlas is proving popular even before its official launch – because it brings together government services with community, practitioners and researchers. And it’s doing so to build a brighter future for Western Australian children.
Initially conceived by the Telethon Kids Institute’s Developmental Pathways and Social Policy team and supported by Colab to bring it to fruition, the Child Development Atlas is an online, interactive tool that maps data on indicators of learning, wellbeing, social, and developmental outcomes for children and families.
Piloted with a select group of stakeholders including policymakers, practitioners, researchers and community members, the Atlas uses government data to map indicators of child development that can help provide insights into the associations between neighbourhood-level factors and children’s outcomes.
Developmental Pathways and Social Policy co-head Dr Rebecca Glauert said the Child Development Atlas, which has recently finished the testing phase, had been piloted by representatives from state and local government, research institutes, community services and consumers.
“We’ve included a broad range of indicators in the Atlas, selected to reflect what is important to governments, service providers, and researchers, as well as the broader community,” Dr Glauert said.
“While most of these are health- and social-related, with some early education indicators, we’ll be continually refining this list to increase the range of information available in the Atlas.”
Colab Co-Director of policy, Mr David Ansell, said the ground-breaking platform would allow communities to better tailor programs and services to improve the wellbeing of children.
“The pilot of the Child Development Atlas has been warmly received by service providers,” Mr Ansell said. “They believe it will make a real difference to their ability to support families as they navigate the challenges of early childhood.”
The Child Development Atlas has been developed in partnership with Western Australian Government agencies with funding assistance provided by the Minderoo Foundation and Ian Potter Foundation.
NEW DRUG THERAPY PROVIDES HOPE FOR KIDS WITH CYSTIC FIBROSIS
The family of two girls with cystic fibrosis are hopeful after Telethon Kids Institute spin-off company, Respirion, received $20 million in funding to develop a promising new therapy.
Christine Donaldson remembers vividly the moment her third child, Isobel, was diagnosed with cystic fibrosis (CF).
Isobel, born three weeks early, had been failing to gain weight and after a series of tests, doctors told Christine and husband Gerard that she had CF, a genetic condition that causes persistent lung infections and progressive lung damage.
“I was devastated,” Christine said. “When you’re pregnant with your child, you have this idea of how great their life will be, and when you’re given this CF diagnosis, there’s such an incredible grieving process that their life might be hard, or their life might be limited.”
Two years after Isobel was born, the Donaldsons welcomed their fourth child and second daughter, Ruby. Soon after, they received the devastating news that Ruby also had CF.
“In the early days it was me coming to terms with the diagnoses emotionally because the girls were relatively healthy,” Christine said.
CF causes the lungs to produce abnormally thick and sticky mucus, trapping bacteria and leading to recurrent infections which can cause permanent damage and result in lung failure.
Since birth, Isobel and Ruby have received constant medical treatment and physiotherapy to keep their lungs healthy, but antibiotic resistance means they are desperately in need of new treatments to fight off constant infections.
“We know that if infections are left untreated there is the possibility of permanent lung damage,” Christine said.
“You’re always wondering what’s going on under the skin. They look so healthy on the outside. Any cough I hear them do, in the back of my head, I’m wondering where that’s going and what damage it’s causing.”
Now, a new therapy being developed by Telethon Kids spin-off company Respirion could provide new hope for kids like Isobel and Ruby.
The treatment – a chemical added to an inhaled antibiotic therapy – is the brainchild of leading Australian pulmonary specialist, and Respirion Founder and Director, Dr Barry Clements.
“Persistent lung infections and the inevitable decline in lung function remain urgent unmet needs in cystic fibrosis,” Dr Clements said.
“In my 35 years treating cystic fibrosis, I’ve become increasingly frustrated with the limited effectiveness of antibiotics in treating lung infections.
“With no new antibiotics on the horizon, I found this chemical that weakened the defences of resistant bacteria in the laboratory.
“I took this chemical and combined it with an antibiotic [tobramycin] and found it increased the killing power of the antibiotic on these resistant germs, but also improved the patient’s overall lung function.”
Now, thanks to a $20 million investment from the Medical Research Commercialisation Fund’s Biomedical Translation Fund (MRCF BTF), and $4 million from the US Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, Respirion will take the therapy into larger clinical studies, in the hope it will one day soon be available to patients.
Dr Clements said the ultimate aim was to reduce infections, reduce hospitalisations, and improve the quality of life and life expectancy in these patients.
Although further testing and statutory approval are required, if the results continue to be positive the formulation could be ready for clinical use in as little as four years.
“At that stage, there will be opportunities to further explore the potential of this formulation for use against other micro-organisms (including fungus and TB), with different antibiotics, and for treating other diseases such as non-CF bronchiectasis,” Dr Clements said.
Christine was thrilled at the news, saying the prospect of increased lung function was fantastic.
“That’s going to give our girls longevity and hopefully keep them out of hospital so they can just enjoy being kids,” she said.
WHAT’S NEXT
- The formulation will undergo further clinical trials over the next 12-24 months to establish safety and stability sufficient to obtain regulatory approval for clinical use in humans.
- Pending that approval, the definitive multi-centre Phase 3 efficacy study will be performed and if the results prove positive, the formulation will then be ready for use in the clinic.
Telethon Kids Clinical Trials Coordinator Sam Gregan (L), with sisters Ruby and Isobel, who have CF, and paediatrician Dr Barry Clements.
A digital game adapted by Telethon Kids Institute researchers is set to deliver engaging, accessible help to prevent depression for trans and gender diverse young people.
With disproportionately high rates of mental health problems in this group of young people and cost, stigma and privacy concerns affecting their access to appropriate services, youth mental health researcher Dr Yael Perry and her team have developed a digital solution to help overcome the barriers.
“Digital health interventions are widely accessible, delivered with high fidelity, private, low cost and can be widely disseminated,” Dr Perry said.
“For this particular population, there is very little that has been done around mental health, so we are keen to fill that void.”
In a Healthway-funded project, the team consulted trans and gender diverse young people aged 11 to 18 years to seek their feedback about the use of online health interventions and the established digital game, SPARX, to help prevent depression.
SPARX, a therapeutic game designed by University of Auckland researchers, has been evaluated as equivalent to face-to-face therapy in treating depression in young people aged 11 to 19. It has also been widely and successfully adapted for use by same-sex-attracted young people and for different cultural groups.
Using a fantasy game format, users – represented by a personal avatar – progress through seven levels, each level presenting different scenarios and targeting different cognitive behavioural skills. At the end of each level users have the opportunity to reflect on the new skills they have learned and to relate it back to real-life difficulties they have experienced.
“The aim of the game is to restore balance in this fantasy world that has been overrun by ‘GNATS’ (gloomy negative automatic thoughts),” Dr Perry said.
“As this is an evidence-based intervention, we are starting from a pretty good point from which to adapt and enhance the game to make it much more acceptable for this population, which means they are more likely to use it.”
The young people consulted about the game suggested tweaks including non-binary avatars, and changes to language and some scenarios to more closely reflect themselves and their experiences.
“We have increased the customisation so people really feel the avatar is reflecting them and changed some of the language to incorporate gender neutral pronouns,” Dr Perry said.
“They want trans-specific scenarios but not exclusively – like all young people, many general scenarios apply to them.
“We’ve changed one scenario to depict them being misgendered by a parent or friend using the wrong pronoun. It teaches them ways to provide feedback about how it makes them feel when the wrong pronoun is used and doing that in an assertive rather than aggressive way.
“The game uses the same format and cognitive behavioural principles, just changing the context.”
Currently with developers to implement the changes and adapt it for delivery on a mobile device, the game is expected to be ready soon for a pilot study to test its acceptability with a small group of trans and gender diverse young people. A notebook attached to the game will also guide users to link to a newly developed resource with advice about dealing with gender dysphoria, which was requested by consultation groups.
Dr Perry said if licensed for national use in the future, the game could be accessed online by all trans and gender diverse young people, or by referral through services such as headspace or community-based queer spaces.
“It could be accessed privately – a lot of young people are not able to come out to family, friends or health professionals, so this is a way they can access some assistance without feeling like they need to be ‘outed’ along the way,” Dr Perry said.
Dr Yael Perry is supported by The Glorgetta Charity Fund.
Mental health of trans and gender diverse young people
- Almost **one in two** have attempted suicide
- **Three in every four** have experienced depression or anxiety
- **60 per cent** felt isolated from health and medical services
- **42 per cent** reported service providers did not understand or respect their gender diversity
Source: Trans Pathways report, Telethon Kids Institute, 2017
HELPING HAND ON HOME STRETCH TO ADULTHOOD
Telethon Kids Institute data linkage research confirming young people who have experienced out-of-home care face serious disadvantage has bolstered a national push to extend formal support to the age of 21, and prompted a trial of the concept in WA which could lead to permanent policy change.
Telethon Kids Institute researcher Dr Melissa O’Donnell is only too familiar with the problems that can befall some of the most vulnerable people in our society.
Named Woodside Early Career Scientist of the Year at the 2018 Premier’s Science Awards for her internationally recognised work in the area of child abuse and neglect, she has spent more than 10 years investigating the factors behind child maltreatment and what happens to those who experience it.
Now, her research into outcomes for children taken into the child protection system is helping to challenge a long-standing policy – replicated in every state of Australia – which has traditionally seen young people turned out of care and largely left to fend for themselves the moment they turn 18.
Early last year, a data linkage study undertaken by Dr O’Donnell, Fernando Lima and Dr Miriam Maclean – from the Institute’s Developmental Pathways and Social Policy team – demonstrated that young people who have been in care fared much worse in terms of their mental health, education, health, and interaction with the juvenile justice system than those of a similar socioeconomic status in the general population.
The results lent strength to Home Stretch, a national campaign which has urged all states to change legislation to support young people in care until the age of 21 so as to help them transition smoothly into adulthood and were immediately requested by the WA Office of the Auditor General as evidence assisting its inquiry into young people leaving care.
By October last year, WA Child Protection Minister Simone McGurk had announced that the Department of Communities would support a pilot program of extended care, to be rolled out in coming months.
Dr O’Donnell, who is on Home Stretch’s WA committee, was part of the multi-agency expert group charged with developing the pilot program. She is advising the evaluation component of the trial and, pending any modifications, hopes to see the program implemented for all young people transitioning from care within 12 months.
“This is really exciting for us,” Dr O’Donnell said. “We’ve really been pushing as part of the Home Stretch campaign that we need to increase the leaving care age to 21 years.
“The outcomes for these young people are particularly bad and we needed to look at how we can provide transition support for them to ensure they are not just cut off at 18 years of age.”
“At 18, many young people are still at high school, so it causes particular challenges when told on their 18th birthday that their care has finished, and they need to find their own accommodation and be independent.”
- Dr Melissa O’Donnell
“For these young people who have had significant trauma in their lives, it is really tricky to navigate independence.”
The pilot program will support young people to stay in a current foster care arrangement that they like until aged 21, or to transition in and out of care as they feel able.
Alternatively, a transition support worker will help them find accommodation and guide their education and work options until they are 21.
“We are hoping a lot of the work we are doing looking at the transition support being offered will provide information and evidence for other places that want to implement pilots as well.”
“We are hoping so much trauma in their lives, we are hoping to give them a better chance for better educational, work and mental health outcomes.”
- Dr Melissa O’Donnell
“Our research has shown that many of those young people will have mental health issues, so we need to ensure they have a mental health plan in place to support their mental health needs.”
Advocacy for change has continued nationally, with Victoria also announcing a trial extending the foster care leaving age, and South Australia agreeing in principle.
“We are definitely trying to put pressure on the other states now to match what has been done in Victoria and Western Australia in terms of extending the leaving care age and to do their own pilots,” Dr O’Donnell said.
WHAT’S NEXT
• In a related project called Navigating through life, Dr O’Donnell’s team will again join up with the WA Department of Communities to track the outcomes of young people leaving care from age 16 through to the age of 23, by using linked data, interviews and surveys every six months.
THROWN IN THE DEEP END, JESSICA GOES IT ALONE
Jessica’s young life has been touched by domestic violence, sexual assault, addiction and hospital psychiatric care. At 14, home became a series of short-stay foster homes, group homes, respite care and hostels. Now aged 18, she is living independently, juggling study and part-time work to meet rent and pay the bills.
It’s been tough. That she has graduated from Year 12 and come this far, she attributes to the support of a good case worker who helped her through the turbulent years following her removal into care.
However, at 18 she finds she has been cut off from that important guidance and source of advice about eligible supports and allowances.
“At 18 many young people still need a lot of guidance and don’t have family to go to,” Jessica said. “If they’ve had a case manager for a long time and have built that respect and relationship, when their support is gone – it can be like repeating what happened in your home life.
“You sort of get thrown in the deep end and have to learn for yourself. It can be lonely and if you don’t know how to budget, things are not going to go so well.”
She said extending care to 21 years, as proposed, would provide ideal backup while young people found their feet, allowing them to step back support as and when they felt ready.
“The new program will be really beneficial,” she said.
Now at TAFE studying community services and youth work, Jessica hopes to start a degree in law, criminology and justice next year and has also applied for entry to the Police Academy. She’s motivated to effect change.
“It took a lot for me to get to where I am now,” she said. “I just want to see other people able to change their lives around and get on the right pathway. They will then be able to help others who have been in their situation.”
“With domestic violence, sexual assault – the world at the moment is influencing the younger generation and soon it is not going to be a pretty country.
“Only a very small percentage of young people succeed in life after being in care. If we put more support in place and make sure everything is running smoothly, that percentage will go up so much. Then, rather than having young people going to prison, suiciding or getting themselves all wrapped up in stuff, they will actually get a qualification and do good things.”
PARADIGM SHIFT
This research changes the very way we think
RAPID RESPONSE TO E-CIGARETTE FINDINGS
Telethon Kids Institute-led research revealing that six out of 10 ‘nicotine-free’ e-cigarette liquids contained nicotine and other potentially harmful chemicals received extensive media coverage and produced a rapid response from the Federal Government.
Just a day after the findings were published in a research letter to the Medical Journal of Australia in January, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) issued a media release warning consumers about the potential risks of purchasing electronic cigarette liquids.
The release quoted the research’s findings that undisclosed and potentially harmful ingredients had been found in e-cigarette liquids being sold in Australia – including nicotine and an acutely toxic chemical typically found in pesticides and disinfectants.
It is illegal in Australia to sell e-liquids containing nicotine, which is classed as a Schedule 7 Dangerous Poison under the Poisons Standard (with specific exemptions such as some nicotine replacement therapies and tobacco for smoking).
A team led by Associate Professor Alexander Larcombe, Head of Respiratory and Environmental Health at Telethon Kids and part of the School of Public Health at Curtin University, bought 10 e-liquids online and over the counter from Australian suppliers and had an independent commercial laboratory test them.
All 10 had been labelled ‘nicotine-free’. Six samples were found to have trace levels or low doses of nicotine in them, while all 10 were found to contain 2-chlorophenol – a chemical used in insecticides, herbicides and disinfectants and which is known to irritate human airways and skin.
The analyses also revealed by-products of animal or human bodily functions, suggesting the manufacturing process had been contaminated by mammalian blood, urine or faeces.
Dr Larcombe said the findings suggested consumers were purchasing e-liquids without really knowing what was in them, highlighting the lack of regulation around the labelling and manufacture of e-cigarette products in Australia.
“We went into this not knowing what we would find and many of the findings were a bit surprising.” - Dr Alexander Larcombe
“What they did show is that there’s no way people can tell what’s in these products based on what the label says. We wanted to raise awareness; to get people thinking about it more so they can make more informed decisions about what they’re consuming,” Dr Larcombe said.
“There’s a lot of uncertainty out there – people think they know what they’re breathing in or that it’s completely benign and is just water vapour. Maybe a few of those people now realise that it’s not.”
Although based on a small sample, the research revealed similar findings to an early NSW-based study, and received national and international media coverage – highlighting the intense interest in a subject which continues to divide consumers, policymakers and health groups.
The TGA response noted that the evidence for e-cigarettes as an option to quit smoking remained mixed, and that there were concerns that significant use of nicotine-containing e-cigarettes by adolescents could be a gateway to longer-term cigarette smoking.
“At this time, no electronic cigarettes have been approved in Australia as a therapeutic good for smoking cessation. Since the TGA does not regulate these products, their quality and safety is not known,” the statement said.
In a position echoed in a viewpoint article he was recently invited to write for The Lancet
Respiratory Medicine, Dr Larcombe said there was a clear need for more research to establish the true impacts of e-cigarettes – particularly on pregnant women, babies and children who may be exposed to the aerosol produced by the devices. Apart from the impacts of ‘vaping’, there had also been instances of young children dying from drinking e-liquids.
“There is this perception that e-cigarettes are safe to use during pregnancy, and it’s completely unsubstantiated and almost certainly untrue because women and their unborn babies are still getting exposed to nicotine and other potentially harmful chemicals.” - Dr Alexander Larcombe
We know that nicotine can cross the placental barrier, and we know that nicotine impacts brain development and affects the behaviour, memory and learning of a child, as well as lung growth and development.
“So, if a pregnant woman is thinking of switching to e-cigarettes instead of smoking, which the literature shows a lot of women are, the outcomes might be just as bad. We just don’t know.
“We really don’t know the answers to a lot of the questions that people are asking about e-cigarettes. What is needed now is a lot more research.”
Dr Larcombe’s research has been supported by funding from the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, Health Department of Western Australia and the National Health and Medical Research Council. The research published in the MJA was a collaboration between Telethon Kids, Curtin University and The University of Western Australia.
WHAT’S NEXT
- Dr Larcombe and his team are analysing the results from further e-cigarette research, including some investigating the relative impact on mouse lung function of e-cigarettes compared to regular cigarette smoking, versus giving up altogether; and other tests investigating the impact of e-cigarette smoking on pregnant mice and their offspring.
- Dr Larcombe is part of a Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand working party which is currently working on a position statement on e-cigarettes.
For decades Australians have been told to minimise sun exposure to prevent skin cancer, however researchers at Telethon Kids Institute have challenged that message, based on multi-pronged research that shows some sun exposure may hold important health benefits.
Head of the Institute’s Inflammation Team, Professor Prue Hart, said the results from three significant research streams at the Institute had made it increasingly apparent that sun exposure to direct sunlight is important for good health – and not just because it produces vitamin D.
In what she described as the ‘next big wave of knowledge’, Professor Hart said research led by herself, Dr Shelley Gorman and Dr Debbie Palmer pointed to multiple beneficial molecules being created on the skin by exposure to direct sunlight.
“Our combined work stretches across autoimmune, metabolic disease and skin allergy, and carries the common thread that there are some beneficial effects of sunlight, not all of it vitamin D-related,” Professor Hart said. “There are other important mediators that need to be considered and researched.
“Based on this, we think Australian authorities may have been too strict with the ‘sun safe’ messages, and as a result people aren’t getting enough exposure because of the fear of skin cancer.”
The most recent work in the field is from the Childhood Allergy and Immunology Research Team, led by Dr Palmer which, for the first time, demonstrated an association between greater direct UV light exposure for babies in the first three months of life, and lower incidence of eczema.
Intended as a study to gauge the benefits of vitamin D supplementation in warding off eczema in babies born to allergy-prone families, the research found instead that vitamin D supplementation, given in the form of drops to babies from birth to six months of age, was no match for direct sunlight.
The research, which studied 195 infants, found higher rates of eczema in babies who had less UV light via sun exposure in the first three months of life than babies who had greater sunlight exposure.
“Our findings indicate that sunlight exposure appears to be more beneficial than vitamin D supplementation as an allergy prevention strategy early in life,” Dr Palmer said.
“This suggests vitamin D supplementation alone isn’t the answer, and that there are other elements at play that can only be obtained from direct UV exposure.”
She concluded that further research was needed to explore the bioactive molecules involved. More investigation was also needed to understand and recommend safe levels of sun exposure so policymakers could develop healthy guidelines.
Professor Hart said Dr Palmer’s finding that it was sunlight, rather than vitamin D supplementation, which produced positive results had been a surprise.
“It was very much unexpected but it’s really reinforcing this idea that the beneficial effect of some sun is so multi-pronged,” Professor Hart said. “Yes, some people may get skin cancers but there are all these other benefits and there are now three different areas of research showing this benefit.”
“Debbie’s research provides yet another piece of strong evidence supporting the need for the good parts of sun exposure, and reinforces that you can’t fight this message that sun is good for you by simply telling people to take vitamin D out of a bottle.”
Building on 20 years spent investigating the impact of ultraviolet radiation on health, Professor Hart has recently finished human trials of combined oral brand ultraviolet B treatment to a group of people with early signs of multiple sclerosis (MS).
She found the therapy, previously used for the treatment of the skin condition psoriasis, delayed MS in high-risk patients. Trials of vitamin D supplements trials had not shown the same reduction in the progression of the disease.
Also close to human trial stage is work by Dr Shelley Gorman, who in 2014 released research showing low dose UV light given to mice on a high-fat diet found reduced signs of type 2 diabetes. Those results prompted her to investigate the molecule nitric oxide. She found that blocking release of nitric oxide from skin after UV exposure prevented many of its beneficial effects.
“We are now trying to find out how that happens and what pathways are involved,” Dr Gorman said.
“One thing we are really interested in is if UV light changes the way adipose tissue works. Brown adipose tissue is responsible for making heat – when babies get cold, brown fat creates heat to keep them warm.
“In the past 10 years it has become a really exciting area of research because it was previously thought to be just a baby thing and didn’t apply to adults, however some adults do have little deposits, especially in neck areas which are exposed to sun.
“We have this hypothesis that exposure of skin to sun may send a message to underlying tissues like brown adipose to produce heat, and now we are doing animal studies to see if that is the case.”
Dr Gorman said the researchers were currently making great strides towards gathering the research that policymakers needed to develop specific sun exposure guidelines, particularly for people at risk of autoimmune disease, metabolic disease and type 2 diabetes, and pregnant women and babies.
“We do need to work with the people who develop health policy, like the Cancer Council, and they need evidence,” Dr Gorman said.
Professor Hart said the results of the combined research showed there was a need for much more money to be invested in the area.
“Australia should be the capital of where this research is undertaken; we’re a country that gets more sun than anywhere else and it’s really about finding where that balance is in the message we give people about safe sun exposure,” she said.
“You should never get sunburnt, but a lot of the messages now are about how much sun you need to get vitamin D, when there are all these other molecules to consider – so it may turn out you need a bit more sun or a bit less sun.”
There’s a history of asthma and eczema on both Emma Snelgar and her husband’s side of the family, so it’s not surprising that she chose for her son Felix to be part of Dr Debbie Palmer’s research into sunlight exposure, vitamin D and eczema.
Like her husband, Emma’s first son Ollie, now aged five, suffered the painful skin allergy, with an additional egg allergy, when he was a baby. Emma said Ollie’s eczema was particularly bad around his mouth, and he suffered recurrent infection due to constant picking and licking.
She tried everything before resorting to steroid treatment, which finally beat it.
When second son Felix was born, Emma wanted to do all she could to prevent him from suffering that same discomfort, so jumped at the chance to participate in research which may provide answers.
She signed him up for Dr Palmer’s study, the findings of which were published in the Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology in 2018. Felix was one of 195 children to take part, with 97 receiving vitamin D supplements and 98 a placebo.
Felix was also one of a number of participants across both groups to wear a UIV dosimeter clip, designed to gauge his exposure to sunlight. Emma said this mostly occurred during the safer, low UV periods of the day – either early in the morning or late in the afternoon.
Test results showed both Felix’s UV exposure rating and vitamin D levels were ‘quite high’, and he was among the babies found less likely to be diagnosed with eczema than those who had had less sun exposure.
Emma, who works as a nurse for the Childhood Allergy and Immunology Research Group, encouraged anyone who could participate in studies of these types to help.
“For Ollie, his allergies weren’t life threatening but for other children they can be, so anything we can do to stop that happening to a child, if we can, we should do it,” Emma said.
Dr Palmer said although the results were promising, much work is still needed to be done to determine safe levels of sun exposure.
“There’s a lot more work that needs to be done before we can translate this into a solid community message, but definitely from an allergy point of view, it’s opening up a really important area of research,” she said.
Emma Snelgar with her sons Felix and Ollie, who took part in the study. Photo courtesy The West Australian
In 2005, the Telethon Kids Institute won a National Health & Medical Research Council Indigenous Capacity Building Grant that drew together a team of 10 dedicated investigators – all Aboriginal researchers working to improve the health of people in their communities. Since completing the grant in 2009, many have emerged as national leaders in their fields.
The grant, *Not Just Scholars but Leaders: Learning Circles in Indigenous Health Research*, was the first of its kind aimed at developing a new generation of Indigenous researchers who could undertake high quality research into health priorities determined by Indigenous people.
The five-year project – developed and led by Associate Professor Deborah Lehmann – saw Indigenous researchers linked up with centres of excellence in research in Australia and internationally, to pursue research across a spectrum of issues including mental health, self-esteem, gender, substance abuse, bullying, juvenile justice, primary health care, and human rights.
Professor Juli Coffin, who recently returned to Telethon Kids, was one of the 10 original Capacity Building Grant investigators. The only one living in regional Australia at the time, she said the opportunity it had offered her had been nothing short of amazing.
“It was the mentoring and support I got; people always said I had a different way of looking at things and held some innovative ideas, but I never really got to put them into practice,” Professor Coffin said.
“So for me, that was one of the first times I could see a need and answer it in a way I knew the community would respond to, without being told how I had to do it.”
Glenn Pearson, Head of the Institute’s Aboriginal Health Research Focus Area – who was invited into the group to undertake his own doctoral project – said for many of the investigators, the grant and the work it facilitated had been their introduction into the scientific world, providing a safe place to explore their fields.
“I brought us into a space to do our research helped by senior researchers like Deb Lehmann who were the arms around us, put there to both hold us and put the right pressure on us,” Mr Pearson said.
“They supported us when we came together and when we went back into our research worlds, and that has formed the foundation for all our work since.”
Associate Professor Lehmann mentored the original group from its inception, helping the participants achieve their goals and become independent researchers.
She said it had been a mammoth task – managing a big team of investigators spread across institutions around the country, organising meetings and workshops, and overseeing the mentor network for each member of the group. However, her prediction at the time – that many were poised for great careers – was spot-on.
She was delighted many had done so “fantastically well”, applauding them as leaders in Aboriginal health research and for being committed to translating that research into practice.
“Leading that grant was the hardest thing I’ve done,” she said. “I value the knowledge and friendship of all the investigators and am delighted that it progressed; it was just a question of mentoring and helping them.
“I’m pleased we supported them; the outcome has been really good and they really should be the people working here and telling us how to do Aboriginal health research.”
In addition to their research, those who took part in the grant hosted a National Roundtable on Research on Racism towards Indigenous Australians, which led to a united Declaration and a submission to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission.
The grant produced five completed PhDs, with most who took part now regarded as leaders in their respective fields of research. Many have retained links to Telethon Kids – including Professor Coffin who, although based in the Kimberley region, recently re-joined the Institute after holding distinguished positions including Head of Campus and Executive Director, Notre Dame Broome.
“Living in the Kimberley has its challenges when it comes to professional connectivity, but with the right space to think and create in a culturally responsive way, I hope to see Aboriginal people of working in the research space as the norm instead of the exception,” Professor Coffin said.
Professor Ngiare Brown
One of the first Aboriginal doctors in Australia, Ngiare is a founding member and was Founder and CEO of the Australian Indigenous Doctors’ Association, and is a founding member of the Pacific Region Indigenous Doctors’ Congress. In 2015 she established not-for-profit organisation Ngoaora, focused on Aboriginal child and adolescent wellbeing. She is currently a Commissioner with the National Mental Health Commission.
Professor Juli Coffin
Now Ellison Professor of Aboriginal Research at Telethon Kids, Juli leads the Equine-assisted Learning Program and is highly regarded for her innovative research methods.
Professor Dawn Bessarab
Formerly of Curtin University, Dawn is Director of the Centre for Aboriginal Medical and Dental Health at UWA. A social worker with extensive experience in Aboriginal child protection, community and family violence, she is chief investigator on several NHMRC grants and is highly regarded for her expertise.
Associate Professor Ted Wilkes AO
Ted was the Director of the Derbarl Yerrigan Aboriginal Health Service in Perth for 30 years and is now Associate Professor at Telethon Kids. He is also a former co-team leader of the Aboriginal Australian Research Program at Curtin University’s National Drug Research Institute. In 2014 he was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for distinguished service to the Indigenous community in areas of public health and welfare, among other achievements.
Professor Cheryl Kickett-Tucker
Cheryl is a leading researcher in the School of Education at Curtin University, focusing on Aboriginal education and wellbeing. She is founder of the Pindi Ply Litacy Project, winner of Excellence in Aboriginal Wellbeing and was named WA Local Hero 2019 as part of the Australian of the Year Awards.
Associate Professor Michael Wright
A Research Fellow in the School of Occupational Therapy, Social Work and Social Ecology at Curtin University, Michael is current lead investigator on the Looking Forward, Moving Forward Project; funded by the NHMRC until 2021. He was lead investigator on the Looking Forward Project [2011 – 2015] that developed the Kaart-Moordijl Kaarl (KMK) Model. Co-designed by Nyangorar Elders and service providers, it is a culturally-safe system change intervention that has been implemented in mental health and drug and alcohol services in the Perth area.
HORSES HELPING HEALING
While her initial work at the Telethon Kids Institute was around bullying, Professor Juli Coffin said her current research focuses on the healing power of horses – also known as equine-assisted learning.
“You or I could be the best psychologist in the world but we can’t get the same result someone interacting with a 600kg horse can get,” Professor Coffin said.
Equine-assisted learning is an innovative form of experiential learning, based on the idea that horses can help people to express themselves more openly and honestly. Participants are given experiences with horses in different ways, enabling them to develop new insights and skills that will help them relate better in relationships and cope with life’s challenges.
Professor Coffin first ran the equine-assisted learning program as Ngurudu Barimannanmanha (horses making good) in Geraldton, on Yamaji country in WA’s Mid West. A staggering 370 young Aboriginal people went through the pilot program – the youngest just six years old.
Some took part to develop leadership skills, and others to help overcome behavioural issues that often resulted in school suspension and relationship issues.
“The biggest focus is around healing and trauma,” Professor Coffin said. “The leadership component is really important, though, because we didn’t want the program stigmatised in the community as being for people who were mentally unwell.”
She said if there was trauma at home, some kids found it difficult to express that or even talk about it, while others had serious behavioural issues. Teachers and caregivers could mistake this for attention-seeking, and children were often misdiagnosed and medicated to manage their behaviour.
“What we do is not about unpacking the issues,” Professor Coffin said. “It’s a resourcing program about providing our most vulnerable young people with the tools around healthy relationships and self.”
“The one thing it does do effectively, that’s hard to do in a classroom, is self-regulate emotions like anger, sadness, fear and happiness. It’ll start to set up much better patterns around the types of issues Aboriginal youth are having in their learning environment.
“My thinking is I’m sure there’s a better way than setting up another cycle of drug addiction – it’s an alternative way to provide calmness and regulate emotions.”
WHAT’S NEXT
- The program has moved to Yawuru country in the Kimberley, where it is known as Yawarardi Jan-ga (horses doing healing).
- Professor Coffin is training nine practitioners to help deliver equine-assisted learning, in collaboration with the Equine Institute of Australia.
Juli Coffin is supported by Mineral Resources and the Ellison Family, while the Aboriginal research area is supported by the Packer Foundation and Telethon.
Five Fitzroy Crossing women have been awarded nationally-recognised qualifications after working with the Telethon Kids Institute’s Alcohol and Pregnancy & FASD Research Team, thanks to funding from 100 Women.
The women completed their Certificate II in Community Services at Northern Regional TAFE last year while working with Telethon Kids researchers to carry out the Alert Program® Study.
Project coordinator Bree Wagner said the relationship had created valuable outcomes for both Telethon Kids and the wider Aboriginal communities where the women live.
“We call them our two-way partners,” Ms Wagner said. “The research would be almost impossible to do without their support.”
“They helped us form and maintain positive relationships with community members, ensuring we’re working in a culturally appropriate way and following cultural protocols.”
The women learnt a wide range of skills, including health and safety, working with a diverse range of people, communication skills, preparing a resume, and first aid.
Ms Wagner said the women had been integral in providing cultural support and translation services, as well as helping parents complete the study’s parent and child questionnaires. They had also helped with student testing in Fitzroy Valley schools, and were involved in sharing feedback with the families.
Ms Wagner said the TAFE certificate the women had earned would enable them to build further on the skills and experience they had acquired.
“The skills these women gained have allowed them to branch into roles within the community space, giving them the experience to find the job they want,” Ms Wagner said.
“It’s given them the confidence to have a greater voice in their community and set a positive example for their children.”
Since graduating in August 2018, several of the women have secured employment.
One works as a family support worker through the local women’s resource centre; another has joined the Remote School Attendance Strategy team, and a third woman has recently secured employment as a mental health worker.
Asked why they chose to pursue the certificate, all five women said they wanted to help people by ensuring that more young children in their communities, so they could get an education and grow up to get a good job.
Results of the project will be available later this year.
The Alert Program® Study was funded by a National Health and Medical Research Council Project Grant and 100 Women.
Cancer research is being reimagined after a collaboration between the Telethon Kids Institute, the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, and international researchers unlocked game-changing new knowledge about how the immune system puts melanomas to sleep.
The team behind the pioneering research – led at Telethon Kids by Dr Jason Wraithman, Head of the Cancer Immunotherapy Group – believe the breakthrough has the potential to effectively cure cancer, by rendering cancer cells permanently dormant.
The researchers set out to investigate the role of a particular immune cell – tissue-resident T (T$_{res}$) – in controlling the growth of melanoma tumours.
“Our initial research found that T$_{res}$ cells can make cancer cells dormant, or put them to sleep, through a process called cancer immune-surveillance,” Dr Wraithman said.
Using a mouse model developed by Dr Wraithman, a team of researchers – led by Thomas Gebhardt at the Peter Doherty Institute at the University of Melbourne – was able to track both the T$_{res}$ and cancer cells and observe them in action.
This allowed them to not only analyse up-close the relationship between the immune system and cancer, but to capture stunning real-time video of T$_{res}$ cells keeping melanoma cells in check.
Various colours used to clearly identify the different cells, along with fiery genes that helped to light the cancer cells up, made these tiny tumours visible to the researchers.
“This meant we could track immunity in this setting in exquisite detail,” Dr Wraithman said.
“We’ve known for a long time that this suppression process could happen, but found it very difficult to study in the past.”
Dr Wraithman said the research and associated model represented a major step forwards in the control of cancer.
“There are three stages of cancer control, referred to as the ‘three Es’,” he said. “Cancer can be eliminated, the cancer cells can escape and cause tumours, or a state of equilibrium can be reached. These can all be mediated by the immune system.”
This last stage — reaching equilibrium — is driving the next part of the research.
“We’ve discovered that T$_{res}$ cells act like security guards, surrounding the tumour and preventing it from escaping,” Dr Wraithman said.
“Through the research we watched this unique cell population surveying the cancer and keeping it asleep. When we depleted that specific cell type, the tumours would then re-emerge.”
Dr Wraithman said the researchers hoped the findings would lead to treatments to potentially convert aggressive cancers into a chronic, manageable condition.
“This really has the potential to put cancer to sleep forever, essentially providing a cure.”
The initial research, Tissue-resident memory CD8 T cells promote melanoma-immune equilibrium in skin, was published in Nature.
WHAT’S NEXT
- With further funding, Dr Wraithman and the team hope to look more closely at whether T$_{res}$ cells can fully eradicate cancer cells, or if they just suppress them.
- They also want to determine if these cells are the targets of current immune-based cancer therapies – knowledge which could lead to novel therapeutic targets for cancer, or specific therapies for different types of patients.
NOVEL MODEL LEADS TO LIGHTBULB MOMENT
The ground-breaking research demonstrating how the immune systems keeps melanoma in check was made possible thanks to a novel cancer transplant model developed by Dr Walthman.
“A transplantable model is ideal as it gives us full flexibility to modify the cancer cells prior to transplantation,” Dr Walthman said.
“That meant we could include multiple tags on the cancer cells, making them express different fluorescent colours and glow like a jellyfish. This in turn allowed us to track the cancer progression and observe the disease in action.”
Dr Walthman said the researchers took a clinically relevant strategy by targeting the outermost skin layers where melanoma naturally occurs. They induced light abrasion of skin, followed by epicutaneous application of melanoma cells.
Using his model they were able to observe outcomes reflecting distinct disease stages seen in patients, including progressively growing tumours, spontaneous metastatic spread, stably controlled small tumours, and tiny dormant melanoma lesions which persisted long-term.
“Interestingly, we saw tumour outgrowth sometimes occurring many months after inoculation – suggesting these tumours lay dormant,” Dr Walthman said.
“This was a lightbulb moment that prompted us to then ask challenging questions about how the tumours were able to remain dormant – a process caused by immune-mediated equilibrium.
“This led us to identify the Treg cells – leading to the exciting research which has just been published in Nature.”
Jason’s research has been supported by BHP, Cancer Council Western Australia and the Brady Cancer Support Foundation.
Dynamic imaging of Treg cells (green) keeping cancer cells (red) in dormancy. Note auto fluorescent hair (green, asterisks).
WA-FIRST TECHNIQUE FAST TRACKS URGENT VACCINE POLICY
Analysing samples is a vital part of research, providing the answers needed to move forward with innovative new treatments and life-saving vaccines. But this process is often very time-consuming, taking many months to complete, and the long wait for information can have devastating consequences.
This is especially true for children in Papua New Guinea, where pneumonia is a major killer for kids. Pneumonia is responsible for one million deaths globally each year, but Papua New Guinea has the highest rate – 23 per cent of children don’t make it to their fifth birthday.
With new vaccine policies urgently required to save the lives of children, researchers from the Telethon Kids Institute worked closely with the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research (PNG IMR) to collect samples and find a way to analyse them as soon as possible.
Thanks to funding from the Westpacers Centre of Vaccines and Infectious Diseases, researchers established a new technique that dramatically reduces analysis time. Instead of just 24 samples a day, researchers can now analyse 96 every 90 minutes.
“With this new method we could get through 2,400 samples within a week, where as previously this would have taken us more than six months,” said Dr Lea-Ann Kirkham, Co-Head of the Westpacers Centre’s Bacterial Respiratory Infectious Disease Group.
“We were able to get answers much faster, identifying which vaccines worked best at preventing pneumonia and informing new vaccine policies at the time they are urgently needed.”
Telethon Kids is the only place in Western Australia currently using this fast-track technique, which involves extracting DNA to quickly identify the number of specific bacteria present to identify how well different vaccines are working.
“The most exciting thing about this new method is that we now have a platform that can be used across all microbiology studies and on a much greater scale, including areas such as ear infections, rheumatic heart disease and skin infections,” Dr Kirkham said.
“It opens the door for the Westpacers Centre of Vaccines and Infectious Diseases to be a key player in a diverse range of international collaborations – the opportunities are endless.”
WHAT’S NEXT
- Researchers from Telethon Kids are currently using the new lab-based technique to assist clinicians at King Edward Memorial Hospital in their studies to prevent skin infections in premature babies.
- This method will also play a vital role in a $35 million grant developing a world-first group A streptococcus vaccine.
This research is supported by Westpacers Limited.
When three-year-old Flo Parker injured her hip on a camping trip five years ago, her parents Marny and Daniel thought it would be nothing more than a common childhood injury. But when she reverted to crawling due to the pain she was in, they knew something was seriously wrong.
Scans later revealed the unimaginable: their daughter had a rare form of leukaemia growing in her bone marrow. After years of harsh chemotherapy Flo is now in remission, but the treatment that saved her may have life-long lasting effects.
“In the long term, bone density is a possible issue we may be looking at,” Marny said. “My understanding is that she could be looking at the early onset of osteoporosis, in her early 30s.”
Now, in findings which offer hope to kids like Flo, Telethon Kids Institute researchers have discovered a drug that can not only prevent bone density loss, but has the potential to slow leukaemia progression. The world-first discovery has prompted a change in thinking around the best way to target treatment.
Telethon Kids Cancer Centre researcher Dr Laurence Cheung, who led the team which made the discovery, said the findings, although pre-clinical, were promising and suggested that targeting the microenvironment around leukaemia cells could not only help fight leukaemia, but simultaneously provide relief for one of its most common and painful side-effects – bone loss.
“Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia is the most common cancer among children and remains a common cause of cancer-related death before 20 years of age,” Dr Cheung said.
“When we created a pre-clinical model replicating this leukaemia sub-type, we witnessed substantial bone loss during development of the cancer. We wanted to discover what was causing the bone loss, which the existing literature suggests is experienced by more than a third of children diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.
“We managed to identify a signal produced by the leukaemia cells which instructed cells in the surrounding microenvironment to eat away at the bone. Then we thought, what if we stop these cells from eating the bone away – will this have an impact on the development of leukaemia?”
The researchers used a commercially available drug called zoledronic acid – already known to be safe for children and used to treat brittle bones – to target the bone-eating cells in the microenvironment around the leukaemia cells.
“Importantly, we found that this not only compensated for leukaemia-dependent bone fragility, but also reduced leukaemia progression,” Dr Cheung said.
He said the discovery that cells surrounding the leukaemia cells could contribute to failure or success showed how important it was to look at the whole picture. Although similar thinking had previously been applied to cancer in adults, the finding offered an exciting new treatment angle for children.
“To date, the main strategy for cancer therapy in children has focused on targeting malignant cells with chemotherapy, which is toxic for leukaemic cells but also toxic to the patient,” Dr Cheung said.
“This new research could provide us with a powerful adjuvant therapy. It won’t replace chemotherapy, but we propose that using chemotherapy and treating the microenvironment at the same time will have more benefit than just chemotherapy on its own.
“Although there’s quite a way to go yet, it’s exciting to think about the potential dual benefit this offers, and the paradigm shift it represents for children’s leukaemia.”
This research was carried out in collaboration with Curtin University, The University of Western Australia, the Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, USA, and Perth Children’s Hospital.
WHAT’S NEXT
- The researchers plan to expand the study using similar treatment on other sub-types of the same kind of leukaemia to see if a similar impact can be achieved; and to ensure that zoledronic acid is compatible with conventional chemotherapy agents.
This research was supported by the Children’s Leukaemia and Cancer Research Foundation and Cancer Council Western Australia.
This research shows how we work with others to make a difference
COLLABORATING FOR IMPACT
A 10-year agreement forged between the State Government, Minderoo Foundation and Telethon Kids Institute is well underway, with the first of four locations announced by Community Services Minister Simone McGurk at the end of 2018.
CoLab – Collaborate for Kids – is a joint initiative of the Minderoo Foundation and Telethon Kids, focused on giving every Australian child the best foundation in life.
The Early Years Initiative, announced in March 2018, sees the two organisations join forces with the State Government in a $49.3 million unprecedented partnership, working to empower and support communities to assess the needs of their children and families in identifying what works best in their individual environment.
Over a decade, the initiative will try, test and deliver evidence-informed, community-led approaches to child development in four communities.
The initiative will work within four communities – metropolitan, regional, remote and ultra-remote – with the Central Great Southern shires of Katanning, Broomehill-Tambellup, Kojonup and Gnowangerup selected as the first community to take part.
With more than 50 language groups calling Katanning home, the region is the most ethnically diverse in Western Australia, with numerous cultural and religious backgrounds.
Engagement has already begun in the Central Great Southern, with other locations due to be announced later this year.
The partnership has drawn together an impressive board, led by former Children’s Court magistrate Dr Sue Gordon and former UnitingCare West chief executive Sue Ash, who are co-chairs.
“Research tells us the first four years of a child’s life are critical in creating the platform for their future success,” Dr Gordon said.
“The enthusiasm of the Central Great Southern shires to be involved in this unprecedented initiative demonstrates the strong desire for this kind of commitment to change for children.
“The Early Years initiative will work with communities like those in the Central Great Southern to discover the best approaches to improving the health, learning and development of our children. Our goal is to achieve real and lasting progress and then apply our learnings across the board for the benefit of the whole state.”
Minderoo’s Mrs Nicola Forrest said Minderoo’s greatest successes have come from collaboration.
“One cause I’m particularly proud of is the Early Years Initiative, a ten-year partnership between the State Government, Telethon Kids Institute and Minderoo,” Mrs Forrest said. “Because of the Initiative’s structure, it’s able to have incredible impact across communities and really support and empower families and children.
“That kind of collaboration is the key to our philanthropy. We live by the motto ‘If you want to go fast, go alone. But if you want to go a long way, you have to go together’”.
WHAT’S NEXT
• The remaining three communities are due to be announced by the State Government by the end of the year.
• Engagement in the Central Great Southern community is continuing to establish a framework for the Early Years Initiative.
CoLab - Collaborate for Kids - is a partnership between Minderoo Foundation and Telethon Kids Institute.
BOBBIE BRINGS BABY’S BRAIN TO LIFE
A lovable blue creature by the name of Bobbie has won the hearts and minds of Western Australians and is helping to build a stronger understanding of early childhood development.
Bobbie was the central character in the Bright Tomorrows Start Today campaign, seen across television, social media, newspapers and shopping centre billboards for seven weeks from October to December 2018.
The campaign was created by CoLab – Collaborate for Kids – a joint partnership between Telethon Kids and the Minderoo Foundation focused on giving every Australian child the best foundation in life.
Bright Tomorrows Start Today uses communications science to address current thinking patterns in Australia to explore key concepts of early childhood development and learning.
The first phase of the campaign aimed to lift public recognition of the significance of the early years, and the importance of interacting from birth to build young brains.
Working with the creative team at 303 MullenLowe and Siamese, Bobbie was created as a representation of a baby’s brain, showing how it responds to meaningful moments.
Bobbie’s name was chosen from hundreds of suggestions made by children during the Telethon weekend.
Evaluation has since shown the campaign’s key messages were widely understood by the West Australian public. It scored significantly above the benchmark for similar campaigns when compared for novelty, affective impact and relevance.
Of those who remembered seeing the campaign, more than 90 per cent recalled the TV commercial, demonstrating its significant visual impact.
The results pointed to a significant shift in understanding that children begin to learn from birth. There was also a shift in acknowledging that the first two years of life have a long-term effect on brain development.
WHAT’S NEXT
• The next phase of the campaign is now in development, with Bobbie being used to transform the way early childhood is understood across Australia.
CoLab – Collaborate for Kids – is a partnership between Minderoo Foundation and Telethon Kids Institute.
‘MAMA’ DEB’S DEDICATION TO SAVING CHILDREN IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Children living in Papua New Guinea have good reason to call Clinical Associate Professor Deborah Lehmann ‘Mama Deb’ – her dedication to preventing pneumonia can be credited with saving the lives of many thousands of babies.
Funded by the Wesfarmers Centre of Vaccines and Infectious Diseases, the annual Deborah Lehmann Research Award will provide training and development for early career researchers and students in the Western Pacific Region, allowing her groundwork can be built upon for many years to come.
Professor Lehmann’s research in the region began in the Southern Highlands of PNG in August 1981, after she accepted a position as Director of The Tari Research Unit (TRU).
“I remember walking into the TRU’s office – a two-room hut where I met the village reporters, some wearing their traditional Huli wigs and loin cloths,” Professor Lehmann said. “There weren’t any computers at that point and I was perplexed by the working hours being precisely 7:45 to 4:06, especially when no one had watches!
“I signed up for two years and ended up staying for 17 – I met my partner Michael Alpers at the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research (PNG IMR) in Goroka and have continued to work closely with the Institute for over 37 years now – more than half my life.”
- Professor Deborah Lehmann
Professor Lehmann’s work has been primarily focused on the prevention of pneumonia – the major killer of young children in PNG and other third world countries.
After becoming Director of Pneumonia Research at PNG IMR, she spent a number of years investigating which pneumococcal vaccines could provide the best possible protection for babies, and the optimum time to provide them.
“Even now, infant mortality caused by pneumonia is 10 times higher in PNG than in Australia, and back then it was far worse,” Professor Lehmann said.
“We really needed to try and address this dire situation in any way we could, whether it be through vaccination, nutrition or appropriate diagnosis and treatment.
“We also documented that even if you lived one hours’ distance from a hospital, a child’s risk of dying from pneumonia was much higher, so access to health care was vital.”
Although Professor Lehmann made significant research strides while in PNG, things were not always plain sailing, and she has many quirky memories of the years she spent there.
“During my time in Tari, all of our data had to be transported by road to another town for data entry into a mini computer that took up the space of a whole room,” she said.
“Miraculously no data were lost on the way, however some data from a maternal nutrition study were in a suitcase stolen from my house – and were later seen decorating a Huli’s wig!” Professor Lehmann said.
“One day we were working in our office and a big tree was being cut down outside – someone tried to provide some advice but was told ‘Don’t tell us what to do, we know how to cut down trees’. The next minute the free came crashing down on our roof – luckily no one was injured!”
- Professor Deborah Lehmann
Professor Lehmann with past Huli staff of the PNG Institute of Medical Research
After nearly two decades in PNG, Professor Lehmann moved to Australia in 1998 and joined Telethon Kids, where she has used the skills and research expertise she acquired in PNG to establish programs in acute respiratory infections, otitis media (middle ear infections), and Aboriginal health.
She has led ground-breaking work including the Swimming Pool Study, which established the health benefits of introducing swimming pools into remote Western Australian Aboriginal communities; and the Kalgoorlie Otitis Media Research Project.
Professor Lehmann continues to collaborate with researchers at PNG IMR and in Australia on significant ongoing research projects, and has encouraged others at Telethon Kids – many of whom she has mentored – to collaborate on projects in the region, including Dr Peter Richmond, Dr Christopher Blyth, Dr Lisa-Ann Kirkham, Dr Anita van den Biggelaar, and Dr Ingrid Laing.
Renowned as a generous and compassionate mentor devoted to training and nurturing the next generation, Professor Lehmann has had a profound impact on the careers of countless younger researchers, including 10 Aboriginal researchers whom she mentored as part of an NHMRC Indigenous Capacity Building Grant (see story on page 52).
Combined with her considerable research achievements, that contribution as a mentor means Professor Lehmann’s influence will be felt at the Institute – and most importantly by children and their families – long after her impending retirement.
The impact of Professor Lehmann’s work in PNG over the past 30 years is impossible to measure, according to Dr Tom Snelling, Director of the Westmeers Centre of Vaccines and Infectious Diseases:
“We know pneumonia is responsible for more than one million childhood deaths around the world each year, so Professor Lehmann’s work preventing pneumonia ensures many thousands of children survive their most vulnerable early years,” Dr Snelling said.
“We are very proud to announce the Deborah Lehmann Research Award in recognition of Professor Lehmann’s dedicated research in PNG, and our look forward to seeing young researchers continuing her legacy by providing better prevention and treatment solutions for children in this region.”
The inaugural recipient of the $30,000 annual award, Celestine Aho, was formally announced in March 2019. Ms Aho will investigate the true burden of otitis media and the cause of these infections among children living in the Eastern Highlands of PNG.
Ms Aho’s passion for research around otitis media stems from her little brother’s hearing loss and learning difficulties after recurring ear infections as a baby, and she is now determined to highlight the importance of ear health.
“My family knew little about the effects of child middle ear hearing loss. It was considered a normal part of growing up, and we didn’t have education around ear health issues or awareness of audiology support services,” Ms Aho said.
“As part of my research, I hope to bring emphasis on the awareness of otitis media in the community and in primary health care.”
A $5 million commitment from BHP has allowed Telethon Kids researchers and Aboriginal communities to join hand-in-hand in a bid to make Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder history in the Pilbara.
Local leader and CEO of Wirraka Maya Health Service, June Councillor, has spent years working to highlight suspected high rates of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) among Aboriginal children and adults in some Pilbara communities. In response to calls at the request of BHP, in 2014 the Telethon Kids Institute with Wirraka Maya established a FASD research program in Port Hedland, Yandeyarra and Waralong.
The program, including its name, was carefully developed after close consultation with the local Community Reference Group and the Hedland FASD Network, representing more than 30 health, education and justice services.
“Naming the program was actually a really important contribution,” one FASD Network member said.
“Alcohol is a sensitive topic. If you just called it Hedland FASD or something like that, people might be embarrassed and reluctant to engage. The name, and the use of the Nyangumarta language, reflects the collaborative nature of the program.”
The Pilbara FASD team. (from left): Michelle Gray, Sangita Daniel, Adrian Clinch, Glenn Pearson, David Tucker, Elaine Clifton, Kaeshfah Bruce, Roz Walker, James Fitzpatrick.
Glenn Pearson, Head of the Aboriginal Health Research Focus Area at Telethon Kids, said the $5 million commitment from BHP had enabled the Institute to develop a foundation to work with Aboriginal families and children in the Pilbara both on research and other issues around FASD, including prevention.
“The Institute has developed relationships with community that involve much more than just scheduling research,” Mr Pearson said. “It’s really important that these communities can set the conditions on which they are involved in research that affects them.
“It’s also provided the opportunity to build local capacity and provide research training and career development for Aboriginal people to work in their own communities.”
Community researcher Margaret ‘Sissy’ Ramirez said she had learnt the importance of having good data to help Aboriginal people to tell their stories.
“It’s a really important way for people to understand your message,” she said.
Fellow community researcher Elaine Clifton said she saw Telethon Kids as the face of FASD in the Pilbara, and working with researchers had taught her to be curious about why a particular behaviour was happening.
“Through research and education people are listening and yarning about it,” she said. “As long as we walk together, we know we are supported.”
Since embarking on the program the research team has collected more than 1,000 surveys to ascertain community awareness of FASD; trialled a school-based therapy program that reached more than 100 primary school children; and conducted FASD diagnostic clinics to increase the number of local children receiving a FASD diagnosis.
As a result, the team has helped make FASD a front-of-mind issue for Pilbara health and medical services, schools, and non-government organisations – leading to increased diagnoses of children with FASD, the development of a clinical referral mechanism, and research into potential therapeutic interventions.
“Our work, including strong engagement with the Port Hedland community and local capacity building of Aboriginal co-researchers, has proven successful in maintaining levels of awareness about the risk of drinking during pregnancy at around 94 per cent,” Mr Pearson said.
An additional $5.4 million worth of funding has also been secured to translate FASD prevention research in other sites.
Chief investigator on the program, Dr James Fitzpatrick, said BHP’s commitment – together with the leadership of Aboriginal community members and organisations – had created a clear path forward to making FASD history in the Pilbara.
“Through ‘walking together’, the community as a whole is focused and mobilised in tackling FASD and giving their children the best start to life. This is the power of translational research. FASD is preventable and we all want every child to have the best possible start in life.”
- Dr James Fitzpatrick
Mr Pearson said the Institute was extremely grateful to BHP for its partnership and funding which would help to set Pilbara children at risk of FASD on a more positive trajectory.
“This program will increase the opportunity for children not even born yet to have a quality of life consistent with other children,” Mr Pearson said.
“It’s imperative that we continue to work together to create a brighter future for all children and a community that understands, welcomes and supports them.”
The Pilbara FASD Project was supported by BHP.
WHAT’S NEXT
- The team aims to continue working with Pilbara communities and progress towards a broader program that works with families.
- Over the coming years, they hope to increase community involvement and leadership through employing local management staff; increasing the number and capacity of community researchers and local champions; continuing to expand the role and involvement of the community reference group; and exploring ways to support increased community policy advocacy.
- The team plans to focus efforts on influencing policy to more deliberately identify opportunities and strategies to advocate for change at the community, local, state and national government levels.
Held every two years, the Australasian FASD Conference is a significant and unifying event for those in the Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder sector. The latest conference, held in Perth last November, saw researchers, professionals and families sharing insights and galvanising momentum for future collective action.
Hosted by the multi-site FASD Research Australia Centre for Research Excellence (CRE), which has its Perth node at the Telethon Kids Institute, the 2nd Australasian FASD Conference 2018 was attended by more than 350 delegates, including international researchers, health, justice and education sector professionals, and families and carers of people with FASD.
The event opened with Federal Health Minister Greg Hunt and Indigenous Health Minister Ken Wyatt announcing a $7.2 million 10-year action plan which will drive continuing efforts to reduce the impact of FASD on individuals, families and communities.
Co-Director of the CRE and leader of its Perth arm, Professor Carol Bower, welcomed the new action plan, saying the funding would help continue the national progress made in addressing FASD – progress which could only be made by giving all stakeholders a voice.
She said a key aim of the CRE was to involve consumers, parents and carers of people with FASD in guiding its work.
“The conference firmly embedded the perspectives of consumers, parents and carers in guiding future research and policy priorities, building on previous community reference group consultations,” Professor Bower said.
“The highlight for me was seeing how much people enjoyed seeing everybody involved with FASD getting together to think about how we progress the research.”
“We don’t often get to meet each other face-to-face, and we enjoyed the confluence of clinicians, carers and researchers, policy and practice people.”
The conference also firm connections between clinicians and researchers around Australia and with international researchers, opening opportunities for strengthened collaborations. One included a Memorandum of Understanding with Canadian FASD researchers to work together on prevention, diagnosis and management of FASD.
Professor Bower said the conference helped researchers to refine the focus of future research beyond the current CRE.
“There is a lot to do in FASD, but it is clear that FASD is just part of a bigger picture of neurodevelopment in childhood – for example, we have a project looking at trans-diagnostic approaches to early development,” she said.
“Often before you can make a definitive diagnosis such as FASD, autism or ADHD, there are hints that something might not be going right at that stage. That’s an important component of our FASD work and other research at the Telethon Kids Institute.”
A workshop held the day before the conference saw law experts, child protection staff and consumer and researchers to hear valuable insights which will help guide management of people with FASD in the justice system. Those insights were made possible thanks to ground-breaking work carried out by Professor Bower and her team at Telethon Kids, which revealed that more than a third of young people in the Banksia Hill Youth Detention Centre had FASD, and nine in 10 had severe neurodevelopmental impairment.
“In our Banksia Hill study 34 per cent of young people had FASD, but we also found that 89 per cent had at least one severe developmental impairment, so in justice we believe we should be focusing generally on neurodevelopment, not just on FASD,” Professor Bower said.
She said those who had attended the workshop had been highly engaged.
“We had a really good group of people and a lot of energy that we hope we can build on to guide management and how justice services are structured,” Professor Bower said.
It is anticipated that with wider marketing, including internationally, the CRE will attract even greater interest in the FASD20 conference to be held in Sydney, offering further opportunities for partnerships and collaborations for all stakeholders.
See Banksia Hill Project story, page 30.
PARENTS HELPING TO PUT FASD INTO PERSPECTIVE
For Neil Reynolds, foster dad to siblings aged seven and 10 years, who both have FASD, the 2nd Australasian FASD Conference was full of opportunities that only reinforced his positive outlook.
Well researched and with seven years’ experience parenting children with the condition, he and his wife know that a consistent, appropriate approach helps each child to maximise their achievements.
“That’s the message we tried to convey through the conference: that there is hope for these kids,” said Neil.
“There’s a big difference that can be made – you get massive rewards from them and they can achieve amazing things. You just need guidance and support because they are not like anybody else in the community. You’ve just got to do it a little bit differently and if you stick at it, you get great rewards,” he said.
Testament to this approach, Neil’s foster daughter is now completing Year 5, is able to read and enjoys school. She is a ‘gun’ at computer games and has become highly engaged in maths study, since it has been delivered via an iPad.
“She is certainly achieving far greater than the expectation was at the beginning of her schooling,” he said.
“Socially she is well-liked and accepted, and she is positive about the learning process, even though not achieving as highly as the other kids.”
Neil’s seven-year-old foster son, who is more seriously affected, is now satisfactorily managing Year 2, following years of consistent, therapeutic, “good old-fashioned” parenting.
“The reality with these kids is you get out what you put in and if you put in a whole lot, you get a whole lot back.”
- Neil Reynolds
“But unlike a mainstream child where it just happens, with these kids you’ve got to just keep pushing and encouraging until you get what you want,” he said.
The conference enabled Neil to share his positive message with other parents, dispelling what he says is often a mythicathy about the outlook for these kids. Added to that, listening to the successes researchers and clinicians were having was highly affirming for all.
“It’s great for parents to be able to sit down and hear of clinicians having success with some of their clients and some of the projects they have put in place,” he said.
“There are researchers finding things out about dealing with behaviours and it’s good they can pass this on to the parents, so they can put it into place.
“It’s also good to speak to people who have done those things and had some success – the effort in consistently following these guidelines is certainly worthwhile.”
Neil said parents and carers felt valued in being able to share their insights and perspectives with researchers and clinicians.
“There are so many different aspects of FASD,” he said.
“It was a fantastic opportunity. Often you have clinicians together, researchers together or parents and carers together, but it is rare you get them all in the one place – and so many of them, with so much passion and knowledge about the subject.”
DRIVING A VACCINE REVOLUTION
Imagine a future where a child could be vaccinated against a virus at birth, and that treatment was not only highly effective in almost all babies, but was also the only vaccination necessary for that disease for the child’s entire life. The Telethon Kids Institute is now part of an ambitious, yet achievable, global bid to produce such one-shot vaccines.
According to the Telethon Kids Institute’s newest senior researcher, Professor Tobias Kollmann, one-shot vaccines are within reach – if only the amount of funding needed for the research could be made available.
“We know what we have to do, and we know how to do it: the only thing keeping us from realising this dream is securing the necessary funding,” Professor Kollmann said.
A world leader in infectious diseases research, Professor Kollmann recently relocated to Perth from Canada – bringing his research team with him – to spearhead the Institute’s role as the first international hub of the Human Vaccines Project.
Modelled on the successful Human Genome Project – which revolutionised biomedical research after bringing together leaders in their field to sequence the human genome – the Human Vaccines Project draws together top researchers from around the world to collaborate on comprehensively sequencing the human immune system, and determining the rules for long-lived protective immunity across globally diverse populations.
“It’s a very, very, ambitious goal given it’s even more complex than the Human Genome Project, but when successful will transform the future of human health.”
- Professor Tobias Kollmann
Professor Kollmann said the project aimed to attract $1-2 billion in funding over 10 years to drive forward new research. That knowledge would be the start of a “vaccine revolution”, and be translated into the next generation of vaccines, targeting difficult infectious diseases like TB, HIV and malaria, and even vaccines for non-communicable diseases like cancer.
“The human genome consists of about 20,000 genes. Analysing the human immune system is a million times more complicated than that – yet we have the tools to do it! The human health benefits would be monumental.”
Telethon Kids Institute Director, Professor Jonathan Carapetis, said the Institute’s goal of improving kids’ health would be significantly boosted thanks to its role as a partner in this ground-breaking international initiative.
“This is an example of some of the best research organisations in the world coming together and inviting us to come on board.”
Professor Tobias Kollmann said that as a regional hub for the project – the only partner outside of North America and the only one with a paediatric research focus – the Institute would make an invaluable contribution to the project’s mission of ‘decoding the human immune system to transform human health.’
“This will not only make a significant contribution to the development of vaccines and immunotherapies against infectious diseases, but also potentially cancers,” he said.
Professor Kollmann’s new lab at Telethon Kids builds on existing relationships with Perth-based collaborators and capitalises their expertise in conducting large-scale observational cohort studies in high-risk populations.
The group will utilise cutting-edge technologies, coupled with ground-breaking bioinformatic approaches, to help determine how and why an individual’s immune system responds the way it does when challenged.
“This understanding will underpin our uncovering of the key mechanisms crucial to the infant response to vaccine or infection,” Professor Kollmann said.
Telethon Kids is one of several academic partners in the Human Vaccines Project, with others including the Vanderbilt University Medical Center, University of California San Diego, The Scripps Research Institute, J. Craig Venter Institute and La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology.
He said the initiative would bring Telethon Kids and Western Australia to the forefront of impactful and prominent international medical research efforts.
The lab’s relocation to Perth also adds to the growing momentum around systems and translational biology, currently being fostered at Telethon Kids and elsewhere in WA.
Clinical Research Manager Jennifer Kent and Christina Davies with her baby Cate at the launch of the Human Vaccines Project hub in Perth.
The Perth hub of the Human Vaccines Project and the recruitment of Professor Tobias Kollmann and his laboratory team from Canada has been made possible by the Perth Children’s Hospital Foundation, Telethon, Stan Perron Charitable Foundation and McCusker Charitable Foundation.
To lead a particular component of the work,” Professor Carapetis said.
“It makes the most of our expertise in understanding the immune system and engaging populations at highest risk of disease, like in Papua New Guinea and Aboriginal kids in Australia, which is instrumental in making sure we can understand how all kids can most benefit from vaccines.”
Professor Kollmann said vaccination had been one of the most successful medical interventions to date. However, scientists still didn’t know exactly how vaccines worked and why they worked for some people and not others. Flu vaccinations for example, only worked as desired in up to half the population.
“It’s an odd thing to say because we know they work, but we don’t understand how they work,” he said.
“That’s a difficult message to package, especially at a time when in Australia and other countries, infectious diseases haven’t been at the forefront and more and more people are becoming vaccine-hesitant, or even anti-vaccination.
“Then we have measles outbreaks all over the world because of increased resistance to vaccinations in children in particular – so the downside is immediately palpable and we know this is a dangerous dynamic.”
GLOBAL CONSORTIUM AIMS TO PROTECT BABIES FROM THEIR FIRST WEEK OF LIFE
Babies are most vulnerable to life-threatening diseases such as pneumococcal and whooping cough in their first few weeks of life, yet current vaccines can’t be given until two months of age.
Every year more than one million babies around the world don’t live long enough to be immunised against these deadly diseases, so researchers from the Westmeers Centre of Vaccines and Infectious Diseases have teamed up with a consortium which aims to optimise current or develop new vaccines to provide immediate protection from birth.
Funded by a National Institutes of Health (NIH) US$15 million grant, the Expanded Program on Immunisation Consortium (EPIC) Study is led by some of the world’s leading infectious disease experts, including Professor Tobias Kollmann, who recently moved from Telethon Kids Institute from the University of British Columbia, and Professor Ofer Levy, of the Boston Children’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School.
Professor Peter Richmond, Head of the Vaccine Trials Group at the Westmeers Centre, said EPIC was part of a desire to understand more about how newborns’ immune systems develop, and how they respond to vaccinations.
“The first stage of the study involved pioneering a technique which gives unprecedented insight into the dramatic changes occurring in a baby’s body in the first week of life – all using less than a quarter of a teaspoon of blood,” Professor Richmond said.
“In the past we haven’t had the tools to look in depth at the immune response in very early life, because the necessary testing required large volumes of blood which can’t be taken when babies are that small.
“Researchers now have access to vital information that can be used to optimise the design of vaccines and allow babies to be vaccinated a lot earlier, with the added benefit of longer-lasting immunity.”
- Professor Peter Richmond
BILL & MELINDA GATES FOUNDATION GRANT AIMS TO PREVENT DEADLY INFECTIONS IN EARLY LIFE
Newborn babies and their fragile immune systems struggle to fight off nasty infections such as septicaemia, pneumonia and gastroenteritis – all common causes of infant mortality in many countries around the world.
Now, in an exciting first for life, Telethon Kids Institute, the Westmeers Centre of Vaccines and Infectious Diseases has been awarded a Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation grant as part of its mission to ensure more children and young people survive and thrive.
The US$500,000 grant follows an earlier grant from the Immunising Pregnant Women and Infants Network (IMPRINT). The funding will enable a team of researchers including Dr Anita van den Biggelaar, Senior Research Fellow at the Westmeers Centre, to investigate whether giving newborn babies probiotics daily over their first seven days can boost immunity and improve gut health – significantly reducing the risk of life-threatening infections.
“The results from the pilot study will give us interesting insight into how probiotics can help with healthy colonisation of the gastrointestinal tract and program healthy development of the immune system.”
- Dr Anita van den Biggelaar
“The newborns involved are receiving a first dose of probiotics within the first three days, followed by six additional doses throughout their first 10 days of life.
“The results from the pilot study will give us interesting insight into how probiotics can help with healthy colonisation of the gastrointestinal tract and program healthy development of the immune system.”
Dr van den Biggelaar said the team hoped the data they obtained would lead to a large multi-site study in PNG involving thousands of babies, aimed at establishing the long-term effects of probiotics in preventing major infections such as sepsis and pneumonia.
Project collaborators include Professors Peter Richmond and Tobias Kollmann (Telethon Kids), Dr Tobias Strunk (UWA), Professor Peter Doherty and Dr Rebecca Ford (PNG IMP), and Dr Anna Greenhill (Federation University Australia).
This research is supported by Westmeers Limited.
Passionate community engagement and promising results have seen a small neuromuscular disorder study begun as a Masters project blossom into a five-year, National Health and Medical Research Council-backed program of research, with international collaboration.
One of the biggest problems facing young people with neuromuscular disorders is the risk of breathing problems caused by muscle weakness during sleep.
The resulting hypoventilation – breathing at an abnormally slow rate, leading to increased carbon dioxide in the blood – can eventually lead to lung failure, the most common cause of death in people with neuromuscular disease. It’s a problem Telethon Kids Institute researcher and Perth Children’s Hospital respiratory paediatrician Dr Adelaide Withers would dearly love to solve.
In 2016, thanks in large part to a scholarship from Muscular Dystrophy WA, she began a Masters project aimed at better understanding, predicting, and ultimately preventing hypoventilation.
Her pilot study, Clinical Predictors of Respiratory Failure in Paediatric Neuromuscular Disorders, is working with 37 children and young people from across WA who have neuromuscular disorders, including Duchenne muscular dystrophy and Spinal Muscular Atrophy, to identify early markers of hypoventilation.
“If we can identify the onset of hypoventilation earlier, we know that there’s effective treatment,” Dr Withers said. “It’s very well shown that using non-invasive ventilation improves not only quality of life but reduces morbidity and mortality and prolongs kids’ lives.”
Designed as a 12-month project involving overnight sleep studies, lung and motor function tests, and quality of life questionnaires, results so far from the pilot study – helped by a high level of engagement from participants and families – have been so promising they’ve inspired two larger projects amounting to a five-year program of research into respiratory outcomes for neuromuscular disease.
The first, funded by the Duchenne Parent Project in the Netherlands and led by Telethon Kids Head of Children’s Lung Health, Professor Graham Hall, is a two-year study monitoring respiratory outcomes in boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Together with the initial results from Dr Withers’ pilot, the protocols from that study have in turn provided the basis for a five-year, $1.6 million National Health and Medical Research Council grant. This will broaden the scope of Dr Withers’ original study and adds a US cohort into the mix, thanks to a collaboration with Stanford University and the Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital in Palo Alto.
Professor Hall said the overlapping projects were a great example of how working closely and openly with consumers and community members could take a piece of research to the next level.
“Initially we thought we’d have to scale back the project because the burden would be too high,” Professor Hall said. “But the neuromuscular community said, ‘We recognise this will be hard yakka but if this means we’ll never have to do this again and that we’ll get better treatment, please go ahead.’”
“Since then the project has only continued to grow, with the neuromuscular community reference group heavily involved at every stage and helping to shape our protocols and research questions in significant ways.”
- Professor Graham Hall
Dr Withers said this had included a novel shift to in-home sleep studies, in response to participant concerns about the disruption of having to spend the night in hospital.
“We’re very conscious of minimising the burden for these families, as they’ve often already got such a high burden because their children are often severely disabled,” she said.
“So, when they told us that they hate having to come in to do sleep studies, we decided to try home sleep studies instead. Part of the NHMRC project will involve comparing home and in-lab sleep studies, which will be a lot more pleasant for the patients – and we probably wouldn’t have looked at that if it hadn’t been for the community reference group.
“They’ve been incredibly committed to this research and really important in helping us steer the direction of what we do.”
WHAT’S NEXT
- Dr Withers is continuing to recruit for her pilot study, and hopes to transition most of the participants over to the longer term NHMRC study.
This research is supported by Muscular Dystrophy WA and the Duchenne Parent Project in the Netherlands.
Mackenzie Crane was 10 months old when her parents, Jodie and Scott, were given the life-changing news that their daughter would never walk.
The Karratha family had noticed that beyond learning to sit up at around five months, Mackenzie didn’t appear to be progressing. When a physiotherapist noted the by then obvious fact that she had low muscle tone, they took her to the local paediatrician.
“The paediatrician looked at her and did a few things and then looked at me and said ‘Right, I need you to get on a plane to Perth,’” Jodie said. “I think the whole world went ‘boom’.
“We ended up in Perth, where they ran some tests. Eventually they told us ‘Your daughter will never walk.’
Mackenzie was diagnosed with Spinal Muscular Atrophy Type 2, a genetic muscular disorder which affects the nerve cells that control voluntary muscles. It was a working diagnosis only, though, as doctors were for years unable to identify the specific genetic fault causing her muscle weakness.
Late last year, Genetic Services of Western Australia finally identified an incredibly rare mutation on Mackenzie’s MORC2 gene. Jodie was told Mackenzie was one of only four reported cases in the world with that mutation.
“It turns out the mutation Mackenzie has is so rare it doesn’t even have a name,” Jodie said. “It doesn’t change anything though – the symptoms are pretty much the same.”
Following Mackenzie’s initial diagnosis, the family initially experienced shock and grief.
“This was followed by a steep learning curve and then adjustment to our new situation,” Jodie said. “We tried to stay positive and focused on what Mackenzie could do rather than what she couldn’t.”
As a result, Mackenzie, now 13, has been able to enjoy experiences including overseas travel, concerts and shows, community and social involvement, and has attended the local primary and high schools with the help of education assistants.
In late 2017, the Cranes noticed Mackenzie wasn’t waking up as refreshed as usual, and was experiencing headaches and low energy. A sleep study revealed multiple episodes of obstructive sleep apnoea.
Mackenzie’s paediatric respiratory specialist, Dr Adelaida Withers, suggested the family join the Clinical Predictors of Respiratory Failure in Paediatric Neuromuscular Disorders study.
The Cranes – eager to understand more about Mackenzie’s condition and to help with research which may benefit other families – jumped at the chance to be involved. Although the research has not changed Mackenzie’s treatment, the family is pleased to be contributing to the search for answers.
“The more we know about neuromuscular disease and respiratory health, the better. The deterioration of breathing is a key concern for children like Mackenzie, so hopefully this study will help further identify risk factors and possible future treatments.”
- Jodie Crane
Jodie said participation in the study hadn’t been onerous, with the appointments tying in neatly with Mackenzie’s regular trips to Perth for respiratory and other checks, including routine sleep studies.
“We’ve had a few lung function/breathing tests over the past six months that are not invasive or time-consuming, and the staff are always lovely and accommodating,” she said.
“The research may or may not benefit Mackenzie at this point but down the track it will certainly benefit other people. It’s just good to be involved in it, and to have someone keeping an eye on her.”
Researchers from Stanford University, who are collaborating on the neuromuscular disorder study, visited the Institute in May.
Paediatric lung health researcher Pam Laird has decades of clinical experience but says her experience working towards improved early diagnosis of chronic wet cough and lung disease in Kimberley Aboriginal children has changed her world view – particularly around the importance of grass roots community collaboration.
Prevalence of chronic lung disease in Aboriginal children is conservatively estimated at 1.5 per cent. A wet cough, which is caused by mucus in the airways, often indicates low grade bacterial infection if the cough is present for more than four weeks. Such an infection can lead to permanent lung damage.
“Chronic wet cough can lead to really serious health issues, but it’s often curable – if we find it and manage it early,” Ms Laird said.
“What we were finding during our visits to the Kimberley is children in Aboriginal communities were often presenting to doctors far too late, when they’d had their wet cough for a long time and already had lung damage, which could have been prevented if they’d been treated earlier.”
She said culturally appropriate early management was key, but to achieve that, researchers had to work in partnership with communities.
“As researchers, we can’t go into these communities with a paternalistic Western model of medicine and think we can fix the problem.”
- Pam Laird
“You’ve got to establish relationships with the community first and find out what their understanding is, what they need and what is already working well. Then, together we can find solutions to providing health care in a way that’s culturally meaningful and sustainable.”
With the help of staff at Telethon Kids Kimberley, Ms Laird and Telethon Kids paediatric lung health researcher Dr André Schultz worked with 40 families as well as local health service providers – including the Kimberley Aboriginal Medical Services (KAMS), Broome Regional Aboriginal Medical Service (BRAMS), and WA Country Health Service – to come up with a strategy to raise awareness and improve recognition and management of chronic wet cough and lung disease.
They took a two-pronged approach, speaking at length with families to gauge what they understood about wet cough and lung health; and interviewing health practitioners to find out what they knew about these problems and what they saw as the barriers to managing affected children.
“We found that wet cough in children is normalised, both within the medical profession and families,” Ms Laird said.
“Knowledge about chronic wet cough in children is not widespread in the medical profession, since it was only formally recognised in 2006 that chronic wet cough in the absence of other signs or symptoms could represent serious disease.
Using this information, the researchers shaped a comprehensive implementation strategy which they tested for effectiveness in the Kimberley. The strategy centred around a health information campaign enlisting West Coast Eagles rookie and Balgo boy, Francis Watson, as a cultural ambassador to feature in radio, television, social media and print advertisements as well as community appearances and talks. The team also produced a culturally relevant flip chart about lung health and a short animation featured on YouTube.
The materials and advertisements, along with workshops and training sessions for local health practitioners, were pushed out during
CHILD REMOVAL DATA FUELS CASE FOR CHANGE
Telethon Kids Institute research which revealed Aboriginal children are 10 times more likely than non-Aboriginal children to be placed in out-of-home care has focused attention on child protection practices, and is feeding a push to improve support for Western Australian families at risk of losing their children.
The work, led by award-winning child abuse and neglect researcher Dr Melissa O’Donnell, confirmed what members of the Aboriginal community had long suspected: that Aboriginal children – including babies – are now more likely than ever to be removed from their families.
The findings prompted the research team, including Telethon Kids Patron Professor Fiona Stanley and leading Aboriginal researcher Dr Rhanda Marriff, of Murdoch University, to call for urgent action to prevent further intergenerational trauma.
Their plea attracted widespread media attention and was followed by a slew of requests from those working with affected families who were keen to use the research findings as part of efforts to improve child protection practices.
“What people were telling us was the numbers seemed to be rising, but they didn’t have the data to prove it,” Dr O’Donnell said.
“This research has acknowledged that yes, this is happening, and has opened the way to ask questions about what the government is going to do to address this and reduce the number of removals, and how can we find some solutions.”
Since the paper’s publication in the journal Child Abuse & Neglect in February, the researchers have been asked to meet with the State Child Protection Minister to discuss the findings, and Dr O’Donnell has been invited to discuss the results at a meeting in the UK in September, which will focus on international rates of infant removal.
The researchers have also agreed to hold focus groups for various support services, agencies and lawyers, and the findings have been used as part of a legal symposium discussing the lack of legal representation for families facing the removal of children via court order.
“The fact that many families don’t have legal representation and are therefore unable to contest allegations when orders are sought in the Children’s Court, for example, is a real indictment on the system,” Dr O’Donnell said.
“It feels like there’s a lot of momentum, partly as a result of the Coroner’s report into the suicides of 13 young people in the Kimberley, many of whom were involved with child protection.
“There’s more and more concern about how our child protection processes support children who are removed, as well as how well we support those families to address the underlying issues that may be putting children at risk.”
Dr O’Donnell said the evidence base that might illuminate these and related issues, including the child protection processes that may disadvantage families from seeking natural justice, was currently inadequate. However, her upcoming research, including a review of the Western Australia’s case files for infant removals, and a potential review of national child protection data around removals, aimed to remedy this.
“What we’re trying to do is highlight the systemic issues that are resulting in this rise in babies being taken from their families. Hopefully we can bring all that information together to then start pushing further for the changes that need to happen.”
This work was funded by the Australian Research Council and undertaken with the cooperation of the Western Australian Government Departments of Health, Communities, Education, and Justice.
The researchers reviewed child protection data from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) from 2012-2016 along with linked data from Western Australian government departments. The resulting study, published in the journal Child Abuse & Neglect, found:
- The number of Aboriginal children in out-of-home care increased 2.1 per cent from 2012 to 2017, while the number of Aboriginal infants – those under the age of one year – in out-of-home care increased 17 per cent between 2013 and 2016.
- Nationally, 56.6 per 1,000 Aboriginal children were in out-of-home care in 2016, compared to 46.6 per 1,000 in 2012. By contrast, 5.8 per 1,000 non-Aboriginal children were in out-of-home care in 2016, up only slightly from the 2012 rate of 5.4 per 1,000.
- Similarly, the number of Aboriginal infants in care rose from 34.8 to 29.1 per 1,000 between 2013-14, when the AIHW began collating data about children in out-of-home care under the age of one year – and 2016. Over the same period, the rates for non-Aboriginal infants rose from 2.6 to 3 per 1,000.
WHAT’S NEXT
- Dr O’Donnell will undertake a review of the WA Children’s Court case files for cases involving infant removal to identify issues of concern.
- She has requested access to the National Child Protection Minimum Dataset to find out more about how the various states manage child protection orders, as well as how often children are reunited with their families.
IN THE PIPELINE
This research is in the pipeline towards translation
EMBRACING THE MENTAL HEALTH OF OUR CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE
Embrace – a new research collaboration based at Telethon Kids – will bring a new focus to understanding and improving the mental health of children and young people.
Fiona’s son Sam was just 17 when he took his own life.
“When I realised Sam was gone, everything stopped. It was like my world had ended,” Fiona said. “Never in a million years did I think this would happen. He was always so happy.”
“I look back and I look for signs in his eyes or some sign that he was sad, but I can’t see it. Sam wasn’t bullied, he wasn’t on drugs, he hadn’t split up with his girlfriend. It’s so confusing because you don’t understand.”
Sadly, Sam’s story is not an isolated one. Suicide is the leading cause of death in 15-24 year olds in Western Australia, accounting for one in three deaths in young people.
Now a new collaboration based at Telethon Kids – called Embrace – will become the first research centre in the state devoted to the mental health of children and young people aged 0-25.
Led by some of Australia’s top mental health researchers, Embrace will find new ways to help kids at the lowest times in their lives – when they’re experiencing trauma, depression, anxiety, or thoughts of suicide or self-harm.
Co-lead, Associate Professor Ashleigh Lin, said Embrace would bring together clinicians, service providers and government stakeholders to tackle the issue of mental health with a collaborative, holistic approach.
It would also seek to prevent crisis before it starts, by giving kids and communities the tools they need to better cope with challenges they face, including bullying, unsafe cyber behaviours, and stressful experiences.
“Embrace will work towards deeply understanding the experiences and needs of children and young people by listening to their voices and evaluating innovative ways of helping them,” Dr Lin said.
“We’ll then promote these solutions to mental health service providers and policymakers to create real and effective change.”
Dr Lin said mental health was a complex issue that was still not fully understood.
“That’s why research is so important,” she said. “It’s how we come to understand where problems originate, create new ways of helping vulnerable kids, prove which therapies work best, make sure kids get the right support, and discover how best they thrive in their families, schools and communities.”
By 15 years of age, 50% of lifetime mental illnesses have already begun
Suicide is the leading cause of death in 15-24 year olds in WA, accounting for 1 in 3 deaths in young people
1 in 12 Australian young people aged 12-17 have self-harmed
It is estimated that more than 41,000 teens aged 12-17 attempt suicide each year
Dr Ashleigh Lin and Fiona Bailey
Photographs of Fiona’s son, Sam
It was essential, she said, to find new ways to prevent and treat mental health issues in order to keep children and young people on the right trajectory, so they could develop into happy and productive adults.
“Embrace will find answers to our most pressing mental health problems, and will push boundaries to not only create a more effective mental health system, but make a genuine difference for those vulnerable to suicide, self-harm, trauma, depression and anxiety.”
Embrace has been supported by the Gift of Giving donors at the 2018 Lexus Ball for Telethon.
The #SupportEmbrace Campaign – Embrace Ambassadors Maggie Dent and Nic Naitanui led a campaign to rally the community behind Embrace, raising both awareness and donations for mental health research. The campaign encourages people to post a photo of their younger self on social media to show today’s young people that you know what it feels like to go through tough times.
How is Embrace unique?
1. Embrace is WA’s first and only research centre devoted to the mental health of children and young people aged 0-25 years. The team aims to develop early intervention strategies in order to prevent mental health crises later in life.
2. Embrace values the diversity of our community and seeks individualised solutions to help every young person and their families, especially those most vulnerable.
3. Embrace is driven by the needs of young people and families in WA.
4. Embrace is deeply connected in the WA community. Based at Telethon Kids, its research will involve young people directly and be conducted in partnership with local mental health services, primary schools, community groups and government departments, to address the needs of our WA community and put everything we learn into action to help WA kids now.
Our Values
Embrace operates according to the following values:
Health Equity
Cultivating positive mental health and wellbeing
A holistic approach
Sustainable
Empowerment
“We need to prioritise mental health. The longer we take, the more lives are lost and that’s the reality of it. We need to do all we can and get as much help into it as we can. Let’s all rally behind the Embrace team to help give kids a brighter future.”
-AFL player and Embrace ambassador Nic Naitanui
“Every single young person is struggling and vulnerable around the things that knock them down. We really have to look at: what are the things that genuinely support our teens? How do we support them in school journeys? How do we support them at a community level? How do we support them in families? The world of today’s world is giving our young people on that adolescent journey more challenges on so many levels and we need to work out how do we create the safe base around them, so they can come out the other end.”
- Parenting author and Embrace ambassador Maggie Dent
For more information, visit embrace.telethonkids.org.au
BUSTING MYTHS AROUND STILLBIRTH
Telethon Kids Institute researchers believe a public education campaign, like the one around Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), would help to reduce the number of babies who are stillborn.
Research shows that deaths from SIDS in Australia dropped from 500 in 1989 to 13 cases in 2015, following the introduction of risk factor design linking babies’ face-down sleep position to increased risk of SIDS.
Telethon Kids Institute researcher Carrington Shepherd said that nationally, six babies were stillborn each day – and 40% of SIDS, some of those deaths were preventable. There was a ‘tragic over-representation’ of Aboriginal people in those figures.
“But there’s a real sense of fatalism that stillbirth is unavoidable, that it’s not preventable – and that’s not true,” Dr Shepherd said.
“However, we don’t fully understand which deaths are avoidable and which aren’t, and this really hampers our work in this space.”
Dr Shepherd has teamed with the Institute’s Dr Brad Farrant to lead further research on the topic. Dr Farrant and his wife Jaime are parents to daughter Kaya, who died unexpectedly during labour in 2011.
Dr Farrant said he believed Kaya’s death – from a combination of infection and intrauterine growth restriction – was among those that were preventable.
“It’s still a very stigmatised space,” Dr Farrant said. “The public understanding around stillbirth is quite low, with a lot of myths.
“There’s much work to be done in public health education to create an environment where we are able to have adult conversations around what we need to do to reduce stillbirth.”
The Farrants gave evidence to the Australian Senate Select Committee on Stillbirth Research and Education in December 2018, and Dr Farrant said the time was now right, in the wake of that inquiry, to ramp up research.
Accordingly, he and Dr Shepherd are developing a small team of researchers at Telethon Kids and nurturing broader collaborations with the University of South Australia and the stillbirth charity Still Aware. Together they have formed the Stillbirth Parents, Educators, Awareness advocates and Researchers (SPEAR) collaboration.
Dr Shepherd said improving available data was a crucial first step in helping researchers.
“At the moment we are all coming from different angles; we have data buffing, clinical researchers, and scientists all working separately with their part of the picture, but if we could combine that we’d get a clearer picture of what needs to be done,” he said.
“Then, we’d like to have that information linked to other administrative data and available to third party researchers like us.”
Dr Farrant said a big focus would be having a national conversation about stillbirth the way the community had previously had around SIDS.
“The parallels with SIDS are instructive,” he said. “One of the key factors in the SIDS campaign was raising public awareness around sleeping position, and maternal sleeping position has been identified as a factor in stillbirth – so there are strong parallels.
“The SIDS campaign was very effective in not just raising awareness and dispelling myths but in getting people’s interest.
“We need to do what we can to get people talking about stillbirth – this could be one of the most important things we do in terms of prevention.”
It was a conversation between Telethon Kids Institute researcher Brad Farrant and University of South Australia student Danielle Pollock, at the International Stillbirth Alliance Conference in Scotland last year, that gave rise to the group SPEAR: Stillbirth Parents, Educators, Awareness advocates and Researchers.
The pair joined up with Telethon Kids researcher Dr Carrington Shepherd, Claire Foard, founder of charity Still Aware, and Associate Professor Jane Warland, of the School of Nursing and Midwifery at the University of South Australia, to form the group, which aims to ensure the voices of bereaved parents are heard in stillbirth policy, research and ultimately practice.
Dr Farrant, Danielle Pollock, Claire Foard and Jane Warland have all personally experienced stillbirth in their lives, with their experiences as bereaved parents a key driver as they seek to change the conversation around stillbirth.
Dr Farrant said that for him, the most important function of the group – which was still in its early days – was public education.
“Not long ago, it was thought the best thing for bereaved parents was to have the baby taken away and never spoken of again,” he said.
“Thankfully, through a concerted advocacy and education campaign this is no longer the case. Unfortunately there is still a lot of stigma and lack of understanding about stillbirth, and this is why public education is such a vital component of stillbirth prevention.
“Conversations need to happen to educate the public, and it’s important that the voices of bereaved parents are heard and central to these conversations.”
WA DATA CRUCIAL TO KEY STILLBIRTH FINDING
A 1970s initiative dreamt up by former Telethon Kids Director Professor Fiona Stanley, which saw midwives begin collecting data on stillbirths in Western Australia, has been crucial to new findings about stillbirth and pregnancy published in the prestigious international journal *Lancet*.
Head of Child Disability at Telethon Kids, Associate Professor Helen Leonard, is part of a West Australian perinatal epidemiology group, some of whose members collaborated with researchers in Finland and Norway for the world’s first large-scale study into the link between stillbirth and subsequent pregnancy.
The study involved 14,452 births, including 3,521 from Western Australia. The Australian data was collected from 1980-2015 through the Western Australian Midwives’ Record System, under which midwives began recording information about mothers’ pregnancies and births from 1975 onwards.
“Now that data collection is absolutely routine, that information has been sentinel to a lot of studies including this one,” Associate Professor Leonard said.
She said while women were generally advised by their doctors that it was best to wait at least two years before conceiving again after a live birth (sooner after a miscarriage), guidelines on the appropriate interpregnancy interval following a stillbirth were vague.
The new research showed there was no evidence to support the notion that waiting was beneficial, allowing doctors to provide clearer advice and providing reassurance for women who intentionally or unexpectedly became pregnant again soon after experiencing stillbirth.
“I was surprised that such a high percentage of women had conceive relatively soon after, and I was very happy about the fact that conceiving relatively soon had no worse impact on the outcome of the next pregnancy, so it’s a really positive news story,” Associate Professor Leonard said.
She said a letter from a mother, who was trying to conceive again after a stillbirth and had read the research, summed up the significance of the findings.
“Women in my situation usually never get any answers as to why they lost their pregnancy, and it seems like such a murky and difficult area that nobody wants to touch,” the letter read.
“So, there is little to no research or information for us women who want to make an informed decision about how to proceed with our lives and our fertility.
“This gives me hope that proceeding with a future pregnancy when I feel ready will be safe [regarding concerns on inter pregnancy interval] and will help to ease my anxiety moving forward.”
HELPING KIDS GET THE MOST OUT OF SCHOOL
In 2014 Professor Steve Zubrick was one of nine chief investigators who were awarded nearly $28 million in funding to create the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Children and Families Over the Life Course, of which he is Deputy Director. Five years on, Telethon Kids-led studies emerging from the collaborative research centre – set up to investigate and prevent the transmission of deep and persistent disadvantage across generations – are leading to better outcomes for kids and their families.
Professor Zubrick and Dr Kirsten Hancock are among several Telethon Kids researchers working through the Life Course Centre to tackle intergenerational disadvantage and identify ways all kids can get a better start to life.
Dr Hancock’s work has focused predominantly on what helps and hinders children to do their best at school, including family background factors and the way these can affect what children have in their ‘backpacks’ when they arrive at the school gate.
“My work has particularly targeted student absenteeism, including the different reasons students miss school and the impact of those reasons on NAPLAN outcomes,” Dr Hancock said.
In one of her most recent studies, Dr Hancock led a team, including Professor Zubrick, that collected data on entire cohorts of Western Australian children to show how different types of absences related to NAPLAN outcomes. Surprisingly, they found in-term holidays have little impact on NAPLAN scores. Rather, it’s unexplained absences schools need to worry about.
Professor Zubrick said the results showed it wasn’t just the number of days missed that caused students to fall behind, but the type of absences.
“Unexplained absences account for about one third of all absences in the study population and were associated with the largest academic gaps,” he said.
“Vacations during the school term were generally not associated with student achievement, but we found that children...
with unexplained absences had a greater risk of falling behind.”
Dr Hancock said the group most affected by absences was high-achieving students, whereas the estimated effects of absence on achievement were considerably lower for low-achieving students – raising questions about what students were missing out on when they were away from school.
“It’s an important discovery that high-achieving students are the ones most affected by absences, and this includes legitimate absences, like illness,” Dr Hancock said.
“Attendance policies often focus on disadvantaged students, and these findings show that attending school is important for all students. But we also need to know why low-achieving students are not falling further behind when they’re absent.”
Dr Hancock said the next step was translating the research findings into practical solutions for schools and students.
“Although findings are still being disseminated, this research has led to us working with student support services to look at ways schools can encourage better attendance and reduce unexplained absences,” Dr Hancock said.
In other outcomes, the Life Course Centre’s 2018 annual report showed the relative rate of poverty has remained stubbornly unchanged in recent years, hovering at around 10 per cent of Australians living below the poverty line.
Professor Zubrick said about 700,000 Australians lived in entrenched disadvantage (defined as poverty for four or more years), with the Centre’s research showing that generally, as children experienced more disadvantages, they found it much harder to catch up to their more advantaged peers.
Amongst other research, Telethon Kids researchers working through the Centre have examined how combinations of different types of disadvantages contribute to the way children develop language skills over time.
“Our studies have been important for government departments, including those in Western Australia, because of the information they provide on the proportion of families experiencing different types of challenges, and where different policy supports are needed.”
- Professor Steve Zubrick
Life Course Centre staff and students from the Universities of Western Australia, Queensland, Melbourne, and Sydney met for a research retreat at The Vines in Perth, in May.
WHAT’S NEXT
- Dr Hancock will discuss absence patterns in professional development workshops for school principals. The workshops will help principals work with their own school data, pinpoint problem areas, and generate strategies appropriate for their school.
- Along with CoLab, the Life Course Centre team is working with several government departments to find better ways of designing services for young children and their families.
The Life Course Centre is a national research centre which aims to tackle the problem of deep and persistent disadvantage within families and across generations, and to translate research findings into practical solutions.
Established in 2014, the Centre is a multi-site collaboration between The University of Western Australia and universities in Queensland, Melbourne and Sydney, along with seven corporate partners and three state governments.
It has collaborative links with national and international partners, including research institutions in North America, Europe, and Asia.
ENERGY DRINKS NOT OK FOR KIDS
In the largest study of its type in Australia, Telethon Kids Institute researchers have found more than half of young people who consumed energy drinks suffered negative health effects – leading the Institute to call for a ban on sales of the products to children under the age of 18.
The Amped Up study, led by public health researcher Dr Gina Trapp, surveyed 3,688 Western Australian high school students about their energy drink use.
Preliminary findings showed more than 50 per cent of those surveyed had tried an energy drink, with 55.4 per cent of that group reporting they had experienced adverse outcomes – some serious enough to require medical assistance.
According to the survey, 24.6 per cent had experienced heart palpitations, 24.5 per cent had had trouble sleeping or insomnia, 24.3 per cent had headaches, and 24 per cent had upset stomachs.
The findings were included in a Telethon Kids submission to the State Government’s Select Committee on Personal Choice and Community Safety in October 2018.
“We are advocating for a ban on the sale of energy drinks to children under 18 years of age due to negative impacts they can have on health,” Dr Trapp said.
“Children and parents are largely unaware of these health risks, despite packaging stating the drinks are not recommended for consumption for children.
“They provide a potent source of caffeine and can contain high levels of sugar, sodium and herbal stimulants.”
Dr Trapp said the growth in popularity of these drinks was concerning, with annual sales in Australia increasing more than 600 per cent between 2001 and 2012.
Other peak health bodies, such as the Australian Dental Association and Australian Obesity Policy Coalition, support a ban.
Existing research shows energy drinks have been connected to cardiovascular and neurological issues such as seizures, psychosis and cardiac arrest.
There is also evidence linking energy drink consumption in children and young people to substance use and a range of behavioural problems.
Dr Trapp said young people who had tried energy drinks reported confusion surrounding their ingredients and appropriate serving sizes.
“Although labels are legally required to carry warnings and other information, they’re not easily seen or understood,” she said.
Serving sizes were also a problem, with 320mg per litre the maximum amount of caffeine permitted — unless the product was called a ‘dietary supplement’.
“Labels must also state the maximum recommended daily amount is 500ml per day, however energy drinks are available in sizes larger than this,” Dr Trapp said.
Data from the Australian Poisons Information Centre shows a five-fold increase in calls regarding energy drinks, with the most common symptoms being agitation, dizziness and gastrointestinal upset, and at least 128 people requiring hospitalisation.
An initial focus group, which led to the state-wide survey, found adolescents consumed energy drinks to conform with peers and to stay awake and play video games, complete assignments or play sport.
Full findings from the study will be published later this year.
Popular energy drink brands include Red Bull, Monster, Maltier, Rockstar and V.
Half the young people surveyed had tried an energy drink, with 23.4 per cent consuming them monthly, 19.2 per cent consuming them weekly and 2 per cent consuming them every day.
The average age of first consuming an energy drink was 10.
55.4% of young people who had consumed an energy drink said they experienced at least one adverse reaction.
WHAT’S NEXT
- The research team is hoping to secure funding to run a parent-based intervention program, educating parents and caregivers on the dangers of energy drink consumption by children.
- The team will also be pushing for changes to labelling, making warning labels and ingredients clearer and easier to see.
Telethon Kids Institute researchers are at the forefront of rapid improvements in the diagnosis of rare diseases, with the Institute’s Genetics and Rare Disease program using powerful new tools to decipher conditions that until now have defied understanding.
Just six years ago, researchers – including rare diseases expert Professor Gareth Baynam and computational scientist Timo Lassmann – were far less confident about diagnosing with certainty a child presenting with a complex array of severe and unusual symptoms.
But within a very short period, those odds have dramatically risen.
“If you’d come to me in 2013 and asked, what are the chances of a child with a combination of severe and unusual characteristics having a confirmed diagnosis, I’d have said nine per cent.
In 15 months it went to 30 per cent – tripling.
Then we created the Undiagnosed Disease Program and took the diagnostic rate from 30 per cent to 55 per cent – all in a few years.”
- Professor Gareth Baynam
Professor Baynam, Clinical Geneticist and an Honorary Research Fellow at Telethon Kids, said rapid improvements in the diagnosis of rare diseases were set to continue globally, with the Institute at the forefront of that wave.
Professor Baynam works with the Institute’s Genetic and Rare Diseases Program – a critical part of the Undiagnosed Disease Program, which brings together a multidisciplinary team of clinicians and a team of computational scientists led by Dr Lassmann, who are pursuing a unique approach that treats every patient as an individual.
Dr Lassmann said that instead of treating each child as a ‘blank canvas’, the researchers undertook a targeted analysis of each patient’s information, using medical indicators the clinical team had identified.
“The main activity here is phenotyping: very accurate descriptions of what’s wrong with the child,” Dr Lassmann said.
“We use that information as a starting point to look for disease genes that we know to be associated with those phenotypes. We then apply large genomics data and build predictor models that interrogate that patient’s genome in a way that’s guided by the phenotype.
“The difference, on the computation side, is that other approaches treat all the patients the same, using one machine-learning method to find disease-causing variants. What we do is build machine-learning algorithms for each patient.
“I call this ‘personalised analytics’. It’s a new thing we do – build an entire analysis pipeline around what’s wrong with that particular child – and it seems to be better than treating everyone the same.”
- Dr Timo Lassmann
Both said it was an important article, shining a light on rare disease diagnosis in a high impact way to help galvanise researchers worldwide around a common mission.
The article’s authors, including Professor Baynam and Dr Lassmann, are part of an international taskforce formed to help advance diagnosis for children with unsolved medical mystery conditions. The taskforce is part of the International Rare Diseases Research Consortium – a global collaborative founded in 2011 which, by May 2027, aims to create the means to diagnose all people living with a rare disease within one year of coming to medical attention.
“The goal is deliberately ambitious, but so too have been previous targets – and they have been exceeded ahead of time,” Professor Baynam said.
This research is supported by the Fellman Foundation and McCusker Charitable Foundation.
WHAT’S NEXT
- Incorporating 3D facial analysis approaches together with Cliniface – combining the faces and voices of children and families to unlock answers for children with rare disorders and improve their health.
- Increasing health equity and cultural safety through partnering with the voice (language) of Aboriginal children and families, via the UNESCO-endorsed Life Languages initiative – part of the United Nations Year of Indigenous Languages.
ENDING THE CYCLE OF ‘NOT KNOWING’
There are 63,000 children living with a rare disease in Western Australia alone.
While previously many would have gone undiagnosed, rapid progress in rare disease diagnosis in recent years means more than half can now look forward to knowing what the condition is that’s made them ill or limited their abilities.
Professor Gareth Baynam said phenotype-informed genomic sequencing, for example, had delivered a diagnosis for dozens of children in WA – including some who were amongst only a handful of people in the world with their condition.
“These diagnoses have altered medical and surgical treatment and given insights into the potential to develop new therapies, drugs or treatments,” Professor Baynam said.
“It also gives us clarity to investigate further things like metabolomics: from a simple wee sample, for example, we can look for clues about how the body is metabolising things and what that means for potential new medicines to help.”
Perhaps most importantly, however, the ‘not knowing’ had ended for many children and their families.
“You feel incredibly isolated, but once you know the answer and connect to people with the same experience, you have a community and a shared experience and clarity for the future.
“That removal of isolation is the most powerful thing we do. People often feel a need to know what caused this and to connect with others in same situation.”
- Professor Gareth Baynam
BIG DATA SCIENCE MAY HELP UNLOCK SIMPLE TEST FOR ASTHMA
Paediatric respiratory physician and Telethon Kids researcher André Schultz has had to wait more than a decade to test out a simple idea which – if promising early results are any guide – could revolutionise the way asthma is diagnosed. The answer could lie in the study of metabolites – the unique chemical fingerprints left behind by cellular processes in the body.
When Dr Schultz first heard about the science of metabolomics 11 years ago, he was intrigued by the potential it held for unlocking the mechanisms behind asthma.
Despite being the most common long-term medical condition in Australian children, asthma remains poorly understood. It’s often preceded by a recurrent wheeze in babies and small children – but not all children with wheeze go on to develop asthma.
“There are currently no clinically viable methods to accurately diagnose asthma before six years of age, leaving doctors unable to predict which children will stop wheezing naturally and which will go on to have chronic issues. As a result, many children are treated with asthma medication as a precaution, even if they may not need it; while others who would benefit from treatment miss out.
“There’s a real need to provide clarity as early as possible in a child’s life,” Dr Schultz said.
“If we could predict whether or not a recurrent wheezer really has asthma, we could avoid unnecessarily exposing children to medications which can have side effects, and ensure we capture those who really do need this treatment.”
After hearing about metabolomics in 2008, Dr Schultz wondered whether high-powered analysis of the metabolites in children’s urine might deliver that predictability, by identifying tell-tale metabolomic signatures indicative of underlying disease.
“The idea was that, through a simple, non-invasive urine test, perhaps we could understand and predict asthma much earlier in a child’s life,” Dr Schultz said.
“I’ve been wanting to test this theory since I first heard about metabolomics, but we just didn’t have the expertise in Perth at the time and I didn’t have the scientific track record to get the funding to do anything.
“Also, network biology, or the science of analysing big data – which you need to be able to process the thousands of metabolites from each patient – hasn’t been possible until fairly recently.”
Last year Dr Schultz and a team including research assistant Sherlynn Ang began recruiting pre-school and school-aged children with and without asthma to the Metabolomic Asthma Profile (MAP) study. They’ve signed up more than 200 families, who have responded so enthusiastically that the team now hopes to be able to follow the children long-term.
“The thing with asthma is it often comes and goes,” Dr Schultz said. “Those with pre-school age asthma may not have school-aged asthma, and may have adolescent age asthma – or they might not.
“We were surprised how great those results looked. For me to see a difference between healthy school-aged children, and healthy school-aged children who previously had asthma or wheeze but now don’t, for example, is amazing.”
Dr André Schultz
He said part of the reason for the study’s success so far was that it wasn’t especially onerous on participants, and families understood the importance of what the team was trying to accomplish.
“When I designed this study I was dead keen on getting three samples at different time intervals, and I knew we weren’t going to get those if we went in there and made it painful or difficult for families,” Dr Schultz said. “So, because I have little kids of my own, it’s a really kind, non-invasive study. We’re doing urine tests, doing some lung function testing, and the worst thing we do is once-off skin prick testing.
“As a result, we’ve had excellent retention rates and really good follow-up, and we’re embarking on a long-term retention and engagement strategy.
“I think families, like doctors, can understand the challenge of trying to predict, diagnose and treat asthma properly in young children. They really get it. They want to see how it turns out and we are keen to tell them.”
The MAP study is funded by the Telethon-Perth Children’s Hospital Research Fund, established by the WA Department of Health and Channel 7 Telethon Trust, and is a collaboration between the Telethon Kids Institute, Perth Children’s Hospital, Murdoch University and Edith Cowan University.
“People go in and out of these groups as they get older but we have no way of figuring that out yet. We hope the MAP study will give us answers and help us predict what their trajectory might be over the lifetime.”
Early results from a pilot study in 2018 revealed what appeared to be clear differences between school-aged children who were healthy or had different patterns of asthma and wheeze.
• The team expects to send further samples for metabolomic analysis over the next few months. If the results are as positive as hoped from the pilot study, they hope to secure funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council to take the study long-term.
• The metabolomic approach using urine samples has proven so participant-friendly that the team hopes to extend the model into other areas of respiratory research. Ultimately, Dr Schultz hopes the results will lead to the development of simple, non-invasive dipsticks that can help diagnose different kinds of lung health problems.
It’s been a huge year for those working to eliminate rheumatic heart disease (RHD), with breakthroughs including $35 million in funding to develop a Strep A vaccine, a bipartisan commitment to tackle the disease, and a national roadmap for action combining to mean we’ve never been better placed to end RHD, once and for all.
Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is a preventable disease that should no longer exist in a country as wealthy as Australia. Yet it does, affecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children at some of the highest rates in the world.
Starting from a Strep A infection of the skin or throat, when left untreated RHD can be fatal. Even with careful management – usually monthly antibiotic injections for at least ten years – it is still life-threatening. In fact, in Western Australia’s Kimberley region, the average age of death from those living with the disease is just 41 years old.
But with a commitment from both major political parties, a global mandate from the World Health Assembly to prioritise ending the disease globally, the beginnings of a national RHD Roadmap, and a Strep A vaccine in the works, Telethon Kids Director and leading RHD researcher Professor Jonathan Carapetis believes the idea of ending the disease is finally starting to become a reality.
“In my 25 years working on RHD, I have never felt more confident that the end is in sight for this disease, which for too long has been a national shame for Australia,” Professor Carapetis said.
Driving the momentum is END RHD, an alliance of peak bodies of which Telethon Kids is a founding member and Professor Carapetis is Co-Chair.
“What’s exciting about END RHD is that it’s the first time that the research, advocacy, and Aboriginal Community Controlled Health sectors have come together with one voice to say: RHD needs to end, and this is how,” Professor Carapetis said.
“We know what is needed to end RHD in Australia: guaranteed Aboriginal leadership; a national RHD Roadmap; a focus on RHD roadmap to bring together all relevant government departments and stakeholders; funding for community-led activities; and investment in research. This past year, END RHD has seen huge progress towards achieving these goals.”
In late 2018, END RHD was commissioned to write a draft RHD Roadmap by the Commonwealth Department of Health. Tabled at the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) Health Council meeting in March this year, it has now been progressed to the Australian Health Ministers’ Advisory Council (AHMAC), to be reported back to the COAG Health Council in November.
In February 2019, further progress towards achieving the priority asks was made when $35 million in federal funding was awarded to Telethon Kids to lead a national consortium to develop a Strep A vaccine – a development Professor Carapetis described as an absolute game-changer in the fight to end RHD.
“Not only will a Strep A vaccine help us end RHD, it has the potential to save over half a million lives globally by preventing other Strep A-related diseases as well,” he said.
“As part of the Global Strep A Vaccine Consortium we have been working collaboratively with organisations across the world towards developing a safe, globally effective and affordable Strep A vaccine – and this funding will continue to position Australia as a leader in this space.”
With the release of the RHD Endgame Strategy – bringing together more than five years of collaborative, community-driven research from the End Rheumatic Heart Disease Centre of Research Excellence (END RHD CRE) – due at the end of this year as well, Professor Carapetis said there would be no unanswered questions about what is needed to eliminate RHD in Australia.
“We have the foundations to eliminate this disease: Aboriginal leadership, growing political will, and world-class research. With all of this on our side, there is absolutely no reason why we can’t consign this disease to the history books once and for all.”
- Professor Carapetis
RHD Endgame Report: Due for release in late 2019, this critical synthesis of evidence and policy analysis will provide a comprehensive, fully-costed guide to ending RHD in Australia by 2031.
RHD Roadmap: Currently being reviewed by the Australian Health Ministers’ Advisory Council (AHMAC), the RHD Roadmap outlines the top-level priorities of work needed to eliminate RHD. It will be reported back to the COAG Health Council in November.
Strep A Vaccine: Together with key partners such as Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, work will begin to accelerate an existing Strep A vaccine candidate into a clinical trial within five years.
The Bupa Foundation supports the END RHD Communities Project – a community-led, research-backed approach to tackling rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease in remote Aboriginal Communities – which is a critical piece of work informing the development of the RHD Endgame Strategy.
**Timeline**
*A year in review*
- **May 2018**: An Australian-sponsored World Health Assembly resolution is passed, calling for global action to tackle rheumatic heart disease. Representatives from END RHD attend the historic event in Geneva.
- **June 2018**: Representatives from the END RHD CRE attend a World Health Organisation consultation meeting in London discussing global efforts to develop a Strep A vaccine.
- **October 2018**: Telethon Kids is awarded $950,000 by the Federal Government to work in conjunction with the Kimberley Aboriginal Medical Service (KAMS) and Nirrumbuk Environmental & Health Services to establish a new END RHD Community in Western Australia.
- **November 2018**: END RHD co-hosts a parliamentary breakfast with the Snow Foundation, where the Hon Ken Wyatt MP, Minister for Indigenous Health, and the Hon Warren Snowden MP, Shadow Assistant Minister for Indigenous Health, commit to making efforts to end rheumatic heart disease a priority.
- **December 2018**: The END RHD CRE publishes *The Cost of Inaction on Rheumatic Heart Disease*, which predicts more than 10,000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children will develop RHD or ARF by 2031 unless urgent action is taken.
- **February 2019**: The Hon Greg Hunt MP, Minister for Health, and The Hon Ken Wyatt MP, Minister for Indigenous Health, award Telethon Kids Institute $35 million to lead a national consortium to develop a Strep A vaccine.
- **March 2019**: At the Council of Australian Government’s Health Council Meeting, ministers commit to ending RHD and refer the RHD Roadmap to the Australian Health Minister’s Advisory Council (AHMAC) for review, to be reported back to the COAG Health Council in November 2019.
- **May 2019**: The Wellcome Trust funds the Global Strep A Vaccine Consortium to mobilise and coordinate global collaborative efforts to develop a Strep A vaccine.
---
**What is RHD?**
Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) starts with a Strep A infection of the throat. If left untreated, the infection can lead to acute rheumatic fever (ARF), which causes sore joints, rash, fever and joint inflammation. While the ‘street symptoms’ of ARF go away, the heart damage remains – and this is known as rheumatic heart disease.
---
**WHO HAS IT?**
In late 2018, the END RHD CRE released the *Cost of Inaction on Rheumatic Heart Disease*, which found:
- There were more than 4,000 Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander people in Australia living with RHD or its precursor, acute rheumatic fever
- Without urgent action, it was predicted more than 10,000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people would develop the disease or its precursor, acute rheumatic fever, by 2031.
Of these people:
- 1,370 will need heart surgery
- 563 will die with ARF
- $317 million will be spent on medical care
---
**FINDING ANSWERS FOR TENAYA: FROM A SORE THROAT TO OPEN-HEART SURGERY**
When Katrina Walley took her seven-year-old daughter Tenaya to the local emergency department for the fourth time within a month, she was determined she wouldn’t be leaving without answers.
Tenaya had been complaining of a sore throat, stomach pains, and breathlessness. At night-time, she found it hard to lie down flat to sleep – a sign of heart failure.
“I knew something wasn’t right,” Katrina said. “We got to the hospital around 8 or 9pm. At this point, her oxygen levels started dropping, so she was put on oxygen.”
By 11pm, they were being flown from their home in rural Western Australia to Perth Children’s Hospital via the Royal Flying Doctor Service. On arrival Tenaya was rushed to the intensive care unit (ICU) and put on a life-support machine, where she would remain for the next two weeks.
“The surgery to repair Tenaya’s heart valve went well and after two months in hospital, she was finally discharged. However, just a few days later, she had to be rushed back for surgery to drain excess blood pooling around her heart.
Two months on from two rounds of open-heart surgery, and Tenaya and her family are in the process of relocating permanently to Sydney to continue receiving specialist medical care. Every month, Tenaya must have a penicillin injection to prevent her condition getting worse, and Katrina says Tenaya is struggling to understand that she will need to have them until she is at least 21.
“She doesn’t like having them, but she’ll go to get them done – but then she starts crying,” she said. “After the injection she is always in pain for two days.”
In February this year, Tenaya and her family attended a press conference where the Hon Ken Wyatt AM, MP awarded $35 million in funding to Telethon Kids to lead the development of a Strep A vaccine that would prevent children developing RHD. The announcement made national news, and Tenaya was the star.
“She was a bit excited, watching and telling everybody,” Katrina said. “Teachers at the local school said that her cousins were saying ‘we saw Tenaya on the news, she’s famous now!’”
Tenaya was in hospital for a month before she was strong enough to have the surgery. She hated being away from her school, friends, and family, and was scared about having to have surgery.
“By the second month, she started to cry every time she saw a nurse,” Katrina said. “[On the day] when she was asleep, she was crying when they put the oxygen tubes in, but when she was asleep, I felt better that she was resting and that something was going to get done.”
“I was good knowing there is something that will make it easier to stop it,” she said. “Research is really important to kids like Tenaya and their parents won’t have to go through this.”
Although a vaccine won’t help kids like Tenaya who are already living with rheumatic heart disease, Katrina said it was special to be part of an endeavour aimed for something that has the potential to stop kids in the future developing the disease.
“I will never forget any of that – seeing my baby in the ICU.”
- Katrina Walley
Katrina was told Tenaya’s heart was failing as a result of rheumatic heart disease (RHD), and that the little girl urgently needed surgery to have one of her heart valves repaired.
“I was in shock at first. I just went and sat in one of the rooms by myself,” Katrina said.
GUIDELINES STRUGGLE TO KEEP PACE WITH TECHNOLOGY
An ORIGINS study aims to find out more about family screen habits to help provide clearer, more realistic advice about how to make the most of rapidly evolving technology, while avoiding the drawbacks.
Today’s parents are the first generation to raise children who have access to mobile screen technologies like smartphones and tablets almost as soon as they are born – and many are struggling as they try to figure out how to manage this brave new world.
Australian guidelines recommend digital media use should be avoided by children under the age of two years and limited to less than 60 minutes per day for children aged two to five years, yet the evidence suggests children not only start engaging with screens at much younger ages than this, but dramatically exceed the suggested limits.
Recent data revealed the majority of young Australian children spend an estimated 22 hours a week on screens, compared to just six hours a week playing outside.
ORIGINS Project co-director Professor Desiree Silva said the early use of digital technology was resulting in less free play, unsupervised viewing, sleep disruption, addictive behaviours, obesity, speech and language delay, and difficulties around social interaction and self-regulation.
“Parents are confused around management of digital technology, with education policy calling for increased use of technology to support learning, and public health policy calling for no screens for very young children and very limited use by slightly older young children,” Professor Silva said.
“The recommendations haven’t kept up with wide and easy use of mobile touchscreen devices, and are based around more traditional technology like television and desktop computers.”
- Professor Desiree Silva
Professor Silva said it was important to understand more about family use and views about mobile technology devices, including their impact on bonding and parenting from infancy – knowledge which could then be used to inform more robust guidelines.
“It is also important to understand what mobile technology is replacing, which I suspect is our connectedness to nature,” she said.
An ORIGINS sub-study being carried out by Curtin University’s Professor Leon Straker and Dr Juliana Zabatieri, in collaboration with Professor Silva, will interview parents about their family screen habits, along with what they think about the use of mobile touchscreen devices by young children.
A small number of parents signed up to a bigger ORIGINS study looking at the impacts of technology use on early development will be asked how many and what kind of screen devices they have in their homes, what a
typical week of screen device use looks like for them and their family, why they use them, and how they manage that use.
“Within the larger study we’re looking at screen time and impacts on things like behaviour, emotional, motor, language and cognitive development,” Professor Silva said.
“This smaller study will involve interviews with parents that allow us to dig more deeply into how families use electronic devices, particularly mobile screen technology. It will go into much more detail.”
“The information we gather from these interviews will inform public policy, future research, and the development of realistic, co-designed interventions aimed at helping parents to better guide their young children’s use of screen technology.”
- Professor Desiree Silva
About ORIGINS
The ORIGINS Project is a $26 million, 10-year collaboration between the Telethon Kids Institute and Joondalup Health Campus which aims to recruit 10,000 pregnant women and their families to collect information on how a child’s early environment and parents’ health and genetics influence the risk of a wide range of disease and chronic conditions.
ORIGINS is supported by the Paul Ramsay Foundation and the Federal Government through Channel 7 Perth’s telethon.
ORIGINS PROJECT GROWS IN LEAPS AND BOUNDS
It’s been a big two years for the collaborative ORIGINS Project, a longitudinal birth cohort study which launched in 2017. It plans to recruit and follow the progress of 10,000 Perth babies and families over a decade.
The largest study of its kind in Australia, ORIGINS is a partnership between Telethon Kids and the Joondalup Health Campus, aimed at reducing the rising epidemic of non-communicable diseases by providing a healthy start to life. ORIGINS researchers are collecting detailed information about families and their homes to understand more about how the early environment influences the risk of diseases like asthma, allergies, diabetes and obesity.
So far almost 2,000 families have been recruited, and more than 1,500 ORIGINS babies have been born. Of those, almost 500 have attended their one-year clinic appointments.
Unique among other birth cohort studies, ORIGINS currently has 600 fathers participating in the research. The project has ensured active community involvement, holding dozens of events bringing study participants and community members together with paediatricians and health nurses to monitor and discuss childhood health.
Milestones so far include:
- More than 250 local, national and international researchers, clinicians and consumers involved
- 15 sub-projects have been launched off the main project, looking at multiple aspects of child and family health and development
- 12 active ORIGINS Research Interest Groups have been launched, to facilitate collaboration, provide expertise, develop nested sub-projects, and support students
- More than 3,000,000 data points collected from participant samples and questionnaires
- Wide media coverage – more than 30 media items with an audience reach more than two million people
- ORIGINS Forum held in August 2018 attracted more than 160 attendees, generating collaborative ideas for future ORIGINS Project research and sub-projects
- Annual family fun day attracted almost 200 attendees
- Researchers have presented at more than 30 conferences and community events
- 10 research papers have been published from the data and knowledge obtained from the project
- A book chapter called ‘The ORIGINS Project’ was published in the international book Pre-emptive Medicine: Public Health Aspects of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease
- Co-Director Prof Susan Prescott won the Independent Book Publishers 2018 Gold Medal in the health category for her book Secret Life. She was also a finalist in Forward Review’s Indie Book of the Year.
For more information on ORIGINS visit originsproject.telethonkids.org.au
For further information about donating to the Telethon Kids Institute, subscribing to our mailing list or joining us for a tour of our facilities, please contact us on:
T | 08 6319 1000
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W | telethonkids.org.au
Northern Entrance, Perth Children’s Hospital,
15 Hospital Avenue, Nedlands WA 6009
PO Box 855, West Perth WA 6872
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Welcome to the Happy Talk Bedtime Pack!
Happy Talk is a part of the HSE Speech and Language Therapy Service.
Happy Talk seeks to support language, literacy and learning skills of young children.
Welcome to the Happy Talk Bedtime Pack!
This pack contains ideas and activities to play and use at home to help develop early language, literacy and learning skills.
We hope you enjoy these resources, and send photos of your drawings, make and do, and stories to us by email to firstname.lastname@example.org, by text or Whatsapp to 0876440177 or on Facebook (Happy Talk).
We look forward to seeing our regular Happy Talkers again in Cork City! Please note however, we are happy for this resource to be shared far and wide, and hope as many people as possible enjoy it.
All materials used in this pack are either generated by Happy Talk – HSE or are free to download online.
The activities in this pack are intended for children aged approximately 4 - 8 years. However that doesn’t mean some of these activities can’t be enjoyed by kids of all ages; even grown up kids!
We wish to thank the students and staff of UCC Speech and Language Therapy Dept. for helping to make these packs possible!
Happy Talk Mindful Moments
Happy Talk Mindful Moments are a chance to take a time out and to settle or energise your brain and body. In these times it is normal to feel a little worried, and so a Happy Talk Mindful Moment is a great way to remain calm. Try this bedtime Mindful Moment with your child to settle your bodies before drifting off to sleep...
Bedtime Mindful Moment
Lie on your bed, close your eyes and take a moment to take a few deep breaths. One by one, start to squeeze and relax the muscles in your body. Start with your toes working right up to your head. Help your child to squeeze and relax their muscles by saying:
- Curl your toes tight like you are picking up pencils with your feet (try and hold for 5 seconds)... Drop the pencils and relax.
- Tense your legs by pretending to stand on your tippy-toes... come off your tippy-toes and relax.
- Suck in your tummy like you are trying to squeeze through a tiny space... you’re out the other side now... relax.
- Make fists with your hands and pretend you are squeezing all of the juice out of an orange... relax.
- Pretend a bug has landed on your nose. Try to get it off without using your hands. Scrunch your face and move your jaw to make it fly away... He’s gone! Relax.
I’m so relaxed I think I am falling asleep!! Zzzzz!!
Bedtime Songs and Rhymes
Little Boy Blue
Little boy blue, come blow your horn,
The sheep’s in the meadow, the cow’s in the corn.
Where is the little boy, who looks after the sheep?
He’s under the haystack, fast asleep!
This Is The Way Bedtime Song
(Sing to the tune of Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush)
This is the way we wash our face,
Wash our face, wash our face,
This is the way we wash our face,
Are you ready for bed? NO!
This is the way we put on our pjs...
Are you ready for bed? NO!
This is the way we brush our teeth...
This is the way we read a story...
This is the way we say goodnight...
Now I am ready for bed!
Star Light, Star Bright
Star light, star bright,
First star I see tonight,
I wish I may, I wish I might,
Have the wish I wish tonight.
Dingle Dangle Scarecrow
What do scarecrows do when all of the animals are asleep? This is a great song for practicing your LOUD and SOFT voices… have a go!
When all the cows were sleeping,
And the sun had gone to bed,
Up jumped the scarecrow,
And this is what he said…
I'm a dingle, dangle scarecrow,
With a great big floppy hat,
I can shake my hands like this,
And I can shake my feet like that!
When all the hens were roosting,
And the moon behind a cloud,
Up jumped the scarecrow,
And shouted very loud…
I'm a dingle, dangle scarecrow…
When dogs were in the kennels,
And doves were in the loft,
Up jumped the scarecrow,
And whispered very soft…
I'm a dingle, dangle scarecrow…
(You will find this song on youtube.com)
Dingle Dangle Scarecrow Rhyming Words
Rhyming words are words that sound the same at the end of the word.
Frog, dog and hog rhyme because they have the “og” sound at the end of the words.
Can you spot the rhyming words in “Dingle Dangle Scarecrow”?
(Hint: the colours of the words will help you!)
| Bed + ______ | Hat + ______ |
|--------------|-------------|
| Cloud + ______ | Loft + ______ |
Can you think of any other words that go with the rhyming pairs? See if you can think of silly made up words too!
| Bed, s___, f___, l___, d___, h___, sh___, tr___, dr___, g___ |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
| Hat, th___, c___, f___, l___, m___, dr___, r___, br___ |
| Cloud, l___, b___, f___, p___, t___, w___, v___, h___ |
| Loft, s___, b___, h___, p___, t___, z___, g___, bl___ |
Rhyme Time Voices and Games
Say the rhymes using the following games and activities.
| Whisper | Loud-Soft-Loud | Laughing |
|---------|----------------|----------|
|  |  |  |
| Robot Voice | Silly Voice | Slow Motion |
|-------------|-------------|-------------|
|  |  |  |
When it gets a bit easier try these games:
| Tap/drum/clap out each beat | Tap/drum/clap out each word | Say every second word with your child |
|------------------------------|-------------------------------|--------------------------------------|
|  |  |  |
| Leave words and see can your child fill the gaps | Make mistakes and see does your child spot them |
|--------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
|  |  |
Happy Talk Listening Rules
Look with your eyes
Listen with your ears
Mouth is closed
Hands are still
Feet on the ground
Listening Game: Silly Billy Stories
Pick a story you know well. The Storyteller can tell or read the story aloud. Use your listening ears to spot the silly mistakes in the story! Tell the story but change characters, events or even small details! When you hear a mistake say 'Silly Billy!' and tell the Storyteller the mistake you heard. Try these Silly Billy Stories:
Goldie Locks and the Three Elephants!
The Three Little Pigs who build houses out of jelly, lego and shoes!
Hansel and Gretel who got lost in the swimming pool and followed ham sandwiches all the way home!
The Three (Silly) Billy Goats Gruff who tried to ski, and catapult and hop across the bridge!
Search the Sky Game!
Let’s get ready for this game by making some binoculars or a telescope! You will need your binoculars or telescope to play the Search the Sky Game!
You can also use them to play these games:
'I Spy'
'I Can See'
'Odd One Out'
I spy with my little eye something that sparkles in the sky...
I can see a fox, an owl and a car. Which is the odd one out?
I can see a cat...
I can see a black and white cat...
I can see a black and white cat with a long tail...
I can see a black and white cat with a long tail jumping over the wall...
Search the Sky Game!
Use your binoculars or telescope to look up at the sky. What can you see if you peep through the curtains at night? You might see:
Stars in the sky! Owls flying by or blinking their eyes!
Street lamps shining brightly! Cats or foxes going for a walk!
Rubbish bins on the footpath as the bin collectors are coming in the morning!
Planes or helicopters in the sky!
Cars parked in the driveway; everybody’s home for the night!
The moon; what shape is it tonight? How bright is it?
“I peeped through the curtains and I saw…”
You need two people for this game. You also need to listen with your ears and do lots of remembering! Take turns and see how many things you can add to the list remembering as you go! Have a look at the kids playing below!
I saw the moon..
I saw the moon AND a cat..
I saw the moon, a cat AND some streetlamps..
I saw the moon, a cat, some streetlamps AND a parked car!
Early Bird or Night Owl?
Everybody is different from each other. Some people love the morning time and are the first up in their home. Some people prefer to stay up late and are the last to go to sleep in their home. Depending on this we sometimes say we are Early Birds or Night Owls.
Do you know what these names mean and why they might be used?
Early Birds like to get up early in the morning. Some Early Birds wake up before the sun does! Early Birds love the morning time and feel great at the start of the day.
At the end of the day, Early Birds feel tired and are ready for bed. They go to sleep early, ready for the next morning.
People who get up early are called Early Birds because most real birds get up really early. Have you ever heard the birds singing outside early in the morning? You might have even spotted them catching worms!
Night Owls love night time. They stay up late and go to bed late. They like late nights and late bedtimes much more than they like the early mornings.
It can be hard for Night Owls to get up in the morning and sometimes they press snooze on their alarm clock once, twice or even three times!
They might feel sleepy in the morning but by night they feel wide awake and full of energy.
People who stay up late are called Night Owls because real owls sleep during the day but get up when it’s dark and hunt for their food.
Your Turn! Early Birds or Night Owl?
Do you think you are an Early Bird or a Night Owl?
What do you love about the early morning or the late night?
Are there Early Birds or Night Owls in your home?
Have a chat with the people in your home and find out if they are Early Birds or Night Owls. Tell them the difference if they get confused. Ask your neighbours or ring your family and friends on the phone. Make a list of the things that Early Birds and Night Owls like to do early in the morning or late at night.
| In the morning, Early Birds like to... | At night time, Night Owls like to... |
|---------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Go out for a walk or some exercise | Read a book |
| Do some baking or cooking | Watch movies |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
Do you think an Early Bird and a Night Owl would get along well on a holiday together? What problems might they have?
Spot the Difference
Here are two bedrooms that look almost the same. Look closely with your eyes to spot the 5 things that are different in the bedrooms.
When you spot the differences, have a chat about them. See if everybody can spot them! Use these location words to give clues to those who find it tricky. You can also talk about where things are in the pictures.
on under beside in in front of
Here are some more words that might help...
pillow blanket picture frame
handle shelf curtains
More Spot the Difference
There are 5 more differences in these 2 bedrooms. Let’s see if you can find them!
Did you spot all 5 differences? Scroll down to see the answers for the Spot the Difference activities! Again, have a chat about the differences you find.
Spot the Difference Answers
(1)
1. An orange cushion on the bed is missing.
2. The red book on the shelf is missing.
3. The picture frame on top of the bedside locker is missing.
4. The handle on the top shelf of the locker is missing.
5. The rug in front of the bed is a different colour.
(2)
1. The lamp in picture 1 is blue but the lamp in picture 2 is pink.
2. The giraffe in picture 1 has a teddy bear, the giraffe in picture 2 doesn’t.
3. The book in picture 1 has a picture on the front, the book in picture 2 doesn’t.
4. There is a picture of a teddy on the wall in picture 2 but not picture 1.
5. The cats in the pictures are lying in opposite ways.
Who Sleeps Here?
Can you match the animal to where they go to sleep?
Mouse
Dog
Goldfish
Horse
Rabbit
Stable
Burrow
Kennel
Hole in the wall
Bowl
Saying Goodnight
How do you say goodnight in your house? Some of us use words and say things like.....
Night, night! Sweet dreams!
Dobranoc!
Bon Nuit!
Sleep tight, don’t let the bed bugs bite!
Oiche Mhaith, Codladh Sámh!
Go to bed you sleepy head!
Off to the ‘Land of Nod’!
Sleep snug as a bug in a rug!
Buenas Noches!
Some of us use actions, like giving a kiss goodnight, having a cuddle, blowing a kiss or giving a hug to say goodnight.
Have a chat about the different ways you say goodnight in your house!
Can you learn how to say ‘Goodnight’ in another language, or two?
Animals Say ‘Goodnight’!
How do you think animals say goodnight? What actions might these animals do before they go to sleep to say goodnight?
Maybe bunny rabbits have an “eskimo kiss” by touching their noses together to say goodnight........just like this! →
Make up some goodnight actions for these animals....
Can you think of any more animals? How would they say goodnight?
Guess Who?
Here are some funny facts about animals and how they sleep. Have a go at matching the fact to the animal!
GUESS WHO can sleep standing up? (and not fall over!)
Giraffes
GUESS WHO sleeps upside down? (I am dizzy thinking about this!)
Pandas
GUESS WHO sleeps high up in a leafy tree? (Looking down at everybody else!)
Horses
GUESS WHO sleeps for about 4 hours a day? (I feel sleepy just thinking about it!)
Bats
More Guess Who?
Well done on all of your guessing so far!
See can you try and match some more...
GUESS WHO sleeps on their back in a river? (Sometimes they hold each other’s paws!)
Otters
GUESS WHO sleeps with their eyes open? (It hard to tell if they are sleeping!)
Ducks
GUESS WHO sleeps in a row, side by side? (Hint: have you ever heard the phrase ‘Get all your ____ in a row?’)
Meer cats
GUESS WHO sleep in a pile, all cuddled up? (Keeping each other warm and safe, especially the guy in the middle of the pile!)
Snakes
Did You Guess Who?
I can sleep standing up! I don’t even fall over!
We sleep hanging upsidedown and don’t get dizzy!
I climb high into trees and get comfy to sleep!
I sleep on average 4.6 hours a night! It’s great to give my neck a rest!
We sleep while floating and sometimes we hold hands!
Just like people dolphins sleep for about 8 hours but each half of their brain takes turns; 4 hours sleep for each half!
We sleep all lined up in a row!
We sleep all in a pile, curled up and comfortable!
I keep my eyes open while I’m sleeping!
Q: Did you hear about my brother who slept with his head under the pillow?
A: When he woke up, he noticed the fairies had taken all of his teeth!
John: "Doctor, Doctor, I haven't slept for days!"
Doctor: "Why not?"
John: "Because I sleep at night!"
Q: What question can never be answered with yes?
A: Are you asleep?
Q: How does a man on a moon get his haircut?
A: Eclipse it.
Q: Did you hear about the great new restaurant on the moon?
A: The food is excellent, but there's no atmosphere.
Q: What do you call a moon out of orbit?
A: Lunatic!
Customer: "I'd like to buy a new mattress please."
Shop keeper: "Of course! A spring mattress?"
Customer: "No! I want to use it all year long!"
Q: Why couldn’t the pony sing himself a lullaby?
A: Because he was a little hoarse!
Q: What musical instrument is found in the bathroom?
A: A tuba toothpaste!
Q: What do scuba divers wear to bed?
A: A snore-kel!
Q: How are false teeth like stars?
A: They only come out at night!
Q: What has four legs, but only one foot?
A: A bed!
Q: What horse only sleeps at night?
A: A night mare!
Q: Why did the man put his bed in a fireplace?
A: Because he wanted to sleep like a log!
Q: How do you get a baby alien to sleep?
A: You rocket!
Bedtime Word Search
ALARM MOON TOOTHBRUSH
BED PILLOW TWINKLE
BLANKET PYJAMAS YAWN
CURTAINS SKY GOODNIGHT
DARK SLEEP STORY
DREAM STARS LIGHT TEDDY
Moon Facts
- The moon is 4.5 billion years old.
- Neil Armstrong was the first person to set foot on the moon.
- The moon orbits or circles around the earth.
- The moon doesn’t make its own light, like the sun. We see the moon because the sun reflects off it.
- There are lots of craters on the moon because big rocks called asteroids and comets have bumped into it.
The moon is 238,857 miles away from the earth. That’s over 4 million football fields!
There is no wind on the moon.
1. Cut out a big circle using tin foil.
2. Place some coins on a table and place the circle of tin foil on top. Use big and small coins to make different size craters on your moon!
3. Rub your fingers around the edges to make circles in the tin foil.
4. Glue the tin foil circle onto a piece of black paper or a piece of paper that you have coloured black.
The Dream Catcher
Oh dear! Twitch the Happy Talk Bunny has been having very scary dreams. Twitch is having trouble falling asleep because of his scary dreams. Twitch told his Mam, Nibbles all about it. Together Nibbles and Twitch are going to make a dream catchers to catch some of those bad dreams. You can make one too to keep in your bedroom when you sleep!
Do you ever have bad dreams?
It’s time to make a dream catcher! You’ll need a grown-ups help!
1. Get a paper plate and cut out the inside (leave the edges). (A good trick is to fold the paper plate in two and cut a half/semicircle.)
2. Use a puncher (or scissors) to put small holes around the inside of the plate.
3. Use string or wool and put it through these holes.
4. Make 3 small holes at the bottom of the plate. Using more string or wool, thread on any beads/feathers you can find.
5. Decorate your dream catcher any way you like!
An Idiom? What is that?
An idiom is when we use words or an image that means one thing to describe something else.
Sometimes we have to work out what an idiom means. It’s like working out a puzzle or a code!
When we are using idioms we try to remember that the words don’t mean exactly what they say.
‘Before I went into the test, I had cold feet.’
Does this mean ‘I was nervous’ or ‘I had to put on an extra pair of socks!’
‘I’m all ears!’
Does this mean ‘I’m listening carefully’ or ‘I have 100 ears all over my head!’
‘It cost an arm and a leg!’
Does this mean ‘It was very expensive’ or ‘I had to give the shop keeper my brother’s arm and leg to buy something!’
There are lots of fun idioms about Bedtime. Use your guessing skills and try to figure out what these sentences mean.
Before talking to her teacher about the problem, Sinead decided to sleep on it.
Sam woke up on the wrong side of the bed this morning, she shouted at me to wash the dishes.
John was up at the crack of dawn the morning of the school play.
After playing outside all day, John slept like a log last night.
She is burning the candle at both ends. She needs some rest.
After his long day at work, when he went to bed he was out like a light.
There is no point in losing sleep over something that might not happen!
Before talking to her teacher, Sinead decided to sleep on it.
'Sinead took some time to think before talking to her teacher' or 'Sinead slept on her teacher'?
There is no point in losing sleep over something that might not happen!
'You’ll have to visit ‘Lost and Found’ to find your sleep' or 'There’s no point in worrying so much that you can’t sleep'?
John was up at the crack of dawn the day of the school play.
'John was up very early' or 'John woke at first light of dawn'?
After playing outside all day, John slept like a log last night.
'John turned into a log in his sleep' or 'John slept very soundly'?
She is burning the candle at both ends.
'She is getting up very early and going to bed very late' or 'She has a candle with a wick at the bottom and top and is burning it at both ends'?
After his long day at work, when he went to bed he was out like a light.
'He switched himself off with his sleep switch' or 'He fell asleep very fast'?
Bedtime Comic: What’s next?
We’re going to make a Bedtime Comic Strip. Cut up some pages into small boxes. Draw a picture of these bedtime activities on each piece of paper.
- Brush and dry your hair
- Get into bed
- Brush your teeth
- Have fun-filled dreams.
- Go to your bedroom
- Have a bath/shower
- Put on your fresh pyjamas
- Have a bedtime snack
- Read your favourite bedtime book
- Hug and kiss your family goodnight
Can you think of anything else that happens at bedtime in your house? Do you put clothes in a laundry basket? Do you take any medicine? Do you have a favourite teddy you bring to bed? Do you keep a nightlight on?
Bedtime Comic: Let’s Put It Together!
To put your Bedtime Comic together take a page and draw out a comic strip like these.
To get ready put all your bedtime pictures in order. Think about what happens first, next, then, after and last.
First → Next → Then → After → Last
Using glue or sellotape stick the drawings to your comic strip. Don’t forget to include some speech bubbles and imagine what you might say at each stage of bedtime. Find someone in your house tell your Bedtime Comic Strip story.
Let’s Learn: Why do we Need sleep?
Do you know how important it is that we go to sleep? Sleeping is important for our bodies and our brains. When we are children we need 10-12 hours’ sleep to make sure we don’t get tired. When we are grownups we need 8 – 9 hours’ sleep.
Sleep for Your Body:
1. So, we can grow to be tall and strong.
2. So, if we hurt ourselves, we get better quickly.
3. So, we don’t get sick.
Sleep for Your Brain:
1. So, we remember everything we learn in the day.
2. So, we can listen and pay attention to everything around us.
3. So, we can use our imagination.
Can you think of any other reasons we need sleep?
Counting Sheep
Long ago when farmers and shepherds were minding their sheep they would often fall asleep while counting them! When you have lots and lots of sheep trying to count them is a bit boring! This could make you sleepy! And so sometimes we imagine trying to count sheep to help us sleep!
Counting Sheep Makes the Farmer Sleep!
This is Farmer Peep and some of his sheep. Farmer Peep is counting his sheep and this makes him very sleepy! When Farmer Peep falls asleep all his sheep fall asleep with him! They all just drop to the ground to have a snooze! Imagine all that snoring!
The Farmer Peep Game
In this game Farmer Peep is the leader and everyone else is a sheep!
To prepare for this game we need to practice:
Can you pretend to be a sheep that’s wide awake?
Move around the room or outdoor space and say ‘Baaaa’ like a sheep, pretend to eat the grass, pretend to climb over the ‘ditch’, pretend to say hello to the other sheep! Follow the other sheep, see where they are going!
Can you pretend to be a sleepy sheep?
Drop to the ground and fall fast asleep. Can you snore? Can you sigh in your sleep?
Can you fall asleep immediately when you HEAR Farmer Peep say “Farmer Peep Fell Asleep”?
In this game you must listen for when Farmer Peep says ‘Farmer Peep Fell Asleep!’ and you must copy Farmer Peep and drop down and fall asleep! Remember to keep listening!
Can you fall asleep immediately when you SEE Farmer Peep falling asleep?
Farmer Peep might try to catch you out and just quietly fall asleep! You have to keep watching so you can copy him! Don’t forget to snore!
SNOOZE CLUES
READ THE CLUES ABOUT SLEEP BELOW. USE THE ANSWERS TO SOLVE THIS CROSSWORD PUZZLE!
from sleepforkids.org
ACROSS
5. To help your muscles and bones grow and to keep you healthy, sleep renews and strengthens your _____.
7. In the morning, your eyes and brain are signalled that it is time to wake-up by _____.
8. Your body needs rest at night, but while you sleep it is still _____.
9. During stage 3 and 4 you are in a ____ sleep.
10. To help you concentrate, solve problems, and learn, sleep refreshes your _____.
DOWN
1. A full night of sleep helps you stay active all day by giving you enough _____.
2. Our brain makes a chemical that makes us sleepy called _____.
3. Five or six times a night, you go through one sleep _____.
4. Rapid-Eye-Movement sleep is the stage when we _____.
6. Each cycle of sleep has _____ stages.
© and TM Custom Comic Services
ANSWERS Across: 5. Body 7. Light 8. Active 9. Deep 10. Brain Down: 1. Energy 2. Melatonin 3. Cycle 4. Dream 6. Five
Some Fun Bedtime Yoga!
Yoga helps us move, relax and get ready for sleep! Find a space to move around in, and try out some of these cool yoga moves! This is a great activity for everyone in the family. Try starting with 4 or 5 Poses and then adding a new one every few days.
The Rainbow Pose
Kneel on both your knees and curl your arm over your head while you lean to the side, like a rainbow. Hold it for 10 seconds, breathing in and out. Next, lean in the opposite direction and use the other arm.
The Warrior Pose
Stand up and lean on one foot in front of you with your knee bent, and let your other leg stretch behind in a straight line. Stretch both arms out, straight out from your shoulders, in the same direction as your legs. Hold for 10 seconds and repeat 3 times. Stand proud, like a warrior! Swap your other leg to the front and repeat!
Mermaid Pose
Stretch one arm up as tall as you can (like a mermaid reaching through the waves) while you are sitting on the floor, with both knees bent, and one leg in resting in front. Hold it there for 10 seconds, and then relax for 5 seconds, then repeat 2 more times. Swap to the other arm and swap your legs and do it again 3 times.
Lotus Pose
Sit on the floor with both legs crossed, (if you can, rest one ankle on top of the other). Close your eyes and take a few deep breaths in and out. Think of a lotus flower growing in the sunshine. How relaxing!
Shooting Star Breathing Pose
Let’s pretend to be shooting stars! Sit cross legged on the floor, and think about your breathing! Take a long deep breath in, moving your arms up above your head slowly as you do this. Hold it for 3 seconds, and then breathe out loudly for 5 seconds, waving your hands in the air above your head as you do this.
Frog Pose
Try your best to sit like a frog! Crouch down low, and rest your hands on the floor; you can even try to do some frog noises and hop around the room like a frog.
Chair Pose
Pretend you are a chair. Bend your knees a bit and raise your arms up tall above your head, lean back a little. Now hold it there for 10 seconds. Does it feel a bit silly to look like a chair?
Firework Pose
For the firework pose, we will start curled up and then explode like a firework. Start off on the floor with your knees crossed, wrap your arms around your leg and tuck your head in like a ball. Slowly, stretch out your arms as wide as you can and lift up your head as you breathe in. Hold it at
Crescent Moon Pose
We are going to copy the crescent moon (look it up before you start!) Bring both your arms up above your head, and touch your flat hands together at the top. Now, just like the curved moon shape, bend slowly to the right, hold it there for 6 seconds. Slowly go back to your standing position, and lean your body over to the left this time, hold for 6 seconds. This pose might make you a bit sleepy! Maybe it’s time to head to bed…
Gratitude at the End of Day: Thank You!
After a long day of playing and learning it is nice to think of what we are thankful for.
Before you go to sleep, make a list of 3 things that made you happy today. If you want write them down.
Think of the things that made you feel happy, safe, loved, laugh, proud, confident, smile, excited, calm, kind, generous, peace.
- I had a piece of chocolate after dinner.
- I went for a walk and saw some birds.
- I phoned my best friend John.
- I made a cake for my mom’s birthday.
- I shared my toys with my sister.
- I helped my brother tidy up.
- Mam gave me a hug and a tickle.
- Dad showed me how to make a telescope and we played games together.
- I dressed my bed by myself.
- I learned how to make scrambled eggs.
Sweet Dreams
Goodnight to you, goodnight to me,
Now close your eyes and go to sleep,
Goodnight, sleep tight, sweet dreams tonight,
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THREE LANDINGS IN ITALY
CLOSE ENCOUNTERS OF THE SECOND KIND NEAR ALLESSANDRIA, PIEDMONT.
Paolo Toselli & Edoardo Russo
The day was Saturday, September 2, 1978; the place, San Michele, a suburb to the west of Alessandria. Between 8.00 and 8.15 a.m., schoolboy Roberto Pozzi, aged 14, opened an upper floor window at his home and was immediately attracted by a sound which he described as being "like ducks quarrelling." The noise was also accompanied by a hissing sound.
Roberto turned to the right, in the direction of the corn-field in front of the house, and saw a cigar-shaped object of metallic appearance rise from among the maize cobs and stop opposite the tops of the mulberry trees at the side of the field. The sound stopped and the object began to swing laterally. It then departed with such velocity that it soon changed to a small sparkling dot in the sky. It seemed then to stop its ascent and swerved horizontally southwards.
The cigar-shaped object had a protuberance, somewhere between cylindrical and conical in shape, which extended from the side. During the object's swinging motion this protuberance made rising and lowering movements (see figure 1). The object (Roberto called it: "The Thing") was metallized "just like the new Ford cars" and reflected the rays of the sun on its upper side; the lower side was much darker. It has also been verified that the object was at right angles to the road, and this agrees with the disposition of the traces found afterwards on the field.
The duration of the whole observation, according to the young witness, was about 5 seconds, but we have good reason to believe that the phenomenon was viewed for a little longer than that. The length of the UFO was stated by Roberto to be of the order of 9 to 10 metres, and this is larger than the overall size of the trace marks, which were 6.50 metres in length.
As soon as the thing had disappeared Roberto called out to his mother, Anselma Garbero Pozzi, who was busy in the kitchen. She did not respond at first, but at last, giving way to his insistence, went out on the balcony and made him tell her all about it. After that, having seen from his balcony a "yellow area" in the field Roberto ran down with his sister, Daniela, aged 8, to see what had happened. Their mother followed them down, and they found an oblong area where the maize plants were folded, without being broken, in such a way that the leaves were also laid flat. The maize cobs seemed dry on the outside, while inside they were still fresh. Signora Pozzi verified that the bends were recent and that the stalks were still green. The "squashed" area covered part of three of the rows of plants, two of which were folded towards the east and one towards the west. The measurements of this affected site were 6.50 x 2.90 metres, and the plants, of an average height of 2.40 metres, were folded at a level of 1.10-1.20 metres from the ground.
The landing site is about 25 metres from the road (with the road lying between the house and the site); it is also 40 metres from the railway (see figure 2).
Roberto Pozzi also saw a hole approximately in the middle of the site, a hole which appeared to have been made by a strong stream of air.
Having observed all these things the Pozzis then
Right: Photograph of the flattened area in the field of maize. Looking South, the photograph was taken one hour-and-a-half after the sighting.
Below: The area of the landing at San Michele. Roberto Pozzi was at point 1. The witnesses of the Sunday evening sighting were located at point 2.
Second phenomenon at San Michele
There was a second incident reported at San Michele, this time on the Sunday evening, September 3rd. The railway level-crossing keeper on duty, Edilia Cresta Gallo, was talking with Virginia and Teresa Cenevese (mother and daughter, 62 and 33 respectively) at about 10.00 p.m. They were by the level-crossing barriers some 50 metres from the house of the Pozzis. On the upper floor of the Cenevese house, a few metres from the signal box by the crossing, there was a Signora Tersilia Ruffinengo, aged 68. Suddenly the women saw, in the direction of Pozzi’s house “…a strip of whitest light” descending from the sky. It came down between the maize field and the road, and when close to the ground the strip changed into a very bright fire-ball. This ball, about 1.5 m in diameter seemed to revolve around a vertical axis. After a moment or two this “ball” disappeared into the darkness. Some seconds later this strange phenomenon repeated itself, and immediately after that, a third time, only on this occasion the sphere was bigger, perhaps two metres in diameter, and it appeared to be approaching the women along the road. It was this last stage that was witnessed by Signora Ruffinengo. By now the women were terrified, particularly Teresa Cenevese who was experiencing an unusual burning sensation in her eyes.
The husbands now arrived on the scene, and witnessed a strange odour not unlike that associated with “burning electrical wires.” Again the police were called out and they too verified the persistent odour.
On the Monday morning a first investigation was made on the spot, and during this and others, long conversations were held with the witnesses of the two
sightings. It was also observed that a second "flattened area" existed immediately behind that found by Roberto Pozzi, but it is suspected that this was the work of other local boys.
An enormous crowd of the curious hurried to the place; many took maize cobs, or pulled up plants as souvenirs, to the despair of the owner of the field. On the Tuesday the story first appeared in a newspaper, with considerable inaccuracies, but already on the Monday evening, about 100 people met to await the re-appearance of the UFO in the neighbourhood of the maize field — naturally without any result! By Tuesday afternoon investigators of the "Ufology Section" of the Clypeus Group had arrived from Turin, and among them were Roberto D'Amico and Edoardo Russo. With us they made a careful inspection of the landing place. An interesting part of this investigation was a flight over the area with Roberto D'Amico in a plane hired for the purpose. It was confirmed that the area of dried plants was surrounded by others still green, but it was impossible to determine whether or nor the drying of plants could be attributed to the presence of the cigar-shaped object.
Apart from the officers from the police headquarters, it should be noted that the Carabinieri of Alessandria also took some interest in the case and compiled a short report thereon. (The Carabinieri, an Italian military corps, is officially charged with the investigation of UFO sightings with which they become acquainted.)
**Landing at Frugarolo?**
In the days that immediately followed our investigation there were new sightings over the province of Alessandria in which other investigators were involved. However, on Tuesday, September 12th we learned of an alleged landing by a UFO some days before in Frugarolo, in the district of Cabannoni some 2.5 km south-east of Alessandria. Being aware that the Carabinieri had gone to the place, we contacted the police at Bosco Marengo, a nearby village. It was confirmed that a marshal of the Carabinieri had made an investigation on the spot because they had been advised by a hunter of the presence of an unusual circular trace in a field of corn stubble.
Armed with information we went to the place and verified the presence of a circular area 4.5 metres in diameter, the interior of which was completely devoid of stubble, with the soil turned and the stones all on the surface. In the centre there was a second darker circular area, almost black, caused possibly by combustion. Near the perimeter of the larger circle we found three small spots where the soil had been covered by a dusty, almost black substance not unlike graphite, or coal dust (at a time of writing the substance is still undergoing analysis).
All around, the stubble had been trampled on in a radius of about 15 metres, by the feet of the curious.
It is difficult to decide if the traces are due to a UFO landing, or to other reasons. No witness of such a landing has come forward. But there are a number of people who, on September 8th watched, in the evening, the low flight over the area of strange lights. The date ties in with the discovery of the traces by the hunter.
**Multi-witness landing at Spinetta Marengo**
The next thing we learned was the news of a supposed UFO landing, with a lot of witnesses, in Spinetta Marengo, an eastern suburb of Alessandria. So we instituted a search for eye-witnesses of the event which took place on the evening of Wednesday, September 13th. We found many, but the main one is Angelo Giompi, who lives in via del Ferraio, in Spinetta.
It was about 9.30 p.m. when Giompi saw, from the court of his home, a reddish disc moving in the starry sky towards the east. Suddenly the object halted in its flight, and then dropped vertically, to disappear behind some houses. Immediately afterwards a reddish "tube" rose from the place, something like flames. Boys who were out on the street observed the same phenomenon, so Giompi took out his bicycle, and in a few minutes came to the place where the object and descended, and discovered a fire in a semicircular piece of brushwood-covered waste land. At the same time the night watchman informed the fire brigade.
While this was going on a number of onlookers had assembled to see the fire, which remained in a semicircular area. These people testified to the presence of a very pungent odour which "caught the throat." A dense, reddish smoke had risen from the fire, too thick to see through. Some of the onlookers, however, say they saw a red object rise from the "smoke" and disappear vertically. A few minutes later firemen from Alessandria arrived and put out the fire, and the onlookers began to disperse.
That, however, was not the end of it, for throughout the evening the locality was overflowed by many bright objects which, for the most part, were said to have swooped to the place of the fire and then disappeared vertically into the night. There were numerous witnesses of this.
There was an interesting discovery which we made on the site: a number of objects which littered the place, revealed no sign of burning or being subjected to smoke, even in places where the grass or brush were totally carbonized. Examples were a car's plastic carpet; a glass bottle; a little electric motor. We found that under these — and other — objects the grass was untouched, and in no way burned. The mystery remains.
**Comments**
With regard to the matter of San Michele, Roberto Pozzi experienced neither psychological nor physiological effects, either during or after the sighting.
Roberto's dog, a collie, did not display any symptoms of nervousness during the incident in the maize field, and did not react in any way during the
*(Continued on page 13)*
'MOTHERSHIPS' OVER AUSTRALIA
Paul Norman
In May, 1967, I was invited to Boulder, Colorado, for talks with members of the U.S. Air Force sponsored project headed by Dr. E.U. Condon. The purpose of the meeting was to present examples of UFO reports in Australia.
The invitation came as a surprise because I suspected the Condon Committee to be a computerized selection of Menzelian scientists, appointed by necessity, under pressure, by overwhelming and rising public interest by the worldwide flap which was occurring during that time. The purpose: keeping the "explanations" on the same old official track, sounding like a cracked phonograph record.
During the discussion the Australian scene was placed before the Project Committee, together with copies of outstanding reports recorded by various UFO research groups in Australia.
Over three years later I received a letter from Dr. David Saunders, dated September 11, 1970, which stated in part: "I well remember your visit to the UFO Project here at CU primarily, I think, because it was so informative. While it is true that the tangible information you left with us is buried in the Project files - files which Condon now treats as his personal property - you also left with us the realization that the UFO problem both exists and is recognised down there." In a followup letter Dr. Saunders writes: "I do recall some of the materials you left with the Colorado Project, but of course they all remained with the Project when I left. Condon says that all the Project materials have been destroyed. Even people who lent materials with the express understanding that they were to be returned have gotten the run-around - all the way from 'I haven't got time to look' to 'I regard this as my personal property.' Obviously, you won't be getting any of this back, so anything you can do to reconstruct the record will help."
It is thus that reports - on which private researchers spent large sums of their hard-earned money when travelling long distances to secure greater detail - are swept under the carpet when they compete with officialdom which, with its grants of public money, maintains a policy of public deception.
In his report Scientific Study of Unidentified Flying Objects (Bantam Books, New York) Section 1 "Conclusions and Recommendations" (probably the only book ever published with its conclusions at the beginning) the late Dr. Condon referred to the famous sighting by Captain Howard over the Atlantic Ocean in his BOAC Stratocruiser* as a most unusual natural phenomenon, so unusual that it hasn't been reported before or since. In the light of this how can any researcher in the field trust officially-sponsored projects? I personally presented three Australian cases to the project, and these were not only known among most Australian researchers, but also had been investigated by both private and official investigators. In addition I gave to the committee at least 25 other similar cases from places other than Australia.
Over Zanthus, Western Australia
Before giving the details of the three Australian cases, I will open with an account of an event which occurred just before the closure of the Colorado Project. It is a personal report prepared by Captain Gordon W. Smith, a pilot of Murchison Air Services - Southern Airlines of Western Australia. This incident occurred in the late afternoon of August 22, 1968, above the Zanthus district of Western Australia:
"Captain Walter Gardin and myself were returning from Adelaide to Perth on a Charter Flight. The aircraft was an 8 place Piper Navajo, registration VH-RTO, returning empty from Adelaide. At first sighting I was asleep in the cabin, Walter was at the controls. We were cruising at 8,000 feet with a true airspeed of 190-195 knots and tracking 270° Magnetic.
"At 0940 G.M.T. (1740 W.S.T.) Walter abruptly wakened me in great excitement and asked me to come into the cockpit quickly. I did so, and he asked me if I could see what he was looking at. At first I didn't, because I was still suffering from the effect of sleep. However, after about thirty seconds I could see what he was excited about.
"Some distance ahead at the same level, and about 50° to my right (I was in the right seat), I saw a formation of aircraft. In the middle was a large aircraft, and formatted (sic) to the right and left and above were four or five smaller aircraft. We were on a track of 270° magnetic and these aircraft appeared to be maintaining station with us.
"As we had not been notified of this traffic, I radioed Kalgoorlie D.C.A. (Department of Civil Aviation) communications centre asking them what traffic they or RAAF had in our area. The answer was
* [Captain James Howard, his crew, and most of his passengers, saw a giant shape-changing object with six smaller "satellite" objects in attendance. When a USAF fighter plane approached, vectored on to the scene by Capt. Howard, the six objects seemed to enter the larger object which then diminished in size and "went out like a TV picture shutting off." That was on June 29, 1954 - EDITOR] | <urn:uuid:3d0f43a8-5b00-4933-b345-66db1d8d9880> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://www.ignaciodarnaude.com/avistamientos_ovnis/Toselli,Landings%201978,Italy,FSR%2079V24N5.pdf | 2018-12-13T07:00:31Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376824525.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20181213054204-20181213075704-00378.warc.gz | 407,264,561 | 3,520 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.999202 | eng_Latn | 0.999324 | [
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An Emergency Is Coming—Are You Ready?
Being a Master of Disaster
BY DALE JOHNSON
A disaster is coming. You do not know what, when, where, or how, but it is coming. As a leader you will be the one that parents, students, and perhaps staff rely on for answers, action, and accountability.
It could be a fast-spreading fire like the one on January 1, 1989, which engulfed a two-story frame structure near Remer, Minnesota, killing 10 occupants, including eight children.
It could be a storm like the 1989 tornado in Huntsville, Alabama, which caused destruction over a 25-mile swath and claimed 18 lives.
The disaster in your future could be an earthquake similar to the 1989 quake in the San Francisco Bay area, which shook for 15 seconds, registered 7.1 on the Richter scale, and claimed 67 lives.
Or your school might have an accident like the one that occurred in 1989 in Alton, Texas, where a bus carrying high school students plunged into a rain-filled gravel pit after being hit by a delivery truck. Nineteen students trapped in the submerged vehicle lost their lives. Or the 1987 tragedy at Comfort, Texas, where a bus and a van carrying members from a church camp stalled on a bridge, and 10 teenagers were swept away by the swollen waters of the Guadalupe River.
The disaster might resemble the 1987 plane crash near Flathead Lake, Montana, in which six members of the Montana Band and four other persons were killed.
Disasters occur everywhere. They include natural disasters—tornadoes, storms, floods, and fires, as well as manmade disasters like plane crashes, bus and automobile accidents, toxic waste spills, and radioactive leaks from nuclear power plants.
Even a relatively mild disaster can produce chaos if schools are unprepared. On December 18, 1990, a weather system dumped about 10 inches of snow on Seattle, Washington. Wind gusts of up to 70 miles an hour stranded hundreds of elementary school children overnight when bus services were shut down.
"It was a zoo," said Cheryl Rodway, an office assistant at Coe Elementary School. Besides answering telephone calls from worried parents, she had to supervise 250 children in the cafeteria.¹
However, with proper planning school emergencies can be managed with minimal injury, confusion, and anxiety. Administrators or head teachers are the single most important factor in an emergency preparedness plan. To prepare for school emergencies, teachers and administrators should take the following actions:
- Prepare a school disaster plan. Make sure that each staff member knows his or her personal role and responsibilities under the plan. Teachers may be responsible for students during and
after the emergency, which could last for 72 hours or longer.
- Make a map of the location and a list of available first aid and other emergency supplies (Appendix A). Include 25 gallons of water for each 100 persons. In larger schools, such supplies should be stored in three or four places throughout the school.
- Get to know staff skills, and make assignments accordingly. Someone should be trained in first aid, fire suppression, and damage assessment.
- Know how to turn off gas, electricity, and water, and how to check the shutoff valves for damage.
- Be sure to take proper precautions to minimize hazards, such as the following: bolt all bookshelves, file cabinets, and free-standing cupboards to the wall or arrange them to support one another; remove heavy items from the top of bookshelves and cupboards; equip windows with safety glass or cover them with protective film; make sure partitions, ceilings, overhead lights, and air ducts are secured to the building structure; and keep an inventory of hazardous chemicals in science or industrial technology areas.
- Develop a back-up communications system, such as a two-way CB (citizens band) or ham radio, to communicate with local emergency centers if telephone lines are inoperable. Large schools should have an internal communication system, such as walkie-talkies or megaphones (Appendix B).
- Schedule an emergency training preparedness program each year so that teachers and students know how to react in case of disaster. Each teacher should know how to implement the basic emergency drills. This includes teaching students to turn away from windows or other potential hazards; drop to their knees with their backs to windows, if possible hiding under a table or chair; positioning the head down, eyes closed, grasping desk or table legs and holding on tight; keeping the body under or away from equipment; and remaining silent so they can follow directions. Students must learn to apply this behavior outside the classroom. Then, if a disaster happens when no adult is present, or while the student is at lunch, in the corridor, or on the playground, he or she still will be protected.
- Establish a release policy and a way to communicate it to parents (Appendix D). Some schools have up to eight permission slips indicating who can pick up a student in an emergency. Others require anyone other than a parent or guardian to sign a release and provide a picture identification. (The latter method is more common.) A serious problem can occur when one parent has custody of the child, but the other parent wants to take the child home. Be sure to also have a staff release plan that takes into consideration any responsibilities that employees may have outside the school.
- Develop a data storage system in the central office that can be transported when the administrator or secretary leaves the building. Store duplicate copies of important data in an off-campus location.²
**Planning Your Response**
Disasters are not orderly and neat. They are chaotic and unpredictable. Therefore, one has to know in advance how to respond intelligently, because there isn’t time to read the manual when the disaster is occurring. Here are the basic components of an emergency response system during a disaster:
- Develop central command posts or planning areas inside and outside the building. Be sure that the command posts have maps of the campus and buildings, a list of facilities and hazards in the area, an up-to-date enrollment sheet, first-aid supplies, and other tools necessary to manage the disaster response.
- Develop a central decision-making body to assess damage procedures. Include the administrator, office employees, and custodians or maintenance personnel.³
Design a response system that gives each teacher the basic operating procedures to follow:
- Implement basic safety procedures such as “duck and cover” and fire evacuation procedures.
- Store an emergency kit near the desk. The kit should contain an attendance sheet, special medical information, and student release information.
- Determine who is most seriously
Students and teachers should be trained to avoid windows in case of tornado or earthquake.
injured, administer first aid, and comfort those who are hysterical (Appendix C).
- Work on a "buddy system" with another teacher and class so if one is injured or there is a substitute teacher, the other teacher can care for the students and get them to safety.
- Evacuate the building if necessary.
- Go to an alternate site if the emergency is prolonged. When rescue vehicles and fire engines are involved, the students should immediately be taken to the alternate site to avoid interference with rescue efforts, and to ensure student safety and orderly dismissal procedures.
- Know what to do if an emergency occurs while on a field trip or other off-campus location.
- Be ready to set up emergency sanitation procedures if necessary.
- Communicate with the press through the appointed spokesperson (usually the principal).
Specialists in school emergency planning suggest that schools develop an emergency procedure and then stage simulations to make certain that everyone knows how to react. Since disasters provoke fear and anxiety, simulations can help individuals to relate to emergencies more rationally. Simulations also expose potential problem areas. This helps participants to improve their procedures and make suggested changes.
Evaluating response to actual disasters can also improve emergency preparation plans. An illustration of this is the 1987 earthquake that closed schools in the Montebello Unified School District in Southern California. Not one child out of more than 31,500 students was injured, and only six of nearly 3,000 employees reported minor injuries.
Why did the emergency plan go so well? The school system had established disaster plans and staged emergency drills. Furniture was attached to structural building components, command posts functioned properly, and the schools were able to account for each student and secure their campuses.
Nevertheless, the superintendent described some problem areas. Communication within and between schools broke down because telephones did not work, information network systems didn't function as planned, and outside telephone jacks and cordless telephones were inadequate. In addition, coordination of bus transportation needed improvement. Some drivers brought students to school, while other drivers told students to go home. Parents created traffic jams by double-parking when
Everyone has to know in advance how to respond intelligently, because there isn't time to read the manual when the disaster is occurring.
2. You direct the third grader to his classroom. Upon entering the fifth-grade classroom, you assess the situation. A small aircraft has crashed and exploded. Some students are injured, but there are no fatalities.
3. You check electrical and gas lines for damage and call the secretary on the intercom to inform teachers that Emergency Plan 1 is in effect. You sound the alarm. (Schools should have at least two emergency plans, one for major disasters and another for minor incidents.)
4. Each teacher implements the disaster plan as assigned. Even-numbered classroom teachers take charge of their classroom and the classroom preceding their level. Odd-numbered classroom teachers perform specific disaster relief tasks.
5. The eighth-grade teacher takes seventh- and eighth-grade students; the sixth-grade teacher takes fifth and sixth graders (except those who are injured), making a note in her attendance record of who stayed in their classroom; the fourth-grade teacher takes third-grade students to the gymnasium where his students are in physical education class and then proceeds out of the building; and the second-grade teacher takes the first-grade students. Students are then evacuated to the academy gymnasium, three blocks away, on the same side of the street. Each leader takes class rosters and attendance records.
6. Meanwhile, back at the office, the secretary calls the police, fire department, and academy principal to inform him that Emergency Plan 1 is in effect. She then leaves the office, taking the school emergency information packet, including release forms. At this point she becomes the off-campus coordinator.
7. The seventh-grade teacher is the second-in command on campus. He coordinates evacuation, secures the building, and helps direct emergency traffic.
8. The fifth-grade teacher is in charge of emergency first aid but stays in the classroom, using his first-aid kit. He sends the third-grade teacher to the central office for emergency supplies.
9. The first-grade teacher is in charge of communication. She reports to the principal at the emergency scene.
10. You realize that a fire could occur because of the explosion and tell the physical education instructor to cut off the gas line. As on-campus emergency coordinator, you take charge of advising, informing, and decision-making.
11. You tell the communication expert to notify the local radio station about the situation. Information to be conveyed: The children are all right, in the care of teachers, and onlookers should stay away from the emergency site. More information will be released as it becomes available. Later reports could advise parents when, where, and how to pick up their children.
12. You direct the communication expert to call the parents of fifth-grade students who are being treated. Parents are told where their children are being taken, and what procedures to follow.
13. You ask for volunteers to call the parents of fifth-grade students who were not injured, telling them that there has been an emergency in the fifth-grade room, and reassuring them that their child is safe and unharmed.
14. The fifth-grade teacher continues first-aid with the third-grade teacher's assistance. When emergency vehicles arrive, they assist medical personnel. They then help you with other responsibilities.
15. You are the only spokesperson for the news media.
To make this exercise more realistic, insert the following factors:
- What if the principal is at a convention and the seventh-grade class has a substitute teacher?
- What if the first-grade class is on the playground?
- What if the fifth-grade teacher was injured in the accident?
How did you do? Usually leaders doing this or similar exercises have difficulty with these areas: making certain who is in attendance, choosing a proper methodology for releasing students, selecting
Certain locations in the school building provide more protection than others against natural disasters.
Disaster simulations provide an opportunity for schools to evaluate their emergency procedures.
PREPAREDNESS FOR THE "BIG QUAKE"
THE IDEAL LEVEL
BOOKSHELF BOLTED TO THE WALL
EMERGENCY SUPPLIES
THE ALL-TOO-LIKELY LEVEL
RABBIT'S FOOT
CROSSING FINGERS
FOUR LEAF CLOVER
APPENDIX A
The following basic items should be included in kits:
- Adhesive tape
- Antiseptic solution - (green soap)
- Bandages
- Blanket
- Bullhorn, battery operated
- Current class roster
- Compresses - two sheets and towels
- Drinking cups
- Emergency cards
- Bandages, including one triangle bandage, gauze pads
- Light stick or flashlight with batteries
- List of disaster procedures
- Permanent marker pens
- Pen, pencil, small notebook
- Plastic drop cloths
- Premoistened towelettes or baby wipes
- Red Cross first-aid manual
- Red flag - emergency signal
- Safety pins
- Scissors
- Shovel
- Space blanket
- String
- Toilet paper
- Transistor radio
- Walkie-talkies
- Black plastic sheeting, four feet wide x 100 feet long, agricultural quality for privacy screen for sanitary facilities.
an alternate site for temporary housing of students, and establishing an adequate communication system.
Adequate planning can help ensure that you are a master of disaster if an emergency occurs at your school.
Dr. Dale Johnson is Superintendent of Schools for the Washington Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Bothell, Washington.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, December 19, 1990.
2. Much of the materials in this plan was drawn from the work of other individuals and groups. Special thanks go to Mr. Hans Krenz, principal of Buena Vista SDA Elementary School, Auburn, Washington, who conferred with me on developing an on-site emergency preparedness plan; and to the Washington Conference/junior academy principals who critiqued the rough draft for the Washington Conference School Emergency Preparedness Plan.
3. Many of these concepts are summarized and adapted from:
a. Washington State School Earthquake Emergency Plan.
b. Guidebook for Developing a School Earthquake Safety Program by FEMA88 (Federal Emergency Management Agency 12 [86]).
c. Site Emergency Planning Workbook, Emergency Management Division, Michigan Department of State Police.
4. J. Cook, "This School District Was Ready!" Thrust, 17:27 (January 1988).
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Forms used and/or modified from Virgil Hauselt Memorial Junior Academy, Santa Cruz, California.
APPENDIX B
Emergency Telephone Numbers (example)
| Department | Number |
|-----------------------------|------------|
| Fire Department | 911 |
| Police Department | 911 |
| Ambulance Service | 911 |
| Sheriff's Office | 911 |
| Highway Patrol | 911 |
| Coast Guard | 911 |
| Community Hospital | 481-5423 |
| American Red Cross | 679-0213 |
| Office of Civil Defense | 814-5978 |
| Gas Company | 482-6600 |
| Electric Company | 491-3800 |
| Gas Leaks | 482-6666 |
| Telephone | |
| Emergency Repair | 411 |
| Information | 311 |
| Poison Control Center | 482-8912 |
| Emergency News Bulletins | |
| KICQ | 481-5734 |
| 715 AM | |
| 94.5 FM | |
APPENDIX C
INJURY TREATMENT RECORD
Name: ____________________________________________
DATE TIME TREATMENT
APPENDIX D
STUDENT RECORD RELEASE FORM
STUDENT'S NAME
NAME OF PERSON TO WHOM STUDENT IS RELEASED
RELATION TIME DATE
NAME _______________________________
ADDRESS: _______________________________________
________________________________________________
PHONE: _________________________________________
TYPE OF ID: _____________________________________
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Newest NOAA Weather Satellite Launches to Earth Orbit
DEBII CALDWELL
NASA Voice Systems Lead
NASA-Kennedy IT
As the NASA voice systems lead, I work with customers from all programs at Kennedy to help them get the ground communications they need, such as operational intercomm (OIS), paging and radio.
I started working at Kennedy in June 1987 in Shuttle Flight Controls. I moved to Payload Ground Communications in 1994. After working in shuttle processing for a few years, I wanted to expand my knowledge and experience to other activities at the space center. I worked in ground instrumentation for a couple of years, then moved to Payload Comm. I’ve been in Comm ever since.
The biggest challenge is having the desire to please all of our customers, but having so much work that it’s hard to get it all done. Fortunately, we’ve hired a few new people recently, and I think they will help a lot.
I’ve had so many awesome memories since I came to work with NASA. I had only been here for three days when a couple of co-workers took me into the shuttle aft compartment, and over time I had work that took me into the crew compartment, the payload bay, inside the booster forward and aft skirts, and even the shuttle wing.
There are so many amazing things that we get to take part in improving every day!
SKY WATCHING
NOAA’s GOES-S will provide more accurate forecasts, weather warnings
BY BOB GRANATH
NASA launched the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-S into orbit for NOAA -- the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on March 1, 2018. Liftoff occurred at 5:02 p.m. EST atop a United Launch Alliance (ULA) Atlas V rocket from Space Launch Complex (SLC) 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida.
The spacecraft, known as GOES-S, will give meteorologists an additional tool to significantly improve the detection and observation of environmental phenomena that directly affect public safety and protection of property.
NOAA manages the GOES-R Series Program through an integrated NOAA/NASA office and oversees the acquisition of the program ground system. NASA oversees the acquisition of the spacecraft, instruments and launch vehicles. Lockheed Martin Space of Littleton, Colorado, built the spacecraft and is responsible for spacecraft development, integration and testing.
GOES-S is the second in the GOES-R Series of next-generation weather satellites that includes GOES-R (now GOES-16), -S, -T and -U. GOES-S will be renamed GOES-17 when it reaches geostationary orbit. It will reside in a geostationary position over the Pacific Ocean to provide imagery and data to improve weather forecasts for the western continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii, and Pacific Ocean to New Zealand. Geosynchronous satellites orbit about 22,000 miles above the Earth allowing them to keep constant watch over the same location. These spacecraft play a crucial role in U.S. weather monitoring and forecasting.
The GOES-S satellite was delivered to Kennedy’s Shuttle Landing Facility by a U.S. Air Force C-5 Galaxy cargo jet on Dec. 4, 2017. GOES-S was then transported to the Astrotech payload processing facility in Titusville where it was checked out and tested.
Meanwhile on Jan. 22 the ULA Atlas V booster and Centaur upper stage arrived aboard a Mariner transport ship at Port Canaveral’s Army Wharf. The rocket stages then were transported to the Atlas Spaceflight Operations Center (ASOC) near SLC 41 at the Cape for inspections and checkouts.
On Jan. 24, the Centaur upper stage was transported from the ASOC to the Delta Operations Center for further processing. A week later, the Atlas V booster was moved from the ASOC to the Vertical Integration Facility at SLC 41 where it was positioned on its launcher. Soon after, the Centaur was stacked on the booster.
Once checkouts and processing were completed at the Astrotech facility, GOES-S was encapsulated in its payload fairing and transported to the Cape where it was mounted on top of the rocket.
Mission operations are performed by NOAA at their Satellite Operations Facility in Suitland, Maryland. Harris Corp. of Melbourne, Florida, provided the main instrument payload, the Advanced Baseline Imager and the ground system, which includes the antenna system for data receipt. United Launch Alliance of Centennial, Colorado, is the provider of the Atlas V launch service. NASA’s Launch Services Program (LSP), based at Kennedy Space Center in Florida, manages the agency’s efforts to commercially provide rockets for specific missions. LSP also directs the overall launch effort including overseeing development and integration of the rocket with the spacecraft.
For more information about the GOES-R Series Program, visit: http://www.goes-r.gov.
Astronaut surveys launch pad for crew flights to station
NASA astronaut Eric Boe, one of four astronauts working with the agency’s Commercial Crew Program, had the opportunity to check out the Crew Access Tower at Space Launch Complex 41 on Feb. 28 with a United Launch Alliance (ULA) Atlas V on the pad. Boe, along with launch operations engineers from NASA, Boeing and ULA, climbed the launch pad tower to evaluate lighting and spotlights after dark. The survey helped ensure crew members will have acceptable visibility as they prepare to launch aboard Boeing’s Starliner spacecraft on the Crew Flight Test to the International Space Station, targeted for later this year.
Dragon to deliver supplies to International Space Station
Commercial Resupply Services Mission: SpaceX CRS-14
Launch Time and Date: 4:30 p.m., Monday, April 2, 2018
Launch Off: Space Launch Complex 40 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida
Launch Vehicle: SpaceX Falcon 9, 230 feet tall
Spacecraft: Dragon, 20 feet high, 12 feet in diameter
Payload: Dragon delivering more than 5,800 pounds of cargo and material to support science investigations aboard the International Space Station.
Return to Earth: After about one month attached to the space station, Dragon will return with results of earlier experiments, splashing down in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Baja California.
Payloads on Board: Visit https://go.nasa.gov/2Isu6rt
InSight spacecraft prepared for testing
Inside the Astrotech processing facility at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, NASA’s Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport, or InSight, spacecraft has been mounted on to a rotation fixture for testing. InSight is scheduled to launch May 5, 2018, atop a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket for its trip to Mars.
InSight was developed and built by Lockheed-Martin Space Systems in Denver, Colorado, and arrived at Vandenberg on Feb. 28 aboard a U.S. Air Force C-17 aircraft. The spacecraft then was transported to the Astrotech facility at the West Coast launch site.
This mission will be the first to look deep beneath the Martian surface, studying the planet’s interior by measuring its heat output and listening for marsquakes. It will use the seismic waves generated by marsquakes to develop a map of the Red Planet’s deep interior. The resulting insight into Mars’ formation will provide a better understanding of how other rocky planets, including Earth, were created.
Photo credit: USAF 30th Space Wing/Alex Valdez
NASA wants ideas from university teams for future human space missions
Teams at U.S. colleges and universities have an opportunity to potentially help NASA with innovative design ideas to meet the challenges of space exploration. The 2019 eXploration Systems and Habitation (X-Hab) Academic Innovation Challenge supports NASA’s efforts to develop technologies and capabilities that will enable future human missions throughout our solar system.
NASA, in collaboration with the National Space Grant Foundation, will offer competitively selected awards of $15,000 to $50,000 for innovative studies and to enhance the human exploration of space.
This year’s X-Hab Challenge addresses eight topic areas, some of which relate to NASA’s new Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway. Entries are due April 27, 2018.
The X-Hab Challenge provides real-world, hands-on design, research and development opportunities for students interested in aerospace careers, while strengthening NASA’s efforts to optimize technology investments, foster innovation and facilitate technology infusion. The products and technologies developed for the 2018 X-Hab Challenge will be further refined for next-generation exploration systems, and could eventually provide the basis for future demonstrations and missions.
Find out more at https://go.nasa.gov/2oiL8j7.
One of the last of several large connection lines, called umbilicals, was installed on the mobile launcher at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center. The umbilical was lifted by crane and attached high on the tower of the mobile launcher at about the 240-foot level, bringing the steel structure one step closer to supporting processing and launch of NASA’s Orion spacecraft and Space Launch System (SLS) rocket. The launcher is designed to support the assembly, testing, check out and servicing of the rocket, as well as transfer it to the pad and provide the platform from which it will launch.
“The installation of this umbilical marks another big milestone for the mobile launcher team, the Exploration Ground Systems Program, and moves us one step closer to rolling to Launch Pad 39B and the Vehicle Assembly Building for testing,” said Sam Talluto, mobile launcher deputy project manager.
This particular umbilical will supply propellants, environmental control systems, pneumatics and electrical connections to the interim cryogenic propulsion stage (ICPS) of the SLS rocket and will swing away before launch. The umbilical also will provide hazardous gas leak detection while the rocket is on the pad. The ICPS is located between the core stage of the rocket and the Orion capsule, and will provide propulsion for Orion while in space and give the spacecraft the big push needed to fly beyond the Moon.
To install the umbilical, construction workers with JP Donovan prepared the rigging lines and attached the umbilical to a large crane. The ICPS umbilical was slowly lifted up and bolted to the mobile launcher. The entire process took about four hours.
With the umbilical in place, workers will install additional equipment on the tower, as well as electrical wiring, environmental control system tubing, hydraulics and other commodities will be routed to the umbilical arm before testing. Tests of the swing arm also will be performed as part of the verification and validation process.
Exploration Ground Systems is overseeing installation of the launch umbilicals and launch accessories on the mobile launcher to prepare for the first integrated test flight of Orion atop the SLS on Exploration Mission-1. A pair of tall service mast umbilicals are slated for installation later this year and will be the last of the twenty umbilicals and launch accessories to be installed on the mobile launcher. With this test flight, NASA is preparing for missions to send astronauts to deep space destinations, including the Moon, Mars and beyond.
As astronauts prepare for trips to destinations beyond low-Earth orbit, their last steps before boarding an Orion spacecraft will be across a crew access arm on the mobile launcher at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
The agency reached an important milestone Feb. 26, 2018, on the path to Exploration Mission-1 with the installation of the crew access arm at about the 274-foot level on the mobile launcher tower.
The Exploration Ground Systems team at Kennedy has been overseeing installation of umbilicals and other launch accessories on the 380-foot-tall mobile launcher in preparation for stacking the first launch of the Space Launch System rocket, called the SLS, with an Orion spacecraft. The SLS will be the largest launch vehicle in the world, designed for missions beyond low-Earth orbit carrying crew and cargo to the Moon or beyond. The initial configuration for what SLS can carry past low-Earth orbit and on to the Moon is more than 26 metric tons, with a final configuration of at least 45 metric tons.
The crew access arm installation marks the completion of 17 of the 20 major launch accessories and umbilicals that provide access, power, communication, coolant, fuel and other services to the launch vehicle and spacecraft. A pair of Tall Service Mast Umbilicals are slated for installation in the spring/summer timeframe.
The crew access arm is made up of two major components — the truss assembly and the environmental enclosure, known as “white room.” It is given that name not only because is painted white, but also because it is kept clean to avoid contaminants entering the spacecraft prior to flight. The crew access arm is designed to rotate from its retracted position and line up with Orion’s crew hatch. The arm will provide entry and emergency egress for astronauts and technicians into and out of the Orion spacecraft.
Although there will be no crew on the first flight, the crew access arm provides a bridge to Orion for personnel and equipment entering the spacecraft and allows the ground crew access for processing and prelaunch integrated testing while in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) and at Launch Pad 39B.
After technicians check out the crew access arm and complete the many other ground support equipment installations, the crawler-transporter will move the mobile launcher out to Launch Pad 39B for a fit-check and then inside the VAB for validation and verification tests.
The mobile launcher’s massive steel tower is engineered to withstand the loads of the umbilicals that will connect to the SLS rocket, as well as to endure the natural forces such as wind, temperature and vibration. Similar to skyscrapers and other large structures, engineers designed the mobile launcher to withstand the movements associated with predicted loads and compensate for anticipated forces. As each piece of hardware is installed, teams precisely measure the structure to ensure the required alignment of the swing arms and umbilicals with the vehicle interface are within the design tolerances.
Technicians dressed in clean room suits check the solar panels on NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) on Feb. 22, 2018, inside the Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility (PHSF) at the agency’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Inside the PHSF, the satellite is being processed and prepared for its flight.
TESS is scheduled to launch April 16, 2018, atop a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Space Launch Complex 40 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The satellite is the next step in NASA’s search for planets outside our solar system, known as exoplanets.
TESS is a NASA Astrophysics Explorer mission led and operated by MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and managed by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. Dr. George Ricker of MIT’s Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research serves as principal investigator for the mission.
Additional partners include Orbital ATK, NASA’s Ames Research Center, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and the Space Telescope Science Institute. More than a dozen universities, research institutes and observatories worldwide are participants in the mission. NASA’s Launch Services Program is responsible for launch management. Photo credit: NASA/Leif Heimbold
Colonel Kevin L. Williams, commander of the 45th Mission Support Group at Patrick Air Force Base and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, was the keynote speaker during the Black History Month event Feb. 28, 2018, at Kennedy Space Center. Photo credit: NASA/Tony Gray
Read the full feature at https://go.nasa.gov/2IUHTY9.
Kennedy Space Center workers and guests mingled during the center’s Black History Month event Feb. 28, 2018. The special presentation was hosted by the center’s Black Employee Strategy Team. Photo credit: NASA/Tony Gray
Kennedy Space Center’s Black Employee Strategy Team celebrated Black History Month in February with several events for the center’s workforce, including a special presentation Feb. 28, 2018. Aaron Jenkins, an IT specialist, presented a short overview of the event theme, “African-Americans in Times of War.” Photo credit: NASA/Tony Gray
Led by Kennedy Space Center Director Bob Cabana, spaceport employees took part in an annual tradition March 13: the KSC Walk Run. It’s NASA’s version of the community fun run, but the Shuttle Landing Facility is a one-of-a-kind race course. Runners chose a distance – 10K, 5K or two miles – then took off down the runway alongside their colleagues in the spirit of friendly competition. Open only to badged spaceport employees and their guests, the KSC Walk Run was part of the spaceport’s Safety and Health Days, a week-long event dedicated to fostering a culture of safety and wellness both at work and at home. Photo credits: NASA/Ben Smegelsky (large photo) and NASA/Fred Benavidez (Inset)
45th Anniversary of First Probe to Saturn
Launched 45 years ago, Pioneer 11 became the first spacecraft to explore Saturn. Inside the AO Building at Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral) Air Force Station, the Pioneer 11 spacecraft is seen on March 16, 1973, during installation of its protective payload fairing. The 571-pound space probe was 9.5-feet long and included a 9-foot diameter antenna. The spacecraft lifted off April 6, 1973, atop an Atlas Centaur rocket.
Along with sister ship, Pioneer 10, they were the earliest spacecraft to venture through the treacherous asteroid belt beyond Mars. Pioneer 11’s nearly two-year mission took it on a fly-by of Jupiter on Dec. 3, 1974, then used the giant planet’s gravity to propel it on to Saturn.
Pioneer 11 completed the 1.5 billion mile trip with the closest approach to Saturn on Sept. 1, 1979, passing within 13,000 miles of the ringed planet. While taking the first close-up photographs of Saturn, Pioneer 11’s instruments located two previously undiscovered moons, an additional ring and charted the planet’s magnetic field. Photo credit: NASA | 9f31bef1-d1ee-4ccc-953e-0f4daf523519 | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | https://epizodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/inostr-yazyki/Spaceport/2018/2018-4.pdf | 2022-01-23T12:43:28+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320304261.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20220123111431-20220123141431-00639.warc.gz | 287,408,552 | 3,756 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.990228 | eng_Latn | 0.997211 | [
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Ambassador College
CORRESPONDENCE COURSE
An International Course of Biblical Understanding
A Wonderful World Tomorrow!
LESSON 4
What OUR STUDENTS SAY
"I find the Ambassador College Correspondence Course time-saving to say the least. It saves the Bible student time because it is concise—an outline of the essentials of a logical study of the Bible to guide the student, dispensing with lengthy commentary or speculation. When I begin on my own to study the Bible, much time is wasted in merely getting to the heart of one particular question or subject. Time should not be wasted in such an essential and pertinent study."
— David C., Weatherford, Texas
"I just received the first lesson in the Ambassador College Correspondence Course. I am so impressed I can't lay it down! A few months ago I felt like the man holding the Bible upside down and saying, 'It's no use—I just can't see it!' Since I have been sending for your booklets and magazines, it has been different. My Bible is really getting marked up. It amazes me how I could have been reading these same things all my life, but not understanding them."
— Mrs. Gaylord C., David City, Nebraska
"Thank you for Lesson 2 in your wonderful Correspondence Course. The Bible really can and does interpret itself. I thought I would never be able to find the time to study the Bible, but once I start, I can spend hours and not miss the time at all!"
— R. T., Lawrenceville, Illinois
"I just finished the 3rd lesson of the Correspondence Course, and I must say I really can't understand why so many people believe the things they do. I realize, of course, that any person who reads the Bible needs help, and this Correspondence Course is the most educational course anyone can take to obtain real knowledge on how to live and what to expect in the future."
— Willard H., Williamsburg, Virginia
"I think you have underestimated your course. It, in itself, is so very interesting that I could study it for the rest of my life and never tire of it. So often I only get one question done per day. The reason is that I spend so much time studying some other interesting item that your course has brought to my attention, I find it hard to pull myself away."
— Tom P., Phoenix, Arizona
About Our Cover...
This historic photograph, taken by American astronauts from deep space, portrays the earth as a beautiful jewel set against the blackness of space. So inviting to the astronaut, especially if he is in distress, the "good earth" when viewed closely makes the heart sick with the poverty, disease, hate and war rampant today. Thank God He will soon send Jesus Christ to teach men how to reap the abundant, affluent, peaceful life of TOMORROW'S WORLD!
NASA Photo
THE COMING UTOPIA... WONDERFUL WORLD TOMORROW!
For ages men have dreamed of a utopian paradise on earth. Nations have struggled and millions have died in its quest. But utopia has eluded all the efforts of men. Why? Is utopia really possible? Are world peace and prosperity coming soon? Here are the surprising answers from your Bible!
Five years after the close of World War II, Winston Churchill declared in a speech in Copenhagen, "Unless some effective world super-government can be brought quickly into action, the proposals for peace and human progress are dark and doubtful."
In the early 1960s, noted nuclear physicist Edward Teller, who helped develop the H-bomb, warned, "We must work for the establishment of a world authority sustained by moral and physical force — a world government capable of enforcing worldwide law."
In 1970, U Thant, then Secretary-General of the U.N., called for the establishment of a global authority with broad powers to deal with environmental problems. He remarked, "We need something new — and we need it speedily — a global authority with the support and agreement of governments and of other power interests, which can pull together all the piecemeal efforts now being made."
Many voices have been raised calling for a world government to be established. Serious-minded scientists and world leaders know that world peace is possible only if all the nations are brought together in a supreme world government!
Is World Government Possible?
Yet declares A. F. K. Organski in the book *World Politics*, "World government is still a long way off... The creation of a world government through the voluntary agreement of existing nations is so unlikely that we can say flatly that it will never happen" (emphasis ours throughout lesson).
And Hans J. Morgenthau in his book *Politics Among Nations*, asserted: "There is no shirking the conclusion that international peace cannot be permanent without a world state, and that a world state cannot be established under the present moral, social, and political conditions of the world."
What a paradox! World leaders admit the most urgently needed fact today is WORLD GOVERNMENT. Yet others admit that such a government is still a long way off — that it is a TOTAL IMPOSSIBILITY under present world conditions!
Viewing the history of mankind, anyone can
PROBLEMS OF TODAY...
Top — Wide World Photos; Center — Ambassador College, U.S. Air Force; Above — H. Armstrong Roberts
plainly see that men have utterly failed to bring about world peace and prosperity. Fears, diseases, poverty, hate, oppression and injustice have been rampant throughout history.
What about it? Is world government impossible — an idle pipe-dream of unrealistic optimists? Is the idea of a soon-coming utopia on earth a hallucinatory fantasy — an absurd myth?
If our only hope lies in the efforts of men, then a utopia is not possible, and there is no hope for the human race!
**God’s World Government**
People today fail to recognize there is any power other than their own that can bring about a literal “utopia” on earth.
What great power can, and will, do this?
God Almighty! He has the power and the wisdom to make utopia reality!
This is the very message God sent Jesus Christ to proclaim to the world. It is the “Gospel” — the good news — that Christ will return with the power of God to give us universal peace and prosperity at last!
Few today understand that God has allotted mankind six thousand years in which to rule himself. During this time, He has kept hands off the affairs of men. He has allowed man to pursue the course that seems right to him (Prov. 16:25). God has given man the opportunity to prove, by experience, the basic inadequacies of any form of human government — be it communism, fascism, socialism, or even democracy.
God is allowing the human race to prove to itself that NO human form of government can bring us world peace!
When Jesus Christ returns, He will establish the government of God on earth. Obedience to the laws of God will be taught throughout the world. And Christ’s government will possess the power and the wisdom to enforce His laws. It will prevent the strong from enslaving the weak — true justice will be received by all.
Your Bible shows a literal utopia is ahead! It will be a time of spiritual and physical rejuvenation — one thousand years of boundless peace and prosperity! And with the help of this lesson, God has made it possible for you to peer into the future through His prophecies so you can know what that wonderful world tomorrow will be like!
---
**LESSON 4**
**Utopia at Last!**
The Bible tells us that under the leadership of Jesus Christ, God’s government will produce a utopian paradise on earth. Beginning with the descendants of the children of Jacob, and using them as a model and example, God will rebuild and bless ALL nations! Let’s study this exciting truth.
1. In the Bible, what does God specifically say regarding the descendants of Jacob? Isa. 27:6; Ezek. 36:8-11; Zech. 8:7-8. Read also Amos 9:7-12.
**Comment:** After His return, Jesus Christ will lead the descendants of ancient Israel out of great tribulation and into the Holy Land where they will be re-settled.
2. Will the devastated cities be rebuilt? Amos 9:14-15; Ezek. 36:33-35. (Be sure to read all of chapter 36. Notice that when this regathering and rebuilding occurs, Israel will never again practice heathen ways, or be removed or be in trouble or captivity again.) Will there be happiness in these cities? Jer. 33:10-14; Zech. 8:4-5.
**Comment:** Today’s vast pollution-laden, overpopulated metropolises are rampant with racial tensions and every kind of evil. These conditions will not exist in tomorrow’s cities. Cities in the Millennium will be decentralized. They will be small enough to promote healthy, happy family life, yet large enough for a proper balance between industry and those essentials which promote joyous living.
3. Will Christ make Jerusalem the capital of the earth — the world headquarters of His government? Zech. 8:3; Jer. 3:17. Will it be an example to the entire world? Isa. 62:1-2, 7.
**Comment:** Being near the geographical center of the land surface of the earth, Jerusalem is the ideal focal point for world control. It will be rebuilt to absolute perfection. No city of the past will equal its splendor and magnificence! It will become the future model city — the pattern for cities throughout the world tomorrow.
4. Will the descendants of ancient Israel dwell in safety in their own land? Ezek. 28:25-26. Will there be world peace? Isa. 2:1-4; Micah 4:1-4.
5. Will God cause the laws of nature to function for the benefit of His people? Deut. 28:12; Isa. 41:18.
**Comment:** God originally promised to bestow
PROONENTS OF WORLD GOVERNMENT — From left to right: Scientist Edward Teller; late Prime Minister of England, Winston Churchill; former Secretary-General of the United Nations, U Thant. Their voices have been among increasing numbers of world leaders, statesmen and scientists calling for the creation of a world government capable of enforcing worldwide law.
great blessings upon ancient Israel if they would only obey Him (Lev. 26; Deut. 28). The Bible shows they disobeyed and were punished. In the Millennium, the descendants of ancient Israel will obey God and therefore will receive these tremendous blessings!
6. The Middle East is now a relatively barren region. Prophecies show, however, that after Christ returns it will see the most dramatic change of any land. Will the waste places become fertile, and will beautiful forests spread in the Millennium? Isa. 41:14-20; 35: 1-2, 7.
COMMENT: Can you imagine such a fabulous scene? Deserts becoming green, fertile gardens of trees, shrubs, bubbling springs and brooks; mountains brought low and made inhabitable.
Forests interspersed with cultivated fields will also cause the climate to become more healthful and invigorating.
Lumber, becoming scarce today due to man's exploitation, will again increase as the population increases, making it possible for all to have beautiful homes and furniture.
7. Will God transform "Zion" and the surrounding area into a place resembling the Garden of Eden? Isa. 51:3.
COMMENT: Zion is a hill within the city of Jerusalem. It is the original area of the city — called the "city of David." Since it will be the location of the capital city, "Zion" here represents the entire land of all the tribes of Israel.
All Nations to Be Blessed
Prophecies show that the rest of the earth will share in the great prosperity Christ will bring to Jerusalem and the descendants of Jacob. The whole earth will undergo a remarkable change.
1. Will all nations become submissive — obedient — to Christ? Isa. 2:1-3.
2. Since the Gentiles will obey Christ in the Millennium, will they belong to Him — be His subjects and servants? Rom. 6:16.
3. Will the Gentiles therefore become Abraham's "children" too, spiritually speaking? Gal. 3:29. And what was promised to Abraham's physical descendants? Read both Leviticus 26: 1-13 and Deuteronomy 28:1-14.
COMMENT: Ancient Israel was never able to claim all the blessings of Deuteronomy 28 and Leviticus 26 over long periods of time because the people were not faithful in their obedience to God. But with Christ ruling in the Millennium, all nations will be obedient and therefore will also partake of the tremendous blessings originally promised to the tribes of Israel.
Language, Liberty and Superabundance
One of the major barriers to mutual understanding and cooperation between peoples has
been the language barrier. When men cannot understand one another, they can't freely exchange ideas, philosophies, concepts or opinions. Misunderstandings often lead to conflict.
Can you imagine what a world of ONE LANGUAGE would be like? Think what a huge step forward it would be if people everywhere were liberated from the language barrier — spoke and read and wrote the same language — were bound together in common understanding for the first time since the tower of Babel!
1. Will God give all the world ONE pure language so all can serve and worship Him with one accord? Zeph. 3:9.
Comment: Man was once bound together by a common tongue. But he used his knowledge for evil — for an attempt to begin the very civilization that would have ended by destroying itself! (See Genesis 11.) When God divided the languages at the tower of Babel, He was merely forestalling that eventual time of world chaos which even now threatens the annihilation of humanity.
In the Millennium, with Christ as the supreme, all-powerful ruler, this danger will be eliminated. And so Jesus Christ will usher in an era of total literacy and total education by giving the world one pure language!
2. There will be a tremendous amount of reconstruction to be done in the Millennium. But how hard will this work seem after people are delivered from the suffering, sorrow and hard bondage of today's evil world? Isa. 11:10; 14:3. Will submission to Christ and His laws bring the blessing of liberty and rest to the minds and bodies of mankind? Matt. 11:28-30.
Comment: God will make life enjoyable, comfortable and satisfying for people in the Millennium — as long as they continue to obey His laws.
God's way of life truly is the way of LIBERTY — the way of FREEDOM from the drudgery and toil of the ways of this world. But mankind today is not convinced that it is. God is now letting men find out, by experience, how difficult their own ways really are!
3. Much is said today against private ownership of property. Communists and socialists are particularly against it, partly because men have abused it. Does God think private ownership of property is wrong? Micah 4:4; Isa. 62:8-9.
Comment: People will own their property in the Millennium. They will be liberated from governments which deprive them of the righteous rewards of their own toil! And God will not allow private ownership to be abused.
4. What about health in tomorrow's world? Will God also liberate man from sickness and disease? Isa. 33:21-24; Jer. 30:17; Isa. 35:3-6; 58:8.
Comment: The combined force of right education about true health and instant HEALING of all sickness will mean PERFECT HEALTH for everyone!
5. The agricultural wealth of a nation is generally the greatest physical asset it can possess. Today, most of the earth is unproductive — only about ten percent of the land surface is actually tillable. There are many deserts, mountainous regions and wildernesses. The exact opposite will be true in the utopia of tomorrow as God begins to bless the entire world! Will He cause the rains to fall at the right time? Ezek. 34:26; Isa. 30:23.
Comment: Farmers have had to gamble with the weather throughout the centuries. About the most thrilling news they could hear is that their work would always be successful — as long as they obey God.
6. Will there be great rejoicing over the abundance of crops God will bestow in the wonderful world tomorrow? Jer. 31:12. Will there actually be a superabundance of food? Amos 9:13.
The Great River
1. What will happen when the feet of the returning Christ touch the Mount of Olives? Zech. 14:4.
2. Will the great valley thus formed become
A FORETASTE OF TOMORROW
Only a small fraction of this world’s inhabitants can enjoy the abundance of blessings pictured on these pages. The Bible reveals they will become commonplace throughout the world tomorrow!
GROW!
THE DEAD SEA — Extremely salty waters of the Dead Sea, just east of Jerusalem, will become fresh and teeming with marine life in the world tomorrow.
the channel of a mighty river which will arise in Jerusalem? Verse 8. Will one half of this mighty river flow eastward toward the Dead Sea, and the other half flow westward toward the Mediterranean Sea? Same verse.
3. Is the eastern channel of this river — in which “living waters” flow into the Dead Sea — the same as the river described in Ezekiel 47:1-12? Does verse 8 show that when the fresh or “healing” water from this life-giving river begins to flow through the desert into the Dead Sea, the Dead Sea will then be able to support life, thus being “healed”? Will it contain a great multitude of fish? Verse 9. Will this river also give life to the barren places through which it flows? Verse 12.
Comment: The Dead Sea, 1286 feet below sea level, is the lowest spot on earth. Look at any map of the Holy Land and notice that the Jordan River constantly empties into the northern extremity of the Dead Sea. Even though the Dead Sea has no outlet, the water level remains fairly constant. This is because hot weather causes the waters to evaporate at about the same rate water flows into the Dead Sea.
The water in this sea is so salty that no plant or marine life can survive in it. But when this new river — the river of “living waters” — begins to empty into the Dead Sea, its waters will rise until they overflow southward through the desert. The overflow will probably carry into the Gulf of Aqaba. Everywhere along the overflow area (except for certain salt swamps and marshes which shall be formed — verse 11) plant and fish life will multiply.
4. Does this river of “living waters” proceed from the spot where God’s temple will stand — from Christ’s very throne? Ezek. 47:1, and latter part of verse 12; Joel 3:18, last part. Is the Holy Spirit compared to “living waters”? John 4:10; 7:37-39. Then isn’t this river clearly a physical counterpart of God’s Holy Spirit?
Comment: The Holy Spirit, like the physical river, will go forth from Jerusalem and will “heal” the mental and spiritual problems of mankind!
Clearly, the world tomorrow will be a utopian paradise of peace, prosperity, and beauty! All nations will share in the great blessings of God. The whole world will be at peace. During that millennial age, most of the earth’s land surface will be cultivable. Beautiful forests, agricultural
areas, fish-filled lakes and streams will be found all over the world — with no more barren tundras, polluted rivers, ravaged landscapes, hostile deserts or waste places.
But how will such a world be ushered in? Exactly how will such vast changes come about?
Let's see what the Bible has to say about the way utopia will come, and who will be involved. Believe it or not, you can have a part in bringing about that wonderful world tomorrow!
**The Coronation of Tomorrow's King**
Consider for a moment what the angelic messenger said to Mary, the mother of Jesus: "Thou shalt conceive in thy womb, and bring forth a son, and shalt call his name Jesus. He shall be great... and the Lord God shall give unto him the throne of his father David: and he shall reign over the house of Jacob for ever; and of his kingdom there shall be no end" (Luke 1:31-33).
Notice also the account in John 18:37: "Pilate therefore said unto him, Art thou a king then? Jesus answered, Thou sayest that I am a king. To this end was I born, and for this cause came I into the world..."
Jesus was born to rule and reign as king over all nations of the earth. Nearly 2000 years ago, Jesus qualified to become this world's ruler by conquering Satan the devil (Matt. 4:1-11). But He did not remove and replace Satan. He was not crowned King. He was crucified! Jesus was not to assume the responsibilities of His new office at that time — He was not then to be officially inducted into office and coronated as King (John 18:36).
When Jesus' disciples assumed the Kingdom of God would be set up in their day, He gave them a parable to explain when He would begin ruling the world.
1. According to this parable in Luke 19:12-17, where did Jesus go after His death to obtain the office of King and to receive the Kingdom? Did He go to Caesar at Rome? Did He go to the people to have them induct Him into office? Verse 12. Who only has the authority to make Jesus the "King of kings"? Rom. 13:1.
Comment: Jesus was showing His disciples He would have to ascend to His Father in heaven (the "far country" in the parable of Luke 19) to receive authority to rule the nations.
2. After Jesus ascended to heaven and had been there for approximately sixty years, He revealed Himself to the Apostle John. Was there yet a crown on Jesus' head when John saw Him? Rev. 1:12-18. Doesn't this indicate Jesus had not yet been crowned after His arrival in heaven? What has Jesus been "crowned" with thus far? Heb. 2:9.
Comment: Hebrews 2:9 is figurative. This verse does not refer to the actual coronation ceremony or an actual crown. Rather, it compares Christ's present spiritual glory and honor to a crown. According to the description of Jesus Christ in Revelation the first chapter, He had no kingly crown as late as nearly 100 A.D. Jesus' office from then to the present has been that of High Priest (Heb. 3:1) — not yet "King of kings."
3. Will Jesus have been crowned by the time He returns? Rev. 14:14. What scripture describes Jesus' actual receiving of the Kingdom which he went to heaven to obtain? Dan. 7:13-14.
Comment: Here is depicted the actual coronation of Jesus Christ! The "Ancient of Days" is the heavenly Father. The title "Father" was not used because Jesus had not yet been begotten as a human being when Daniel saw this vision.
Notice also that "one like the Son" appeared before the "Ancient of days" to receive the Kingdom. The Logos or "Word" (John 1:1) was like the Son of man. He was not yet born as a son, but since He would later become a son of man, He was, in Daniel's day, "like the Son of man" — the Jesus who was to be born of a human mother.
**Crowned "KING of Kings"**
1. How many great crowns will Jesus have? Rev. 14:14. But what about the "many crowns" mentioned in Rev. 19:12?
Comment: Jesus will have only one great golden crown. That crown will designate Him as Supreme King over all nations — over all the world. The proper translation of Revelation 19:12 is: "And on his head are many diadems." A diadem is a small crown or headband signifying royal office. The smaller crowns or diadems symbolize the lesser royal offices Jesus will hold.
2. What will Christ's official title be when He returns? Rev. 19:16. But who are these other "kings"? Let's understand.
3. Are Christians also to receive everlasting crowns — if they overcome? I Cor. 9:25. Will those who qualify in this life rule over the nations as "kings" with Christ? Rev. 2:26-27; 3:21; 5:10; 20:4; Dan. 7:22, 27.
4. When do the "saints" — Christians — receive the reward of crowns and offices of rulership? II Tim. 4:8. Compare also Revelation 11:15, 18; 22:12 with Isaiah 40:10.
Comment: Jesus went to heaven to be crowned by the Father, but one of the reasons Jesus will return to earth is to bring rewards of rulership to His resurrected saints!
5. What did Christ say would be the reward of those who manage wisely the abilities God has given them now? Luke 19:16-19.
6. Will the resurrected saints also be priests? Rev. 5:10; 20:6. And judges? Verse 4.
Comment: Resurrected Christians will be kings and priests, and will judge among the peoples of the earth during the Millennium.
Perfect, Powerful Government
Christ's government will begin at Jerusalem, where His headquarters will be located (Jer. 3:17). As His rule spreads over the whole earth, all rebellious nations will be brought into line.
1. How will Christ deal with those nations which refuse to come to Jerusalem to worship God the way He commands? Zech. 14:16-19.
2. What will be Christ's general policy for governing the nations? Rev. 12:5; 19:15. Note the words "rod of iron."
Comment: When God begins to set His hand to save mankind, He will use a "rod of iron," symbolizing absolute authority. He will rule with POWER, and He will not hesitate to use it when necessary! Man, influenced by his own human nature, must be held under iron-clad rule until he learns his lesson and comes to see that God's way of living is best for all.
Jesus Christ will be in absolute control of the earth, but He will rule with perfect justice and mercy, having once been human Himself (Heb. 2:9-10; 4:15). He will at first literally have to force men to be happy! He will impose His merciful rule on rebellious, stiff-necked mankind, and bring the world compulsory joy!
Although God will rule with power and authority, He does not intend to "cram His religion" down the throats of people. He will not force anyone to accept His truth.
God is not a stern, cruel monster as some agnostics have falsely implied. God wants man at all times to be really happy! But God knows the only way to lasting happiness is obedience to His laws!
Gradually, as men obey God's laws, they will wake up to the wisdom and justice of God's rule and will submit gladly to His authority, and a "rod of iron" will no longer be necessary.
Re-education in the Millennium
Speaking of the Millennial rule of Christ, the Bible declares: "The earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea" (Isa. 11:9).
During the Millennium God will teach mankind the laws that produce happiness. He will give each individual the choice, after learning His laws and seeing the happiness they produce, of whether to obey God's laws or not. The vast majority of mankind will see God's way is truly best and will voluntarily choose to obey Him.
But before men can really choose they must clearly see the alternatives. They must be re-educated so they can see through old prejudices and discern true values.
Education will play a vitally important role in the Millennium. Recently a Gallup Poll revealed that only two percent of Americans thought education is their most vital concern. But in the world tomorrow it will receive TOP PRIORITY!
Exactly why is education so important? Let's understand.
1. Is faulty education, which has befogged the world's understanding, like a veil that hides the mind from truth? Isa. 25:7.
2. Who is fundamentally responsible for deceiving the whole world? Rev. 12:9. Doesn't that make him the real author of wrong education? John 8:44. Will the devil be allowed to deceive the nations when Christ commences to re-educate the world? Rev. 20:1-3.
3. Has the devil deceived the nations largely by means of false religion — including false religions that profess Christ, but deny Him by their works? II Cor. 11:13-15; Titus 1:16.
4. What kind of knowledge is most lacking in the world today? Is it spiritual knowledge? Hosea 4:6. What is the tragic result of this dearth of spiritual knowledge? Same verse.
What Is True Education?
1. What does God think of the wisdom of the world? I Cor. 3:19. Where does this world's wisdom lead? Prov. 14:12.
2. But what is truth? John 17:17. What will truth do for people in the world tomorrow? John 8:31-32.
Comment: A common, but false, concept in the world today is that education should have nothing to do with a "way of life." Many believe education should teach you only how to earn a living, but not how to live! Not so at Ambassador College campuses. Here students are also taught to "recapture true values" from the FOUNDATION of knowledge — the BIBLE!
3. Do we have a written record that the true apostolic church preached God's "way" of life? Acts 19:9, 23. Does the world approve of God's "way"? Acts 24:14.
COMMENT: God's way of life is the result of right education. It is based upon the bedrock of truth. But God's truth has been totally rejected by this world. The Bible has been completely disregarded by modern education!
4. The world is fast approaching a smashing climax which will shock people into a realization that something is radically wrong with our modern way of life. What will people then acknowledge? Jer. 16:19. Would they desire to learn another way if their present way were better?
COMMENT: The people of this world have inherited lies from birth — profitless ideas that have been funneled into their unquestioning minds. As adults they continue accepting fallacies learned in childhood, and build their lives around their biases and prejudices.
When Christ rescues the world from annihilation, people will acknowledge their ignorance — their lack of sound education. This confession of error is actually the first step toward "repentance"!
5. What does repentance really involve? Isa. 55:6-9. Isn't it clearly turning from the wrong way one has been living? Verse 7.
COMMENT: Repentance is simply the forsaking of all wrong concepts about life we have always taken for granted, without proof, and turning to God's truth!
6. Will re-education in the Millennium necessarily remold man's methods of doing business?
II Cor. 8:21. Will it remold the social order? I Peter 4:3-4. And all other phases of life in general? I Cor. 10:31.
**God’s System for Re-education**
Every evil in the world today can be laid at the doorstep of false education. Many educators are finally waking up to the fact that our great universities have FAILED! They have been hotbeds of discontent, strife, revolt and sedition. This system of education obviously needs to be changed!
What kind of system will replace it?
1. In addition to ruling as supreme king over all the nations, will Christ also be the supreme teacher? Isa. 2:3; Ps. 25:8-10.
**Comment:** Christ will unite these two functions in Himself. How plain that in God’s pattern for world rule, religion and government are not separate!
2. Under Christ, who will rule over the modern descendants of Jacob? Jer. 30:7-9. What did Jeremiah mean by “raise up”? I Cor. 6:14. Will David be a prince over Israel? Ezek. 34:23-24.
**Comment:** David will be resurrected to rule over the physical descendants of ancient Israel. His office will include the responsibility of teaching the people the laws of God.
3. Will the twelve apostles be placed over each of the twelve tribes of Israel? Matt. 19:28. Will each apostle have a throne? Luke 22:29-30. Will they then teach the individual tribes of Israel God’s truth? Matt. 28:19-20.
**Comment:** The apostles preached the gospel to the nations 1900 years ago, and God’s Church is preaching it to the nations today. But think how much more all the nations and the whole earth will hear God’s truth proclaimed during the Millennium!
4. Who else will rule and teach in the world tomorrow? Rev. 2:26; 5:10.
**Comment:** The resurrected Christians mentioned in Revelation 5:10 are to be “priests” as well as kings. And the true function of a priest is to teach (Mal. 2:7).
When God intervenes in human affairs, it will not be left up to the people to vote in their own rulers or choose their own teachers. In the world tomorrow God will appoint His resurrected saints as the rulers and educators, and no lobbyists or other pressure groups will be able to corrupt them. They will teach the people all His laws and His statutes which are the way to peace, prosperity and happiness!
5. Will the resurrected saints be able to appear in a material body at will? Isa. 30:20-21. What will they do? Verse 21.
**Comment:** In the world tomorrow, those now qualifying to rule under Christ will be ever-present and ever-ready to speak or act, both to teach and to nip in the bud any attempted act of disobedience.
Because they will be composed of spirit, they will be able to come and go as necessary, to pass through walls, or simply disappear, just as Christ was able to after His resurrection (John 20:17, 19, 25-27; Luke 24:31).
**Results of Universal Education**
1. Will people come to see eye to eye as they learn of God and His way? Isa. 52:7-8. Will the whole world come to know His truth? Hab. 2:14; Isa. 11:9; Jer. 31:34. Will even those who grumbled against God learn His truth? Isa. 29:24.
2. Will the Egyptians “know the Lord” in that day? Isa. 19:21. How will the Egyptians, as well as all other people, really come to know God? Isa. 55:6-7; I John 2:3-4. Will Ethiopia also seek to gain the benefits of an obedient relationship with Christ? Ps. 68:31.
**Comment:** The nations near Israel spoken of in the Bible are types of all nations in the world tomorrow. All the nations of the world will learn that true Christianity really pays!
3. Will Gentile rulers bring presents to Christ in acknowledgment of His educational and material benefits? Ps. 68:29. Upon what conditions has God always promised to shower great material prosperity? Mal. 3:10-12.
**Comment:** Obedience to God’s laws is what will produce universal prosperity, peace and happiness in the world tomorrow! Isn’t it plain that the basis of right education is the knowledge of God and His law?
**New Natures**
1. Will God change the natures of animals in the Millennium? Isa. 11:6-8; Hosea 2:18. Will all creatures be peaceful? Ezek. 34:25.
2. In the Bible God speaks of the heart of man as being symbolic of his mind. What is man’s heart — his mind — really like today? Jer. 17:9. Is man’s mind naturally submissive to God and His law? Rom. 8:7.
3. What does God say He will add to the minds of people in the Millennium to change the basic attitude of man? Ezek. 36:26-27; Jer. 31:33.
**Comment:** As God is going to change the lion’s inborn desire for flesh food to an appetite for vegetation, and is going to give peaceful natures to all other creatures, so He will make a
truly marvelous and miraculous change in man's hostile mind. This change in the mind will be brought about by repentance and the receiving of God's Holy Spirit! This is what will actually make the wonderful world tomorrow a literal "utopia"!
By a miracle, God will place His very own nature of outgoing love within mankind (Rom. 5:5). True love will be manifested in human beings through the Holy Spirit of God. People will then love their fellowmen and strive to make them happy!
It would require a thick book to begin to describe the wonderful conditions which could prevail on this earth — and which will finally prevail when the human heart is humbled, converted by the Holy Spirit — given the very nature of God (II Peter 1:4).
God's Way BEST After All!
Do you grasp the significance of what you have studied in your Bible with this lesson? God prophesied long ago of a time when He would cause this earth's inhabitants to possess magnificent abundance. It is then that the world will wake up to a great truth — that God's way is BEST AFTER ALL!
The time is almost here when "The Lord of hosts [shall] make unto all people a feast of fat things, a feast of wines on the lees, of fat things full of marrow, of wines on the lees well refined. And he will destroy in this mountain the face of the covering cast over all people, and the veil that is spread over all nations" — their spiritual blindness (Isa. 25:6-7).
God will soon halt this world's mad plunge toward nuclear cosmocide. He will send Jesus Christ to intervene in world affairs and put down all rebellion. Then He and His saints will begin teaching the nations God's truth, His laws, His ways that bring blessings, prosperity, peace and happiness.
The utopian paradise which mankind has always longed for will finally be ushered in. Man will at long last wake up! He will finally see through the veil of prejudices which have prevented him from following the way which would bring him all of his true desires.
No one in that wonderful world tomorrow will be deceived as the vast majority of mankind today! There will be no devil around to lead people astray. All will know the TRUTH! There will be no more religious confusion. Eyes will be opened to God's revealed truth. Humans will become teachable. People will start living God's way — the way of outgoing concern for others — the way of true values — the way of peace, of happiness, of well-being, of joy!
Egypt, and surrounding countries, will be blessed by God as they learn to submit to Christ's government.
Crime, sickness, disease, and suffering will be gone! Poverty and ignorance will be banished. Smiles will enlighten human faces — countenances will radiate with sparkling joy! Wild animals will be tame. Air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution will be no more! There will be crystal-pure water to drink; clean, crisp, pure air to breathe; rich fertile soil where deserts once existed, producing full-flavored foods; and fantastic beauty in flowers, shrubs, trees.
The millennial world will be filled with happy people, guided, helped, protected, and ruled by Christ and the saints — and all human beings will learn that they, too, are called by God to inherit everlasting life in supreme happiness and thrilling joy!
What a fabulous world that will be!
Although a utopian paradise is indeed impossible by the hands of men — although none of this world's governments can insure true peace, prosperity and abundance — your Bible shows the great God of heaven and earth can and will produce utopia on earth...soon!
May God speed that glorious day!
| ANSWERS TO QUIZ |
|-----------------|
| 1-C 5-C 9-D 13-T 17-F |
| 2-B 6-D 10-A 14-F 18-H |
| 3-D 7-B 11-F 15-F 19-E |
| 4-B 8-D 12-T 16-I 20-C |
Rate Yourself
19-20 correct .................. excellent
16-18 correct .................. good
13-15 correct .................. fair
TEST YOUR MEMORY
This quiz is designed to help you remember the important facts you learned in the lesson. You simply circle or underline each correct answer. After you've finished, check your choices with the correct answers listed on page 15, and then rate yourself.
1. How will a "utopia" of world peace and prosperity finally become reality? A. By a worldwide revival in all churches. B. Through a strengthened NATO and UN. C. Only by the rule of a divine world government. D. By men learning to control the weather and the population explosion.
2. The wonderful world tomorrow will A. have no cities. B. become reforested on a grand scale. C. not be very prosperous, except in God's model nation. D. lack rainfall in desert areas.
3. The life-giving stream which will flow east and west from Jerusalem A. symbolizes the tears Jesus shed over Jerusalem. B. will not literally exist. C. will quickly be swallowed up and lost in the southern desert. D. symbolizes the "healing" of the nations by God's Holy Spirit.
4. Jesus' actual coronation A. took place when He ascended to heaven. B. will take place before His second coming. C. takes place after He conquers all nations. D. took place when He conquered the devil.
5. As "King of kings," how many great crowns will Jesus have? A. Three; for heaven, hell and earth. B. Seven. C. One. D. Many.
6. When will the "saints" receive their crowns? A. After they prove their ability to rule the nations. B. At the "rapture." C. After Jesus has conquered, completely reorganized and rebuilt this world, and solved its problems. D. At Christ's return.
7. David will A. remain dead in his grave during the Millennium. B. rule as king over the descendants of Jacob in the Millennium. C. rule over the Gentiles. D. have less authority over Israel than the twelve apostles.
8. In the Millennium, Christ will A. govern gently at all times. B. never deal severely with the rebellious. C. not be concerned about education. D. teach mankind God's way of life.
9. The goal of Christ's re-education program will primarily be to A. reform the economic system. B. teach man how to fulfill his democratic responsibility. C. remold the social life of the community. D. develop the whole character of man — perfect his physical, mental, emotional and spiritual life.
10. The most important change destined to occur in tomorrow's world will be in A. man's hostile attitude. B. the nature of animals. C. the weather. D. the languages.
TRUE OR FALSE
11. The one problem today that will continue on over into the world tomorrow will be the multiplicity and corruption of languages and dialects. T F
12. In the Millennium, work will seem like rest compared to the suffering, sorrow and hard bondage of this world's ways. T F
13. Resurrected "saints" — Christians — will be "priests," as well as "kings" under Christ. T F
14. False education is an unfortunate curse, but thankfully it does not enslave mankind. T F
15. The Millennium will become a literal utopia because man's efforts will finally make it so. T F
MATCHING
Draw a line from each phrase in the left-hand column to the correctly related phrase in the right-hand column.
16. Utopia
A. A myth
B. An impossibility
C. Changes man's attitude
D. Never rebuilt
E. Future world capital
F. Way to blessings
G. The Nile
H. "Heals" Dead Sea
I. Coming soon on earth
J. Produced by science
17. God's law
18. The great river
19. Jerusalem
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Summer Review for students who have COMPLETED Math 7 or Math 7 for 6th Graders
Show your work. Use extra paper if needed and attach it to the packet.
| Week #1 | Name: |
|---------|-------|
| 1. Simplify: \[ \frac{7 - 15}{-2} \] | 2. The town of Pratt has a population of about 8,260,000. Express this number in scientific notation. |
| 3. What is the value of the expression below when \(a = -3\) and \(b = 2\)? \[ a^2 + |ab| \] | 4. Solve and graph the solution to the inequality on the number line. \[ 4 \geq x + 8 \] |
| 5. Mr. Nguyen saves $120 of his income of $800.00. What percent of his income does Mr. Nguyen save? | 6. On this spinner, what is the theoretical probability of spinning a color that is not yellow? |
| 7. James owes $185 on his credit card. He makes a $65 payment and then purchases $87 worth of clothes at a local department store. What is the integer that represents the balance owed on the credit card? | 8. Marcela’s grocery bills for three months were $75, $87, and $25. To add the bills mentally, Marcela thought: “75 + 87 + 25 = 75 + 25 + 87” What property did Marcela use? |
| 9. If the triangle shown is translated vertically 3 units and horizontally -4 units, graph the image of the triangle. | 10. The rectangles below are similar. Write a proportion to show the relationship between the corresponding sides. |
| Week #2 | Name: |
|---------|-------|
| 1. Simplify: \(-3(14 - 20) + 2\) | 2. Kia’s height is one-fourth of Sammy’s height. If Kia is \(1\frac{1}{2}\) feet tall, how tall is Sammy? |
| 3. Multiple Responses: Circle the letters of the verbal expression(s) that match this algebraic expression: \(6 - 3k\)
A. the product of 3 and k **is less than** 6
B. the product of 3 and **k less than** 6
C. the product of 3 and **k less** 6
D. 6 **is less than** the product of 3 and k
E. 6 **less than** the product of 3 and k
F. 6 **less** the product of 3 and k | 4. How many bricks are in the 3rd wall? _______
How many bricks would be in the 6th wall? ___
Explain the pattern. |
| 5. Draw an isosceles trapezoid and label all congruent and parallel parts. | 6. Solve: \(13 = -3x - 8\) |
| 7. Two ladders leaning against two walls happen to form two similar right triangles. What is the height of ladder x? | 8. What is the most specific name to classify this plane figure?
What are other names that accurately classify this figure? |
| 9. Sharon spends $80.00 at the computer store. The tax on her purchase is $4.00. Use a proportion to find the tax rate as a percent. | 10. A card will be randomly selected from the cards shown below, and then replaced. A second card will then be selected.
What is the probability that the first card is a multiple of 8 and the second card is a perfect square? |
1. Kristin goes to the mall and buys a pair of brand name sunglasses on sale for $\frac{1}{3}$ off the regular price of $240.00. How much will she have to pay?
2. Flip a coin ten times and notice how often "heads" appeared. Explain your experimental probability compared to the theoretical probability to justify why they are the same or different.
3. A rectangle has a perimeter of 30 m. The length is 10 m. Solve the following equation to find the width.
\[ 2w + 2(10) = 30 \]
4. The planet Mars is about 142,000,000 miles from the sun. Express the number in scientific notation.
5. Complete the table.
| Input X | Function Rule | Output Y |
|---------|---------------|----------|
| 2 | 3(2) | 6 |
| 6 | 3(6) | |
| | 3(8) | 24 |
| 10 | | |
6. The box shown below needs to be wrapped for shipping. How many square centimeters of wrapping would be needed to cover the box?
7. Marty and his brother went to the Grand Canyon. They dropped a dime off the highest cliff. The distance the dime fell is 16ft the first second, 48ft the next second, 80ft the third second. What is the common difference?
8. Bao mails a math puzzle to three friends. Each of the three friends mails the puzzle to three more friends, and so on. What is the total number of puzzles in the sixth mailing?
9. Which is greater, $3.3 \times 10^{-1}$ or 0.3? By how much?
10. Solve: \[-2 + 5x = -14\]
1. Triangles $EFG$ and $QRS$ are similar. The length of the sides of $EFG$ are 144, 128, and 112. The length of the smallest side of $QRS$ is 280, what is the length of the longest side of $QRS$?
2. Evaluate this expression for $n = 3$:
$$n + 10 \div 2 - (n + 7)$$
3. Multiple responses: Select all equations that are true and that could be represented by the model above.
-5 + -3 = -2
-2 + -3 = -5
-5 - (-3) = -2
4. The volume of the rectangular box shown below is 90 cubic centimeters. The length on one side of the top is 9 centimeters and the height of the box is 2 centimeters. What is the area of the top of the box?
5. Mrs. Smith needed to fill the sandbox at her preschool. The sand came in cylinders like the one pictured below.
To the nearest hundredth, determine how much sand each cylinder held.
6. Pentagon $CDEAB$ is similar to pentagon $XYZVW$, and the scale factor is 3:4. If $CD=4.5$, find the value $XY$.
7. The model represents which equation?
A 5 (-4) = -20
B 5 (4) = -20
C -5 (4) = 20
D -5 (-4) = 20
8. Suppose there are 2 choices for ice cream cones: sugar or cake, and there are 3 choices for ice cream: chocolate, vanilla or strawberry. Draw a tree diagram to determine the number of possible combinations.
| Week #8 | Name: |
|---------|-------|
| 1. Evaluate $10^4 \times 10^{-4}$. |
| 2. Solve: $2n + 3 = 11$ |
| 3. Susan can swim 30 laps in one hour. At this rate, how many laps could she swim in two and a half hours? |
| 4. Consider the sequence $1, 4, 9, 16, ...$ What expression could you use to find the $n^{th}$ term? |
| 5. Sophia is planning a vacation. She looks at a map with the following scale. $\frac{1}{2}$ inch = 25 miles On the map, Sophia finds the distance from Richmond, VA to Washington, D.C is 2 inches and the distance from Washington to New York City, NY is 5 inches. If she drives from Richmond to Washington and then to New York City, about how many miles will she travel? |
| 6. Find the surface area. Use 3.14 for $\pi$. Round decimal answers to the nearest tenth. |
| 7. Write an equation for the following: -4 is 6 less than an unknown number. Solve the equation. |
| 8. Complete the missing terms in the proper place in the diagram to show the organization of quadrilaterals by common attributes. The missing terms are: rectangle, trapezoid, kite, rhombus, and parallelogram. |
| 9. A cube shaped pool is half full of water. If the water is 3 feet deep, what is the volume when the water is all the way to the top? |
| Week #9 | Name: |
|---------|-------|
| 1. Draw a parallelogram, and label all congruent segments, congruent angles, and parallel sides. | 2. The price of a CD is $16. If the sales tax is 4%, what will be the total price of the CD? |
| 3. A game spinner is equally divided into blue, green, red, and orange. Mike spun the game spinner 8 times. The spinner landed on Red 3 times. How does Mike's results compare to the theoretical probability of landing on Red? | 4. Margaret works for a soup company as an engineer. She is designing a new size soup can. Margaret needs to find...
A the surface area to determine how much soup the new can will hold.
B the surface area to determine the amount of aluminum needed for the new can.
C the volume to determine the amount of aluminum needed for the new can.
D the volume to determine the amount of paper needed to cover the can with a paper soup label. |
| 5. Complete the table of values that satisfy \( y = 3x - 5 \) | 6. If the expression T+10 indicates 10 seconds after "take-off" of a space shuttle, what expression indicates 10 seconds before the take-off? |
| \( x \) | \( y \) |
| -2 | |
| -1 | |
| 0 | |
| 1 | |
| 2 | |
| 7. A bucket will hold 30 stones. The first person puts in one stone. The second person puts in two stones. The third person puts in three stones, and so on. On which person's turn will the bucket become full? | 8. The Smiths went to a restaurant. The bill was $27.70. If they gave a 15% tip, how much was the tip? |
| 9. Robert baked 36 brownies. He saved 12 brownies for himself, and gave the same number of remaining brownies to each of his 6 children. Write an expression that can be used to find the how many brownies each child received. Then simplify it to find the amount. | 10. If the height of a rectangular prism is cut in half, what would happen to its volume? |
| Week #10 | Name: |
|----------|-------|
| 1. There are 169 chairs in the gymnasium that need to be arranged in rows and columns. How can they be divided so that there are an equal amount of rows and columns? | 2. A crate has the shape of a cube and measures 8 inches on a side. How much space inside the cube is available for storage, in cubic inches? |
| 3. Solve: \(3 = -7 - x\) | 4. Solve: \(5n - 2 = -9\) |
| 5. Rectangle \(ABCD\) is similar to rectangle \(EFGH\). Find the value of \(x\). | 6. Jose’s grandmother gives him $0.10 on Sunday. On Monday, she gives him $0.20. On Tuesday, she gives him $0.40. If she continues this pattern, how much money will she give him on Saturday of that week? |
| 7. Your family spends 30% of its monthly income on food. If your family earns $2000 a month, how much is spent on food? | 8. Which property is shown below? \(2(3 + 4) = 2(3) + 2(4)\) |
| 9. There are 24 marbles in a bag. Six marbles are red, eight are green and ten are black. Find the probability of choosing a green marble if one marble is chosen at random. Express the probability:
as a ratio ________________________
as a decimal ________________________
as a percent ________________________
as a point on a number line: | 10. The preimage of rectangle \(CATS\) has vertices \(C(-1, 2), A(1, 2), T(1, -2)\) and \(S(-1, -2)\). Graph the dilation of rectangle \(CATS\) by a scale factor of 2. | | 3de7513f-ec35-40d6-a7ea-3b1998d6ce38 | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.gesher-jds.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Roi.pdf | 2022-08-15T09:57:00+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572163.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20220815085006-20220815115006-00334.warc.gz | 675,736,244 | 2,832 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997259 | eng_Latn | 0.9986 | [
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Physics II (Fall 2024): Midterm Examination
Oct. 25, 2024
[total 25 pts, closed book, 90 minutes]
• First, make sure you have all 6 answer sheets. Write down your name and student ID on each of all 6 answer sheets. Then, number the sheets from \((1)\) to \((6)\) on the top right corner. Your answer to each problem must only be in the sheet with the matching number (e.g., your answer to Problem 2 must only be in sheet \((2)\)). After the exam, you will separately turn in all 6 answer sheets, even if some sheets are still blank.
• Make sure you have all 6 problems. Have a quick look through them all and portion your time wisely. If you have any issue or question on the problem itself or on English expressions, you must raise it in the first 45 minutes. You have to stay in the room for that 45 minutes even if you have nothing to write down.
• Exhibit all intermediate steps to receive full credits. Make your writing easy to read. Illegible answers will not be graded. You are welcomed to use a scientific calculator; if you wish to use one on your cellphone, declare it when prompted by the TA. Obtain numerical results accurate to two significant figures.
• Elementary charge \(e = 1.6 \times 10^{-19}\) C, the permittivity constant \(\epsilon_0 = 8.9 \times 10^{-12}\) C\(^2\)/N·m\(^2\), the permeability constant \(\mu_0 = 1.3 \times 10^{-6}\) T·m/A, and gravitational acceleration \(g = 9.8\) m/s\(^2\). Assume negligible friction and air resistance, unless stated otherwise.
1. (a) [2 pt] In the figure below, particles 1 and 2 are located at \((0, 1.0\text{cm})\) and \((0, -1.0\text{cm})\), respectively, with charges \(q_1 = q_2 = -e\). Particle 3 is located on the negative \(x\)-axis with \(q_3 = +5e\), and the test particle is at \((2.0\text{cm}, 0)\). (i) What is the distance \(D\) between the origin and \(q_3\) if the net electrostatic force on the test particle due to the other particles is zero? (ii) If particles 1 and 2 were moved straight towards the origin but maintained their symmetry about the \(x\)-axis, would the required value of \(D\) be greater than, less than, or the same as in (i)?
(b) [2 pt] Positive charge $q$ is uniformly distributed on a thin, nonconducting rod of length $2a$ along the $x$-axis between $[-a, +a]$ (case “a”), or along the $y$-axis between $[-a, +a]$ (case “b”; see figure). (i) For each case, find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at point $P$ on the $x$-axis at distance $d$ from the rod’s midpoint. (ii) What form do your answers in (i) reduce to when $P$ is very far from the charged rod, or if the rod is very short (i.e., $d \gg a$)? Explain why your answer is reasonable. (iii) What form does your answer for case “b” in (i) reduce to when $P$ is very close to the charged rod, or if the rod is very long (i.e., $a \gg d$)?
2. (a) [1 pt] A small, nonconducting ball of mass $m = 2.0\text{ mg}$ and charge $q = +4.8 \times 10^{-8}\text{ C}$ hangs from an insulating thread near a uniformly charged nonconducting sheet (shown in cross-section in the figure below; the sheet extends far vertically and into and out of the page). If the thread makes an angle $\theta = 20^\circ$ with the vertical, find the surface charge density $\sigma$ of the sheet.
(b) [2 pt] A Geiger counter detects radiation such as $\alpha$ particles by using the fact that the radiation ionizes the air along its path. A thin, positively charged wire lies on the axis of a hollow, concentric cylindrical metal shell with an equal negative charge (see figure). A large potential difference is established between the wire and the shell, creating a strong electric field directed radially outward. When ionizing radiation enters the device, it ionizes a few air molecules. The resulting free electrons are accelerated towards the central wire by the electric field and become more energetic. As a result, they ionize many more air molecules on their way to the wire, producing even more electrons. The “avalanche” of electrons is collected by the wire, generating a current pulse and a clicking sound. Suppose that the radius of the central wire is $R_1 = 25\mu\text{m}$, the inner radius of the shell $R_2 = 1.5\text{ cm}$, and the length of the shell $L = 16\text{ cm}$. If the electric field at the shell’s inner wall is $E = 2.4 \times 10^4\text{ V/m}$, what is the total charge $Q$ on the central wire? (Note: You may assume that $L$ is much larger than $R_2$.)
3. (a) [2 pt] The figure below shows an arrangement of three objects. On the left, a nonconducting sphere of radius $R_1 = 0.7$ cm has been hollowed out so that the surface of the spherical hollow passes through the center of the sphere ($O_1$) and “touches” the left side of the sphere. On the right, a nonconducting spherical shell of radius $R_2 = 0.6$ cm is placed so that its center ($O_2$) lies on the straight line connecting $O_1$ and the center of the hollow ($O_3$; see figure). Charges $q_1 = +3.5 \times 10^{-9}$ C and $q_2 = -3.0 \times 10^{-9}$ C are uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the left and right object, respectively. $O_1$ and $O_2$, both fixed in space, are separated by $3d = 3.0$ cm. Then, a particle of mass $m = 4.0$ mg and charge $q_3 = +2.0 \times 10^{-9}$ C is placed at a distance $d$ from $O_1$, on a common line with all the centers on it. The particle starts from rest and moves along the common line. What is its speed $v$ when it is $d = 1.0$ cm away from $O_2$?
(b) [2 pt] A metal sphere of radius $a$ and charge $q$ ($> 0$) is on an insulating stand at the center of a larger, spherical metal shell of radius $b$ and charge $-q$ (see figure). Find the electric field as a function of distance $r$ from the sphere’s center, $\vec{E}(r)$, for all values of $r$ ($0 < r < \infty$). Calculate and sketch $V(r)$, while taking $V(\infty) = 0$. What is the potential difference $V_{ab}$ between the spheres? Finally, show that the capacitance of this two-sphere system is $C = 4\pi\epsilon_0 \left( \frac{ab}{b-a} \right)$.
(c) [1 pt] Using your findings in (b), verify that the following equality holds for the energy stored in the electric field between the spheres: $\frac{1}{2}CV^2_{ab} = \int_V \frac{1}{2}\epsilon_0 \{E(r)\}^2 dV$. (Note: In the class, we discussed this equality for the case of a parallel-plate capacitor. You may utilize $\int_V f(r)dV = \int_a^b f(r)4\pi r^2 dr$ for a spherically symmetric function $f(r)$ and volume $V$.)
4. (a) [2 pt] Wire $C$ of length $L_C = 1.0$ m and wire $D$ of length $L_D = 0.80$ m are joined as shown in the figure below, but are made from different materials. The resistivity and diameter of wire $C$ are $2.0 \times 10^{-6} \Omega \cdot \text{m}$ and $1.0$ mm, and those of wire $D$ are $1.0 \times 10^{-6} \Omega \cdot \text{m}$ and $0.60$ mm. If a current $I = 2.0$ A is set up in them, what is the electric potential difference between points 1
and 2, and between points 2 and 3? How about the rate at which energy is dissipated between points 1 and 2, and between points 2 and 3?
(b) [2 pt] In the circuit below, the resistances are $R_1 = 30 \Omega$, $R_2 = 50 \Omega$, and the capacitances are $C_1 = 15 \mu F$, $C_2 = 20 \mu F$, and the ideal battery has an emf of $\mathcal{E} = 45$ V. First, the switch was held in position “a” for a long time; then, it was quickly thrown to position “b”. (i) How long after the switch is moved to position “b” will the potential across $C_1$ be reduced to 10 V? (ii) What will be the current in the circuit at that time?
5. (a) [2 pt] The rectangular loop of $d_1 = 50$ cm and $d_2 = 70$ cm shown in the figure consists of 65 turns and carries a current of $I = 4.5$ A. A uniform magnetic field of $B = 1.8$ T is directed along the +y-axis. The loop is pivoted about the z-axis (i.e., free to rotate about the z-axis) along one of the long sides. The angle $\theta$ shown in the figure is 30°. (i) Determine the magnitude and direction of the net torque exerted on the loop (clockwise or counterclockwise when viewed from the top). (Note: You may want to be reminded that, when expressed in SI base units, 1 T = 1 kg/A · s².) (ii) State whether the angle $\theta$ will increase or decrease. (iii) If the loop were pivoted about an axis through the center of the loop, parallel to the z-axis (see figure), how would your answer in (i) change?
(b) [2 pt] A thin, rectangular silver strip of width $d_x = 1.2 \text{ cm}$ and thickness $d_z = 0.30 \text{ mm}$ carries a steady current $I = 120 \text{ A}$ in the $+y$-direction (see figure). The strip lies in a uniform magnetic field of $B = 1.0 \text{ T}$ along the $+z$-axis. The charge carrier density in silver is $n = 5.9 \times 10^{28} \text{ electrons/m}^3$.
(i) Find the magnitude of the electron drift velocity, $v_d$.
(ii) Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field due to the Hall effect.
(iii) Prove that the Hall voltage (Hall potential difference) developed across the width of the strip is written as $V_H = \frac{BI}{ned_z}$. Find its numerical value.
(iv) Discuss qualitatively how the Hall voltage would change if the material of the strip was a $p$-type semiconductor instead of silver.
6. (a) [2 pt] Two long parallel wires are suspended from a common axis by four cables of length $L = 40 \text{ cm}$ (see figure). The wires have a mass per unit length of $\lambda = 0.013 \text{ kg/m}$, and one of the wires carries a current of $I_1 = 30 \text{ A}$. What is the magnitude and direction of the current $I_2$ in the other wire if the angle between the cables holding the two wires is $\theta = 12^\circ$?
(b) [2 pt] Consider a magnetic dipole, that is, a single circular current loop of radius $R$ and current $I$. Find the the magnetic field (magnitude and direction) at point $P$ on the symmetry axis of the loop, at distance $z$ from the center of the loop (see figure), by explicitly integrating the differential magnetic field, $\vec{B} = \int d\vec{B}$. Explain which expressions your answer reduces to (i) when $P$ is at the center of the loop, and (ii) when $P$ is very far from the loop ($z \gg R$).
[Problem 6(c) next page.]
(c) [1 pt] Now consider an arrangement known as a *Helmholtz coil*, which was briefly discussed in the class. It consists of two circular coaxial coils, each of $N$ turns and radius $R$, separated by a distance $R$. The two coils carry equal currents $I$ in the same direction. Find the net magnetic field $\vec{B}$ (magnitude and direction) at the midpoint $P$ between the coils. Demonstrate that the field is reasonably uniform near $P$ ($z = 0$; see figure) by showing that its first and second derivatives are zero, i.e., $\frac{\partial \vec{B}}{\partial z} \bigg|_{z=0} = \frac{\partial^2 \vec{B}}{\partial z^2} \bigg|_{z=0} = 0$. | 2516b44b-d606-48ae-9af8-e1f891dece80 | CC-MAIN-2024-46 | http://physics.snu.ac.kr/cosmo/teaching/phys2-2024/Exam1.pdf | 2024-11-02T17:15:29+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477027729.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20241102165015-20241102195015-00836.warc.gz | 22,944,193 | 3,110 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.990415 | eng_Latn | 0.993511 | [
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CATHOLIC DIOCESE OF KAKAMEGA EVALUATION TEST
ENGLISH PAPER 1 MARKING SCHEME
1. **FUNCTIONAL SKILLS.**
You are a Kenyan citizen who has just completed their KCSE examination. You achieved a mean grade of B+ in your final exam and were given a scholarship to study in a Zambian University. Write a letter of inquiry to the Zambian High Commissioner, seeking information on Visa Application including the cost. Send your letter to:
THE HIGH COMMISSIONER,
ZAMBIA HIGH COMMISSION,
P.O. BOX 7341-00200,
GIGIRI.
MARKING SCHEME
FORMAT (5 Marks)
Senders address 1mk
Date (Must be current) ½ mk
Recipients address 1mk
THE HIGH COMMISSIONER,
ZAMBIA HIGH COMMISSION,
P.O.BOX 7341-00200,
GIGIRI.
Salutation- Dear Sir or Dear Madam or Dear Sir/Madam, ½ mk
SUBJECT- RE: VISA APPLICATION 1mk (the word Visa is mandatory)
Closing tag- Yours faithfully, ½ mk
Signature and full name-½ mk
CONTENT (6 MARKS)
- Reason-inquire-1mk
- Mention information being sought i.e information on Visa application-1mk
- Information on the cost-1mk
- State what the respondent should do i.e inform on procedure for application-1mk
- Persuade the recipient to volunteer the information being sought-1mk
- Indicate how beneficial the information being sought will be to the one inquiring-1mk
LANGUAGE (8 MARKS)
A-7-8
B-5-6
C-3-4
D-1-2
2. **CLOZE TEST**
1. I
2. though
3. harder
4. team
5. even/also/already
6. but
7. these
8. should
9. not
CLOZE TEST
Read the following passage and fill each blank with the most appropriate word. Use only one word for each blank space.
The generation gap between my parents and (1) _______ keeps widening. For one, I work hard to keep a mean grade of B in school (2) _______ my parents think I would have an A if I worked (3) _______.
Then they insist on me joining the basketball (4) _______: but after school, I would rather use my time reading “Mills and Boon”. They have (5) _______ chosen a career for me. They would like me to become a lawyer (6) _______ I would rather study music. At home, during holidays, I like wearing comfortable clothes like hipsters and tumbo-cuts, but they think (7) _______ clothes are indecent. They say the tummy (8) _______ be covered and the trousers should (9) _______ be tight. We all do not know where this generation gap is coming to. (10) _______ time will tell.
3. ORAL SKILLS (30mks)
a) Read the story below and answer the questions that follow.
There lived two men who were good friends. One of them was very wise and the other very foolish. One day, they argued between themselves and one said, “I am the wise man in this country.” The other said, “No! I am the wisest.” As there was no way of measuring wisdom the two men did not know who was wiser than the other. One day they were discussing the ill behavior of their wives and one of them said, “if we want them to behave well we must beat them up. Women are like children, beat them up and they’ll behave well.” The other said, “No! If you beat your wife, she will become worse.” After arguing for a long time, they kept quiet and went home. On reaching his house, the man who was in favour of beating wives began to beat an ox skin vigorously. When the other heard this, he thought the sound came from his friend beating his wife and he took a stick and beat his wife severely until she fell sick and later died. When the two men met later, it was now clear who between them was wiser than the other.
Questions
i) Suppose you were narrating this story, what would you do first before narration to capture the attention of the audience? (3mks)
I would clap my hands ✓
I would ring a bell ✓
I would start with a song ✓
I would stamp my feet ✓
I would whistle ✓
(any other relevant point=1mk each)
ii) How would you deliver the speech by the second speaker? “No I am the wisest” (2mks)
Verbal- I would use an affirmative voice to express confidence
Non-verbal- I would point at my chest when saying ‘I’ to show the person being referred to
(any other relevant point 1 verbal and 1 non verbal)
iii) During the performance of this narrative, you notice that the audience is very attentive. What indicators will show you that they are attentive? (2mks)
If they are sitting at an upright posture ✓
If they show emotional attachment to the story e.g smiling, frowning, laughing where appropriate.
If they lean forward to indicate keenness/interest (candidate must identify and give reason to score 1mk) expect 2 points=1mk each
b) A cat can’t catch a crazily clever cricket
i. Classify the oral item above. (1mk)
Tongue twister
ii. State the outstanding feature of the above genre. (1mk)
Alliteration- A cat cant catch a crazily clever cricket
iii. Give two functions of the item above. (2mks)
Aids in correct pronunciation/speech training
For education
Source of entertainment
(any 2 each 1mk)
c) Underline the silent letters in the following words.
i) Interesting
ii) Chapgl
iii) Married
iv) Difference
d) For each of the following words; provide two other words that are pronounced the same way. (6mks)
i) Cite- SIGHT, SITE
ii) Core- CAW, CORPS, CORP
iii) Flew – FLU, FLUE
e) Machofu attended an interview but a few minutes into the session, the panel chair told him to take a few minutes to relax and compose himself. What signs made the chair to conclude that Machofu was tense? (3mks)
He was sweating
He was stammering
He was repeating himself
He was fidgeting
(deny if candidate uses not. Any other relevant point each 1mk)
f) Read the telephone conversation below and answer the questions that follow. (6mks)
Wanjala: Hello, is that Chaka Limited?
Sheilla: (Picking the phone) Those shoes fit well. Hello, is anybody on this line?
Wanjala: Hallo, is that Chaka Limited?
Sheilla: What do you want?
Wanjla: Please confirm for me whether I called the right place, Chaka Limited?
Sheilla: (Shouting) Which other company has a similar phone number as this?
Wanjala: May I then speak to the Managing director?
Sheilla: I prefer the red shoes... (on phone) What do you say? Oh, the Managing director can’t talk to you.
Wanjala: Can I then leave a message which you can pass to him.
Sheilla: why can’t you call him on his personal line? ... (away from the receiver) for me, the red ones....
Wanjala; (surprised) Hello, excuse me madam. I am Wanjala Nicholas and I am requesting to talk to the Managing director over an important matter concerning one of your employee...
Sheilla; I told you the Managing Director is not in. (Hangs up)
Questions
i) Explain three things that make Sheilla an ineffective communicator. (3mks)
- Talking to someone else while on call with Wanjala ‘those shoes fit well’
- Rudely responds to the caller ‘what do you want,
- Shouts at the caller ‘shouting’
- Fails/refuses to take a message from the caller on behalf of the managing director’ why can’t you call him on his personal line’
- Hangs up the call before the conversation is over ‘hangs up’
(identification+illustration=1mk) any 3 points each 1mk. Score ½ for identification only)
ii) Explain three things that one should observe if they are to communicate effectively over the phone? (3mks)
- Identify yourself and company or organization
- Greet the caller to create rapport
- Maintain courteous language
- Be patient to avoid interrupting unnecessarily
- Respond to all questions
- Record a message clearly incase the intended recipient is absent
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What's Growin' On?
California Agriculture
PLANTING HEALTHY LIVES
NPK FERTILIZER
California Foundation for Agriculture in the Classroom
For an accompanying Teacher's Supplement, visit www.cfaite.org/wgo or call (800) 700-AITC.
Open the garden gate to explore the growing food frenzy on the farm! Food is fuel, and just like humans, animals and plants also need food to grow. Farmers and ranchers are responsible for producing the supply of food, clothing and shelter that we all need daily. It is up to the rest of us to keep the nutritious supply of food flourishing in California, the nation and the world for years to come.
Nutrients are important for humans, and are necessary to ensure we get the vitamins and nourishment we need to maintain a healthy diet. Plants provide us with nutrition, but they also require it, too. That’s why it is important that our fruits, vegetables and other plants get their own proper care. Replenishing the land that we use with the appropriate nutrients will help maintain the flow of a healthy food supply. Learn how to sustain healthy plants and a healthy lifestyle through California agriculture. Test your knowledge and learn fun facts about where your food comes from, how food grows, and how to keep plants alive and growing through winter, spring, summer and fall.
The 6th edition of *What’s Growin’ On?* was created and reviewed by educators to demonstrate the importance of agriculture and to show how it affects every individual in every aspect of our lives. The activities and information on the following pages will connect you and your students to the world of farmers, ranchers and growers and invite you to engage in hands-on opportunities to learn more about growing safe and healthy food. Your students will be inspired to learn even more about their food and fiber after engaging in these fun and educational articles and activities. By bringing real life agricultural scenarios into your classroom, your students will gain a personal understanding of the process involved in producing food, clothing and other necessities often taken for granted. Nutrition, science, history, math and many other subject areas are demonstrated in the following pages while allowing a glimpse into the world of California agriculture that sustains each and every one of us every day. Thank you for joining the thousands of teachers across our state dedicated to improving agricultural literacy, and for enhancing the awareness and education of your students.
What's the Buzz?
Bees collect nectar and pollen from blossoms, trees and shrubs.
Without **pollination**, we would not have many fruit and vegetable crops. Some of the crops bees pollinate are: alfalfa, almonds, apples, avocados, cantaloupes, cherries, cucumbers, honeydew, kiwifruit, peas, plums and watermelons.
Worker bees live 5-6 weeks and **queen bees** live 2-3 years.
A **drone** is a male honey bee that is produced from an unfertilized egg.
Bees keep their hives “air conditioned” by fanning their wings when they are hot and huddling together when they are cold.
A **worker bee** will generally travel within a 2-mile radius, but has been known to travel up to 8-9 miles.
An **apiarist** is a beekeeper. Beekeepers raise bees to produce honey and wax, to pollinate crops and for many other reasons.
We need to respect bees. If a bee comes near you, remain calm and stand still to prevent being stung.
A colony is a community of several thousand worker bees, drones and one queen bee.
Hives are man-made structures created to house bees. A Skep hive is a natural hive built by the bees.
**Did You Know?**
Bears don’t actually go after the honey. They eat the brood for the protein.
Riddle:
Male bees (drone) have a grandfather, but no father. How can that be? Find out at kids.cfaic.org/wgo6/bees.
A worker bee visits between 50-100 flowers during a food-hunting trip.
Activity
Label the diagram of the worker bee below with each of the following body parts: Abdomen, Fore wing, Head, Hind wing, Honey sac, Legs, Midgut (or ventriculus), Pollen basket, Stinger, Thorax, Wax gland. Check your answers at kids.cfaic.org/wgo6/bees
---
Imagine This...
Honey Bzzz... Experience the life of a bee with your own tour guide, Jafina. Jafina describes the everyday chores of a drone bee and how to get promoted to a worker bee. This award-winning story “Honey Bzzz…” by Amelia Clayt from Golden Eagle Charter School, can be viewed at www.cfaic.org/imaginethis/honey.
Standards: English-Language Arts (ELA) – Grade 4 - Reading 2.1; Grade 5 - Reading 2.1; Grade 6 - Reading 2.1; Math: Grade 3 - Number Sense 1.1, 2.1, 3.3; Grade 6 - Number Sense 1.4
Sources: www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bee/ www.honey.com
Many of the greatest creative minds in our nation's history were inspired by the majestic beauty of farms and fields. A waving corn field, blossoming orchard or herd of grazing cattle on a hillside have all brought out the inner artist in countless Americans. See how you, too, can allow modern-day agriculture to take you to new creative heights through many artistic mediums...
**Classic Art**
- Painting
- Sketching
- Sculpting
**The Written Word**
- Poetry
- Novels
- Non-fiction
- Journalism
- Song-writing
Go to the library and check out "Leaves of Grass" by Walt Whitman. Read a poem to your classmates.
**Photography**
- Artistic photography
- Photojournalism
**Performing Arts**
- Singers
- Dancers
- Musicians
- Actors
- Cowboy poetry
**Activity**
Using the newspaper, clip out agricultural photos and create a collage by gluing them to paper and adding your own artistic touch with paint, crayons or oil pastels.
**Standards:** Visual and Performing Arts - Grade 3 - Visual Arts: Composing, Relationships, Applications 5.2; Grade 4 - 5.4; Dance: Grade 3 - 2.1, 2.3, 3.2; Grade 4 - 2.1, 2.4, 3.1, 3.4; Grade 5 - 2.1, 3.1, 4.1; Grade 6 - 2.6, 2.7, 2.8; Grade 7 - 1.1; Grade 8 - 1.1, 1.2
**Try This Activity**
• Take a photograph or draw a sketch of an agricultural item or scene.
• Write a poem relating to agriculture. Recite it for classmates.
• Write and perform a puppet show, play or song.
• Read a biography about an agricultural pioneer (John Deere, Luther Burbank, George Washington, etc.). Dress up and tell “your” story to your classmates.
• Make up a line dance or square dance inspired by country line or square dance routines.
**Student Contests:**
**Imagine this...**
www.cfaic.org/Imaginethis
**California Farm Water Coalition Poster Contest**
www.cfwc.com/kids_corner
**California Farm Bureau Photo Contest**
www.cfbt.com/programs/photo
**Did You Know?**
In 1947 Marilyn Monroe was crowned Miss California Artichoke Queen.
**Across the Nation...Activity**
Gather with the real buckaroos in Elko, Nevada for the annual Cowboy Poetry gathering. The event takes place the last weekend of January at the Elko Convention Center.
Making Olive Oil at the California Missions
A. Pressing the olive oil:
A screw press was made from local wood. Olive paste was layered under the press and then the screws tightened to squeeze out the oil and vegetable water.
B. Grinding the fruit:
Donkeys pulled a large round grindstone, held in place by wooden timbers around a trough made of stone to grind all the olive pits and flesh into a paste.
C. Separating the oil from the vegetable water:
The oil and water from the screw press were poured into wooden barrels. The pure oil floated to the top. The lesser quality oil settled beneath the top layer.
D. The harvest:
Harvesters used ladders made from tree branches to pick the fruit off the trees and gathered the olives in buckets tied to their shoulders or waist. They also beat the fruit off the branches with long sticks and gathered the fruit from the ground.
E. The paste was spread on round woven mats made from local reeds and taken to the wooden press.
Try This Activity
Making olive oil was a long, hard process! Can you make olive oil like the California missionaries? Put the above steps from the “Making Olive Oil at the California Missions,” wheel in chronological order by placing the letter next to the step number. To check your answer, visit kids.cfaitec.org/wgoa/olives.
Step 1: ____
Step 2: ____
Step 3: ____
Step 4: ____
Step 5: ____
Different Grades – Different Purposes
Once in barrels, the oil separated into three distinct layers. These became the three olive oil products traditionally used at the mission. Each quality of oil had a purpose in mission life.
The clear oil rose to the top of the barrel. This top-quality olive oil fulfilled two purposes at the mission:
Sacramental Use – pure olive oil was blessed by the Fathers to be used during Baptism and Confirmation.
Cooking Oil – was used for baking bread, for sautéing vegetables and other fine cooking purposes.
The second layer of oil was used as fuel for oil-burning lamps.
The pomace sank to the bottom of the barrel. Pomace is the solid matter that is left after the olives are crushed and the oil has been removed. The pomace was used to make soap and to grease wagon wheels, mills and even squeaky doors.
California produces nearly all the olives in the United States; over 34,000 acres!
The first olive trees were planted at the San Diego Mission by Franciscan Monks in 1769.
The olive tree is one of the oldest known cultivated trees in the world. They have a life span of 300-400 years.
The olive tree is very efficient at extracting nutrients from the soil. Nitrogen is usually the only nutrient which must be added or supplemented as a fertilizer.
(Source: http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu)
Standards - Math Grade 3 - Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 6th Grade 5 - Math Reasoning 1.1, 1.2 History-Social Science Grade 4 - 4.2.4; ELA Grade 6 - Reading 2.8
Sources: www.CalOlive.org www.olivesource.com www.olives.com http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu www.missions.org/history.html www.globalgourmet.com/tod
Corn is A-“Maize”-ing!
History
Corn, also known as maize, is a cereal grain that was domesticated in Mesoamerica as many as 10,000-12,000 years ago. Corn is a member of the grass family and grew wild in what is modern-day Mexico. Native Americans grew corn as a crop and fertilized the seed by planting it with dead fish. The decaying fish contained nitrogen, which corn needs for good growth.
Today, corn is cultivated on every continent except Antarctica. The three types of corn grown for human consumption are dent corn (grain), sweet corn (vegetable) and popcorn (food snack).
Technology and Change
More than 95% of U.S. corn acreage planted is hybrid corn. Hybridization is a breeding process used to improve plant characteristics and increase yield. Hybrid varieties were developed to adapt to specific growing conditions and locations, and they are continually being improved through biotechnology. Biotech corn offers in-plant protection from insects and herbicides, reduced need for plowing and higher crop yields. In 2006, 61% of U.S. corn acreage was planted with biotech seed.
Did You Know?
Corn is used to make nearly every kind of paper except newspaper.
Cryin’ for Corn!
Supply and Demand
In the last few years the demand for corn has skyrocketed. There are so many uses for corn that the price has also soared. One of the newest uses of corn is in the development of ethanol as a fuel for automobiles. Ethanol is one of many alternative fuels developed to help solve the world’s energy crisis. When any product is in high demand and in short supply, the price goes up.
Did You Know?
California grows 18% of the world’s sweet corn but isn’t one of the top 10 corn producers in the U.S. Which states grow the most corn? Visit kids.cfaite.org/wg06/corn to obtain answers.
Activity
Crossword Puzzle
(Check your answers on kids.cfaite.org/wg06/corn)
Complete the crossword!
Hint: All the answers are corn by-products.
ACROSS
1. Moldy antibiotic that fights infections
5. Sticky stuff like paste
6. A splash of color for the lips
9. TNT
10. Doctor’s hands operate in them
DOWN
2. A sweetener in many sodas and juices
3. Corn produces this fuel for cars
4. Runs Ipods, cell phones and flashlights
7. Product that cleans your teeth
8. Your car seats and couches are covered in this
Dollars and “Sense”
Agriculture Economics
An Acre of Production
Then...
1900
40 bushels of corn per acre
Now...
2006
149.1 bushels of corn per acre
Did You Know?
One acre is about the size of a football field, without the end zones, or 43,560 square feet.
California’s Top 10 Commodities for 2006
| Commodity | Value $1,000 |
|--------------------|--------------|
| Milk and Cream | $4,475,793 |
| Grapes | $3,706,859 |
| Nursery Products | $3,095,717 |
| Cattle and Calves | $2,927,786 |
| Almonds | $2,522,886 |
| Lettuce | $1,813,261 |
| Strawberries | $1,340,101 |
| Oranges | $1,055,666 |
| Hay, Alfalfa | $1,038,935 |
| Chickens | $891,702 |
Activity
Commodity Cash
Design your own dollar bill. Choose one of the top 10 commodities produced in California. Draw a picture of your commodity in the center. Add the total production value of your commodity for the most recent year in the space provided (example: Milk would have a value of $4,475,793).
Standards: Visual and Performing Arts – Grade 3 – Creative Expression 2.4; Math – Grade 4 – Number Sense 1.0; Grade 5 – Number Sense 11
Use the dollar bill below, or print your own money online at kids.cfaic.org/wg06/money.
Fuel Farming
America’s farm fields don’t just produce fuel for our bodies. Crops such as corn, safflower, sugar cane and soybean are used to produce renewable fuels. Use the following facts to create a bar graph to illustrate the growth of this fuel production trend since 1980.
| Year | Millions of gallons |
|------|---------------------|
| 1980 | 175 |
| 1985 | 610 |
| 1990 | 900 |
| 1995 | 1400 |
| 2000 | 1630 |
| Today| 2810 |
Standards: Math – Grade 3 – Number Sense 1.1, 2.1, 3.3; Algebra and Functions 1.1, 1.2, 2.1; Math Reasoning 1.0, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5; Grade 4 – Number Sense 1.1, 2.1, 3.1; Statistics, Data Analysis and Probability 1.3; Math Reasoning 1.0, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5; Grade 5 – Number Sense 1.0, 2.1, 2.3; Algebra and Functions 1.1; Math Reasoning 1.0, 2.3, 2.4; Grade 6 – Number Reasoning 1.1, 1.3, 2.4, 2.5; Grade 7 – Number Sense 1.2; Math Reasoning 1.1, 1.3, 2.8, 2.8
**Basic Blend**
- **N Nitrogen**
- Helps plants grow
- Part of chlorophyll, which helps plants capture energy from light.
- DNA and RNA, the genetic material that makes up what they are.
- **P Phosphorus**
- Energizer—helps plants transfer energy.
- Many plants like roots require a lot of phosphorus.
- Promotes root growth.
- Helps flowers bloom.
- Helps plants make seeds.
- **K Potassium**
- The regulator involved in lots of enzymatic reactions.
- Helps plants resist pests and drought.
- Helps build cellulose, which gives stems strength.
- **Ca Calcium**
- Helps new cells to form.
- Helps keep stems strong.
- Helps keep blossoms and buds on stems and branches.
- **Mg Magnesium**
- Central part of chlorophyll, which helps plants capture energy from light.
- Added to sandy soils.
- Often added to celery, potato and citrus plants.
**Super Supplements**
- **Fe Iron**
- Required for chlorophyll production.
- Makes plants green.
- Helps grasses, corn, alfalfa and tree crops stay strong.
- **Zn Zinc**
- Regulates plant growth.
- Keeps young plants strong.
- **Cu Copper**
- Helps make Vitamin A.
- Prevents leaves from wilting.
- Required for protein production.
- Helps trees and vines grow strong.
**Combo Blast**
- **B Boron**
- **Ni Nickel**
- **O Oxygen**
- **C Carbon**
- **H Hydrogen**
- **Mn Manganese**
- **Cl Chlorine**
- **Mo Molybdenum**
---
**Try This Activity!**
Using the Health Hut menu, pick ingredients from the Basic Blend, Super Supplements and Combo Blast menu and write a recipe for one of the “Healthy Products” on the right. Write a paragraph describing why you chose the nutrients you did. Be sure to use proper spelling and grammar and well-written topic and concluding sentences. Isn’t it amazing what plants need in order to grow?
**“Healthy Products”**
- Sweet juicy watermelon.
- Crispy green celery.
- Rose bush that grows long stem roses.
- Your favorite plant.
**Standards:** Science – Grade 3 – 1h, 3a, 3i; Grade 4 – 2a, 2b, 2c, 3b; Grade 5 – 1c, 1f, 1h; Grade 8 – 3f, 6a, 6b; ELA Grade 3 – Reading 2.3, Writing 1.1; Grade 4 – Writing 1.2, 2.3b; Writing and Oral English Language Convention 1.1; Grade 5 – Writing 1.2, 2.4; Grade 6 – Writing 1.2, 2.5; Grade 7 – Writing 2.4; Grade 8 – Writing 2.4
Nutrition Express
What is Variety?
Variety means eating many different types of foods from all the food groups.
What is Moderation?
Moderation means that it’s okay to occasionally eat foods that do not fit in the pyramid. There are no good or bad foods, but rather some foods are more healthful than others. The majority of our intake should come from healthy foods.
What is MyPyramid?
MyPyramid is a tool that is used to communicate the proper ratio of the various food groups from which we eat. Each colored band represents a different food group, including orange for “grains,” green for “vegetables,” red for “fruits,” yellow for “oils,” blue for “milk,” and purple for “meats and beans.”
Why is Eating Healthy Important?
Along with physical activity, the food we eat is directly related to our health. Health disparities exist between those students (and adults) who generally consume a healthy diet compared to those who don’t. Various aspects of eating – eating breakfast for instance – have been linked to improved academic performance. Well-nourished students learn better.
What is a Healthy Diet?
A healthy diet consists of a wide range of foods and beverages consumed with variety and moderation. MyPyramid is a tool that shows the most healthful way to eat, based on the relative number of servings from each food group. Fruits and vegetables are important parts of MyPyramid.
What is a Serving?
A serving represents a single portion of one particular type of food. Serving sizes vary based on the type of food. For instance, a single fruit serving is one cup. More specific information about serving size can be found at www.mypyramid.gov
Grains
Make half your grains whole
Start smart with breakfast. Look for whole-grain cereals.
Vegetables
Vary your veggies
Color your plate with all kinds of great-tasting veggies. Which green and orange and tastes good? Veggies! Go dark green with spinach, or try orange ones like carrots and sweet potatoes.
Fruits
Focus on fruits
Fruits are nature’s treats – sweet and delicious. Go easy on juice and make sure it’s 100%.
Milk
Get your calcium-rich foods
Move to the milk group to get your calcium. Calcium builds strong bones. Look at the carton or container to make sure you’re getting yogurt, or cheese is low-fat or fat-free.
Meat & Beans
Go lean with protein
Eat lean or low-fat meat, chicken, turkey, and fish. Add it baked, broiled, or grilled to your food. It’s nutty, but true. Nuts, seeds, peas, and beans are also good sources of protein, too.
Try This Activity
Unscramble the Following Nutrition Words
1. ayheltth
2. elsgbtvace
3. sutrif
4. mkil
5. etma
6. gisnra
7. tdhomaerio
8. tniutoinr
9. rxceiees
10. cshcoie
Plants are the primary source of matter and energy entering most food chains.
Answers:
1. Healthy
2. Vegetable
3. Fruit
4. Milk
5. Meat
6. Grains
7. Protein
8. Iron
9. Rice
10. Cheese
Try This Activity
Is Your Food a Healthy Choice?
• Look for food low in fats to help reduce the risk of heart disease. The lower the amount of fat, the better the choice.
• Sugar has few, if any nutrients. The less sugar, the better the choice.
• Look at the serving size and determine how many servings you are actually eating. If you double your serving, you double the calories, the sugar, the fat, etc.
Look at the nutrition label on one of the foods you frequently eat. Check the amount of fats, trans fats, calories and sugar on your label. Record these amounts. Is your food a smart food choice?
Standards: Physical Education – Grade 3 – 4.1; 4.2; 5.1; Grade 4 – 4.4, 4.6, 5.1, 5.3; Grade 5 – 4.1, 4.3; Grade 6 – 4.2, 4.7; Grade 7 – 4.5, 5.2; Grade 8 – 4.5
99 Percent Club
California produces 99% or more of these 12 commodities that are distributed in the United States. Identify the counties where the commodities are produced. Draw a line from the commodity stamp to the appropriate counties on the map.
Download commodity icons from kids.cfaic.org/wgo6/passport.
Walnuts - San Joaquin, Tulare, Stanislaus
Olives - Tulare, Tehama, Glenn
Almonds - Stanislaus, Kern, Merced
Raisins - Fresno, Madera, Tulare
Clingstone Peaches - Stanislaus, Sutter, Yuba
Persimmons - Fresno, Tulare
Pomegranates - Tulare, Fresno
Rice - Colusa, Sutter, Glenn
Artichokes - Monterey, Riverside, San Benito
Figs - Madera, Merced
Dried Plums - Sutter, Tehama, Glenn
Ladino Clover for Seed - Sacramento, Glenn
Try This Activity
California produces 99% of the nation's dried plums, valued at $130,500,000. What is the value of the remaining 1%?
Standards: Math, Number Sense – Grade 3 – 3, 4, Grade 4 – 1, 2, 7, 8, Grade 5 – 1, 2, 3, 21
Across the Nation Activity
Other than California, which states produce 99% or more of any commodity? Which commodities are grown?
Can you locate any of the 99% California grown commodities in your local newspaper?
Did You Know?
Ladino Clover is grown for pasture. California produces 99% of the seed for the rest of the country.
Source: nass.usda.gov
Germinate or Terminate?
Some substances promote seed growth better than others. Compare these substances as seed sprouting nurseries. Hypothesize which liquids will provide the best environment for the seedlings and write a list of your favorites.
Try This Activity!
Get five sealable bags, five cotton balls (or substitute paper towels or coffee filters) and five of the following substances (or choose some of your own): liquid fertilizer, coffee, lemon juice, shampoo, tap water, vinegar or paint. Soak each cotton ball in a different liquid, then label each one in its own paper bag, put five seeds in each. Observe for one week.
Spuds for your Buds!
Make a flower shop bouquet using a potato, straws and flowers. Lay the potato on its side and stick a few straws into the top of the potato. Fill the straws with water and then place the stems of the flowers inside the straws.
Preparing your Garden Plot
1. Take a clean lid from a peanut butter jar or plastic soup-cup lid.
2. Lay a damp tissue inside the lid.
3. Sprinkle seeds on the area where you want growth to occur. Leave room for small rocks or other items you want to use to perk up your garden. (Use mustard seeds or cress seeds. They are speedy growers and will sprout anywhere as long as they are damp!)
4. Cover the lid with a thick piece of cardboard to block the light and allow seeds to germinate.
5. Check your garden everyday until you see little shoots growing, then you may remove the cardboard. Be sure to continue to keep your tissue damp.
6. Once your seeds have sprouted let them grow by watering your desktop garden regularly. Decorate your gardens with small cars, rocks and even marbles.
Can Plants Grow Without Water?
The ancient Aztecs in Tenochtitlan (present day Mexico) were short of farmland because they were located near a lake, high in a mountainous area. To make up for this problem, they began planting on the tops of rafts called Chinampas. Today, some growers use a method called hydroponics where plants are grown in water and have support from fertilizers but no soil.
Grow!
Kooky Containers
Don’t have room for a garden? Not a problem! You can grow plants inside anything that will hold soil and has holes in the bottom for water drainage. Try some of these alternative garden containers: Tires, Old boots / shoes, Plastic deli containers, Milk cartons / jugs, Hanging latex gloves, Wheelbarrows, Empty cans (soup, coffee, etc.), Old bathtubs, Horse troughs, Buckets.
S.O.S
Save our Soil
Have each of your friends scoop up some soil from different areas and put it into a sealable bag. Compare the different bags. Put each bag of soil to its own jar. Fill to the top with water. Shake. Let it settle. See if you can identify the sand, silt, and clay that makes soil.
In a Hurry?!
These plants will reward you with fast results! Expect to see growth within three weeks. Remember to water, but not over water. Use containers that are at least 6” wide.
Mangos – Scrub hairs off of husk. Dry husk, cut tips off husk. Cut husk open for the seed inside. Soak seed. Plant!
Radishes – Poke tip of finger in soil, place one radish seed in each hole and cover.
Activity
Ecosystem
Recycling! Wet some sheets of newspaper and form them over a small pot until the newspaper is dry. When it dries, pull off the newspaper pot and plant seeds in it. After they sprout, transplant the entire newspaper pot and sprouts directly into the ground!
Standards: English - Language Arts (ELA)
- Grade 3 - Reading 2.1, Writing 1.1, 1.2, 1.3; Reading 2.3b, 2.3c; Listening and Speaking (LS) 2.2b, 2.2c; Grade 6 - Writing 1.1, 2.3b, 2.3c, LS 1.6, 2.6; Science - Grade 4 - Life Sciences 3a, 4.1, 4.2 - Plants - Roots, Stems, Leaves; Grade 1 - Writing 1.6, 1.8; Grade 5 - Reading 2.1, Writing 1.3, Grade 6 - Reading 2.1
Photosynthesis
Process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
\[ 6CO_2 + 12H_2O \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 + 6H_2O \]
Help the plant create oxygen for you to breathe. Label each step of the process to create simple sugars (energy) for the plant.
Standards: Science 3rd - Physical 1.a, 1.i Life Science 3.a, Science 4th - LS 2.a, Science 5th - Physical 1.g, LS 2.6, 2.1, 2.g
Going Whole Hog!
More than Just the Squeal!
Today's pork is as lean as chicken and a healthy choice. A recent study at Purdue University shows that pork has a positive effect on diets, especially with women. Pigs are used for meat and for much more! There are hundreds of products made with pig by-products. Hogs are the source of over 40 medicines and pharmaceuticals!
- Heart valves for heart surgery
- Epinephrine for allergies
- Insulin for diabetes
Can you find a use?
Pig By-products are Found in Many Other Things, too!
Sports and Leisure
Football
Glove
Wallet
In the House
Pig ear dog treat
Buttons
Bone china
Fabric softener
Antifreeze
At School
Glue
Artist brush
Crayons
Chalk
Activity
Recycle your newspaper! Use your paper to make a paper mache piggy bank!
Standards: Visual and Performing Arts – Grade 3 – 2.5
Pigs are monogastric - meaning they are simple-stomached like humans. They primarily consume grain products.
Try This Activity
How Many Hidden Pig By-products Can You Find in the Picture Below? Try to Find all 12!
Across the Nation ...Activity
Which state is the number 1 hog producer?
For the answer, visit kids.claic.org/wgo6/hog.
Source: pork4kids.com
**Words to Grow by**
**Glossary Words**
- **Apiarist** – A beekeeper.
- **Aztec** – A member of a tribe of Indians from Mexico before the Spanish conquest.
- **Biography** – A written account of someone’s life.
- **Biotechnology** – The use of micro-organisms, such as bacteria or yeast, or biological substances, such as enzymes, to perform specific industrial or manufacturing processes.
- **Brood** – The area in a bee hive within the combs in which young bees are reared; the eggs, larvae.
- **By-product** – A part of a commodity used for something other than the commodity’s primary purpose.
- **Chinampas** – A crop or garden floating in water.
- **Commodity** – A transportable resource product with commercial value.
- **Consumer** – Any living thing that depends on the energy stored in other living things for its food supply; individual that purchases and uses goods and services.
- **Cultivate** – Tillage of the soil to promote crop growth after the plant has germinated and appeared above ground.
- **Drone** – A male honey bee that hatches from an unfertilized egg. It is larger than a worker bee, does not gather honey and has no sting.
- **Ethanol** – $C_2H_5OH$; chemical formula blended with gasoline to make gasohol.
- **Fertilizer** – Any natural or manufactured material added to the soil to supply one or more plant nutrients.
- **Harvest** – To cut, reap, pick, or gather any crop or product of value.
- **Hybrid** – A plant or animal resulting from a cross between parents that are genetically unlike.
- **Hypothesize** – An educated guess; to believe especially on uncertain or tentative grounds.
- **Matter** – Material substance that occupies space, has mass and is composed predominantly of atoms.
- **Monogastic** – Refers to an animal that has only one stomach or stomach compartment, such as swine or humans.
- **Nitrogen** – $N_2$; a gas that occurs naturally in the air and soil, where it is converted into usable forms for plant use by bacteria and other natural processes. This nutrient is a constituent of protein and is vital to plant-growing processes.
- **Nutrient** – A substance which favorably affects the nutritive processes of the body.
- **Pasture** – Ground on which such vegetation grows, especially that which is set aside for use by domestic grazing animals.
- **Phosphorus** – $P$, a chemical element found in soil in various mineral forms, but only small amounts are readily available to plant at any one time. It stimulates early growth and root development.
- **Pollination** – The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower; the first step in production of a fruit or seed.
- **Pomace** - Solid matter that is left after olives are crushed and the oil has been removed.
- **Potassium** - $K$; the chemical element, an alkali metal, which occurs widely in minerals.
- **Queen bee** – A fully developed, mated, female bee, larger and longer than a worker bee, whose function is to lay eggs.
- **Reeds** – Any tall, slender plant, usually having coarse and jointed stems, including certain grasses and grass-like plants.
- **Silt** – A textural class of soils.
- **Square dance** – American country dancing in which couples form squares.
- **Stock report** – A resource displaying the purchase and sale of stocks and bonds.
- **Substance** – That which has mass and occupies space.
- **Worker bee** – A female bee, other than the queen, whose organs of reproduction are only partially developed, who gathers nectar and pollen, tends to the brood, brings in water and protects the hive.
---
**Activity**
Choose five words from the glossary. Write the words on numbered lines to the right. Then find each word in the dictionary. After you find a word, write the guide words for that page on the lines.
| Glossary Words | Guide Words |
|----------------|-------------|
| 1.______________ | ____________ ____________ |
| 2.______________ | ____________ ____________ |
| 3.______________ | ____________ ____________ |
| 4.______________ | ____________ ____________ |
| 5.______________ | ____________ ____________ |
**Standards:** ELA - Grade 3 – Reading 2.7, Writing 1.3; Grade 4 – Reading 2.2
---
**Resources:**
Public Broadcasting Services
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bees
National Honey Board
www.honey.com
California Ripe Olives
www.CalOlive.org
Olive Oil Source
www.oliveoilsource.com
Musco Family Olives
www.olives.com
Texas A&M University
http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu
Mission Olive Preservation, Restoration and Education Project
http://www.moprep.org/history.html
Forkmedia LLC
www.globalgourmet.com
Illinois AITC
www.agintheclassroom.org
California Fertilizer Foundation
www.calfertilizer.org
Western Fertilizer Handbook
www.healthyplants.org
California Department of Food and Agriculture
www.cdfa.ca.gov
California Foundation for Agriculture in the Classroom
www.cfaitec.org
Kids Gardening
www.kidsgardening.com
United States Department of Agriculture
www.usda.gov
www.mypyramid.gov
To request a free *What’s Growin’ On?* Teacher’s Supplement that will enhance the use of this newspaper, visit www.cfaitec.org/wgo or call (800) 700-2482.
Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral nutrient in the human body. Nearly 80% of phosphorus in humans is found in bones and teeth. Where do we get phosphorus? From the plants and animals we eat!
Lightning and special bacteria called Rhizobia naturally convert nitrogen into forms that plants can use.
A honeybee has three pairs of legs and four wings and it is the only insect that produces food eaten by humans.
Farmer and ranchers in 2006 received only 19 cents out of every dollar spent on food. The rest went for costs beyond the farm gate: wages and materials for production, processing, marketing, transportation and distribution. In 1980, farmers and ranchers received 31 cents.
The radish is one of the oldest vegetables in the world. No one knows where it originated.
Indians taught the Jamestown settlers how to grow corn in 1609.
Acknowledgements
The California Foundation for Agriculture in the Classroom (CFAITC), a 501(c)(3) nonprofit educational organization, provides educators with low-cost and free materials, training and information to increase student understanding of California agriculture while teaching the core disciplines. Contact CFAITC or www.cfaitc.org for:
- Resources/Lesson Plans
- Story-writing Contest
- Conference Opportunities
- Newsletters
- Web Site (www.cfaitc.org)
- Kids’ Corner (kids.cfaitc.org)
2300 River Plaza Drive
Sacramento, CA 95833
(800) 700-AITC
www.cfaitc.org
Contributing Editor: Katie Reid
Executive Director: Judy Culbertson
Design: Erik Davison, The Fresno Bee
NIE Manager: Kelly Arakelian,
The Fresno Bee
California Foundation for Agriculture in the Classroom
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WQM begins with a flood of activity
The Green Mountain Conservation Group will begin the 2005 Water Quality Monitoring (WQM) season in April. The sampling will take place earlier this year to obtain spring melt data and will continue into October. Throughout the winter, GMCG has also been sampling water at six locations once a month in order to create a broader profile of water quality in the Ossipee Watershed.
Changes to the program were born at a 2004 WQM Steering Committee where stakeholders and experts discussed possible changes and additions to the program and assessed the direction and quality of the data. Many of these new ideas will be applied to the 2005 WQM testing season, including rain gages, storm event sampling, conductivity sampling, deep water sampling, streamside assessments, and GIS mapping of sub-watersheds.
In March, the 2004 data was presented at a community meeting. Jennifer Smith, GMCG Water Quality Coordinator, presented last year’s data and introduced the 2005 upcoming season. Bob Craycraft from the University of New Hampshire (UNH) Cooperative Extension, and Michelle Daley from UNH Natural Resources Department presented analysis of some of the data and discussed long term benefits of the WQM program.
Michelle Daley pointed out that only after years of data collecting will trends appear. She noted that we are only just now observing possible trends as noted by one Ossipee site with elevating sodium and chloride levels. Continued sampling in the Ossipee Watershed will allow us to observe any of these trends as well and use that data to use best management practices in future planning.
GMCG is excited by the enthusiasm shown by the communities in the Ossipee Watershed in support of the water quality program. “We are thrilled by the dedication and enthusiasm of our volunteers and energized by the support of the community. Freedom and Ossipee appropriated money at Town Meeting to support the WQM program. GMCG is very thankful for this support which will help defer the cost of the lab analysis,” said Ms. Smith. The conservation commissions of Sandwich, Tamworth, and Effingham also contributed to the lab costs of this program. GMCG is also grateful to NH Department of Environmental Services, the New Hampshire Charitable Foundation, and Timberland for funding this program. In addition, this program would not be such a success if it were not for the dedicated volunteers who help sample the water.
GMCG began testing the waters of the Ossipee Watershed in 2002 through a partnership with Saco River Corridor Commission (SRCC) in Maine. Through this partnership the RIVERS (Regional Interstate Volunteers for the Ecosystems and Rivers of Saco) program was created. One of the goals was to show that water does not recognize political boundaries. GMCG and SRCC (both part of the greater Saco watershed) tested across twenty six towns, two states and one watershed.
In 2003, GMCG expanded the program to include five new sites in the RIVERS program as well as 14 tributaries on Ossipee Lake—the heart of the Ossipee Watershed.
If you would like to learn more about the program or are interested in a copy of the 2004 WQM report please contact GMCG at 539-1859 or visit the website at www.gmcg.org. Anyone interested in becoming a volunteer water quality monitor or learning more about the WQM program, please contact GMCG’s WQM.
Call today to adopt a site near you!
Watershed Coalition will work with town officials
The Ossipee Watershed Coalition, a two year project hosted by the Green Mountain Conservation Group (GMCG) and funded in part by the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services and the New Hampshire Charitable Foundation was designed to bring Ossipee Watershed residents, businesses and municipal officials together to learn more about the natural resources of the region and to work together to better plan for community development based on protecting these important resources.
Over the next few months Steve Whitman of Jeffrey H. Taylor & Associates will be attending board meetings in the watershed towns with GMCG staff. Steve will be helping municipal officials to identify natural resource related planning projects that they would like to work on. GMCG has some funding available to cover Steve’s time working in each town. If towns would like to pursue additional projects with help from Steve, they can also contract directly with Jeffrey H. Taylor & Associates. Steve can be reached at 536-5037 or by email at firstname.lastname@example.org.
WQM Volunteers at 2005 training day
Freedom Town Meeting supports Trout Pond Town Forest
Editor’s Note: Special Places is a regular feature of the Watershed News, highlighting an historical or cultural resource within the Ossipee Watershed. GMCG continues to endorse the Land and Community Heritage Investment Program (LCHIP), a public-private partnership committed to conservation of New Hampshire’s natural, cultural and historical resources. For more information, on LCHIP call 230-9729, or email www.specialplaces.org.
For nearly four years, the Green Mountain Conservation Group, The Friends of Trout Pond and the Trust for Public Land have been working to conserve the 2650 acre Trout Pond properties in Freedom and Madison. With the appropriation of $100,000 from the Freedom Town Meeting in March, the vision to create a Freedom Town Forest is nearly completed. The Town of Freedom will own and manage the property as a Town Forest and the New Hampshire Department of Resources and Economic Development will hold the conservation easement on the land to insure that it remains a working forest. A Town Forest Committee will oversee stewardship of the tract’s natural resources.
As reported in the Winter 2005 Watershed News, the total cost of the project is $2.3 million. The Trout Pond project recently received $1.2 million in federal funding from the USDA Forest Legacy Program for the purchase of the property as well as $250,000 from the New Hampshire Land and Community Heritage Investment Program grant. The partners have been also conducting extensive fundraising campaign to the private sector as well as to foundations.
The vote at town meeting was an exciting affirmation of the many years of hard work and was also matched by $25,000 from a private foundation. Over the next few months, we need to raise remaining money to purchase and provide for long term management of this property. With your help we can meet these goals. Please consider making a contribution or an additional gift to help us meet our goal by June 1.
Thanks to all who have helped create a Freedom Town Forest that can be enjoyed by generations to come!
Yes, I would like to help conserve Trout Pond!
Tax deductible donations may be made by check or securities payable to Friends of Trout Pond, P. O. Box 259, Freedom, NH 03836. For information regarding donations of securities, please contact Edward Reed at (603) 539-6520 or Charles Depew at 539-6303.
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Spring sounds resonate across the Watershed
BY SUSAN LEE
Bird song is a sure sign of Spring in the Watershed. Of course, birds make sounds during the winter feeding season. Black-capped chickadees call their signature *chick-a-dee-dee-dee*, White-breasted Nuthatches make their *ank ank* sounds, Blue Jays make an assortment of sounds, including realistic imitations of hawks, and Woodpeckers make a sharp *peek* sound as well as drumming on resonant wood. But Spring brings out more sounds and more variety of sounds from our feathered friends.
Birds sounds have a variety of functions. Most birds have both songs and calls. Some birds also make non-vocal sounds such as the woodpecker’s drumming or the Roughed Grouse’s thumping which sounds so much like a motorcycle. A song is typically a loud, complex and often musical utterance made mostly by male birds to declare and defend a breeding territory and to attract females. Females of some species also sing, although their songs are often quieter and less complex than their male partner’s.
While many watershed birds have lovely musical songs, such as the wrens, orioles, tanagers, sparrow and warblers; other birds such as shore birds, owls, mourning doves and woodpeckers also have songs which are different from their calls. Calls are often short simple sounds like the Robin’s metallic *chip* or the squeaky *chit* or *chitt* of the Ruby-throated Hummingbird. Listen for this sound when the sugar water feeder is empty!
Ornithologists and birders talk about different kinds of calls. Contact calls are used between paired birds, or among members of a flock or family group to keep in touch and locate each other. These calls are often given when a bird takes off or lands. The chickadee’s contact note is a simple *tsit*, while the familiar *chick-a-dee, dee, dee* is often used to keep the flock together. Alarm calls signal danger. These calls are short, sharp and recognized by many different species. Chickadee alarm calls given when a hawk flies over are recognized by nuthatches and woodpeckers who freeze at the sound.
While songs are often unique to a species, and are used by expert birders to identify birds that are hidden in tree tops and in dense brush, some watershed species are mimics which have repertoires of dozens if not hundreds of other birds’ songs. Northern Mockingbirds, Brown thrashers, and Catbirds all imitate other birds’ songs.
Mockingbirds are also known to imitate environmental sounds such as machinery, car sounds, human whistling, and barking dogs. It helps in identifying the three major mimics to know that Mockingbirds typically repeat each phrase of its song three times, while Brown Thrasher songs repeat phrases twice and Gray Cat birds have long rambling songs of many different sounds or phrases each used once.
Spring brings contests over territory, often waged in song. In these battles, some birds engage in “counter-singing” where males of the same species alternate songs back and forth. Northern Cardinals, Wood thrushes and Tufted Titmice engage in these vocal duels.
The songs of White-throated Sparrows have been studied extensively. Throughout the Watershed, the sound of *old sam peabody peabody peabody* identifies the White-throated Sparrow. Juvenile White-throats learn their song from other male White-throats. Young birds memorize a general form of the song and then practice to perfect it. In late summer in the Watershed, listen for young birds singing slightly odd variations on the adult song until they get it right. No such practice is needed by Eastern Phoebes who are hatched with the ability to sing both of the fee-bee songs of their species perfectly, and to easily distinguish them from the purer whistled fee-bee of the Chickadee.
As the days lengthen and migrant birds return, listen for these songs and those of the songsters known as warblers, from the *pleased pleased pleased to meet cha* of the Chestnut-sided warbler to the *pines pines murmuring pines* of the Black-throated Green, and the *teacher teacher teacher* of the Ovenbird.
For a more detailed study of the art and science of listening to birdsong, check out *The Singing Life of Birds* by Donald Kroodsma published by Houghton Mifflin (2005).
Susan Lee, GMCG’s regular Watershed Birder columnist, is an avid birder and a longtime resident of the Ossipee Watershed. Share bird sightings or comments with her by e-mail: email@example.com.
Editor’s Note: Conservation Conversations is intended to provide a forum for the Conservation Commissions in the six towns of the Ossipee Watershed to share news of their activities and an opportunity to find creative solutions regarding watershed issues.
Think Locally; Act Watershed.
Effingham
The conservation commission is pleased to report they have received a grant from the NH Moose Plate program for $15,000 to study wetlands in Effingham. Currently, knowledge of wetlands in town is based on old maps and anecdotal data. The USGS topographic map of the town shows an estimated wetland acreage of 2508 acres, yet the National Wetlands Inventory map of the USFWS shows indicates a wetland acreage of 4800 acres. This is different than the Natural Resource Conservation Service (SCS) mapping regime, which shows that approximately 7211 acres of hydric soils and water exists in Effingham. With this grant, the conservation commission with hire a wetland scientist to delineate the wetlands.
Freedom
The Freedom Conservation Commission and the Friends of Trout Pond have recently received a grant from the NH Moose Plate program for $15,000 for the construction of trails and informative kiosks on the Trout Pond land.
Town Meeting appropriated $5000 toward the WQM program. Currently GMCG spends nearly $3000 a year in Freedom sampling water quality. The conservation commission asked town meeting for $5000 to cover the water quality costs in 2004 and 2005.
Thanks to Freedom residents for support.
Madison
The Madison voters approved the wetland buffer zoning amendments and other amendments which would protect steep slopes and wetlands from subdivision development.
Conservation commission members have been assigned to Madison’s 19 major properties and will give stewardship reports yearly. The reports will include survey status, forestry plan development, trail updates, signage, deed restrictions, clean up needs, site visits, deed responsibilities, opportunities for expansion, threats, and identification of wildlife and views.
Jeff Lougee of The Nature Conservancy will meet with the commission in June to give an update on the Chain of Ponds properties. He is also scheduled to lead the Old Homeweek walk in August to introduce the community to this unique land.
The commission is currently busy helping the selectmen formulate a working plan with Madison Forester about cleaning up class VI roads after logging operations.
Ossipee
Forester Rich Girard, presented the Forest Plan to the conservation commission. The properties covered include Sumner Brook the Town Forest, Boulder Hill and Depot Road in Tamworth. Rich spoke extensively about the three properties that make up Sumner Brook. He explained that the large red pine, white pine and pitch pine forest type is on the statewide endangered list. There are also rare wetlands on the property as well as one of the only remaining intact areas of the Ossipee Esker.
The conservation commission submitted a warrant article at Town Meeting asking for $2000 for the water sampling done in Ossipee by GMCG. This passed unanimously. Ossipee is now paying 67% of the cost of this service.
Thanks to the Ossipee residents for support.
Sandwich
The conservation commission recently proposed surveying ponds and wetlands in town for invasive aquatic plants.
NOTE: GMCG would like to extend a special thanks to all the conservation commissions for support towards the Water Quality Monitoring Program and also the Watershed Coalition. Thank you!
Tamworth update
For two years, GMCG and other conservation organizations have been following a proposal to build a motor sports vehicular track in the Ossipee Mountains in Tamworth. The following is a recent update.
On February 17th, the House Municipal & County Government Committee held a hearing in Tamworth on HB 90, the bill to repeal the exemption from local regulation for Club Motorsports Inc (CMI) proposed race track.
On March 9 at Town meeting, Tamworth overwhelmingly approved a sound ordinance, by a vote of 261-142. The ordinance is targeted for “private driving instruction and exhibition facilities” and has the same noise limits that were previously established in Tamworth Race Track Ordinance.
On March 22nd, DES granted CMI a conditional 401 Water Quality Certificate. A potential appeal to the Water Council is under review.
On April 6, the NH House approved HB 90, the bill that would repeal the exemption from Race Track Ordinances for ‘private driving instruction and exhibition facilities.’ This was an unusual and unexpected outcome. Reps. Harry Merrow, David Babson, and others, sponsored HB 90 to repeal RSA 287-G, which last year exempted CMI’s development from local control. The House committee had voted against the bill, but persistent grass roots lobbying, support from NH Municipal Association, and tireless work by Reps. Merrow and Babson helped secure the victory.
On April 12th, the Wetlands Council denied Focus Tamworth’s Appeal of CMI’s Dredge and Fill Permit.
HB 90 moves to the Senate for hearing and debate, sometime in April or early May. Grass roots support will again be needed to complete passage of this bill. See http://www.nhlgc.org or http://www.focustamworth.org/ for details.
GMCG has purchased a new meter for the Water Quality Monitoring (WQM) Program. The meter is a YSI 556 and measures pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and conductivity all at once! Conductivity is a new parameter for the WQM Program.
Conductivity is a measure of water’s ability to conduct electrical current and is an indirect way of measuring the amount of total dissolved salts or dissolved ions (atoms or groups of atoms with a positive or negative charge) in the water, such as sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and nitrate (NO₃). The conductivity sensor consists of two metal electrodes 1.0 cm apart. This sensor is placed in the water and a constant voltage is applied across the electrodes. The current flows through the water and is proportional to the concentration of dissolved salts or ions in the water (the more ions the higher the current which is measured electronically by the meter and reported as a conductivity value). Conductivity is reported in microSiemens/cm (µS/cm).
Both natural and non-natural sources can affect conductivity. The geology of an area can influence conductivity. Limestone leads to higher conductivity because of the calcium and carbonate materials that leach into the water as it flows over. The size of a watershed can determine conductivity. (The bigger the watershed the more soil the water contacts.) Atmospheric input of ions is typically low, except in coastal marine watersheds. There are also a number of pollutants that may increase conductivity, such as wastewater from sewage treatment plants and septic systems, urban runoff from roads, and agricultural runoff. In the Northeast, spring melt is the best time to catch elevated conductivity levels with the increased run-off from snow melt and spring rain. Snow also acts as a sink for dissolved ions such as sodium and chloride when it is applied to roads.
A relatively constant concentration of dissolved ions in the water will better suit the survival of aquatic organisms. Levels too high or even too low may influence survival, reproduction, and/or growth. Not only is the overall conductivity of the water important for water quality, but also the individual dissolved ions that are influencing the conductivity. A high conductivity may indicate the potential for other, more toxic pollutants, which are more expensive to test for.
This is the first year that GMCG will test for conductivity in the Ossipee Watershed. We hope to learn more about the quality of the water with this additional parameter.
“Borders? I’ve never seen one, but I heard that they exist in some people’s minds.” Thor Heyerdhal
As winter retains its icy grip on New England, the Saco River Corridor Commission in Maine is busy gearing up for the start of the 2005 water quality monitoring season. Weather permitting, biweekly water testing begins the week of April 11, and runs through the end of October.
Volunteers and SRCC staff monitor water quality at 27 sites on the Saco, Ossipee and Little Ossipee Rivers. Each site is tested for pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity and temperature. Additionally, phosphorus, nitrogen and *E. Coli* bacteria samples are collected at selected test sites for laboratory analysis.
This year, the SRCC plans to partner with the Carroll County Soil & Water Conservation District (SWCD) in New Hampshire. Expanding the program into New Hampshire and the upper Saco Watershed has long been a goal of the commission. With guidance from the SRCC, Carroll County SWCD will test in the vicinity of the confluence of the Saco and Swift Rivers.
This is a huge step forward…the ultimate goal being to set up a coordinated water quality monitoring program that extends from the headwaters of the Saco River in New Hampshire all the way to the river’s mouth along the Maine seacoast. After all, rivers, fisheries and water pollution don’t pay attention to arbitrarily drawn state boundaries on a map!
Jeff Stern is the Water Quality Program Director at the Saco River Corridor Commission (SRCC) in Cornish, Maine. SRCC is made up of 20 towns from Fryeburg to Saco, Maine. GMCG has been partnering with the SRCC on the Water Quality Monitoring Program since 2001. Please visit their website at www.srcc-maine.org.
Maple season: New England goldrush
BY PETER POHL
Making maple syrup can be a fun activity for the family or a serious seasonal business for the many Maple Syrup producers in New Hampshire. A successful season can result in the statewide production of about 90,000 - 100,000 gallons of syrup. An average season ranges between 70,000 - 90,000. Vermont is a major producer of syrup producing over 400,000 gallons of this liquid gold in a good year. April 1st marked completion of another season. No one can really predict in advance what type of season it will be. Mother nature is in charge with success directly related to the weather conditions which require cold nights in the teens and low 20's and warm days up in the 40's for the sap to run. Usually, the season begins sometime in February and can extend into the first week of April depending upon your location in the state and the aspect of your sugar bush. Southern facing slopes run earlier compared to northern facing slopes that run later into the season. The peculiar weather pattern this year resulted in a much shorter season with fewer runs and consequently less production compared to a good year. Some people compare the maple syrup season to the ski season. This was particularly true when most ski slopes did not have snow making equipment. People used to say if you get one excellent season out of five in the ski industry you were doing well. The odds have improved with snow making capability but this rule of thumb still holds true within the maple syrup industry.
One of the frequently asked questions is, how does the sap in a tree without leaves run up hill? There have been lots of theories but the one that makes the most sense and is widely accepted is due to the anatomy of the tree and the critical weather conditions that are needed. The tree is made of cells which consist of cellulose and air spaces as well as sap. In the winter the sap freezes. During the first signs of spring, the warm weather thaws the frozen sap so it becomes liquid. Meanwhile the air in the cells has contracted due to the extreme winter cold. Once the tree warms up, the sap thaws and the air in the cells expand. This expanded air acts like a piston pump and if you create a hole in the tree the liquid sap is forced out the hole you have created by the expanding air. The moment the weather turns colder during, the air in the cells begins to contract and the sap stops to flow.
Another question asked is how many gallons of sap does it take to produce a gallon of syrup? This answer is directly related to the per cent sugar content of the sap which can vary from year to year. The rule of thumb is to take the per cent sugar content measured with a sap hydrometer or a sugar refractometer and divide that into the number 86. If your sugar content is 2%, you need 43 gallons of sap to make one gallon of syrup. If the content was 3% you will only have to boil 28.6 gallons of sap for one gallon of syrup. In general, for every four taps set out about one gallon of syrup is produced.
You can safely place one tap hole in trees ranging in size from 12 inches to 19 inches in diameter. Trees over 19 can have two taps. Recent guidelines suggest a limit of two taps per tree. Tap holes should be staggered along the trunk of the tree at least 8 inches away from previous years tap holes and not directly in line. A healthy tree will callous over a tap hole in about two years. Around each tap hole an area of dead tissue develops which is about three inches long and one and a half inches wide thus it is important not to over tap a tree and to stagger the holes.
When you go to purchase this delectable product and you agonize over the cost, consider what the process involves and the investment in the specialized equipment. Local maple syrup is really a bargain.
For information on how to tap a few trees and produce your own syrup, contact Peter W. Pohl UNH Cooperative Extension Educator, Forest Resources at 75 Main Street, P.O. Box 860, Center Ossipee, N.H. 03814 or phone 539-3331 or e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org.
Forecast
The forecast called for snow, further south; The real storm would start in earnest at ten. But at nine, in Eppingham, flakes did fall, Like bits of fine dust drifting in sky.
I tugged a wool hat over ears and tucked A scarf against my neck to beat back The blue-black cold inside my Chrysler Dodge. I turned off Town House Road, hard right And headed south on route 153, The short-cut, the long dark road through woods.
When wind and snow began to whirl, my car Plunged and twisted blindly into night; I knew Out there, somewhere in watershed, Salmon River, Cold River, too, crawled over stones While Lake Province groaned beneath black ice; Somewhere ahead, past Wakefield, home...
Unlike brave Onchorhynchus, downstream I drifted, headlights stabbing land and snow. Out of the night darted miniature birds, Cold, frightened flock, perversely heading North in winter night. No, not wild birds, But small white fish, escaping trawls, Under cover of darkness, seeking safe harbor Under Green Mountain; maybe, Lord’s Hill; Seeking a writer who’d raise them to life. Not just in lore, but the deep dream of sea.
*****
In morning’s hard sunlight I sought To find sea-glass in pebbly sand. (A mechanical custom of mine at the beach.) Head down, I walked the shingle, yet blocked The grinding moon, the wave-angry ocean, Snarling, like a wild beast crouched off-shore. A shard of glass glinted, a fetal-shaped piece, Like a fossilized fish, annealed and aborted From the cold kiln of sea; I had to bow; I pawed this talisman, picked up this jewel. Against darkness of hand the white glass gleamed, Winked a grim warning, and seared my numb flesh.
Norm Walker
February, 2005
Norm Walker is high school football coach and English teacher at Holderness School. His poems have been published in the “Pucker Brain” Review”, and in a volume titled “Teacher” published by Holderness. Norm was a featured writer at Writer’s Night at the Eppingham Public Library on February 3rd. His journey on the long road home in the snowy dark through our local landmarks and waters inspired this poem. Norm Walker is the father of eight children, he and his wife live in Rye, NH.
Spring Calendar
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 20TH GREEN MOUNTAIN CONSERVATION GROUP will meet with the Madison Planning Board and Conservation Commission and host an informative discussion with Steve Whitman, environmental planner with Jeff Taylor and Associates. This is part of the Ossipee Watershed Coalition, a two year project funded in part by the NH Department of Environmental Services and the New Hampshire Charitable Foundation. GMCG has limited funding to hire Whitman to work with individual towns in the six-town Watershed and assist local boards with a priority planning project related to natural resource based planning. At this meeting, GMCG and Whitman will be working with the Planning Board and the Conservation Commission about a natural resource based project that they would like to work on in 2005. *Madison Public Library, Madison 7-9 p.m.* Other meetings include:
MONDAY MAY 2 Effingham Conservation Commission *Effingham Town Offices, Effingham 7 p.m.*
TUESDAY, MAY 17TH Freedom Selectmen, Planning Board, Conservation Commission. *Freedom Town Offices, Freedom 7 p.m.*
SATURDAY MAY 14TH Wonalancet Outdoor Club Spring Trail Clean-up and potluck BBQ. Wonalancet. Contact Chris Conrad at 284-6686.
SATURDAY, JULY 23 & 24 WATERSHED WEEKEND: NATURAL RESOURCE PLANNING. The weekend will include lectures and panel discussions on Natural Resource based Planning; guided hikes in the Ossipee Pine Barrens; narrated pontoon boat and canoe trips on Ossipee Lake; display booths and educational presentations focused on environmental planning. GMCG will also be hosting workshops for Municipal Officials on how to incorporate natural resource based planning into the master plans and ordinances. Key note speakers will include environmental planners Sarah James and Steve Whitman. Watch for the Summer 2005 Newsletter for more details. *Camp Calumet, Freedom, 1-9 p.m.*
THIRD THURSDAY OF THE MONTH—Effingham Writers Night. Poets, writers, readers and listeners are invited to attend a Writer’s Night at the Effingham Public Library on the third Thursday of the month. The Effingham Public Library is located at 30 Townhouse Road in Effingham. For more information, contact: Marilyn O’Kelly at 539-1537 or [email@example.com](mailto:firstname.lastname@example.org)
For more information please contact GMCG (603) 539-1859 or visit us on the web at: www.gmcg.org
Your Membership Will Make a Difference.
Please Renew Today!
(Please make checks payable to Green Mountain Conservation Group P.O. Box 95, Effingham, NH 03882)
| Raindrop $10 | Puddle $15 | Vernal Pool $25 | Stream $50 | River $75 |
|-------------|-----------|-----------------|-----------|----------|
| (student membership) | Pond $100 | Lake $250 | Aquifer $500 | Other |
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April 1
April 1st the river opens
gray skies obscure and dim
the crevice between the seasons
We think it slow and gradual
the melting emergence
-But Dawn brings great waves of rain
Bursting into spaces
held long in frozen frames
of winter’s icy reach.
Spring is all motion and movement
Last year’s rotting leaf
Feeds the budding growth.
Spring is violet crocus petals
bursting crusts of snow
one perfect April day
It is time.
Katie Remmetter 4-2-05
Save the Date!
Watershed Weekend 2005
July 23 & 24
Natural Resource Planning
Keynote address by
Steve Whitman & Sarah James
Camp Calumet, Freedom
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Daigoku-mon Gate
Daigoku-mon Gate was the main gate of Daiichiji Daigokuden-in (Former Imperial Audience Hall Compound), located on the south side of the compound. The compound was approximately 317.7 m north to south and approximately 176.6 m east to west, and was surrounded by a roofed mud wall corridor. The emperor would sometimes make an appearance here at ceremonies.
The gate is a reconstructed two-story gate built with foundation stones as a result of excavation and research. The gate has a width of 22.1 m, a depth of 8.8 m and a height of approximately 20 m. This makes it a slightly smaller structure than Suzaku-mon Gate (main gate of the Nara palace site). Nevertheless, ornamental metal fittings have been fitted to the tips of all the rafters. The ornamental metal fittings are fixtures which are applied to important structures. More parts of this gate were fitted with fittings than Suzaku-mon Gate. That gives it a rank equivalent to Daiichiji Daigokuden (Former Imperial Audience Hall).
Moreover, the foundation stone stylabates and ridge-end tile lotus flower patterns have also been restored to a high-ranking structure conforming to Daiichiji Daigokuden (Former Imperial Audience Hall).
Was it called Daigoku-mon Gate at that time? It is not possible to find that gate name in any written materials. Accordingly, it has been named Daigoku-mon Gate based on case studies of palaces in Japan and China. This has been written on the plaque hung over the gate.
■Overview of the Structure
Construction period: November 2017 to March 2022
Structure: Wooden five-column and three-entrance two-story gate
Structure area: 449.81 m²
Total floor area: 195.68 m²
Maximum height: Approx. 20 m from the surface of the ground to the top of the ridge-end tiles
Height of the eaves: Approx. 14 m from the surface of the platform
■Main Finishes
Base exterior: Rhyloline welded tuff (Tatsuyama stone)
Foundation stone: Natural stone granite
Wooden painting: Red soil, white chalk and verdigris coating
Wall: Plaster finishing
Roof: Hip-and-gable tiled roofing
Metal fittings: Made of bronze
■Reconstruction Work Process
| 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 |
|------|------|------|------|------|------|
| Order, contract, preparations and construction plan | Lumber arrival ceremony and ceremony first cutting | Foundation work | Protective scaffolding work | Ridge-end tile manufacturing | Work floor removal and protective scaffolding slide (transfer) |
| Luster inspection and natural drying → Rough finishing | Full-scale drawings, template production, wood processing and assembly | Pillar erection ceremony | First uppermost opening | Second uppermost opening | Completion unveiling ceremony |
Fukugenjigyō-Johokan (Information Center for Reconstruction Project of the Former Imperial Audience Hall Compound)
Exhibits on ancient carpentry techniques, tools, etc used in the reconstructions including Daigokumon-Gate. 2 minutes walk from Daigokumon-Gate
Opening hours: 9:00~17:00 (last admission at 16:30)
Closed on second Monday (closed on the day after if a holiday) in Feb., Apr., Jul., and Nov., and between December 29 and January 1
Admission: Free
Inquiries
Heijōkyū Historical Site Management Center
3-5-1 Nijo-Oji-Minami, Nara 630-8012
URL: https://www.heijo-park.jp
Tel: 0742-36-8780
ASUKA HISTORICAL NATIONAL GOVERNMENT PARK OFFICE
Tel: 0742-36-4327
Published in February 2023
Daigoku-mon Gate Reconstruction Research
Excavations
The Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties carried out excavations here in 1973, 2005 and 2017. It was not possible to confirm the position of the pillars. However, ground reinforcement for the platform (foundation) under the structure, stones covering the sides of the platform (exterior), remains of the steps and a gutter to catch rainwater falling down the roof (rainwater gutter) were detected. The size of the platform and steps were ascertained from those clues.
Positioning of the Pillars
The clues obtained from the excavations were the size of the platform and steps and the rainwater gutter. The platform of Daigoku-mon Gate is characterized by having a relatively large proportion in terms of depth with respect to the frontage. The position of the pillars was restored based on that information after verifying in an integrated manner the shape and depth of the roof (protrusion of the eaves) and the superstructure of the structure such as the bracket complexes on the pillars in addition to analyzing written materials, pictorial materials, similar cases of excavations and existing ancient structures.
Shape of the Gate
The written documents revealed it is highly likely that Kofukuji Nandai-mon Gate was a two-story gate with a lower roof and an upper roof from the first half of the Nara period (710 to 794). It was also found that all ancient two-story gates had at least five columns. Furthermore, the pictorial documents depict most of the two-story gates being gabled roof structures. Daigoku-mon Gate was reconstructed as a gabled roof two-story gate taking into consideration the era, its size and its position in the compound as a result of other case studies.
Inheritance of Traditional Skills
Wood Craftsmen
The gate was built using traditional architectural techniques – from the selection of the wood to the preparation of the full-scale drawings and templates, processing, finishing with a choma (adze) and a yari-gawa (spear plane) and assembly.
Stone Artisans
Granite produced in Shiga Prefecture was used as the column base stones while Tatsuyama stone tuff from Hōden in Hyogo Prefecture was used as the exterior of the platform. These stones were carefully cut, processed and installed.
Painting Artisans
The structure was painted with a traditional technique in which the pigments and glue are mixed on-site using reddish-brown clay, green verdigris and white chalk paints.
Wall Craftsmen
Plasterers are craftsmen who finish the coating of the walls and floors with soil and plaster using trowels and other tools. This was a time-consuming six-step process from the undercoating to the final plaster coating.
Tile Craftsmen
The tiles were made one-by-one using a modern tile-making method after restoring ancient tile-making techniques. It was roofed with traditional and high-class hipped tiled roofing.
Ridge-end Tile Artisans
Bronze was cast after undergoing the stages of clay mold, plaster mold, FRP mold and sand mold divided into four parts. The surface was lacquered with gold leaf. This ornamental ridge-end tile is called shibai.
Metal Artisans
The ornamental metal fittings are made of bronze. The same technique as for the Great Buddha of Nara was employed for the amalgam plating used in some places for the finishing (superior mercury after applying mercury in which gold had been dissolved).
Plaque Craftsmen
The plaque was shaped with a yari-gawa (spear plane). The lettering was colored with painting materials. The background was painted after the area around the letters was carved with a choma. The shape of the surrounding frame is basically the same as Daigokuden (Imperial Audience Hall). | 1f7bd497-05e2-46cb-a145-b879c264d55c | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://www.heijo-park.jp/cms/wp-content/uploads/5e5553f555b3c4980618425a1f6d1c72.pdf | 2024-05-26T12:58:04+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058876.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20240526104835-20240526134835-00246.warc.gz | 683,862,834 | 1,612 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.992619 | eng_Latn | 0.996201 | [
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Editorial
We are all familiar with the beautiful image of the Earth seen from space - the globe with its deep blue seas, brown-green continental masses wrapped around with wispy vortices and streamers of cloud. Seen from this lofty perspective our planet is like an alchemist's retort or flask, alternately warmed by the sun's rays and cooled by the darkness of space.
The solid crust of the Earth (which is itself alive with plate-tectonic movements over a time scale of millions of years) bears a thin etheric layer of life, the plant and animal kingdoms, and an atmospheric aura that extends over 80 miles into space, becoming more and more tenuous with altitude. This atmospheric aura is composed of many layers: the Troposphere or layer we live within; above that, the Stratosphere, the Mesosphere and Ionosphere (above 60 miles where it is so thin that the atmospheric pressure is only one millionth of its value at sea level).
Around 15 to 30 miles up, at the base of the Stratosphere, is the so-called Ozone layer, a subtle blanket composed of a special type of molecule of oxygen. Although this Ozone layer has been known for many years, ever since the sampling of the upper atmosphere by balloons and rockets, only in recent years has its vital importance become recognised. For the molecules of ozone in this layer absorb the ultraviolet component of the sun's rays, effectively...
shielding all living things from being exposed to high levels of this damaging radiation. (Ultraviolet light is so injurious to organisms it is used to sterilise laboratory and surgical equipment.)
In the past two years a large hole (greater in area than that of North America) has been detected in the ozone layer over the South Pole and another has recently been noted at the North Pole. The ozone layer is normally thinnest at the equator and thickest at the poles, so the existence of these holes is extremely worrying.
Early commentators on this phenomenon suggested that even if these holes grew and the ozone layer over the whole of the Earth became depleted, then the increased ultraviolet exposure would only result in a few extra cases of human skin cancer. However, more informed studies now indicate that real irreversible damage could be done to the environment and the sensitive balance of the food chain itself could be disrupted. For example, the plankton, the micro-organisms living in the surface layers of the world's oceans, which form the basis of the oceanic food chain, are unable to thrive in high levels of ultraviolet light. It is also known that agricultural crops are adversely affected by increased levels of this UV radiation.
The main cause of the depletion of ozone in the upper atmosphere is the release of chlorofluorocarbons (used as a propellant in aerosol cans, for example) into the atmosphere. These compounds do not occur naturally but must be created by the chemical industry (it requires a substantial input of energy to create the chlorine and fluorine-to-carbon bonds in these molecules). At ground level these are harmless inert substances (which is partly why they were used in aerosol cans) but in the special conditions of the high tenuous atmosphere, 20 miles up, they catalyse and encourage reactions which break down ozone molecules.
The mechanism that the Earth has evolved for replacing ozone is very slow, and as hundreds of millions of tons of chlorofluorocarbons have been released to date and each year a whole industry thrives on continuing to produce these substances, the chemicals win hands down against the subtle ozone layer. This layer is a so very tenuous and subtle envelope of the Earth, that if we imagine taking the ozone layer and bringing it to sea level at normal atmospheric pressure, it would be a mere 1/8th of an inch thick.
Regrettably, though the problem has been identified, governments and industrialists refuse to tackle the continuing production of these ozone poisons that have created the first tear in the ozone blanket. (Even though adequate substitutes can be found for chlorofluorocarbons, only North America and a handful of environmentally aware nations have so far banned their use in aerosols.
These people lack the vision of the alchemists who can look on the Earth planet as a retort, a flask set in space, enlivened by the warmth of the sun. The alchemists knew that to complete their work, and nourish the living process in their flask, they must keep their vessel hermetically sealed. They constantly checked the security of the walls of their flask. Like the glass walls of the alchemist's retort the ozone layer is only 1/8th of an inch thick (in terms of normal atmospheric pressure), and already holes have been made at the poles.
The flask of the Earth is now unsealed, and we remain ignorant of what may come from this.
Alan McLean
Myself and the Hermetic Research Trust are now installed in 6 Canonbury Place. As I had to divert much of my time and energy over the past month or so into the move, the routine chores of bookbinding, making up book orders, as well as the production of this issue of the Journal were inevitably disrupted and delayed. Over the next month or two things should gradually get back to normal. Most of the essential work, building bookcases and storage spaces and setting up the equipment has been completed, though much remains to be done in reorganising my workplace to the new surroundings. The building itself will require substantial restoration, though thankfully I am not directly involved in this, however, it will probably mean that its opening as a functioning conference centre will not take place till later this year. In the meantime my work will continue as before. I would be delighted to meet some of the Journal subscribers from the London area, however, do telephone me first at 01 226 0774. In the longer term I hope to find from among the Journal subscribers a group of people who might be able to help me in my work, even an afternoon a month helping collate the pages of a book, or typing out articles, or making up parcels on a regular basis would be of great assistance.
Intensive Weekend on Practical Alchemy
From Friday April 1st to Monday April 4th 1988, an intensive weekend on practical alchemy will be held in Kentish Town, London. The course will be led by Jack Glass, formerly a student of Frater Albertus, who has considerable experience of practical alchemical work. During the weekend he will demonstrate the preparation of the Herbal Stone, the Oil of Egg, and will show methods for preparing the Tincture of Antimony.
I am informed that there are only a few places left on this course, so I would advise anyone wishing to attend to contact the organiser John Fitzpatrick of the Martinist Digest on 01 346 3193 as soon as possible. The cost is £40. A number of subscribers to the Journal have signed up for this weekend, and I am hoping to be able to find time to attend. There are few opportunities for instruction in practical alchemical laboratory work, so anyone wishing to know more about this area should consider attending. I hope to have a full report in a future issue of the Journal.
On the 4th of January 1594, Simon Forman records that 'I dremed howe I was in a place wher too men were readinge in a booke of the philosophers stone, and I sett in talke with them and toke the boke to expound it unto them. And that daie being between ten and eleven of the cloke, cam a strange man that dwelt at the gren dragon at holborn conduit and brought me this bocke and another lyttle bocke of notes of Astronomy to sell and I bought them'.
Simon Forman was a contemporary of Shakespeare and he belongs to the world of the small time Elizabethan alchemist, who dreamt of producing the philosopher's stone, of actual physical transmutation of metals, or of the elixir of life and health, the mystic panacea of all ailments. Forman was no scientist, no intellectual: he was harried and harassed by the Royal College of Physicians for illicit practice of medicine and when interrogated by this powerful medical monopoly, he was found wanting even in the elements of astrology, which was the basis for his medical practice. In assessing the alchemical tradition it is necessary to strike a balance between some of the great men who figure in the alchemical tradition, men like Newton, Van Helmont or Paracelsus, and the smaller practitioners like Thomas Charnock, Edward Kelly or Arthur Dee (the remarkable son of Dr John Dee), or Simon Forman.
Alchemy has increasingly been rescued from the twilight world of modern scholarship, as it has emerged that alchemists exerted a tremendous influence on science and society, especially upon the evolution of medicine. Forman belongs to a class of astrologer-alchemists, most of whom may be classed with the
Paracelsian movement of the 16th century. They followed the more or less popularised writings of Theophrastus Paracelsus, arguing that the old classical Galenist medicine was hopelessly impractical and scholastic, and that the 'new medicine' must build upon foundations of astrology and alchemy. The Paracelsians were a vigorous and vituperative movement, and a number of court physicians in Europe espoused the cause: men like Peter Severinus, Royal physician to the King of Denmark. But the movement also attracted charlatans and quacks with a penchant for gold-making alchemy, and there were fierce attacks upon their reliability in medicine.
Modern scholarship recognises the Paracelsian movement as a vital aspect of the scientific revolution of the 16th century, and Paracelsus himself is no longer to be dismissed as a hopeless occultist or 'bombastic' opponent of academic medicine. In general it has become necessary to recognise the occult and Hermetic influences upon the genuinely scientific notions and investigations of the 16th and 17th centuries. It is no longer possible to drive a wedge between the occult superstition of alchemical and astrological traditions and the rationalism and empiricism of what we recognise as science. Thus we are now confronted with the supreme paradox of Newton's alchemical and chronological studies. A man like the Elizabethan Dr John Dee provides a classic illustration of the problem of dividing science from superstition. Dee was a formidable mathematical scholar with a vast scientific library of some 3,000 books, yet he delved deeply into the worlds of astrology, natural magic, alchemy and angel magic.
In seeking to find a viable interpretation of the alchemical tradition we need to recognise a complex tangle of problems. It is easy to see that alchemy animated the studies of Dr Carl Gustav Jung during the latter part of his life, and Jungian alchemical scholarship has made a stalwart contribution to resurrecting the subject from the shadows, but we need also to add a note of caution in accepting hook, line and sinker, the Jungian view. Jung tends to reject out of hand the experimental aspect of the tradition, but we know that Newton spent many hours labouring at the furnace. There were many notable alchemical laboratories: Thomas Norton of Bristol had a fine laboratory in the 15th century; John Dee and Heinrich Khunrath had laboratories in the 16th century. Maria Prophetissa, whose date is impossible to determine, stands at the outset of the Hellenistic tradition and she provided expert guidance on constructing alchemical apparatus. Thus the practical, experimental aspect of alchemy must be recognised.
The other side which Jungians tend to neglect is the popular
alchemy represented by men like Simon Forman and Thomas Charnock, both Elizabethan adepts. Popular alchemists exhibit a marvellous confusion of motivation and character. Jung tends to dismiss the gold-making pretensions of alchemists, yet there can be no doubt at all that from its earliest inception, the western alchemical tradition encouraged the belief that base metals could indeed be transmuted into gold — Chinese, Indian and oriental alchemy were concerned less with metallic transmutation, and more with the creation of elixirs of life and physical vitality and these traditions are strongly linked with spiritual and physiological yoga. Hellenistic alchemists were preoccupied with tinctures and elixirs for transmuting metals, and Islamic alchemists gave tremendous impetus to belief in transmutation with their Sulphur-Mercury theory of the generation of metals. Prestigious philosophers like Dr John Dee encouraged greedy noblemen to patronise their research and legends like that of Nicholas Flamel and his wife, the 14th century alchemists supposed to have achieved transmutation, never died.
Popular alchemy thrived on a bewildering concoction of half-baked scientific theory, mixed with myths, dreams, visions and images from the rich symbolic repertoire of the ancient adepts. Thus it becomes very difficult to distinguish a genuine, gnostic, mystical tradition of religious alchemy from the popular world of the charlatan, the gold-making adept and dupe. The vitality of the tradition was continuously enhanced by popular poetry of the type which Thomas Charnock produced. The poem on the 'Huntyng of the Grene Lyon' by the Vicar of Maldon, who remains anonymous, is a classic example [See Betty Jo Dobbs, *The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy*, Cambridge University Press, 1975.]:
This Lyon maketh the Sun sith soone
To be joined to hys Sister the Moone:
By way of wedding a wonderous thing,
Thys Lyon should cause hem to begett a King:
And tis as strange that thys Kyngs food,
Can be nothing but thys Lyons Blood
And tis as true that thys is none other,
Than ys it the Kings Father and Mother.
The imagery of the poem is the time-honoured myth of the alchemical tradition whose roots lie in the confused syncretistic cult religions of the Hellenistic Egyptians. The mystic marriage, the 'coniunctio' of Sun and Moon, of Sol and Luna, brother and sister, is portrayed in countless alchemical illustrations from medieval
manuscripts, or from lavish printed books of alchemical emblems, popular during the early 17th century. The King is Sol, the Sun god, being the classic symbol for Gold, the Lord of all metals, symbol of eternity and radiance: one text popular in the Middle Ages bears the title *Splendor Solis*.
Hunting the full meaning of the 'grene Lyon' poem would involve us in a long exploration of alchemical symbolism, or of the type undertaken in Jung's great volume the *Mysterium Coniunctionis* (Vol. 14, Collected Works). The influence of the genre of popular alchemical poems upon English literature may well have been underestimated by scholars. Elias Ashmole collected a rich volume of such poetry in his carefully prepared work, *Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum* (1652). Long before this work appeared, English poetry began to show alchemical influences. Unlike Ben Jonson, Shakespeare has little to say about alchemy in his plays, but consider this sonnet, with its deep alchemical allusion to distillation:
**Sonnet V:**
For never-resting time leads summer on
To hideous winter, and confounds him there;
Sap check'd with frost, and lusty leaves quite gone,
Beauty o'ersnow'd and bareness everywhere:
Then, were not summer's distillation left,
A liquid prisoner pent in walls of glass,
Beauty's effect with beauty were bereft,
Nor it, nor no resemblance what it was:
But flowers distill'd, though they were with winter meet,
Lesse but their show; their substance still lives sweet.
The concept is marvellously subtle, of the distillate of summer's beauty, preserved in a prison of glass. The theme of the relentless march of the seasons, from summer to winter, reminds us of the endless ramifications of the themes of death and resurrection in alchemy, which Jung has so lavishly explored and documented. There is also much use of the imagery of gardens and flowers in alchemy: especially the white and the red rose. The famous alchemical treatise attributed to Arnald of Villanova was called the 'Rose-garden of the Philosophers' (*Rosarium Philosophorum*).
There were a number of important and popular treatises dedicated to the subject of distillation of medicines, notably that of Jerome of Brunswick and the famous 'Treasury of Euonymus' by the great Swiss
naturalist Conradt Gessner of Zurich. These works contributed to the English Paracelsian movement of the later 16th century, which encouraged tremendous popular interest in alchemical methods and materials in pharmacy and medicine.
There is in fact a good case for arguing that this remarkable sonnet was directly inspired by alchemical verses, perhaps by those of the Tudor adept Thomas Charnock, whose long epic verses upon the subject of the alchemical dragon may well have been known to Shakespeare. From its earliest inception, the alchemical tradition was concerned with the strange elusive phenomenon of mercury, the liquid metal which is so volatile under a mild heat. As a metal, mercury was normally obtained from its sulphide ore cinnabar, by roasting and distillation. In the alchemical tradition, Mercury became the centre of a whole network of myth-images and the serpent, dragon or ouroboros of the Hellenistic alchemists represents none other than mercury, as universal principle and symbol of all-pervading unity in the cosmos. It seems more than likely that Shakespeare was in fact thinking of these lines from Charnock's fascinating hymn to the alchemical dragon:
Souldiers in armour bright
Should not have kylled me in fyelde of fighte,
Mr Charnock neither for all his philosophie
Iff by pryson and famye he had not famysshed me.
'Salomon the wyse' used a tomb of brass as a prison, but the dragon was 'shut upp in a dungeon of glasse' by the alchemist. The dragon languishing in his prison, dies in his own blood, to be resurrected as the 'Elixir of great price'. Explicit allusions to alchemy are not easy to find in the Sonnets but the general theme of the march of time, of youth, beauty, death and regeneration are classic alchemical themes.
Where Shakespeare's explicit allusions to alchemy are surprisingly sparse, John Donne makes much play on alchemical imagery. He provides us with a richer mine of alchemical allusions, and his verse shows how the mythology of the adepts has percolated into the poetic imagination. *Loves Alchymie* suggests the sceptical, satirical view of the alchemist's fruitless labours at the furnace, in quest of the ultimate delusion. Love is a mine, and there are those who claim to have found 'where his centrique happiness doth lie'. But for Donne this remains but a 'hidden mysterie':
Oh, 'tis imposture all:
And as no chymique yet th' Elixar got,
But glorifies his pregnant pot,
If by the way to him befall
Some odiferous thing, or med'cinall,
So, lovers dreame a rich and long delight,
But get a winter-seeming summers night.
Here again we get the seasonal imagery which is so overpowering in Shakespeare's reflections on time, youth and death in the sonnets. One is reminded of the alchemical story of Albertus Magnus, who is said to have made a garden bloom in the depths of winter. The alchemical opus went through stages of decay and dying; the success of the opus was symbolised by flowers, trees blossoming forth.
Deeper intimations of the real meaning of the esoteric alchemical philosophy which was in vogue at this time, are to be found in 'A Nocturnall upon S. Lucies day, Being the shortest day'. We have to bear in mind that the sun symbolises gold, the Lord of metals as also of the planets, being radiant and incorruptible. The sinking of the Sun's radiance involves a redemption of the dark, corrupt materiality of the elemental world:
Study me then, you who shall lovers bee
At the next world, that is, at the next Spring:
For I am every dead thing,
In whom love wrought new Alchimie.
For his art did expresse
A quintessence even from nothingnesse,
From dull privations, and leane emptiness;
He ruin'd mee, and I am re-begot
Of absence, darknesse death; things which are not.
Jung has provided abundant evidence that, although many adepts were charlatans, the deeper message of alchemy was one of spiritual redemption and rebirth. The Philosophers' Stone was equated with the figure of Christ the Redeemer and Saviour of the world, and the esoteric teaching of alchemy concerned divine revelation and prophecy of the Last Judgement. Jung quotes a long passage from Petrus Bonus of Ferrara, whose *Pretiosa Margarita Novella* (New Pearl of Great Price) was a very popular alchemical work of the medieval period. Bonus was aware of this esoteric teaching about the end of the world, interpreted in alchemical terms.
Thus poetry leads us into the rich world of alchemical symbolism and mythic gnosis. Poetic minds like that of John Donne could hardly neglect such a prominent tradition, with its deep symbolism and imagery. One of the best writers on metaphysical alchemy was Thomas Vaughan, who was himself a poet and the twin brother of the metaphysical poet Henry Vaughan. It seems not unreasonable to suggest that an alchemical message underlies the Sonnets of Shakespeare with their preoccupation with time and redemption. Certainly Shakespeare’s rather eclipsed contemporary Ben Jonson was well versed in the ancient alchemical tradition, for his magnificent play *The Alchemist* is rich in really authentic alchemical language and lore.
My most grateful thanks are due to John and Barbara Wanklyn for their kind help and generous encouragement and to Mrs Willmott of Abingdon for her generosity with books – J.M. Haeffner.
Kabbalistic Cosmology and its parallels in the 'Big-Bang' of Modern Physics
Adam McLean ©
In earlier articles I have tried to point out the links between hermetic and alchemical ideas and the developing current of thought in modern physics and cosmology. In this present piece I would like to pursue the strange parallels between the late 16th century reformation of kabbalistic cosmology that arose through the insights of Isaac Luria, and the recent reformulation of the 'big-bang' into the so-called 'inflationary model' of cosmic creation. Although the formulation of these two cosmologies was separated by some 400 years, we can recognise that they addressed the same problem, that of the emanation of the cosmos out of nothing.
Before Luria the main stream of kabbalistic ideas arose from the centres in Spain. From the Gerona school emerged the main statement of ideas on the sephiroth, while Moses de Leon put together the Zoharatic writings. This stream of mystical cosmology arose out of intuitive perceptions, and the writings of this period tend to be obscure and clouded in allusion rather than being deeply argued philosophical works. They derived their authority by appealing to interpretation of hidden wisdom in the canonical books of the Jewish tradition, the Pentateuch and Torah, rather than consistent argument. Thus, during this period it was assumed that the sephiroth and the layers, strata or worlds that made up the cosmos, emanated in some way directly from the Ein-Sof – the limitless being of the deity. There were, however, certain philosophical and theological contradictions in this simplistic emanation that were glossed over by the earlier kabbalists until Luria faced up to these problems, restructured the cosmology and resolved many of these paradoxes.
Similarly, the earliest formulation of the 'big-bang' theory (first
named in this way by astrophysicist Fred Hoyle in 1950) which pictured the universe as emerging or emanating from a single cosmic event, was flawed. If one followed its mathematical descriptions fully through to their conclusions it described states of affairs that did not correspond to reality. In particular it could not adequately account for the uniformity of the cosmos, the formation of galaxies, or the fact that the universe seems to be composed of matter rather than anti-matter. Cosmologists, however, clung to this model out of conviction, pushing its paradoxes to the back of their minds, and hoping that its problems would eventually be sorted out. Much of these contradictions were resolved by the ‘inflationary scenario’ devised by Alan Guth in 1979.
I am not here suggesting that Luria foresaw the problems of twentieth century physics, or that cosmologists and fundamental physicists are secretly adept in obscure areas of kabbalah, however, it seems that the Lurianic kabbalists and the modern-day researchers of Creation were approaching the same cosmological problem, though using different sets of ideas. What these parallels do reveal is the way in which the human mind formulates and pictures an event as vast and awesome as the creation of the cosmos. The simplistic archetype of the cosmos emerging from a single source or event, in a straightforward way, does not satisfy the patterning of our minds and both these cosmologies found ways of introducing a ‘falling into matter’ which harmoniously touches some archetype within our being.
Let us look at both of these cosmic pictures, beginning with the kabbalistic cosmology of Isaac Luria.
**Lurianic Cosmology**
Luria’s cosmos is not an abstract static one, but the world for him emanated out of a dynamic interplay of archetypal forces. In this way he departs from the cold rigidity of the earlier kabbalistic schemes. Our present world has arisen out of three great dramatic cosmic events—the Simsum, or contraction of God, the Shebirah, or breaking of the vessels, and the Tikkun, the reconstruction or rectification.
Before the Simsum, the various powers of the Ein-Sof or Infinite God, were harmoniously balanced and could not be separated from one another. These aspects were the opposing forces of Compassion (Rahamim) and Stern Judgement (Din), bound together in light. At the beginning of existence, the Ein-Sof withdrew into itself, creating an empty space (the Tehiru or vacuum), within which the forces of
Din began to take on an independent life. This deeper concealment, or contraction of the Ein-Sof, thus resulted in a purging of the harsh dross which contained all elements of potential evil from the being of God. The empty space thus contained the forces of Din and a remnant, the Reshimu, or impression of the Divine Light.
At this point the Ein-Sof emanated a ray, the kab ha-middah or "cosmic measure", which is represented in the first letter of the Tetragrammaton, Yod. This ray penetrated the tehiru and worked to organise the opposing forces that now filled this space, and brought into manifestation the Primordial Man, the Adam Kadmon. This is the first and highest of the Partzufim or Archetypal Persons that appear in Luria's scheme. At this point the four Worlds (Atziluth, Beriah, Yetzirah and Assiah) had yet to be emanated, thus Adam Kadmon essentially lives in a fifth and higher spiritual realm of existence. However, this fifth world contained four levels, which were described by the four expansions of the Tetragrammaton (AB=72, SG=63, MH=45 and BG=52), which appear often in kabbalistic numerology.
Initially Adam Kadmon did not have the form of a man, but appears as a set of ten concentric circles, the outer circle remaining in close contact with the Ein-Sof. These ten Sephiroth eventually reorganised themselves into the linear form of the human body. From the head and eyes of this Primordial figure bright light poured forth. This light was gathered and held by the vessels (Kelim) of the Sephiroth. These vessels, the primitive ten Sephiroth, could only receive God, they could not in any sense resemble the giving, creating power of the Ein-Sof. In this sense the vessels were incomplete and could not hold the light.
The vessels of the upper three Sephiroth Kether, Hokmah and Binah at first performed well in the task of holding the light, but when the light poured down through the lower vessels, from Hesed through Yesod, these six lower vessels shattered and were dispersed into the chaotic void of the tehiru. This was the Shebirat-ha-kelim, "the breaking of the vessels". The original vessels were in what is now the world of Atziluth, but when the light from above penetrated the Sephira Malkuth, this shattered into 288 sparks which failed to return to the primordial source but instead fell through the worlds, and became attached and trapped in the broken fragments of the vessels which formed the kelipoth, the "shells" or "husks". These husks became the evil forces of the Sitra Ahra, the "other" or "under" world, preventing the return of the sparks of divine light to its source. Thus the light or energy of creation "fell into matter".
The next stage in the cosmic process, and the one in which we are ourselves living, is that of the Tikkun, the period in which processes of restoration and repair must be undertaken. The primary medium for this restoration is the light that continued to emanate from the eyes of Adam Kadmon. This light now became refashioned into a series of emanations known as the Partzufim or Archetypal Persons which restore order to the chaos of the Shebirah.
The Sephira Kether is reshaped into the Arikh Anpin, the "long-face" or Greater Countenance of the Ein-Sof, also named Attik Kaddisha (or Attik Anpin), "The Holy Ancient One". Hokmah and Binah form the two archetypal figures, the Partzufim Abba ("Father") and Imma ("Mother"), respectively. A fourth Partzuf is formed from the six lower Sephiroth, from Hesed to Yesod, and is known as Zeir Anpin ("the Lesser Countenance or face of the Divine"). A final Partzuf is formed round Malkuth, the Nukba de-Zeir ("the female companion to Zeir"), also known as Rachel-Leah.
Abba and Imma remain in a constant state of union (like the Shakti and Shakta in Hindu cosmology), and from this union is born Zeir. Similarly Zeir Anpin and the Rachel-Leah Partzuf, are joined in an eternal state of married union.
In Luria's scheme the Biblical Adam had the task of reintegrating the divine sparks as his being contained all of the various worlds, his body being a perfect microcosm of Adam Kadmon. Adam should have separated the divine sparks from the husks and restored them to the light of the divine. Adam of course failed in his cosmic task, and this responsibility has now been passed on to all humanity. It is the task of humanity to find the sparks of the spirit buried in the husks of the material world and raise these sparks to their divine source. How this is achieved through spiritual exercises is a major part of Luria's Kabbalistic practice, but it takes us beyond the scope of this article.
Luria thus images creation as an exile of the sparks of light, and a parallel is drawn with the diaspora of the Jewish people. The Partzufim Abba and Imma in the world of Atziluth are the source of Israel Sabha, "The Ancient Primordial Israel", that exists on a spiritual level.
The core problem of the pre-Lurianic emanationist cosmology was that if God the Ein-Sof was perfect and limitless in his being, then what emanated from Him had to be itself perfect, and in a sense such an emanation was merely God revealing Himself rather than an act of
creating a universe from which he could stand outside and apart. One of the central ideas of Judaism was that God stood outside and apart from the created world, a 'hidden God'. If God directly emanated the universe then clearly He was in the Universe and bounded by the universe. In order that something non-divine and finite should come about, it was necessary that there was a radical break in the process of emanation, a dilug or Kefitzah ("leap" or "jump"). Thus to address this philosophical problem there arose the Lurianic doctrine of the Simsum, the withdrawal, concentration, or concealment of the Ein-Sof. Luria even describes a state of being before the act of creation, in which the Ein-Sof manifested to Himself the Ein-Sof Or (the "light of the Ein-Sof"). There is a parallel here with the earliest state of the cosmos that can be envisaged by modern cosmology, which we will look at later. At the beginning of creation the Ein-Sof withdrew into Himself through the Simsum, thus creating an empty space, a vacuum or void (called the chalal or tehiru). Next, the ray (the kav) from the Ein-Sof Or beamed into this primaevacuum and so proceeded the emanations as described above. Effectively, this distances God from the Creation even before anything has come into manifestation, it allows for a cosmos created ex nihilo, literally "out of nothing". We will see that the central idea of modern cosmology is the emergence of the universe out of the vacuum state.
**The Inflationary Universe**
Present day cosmologists picture the universe beginning around 15 billion years ago in the "big-bang". The energies involved in this explosion of space-time, matter and energy out of nothing were enormous, however, in the past two decades particle accelerators have allowed scientists to explore some of these energy densities in their laboratories (corresponding to the state of the universe after one thousand billionth of a second), so the theories that have emerged about the big-bang are to some extent supported by experimental evidence and not merely upon speculation.
The universe emerged out of this point event and the space it occupied rapidly expanded until it filled up the vast tracts of space explored by astronomers. When we try to picture epochs close to the big-bang, all the energy and matter of the universe must therefore have been packed into a much smaller space, and therefore the universe had a much denser energy level. The earlier we go back in time, closer to the event of creation - to 1 second after the big-bang, to $10^{-3}$ or one thousandth of a second, to $10^{-9}$ a billionth of a second,
and so on - the smaller a volume of space it occupies, and consequently the higher its temperature and energy density. The simplest of big-bang models thus assumed that at the instant of creation the universe had infinite density and temperature. The idea was that the universe emerged out of a naked space-time singularity, a kind of knot in space-time, like a black hole in reverse. This model of an explosive expansion from a point of nothingness (which had infinite density), raised more questions than it answered. In particular it proved difficult to see how the various physical constants and relationships between different particles had adopted the values they have. For example, the ratio of matter to photons of light (the so-called baryon number), or the relative strengths of the four fundamental forces of nature - gravity, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong nuclear force. If the value of some of these constants had differed by a fractional amount the universe would have taken a radically different course. On the macro scale, stars and planets would not have come into being, while on the smaller scale even the long-chained carbon based molecules that are the building blocks of living cells could not have come about unless the physical constants which constrain the nature of chemical bonding had adopted the values they have. Some philosophers and theologians saw the possibility of evoking the hand of God acting to adjust these various values to create the particular special conditions that gave rise to the universe we know today.
This period of theorising about the big-bang in the 60's and 70's is to some extent akin to the earlier kabbalistic cosmology, in which God had to play an active formative role in structuring the chain of events. Further there was the problem of what was before the big-bang singularity, and what caused it to happen. God could again be called upon for assistance.
Isaac Luria had realised that if God played a formative role in the structuring of the cosmos then the cosmos would be a direct manifestation of Him. God would not have been able to separate Himself from his creation, and therefore our created world would in fact be part of God's body.
In a similar way present day cosmologists did not feel inwardly happy with creation theories in which some factor, outside the equations and mechanics of creation, set the critical values of the constants of nature that determined the shape and form of our universe as we know it.
In 1979 Allan Guth, an American physicist, devised a theory which seems to have solved many of the problems inherent in the simplistic big-bang theory. He looked at a very early stage in the development of the universe from about $10^{-32}$ to $10^{-43}$ of a second after the initial creation. [$10^{-36}$ for example, is a billion billion billion billionth of a second.] At around $10^{-43}$, the 'Planck' moment when the strength of the gravitational force comes to equal that of the other fundamental forces, quantum gravitational events dominated the emerging universe, its minute bubble of space-time being subject to quantum fluctuations. The universe could indeed be described at that early epoch as a quantum fluctuation in the vacuum. The energy that the universe contained was bound up in special fields of force, (the Higgs fields named after the physicist who first described them) which were essentially unstable.
Above a temperature of $10^{27^\circ}C$ which occurred during this early period of the universe, the Higgs fields were in equilibrium, however, once the environment fell below this they could release their energy through a process known as "spontaneous symmetry breaking". While the symmetry conditions are maintained the Higgs fields can hold considerable amounts of energy, without this energy having a mass. Only when the symmetry is broken does the energy bound up in the Higgs fields attain a mass. This breaking of the unified symmetry between the four fundamental forces results in the separation of gravity from the other forces and consequently the emergence of particles of matter.
In the inflationary model the Higgs fields are able to remain in equilibrium for an extended period in a special state known as the "false vacuum", a quantum vacuum state which can be described mathematically. During this period the false vacuum exerts an expansive force, a negative pressure, on the universe, which impells the cosmos to expand exponentially. In each minute fraction of time, $10^{-34}$ of a second, the diameter of the universe doubled, and this continued until the universe had expanded by a factor of $10^{50}$ times its original size. This extreme exponential stretching of the fabric of space, faster than the speed of light, stored up masses of energy in the Higgs fields. After this period of inflation the Higgs fields can no longer remain in equilibrium and they spontaneously break their symmetries and release the energies trapped within them, filling the rapidly expanding universe with an intense dense fire of particles and photons.
We can see a parallel here between the Higgs fields and the vessels (Kelim) of the sephiroth, which were unable to hold the light energy
that poured through them. The matter in the universe arose out of the breaking of the symmetries of the Higgs fields, which Lurianic kaballah parallels with the Shebirah, or "breaking of the vessels", and the falling down through the worlds of the husks or shells (Kelipoth).
In the inflationary model, the Higgs fields have energy pumped into them from the intense gravitational curvature of spacetime while they exist in a false vacuum state. When the universe eventually falls into a true vacuum state, its light energies and particles of matter come into being. The theory can account for the creation of the universe as a quantum fluctuation in this false vacuum of sufficient energy to allow the inflation process to get under way. Thus it provides a creation ex nihilo.
The inflationary model also resolves various problems with the naive big-bang from an singularity of infinite density and pressure; especially the problem of the large scale uniformity of the universe, the fixing of the parameters of the constants of nature, the existence of obscure particles called magnetic monopoles and other difficult and paradoxical aspects of the earlier theory.
As I indicated above, the inflationary model allows speculation about even earlier periods in the life of the universe before the inflationary period, in which the universe was a bubble of spacetime emerging out of quantum fluctuations in the false vacuum state. One speculation which has received some credence recently is that the universe began as a quantum fluctuation in an eleventh dimensional space. This resulted in four of the dimensions expanding (these being the three dimensions of space and one of time), while the other seven became wrapped up into a seventh dimensional sphere of extremely small size. These seven dimensions remain hidden from our universe on the macro scale which only knows the four outer space-time dimensions, though they do participate in the inner structure of particles of matter.
This idea is strangely paralleled in the Lurianic doctrine of the Ein-Sof contracting into itself and forming a tehiru or vacuum while its Ein-Sof Or expands outwards. The Simsum of the kabbalists and the folding up of seven of the eleven dimensions of spacetime are obviously related. Both of these cosmologies place this contraction before the formation of the false vacuum out of which the matter and electromagnetic or light energies of the universe was later to emerge.
In a strange way the physicists of today have come to retrace the philosophical and theosophical steps taken by kabbalists 400 years ago.
A ROSICRUCIAN EMBLEM
Interpreted by Adam McLean
This important Rosicrucian engraving was contained in Speculum Sophicum Rhodo-Stauroticum (the Mirror of Wisdom of the Rosy Cross) published in 1618. This publication by the pseudonymous Theophilus Schweighardt ('Lover of the Divine and keeper of a stony silence'), amplified and extended the points raised in the Fama and Confessio concerning the existence of the Rosicrucians. The plate contains references to the Fama, the Confessio and the Chymical Wedding.
The 'Speculum Sophicum' attempts to outline a more mystical and 'inner' view of the Rosicrucians. Schweighardt says that the College of the Rosy Cross is in no place and yet is everywhere, that all people have seen it but not recognised it, and that it is to be truly discovered only by those of pure heart and of upright life who have meditated deeply upon the mysteries of the spirit. Schweighardt thus laid the basis for a more interior view of Rosicrucianism. For him Rosicrucianism was not so much about material buildings, colleges of the brethren, or secret assemblies of Adepts, but rather was within ourselves. Each of us potentially was a brother of the Rosy Cross. The engraving beautifully illustrates this point.
Here is depicted the College of the Brotherhood, the 'Sancti Spiritus' of the Fama, as a strange wheeled castle. This moving Temple of the Rosy Cross, is thus everywhere and nowhere, for it is truly within us as an interior castle, a spiritual centre in our souls. The castle is foursquare with a dome set about by four turrets, within which stand guardian figures with shields bearing the four lettered name of God 'JHWH' and a feather quill. By the shield and the pen they protect this interior castle from outer attack. Over the entrance door of the castle stands 'admittance to the worthy' and on the left jamb is a four petalled rose while on the right an equal armed cross. The drawbridge is lowered 'only if it seems good to the Gods'. In the central room of the castle we see a man contemplating a globe (paralleling an incident from Day Three of the Chymical Wedding) while on the table beside him are alchemical furnaces and a vase of roses.
The College is supported by the hand of God emerging from the divine radiance above, and the upper story of the building is winged reflecting its spiritual power. The wings framing JHWH above, echo the closing words of the Fama, 'Under the shadow of thy wings, Jehovah'.
Out of a window on the left a hand emerges brandishing a sword proclaiming 'be on guard!' and refers to Julianus De Campis, an apologist for the Rose Cross mentioned in Schweighardt's text. From a window on the right a trumpet sounds
with the letters C.R.F. ('Frater Christian Rosenkreutz'). This is probably a reference to the opening scene in the Chymical Wedding when Christian Rosenkreutz receives his invitation to the wedding of the King and Queen from an angelic messenger with a trumpet. From another window, a rope supported by two pulleys, draws a man out of a 'well of opinion and rumour'. This again reflects the scene in the first day of the Chymical Wedding when Rosenkreutz dreams of being raised in a similar way out of a deep dungeon.
At the lower centre two figures, a knight or gentleman on horse with a footman, pass by this Collegium Fraternitatis without paying it any attention, their eyes looking elsewhere, for it is invisible to those who do not search within themselves for it. The figure on the right is successful for he 'acknowledges his ignorance' and armed with the anchor of hope, in an attitude of reverence, his eyes turned to the spiritual, is able to glimpse the presence of this inner castle. Above him, a figure is seen falling from a high hill. This person has tried to rush into things and come to a tragic end, for one must 'hasten slowly' and allow oneself time to develop inwardly if one is to gain access to the inner college. To the left, on another high mountain, we see the Ark of Noah. A parallel is thus drawn here, between the Ark which contained the seeds of all life during the Great Flood and the College of the Rosicrucians which is seen as bearing the seeds of spiritual development and growth during a time of great outer darkness and spiritual decay. Just as Noah sent forth from the Ark the two birds to test if the flood was over (as depicted here), so the Rosy Cross sends forth its messengers to the outer world. Two letters are seen flying like birds from the central windows of the castle. That on the right 'our T.S.' (Theophilus Schweighardt) while that on the left is 'Julianus De Campis'. Above in the sky are seen the two new stars in the constellations of Serpens and Cygnus (the Swan). Two novae appeared in these constellations in 1604, and were associated by Rosicrucian commentators with the symbolic opening of the tomb of Christian Rosenkreutz in that same year.
The fixed house just to the left of the moving college of the Rosicrucians has a 'Latin' cross obliquely inclined from its upper window, and the word 'Nota' beside it. We can speculate that this cross of suffering and crucifixion, this 'long-armed' cross, was seen by the Rosicrucians as spiritually in decline as a symbol, and should be replaced by the equal armed cross with the fivefold rose upon it as the new symbol of the hoped for 'inner Reformation'. This new Rosicrucianism rises above the bleak and outward picture of the suffering the sins of this world presented by medieval christianity and orthodox Protestantism, and embraces instead a new view of delight in life and the exploration of the potential of the spiritual in matter, the uniting of the Rose with the Cross, the Feminine with the Masculine, the Spirit with the material.
This fascinating emblem neatly sums up the Rosicrucian Mystery and shows us that the Temple of the Rosy Cross must be sought within ourselves. The temple is not buried in some outlandish castle in Germany, but lives within us all. That is why the essence of Rosicrucianism still remains alive. It is founded upon the ground of our souls and thus is eternally present and potential within us all.
In the last issue of *The Hermetic Journal* Adam McLean gave a detailed description of the hermetic symbolism contained within a masonic engraving of 1789. His analysis clearly demonstrated that traditional symbolism was at that time the common property of both hermeticists and Freemasons; but certain symbols are apparently unique to Freemasonry (and were certainly seen as such by the engraver), while others are both more significant and more appropriate in a masonic context. It thus seems desirable to offer a description of the chart and an explanation of some, at least, of its symbols in purely masonic terms.
Peter Lambert de Lintot (1726–1798), the designer and engraver of the plate, was a French mason who had settled in England at some time prior to 1766 – in which year he was working a curious Rite known as *Le Collège Metropolitain D’Écosse d’Hérédom des Septs et Derniers Degrés*, otherwise the Rite of Seven Degrees, in addition to his involvement with Craft Masonry. The Higher Degrees, which proliferated during the Eighteenth Century, were, and are, quite distinct from the three Craft Degrees and were largely developed to give expression in dramatic form to a variety of allegories of man’s spiritual quest. Some of them employed complex emblematic drawings similar to the Tracing Boards of Craft Masonry and De Lintot – who held an inordinately high opinion both of his own artistic ability and of his fitness to convey spiritual truths in symbolic form – incorporated
Chapter and Grand Lodge of England
Chapitre et Grande Loge d'Angleterre
Is there anything between you and me but the difference of opinion concerning the interpretation of the sacred writings?
There is nothing between you and me but the difference of opinion concerning the interpretation of the sacred writings.
No Kadh
No Hrdm
No K Tps
No Rarch
No Symbols
No K Tps
No Rarch
This is to certify that the name of is written in the Cubical Stone.
Ce c'est pour certifier que le nom de est écrit dans la Pierre Cubique.
many of their designs in the series of elaborate engravings that he produced in the 1780's. All of these are historically interesting, but for its sheer wealth of symbolism the 'Cubical Stone' of 1789 is the most outstanding.
Whether or not De Lintot designed the engraving specifically for members of his Rite of Seven Degrees is not clear - the designs do not conform to the symbolic structure of the Rite - but from the inscriptions around the outer frame it does seem to have been intended to serve as a membership certificate for one of the Rites or Degrees with which he was associated.
Above and below the rectangular frame are parallel inscriptions in English and French, that at the base reading 'This is to certify that the name of ... is written in the Cubical Stone K'. In addition to these words there are others written in cipher, the key to which is found in the vertical bands of the rectangular frame, marked on each side by an engraving of a key. (The apparent key, in the upper corners of the frame, is merely a blind that does not fit the text. It should be noted, however, that there are three distinct keys for different parts of the text.) When the inscriptions are deciphered, that on the rectangular frame is found to consist of the Words and Passwords of the three Craft Degrees and of an Installed Master, while that on the base reads as follows: 'And will give him a white stone and a new name which no man knoweth it. I make a pillar and write the name of the city and write my new name. Divinity support Morality'. Around the oval frame the inscription, in English, reads: 'Who teaches us to write and speak, to speak in fair and soft terms, to distinguish truth from fals[e]hood, To reckon or count all manners of numbers, the mensuration of lines, superficies, solids &c, the proportions, Harmony and discords of sounds &c. The motions of luminaries, planets &c. and how to measure their magnitudes and determine the distance of the Infin[i]te, IEHOVAH, EMANUEL [The names are in cipher]. By the seven science[s] of the 7 Degrees of the Cubical Stone. Whatever is Right'. Outside both frames are three Latin inscriptions, two of which are found on the breast jewel of the Holy Royal Arch (which is not a separate degree, but the completion of the degree of Master Mason): 'Nil Nisi Clavis Deest' (Nothing is wanting but the Key) at the base, and 'Talia si jungere possis sit tibi scire satis' (If thou canst understand what follows thou knowest enough) at the sides. As we shall see, other words from the Royal Arch jewel also appear on the chart.
Within the oval are eight squares containing emblematic designs: one representing the uncut 'Brute Stone', another the 'Cubical Stone',
and the remaining six the unfolded faces of a cube. Around them is an abbreviated motto which should be read from the base, thus: 'No Symbols - No Royal Arch; No Royal Arch - No Knight Templars; No Knight Templars - No Heredom; No Heredom - No Kadosch'. In other words, each degree, is built upon that below it and all the higher degrees are dependent upon the symbolic, or Craft degrees.
The symbolism of the Craft Degrees, which is shown on the 'Brute Stone' square, is drawn from the working tools of the building crafts, so that the emblem of Order out of Chaos is not inappropriate. At the base of the square are seen the two pillars, Jachin and Boaz, that stood at the entrance to King Solomon's Temple and that are represented in every Craft Lodge. Between and around them are five of the Working Tools: the Twenty-four Inch Gauge represents "the twenty-four hours of the day, part to be spent in prayer to Almighty God; part in labour and refreshment; and part in serving a friend or Brother in time of need"; the 'Common Gavel', or Maul, represents "the force of conscience, which should keep down all vain and unbecoming thoughts which might obtrude during any of the aforementioned periods"; while the Square, Level and Plumb-rule teach respectively Morality, Equality, and "Justness and uprightness of life and actions". All of these tend to the improvement of the 'Natural Man' who is symbolised by the Rough Ashlar - the 'Brute Stone' itself. The pickaxe and cord belong to the Royal Arch, where they appear in the traditional legend of that Order.
The 'Cubical Stone' square on the right-hand side is the Perfect Ashlar, the finished stone that represents the upright man possessed of a social conscience; educated and wise - as indicated by Minerva, goddess of wisdom, who is portrayed as 'Mother of all Masons'. The symbols of the Square, for Morality, and the Plumb-line, for uprightness, are accompanied by the Compasses - reminding us of the Justice of God and the limits of good and evil that He has laid down. The Upright Man is also aware of Immortality, for the cipher letters at the base of the square spell out 'Death is Life'.
The remaining squares illustrate a series of Higher Degrees and are not so much symbolic as illustrative of the traditional legends of those degrees. At the top, the first square is the Tracing Board of the degree of Knights of the East and West (now the 17° of the Ancient and Accepted Rite). Its symbolism is apocalyptic, drawn from the Book of Revelation (1:12-16): the figure is the Son of Man, with seven stars in his right hand and 'a sharp two-edged sword' in his mouth; the seven pillars behind Him (one is obscured by the figure) are the seven
golden candlesticks that symbolise the Seven Churches of Asia, while the letters in the angles of the heptagon, B, D, S, H, P, F, G, stand for Beauty, Divinity, Strength, Honour, Power, Fidelity, and Glory. Below the figure are Cipher characters which read 'Only One God' and above him are the words 'Cultor Dei' (Worshipper of God), which appear also on the Royal Arch jewel.
Of the next three squares that on the left shows the birth of Light out of darkness, symbolised by the interlaced triangles of the hexagram which represents the Macrocosm and which, incidentally, form the central part of the Royal Arch jewel. The central square of these three is composed largely of designs relating to the degree of Rose-Croix of Heredom, which is the 18th and central degree of the Ancient and Accepted Rite and which corresponds to the Third Degree of De Lintot's Rite. The Rose, the Bible, the three Crosses and the four Swords are all utilised in the 18th degree ritual. At the upper edge of the square is a cipher inscription which reads 'GOLGOTHA - EMANUEL, ALPHA - OMEGA', reinforcing the Christian content of the symbolism. Below this lettering the twelve points can be seen as representing the banners of the twelve tribes of Israel, while the Cross of Jerusalem at the centre provides a link with the Templars.
And it is the Knights Templar who are represented in the right-hand square. At the base the inscription is a contraction of 'Royal Order of Heredom, Knights Templar of Palestine', while at the top the foundation of the Templar Order is commemorated by the words 'Baldwin II King 5122' (i.e. Baldwin II, King of Jerusalem permitted the Order to be founded in Anno Mundi 5122 - A.D. 1118). In the centre of the square the destruction of the Order is represented by the burning of Jacques de Molay in 1314, although the date is wrongly given as 11 March - an error made elsewhere by De Lintot. (In fact Jacques de Molay was martyred on 18 March).
The central square below this, between the 'Brute Stone' and the 'Cubical Stone', illustrates the degree of Knights of the Ninth Arch, or Royal Arch of Enoch. This is now the 13° of the Ancient and Accepted Rite and corresponds, more or less, to De Lintot's 4th Degree. Its legend concerned the search for and discovery of the true Name of God in vaults beneath the Temple. The alleged connection with Old Kilwinning (Mother Kilwinning Lodge is the oldest Scottish masonic lodge) is utterly spurious, and there is also no connection between this degree and the Royal Arch, although the words 'Invenimus - We have found' are engraved on the Royal Arch jewel.
The last square combines the legend of the degree of Noachite or Prussian Knight (the 21° of the Ancient and Accepted Rite) with the symbolism of the 30° of Knight Kadosch, or 'Ne Plus Ultra' (Nothing further). In the Noachite degree the Tower of Babel is substituted for the Temple and Solomon is replaced by Noah, whose descendant Peleg (or Phaleg) appears as the architect of Babel. The Menatzchim were the overseers of the building work, but as the cipher lettering defies translation the overall significance of the square is not clear, linked as it is with the Knight Kadosch symbols. These appear on the right-hand side in the form of a ladder of seven steps surmounted by a double-headed eagle. The ladder in freemasonry is usually taken to be Jacob's ladder, showing the link between heaven and earth and offering hope of immortality; its seven steps represent Temperance, Fortitude, Prudence, Justice, Faith, Hope and Charity - which virtues are admirably supplemented by Truth, Equality and Freedom as engraved on the Tower. In the Kadosch degree, however, the seven steps represent both moral virtues and the seven sciences: Grammar, Rhetoric, Mathematics, Physiology, Chemistry, Harmony and Astronomy - which appear, with some variation, on the inscription in the oval frame.
A seven-runged ladder also had a place in the Mysteries of Mithras, where it symbolised the ascent of the Soul. There is thus, perhaps, greater significance than at first appears in De Lintot's use of a scene from a Mithraic ceremony in the lower corners outside the central oval. George Oliver, who briefly described the chart in his book *Revelations of a Square* (1845), stated that "in the lower spandrels are vestiges of the spurious Freemasonry" - but De Lintot was nothing if not an innovator and he may well have intended to illustrate the parallels between paganism and Revealed Religion. Whatever his real intention, and whether our viewpoint is Masonic or Hermetic, his eclectic use of symbolism has given us an engraving that is extraordinarily rich in its imagery.
Symbolism of the Black Hole Egg
Matter-Energy Mandala
George Burnett-Stuart ©
In the course of my search for an understanding of that strange concoction of intellectual and physical operations which we call Physics, I found myself making an egg-shaped vessel out of clay. This is what the Egg, once formed, seemed to say to me...
Description
The egg is an earthenware pot, divided into two halves, upper and lower. The lower part is unglazed clay, the upper glazed in blue. Around the middle, there are four insets, of wood, glass, metal and
mother-of-pearl. On the upper part, lines have been incised in a square grid-pattern. There is a small circular opening in the top of the egg. All one can see inside is black emptiness.
**Ancient Symbolism**
The egg encircled by a serpent is an ancient symbol of the cosmos. The egg suggests the hidden potentialities of the world, the serpent, the idea of obstructions (to be overcome) and natural limits (which no-one, not even a hero, may overstep). Here the serpent has been transformed into a belt, an equatorial zone, of four elements. The hero has fought with the dragon, and chopped him into four quarters, with magical powers. The four elements signify natural limits, rather than obstructions.
The zone is a boundary, dividing the upper half of the egg from the lower. Another consequence of the slaying of the dragon: a more definite distinction between what is above and what is below, between the heavenly and earthly powers. But the distinction is compromised by the hole in the top, which leads one back down from the very summit of heaven into the dark recesses of the earth.
**The Chinese Elements**
The four elements of the egg are Wood, Fire, Metal and Water. The red glass stands for fire, the mother-of-pearl for water. If we include the material of the base, Earth, then we have the five elements of the ancient Chinese system. Sometimes, they are arranged in a diagram like this:
They correspond, among many other things, to the seasons of the year—with earth standing for the mysterious moments of transition between the seasons, as well as the hub of the wheel. Think of the changing qualities of the seasons, with each one leading into the next
in that cycle so deeply ingrained in our (temperate zone) psyche. The spring—the sap rises, wood changes from dead to alive. Summer—the fiery hot sun beats down, baking the earth. Autumn—out of the furnace, an ingot of metal, its coolness presaging the rigours of winter. Winter—a tranquil pool of dark, apparently lifeless water.
Arching over the elements, heaven: blue of the sky, grid-lines of mathematical purity and order; the opposing principle to earth—if you like, the sixth element. [Note: equating heaven with air, and missing out wood and metal, we get the four elements of Western tradition.]
**Matter**
The story of matter began when man became a worker of matter: of wood, glass, metal, a moulder of clay and a user of water. At first, this activity was of the earth, animal-like, a bird building its nest. Matter was born only when the activity was impregnated by an idea. Matter was the issue of a marriage of heaven and earth.
This was the idea: underlying all the changes of the earth, whether effected by man or nature, there is a stuff, called Matter, which changes in form but not in essence. The quest of matter is the quest of that which is *unchanged in change*.
The idea was brought into sharper focus by another idea: the Atom. Even without knowing anything for certain about what atoms are really like, one can get into the habit of interpreting everything that happens in terms of rearrangements of unchangeable atoms—a beautifully simple image of what the difference between the form and the essence of matter might be! For example, this was how the Roman poet Lucretius saw the world: one can tell from his long poem *On the Nature of Things*, how he was enraptured by the idea of Matter and the Atom.
Among all the different forms of matter, many people (in the West) came to agree that there were four main types which really *were* different (the four elements); other forms were combinations of these, in various proportions.
**Energy**
During the Middle Ages, people began to use wind and water-power to work their machines. Like Matter, centuries previously, the idea of Energy (which is Power, in the abstract,
mechanical sense, multiplied by time) began to form. For example, people began to speculate about perpetual motion machines—was there a way of getting something (in the way of power) out of nature for nothing?
Alchemists, meanwhile, inspired by the spectacular transformations of metallurgy, and by the continually growing store of other exciting chemical experiences, explored further the inner nature of matter, giving free rein to their imaginations. Whatever one may think of their flights of fancy, they effected a complete transformation of the idea of Matter. To the Greeks, the prototype of matter was wood: passive stuff, ready to be shaped and reshaped by outside powers. To the alchemists, matter was far from passive, it was imbued with its own, remarkable "powers".
How delighted they would have been with the most vivid and (to us) familiar example of the powers of matter: the generation of electricity (the most spiritual of physical substances!) out of matter in the chemical cell, or "battery" of cells. Unfortunately, the original electrochemical cell (consisting, simply, of a layer of cardboard, soaked in salty water, sandwiched between copper and zinc) came long after the alchemical era, not until nearly 1800.
At any rate, the alchemists realised that the stuff of the world cannot be regarded as inert, like the bricks which a house is made of. If it is bricks, they are living bricks—but their life is a secret life, hidden away from the eyes of the ignorant. Great efforts of the imagination, and a kind of "obedience to nature" which had to be carefully cultivated, would surely be needed to persuade the powers of matter to manifest themselves.
Physics
The quest of the inner nature of matter (and the ultimate goal, the nature of the atom) became bound up with the discovery of the powers latent in matter, and the investigation of energy, the various forms it can take, and the transformations between them. Around 1850 Energy became the equal partner of Matter: enough was known about the different forms of energy to be able to measure them and compare them. The outcome: the total quantity of energy after a transformation was found to be always the same as it was before. Energy, like matter, is stuff: it is another entity which is constant in the midst of change.
Matter and Energy are the two halves of the egg. Matter is the lower, more earthy half—it is earth, spiritualised by the idea of the Atom, constant in change. Energy is higher, more spiritual: no-one can say what energy is, they can only measure it—they can only catch it in their mathematical nets. Yet it is tied down to earth; often, it can only be released with difficulty.
Around the middle of the egg are the Four Elements—the four fields of manifestation of energy, or four divisions of the powers of matter.
Wood: mechanical powers: force and motion, stress and strain, momentum, kinetic energy.
Fire: optical powers: light, colour, interference.
Metal: electrical powers: electric charges and currents, magnetism, waves in the electromagnetic aether.
Water: thermal powers: temperature, heat capacity and flow, the transformations between ice, water and steam, the direction of chemical reactions in time.
Like the seasons of the year, each of these departments has its own distinctive qualities and feelings. According to which hat he puts on, the physicist takes up a particular "stance" towards nature. This is illustrated by the different kinds of equipment which he uses in each guise, for instance: batteries and coils of wire in electromagnetism; special crystals and prisms in optics; springs and fly-wheels for mechanics; thermometers, pressure vessels and refrigerating machinery for thermodynamics.
Another illustration: the different concepts of time which are typical of the elements. Linear, astronomical time, ticking away to eternity, for mechanics; in optics, no time! (effects of the finite speed of light are considered in the next section); exceedingly fast oscillations are typical of electromagnetic time, expanding a second of ordinary time into millions of tiny time intervals (secret of the computer's success); as for thermodynamics, time is a one-way street, it is water running down to the lowest place, and staying there.
It would be going too far to suggest that there is a natural circulatory movement from one element to the next in the circle, as there is from one season to the next. But there is no lack of subtle relationships, a kind of network of implications between them. No-one who follows his nose in physics can linger too long within one element before being propelled on to the next.
Around the egg’s middle the elements are most separate, most distinct. In historical time this corresponds to the moment around 1850, when each of the separate departments was well understood (or just on the point of being so)—the noon-tide of *Classical Physics*. But anyone who studies physics can reach this point, and if they like, linger there, savouring its qualities.
**Modern Physics**
But even as they do so they will feel a wind blowing—the powerful spirit of *oneness* driving them on. Can the four elements really be so separate? After all, the different energies can be transformed into each other, through the medium of matter. In the heart of matter must be the place where all the powers are drawn together, the arcane source of the elements...the Philosophers’ Stone of physics: the Atom.
The atom is the base of the egg, drawing the four downwards into conjunction. Or: the four elements sprout upwards out of the earth of the atom.
In history, the period of conjunction extended from about 1850 until 1926, when a workable theory emerged of how the four elements relate to the atom. Since then, the atom has begun to bloom—the most spectacular sign of this, the light-machine called Laser. (Note: we are not here talking about the atomic nucleus and nuclear transformations, that is a story for another day.)
But working at the same time as the downward pull of the atom is a second force, also working towards unity. This is: the pull of the *Black Hole*. The motto of this drawing—upwards is not “one source of the four elements” but rather “four elements in one vessel”. The various forms of energy have to coexist in one space and one time.
It was precisely the difficulties of fitting together the Mechanical and Electromagnetic energies, which provided the material for Einstein to work with. Others had struggled with the problem of joining Wood and Metal. But Einstein was the one who solved it, the true alchemist, by using Fire as an intermediary. He cracked the nut by reasoning with the speed of light, and out of the ashes of space and time gave us: *Spacetime*.
This is the sort of thing that goes on in spacetime: suppose a rocket-ship emits two equal pulses of electromagnetic radiation, one in a forward direction and the other backwards. Each of the pulses carries a certain amount of momentum, but being equal and opposite they have no net effect on the motion of the rocket. Now imagine that a second rocket is coming towards the first. From the point of view of No. 2, the two pulses emitted by No. 1 are not equal after all. The forward one is of higher frequency (the Doppler effect, which also applies to the tone of an approaching motor-bike), and carries more energy and momentum than the backwards one. This ought to exert a braking force on No. 1 (i.e. to take forward momentum away from it). Yet the emissions have no effect on the velocity of No. 1 (both observers must agree about this). Since momentum equals mass times velocity, the only way out of the paradox is to concede that the rocket must have lost a bit of mass. When calculated, the mass loss is $E/c^2$, where $E$ is the energy of the two pulses combined, and $c$ is the speed of light.
This is the origin of Einstein's famous equation. Clearly, it has a bearing on the symbolism of the egg, whose top half is energy and bottom half matter. In the arena of spacetime they are unified by their shared property of mass. Already we can feel that spacetime is the right stuff for the vessel which can contain the elements, but there is more work to be done to contract the stuff into a finite form. The agent for this is ready to hand. It is one of the ancient facts of physics: *Gravitation*.
**Gravity**
Every body on earth is attracted to the centre of the earth. Newton enlarged the scope of gravity by insisting that the earth is attracted reciprocally by the body, as are any two pieces of matter in the universe. Moreover, the mutual attraction is stronger, the less the distance between them.
One can picture this attraction as follows. Imagine two balls placed on a rubber sheet, stretched horizontally.
Each ball creates a depression, which the other ball tends to fall into. They have to be held apart. For instance, one could place a matchstick between them. The closer they are together, the steeper the sides of the depression, and the harder the (shorter) matchstick has to press to keep them apart.
Now think of a star, and the effect of its own gravity on itself. A star, far from being a hard ball, is a kind of gaseous globule.
The sides of the depression in the sheet (or gravitational field as it is called) press in on the star, and instead of matchsticks it has only its own internal pressure to keep it up and fully extended. When the star is old, the source of its pressure gives up, and gravity forces it to contract.
Note an important feature: as the star slips down ever deeper into the field, the shape and size of the depression outside the star stay the same. The overall scale of the depression is a measure of the star's mass (including energy as well as matter, of course).
Eventually, if the star is an unlucky one, the contraction passes a certain critical point. This is when the star sinks down so low that even a light beam, such as the beam of a torch pointed straight upwards from the surface of the star, is unable to climb up out of the pit. In other words, it cannot escape the gravitational field of the star. Neither light, nor anything else, can find its way to the outside world, and from this point on the fate of the star is veiled from our eyes. Instead of a star, we have: a black hole.
There is a spherical surface, called the horizon which marks the limit of visibility. If a body should fall down into the hole, it is gone from the world at the point when it crosses the horizon. A heavy body, however, makes an imprint in the gravitational field, and this is not lost when the body falls in: the imprint coalesces with the hole itself, and what we get is a slightly bigger hole. The hole can get bigger, but never smaller (to be precise: the surface area of the horizon can never decrease).
There is much that can be said about the behaviour of black holes. A star that spins on its axis (as one would expect every star to do) will give rise to a spinning, whirling black hole. One can turn matter into energy by lowering it on a string (which works a dynamo) into a black hole... and so on. But from the egg point-of-view, one phenomenon in particular stands out.
The Fourth Element
What is a black hole made of? It is an imprint in the gravitational field, nothing more nor less, and gravity is the shape, the feel (from inside) of spacetime. Spacetime is already a conjunction of Wood, Fire and Metal. But what of Water, the element of heat?
One can make a black hole bigger, but not smaller. This is like something else. Imagine a container of water, thermally insulated (like a thermos flask), with a paddle-wheel immersed in the water, that one can turn from the outside.
What happens if one puts energy into the system by turning the handle? The motion churns up the water, and the energy ends up as an increase in the heat content of the water, and its temperature goes up. The heat content of the water can be made larger, but never smaller.
No thermal insulation is perfect, however. If the container were to
be placed in a very cold enclosure, at a temperature close to absolute zero, heat would inevitably leak out of the water, into the enclosure.
What would happen if a black hole was placed in such a cold enclosure?
The astonishing answer is that *heat* would come out of it. This would be in the form of very very infra-red radiation (in the longwave radio spectrum, in fact). And very very slowly, the black hole would shrink in size.
Now heat is the last thing one would expect to get out of a black hole, because one normally pictures heat as the random motion of atoms in a body. And a black hole, unlike other bodies in the universe, isn't made of atoms. They went down the plughole with the star. Yet by some miracle, the Water element is resurrected.
If a giant squeezed the planet Earth right down so far that it became a black hole, the horizon would be no more than 3/4 of an inch across. In this little nut, velvety black, one could indeed see the whole world, for it would encompass all the four elements.
**Inside the Egg**
Inside the egg, all is black. If we follow the symbolism of the egg rigorously, then, as we look down inside the lower bowl of the egg, we are looking at matter from the inside. But we see nothing.
Inside a black hole, the matter of the star, or whatever it was that turned into the hole, is squeezed into an inconceivably small space. Conditions so extreme would only occur in one other place: the birth of the universe itself, the origin of energy and matter. But what happens at the centre of the hole is hidden from us by the horizon. Once again, we see nothing (even if we had a black hole to play with in our backyard, which we don't).
One's first reaction: how frustrating! the secret of the universe, so near and yet so far! But perhaps the secret is that there *is* no secret. Perhaps the secret is simply that there is a limit to the significance of the concept Matter. One should look into the egg and remember that matter is an idea, an abstraction: a particular way of looking at the changes of the earth. A seeking out of that which doesn't change in the midst of change, remember? Fair enough, noble even, to seek it out, but having found it, let us not cling to it.
Guthrie, K.S. THE PYTHAGOREAN SOURCEBOOK AND LIBRARY, 361p. Paper £11.50, Hb. £20.00. Phanes Press (distributed in the UK by Element Books, Longmead, Shaftesbury, Dorset SP7 8LP).
At last, Phanes Press have produced the kind of Pythagorean book that anyone who has looked into the subject must have felt the need for. The book contains four ancient biographies of Pythagoras, as well as over 40 Pythagorean writings. Most of these come from the revival of the tradition known as Neopythagoreanism (1st Cent. BC onwards), for the early school has left little in the way of extant literature. David Fideler of Phanes has done some painstaking editorial work, supplying the book with a carefully organised and well-researched introduction, plus abundant appendices, indexes and bibliographies. This book deserves to establish itself as the standard sourcework on Pythagoreanism. Definitely recommended.
– Stephen Ronan
Mead, G.R.S. THE COMPLETE ECHOES FROM THE GNOSIS, edited by Stephen Ronan. All eleven volumes of the original series together with a Concordance to the Chaldean Oracles. Chthonios Books, 6 Waldegrave Road, London SE19 2AJ. HB. £19.50
George Robert Stow Mead (1863-1933) was a unique combination of scholarly researcher and mystical explorer. His outstanding qualities in both fields have made him – even yet, so many years after his death – the foremost expounder of the spiritual meaning of the ‘Inner Traditions’ of Late Antiquity. Mead wrote three major works exploring these traditions. The first two are *Thrice-Greatest Hermes*, which dealt with the Hermetic literature, and *Fragments of a Faith Forgotten* which did the same for Gnosticism. The third is the present book *The Complete Echoes from the Gnosis*. It is here presented as an integrated work, containing all eleven volumes of the original series. Each volume translates and interprets a particular stream – either Pagan or Christian – of ancient mysteriosophy or mystery-teaching. The Christian works are *The Hymn of the Robe of Glory, The Hymn of Jesus, The Gnostic Crucifixion* and *The Wedding-Song of Wisdom*. The Pagan ones are *The Gnosis of the Mind, The Hymns of Hermes, The Vision of Aridaeus, The Mysteries of Mithra, the Mithraic Ritual*
and *The Chaldean Oracles I and II*. The *Chaldean Oracles* have been provided with a concordance, compiled especially for this edition in order to facilitate research into this important but little-known branch of ancient spirituality.
Those who would enter the spiritual fire of Gnosis, Christian and Pagan, which the orthodox Church fought so hard to suppress, could find no better guide than Mead and no finer introduction than *The Complete Echoes from the Gnosis*.
- from publisher's publicity material
**Scholem, Gershom** *Origins of the Kabbalah*, edited by R.I. Zwi Werblowski, translated by Allan Arkush. Jewish Publication Society and Princeton University Press. (Available in UK through Chthonios Books £29.50). HB 487pp.
This is first publication in English of one the most important books of the great Kabbalistic scholar, Gershom Scholem. Here he deals with the early flowering of the Kabbalah in 12th/13th century Europe, the period immediately before the writing of the Zohar. Scholem devotes some 150 pages to an analysis of the *Bahir*, one of the oldest literary documents of the Kaballah (1130–1170). Although the *Bahir* seems at first reading, rather jumbled together and devoid of structure, Scholem is able to identify various motifs and elements that have been woven into this rather chaotic text. He shows some of the structural elements buried in the confused strata of this work, and especially notes the Gnostic and Neoplatonic elements and influences. In the next section, Scholem looks in detail at the first Kabbalists in Provence – Abraham ben Isaac of Narbonne, Abraham ben David (the Rabad), and Isaac the Blind. Isaac the Blind is often credited with formulating the doctrine of the En-Sof and the Sephiroth, and Scholem examines the birth of these concepts in Isaac’s writings. The final section of the book examines the Kabbalistic Centre in Gerona in Spain, which functioned between 1210 and 1260. The major figure was Moses ben Nahman (Nachmanides) but there were at least twelve kabbalists in this circle of which we still have knowledge today. Scholem’s research is impeccable, and as with his other books provides much useful information both into the history, and on ways in which philosophies and spiritual traditions outside Judaism influenced the emerging Kabbalistic tradition during these early times in Europe. This book will be an essential sourcebook for serious students of the Kabbalah. | d2c4786e-db91-4190-9e69-61fec2012e77 | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | https://alchemyfraternitas.ru/media/libra/kniga/39.pdf | 2022-01-24T03:07:49+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320304471.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20220124023407-20220124053407-00011.warc.gz | 153,176,003 | 18,150 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997298 | eng_Latn | 0.998509 | [
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Asteroid explorer, Hayabusa2, reporter briefing
February 20, 2019
JAXA Hayabusa2 Project
Topics
Regarding Hayabusa2:
- Touchdown operation plan
- Images from the BOX-B operation (first release)
Since the content presented today is nearly the same as for the press briefing on February 6, today we will focus on Q&A. We hope you find this useful for coverage on February 22nd.
Contents
0. Hayabusa2 and mission flow outline
1. Current status and overall schedule of the project
2. Touchdown operation plan
3. Scientific importance of the touchdown
4. Images from BOX-B operation
5. Future plans
- Reference material
Overview of Hayabusa2
Objective
We will explore and sample the C-type asteroid Ryugu, which is a more primitive type than the S-type asteroid Itokawa that Hayabusa explored, and elucidate interactions between minerals, water, and organic matter in the primitive solar system. By doing so, we will learn about the origin and evolution of Earth, the oceans, and life, and maintain and develop the technologies for deep-space return exploration (as demonstrated with Hayabusa), a field in which Japan leads the world.
Expected results and effects
- By exploring a C-type asteroid, which is rich in water and organic materials, we will clarify interactions between the building blocks of Earth and the evolution of its oceans and life, thereby developing solar system science.
- Japan will further its worldwide lead in this field by taking on the new challenge of obtaining samples from a crater produced by an impacting device.
- We will establish stable technologies for return exploration of solar-system bodies.
Features:
- World’s first sample return mission to a C-type asteroid.
- World’s first attempt at a rendezvous with an asteroid and performance of observation before and after projectile impact from an impactor.
- Comparison with results from Hayabusa will allow deeper understanding of the distribution, origins, and evolution of materials in the solar system.
International positioning:
- Japan is a leader in the field of primitive body exploration, and visiting a type-C asteroid marks a new accomplishment.
- This mission builds on the originality and successes of the Hayabusa mission. In addition to developing planetary science and solar system exploration technologies in Japan, this mission develops new frontiers in exploration of primitive heavenly bodies.
- NASA too is conducting an asteroid sample return mission, OSIRIS-REx (launch: 2016; asteroid arrival: 2018; Earth return: 2023). We will exchange samples and otherwise promote scientific exchange, and expect further scientific findings through comparison and investigation of the results from both missions.
Hayabusa 2 primary specifications (Information: Akihiro Ikeshita)
- Mass: Approx. 609 kg
- Launch: 3 Dec 2014
- Mission: Asteroid return
- Arrival: 27 June 2018
- Earth return: 2020
- Stay at asteroid: Approx. 18 months
- Target body: Near-Earth asteroid Ryugu
Primary instruments
- Sampling mechanism, re-entry capsule, optical cameras, laser range-finder, scientific observation equipment (near-infrared, thermal infrared), impactor, miniature rovers.
Mission Flow
Launch
3 Dec 2014
Earth swing-by
3 Dec 2015
Arrival at asteroid
June 27, 2018
Examine the asteroid by remote sensing observations. Next, release a small lander and rover and also obtain samples from the surface.
Depart asteroid
Nov–Dec 2019
Create artificial crater
Use an impactor to create an artificial crater on the asteroid’s surface
Earth return
late 2020
Sample analysis
(Illustrations: Akihiro Ikeshita)
1. Current project status & schedule overview
Current status:
- Preparation for the descent operation for touchdown.
- Touchdown operation will be from February 20 ~ 22 (start of the touchdown operation is from today).
| Schedule overview | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 |
|-------------------|------|------|------|------|------|------|
| Event | | | | | | |
- **Initial operation**
- **EDVEGA**
- **Swing-by**
- **Journey to asteroid**
- **Approach**
- **Asteroid proximity operations**
- **Earth return**
- **Re-entry**
- **Launch** (12月3日)
- **ESA (MLG/WLH) test operations** (May 21 - 22)
- **Earth swing-by** (12月3日)
- **Southern hemisphere station operations (CAN/MLG)**
- **Arrival at Ryugu** (June 27)
- **Departure from Ryugu** (Nov ~ Dec)
- **Capsule re-entry** (late 2020)
- **Ion engine operations**
- **Optical navigation**
- **Solar conjunction**
- **TBD**
- **TBD**
- **TBD**
2019/02/20
outline
• Touchdown (TD) date & time
Feb 22, 2019 about 8am
• Touchdown operation
Feb 20 ~ 22, 2019
(Begin descent: 2/21 ~ 8am)
(All times are in JST)
• Touchdown location
In the circle (radius 3m) in L08-E1
• Target marker (TM)
Use pinpoint touchdown method with TM-B that is already dropped.
Touchdown candidate site. TM indicates the position of the target marker.
(Image credit: JAXA)
The region around the target maker
L08-B1 and L08-E1 were selected as the touchdown candidate site.
TM-B position and touchdown candidate site
(Image credit: JAXA)
L08-E1 area
A DEM (Digital Elevation Map) near the touchdown candidate site
(image credit: JAXA)
L08-E1 area
A DEM (Digital Elevation Map) near the touchdown candidate site
(animation)
(image credit: JAXA)
Sequence of the touchdown operation (entire)
Indicated time is not fixed and may change depending on the final plan and situation on the day of operation.
(image credit: JAXA)
Touchdown operation sequence (at low altitude)
①~④: Check points of the spacecraft’s autonomous system (proceed to next operation if normal at each checkpoint)
Motion of the spacecraft directly before touchdown (animation, speed x10)
※Since we are currently tuning the position and posture, these will change in the future.
(image credit: JAXA)
Motion of the spacecraft directly before touchdown (animation, speed x1)
※Since we are currently tuning the position and posture, these will change in the future.
(image credit: JAXA)
Touchdown operation points
Initial plan:
→ Assumed 100m$^2$ possible touchdown area
Reality:
→ For a touchdown area about 6m wide
- Hayabusa touchdown method
- Target marker is used to adjust the horizontal component of the spacecraft’s motion to the velocity of the asteroid surface.
- In addition to measuring the altitude with the LRF, the spacecraft attitude will be rotated parallel to the asteroid surface by the measurement of LRF.
- Pinpoint touchdown method
- Control the spacecraft relative to the position of the target marker on the asteroid surface.
- LRF is used for altitude measurement and safety confirmation but not for attitude control.
- Attitude set based on planned values.
Hayabusa2 pinpoint touchdown feature
“Hayabusa” method
• By tracking the descending TM after its separation, we can land with a zero ‘relative speed’ to the ground.
• By recognising the TM right after separation, tracking is relatively easy.
• Altitude is lowered while always keeping the TM in the center of the field of view.
• Only one TM can be tracked at a time.
• Landing accuracy is determined by the TM dropping accuracy.
“Pinpoint touchdown” method
• Capture the already dropped TM and land at position specified relative to this TM (it is possible to offset the TM from the screen center)
• It is possible to recognise the arrangement of multiple TMs.
• The landing point can be specific regardless of TM dropping accuracy.
• In this touchdown, pinpoint touchdown using one TM will be carried out.
※ TM: target marker
Measures implemented to achieve high precision landing
1. High accuracy of asteroid model, 2. Tuning of autonomous controls, 3. Expansion of landing safety margin
One example
Accuracy of gravity model
When approaching a big mountain, the gravity becomes stronger.
※ White areas = places where gravity is stronger or weaker than normal
As Ryugu is not spherical, the effect of orbital bending due to the mass concentration at the equatorial edge is considered.
One example
Adopt tail-up posture during landing
Avoid high boulders by intentionally tilting slightly rather than keeping a straight-down landing posture.
L08-E1 has more boulders to the east than to the west.
## 2. Touchdown operation plan
**Decision points during operation**
| Item | Ground time: JST ( ) onboard time | Decision item |
|------|----------------------------------|--------------|
| Gate 1 | 2/21 07:13 | Decision on start of descent |
| Gate 2 | 2/21 18:52 | Start confirming whether to continue descent |
| Gate 3 | 2/22 06:02 | Start final decent judgement (GO/NOGO) |
| HGA→LGA | 2/22 07:27 (07:08) | Antenna switching |
| TD | 2/22 08:25 (08:06) | Touchdown |
| Gate 4 | 2/22 08:25 | Start rising check |
| LGA→HGA | 2/22 08:44 (08:25) | Antenna switch |
| Gate 5 | 2/22 08:44 | Start check of the state of the spacecraft |
| Gate 6 | 2/22 18:37 | Start confirmation of ΔV to return to home position. |
*The indicated time is not fixed and may change depending on the final plan and situation on the day of operation. The time written by the Gate is the time to start judgment, and it may take some time for the final result to be determined.*
### Transmission of information
- Ryugu images from ONC-W1
- Advanced data from LIDAR
- Confirm the probe speed with Doppler data.
- Check with telemetry
Touchdown operation plan concept
- During the landing sequence, the spacecraft autonomously monitors whether the sequence is progressing normally. If it is judged as abnormal, abort (urgent rise) is performed automatically.
- If abort occurs, the safety of the spacecraft is ensured.
- The design of this touchdown operation strictly sets the abort condition to not impair safety (in particular, monitoring at check points ①〜④ in the low altitude sequence).
- If an abort occurs, the backup period will be used to re-execute the touchdown operation.
Touchdown operation plan = a series of operation groups up to the completion of touchdown, including re-implementation.
4. Scientific importance of the touchdown
Touchdown = sample collection
Science can be done over a wide range of scales (12 orders of magnitude)
- History of asteroid Ryugu
- Origin & early evolution of the Solar System
- Earth composition (body, water, life)
- The environment 4.6 billion years ago in the 13.8 billion year history of the Universe.
4. Scientific importance of the touchdown
science on different scales
Remote sensing observations from the spacecraft
ONC (T, W1, W2), LIDAR, NIRS3, TIR, DCAM3
Rover & lander observations
MASCOT, MINERVA-II (1A, 1B, 2)
Sample analysis
Sampler, ground analyzer
Ryugu (©JAXA, University of Tokyo & collaborators)
Hayabusa2 reporter briefing
e.g. Itokawa particles (©JAXA)
Molecular structure
4. Scientific importance of the touchdown
Galaxies
Star-forming clouds
Protoplanetary discs
Asteroid
Earth, life and oceans
Origin of the Solar System, early evolution
Solar System material
Delivery of the Earth’s oceans and evolution of the materials for life
(c) ESO/S. Brunier (c) NASA (c) NASA (c) JAXA, U. Tokyo & collaborators (c) JAXA/NHK
4. Images from the BOX-B operation
BOX-B:
- Distance (altitude) from the asteroid remains about 20 km.
- Move about 10 km in the north-south direction & east-west direction of the asteroid.
BOX-B operation was previously carried out from August – September 2018.
- Images captured in the direction of Ryugu’s south pole.
- Images on the evening side of Ryugu.
Now
BOX-B operation in January 2019
- Images in solar opposition (January 8, 2019)
- Images towards the direction of Ryugu’s north pole (January 24, 2019)
BOX Description
(image credit: JAXA)
4. Images from the BOX-B operation
Images in solar opposition
Ryugu images from the direction of opposition. The photograph was captured at around 19:12 JST on January 8, 2019, using the Optical Navigation Camera – Telescopic (ONC-T). The white dot at the arrow tip is the target marker. The distance to Ryugu is about 20 km.
(image credit: JAXA / University of Tokyo / Koichi University / Rikkyo University / Nagoya University / Chiba Institute of Technology / Meiji University / University of Aizu / AIST)
Image captured when not in opposition (captured from approximately the same direction as in Figure 2). The photograph was taken with the Optical Navigation Camera – Telescopic (ONC-T) on July 12, 2018. The phase angle when this image was taken was about 19 degrees. The arrow tip marks the planned touchdown point.
θ: Phase angle
4. Images from the BOX-B operation
Images towards the direction of Ryugu’s north pole
Ryugu photographed with the Optical Navigation Camera – Telescopic (ONC-T) at around 16:33 JST on January 24, 2019. The northern hemisphere of Ryugu fills most of the image. The tip of the arrow indicates the intended touchdown point.
(image credit: JAXA / University of Tokyo / Koichi University / Rikkyo University / Nagoya University / Chiba Institute of Technology / Meiji University / University of Aizu / AIST)
5. Future plans
■ Scheduled operations
• Dependent on touchdown results
■ Press briefings and media events
• February 22 5:30～14:30 Press center opened @ Sagamihara Campus
• February 22 11:00～12:00 Press conference on touchdown implementation @ Sagamihara Campus
(Applications to participate in the press conference at the press center were closed on February 18)
February 22 6:30～14:30: There will be a secondary location for media at the presentation room in our Tokyo office. This location will connect to the press conference at the press center from 11:00am via video conference. Questions from this secondary venue will also be possible. The application deadline for participation from the secondary venue is February 21 at 17:00. If you wish to participate, please contact the JAXA Public Relations Department.
Reference material
Small Body Exploration Strategy
How did the Earth become rich in water and life? What is needed to maintain these conditions?
- Small bodies born outside the snowline are initially balls of icy mud (primitive comets) but can evolve into a variety of forms (e.g., primitive asteroid).
- Transport of volatiles such as water and organics to the terrestrial planet region is thought to be essential for life.
- When, which stage of evolution of these celestial bodies, and how water and organic matter was brought to the primitive Earth is explored in the following missions:
- HAYABUSA2 (asteroid)
- MMX (Martian moons)
- DESTINY+ (asteroid + cosmic dust)
- CAESAR (comet)
- OKEANOS (Jupiter Trojans)
- JUICE (Jupiter), etc.
The fleet of ISAS small body missions explores these questions.
Science of Hayabusa2: birth & evolution of the Solar System
Subjects
1. Investigate the materials that formed the planets
What materials existed in the primitive Solar System disk and how did it change before the planets were born?
2. Investigating the formation process of the planets
How do celestial bodies grow from planetoids to planets?
1 Investigating the materials that formed the planets
- The Universe is thought to have begun 13.8 billion years ago. After this, numerous elements were created during the evolution of stars and were dispersed into outer space. About 4.6 billion years ago, the Solar System was born and our goal is to clarify the types of material in space at that time.
- We aim to clarify the substance distribution in the original Solar System disk.
- After the initial celestial bodies were formed, we seek to clarify how materials evolved on these bodies.
\[ \downarrow \]
Revealing the materials that eventually became the planetary body, sea and life
Keywords:
- **Pre-solar particles**: Particles inherited from the interstellar molecular cloud that are in the Solar System.
- **White inclusions (CAI)**: Substances that record the initial high temperature state of the Solar System.
- **Mineral-water-organic matter interaction**: Diversification of organic matter in the original birthplace.
- **Thermal metamorphism • space weathering**: Changes of materials in the celestial body after its initial formation.
Volatile substances, such as water and organic matter, form on dust surfaces in molecular clouds. It is thought that these change due to aqueous metamorphism and thermal denaturation in primitive solar system discs and planetoids, eventually accumulating on Earth and providing materials for life. We will clarify what kinds of substance existed during this process.
Transition of carbon materials on dust surfaces
Interactions between materials, water, and organics
Chirality of amino acids
Life on Earth almost exclusively uses left-handed amino acids. But why?
Left-handed (L-configuration) and right-handed (D-configuration) amino acids
2 Investigating Planetary Formation
- Elucidate the structure of planetoids that eventually became planets.
- Elucidate what processes occurred during the collisions, coalescence, and accumulation of celestial bodies.
Keywords:
- **Rubble pile body**: A celestial body formed from accumulated rubble
- **Impact fragment and coalescence**: When celestial bodies collide, the resulting fragments can combine to form a new body
- **Re-accumulation**: Accumulation of fragments resulting from a collision via the force of gravity
Elucidate formation processes from planetoid to planet
Touchdown Position
The approximate position of touchdown will be the red square (■) in the figure below.
(image credit: JAXA)
Touchdown Position
The approximate position of touchdown will be the red square (■) in the figure below.
(image credit: JAXA / University of Tokyo / Koichi University / Rikkyo University / Nagoya University / Chiba Institute of Technology / Meiji University / University of Aizu / AIST)
Touchdown Position
The approximate position of touchdown will be the red square (■) in the figure below.
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DAMS BUILT FOR SAND, BUT ARE THEY THE ANSWER TO KENYAN WATER SHORTAGES?
PROBLEM
- In Kitui county, southeast Kenya, increased rainfall irregularity is leading to more instances of drought, but then when the rain does come, the area floods quicker than ever before.
- More droughts are leading to less trees and plants, further decreasing the water retention ability of the soil.
- On a human level, the water shortages have led to increased poverty levels with community members spending 5–6 hours to collect water. This disproportionately affects women and children, with children being forced to miss school and women not being able to partake in income-generating activities.
SOLUTION
- The Kenyan NGO, Sahelian Solutions Foundation (SASOL), initiated a sand dam building programme in Kitui county.
- Sand dams are an effective way of harvesting rain water, and building up stores of underground water access for local communities.
- Dams are constructed across seasonal sand riverbeds whilst they are dry. Over the course of a couple of rainy seasons and storms, sand from upstream is washed down river and gets stuck behind the dam, raising the level behind it. The higher sand levels trap water by protecting it from evaporation and contamination.
- The higher water table underneath the sand can then be accessed through wells built into the higher sand level. The water is stored and used, and then replenished every rainy season.
IMPACT
- There has been a 263% increase in households planting trees in communities that have constructed sand dams.
- The dams are providing a local source of clean water and the uptake in the use drought-tolerant seeds mean communities are becoming more resilient to climate change.
- Water collection times have been reduced to around an hour, meaning children are now able to be in classrooms more, and women now have more time to get involved with income-generating activities and careers.
COMMUNICATIONS
- Community engagement is central to the programme from the very beginning. Costs for the construction of the dams are lowered by employing the community that is benefiting from it to construct it.
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Understanding Television
WHAT IT IS AND HOW IT WORKS
discovery
development
antennas
broadcasting
receivers
programs
channels
definitions
maps
AND MANY MORE SUBJECTS
by Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr.
Understanding Television
WHAT IT IS AND HOW IT WORKS
by Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr.
a Vice President of the Radio Corporation of America, and author of The Future of Television and Radio's 100 Men of Science
This book has been written to answer the question of how television accomplishes the magic of bringing to the American home pictures in motion of important and lively events the instant they happen. It will help the layman to understand why and how he sees the President of the United States addressing Congress, a home run batted into the stands at the Yankee Stadium, or a puck flying over the ice in Madison Square Garden.
Beginning with the steps that led to television Mr. Dunlap explains the science of how you see by television: the
Best 73 to Gilbert Chase with all good wishes for many happy years in the realm of television and education!
Quin E. Dunlap, Jr.
Nov. 19, 1948.
understanding TELEVISION
WHAT IT IS AND HOW IT WORKS
by Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr.
New York
GREENBERG: PUBLISHER
Copyright 1948
by
GREENBERG : PUBLISHER
A Corporation
BOOKS BY ORRIN E. DUNLAP, JR.
Dunlap's Radio Manual
The Story of Radio
Advertising by Radio
Radio in Advertising
The Outlook for Television
Talking on the Radio
Marconi: The Man and His Wireless
The Future of Television
Radio's 100 Men of Science
Radar: What It Is and How It Works
Television expanding across the nation.
LEGEND
- TELEVISION STATIONS ON THE AIR AS OF JULY 1948
- COAXIAL CABLES INSTALLED OR UNDER CONSTRUCTION
- COAXIAL CABLES PLANNED FOR FUTURE INSTALLATION
- RADIO RELAY SYSTEMS IN USE
- RADIO RELAY SYSTEMS PLANNED
To
Dr. Joseph E. J. King
Whose inborn worth his acts commend,
Of gentle soul, to human race a friend.
# CONTENTS
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------|
| INTRODUCTION | 7-10 |
| STEPS THAT LED TO TELEVISION | 11-25 |
| HOW YOU SEE BY TELEVISION | 26-65 |
| WHAT PERFORMERS SHOULD KNOW ABOUT TELEVISION | 66-88 |
| TESTING YOUR TELEVISION I.Q. | 89-110|
| TELEVISION GLOSSARY | 111-121|
| TELEVISION STATIONS ON THE AIR | 122-123|
| TELEVISION BIBLIOGRAPHY | 124-125|
| INDEX | 126-128|
| Illustration | Page |
|--------------------------------------------------|------|
| Map-Television Expanding Across the Nation | 3 |
| Table Model Television Receiver | 14 |
| Performance of Microwaves | 18 |
| Dr. V. K. Zworykin | 24 |
| Television Camerman | 27 |
| Image Orthicon | 28 |
| Diagram of Image Orthicon Tube | 31 |
| Electrical-Radio Route of a Television Program | 33 |
| Radio Relay Station | 35 |
| Television Transmitting Antenna | 36 |
| Microwave Reflector | 39 |
| New York-Schenectady Radio Relay Link | 41 |
| 5-Kilowatt Television Power Tube | 42 |
| Kinescope | 46 |
| Projection Receiver | 47 |
| Electron Gun | 49 |
| Televising A Play | 51 |
| Television Studio | 53 |
| Control Men | 55 |
| Mobile Television Station | 57 |
| Monitoring a Field Event | 59 |
| Baseball Telecast | 61 |
| Football Telecast | 63 |
| Television Recording of Maestro Toscanini | 65 |
| Kyle MacDonnell | 68 |
| Televising National Political Convention | 70 |
| Television Camera | 76 |
| Theater Guild Telecast | 78 |
| Television Cameras in Studio | 80 |
| Television Recording of Thomas E. Dewey | 83 |
| Prizefight Telecast | 85 |
| Kinescopes on Production Line | 90 |
| Schematic Diagram of Television System | 92 |
| Large-Screen Projection Television Receiver | 94 |
| Dipole Television Antenna | 96 |
| New York-Boston Radio Relay System | 99 |
| Schematic Diagram of Niagara Falls Telecast | 101 |
| Coaxial Cable | 103 |
| Cross-Sectional View of a Radio Relay Station | 105 |
| Test Pattern | 106 |
Think of yourself blindfolded at a baseball game with somebody alongside describing each play, endeavoring through words to give you a mental picture of what is going on. That is radio broadcasting. But lift the blindfold and see the scene for yourself! That is television, with an expert sports commentator to explain every play.
Television is new as science measures Time; it is a new art, yet its name is of the ancients. *Tele* is Greek for “at a distance.” *Video* is the Latin verb meaning “to see.”
Officially, television is defined as “radio or electrical transmission of a succession of images and their reception in such a manner as to give a substantially continuous and simultaneous reproduction of an object or scene before the eyes of a distant observer.”
Marconi described it as “the highest grade in the art of communication.”
Qualifying as a science under the dictionary definition, television is “a systematic arrangement of the laws which Nature has established.” It is an “infinite complexity” of invention. It is a science made up of sciences — the combined action of light and optics, electricity and radio, physics and chemistry, electronics and photography. And as an art, it is “the external manifestation of an idea, the revelation of invisible reality through the senses.”
What television means to mankind can stir alike the imagination of schoolboy and sage. The social, economic, and recreational aspects of sitting in comfort at home and looking out upon the world, the shift from city to city for a great diversity of activities, make all the world a stage and every home a front-row seat for sports, drama, and news.
People now look upon scenes never before within their range; they see politics as practiced, sports as played, drama as enacted, news as it happens, history as it is made — they are face to face with celebrities! In 1840, weeks passed before pictures of Queen Victoria’s wedding were printed in America, but when Princess Elizabeth was wed in 1947, films were flown across the Atlantic and telecast in New York the next day. Yet, to coming generations, even that speed will seem slow, for they will see events at the hour they happen — by international television!
Just as radio brings the chirp of a bird, the buzz of a bee, the voice of the President, or the “I do” of a Princess to vibrate eardrums half a world away, so will television enable the eyes to distinguish lights and shadows, scenes and people, in action at a distance.
Radio shriveled the size of the earth; it gave new speed to sound and annihilated Time. Now television promises to put the globe in the palm of everyone’s hand, so that the eye may look around the sphere as if it were an orange. Nations shall look in upon nations. If the old adage be true that seeing is believing, then people everywhere should understand each other better, for television makes them neighbors as never before; the world enters the home as an animated panorama. No wonder that television, with its impact of scientific and social repercussion, is heralded as revolutionary as the invention of the printing press!
But it’s only a motion picture, someone may say. Yes, but it is more than that — television gives us a picture in
motion at the instant it happens. No other invention offers such a pictorial service, broadcast to the winds, to be intercepted at the will and pleasure of the public at home. Immediacy is its essence. That is its outstanding guarantee of success. Added to timeliness, television carries the picture directly into the home — and into the theater! Television events can be presented directly by large-screen theater television projectors, or they can be filmed from the picture screen of a receiver located in a theater and be processed in a few minutes for projection on the big screen.
All this in television didn’t happen overnight. This miracle of science, which challenges industry, entertainment, and education to make use of electronic vision, has passed through a long period of evolution. Men of ideas and of science — with Tennyson — “dipped into the future, far as human eye could see,” and “saw the Vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be.” As a result, science moving “slowly, slowly, creeping on from point to point,” fills the heavens with pictures, eventually for people everywhere to see!
This book is written to answer the question, “How does television accomplish this magic; how does it work?”
“It’s incredible!” exclaimed a New Yorker as he watched a television screen. “At the very instant the President addresses Congress, we see him as clearly as if we were there; we see every gesture, see him turn the pages of the manuscript, and, as he reads, it is apparent that he has not memorized any paragraph of his speech.
“When he finishes, we see him take a drink of water. As he leaves the rostrum he folds up his papers and walks down the aisle, stopping here and there to speak to friends — then disappears through the crowd of Senators and
Representatives. And to think that this scene in the Nation’s Capitol is coming to us over two hundred miles of cable and is being broadcast to us from the top of the Empire State Building! How in the world does television do it?"
It is hoped that this book will help the layman to understand why and how he sees the President so clearly; how he sees a home run as it is batted into the stands at Yankee Stadium; how he sees the football punted by a Princeton toe, a puck flying over the ice in Madison Square Garden, a tennis ball smashed across the net at Forest Hills, or the punch of a knockout blow delivered by a champion. When it happens on television, you’re there!
Only science could pack so much action and magic into fleeting seconds!
New York City.
O. E. D. Jr.
Steps That Led to Television
IT IS EASY TO UNDERSTAND THE MAGIC OF TELEVISION, IF first you remember a few simple facts about light, the human eye, and radio.
Light is described as radiant energy — a form of wave motion. Generated in the form of tiny wavelengths by the sun or other sources, light travels 186,000 miles a second! Man learned from the first page of the Bible that when the stars were made and set in the heavens, an open firmament was created through which light could reach the earth from millions of miles away. Centuries passed, however, before he began to comprehend the mystery of that light; how it came to shine upon the earth as “divine fire” from outer space — from the sun, moon, and stars.
Scientists discovered that light travels in a straight line, and that when its waves strike an object, they are either absorbed, diffused, or reflected. High absorption makes an object appear black; high reflection
makes it seem white. Color depends on the reflected wavelength; that is, the distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next. Red has the longest wavelength, about three one-hundred-thousands of an inch. Yellow is the next in length, and so on down the spectrum through green, blue, and finally violet which has the shortest wave among the colors.
Color becomes apparent when some of the wavelengths of light are absorbed while others are reflected. For example, we see only the light that is reflected from cloth. If the dye in the fabric absorbs all colors except red, then red is reflected and that is the color we see. If a combination of colors is reflected, then we see a tint.
An object, such as a house, is made of materials that absorb and reflect light to varying extents, and it presents a number of angles to the source of light. It is this irregularity of absorption, diffusion, and reflection that creates contrasts and makes objects visible. In other words, we could not see anything unless light waves behaved in this manner.
The eye is the instrument by which vision is created in the human brain. The eye acts very much like a camera in which a lens produces an image on a photographic plate or film. Light reflected from an object passes through the iris of the eye and, by the crystalline lens, is focused on a light-sensitive surface or image "screen" called the retina, at the back of the eyeball. The fluctuations in light intensity and wavelengths on the retina are relayed to the brain over the optic nerve, and
the brain integrates the messages to produce the sensation of sight.
From time immemorial people have had a desire to extend the range of their eyesight. To overcome limitations, they have used binoculars and telescopes, climbed mountains, gone atop towers, and soared in balloons and airplanes. But to achieve the goal by radio, scientists first had to find a way of duplicating the functions of the eye; second, of transmitting the intelligence thus obtained over great distances; and, third, of reproducing this intelligence in its original form at a distance.
Science found the answer. Today's television camera is an electronic "eye." It receives reflected light, transforms it into electronic energy, and passes it along for radio transmission to distant places.
Like the human eye, the television camera has an iris (lens opening), a crystalline lens (photographic lens), a retina (light-sensitive plate, or mosaic), and an optical nerve (coaxial cable and radio wave).
The television receiver is, in effect, an electronic brain. It takes the radio waves that carry television and, by electronic means, transforms their signals back into light, in quality and kind, corresponding exactly to the original reflections picked up by the television camera.
This explanation of television may seem over-simplified, but it serves as a basis for finding out what television is and how to understand it.
The popular RCA Victor table-model television receiver that gave the new industry its big start in 1947-48.
Onward to Television
Now let us recall the epoch-making steps in the history of science that gave man the clues which led him on to television.
In 1831, Michael Faraday, in his historic experiments with magnet and prisms, offered proof of a relationship between electricity and light. Could the electrical action—induction between two bodies—be conveyed by means of a field of magnetic force? What invisible, mysterious force was at work to cause electricity, coursing through a circuit, to make itself felt in another circuit or coil with which it had no contact? Was there such a thing as an all-pervading medium?
At the same time, Joseph Henry in Philadelphia "communicated orally" by what he described as "induction at a distance." Like Faraday, he was engrossed by magnetism as one of "the richer veins of science."
While these men were making discoveries that would write their names in electrical history, a Scottish lad was born in 1831 and named James Clerk Maxwell. He grew "into science," and as a youth "looking at the sun and wondering," inquisitively asked himself, "What's the go o' that?" In quest of the answer, he studied "the wonderful and mysterious power of magnetism, electricity, the flickering light of the candle, optics and chemistry"; he sifted "the grain of all electrical and magnetic phenomena from the chaff of medieval phantasy and legend." He read of "electrum" as discovered in ancient Greece, and of Christiaan
Huygen’s theory of the undulation of light in an unseen conveying medium—an airy nothing filling the interstellar space between the earth and the planets.
If space were not filled with an invisible substance, how could sunlight reach the earth? So Maxwell pondered the phenomenon of light. Fascinated by an idea that the attraction or repulsion produced by electricity and magnetism were caused by some “action at a distance”—by an invisible medium in space—Maxwell determined to solve the riddle, mathematically at least. Equations led him to conclude that light and heat were electromagnetic undulations in an invisible medium called “the ether,” which was believed to permeate the universe. Solely from mathematical reasoning he went on to predict the existence of ether waves. That was in 1867.
Nineteen years later—in 1886—Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, a German physicist, first created electromagnetic waves; he demonstrated that such invisible waves traveled at the same velocity as light and that they could be reflected, refracted and polarized like the waves of light. He concluded that if these electromagnetic waves could be made sufficiently short, they would be found actually to “wash” upon the frontiers of light.
As a result, scientists began to suspect that Maxwell’s ether was no more real than the equator, although in the Victorian era it seemed necessary to explain “action at a distance.” To see a star the eye must touch it in a sense; to hear a signal from the moon, the ear, too, would have to be connected with it, in a similar sense.
But such ideas proved to be "scientific fiction" as man became convinced that "there is no ether" as Steinmetz bluntly declared. "Radio is light," explained Tesla. The waves are "electromagnetic" as Hertz had proved. Said Sir Oliver Heaviside, "electromagnetic waves are everywhere." Then scientists, among them Sir Oliver Lodge, began to wonder if these electric waves might be made to radiate from a source of origin—and if they might be used for communication!
Enter Marconi
At the time, a young man in his teens, Guglielmo Marconi of Italy, with an ardent interest in things scientific, happened to be vacationing in the Alps when he picked up an electrical journal that told how Hertz had radiated electromagnetic waves. Why not use them for signaling through the air? Fantastic! Marconi thought otherwise; afire with the idea he rushed back to his home near Bologna to make the dream come true. In 1895, he invented a revolutionary system of communication, and declared "wireless telegraphy is possible anywhere, and it will, I think, soon be a reality in many places."
Wireless was a natural name for an invention that could send dots and dashes through the air without the use of interconnecting wires. But why limit it to the Morse code? If the waves could carry messages why should they not carry the spoken word, and even music! At the turn of the century a number of men were possessed of that idea, and they began to experiment in
Microwaves, which carry the television pictures and sound, travel on a straight line and therefore touch the earth over a limited radius of approximately 30 to 50 miles. That is why radio relay stations are used to intercept the waves and "bend" them around the curvature of the earth; and why high receiving antennas are sometimes needed to reach up to capture the overhead waves.
an effort to make wireless talk and sing. On Christmas Eve, 1906, Reginald A. Fessenden, obsessed with the radiophone idea, broadcast phonograph music and speech using the newly developed high-frequency alternator at Brant Rock, Mass. Wireless operators on ships as far away as the Virginia coast were startled by music in their earphones.
Fessenden’s experiments confirmed the belief that wireless waves were capable of carrying much more than dots and dashes. But the practical triumph of radiotelephony required development of the electron tube. John Ambrose Fleming in England had opened the way for that great forward step in 1904 when he invented the Fleming valve—the first 2-element electron tube detector of wireless waves. Then, in 1906, Lee de Forest, an American, went a step further and invented the audion—the first 3-element electron tube, which not only detects the waves but amplifies the incoming impulses and also generates the waves for transmission or broadcasting. That invention revolutionized electric communications; it was the master key to radio broadcasting. Today, approximately 36 million, or 93 per cent of all homes in the United States have radio sets; more than 2,000 broadcasting stations are on the air!
All this came to pass because scientists and radiomen are restless souls. As soon as their vision of the radiophone became a reality, their imaginations were stirred again, and they asked themselves, if radio waves could carry the voice, why not pictures. If news could be flashed by radio, was it too much to expect that a picture
of the event could likewise be sent by radio simultaneously with news dispatches? In 1922, still pictures, or radiophotos, were transmitted across the Atlantic!
Then, why not pictures in motion? Several men of radio science, convinced that this was the next big step, picked up the scanning disk which Paul Nipkow of Germany had invented in 1884, and started on the conquest of the "visible radiophone."
Dawn of Television
In the Twenties, while the sound broadcasting "craze" swept the country, a new word of promise—TELEVISION—came into print. Television challenged the ingenuity of scientists and radiomen; it became a promise that the day would dawn when people would go sightseeing through space by radio!
Fortunately, scientists and research men never let a mystery baffle them; once they see the problem in their minds it becomes only a matter of working out details and building devices to make the idea work. To them nothing is impossible. For example, in 1925, Charles Francis Jenkins, one of the earliest television experimenters, described it as a simple problem and remarked,
"There is really no mystery in the thing after all.
"Let's see whether or not I am warranted in assuming that television is a simple problem," he continued. "Let's analyze it; take it to pieces and examine it in detail.
"These are the essentials. We want a picture of a remote scene. We want it repeated fast enough to produce the motion and we want it carried into our homes from
the distant baseball park, let’s say. That’s the problem—a picture of a distant activity.
“If a man puts his head under the black cloth of an old-fashioned camera pointed at the baseball game he sees in miniature on the ground glass an exact reproduction of the game as played. It is carried by light from the baseball diamond to the ground-glass screen. That is exactly what we want, only we want it in our homes. So light working alone won’t do, because light goes only in straight lines, and obstructions cut it off. We must have some sort of a carrier which can go around obstruction and through the walls of our houses. A copper wire will do, but a wire carries only to one place. So let’s take radio! That carries everywhere.
“Now we come to the consideration of the picture,” explained Jenkins. “A picture is nothing but some black and white mixed up in a definite order. Pick up a modern photographic portrait, which is the almost perfect example we have of the delicate blending of light and dark and half-tone. Examine it analytically and you will see what I mean. But how are we going to make radio, which has carried these lights and shadows from the ballpark to our home, reproduce the ball game as the picture?
“That’s easy!” exclaimed the inventor. “Don’t you remember when we were little tykes, mother entertained us by putting a penny under a piece of paper, and, by drawing straight lines across the paper, she made a picture of the Indian appear. Well, that’s the very way we do it . . . Successive lines, one under another, are made
so swiftly (by an electron beam) that the whole screen surface is covered—in one-sixteenth of a second we have motion picture speed, and the entire screen is illuminated . . . . These radio-light variations, when they follow a predetermined order, make up the picture of the ball game, just as the humps on the penny made up a picture of the Indian as the pencil scanned it. That’s the way we make radio pictures and radio movies in your home. Easy, isn’t it!”
“Let There Be Light . . . .”
Jenkins used mechanical devices to create his television pictures. It would have been much easier if electronic means rather than mechanical had been at his command. The electron tube is far more susceptible to light than a whirling scanning disk with its rim festooned with little lenses. “Light, light and more light” was the cry of the television pioneers—they needed every “ounce” of it to make the disk scanners see, for they had no television camera tube that would see even in the moonlight!
So, in the beginning of television, light became a counterpart of sound in radio, and radiomen had to learn all they could about everything related to light, for they were embarking in science as electronic photographers! They had the arts of optics, photography and radio to draw upon, but their big task was to join the three into a revolutionary system of communication. That called for inventive genius at its best!
“Once whispers and violins challenged us,” said a radio engineer, “now lights and shadows!”
Zworykin Showed the Way
Slow, yet enchanting, was the progress. But it became increasingly evident that the practical solution would have to be found in electronics. Finally the old mechanical methods of rotating disk and motors, used by such pioneers as Jenkins, Alexanderson, Baird and others to prove that radio waves could carry pictures in motion were discarded. Electron tubes were developed to make practical "the broadcasting of sight."
The tide of progress turned from mechanical to electronic television on December 29, 1923, when Vladimir Kosma Zworykin* filed a patent application on a new tube which he called an iconoscope. Therefore, as the new name indicated, this tube was the "eye" in a television camera which would observe a scene and make it possible to televise it.
Zworykin went a step farther and developed another cathode-ray, or electron tube to receive the image as seen by the iconoscope. He called it the "kinescope"—"kinema" meaning movement in Greek. So the kinescope observes motion, and serves as a picture tube, or "screen" of a television receiver. Zworykin demonstrated the kinescope in 1924, and for the first time publicly in 1929.
One day, mindful that David Sarnoff, President of the Radio Corporation of America, was interested in
*Vice President and Technical Consultant of RCA Laboratories.
Dr. V. K. Zworykin of RCA Laboratories holding the iconoscope, which he invented as the "eye" of the all-electronic television camera.
all things new in radio, and that he had the vision to foresee their usefulness, Zworykin went to him and told him about his new electronic "eye."
Sarnoff listened intently for half an hour, and then exclaimed, "It's too good to be true! What will it cost to develop the idea?"
"Maybe about $100,000," answered Zworykin.
"All right," said Sarnoff, "it's worth it!"
Then scientists and engineers began in earnest the arduous task of developing a complete television system that would satisfy the exacting demands of the human eye.
Such a system, completely electronic, has become a reality. Carefully field-tested for three years, it was introduced in 1939 as a regular service to the public in the New York metropolitan area.* World War II interrupted its expansion as a service, but wartime developments advanced it technically, and, as a new postwar industry, television spread through the country.
In recognition of Sarnoff's vision and his continual encouragement to research as well as "the steadfastness of his leadership in face of natural and human obstacles in bringing television to its present state of perfection," the Committee on Awards of the Television Broadcasters Association in 1944 called him "The Father of American Television."
*Television receivers with 12-inch screens were put on the market by RCA, and regular broadcasting of television programs was instituted by the National Broadcasting Company from its station atop the Empire State Building.
PRODUCTION OF TELEVISION PROGRAMS, LIKE THE MAKING of motion pictures, begins with the camera.
Actually, the television and movie cameras are much alike in appearance and in their method of functioning. But their mechanisms are entirely dissimilar and that of the television camera vastly more complicated. The latter contains an electronic "eye" and more than sixty other electron tubes which are kept busy putting electrons to work.
The television cameraman looks into a view-finder, which provides him with a view of the scene and also indicates when the lens is in focus. For field use, the camera is mounted on a standard newsreel tripod; in the studio, the camera is fixed on a mobile platform popularly known as a dolly. So far the process does not differ greatly from the motion picture counterpart.
Now let us examine the "eye" upon which the
The television cameraman, looking through a viewfinder, adjusts the lens on the front of the camera which focuses the scene on the image orthicon, or electronic 'eye.' Bill Stern, sports announcer in the foreground, describes the game play-by-play.
The image orthicon, or "eye" of the television camera, is examined here by the scientists of RCA Laboratories who developed it—Dr. Albert Rose, Dr. Paul K. Weimer and Dr. Harold B. Law.
television lens focuses the scene. This electronic optic turns the picture into the electronic image which the television transmitter broadcasts in the form of radio waves.
The "eye" of the modern television camera is the image orthicon*, an electron tube which is 100 to 1,000 times more sensitive than its forerunner, the iconoscope. It resembles a 15-inch tubular flashlight with a 3-inch face, and it can see anything that the human eye can see, even in candlelight. And more miraculously, it can see in the dark if invisible infra-red rays are used to "illuminate" the scene. For example, if the camera is in a room that is "pitch dark," it will see everything in the room as if in daylight the instant an infra-red light is turned on, although a person in the room will see nothing.
Briefly, the image orthicon combines, with perfect precision, a series of three electronic actions performed by a photo-sensitive plate, an electron-image "painter," and an electron multiplier. In turn, these elements shape the scene into an electron image, then translate that pattern into electrical impulses and finally multiply the number of electrons at work so that in carrying the scene they will have sufficient electrical strength to travel over the circuits that lead to the broadcast transmitter.
*Developed by Dr. Albert Rose, Dr. Paul K. Weimer and Dr. Harold B. Law, working under the direction of Dr. V. K. Zworykin at RCA Laboratories.
Matching the Human Eye
So complex, so intricate and so delicate is the image orthicon that it must be handmade. For example, one part is a polished piece of nickel about the size of a dime with a hole through its center .0005 of an inch in diameter—one-tenth the thickness of a hair! Another element is a smaller copper mesh which has 250,000 holes to a square inch, to permit electrons to pass through to a glass plate which is only .00013 of an inch thick. In contrast to the photographic film which is covered with an emulsion that reacts chemically when light strikes it, the specially treated surface of the television plate generates an electronic reaction when exposed to light. That action produces an electrical voltage proportional to the intensity of the light.
When a scene with various degrees of brightness is focused on the plate, the areas which have no light upon them generate no voltage; those struck with strong light generate maximum voltage. The portions receiving intermediate light generate voltages to correspond. Together, they comprise an electron pattern, or image, of the scene.
Naturally, if we are to have pictures in motion this pattern must be removed to make way for the next scene. This is done by transferring the electron image, by electrical means, to the glass disk which is called the target.
But the entire image cannot be transmitted at one
Sectional view of the image orthicon camera tube showing how light from an object is converted into electrons and then into electrical signals by the action of an electron gun.
time. It must be broken down into tiny areas and changed into a continuous train of greatly magnified electrical pulses.
A pin-point beam of electrons performs that trick. Shot from an electron gun, also within the tube, the beam sweeps at incredible speed back and forth across the target in 525 accurately spaced lines. In this scanning movement, the beam picks off, one by one, the electrical charge of each little area along the lines of travel.
As the charges—some strong, some weak, according to the brightness of the part of the scene being scanned—are picked off and added to the strength of the electron beam itself, the combined electrons are pulled back by magnetic means to the electron multiplier.
It should be mentioned at this point that in the American system of television, the scanning beam does not begin at the top of the scene and work downward line by line, but instead follows an unusual pattern. That is, the first line is scanned and then the beam jumps to the third line, the fifth, seventh and so on to the bottom of the scene. It then returns to the second line and proceeds to fill in the even numbered missing lines. This is called interlacing and is done in order to eliminate the last trace of flicker effect when the picture is viewed by the human eye.
Although the electron beam, after scanning the target, contains millions of electrons, its energy is so weak that the pulses must be greatly reinforced before they leave the image orthicon. This is the function of the
The electrical-radio route which a television program follows from the studio to the receiver.
electron multiplier which multiplies the electrons about 500 times, thereby increasing the strength of the picture signal. After leaving the image orthicon, the signal is put through other electronic amplifiers which make it powerful enough to travel over either a coaxial cable or microwave relay to the television transmitter.
Once the television camera "clicks," the scene is in the home in less time than a pulse beat, although the process may be complicated and the distance long. For example, the camera in a studio at Radio City is linked with the NBC station WNBT atop the Empire State Building by coaxial cable, which runs under Fifth Avenue and up to the 85th floor of the skyscraper where the transmitter is located. Or, if the camera is at Palmer Stadium in Princeton, scanning a football game, the scene is sent over a radio beam to an automatic radio relay station at Mt. Rose, less than 5 miles away, and from there it is flashed 45 miles on a radio beam to the main transmitter at Empire State Building, in New York—all in less than a fraction of a second!
Why Lofty Antennas Are Needed
The very short waves of television travel in a straight line; in effect, like a pencil appears when placed against the surface of a basketball. In other words, the waves leave the earth on a tangent, so that usually they do not cover an area more than 25 to 50 miles in radius. Why this should be so, can best be understood by imagining a man standing on the shore looking out to
Radio relay stations with 10-foot "dish" reflectors on both sides pick up the television programs and automatically relay them to another relay station or to the main transmitter if it is within range.
Television antenna of the NBC station, WNBT, atop the Empire State Building, is 1,300 feet above the sidewalks of New York.
sea. Under no circumstances could he see an object on the water, such as a rowboat, more than four miles away. But if the man climbs a 100-foot cliff near the beach, the same object might be seen at a distance of 13 miles. On a 200-foot cliff, his viewing range would increase to about 18 miles. Therefore, the higher the transmitting antenna, the greater the area served by the transmitter.
Theoretically, the limit at which a television signal can be picked up is the area within view from the antenna elevation. For example, the antenna on top of the Empire State Building is 1,300 feet high and a line-of-sight view on a clear day is about 40 miles. But in actual operation, the television waves sometimes "bend" a trifle beyond the horizon and cover a wider radius thus explaining why New York telecasts are seen in Princeton, 47 miles away, at Poughkeepsie 68 miles, and occasionally at greater distances.
If the receiver is too far away from a television station, a higher receiving antenna must be used. For example, if someone in Pennsylvania, 90 miles or more from New York, wants to look-in on the telecasts from the Empire State Building, a high antenna is necessary to provide an approximate line-of-sight view. To demonstrate at what height the New York television waves are traveling when they reach Washington, D. C., an airplane with a television receiver on board had to go up about 18,000 feet before the pictures could be seen.
Relaying Scenes by Radio
It is obvious, therefore, that some means must be provided to "bend" the waves around the curvature of the earth, if programs are to be sent considerable distances from city to city. This need led to the development of the radio relay station and its special antennas. Some of these antennas look like large metal dishes set edgewise on tripods, towers, or atop high buildings. Others have the form of square horns. Actually they are reflectors and collectors, depending on whether they send or receive signals.
On the front of such a saucer-type antenna, and at its exact focal point, is a short rod-like projection. This is a hollow tube, called a wave-guide. When used for transmission it conducts the signal to the parabolic surface of the dish. This in turn reflects it, as a beam, on a straight line to the receiving relay station. There a similar dish-like antenna intercepts the beam and focuses it on its own waveguide, which conducts the signal to a receiver. It is then strengthened and transmitted automatically to the next distant relay point, or to a broadcast transmitter, if the latter is within range.
By being able to point the beam in a desired direction, all the energy is conserved thereby permitting the stations to operate with low power, sometimes as little as 5 watts. Placement of the reflectors on top of buildings, hills, and towers, will make it possible to relay television programs automatically from city to city on
A parabolic reflector, popularly called a "dish," is used to reflect television's microwaves in much the same way that a searchlight projects a beam. The microwave transmitter is contained in a weather-proof cylinder attached to the back of the parabola.
a nation-wide scale. As times go on, broad-band relay stations will dot the countryside, not only to carry television and radio programs, but any other form of electrical communication whether telephone or telegraph, teletype or radiophotos, including facsimiles of written or printed matter in any form, even letters, at unlimited speeds.
Standard broadcasting stations do not require such relays because their longer waves do not leave the earth on a tangent as the television waves do. Furthermore, broadcasting stations can be linked into networks by telephone wires, whereas television, which needs a wider band of frequencies than sound programs, cannot be handled by telephone wires.
Three radio relay stations connect New York and Schenectady, while seven intermediate radio relay stations on hilltops about thirty miles apart link Boston and New York. On the roof of each of these latter relay stations are four microwave antennas, two facing along the beam toward New York, two facing toward Boston. This allows for two-way operation—with one antenna of each pair for transmitting, the other for receiving. These antennas are ten-feet square and incorporate a metal magnetic lens capable of focusing the microwave signals into a sharp beam. At each station there are repeaters, or amplifiers, to keep the signals at proper strength for relaying to the next station.
At the main telecast station, the incoming radio imNew York-to-Schenectady radio relay link showing how the ultra-short-waves are "bent" across the Catskill Mountains.
Dr. Dayton Ulrey examines the 5-kilowatt power tube developed by RCA, the first electron tube of its kind for transmission of both television sight and sound.
pulses are again amplified and are fed into the transmitter which modulates, or forms, the picture on the outgoing broadcast waves.
Each television channel is 6 megacycles wide—600 times the width of the channel used by a standard broadcasting station. In this 6-megacycle path, sound and sight travel side-by-side. For example, over WNBT New York, the sound is on the 71.75 megacycle channel and the picture is on 67.25 megacycles. A slight separation of the two signals avoids interference. The sound portion of the program is transmitted by FM (frequency modulation), which is the standard method of transmission and reception adopted for television sound.
The Coaxial Cable
Paralleling the development of television and radio relay stations is the coaxial cable, originally developed for telephone purposes. Such a cable connects New York and Washington and is being extended across the continent, so that by 1953 Californians may be looking in on Broadway, and New Yorkers on Hollywood. This new artery provides the wide channel required for television. Incidentally, its eight one-way, or four two-way channels can handle 1,650 telephone conservations simultaneously. Supplemented by radio relay stations, this cable will make it possible to cover the country with television networks, just as telephone wires make up such a web for sound broadcasting stations.
At the Receiver
When the television wave leaves the transmitter, laden with sound and sight, it radiates in all directions, like the ripples on a pond when a stone strikes the surface.
The waves are plucked from space at the home receiver by an antenna—as in broadcasting. This television antenna is known as a dipole. For ordinary reception a so-called "single dipole antenna," which comprises two rods about 40 inches long placed end-to-end about 2 inches apart, is generally used. But a single dipole is not always adequate, especially when undesired reflected signals cause "ghosts," or multiple images. In such cases a "double dipole" may be the solution. This is more sensitive than the "single" one. Both of these antennas are "bi-directional," that is, they receive signals broadside from two directions.
In some locations where man-made static, or "ghosts," are particularly troublesome, another set of rods called reflectors are placed directly behind the dipoles. These reflectors stop the signals coming from the rear of the dipoles, and enhance the desired signals. In locations where the incoming signal is especially strong, the antenna may be placed indoors; but the outdoor antenna is generally recommended for best reception. Incidentally, if snow appears to be falling in a television picture, it may be caused by a weak signal; an improved or higher antenna may eliminate the "snow," and clear up the picture.
The Kinescope
When the incoming waves—both sound and sight—strike the receiving antenna, they cause radio frequency currents to flow down the lead-in wire to the receiving set. The latter is more complex than an ordinary sound radio set, for it is a combination sound-sight receiver designed to reproduce both the picture and its associated sounds. It is a mechanism of intricate circuits, using from twenty-one to forty-eight electron tubes. The main one is the kinescope, or picture tube.
The picture may be viewed directly, if the fluorescent face of the tube is placed on the front of the cabinet, thus serving as its own "screen." That is called "direct viewing." Or the kinescope may be arranged inside the cabinet so that the picture, magnified by lenses and mirrors, is projected on a special screen distinct from the tube face. This is known as a "projection receiver."
In the projection receiver, a special kinescope about four to five inches in diameter is suspended in the console with the fluorescent face of the tube pointing downward toward a bowl-shaped mirror. As the brightly lighted television image appears on the tube face, the light passes downward striking the mirror, which, in turn, reverses the direction of the light beam toward the tube. Surrounding the kinescope like a broad thin collar, is a special lens made of molded plastic, called a correcting lens. The reversed image passes through this lens, which corrects any distortion caused by the
The kinescope, or picture tube, on the fluorescent face of which the television picture appears; an electron gun in the long neck of the tube generates, controls and focuses the electron beam that "paints" the picture on the "screen."
Television takes its place as the "theatre of the home"; this projection receiver presents a picture 15- x 20-inches.
spherical mirror, and then strikes a flat mirror tilted at 45 degrees. The latter reflects the television picture onto the rear of a translucent screen in the front of the console.
Although the original picture on the small projection kinescope may not be larger than two by three inches, the bowl-shaped mirror enlarges the image to 15 by 20 inches for home receivers, and even to much larger dimensions for auditoriums and theatres.
The funnel-shaped kinescope tube in any case has a flat face or "screen," coated with fluorescent materials which glow when bombarded by electrons. This kinescope, like the camera tube, also has an electron gun in its long glass neck. The electron beam in the kinescope is synchronized precisely with the electron beam in the camera's image orthicon tube. Again, an electron beam "paints" the picture. The incoming television signal varies the intensity of the beam and thereby forms the varying lines of light which make up the picture, as this "paint brush" sweeps across that fluorescent screen. No mechanical "brush" could be moved fast enough, but a beam of electrons can, because it is weightless.
This movement has to be performed at high speed, to "fool" the eye. A motion picture shows twenty-four different pictures, or frames, each second. Television projects thirty frames a second. Such a rapid succession of photographic images creates the illusion of continuous motion and helps to avoid flicker. Even at that rate, flicker would be objectionable were it not for
The electron gun, when sealed in the tubular neck of the kinescope, generates the pencil-like electron beam, or television "paint brush", which sweeps with incredible speed across the fluorescent face of the tube to "paint" the picture.
the fact that the human eye retains an image for a fraction of a second. That is called persistence of vision.
With thirty separate pictures flashed on the screen each second, the observer perceives a continuous motion. It is interesting to note that the television picture tube itself also has this persistence of vision—when you turn off the receiver you may notice a faint after-glow of the picture remaining for an instant on the fluorescent face of the tube.
Microphone Picks Up the Sounds
Television would be a silent picture, if it did not have the roar of the crowds at the ball game or the voices of the actors in the studio. Silent television would never do in this age of talking motion pictures! People have become so accustomed to radio sound that the sound accompaniment of the telecast is taken for granted. The picture may be the main interest, but turn off the sound and notice how lifeless and uninteresting the silent picture becomes!
Having mastered the handling of sound in the art of broadcasting and motion pictures, it was not difficult for radio scientists to couple it with television pictures.
How the Program Is Put Together
In television as in the movies, the microphone, like the camera, is kept out of the picture. In radio broadcasting the mike has always held the center of the stage, and has become a symbol of the art. Not so in television;
Televising the Theatre Guild play, "John Ferguson", with Thomas Mitchell (sitting on the right) in the stellar role.
its actors do not stand in a fixed spot and hover around a microphone. The mike must follow the players, so television has adopted the Hollywood technique of hanging the microphone on the end of a long movable boom, out of range of the camera lens.
So closely is television related to filmdom that the completely equipped television studio also has a projection room, for films and slides are an integral part of the art. Movies and slides enhance the flexibility of television; they are ideal for transitions, for creating moods and for setting the scene. For example, a film view of Niagara might set the locale for a honeymoon; or a picture of the pyramids might create Egyptian atmosphere for a studio drama related to the Nile. Films are to television what recordings are to sound broadcasting. They are particularly useful in presenting the advertising message between the acts, the innings and the rounds. Films are televised by projecting them on the light-sensitive plate of a camera "eye" in the same way that a live scene is focused on the plate.
In the Studio
Every studio, whether it be radio or television, has a nerve center, or control room. There the television program is "edited"; it is the "cutting room," where camera shots are fitted together. But there is no time in television for retakes. The director must take what the cameras see at the spur of the moment; the program is on the air!
Scene in the NBC television studio, New York; note the microphone suspended on a boom, and the cameras that travel on dollies.
Those who have attended studio broadcasts have seen the control men at work in glass enclosed booths. Every field event—baseball, parades, hockey and the like—also has control men nearby with portable equipment. So it is with television. In the NBC television studio at Radio City, the control room is elevated above the studio floor to permit the directors and engineers to have a direct view of the performance.
In the control room the normal operating personnel comprises five specialists—Program Director, Technical Director, Video Engineer and two Audio Engineers, one of whom plays recordings when needed. These men not only put the show together but control the picture quality, switch from camera to camera, produce novel visual effects, regulate the sound and do all sorts of tricks. They sit before viewing screens, which in effect are receiving sets for each camera—one is used for "on-the-air" observation, one for previewing forthcoming shots, and one for exclusive use of the Video Engineer, who also is provided two smaller screens, or oscilloscopes, which present a graphic report on operating conditions. To a layman it looks like a cobweb of bright lines but to the engineer it reveals just how the circuits are functioning.
The Program Director, or Producer, sits at a console or operating desk which permits him to concentrate on the production of the show, unbothered by technical details. During rehearsal and "on-the-air," he uses a microphone to communicate with his Program Assistant.
on the studio floor. In the NBC television studio at Radio City, the Director speaks through a special low-power transmitter; his assistant below on the studio floor carries a small radio receiver, which operates a tiny earphone that resembles a hearing aid. The "Pocket Ear," as this device is called, is a vest-pocket size radio using small batteries and even smaller tubes. It weighs only a pound. Wherever he moves on the stage, the assistant is thus enabled to cue the actors, cameramen and other crew members and to direct sound effects, while maintaining continuous contact with the Program Director in the control room.
Signals reach the tiny receiver from a high-frequency transmitter installed in the studio ceiling. Although the transmitted power is less than 1/10 of a watt, it is sufficient to give clear reception in any part of a large studio. But it is too weak to cause interference beyond the studio walls.
There is also a cue system leading from the Technical Director in the control room to the cameramen who are similarly equipped with small rubber earphones. Still another cue circuit permits the Audio Engineer to pass instructions to the operator of the microphone boom. And, of course, there are skilled electricians to handle the lights under the supervision of a Light Direction Engineer who is an expert on illumination.
In the Field
In the same way, the cameraman in the field has
Control men in a room adjacent to the television studio manipulate the knobs that monitor the contrast and regulate the lights and shadows of the television picture before it goes on the air.
The mobile television unit is virtually a "television studio on wheels." While the cameras telecast the scene, the 4-foot "dish" reflector relays the signals to the main station. Mounted in the rear is an operating desk for the monitoring controls and power supplies, while directly below the rectangular window are six cable reels which permit easy winding and unwinding of the camera cables.
plenty of support from a staff of technicians. Televising events indoors or outdoors is no one man’s job. For instance, in picking up a baseball game at the Polo Grounds or Yankee Stadium, the television crew on the spot comprises about fifteen experts including the engineers who monitor the picture and sound. Behind the scenes, in a room under the grandstand or in the mobile television vans outside the sports arena, they watch the images on a screen similar to that used by the standard television receiver. By manipulating knobs they regulate the lights and shadows. Their aim is to send out a sharp, clear picture with normal contrast. The control man is master over the picture in much the same way that the control man who manipulates the knobs at sound broadcasting stations handles the artistry of the musician and the conductor, the singer and the orator.
Alongside the control men are two important experts—the Technical Director and the Field Program Director. They have before them three or four viewing screens. These men are rarely in a position actually to watch the event being telecast; they look upon the game just as if they were viewers at home.
Both of these Directors are in phone communication with the cameramen, and there may be three or more cameras at a baseball or football game. Further assisting is the Commentator, who is located near the camera, and an Assistant Program Director who is in direct contact with the Director. He assists in relaying inControl operators inside the telemobile station monitor the pictures of field events before the scenes are relayed to the main television station.
structions to the busy announcer and cameraman, and spots interesting sidelights for both the cameraman and Commentator, or brings guests up to the camera to be televised.
The Program Director, through the Technical Director, tells the cameramen where to point the cameras and what scenes to pick up. As he gives the word, the Technical Director pushes a button that automatically puts the image being focused by a particular camera on the air for the telecast. Throughout the game he literally puts the show together as the cameras are quickly shifted from close-ups to long shots so as to cover every play. Obviously, these men must be "quick on the trigger"; they work with split-second precision and make decisions in a flash. Yet they do it so smoothly that the distant observer has no idea of all the button pushing and camera switching that goes on to keep the game on the air as a continuous picture. Through the keen eyes and quick work of these men the televiwer at home sees many plays and sidelights which the average sports fan misses, even in a grandstand seat.
At the World Series, or any big league game, one camera is in an upper box directly behind home plate affording a straight-line view of the pitcher, batter, and catcher. A second and third camera are placed in a box half-way between the home plate and first base; one for long shots and panoramic views and the other for plays along the baselines.
At football games, two cameras are usually located
Television gives baseball a vast audience counted in numbers never dreamed of in the days when Christy Mathewson was on the mound.
high up in the stands, near the 50-yard line, and a third is placed at a vantage point where crowd activities are likely to be interesting.
At a prizefight, such as the Louis-Walcott bout in Madison Square Garden, four cameras are used in the balcony, about 80 feet from the ring; all can be trained on the ring but one is used chiefly for panoramic views of the arena.
To follow the football down the gridiron, to see the home run drop into the bleachers, to watch the prize-fighter in the ring, the parade on Fifth Avenue, the political candidate on the platform or the actor on the stage, is to realize that television is another, and for the moment the newest, miracle of radio.
And in the spotlight of television, music also reveals that it has visual charms; it plays to the eye as well as to the ear. When Arturo Toscanini first waved his baton across television screens in directing the NBC Symphony Orchestra, he opened a new era in the evolution of musical performances.* The 81-year-old maestro proved to be a dramatic television personality for his face and hands were eloquently telegenic coupled with the grandeur and grace of the rhythmic motion of the baton. The television audience looked directly into his face, caught every expression and every gesture. First, they saw him close-up and then by a touch of electronic magic, the orchestra appeared in the background, first as a complete ensemble and then in groups as the score
*March 19, 1948
The television camera with its telephoto lens, although some distance back from the gridiron, gets a close-up view of the Army-Navy game; usually three, or more, cameras are used for football.
called for musical emphasis by one row of musicians and then another.
In superimposing one television scene on another, in this manner, two cameras are trained on the individual subjects, for instance, one on the maestro and the other on the orchestra. A Technical Director in the control room, watching the images picked up by the separate cameras, turns knobs which allow both scenes to go out on the air together. When desired, either of the two images may be faded in or out to produce the most pleasing effect. At the same time, the brightness of each scene is adjusted to give the proper balance so that one image will not obscure the other.
Greatly impressed by the television performance of Toscanini and the NBC Symphony Orchestra of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, Olin Downes, music critic of The New York Times, remarked, “We are at the beginning now of a vast new era of scientific development which will affect the arts as it will affect all living... Television will bring music by visual as well as audible means nearer to people than has ever happened before in history. This will apply to all specialties of musical performance, and develop more intimacy between the interpreter and the listener than would otherwise be possible.” And he added, in the words of the poet, “The seen is proved by the unseen and the unseen is proved by the seen.”
Maestro Arturo Toscanini as photographed directly from the face of a kinescope or television picture tube.
What Performers Should Know About Television
While the spectator has a consuming interest in the magic of television, the performers who are being televised must also learn more about the workings of this new art. It behooves the politician, as well as the actor, comedian, singer, teacher, newscaster, and commentator, to study television and comprehend how its cameras can be most effective for him. His "radio personality" alone is not sufficient. He must be telegenic. He must revise old formulas, and heed the simple rule that Franklin D. Roosevelt followed so successfully in the era of sightless radio: "Be natural, be yourself!"
For more than twenty-five years, the twenty-six letters of the alphabet have been the bullets of verbal broadcasting. But those days are gone. Now the spoken word by itself, while still important, is not the sole factor in influencing public opinion. A man's personality, his face, clothes, the way he wears his necktie, and the manner of the man himself is of new and cumulative
significance. His appearance and his behavior more than ever are in the public eye. Even the decorum of those near the speaker is under constant scrutiny. One observer who watched the people in the background of an important national event noted that while a clergyman was delivering the invocation, a spectator behind him chewed gum in rhythm with the prayer.
Radio broadcasting has had an uncanny way of testing the sincerity of a speaker. Television doubles that uncanniness. Television’s electronic eye makes a picture of everything; it reveals hokum like an x-ray. Ear and eye together are not easily fooled. The eye creates vivid, personal impressions—it sees people as they are; spots unnaturalness and exposes artificiality. No longer is it enough to “get the ear of the people”; the eye, too, is to be reckoned with.
**Be Yourself**
Television is a medium of informality and intimacy. Character and personality no longer are “painted” by words alone; seeing is believing—and that is television’s strength. More than ever before, one’s face is one’s fortune. A natural smile may be worth many a dollar!
Like a new comet, Kyle MacDonnell appeared on television in 1948 to become the talk of the TV firmament, acclaimed as “television’s first new star.” Why? Because she was natural in every gesture; her cheerful smile, her songs, and her action were of “living-room
Kyle MacDonnell, acclaimed as television's first new star, has the essence of naturalness.
quality.” She appeared on the television screen as naturally and graciously as if she had actually joined the family circle. Naturalness, intimacy, and friendliness are her halos of success. She is telegenic! Radio, stage, and screen are not so dependent on naturalness, intimacy, and simplicity as is television.
Thus, because television differs from every other medium, the performer who asks “What are the essentials for popularity?” must first realize that television is the art of scanning and transmitting scenes exactly as they appear to the eye. To be natural is the keynote.
On television characters must fit the parts; scenes must fit the story. Television has no place for the “paper actor”; he must live the part, not read it. A pretty young actress reading a script can play the part of grandma on the radio, but on television grandma must look like grandma.
Television is not the silver screen; it’s a living room show. And for that reason televiewers are an audience of critics. They feel the right to criticize because they are the judges of what they want to see in their own homes.
**What Politicians Learned**
If there had been any uncertainty that television was destined to have a tremendous impact socially and politically, such thoughts were dispelled by the performance of television at the 1948 national political conventions. Before politicians entered the arena at Philadelphia, they were aware that radio itself had
Television cameras scanned the 1948 national political conventions and revealed to the politicians that their old radio techniques, appealing only to the ear, had to be revised to attract the eye as well.
shortened speeches, killed long harangues, and years ago put an end to the spellbinder and hell-roaring oratory.
When the deliberations were over, the same politicians had discovered that television is an even stronger promoter of brevity in speech. It calls for more showmanship and action, and demands less talk. No Demosthenes of television has yet appeared to hold an audience for an hour, or a half hour; the wise man of today condenses his message to 10 or 15 minutes at the most. A veteran politician in estimating that radio had trimmed convention speeches by two-thirds, said that he looked for television to cut them down another third.
Many were the lessons learned about television at Philadelphia. Editorially, The New York Times observed:
Television made its convention debut in 1940 when Wendell Willkie was nominated by the GOP. This year (1948) the proceedings were more elaborate. There were instructions such as "take the toothpick out of your mouth," "keep your clothes neat," "don't take off your shoes." Still, the directors of the great television show could not foresee everything. Even though they had just risen from a barber's chair, the Governors, Senators, and favorite sons who presented themselves before the video camera looked as unshaven as Bill Sikes in his worst moments. While orators tried to impress 10,000,000 televisionaires scattered all over the country, men and women behind the cameras chatted about the heat or read newspapers with magnificent indifference.
Only a few had prepared themselves—Governor Dwight Green by acquiring an ultraviolet light tan, many of the women by dabbing themselves with make-up and dressing in dark clothes relieved by white frills around the neck. Since convention speeches were broadcast for the first time in 1924, keynoters have had to consider their voices; now that television has come they will have to consider their double chin and their wilted collars. . . .
At the close of the convention, a Times writer further commented on television’s effect on the delegates:
Flashes of real emotion were exceptional. Most of the time the cheers were pumped up and kept going with visible effort. Among the reasons for the lack of enthusiasm, as conspicuous at the nomination of Warren this morning as in the long-drawn-out demonstration for Dewey last night, is the effect of television in blocking communication between the people in the hall and the people on the stage. When all the play and parade are directed to the spectators outside, and the speakers pose, gesticulate and make up for faraway eyes, the delegates become sightseers or scenery instead of participants in a deliberative assembly.
President Truman appeared at the Democratic National Convention in a white suit and dark tie, which incidentally, seems to be ideal masculine garb for the television cameras. His appearance was rated as “probably his most impressive since assuming office." Warned by radiomen that a speaker cannot project his personality over television if his head constantly bobs up and down over a script, Mr. Truman introduced a semi-ad lib format. He used a minimum of written notes and relied chiefly on extemporaneous remarks which enlivened his address with spontaneity and change of pace.
On the other hand, it was noted that those who read from prepared scripts were greatly handicapped in gaining visual interest, since the tops of their heads were in view most of the time.
**How the Critics See It**
Television has created a new crop of critics, who have found much to talk about, especially as a result of their watching the political conventions. Some of their observation might be frightening to performers. For example, one reviewer remarked that television "brings you the babble, the heat, the crowd, the chaos, without much information." But television transmits the heat only to the eye. The members of the video audience, who lounge at ease in comfortable seats, realize how fortunate they are to be away from the arena, for the wiping of brows, the fanning of faces, and complaints about the humidity demonstrate vividly that "there's no place like home." There is no denying, of course, that television does bring along the babble, excitement, and pictures of the screeching crowd, but that adds realism to the constant flow of informationnews as it happens! As one writer described it, television is "a new dimension in reporting."
Some newspaper reporters saw indications that television might change their technique, as one reporter said, "Some windbag gets up and yammers for an hour. We cut it and trim it, put it in shape and it reads fairly well the next day. But on television a windbag is a windbag and the people at home aren't going to miss it. We'll have to change the tone of our stuff to fit what these people see."
Several critics complained of the merciless lights, unaware that the excessive brilliance was not required for television but for the movie cameras; television's image orthicon camera operates with normal lighting. The critics also suggested that politicians, as well as entertainers, ought to use make-up; they noted that otherwise beautiful women may be turned into witches. And there was a general observation that the majority of men who face the camera look as if they need a shave. Women are told that if they are to be a "vision of glamour," they must use special make-up, and that they must devote more attention to the style and color of their dresses. It was remarked rather discouragingly by a critic that on the television screen the dress of one female politico looked like "a wrinkled gunny sack with busted eggs smeared on it."
In answer to such criticism, television producers suggest that apparently many of the critics did not have their television receivers properly adjusted. Or possibly
the critics were merely looking for oddities to write about, much as radio critics in the Coolidge era commented—when listening to an inefficient loudspeaker—that the candidate’s teeth appeared to rattle, that he had laryngitis, or that he sounded as if he were talking in a cave.
Television experts smile at much of the comment directed at their art; they find consolation in the old expression that “the camera doesn’t lie.” They are quick to admit that those who face the camera must cooperate by looking their best, taking all the advantages possible from dress and make-up. If gestures seem awkward and ill-matched, it is not because of television. Or if the face looks wrinkled, television may not be entirely to blame. Lighting effects are, of course, important and as the television producers learn more and more about lights and shadows, they will overcome some of the odd effects, such as a wrinkle “magnified into a deep gulley,” or a double chin that looks triple.
And the producers agree that every man should face the camera cleanly shaved. The higher response of the television “eye,” or camera tube, to infra-red rays emphasizes the “whisker effect” by “seeing” below the skin. Pancake make-up helps not only to remove 5-o’clock shadow but lessens the shadow-effect of facial lines. Incidentally, it is this infra-red sensitivity that often makes tuxedo lapels look gray, compared with the rest of the garment. This contrast is caused by the difference in the textures and dyes of fabrics.
The television camera is a complicated instrument that uses, in addition to the main electronic "eye", more than 60 other electron tubes.
Tricks in Technique
While the televisionaire has an academic interest in knowing what television is and how it works, the performer, whether entertainer or speaker, has a professional interest. If the latter is to adapt himself to the new art he must know the tricks and techniques of telecasting.
The actor cannot step over to television directly from Hollywood or Broadway without change of technique. Neither can the radio performer or the orator step from the microphone to the camera without careful preparation. First, it must be realized that television is a new medium and a new art form. It achieves something which no other medium can—it travels directly into the home as a talking picture in motion. Of equal importance, it moves into the living room to be seen by all members of the family; it reaches people in all walks of life and of all ages.
Television is homey. Actors are warned that they must face the shattering truth that few, if any, plays can be televised directly from the stage. The theatre is for an audience having a night out, for which they pay admission. Television on the other hand is intended for millions of small audiences having a night at home free. The difference in result, as a critic described it, is astonishing.
A direct-from-the-stage telecast as viewed at home made every effect too broad, every gesture too expanJanet Beecher and Leo Carroll as they appeared in the Theatre Guild's television adaptation of "The Late George Apley"; note the microphone overhead to pick up the sound.
sive, every tone too emphatic. When the leading actress flounced gaily upon the stage and shouted a remark to a character within a few feet of her, it was perfectly clear to the television audience that she was not addressing the character but flinging her voice to the gallery. The gallery folk responded as did the entire theatre. But not the television audience! They saw her close-up, seemingly only a few feet away. The emphasis of the stage was unnecessary. In fact, the effect, as the television critic sensed it, was "like somebody bringing down a sledge hammer on a button, and very much the same as when a misguided politician uses his mass meeting manner when talking to a radio audience."
On several occasions, attempts have been made to televise a radio studio show at the same time it was being broadcast; generally such telecasts have failed despite the fact that star radio performers were on the program. A group of radio actors hovering around a microphone reading scripts make a silly and unnatural performance for television; it lacks spontaneity and appears false as well as amateurish. Of course, it would be easier and less expensive to broadcast and telecast a show simultaneously, but nine times out of ten it cannot be done successfully anymore than the filming of a Broadway play directly from the stage would produce a good film performance.
Already, therefore, television has proved itself a new dramatic medium with its own possibilities, its own
Television cameras scanning a program in a studio at Radio City.
writers, producers and performers, its own techniques and its own plays. Indeed, television is the combining of many arts into a new one that is distinctive in itself. Stardom on the stage, screen or radio is no sure qualification for television stardom.
The rules of the game are relatively simple, more so in many instances than in radio broadcasting which calls for an appeal to the imagination; success in radio programming is often found in the creation of illusion. Not so in television. The eye is on duty as a window to the brain. The imagination is no longer prompted to action by mere sound. Pictures tell the story; little is left for the imagination.
Some Do’s and Don’ts
Television is too young an art to have formulated all of its “Do’s and Don’ts.” Nevertheless, there are a number of self-evident truths to guide both artists and telecasters.
1. All Performers—be natural, be yourself, be sincere!
2. Speakers will seem far more natural and will hold their audiences more effectively if they speak extemporaneously, or at least appear to. Reading from a manuscript with the head down and eyes fixed on the paper instead of looking at the audience creates a disastrous effect; many in the audience become bored and lose interest. It is realized, however, that the great advantages of a prepared speech are not to be overlooked. But they can be used on television if handled
intelligently and if the speaker is more intent upon his audience than on his script. Those who would read a prepared script will do well to emulate Thomas E. Dewey for he has mastered that art to perfection. In fact, it almost seems that he is speaking without notes or manuscript.
3. Actors should memorize their parts and act them naturally; they must cast aside the radio script and act with stage and screen techniques adapted for television.
4. Comedians should not perform on television without a studio audience. On the radio, the garb, facial gestures, laugh provoking antics and gestures have gone for naught, but now there is opportunity to use these vital props. With a studio audience, the comedian gains the added advantages of laughter, applause, cues for the proper timing of jokes and other emotional reactions which are infectious. The audience enthusiasm generated in the studio spreads to the television audience.
5. Sports commentators should not over-talk; they must remember that the audience is seeing the event too, and that it has seen every play and fistic blow before the commentator can describe it. Sidelights and explanations that will help the audience to understand and enjoy the game are the commentator’s specialties; he need not go into such details as to mention that the pitcher is winding up, but to tell who is warming up in the bull pen is an interesting bit of information. The commentator cannot go wrong if he thinks of
This picture, known as a television recording, was photographed directly from the face of a kinescope picture tube and reveals how Thomas E. Dewey, although using a prepared speech, gives little evidence to the audience that he is reading a manuscript. He looks straight at the television audience as if speaking face to face.
himself sitting alongside a friend in the grandstand or bleachers. Above all, he should not talk too much.
6. Audience—those present at an event being televised should remember television cameras may scan them at unsuspected moments, and that they will be seen afar. Therefore, those who are on the platform with a speaker or entertainer should show an interest and be enthusiastic, for the televisionaires may take their cue from them. If the visible audience appears bored and uninterested, its negative reactions may be infectiously broadcast to the telefans. If a person on the platform is reading a newspaper or smelling a bouquet, instead of listening to the speaker, he unwittingly may help to ruin the efforts of the speaker. Audience behavior and appearances within range of the television camera take on a new and candid significance; members of the audience are part of the show and should act accordingly.
7. Singers—television, for the majority of vocalists, is more difficult than radio broadcasting. No matter how golden the voice, it is now accompanied through space with a visual personality. The singer must be more of an actor than on the radio, remembering that he or she is entertaining the eye as well as the ear. For diversity to avoid monotony, the cameras should shift to pick up different views of the singer in order to add interest and variety that will fascinate the eye.
8. Musicians as soloists or in groups, can be interestingly presented on television provided the camera shots
The prizefight is ideal for television since the scene is well illuminated in an area of limited action; here the camera (lower left) scans a Louis-Walcott fight.
are varied; close-up views can illustrate their art and techniques. Television offers the instrumentalist an opportunity to be an actor as well as a musician.
9. Conductors—rhythmic motion, dramatic appeal and facial expressions are features that enliven pictures of the maestro. The electronic "eye" must be shifted to see him from various angles, to show the spirited movement of his arms and hands as well as his facial expressions and dynamic action. Added pictorial interest is gained as the camera sweeps from the conductor to the orchestra, to individual artists, and to the soloist. Also the trick of superimposing one picture on another offers unique effects. As an outstanding example, Maestro Arturo Toscanini has displayed every qualification for television. His artistry has set a superb pattern—a picture that dramatically holds the eye while the grandeur of the music enchants the ear.
10. Magicians—television comes to them as an ideal art for they are trained to entertain the eye, and they are the only ones, so far, qualified to fool it without losing favor with the audience.
11. Cartoonists—television brings them new opportunity in animation, but there must be showmanship and entertainment in the performance. Caricatures, comics and marionettes all find new life in television.
12. Newscasters should be timely and straightforward. To hold attention and to inject added interest, illustrations, maps and charts are often helpful. The newscaster should talk naturally, without the dramatic voice
styles which have characterized broadcast announcers and many news commentators. Above all, he should acquire a technique in reading bulletins which creates the impression that he is talking directly to the viewer as an individual without too obvious references to his script.
13. Educators—television brings them great opportunity in that vision accounts for 90 per cent of all learning; the other four senses combined contribute only 10 per cent. But television teachers must not neglect showmanship; they must dramatize and vitalize their lessons and give them increased attractiveness through reality and pictorial timeliness. Television is one of the most potent teaching aids ever developed for both school and mass education. It has tremendous potentialities—unlimited opportunity for illustrated lectures, travelogues, documentary films, demonstrations, and current events. Television brings greater animation, reality and pictorial timeliness into teaching and vastly expands radio’s range of teachable topics.
14. Quiz Groups should be prepared to anticipate the questions and to avoid delays caused by slow thinking. For example, if the program is a book review telecast, the book should be thoroughly studied in advance, not merely spot read. An “Americana” program calls for knowledge of history and current events. Such programs are generally unrehearsed and therefore, the participants must be well informed, widely read, and alert. Erudition and poise are the essentials. Members
of such groups should think of themselves as meeting with friends in a living-room rather than as participants in a public forum or debate, and abstain from theatrics.
15. Sponsors—commercially television, with its widespread power for personal demonstration of products and marked ability to consummate sales, has created a new art form in advertising and merchandising. By so doing it aims to achieve what Hollywood never dared to do, or was convinced that it couldn’t. Television for its revenue clings to the radio technique of sponsorship, while the films depend upon the box-office. Telecasters must be subtle in approach and be careful not to oversell; they must adhere to being natural and depend upon showmanship and brevity to make commercials entertainingly telegenic.
Testing Your Television I.Q.
Q. What is television?
A. Radio broadcasting of pictures in motion and associated sound, for reception at a distance.
Q. How is it done?
A. An electronic television camera translates light images into electrical impulses which the television transmitter broadcasts with the associated sound. The telecast is then picked up by a television receiver and the same pictures and sound are recreated on the screen and by the loudspeaker of the television set.
Q. What is a camera tube?
A. The electron tube, or “eye”, used in a television camera. This tube reacts to light rays focused on its face by a photographic lens on the front of the camera. It converts the light rays into electrical impulses. Lighting conditions at the scene of the broadcast determine which type of tube is used. These tubes are known as the iconoscope and the image orthicon.
Kinescopes, television picture tubes, on the production line at the RCA plant, Lancaster, Pa.
Continuous Lehr type Annealer used to remove strain from glassware by heating glass above annealing point and lowering gradually to temperature below strain point.
Q. What is a kinescope?
A. The picture tube in a television set. It reconverts the electrical impulses sent out by a television station into the same pictures seen by the television camera tube.
Q. What is video?
A. This term, the Latin word “to see”, is sometimes used in place of the word “television”. Technically, it refers to that portion of the television signal that carries the television picture.
Q. How is the sound part of a television broadcast handled?
A. Sound is picked up by regular microphones and broadcast simultaneously with the television picture. The results are perfect co-ordination between picture and sound.
Q. How good is television sound?
A. Excellent; FM (frequency modulation), which is the standard method of transmission and reception of the sound in television, operates on the higher radio frequencies which have a natural freedom from static and other interferences. It is capable of providing high fidelity service.
Q. What is a telecast?
A. A television broadcast.
Q. How well developed is television?
A. It is a highly developed product of science... ready for you to enjoy! RCA introduced it to the public in 1939 at the New York World’s Fair. Today, pictures
Simple schematic diagram illustrating the television system.
are bright, clear, steady... the result of more than a quarter century of research and development—a project that cost millions of dollars.
**WHAT IT COSTS?**
*Q.* What do I have to pay for a television set?
A. Prices vary from approximately $150 to $2,700, depending upon the type of receiver, size of picture and style of cabinet—table model or console. An average price for a home-receiver is $400 including cost of antenna and installation.
*Q.* How many tubes are in a television set?
A. From 21 to 48 tubes, depending upon the model.
*Q.* How long will these tubes last?
A. The best answer to this question is the fact that there are television sets which have been in operation from five to seven years without requiring tube replacements.
*Q.* How much does it cost to operate a television set?
A. Usually less than 1c per hour to operate... less than an electric iron.
**ABOUT TELEVISION PICTURES**
*Q.* How big are the pictures on a television set?
A. Models currently offer screens in three sizes. One is 8½ inches by 6¾ inches presenting a 52-square-inch picture produced on the face of a 10-inch picture tube; a 16-inch tube offers a 10x13¼-inch picture. The third, or projection type receiver, has a large screen, 15 by
How a large-screen projection television receiver works: Broken lines indicate the path of light beams from a single picture element on the face of the cathode ray receiving tube to a corresponding point on the screen. A plastic lens is used to bring these light beams to a sharp focus on the screen. The combination of spherical mirror and correcting lens delivers to the screen about six times as much light as could be obtained with a conventional lens.
20 inches, giving a 300-square-inch picture, nearly the size of a newspaper page.
Q. How good are these pictures?
A. Pictures are so bright you can see them with room lights on; so clear you see the pleats in a dress, or the perspiration on a boxer’s brow; and so steady that they’re as good as home movies.
Q. What is meant by direct-view and by projection (big-screen) television?
A. In direct-view television, the picture is viewed as it appears on the end of the picture tube (kinescope). In big-screen television, the picture appears on a screen after being reflected by a mirror from the end of the picture tube and through a lens. An efficient, precision-built optical system, comparable to that in observatory telescopes, is used in the big-screen set.
Q. What is meant by the term “telegenic”?
A. A person who televises well, that is, one who is photogenic.
Q. How many people can watch a television program on a set at the same time?
A. That depends upon the size of the screen and the size of your room. As many as 25 people can see the picture on a table model. Sets installed in public places such as hotels are viewed by even larger groups.
YOUR RADIO SET AND TELEVISION
Q. Must I have a separate radio receiver to pick up the sound for the television set?
Dipole television antenna with reflector rod.
A. No. Television sets give you both picture and sound portions of a television broadcast.
Q. Can I attach my present radio to a television set?
A. No. And there’s no reason why you should! Radio and television are two entirely different things. They are broadcast in different parts of the radio spectrum. Separate types of equipment are needed for the transmission and reception of each.
Q. Can I pick up the sound part of a television program on my present radio?
A. No. Television is broadcast on high frequencies—that is, on tiny waves—above the limits that can be picked up by standard broadcast receivers. However, there will be occasions when a program is sent out by radio and by television at the same time. In such cases, it will be possible to see and hear the program on your television receiver and also to tune in and hear the radio version of the same program.
Q. Can a television receiver be used to listen to regular radio programs?
A. Not unless the television set is also equipped with a standard broadcast or FM receiver. The reason is the same as that given in the preceding answer.
Q. Can an indoor antenna be used for television?
A. Yes; but generally best results are obtained from and outdoor antenna erected as high as possible above surrounding buildings, trees, etc. Antennas in the attics of private dwellings often are quite satisfactory, whereas antennas inside of apartment buildings generally are
unsatisfactory. In the latter case, the effect is similar to the way in which an auto radio fades when the car passes underneath a steel structure. Steel absorbs television waves as it does radio waves.
Q. Is a standard radio antenna satisfactory for television reception?
A. No; for most efficient results a dipole antenna specially designed for television reception is necessary.
Q. Is a satisfactory centralized antenna system for multiple dwellings, such as apartments, now available?
A. Yes.
Q. Can picture interference effects, including those caused by electrical machinery, diathermy, automobiles, other receivers and reflections, be eliminated by adjusting the direction of the antenna?
A. Judicious positioning and orientation of the antenna can often minimize interference effects, but not always to a completely satisfactory degree. For example, if the antenna is located as far as possible from the street, the interference caused by automobile ignition systems will be eliminated or greatly reduced.
Q. When television stations serving a particular area are in different directions from the receiving location, can the antenna be adjusted for maximum signal pick-up from all stations?
A. Although the antenna rod, or dipole, must be broadside to a station to pick up maximum signal strength, it becomes necessary, when the stations are in
New York to Boston radio relay system operated by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, with the automatic relay stations located on seven hills.
NEW YORK - BOSTON RADIO RELAY SYSTEM
different directions, to compromise the orientation.
Q. What is the distinction between a television antenna that is a straight rod and one that looks like a flattened loop?
A. The straight rod antenna is a single dipole; the flattened loop is a folded dipole, and is generally more effective in reception of Channels No. 7 to 13.
TELEVISION PROGRAMS
Q. What kind of programs can I get on television?
A. There’s something for everybody... everything from quiz programs and sports to special events such as the opening of Congress. Many programs originate in television studios; others are televised as they happen, where they happen; others are projected from motion picture films.
Q. Will the big-time radio programs and radio stars appear on television?
A. Some of them have and more of them will. New faces will probably replace some of the favorites of both radio and the films... as happened in the change from silent movies to the talkies. Comedians, singers, dancers, magicians and vaudeville acts will entertain you by television.
Q. Do I actually see the event as it is happening when I am looking at a television receiver?
A. Yes, provided, of course, that the television camera is on the scene, and the telecast is not from a film. Views of sports events, parades, studio performHow a telecast of Niagara Falls would reach the home.
ances and the latest in fashion shows, travel from the spot where they are taking place to your television receiver at the incredible speed of 186,000 miles per second. In addition to these "live" telecasts, films are used to record programs so that they can be presented at hours convenient to you.
Q. How often are television stations on the air?
A. They average a minimum of 4 hours a day on the air. Many are exceeding this figure. In some weeks, New York audiences have enjoyed as many as 60 hours of programs.
Q. What hours are programs on the air?
A. Programs are scheduled so as to be convenient for the greatest number of people. They are generally on the air around noontime, during the afternoon and throughout the evening.
Q. If television should expand into the higher frequencies, will existing television receivers, designed for the original 13 channels, be obsolete?
A. No; a simple adapter has been developed which will permit present television receivers to pick up telecasts on the higher frequencies as well as on the channels currently used for television.
TELEVISION STATIONS AND NETWORKS
Q. How many stations can I get on a television set?
A. It depends upon the number of stations in your locality operating within the frequency range your receiver is designed to cover. For example, New York City
Typical coaxial cable showing the eight coaxial conductors (the large cylindrical tubes), and the secondary conductors which are used to carry control signals and power supply to the repeater or booster stations, located every 5 to 7 miles.
has six stations—and will have seven—operating on the channels now (1948) used for television.
Q. Will my television set be able to pick up each new station that comes on the air?
A. Yes, if the new station operates on one of the 12 channels which all modern sets now are designed to receive. But if the new station is assigned a channel beyond the present frequency allocations, an inexpensive adapter will be needed to extend the tuning range of the set.
Q. What about television networks?
A. The ground work has been laid for network television broadcasting. Already several cities are directly linked for network television programs, and it is estimated that coast-to-coast network television will be in operation by 1953, or earlier.
Q. What is a coaxial cable?
A. This is a special type of cable used for high-frequency transmission in telephony as well as for radio and television programs. It is one of the arteries being used to establish television networks.
Q. What is a television recording?
A. A motion picture film made by recording the pictures as they appear on the screen of a kinescope receiving tube.
Q. What is the purpose of television recording?
A. To make it possible for television programs to be distributed for use by television stations that are not connected by coaxial cable or radio relay; and to record
Cut-away view of one of seven radio relay stations on the Bell System radio relay route between New York and Boston, showing the arrangement of equipment in the building. Emergency power equipment and storage batteries are on the first floor, radio equipment on the second floor, and the microwave antennas which feature special electromagnetic lenses that receive and beam the communications signal, are on the roof.
Television broadcasters send out a geometrically-designed test pattern before each program so that the viewer may determine that his set is correctly adjusted. The pattern should be round, clear, and steady with distinct shades, or gradations of black and white. When the set is properly tuned, these five shades of gray are discernible on the circles in the center of the test pattern. The converging lines should be clear and sharply separated all the way to the center. By means of the "brightness control" and the "contrast control" knobs, the observer is able to adjust the various shades of gray in the pattern.
historic telecasts on film.
Q. How far away can I pick up a television station?
A. This depends upon local terrain, the power of the station, height of your antenna and proper installation of your set. Generally, you can directly receive a station 30 to 40 miles.
Q. What is a remote pickup in television?
A. Whenever you see a television program that originates outside the main studios, you’re witnessing a remote pickup. Mobile transmitters accompany the television cameramen and flash pictures back to the main television transmitter, which puts the program on the air for reception on your set. You see the event as it is happening.
Q. What is a relay telecast?
A. The television program is passed along by one or more automatic radio relay stations between main television stations thereby relaying the program from one point to another.
Q. Why is the range of a television station less than that of many standard radio stations?
A. Because of the nature of the electromagnetic waves used in television broadcasting. They are tiny waves that travel in a straight line. When they reach the horizon they continue on into space...they are not reflected by the upper layers of the atmosphere as in the case of radio waves. The normal range of a television station is the horizon distance, or line-of-sight, that is, as far as the eye can see from atop the transmitting antenna site.
Q. Are there any hazards in operating a television set?
A. No.
A TELEVISION SET IN YOUR HOME
Q. Must I have a special place in my home for a television set?
A. No; locate it for your convenience in viewing.
Q. Is it necessary to darken the room when watching a television program?
A. No; television sets are designed to operate efficiently, with excellent picture brightness and definition under normal lighting conditions in your home—day or night!
Q. Can the set be moved to some other part of the house once it’s installed?
A. Yes; providing the proper connection is made between television set and antenna.
Q. Is there any “trick” in tuning a television set?
A. No; the automatic station selector makes it as easy as push-button tuning in radio. Just turn the dial to the channel number of the station you desire. The set is then “locked” in tune with the television station.
Q. What is a television channel?
A. Television channel is the term used to refer to the frequency assigned by the Federal Communications Commission to a specific television station. All you do to tune in any particular television station is turn the station selector to the number assigned to that station.
For example, in New York WNBT, is on channel No. 4; WPIX, on 11; WCBS, 2; WABD, 5; WBEN, Buffalo, 4; WCAU, Philadelphia, 10; WTMJ, Milwaukee, 3; WGN, Chicago, 9; KFI, Los Angeles, 9. When stations are far enough apart they may operate on the same channel without interference.
Q. Why do I sometimes hear a whistle-like tone when the television test pattern is tuned in?
A. The whistle-like note is an audio signal transmitted along with the test pattern to facilitate tuning, and particularly to aid service men in adjusting and checking the sound portion of television sets.
Q. Will my set become out-of-date if I buy now?
The FCC, in establishing present television standards and channels, has indicated that they are as permanent as those assigned to any of the other radio services.
Q. How about color television? What will happen to my set then?
A. Present indications are that color television, at prices and with quality comparable to present black-and-white television sets, is still some years away. In 1946, RCA Laboratories demonstrated its system of simultaneous color television, along with a small, inexpensive radio frequency converter, or adapter, which will permit a regular television set to receive this type of color television in black and white. The converter also enables all-electronic color receivers to pick up the programs of low or high frequency black-and-white transmitters. This will make it possible in the future to
introduce all-electronic color without causing obsolescence of black-and-white television sets.
Q. Will people who live in the great rural areas be able to see television programs in their own living rooms?
A. Eventually all parts of the country will be within range of television programs either through nearby local stations, or radio relay stations serving as satellite transmitters which will broadcast local as well as network programs.
Q. Why should I buy a television set now?
A. Because once you see television, you won’t want to miss the pleasures it affords; as an 88-year-old observer remarked, “It’s incredible; a dream come true—it opens a new world to me and takes me sightseeing to places I never thought I’d see outside of picture books!” Thus, for everyone there is an entire new world of entertainment. It’s exciting...it’s educational...it’s a lot of fun! Television more than doubles the pleasures of radio; it takes you to distant places in the comfort of your home and provides you a front-row seat in which you become an eye-witness to events as they happen.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) — A method of modulating a carrier wave to cause it to vary in amplitude (strength) corresponding to the frequency of the original sound.
ANTENNA — The portion, usually wires or rods, of a radio or television transmitting or receiving system for radiating waves into space or receiving them. Also called AERIAL.
AUDIO FREQUENCY — A frequency corresponding to a normally audible sound wave — between 20 and 15,000 cycles a second.
BAND — A range of radio frequencies within two definite limits and used for a definite purpose. For example, the standard broadcast band extends from 550-1600 kilocycles, television from 54-216 megacycles, and international broadcasting uses several bands between 6,000 and 22,000 kilocycles.
BEAM — A directed flow of radio energy into space.
BLANKING PULSE — A pulse that “blanks out” undesirable signals in television.
BRIGHTNESS CONTROL — Knob on a television receiver which varies the average illumination of the image.
BROADCASTING — Radio transmission, intended for general reception by the public.
CAMERA TUBE — An electron tube in the television transmitting system that translates light rays into corresponding electrical impulses.
CARRIER (or CARRIER WAVE) — The radio wave
produced by a transmitter, which may be modulated to carry signals, voice, music, or pictures.
CARRIER FREQUENCY — The number of complete cycles per second (frequency) of a carrier wave.
CATHODE-RAY TUBE — An electron tube in which a beam of electrons from a heated element, the cathode, is used to reproduce an image on the fluorescent face of the tube.
CENTERING CONTROLS — Controls on a television receiver for moving the image to the center of the cathode-ray tube face, or "screen."
COAXIAL CABLE — A cable in which one conductor is accurately centered inside another. Used for high-frequency transmission in telephony, radio and television.
CONTRAST CONTROL — Knob on the television receiver which regulates the brightness of the highlights and shadows by controlling the picture signal strength. Corresponds to volume control in broadcast receivers.
CONTROL ROOM — The room or location where the monitoring equipment is placed for the direction and control of a television program.
CYCLE — A wave pattern that recurs at regular intervals. The number of cycles occurring in one second is the frequency of the wave.
DEAD SPOT — A location where signals from a radio, or television transmitter are received poorly, or not at all.
DEFINITION — The fidelity with which the detail of an image is reproduced by a television receiver. Also called RESOLUTION.
DIPOLE ANTENNA — An antenna, usually one-half wave in length, split and fed at its electrical center. Also called a DOUBLET.
DIRECT CURRENT — Electric current which flows through a circuit in only one direction.
DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA — Any antenna which sends out or receives radio waves better in some direction than in others.
DISTORTION — An undesirable flow in the reproduction of sound or a television picture.
DOLLY — A mobile truck-like platform on which the television camera is mounted to facilitate its movement to different positions in the studio.
ELECTRODE — An essential part inside an electron tube. An electrode may be a filament, cathode, grid, anode, etc., according to its function in producing, controlling, or collecting electrons. Also called ELEMENT.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES — The waves of all radio transmissions.
ELECTRON — The smallest negative electrical charge. Electrons are emitted by the heated cathode in an electron tube.
ELECTRON EMISSION — The process of releasing electrons from an element, as from the cathode of an electron tube.
ELECTRON GUN — Source of a highly concentrated stream of electrons in cathode ray tubes.
ELECTRON TUBE — A vacuum or gas-filled tube for the emission and control of electrons.
ELECTRONIC (adjective) — Pertaining to electrons or to apparatus operating by means of electron emission.
ELECTRONICS — The science of the application of electron tubes in electrical circuits or apparatus. Radio and television are two important branches of electronics.
ETHER — A hypothetical medium assumed to occupy all space and to act as a “conductor” for light, heat and radio waves.
FADING — Variation in the intensity of a received radio signal, generally caused by changes in transmission paths.
FIDELITY — The exactness with which a radio or television system reproduces sound or picture signals.
FIELD FREQUENCY — In television, the number of times per second (sixty) in which the frame area of a scene is fractionally scanned.
FILAMENT — In an electron tube the filament itself may be the cathode, or a heater which raises the temperature of a cathode high enough to cause it to emit electrons.
FLICKER — Abnormal fluctuation in the brightness of motion pictures and television.
FLUORESCENCE — Emission of light under excitation by the energy of electrons.
FLUORESCENT — The property of giving off light when activated by electronic bombardment or by another source of radiant energy.
FLUORESCENT SCREEN — The coating of material on the face of cathode-ray or television tubes, which glows under electronic bombardment.
FOCUS CONTROL — Adjustment on the television receiver which brings the picture into sharp definition.
FOLDED DIPOLE — A television antenna formed by folding back the two outer ends of the dipole rods and connecting them together.
FRAME — A single complete television or motion picture scene. Thirty frames per second are shown on a television screen; twenty-four frames per second are generally used in motion pictures.
FRAME FREQUENCY — The number of times per second a television picture area is completely scanned — 30 times a second.
FRAMING CONTROLS — The adjustments on a television receiver for regulating the picture height and width.
FREQUENCY — The number of cycles completed each
second by an electric current or a sound wave.
FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM) — A method of modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to the signal transmitted; thus the frequency is varied while the strength (amplitude) of the carrier wave remains constant. FM is the standard method of transmission and reception of the sound in television.
GHOST — An undesired multi-image appearing effect in the television picture as a result of reflection of waves from buildings and other obstacles.
HEAVISIDE LAYER — A layer of highly ionized air in the upper atmosphere which reflects, or acts as a "mirror" of certain radio waves.
HIGH FREQUENCY (h-f) — Any radio frequency between 3 and 30 megacycles, which is higher than the standard broadcast band.
HORIZONTAL CONTROL — Adjustment on a television receiver for regulation of the horizontal scanning synchronization.
ICONOSCOPE — A sensitive television pickup tube, or camera "eye," invented by Dr. V. K. Zworykin.
IMAGE ORTHICON — Television camera tube which is so sensitive, even under low lighting conditions, that it can televise any scene that the eye can see.
INFRA-RED RAYS — Invisible waves longer than the longest visible red waves, and shorter than radio frequency waves. Also called BLACK LIGHT.
INTERFERENCE — Disturbance in radio reception caused by undesirable signals or stray currents from electrical apparatus, atmospheric, static, etc.
INTERLACED SCANNING — A type of television scanning in which every other horizontal line of the
image is scanned during one downward movement of the scanning beam, with alternate lines scanned during the next downward movement.
ION — An electrified particle formed when electrons are added to or removed from an atom of gas.
KILOCYCLE (kc) — A frequency of 1,000 cycles per second.
KILOWATT (kw) — A unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 watts.
KINESCOPE — The television picture tube developed by Dr. V. K. Zworykin in which electrical impulses are translated into picture elements at the receiver.
KINESCOPE RECORDER — A motion picture camera which makes a continuous film record of a television program direct from the face, or "screen" of the kinescope receiver tube.
LEAD-IN — The conductor or conductors in an antenna system which complete the electrical path between the elevated portion and the radio equipment. The television receiver generally is connected to the antenna by a flexible tape-like transmission line which contains two copper wires accurately spaced within a waterproof covering of plastic material.
LINE — A single trace of the electron beam from left to right across a television picture screen. The present American standard is a system of 525 lines to each complete television picture.
LINEARITY CONTROL — A manual control on the television receiver for the adjustment of wave-shapes in scanning.
LOUDSPEAKER — A device which translates electrical impulses of audio frequencies into sound waves of corresponding frequencies.
LUMINESCENT — A material which will give off light without heat when energized by an external source, such as a stream of electrons or light rays.
MAGNIFIER — A lens formed either of glass or by filling a plastic shell with mineral oil, for placement in front of the kinescope "screen" of a television receiver to enlarge the pictures.
MECHANICAL SCANNING — A system, now obsolete, using a beam of light controlled by a rotating mirror, a rotating scanning disc, or similar mechanical device, to separate an image into a rapid succession of narrow lines which can be converted into electrical impulses, as in a television transmitting system. In the mechanical method a scanning disc also is used at the receiver.
MEGACYCLE — A million cycles.
METAL TUBE — An electron tube with a metal envelope.
MICRO — A prefix meaning one millionth, as microvolt.
MICROPHONE — A device which translates sound waves into electrical impulses of corresponding frequencies.
MICROPHONE BOOM — An adjustable crane from which the microphone is suspended.
MICROWAVES — Radio waves less than one meter in length.
MILLI- — A prefix meaning one thousandth, as milliampere.
MODULATION — A process by which a carrier wave is varied in frequency, phase, or amplitude by the imposition upon it of the electrical impulses corresponding in frequency to radiotelegraph code, sound, or television signals.
MOSAIC — Photo-sensitive plate in the iconoscope television camera pickup tube.
MULTIPATH EFFECT — The condition which results when radio waves are received at slightly different times
because they are traveling over paths of different lengths. (The multi-image effect is called a ghost.)
NETWORK — A group of television stations connected by radio relays or coaxial cable so that all stations may simultaneously broadcast a program.
ORTHICON — Television camera tube, or “eye.” (See Image Orthicon.)
PANNING — Rotating a television or motion picture camera in either a vertical or horizontal plane, or both, to keep a moving object within picture range.
PERSISTENCE OF VISION — A characteristic of the human eye which causes it to hold the image of a scene for a brief period, normally about one-thirtieth of a second.
PHOTO-ELECTRIC EMISSION — Emission of electrons from certain materials when exposed to light.
PHOTOTUBE — An electron tube in which variations in applied light cause corresponding variations in electron emission.
PROJECTION TELEVISION — A combination of lenses and mirrors which projects an enlarged television picture on a home receiver screen, or on a theatre screen.
QUARTER-WAVE ANTENNA — An antenna the electrical length of which is one-quarter the wavelength of the signal to be transmitted or received.
RADIO — Communication through space by means of electromagnetic waves for transmission and reception of messages, sounds, photographs and pictures in motion without the use of connecting wires.
RADIO CHANNEL — A band of frequencies allotted by the Federal Communications Commission to each station for radio, communication and broadcasting purposes. At present, the width of standard television channels is
6 megacycles; FM, 200 kilocycles; standard radio broadcast channels are 10 kilocycles wide.
RADIO RELAY — A station which automatically relays, or retransmits television or sound programs to increase the service area.
RADIO WAVE — An electromagnetic wave produced by rapid reversals of current flow in a conductor known as the antenna, or aerial. Such a wave travels through space at the speed of light, 186,000 miles a second.
RASTER — The illumination created by the scanning lines on the cathode-ray screen when no television picture signal is being received.
RECTIFIER — A device for changing alternating current into direct current.
REFLECTIVE OPTICS — A system of mirrors and lenses used in PROJECTION TELEVISION. (Also called SCHMIDT OPTICS.)
SCANNING — Action of the electron beam in traveling line-by-line across the mosaic or photosensitive plate in the television camera pickup tube, also across the face of a kinescope.
SCANNING LINE — In television, a single continuous narrow strip, one of the 525 lines comprising a complete picture.
SELECTIVITY — The degree to which a radio receiver can accept the signals of one station while rejecting those of all stations on adjacent channels.
SENSITIVITY — The degree to which a radio receiver or other device can detect weak signals.
SERVICE AREA — The region surrounding a broadcasting station in which that station’s signals can be received with satisfactory results.
SHORT WAVES — Radio waves shorter than those within the standard broadcast band, from 1.6 to 30 megacycles.
SIDEBANDS — The bands of frequencies on each side of the carrier frequency produced by modulation.
SIGNAL — The intelligence, message, or effect conveyed in radio communications.
SIGNAL-NOISE RATIO — The relative strengths of a radio signal and static at a given location.
SPECTRUM — The entire range of electromagnetic radiations, from the longest known radio waves to the shortest known cosmic rays. Light, the visible portion of the spectrum, lies about midway between the two extremes.
SPOT — Focal point of the electron beam on a television screen as it scans the picture.
STATIC — Extraneous noises heard in a radio receiver caused by atmospheric electricity or by man-made electrical devices.
SUPER-HIGH FREQUENCIES (shf) — 3,000 to 30,000 megacycles.
SUPER TURNSTILE ANTENNA — An efficient radiator of television signals comprising a series of wing-like grids, resembling a turnstile, spaced along the length of the antenna mast. (Also called “BAT-WING ANTENNA.”)
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER — A radio receiver in which the received signal voltage is combined with the voltage produced by a local oscillator. The resulting voltage of an intermediate frequency then is amplified and detected to reproduce the original signal.
SWEEP — The uniform and repeated movement of an electron beam across the face of a cathode-ray tube.
SWEEP CIRCUIT — Scanning circuit.
SYNCHRONIZATION — The process of keeping the electron beam on the television receiver screen in the exact position relative to the scanning beam at the transmitter.
TELEVISION — The radio or electrical transmission of a succession of images and their reception in such a
manner as to give a substantially continuous and simultaneous reproduction of an object or scene before the eyes of a distant observer.
TEST PATTERN — A drawing usually comprising a group of lines and circles, in various shadings, broadcast for television test and adjustment purposes.
TRANSMITTER — Equipment for generating and sending radio signals.
ULTRA-HIGH FREQUENCY (uhf) — Standardized to refer to frequencies between 300 and 3,000 megacycles. Waves of these frequencies are called microwaves.
VERTICAL CENTERING — The vertical adjustment of the position of a television picture on the screen.
VERTICAL HOLD — A manual control for adjusting the vertical scanning synchronization in television.
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (vhf) — Standardized to refer to frequencies of 30-300 megacycles.
VIDEO — A Latin word meaning "to see." It is applied as a prefix to the name of television parts or circuits which carry picture signals.
VIEWING MIRROR — A mirror used in some television receivers to reflect the image formed on the screen of the picture tube at an angle convenient for viewing.
WATT — The unit of electrical power.
WATTMETER — A meter used to measure the power being consumed by an electrical device, in watts or kilowatts.
WAVEGUIDE — A hollow tube, usually of metal, or a dielectric cylinder which conducts electromagnetic waves.
WAVELENGTH — The distance between successive peaks of the same polarity in a wave. It corresponds to the distance traveled by the wave in one cycle.
WAVE TRAP — A resonant circuit connected into the antenna system of radio or television receivers to suppress signals at a particular frequency.
| CALL | CHANNEL | LOCATION | OWNER |
|--------|---------|-------------------|--------------------------------------------|
| KOB-TV | 4 | Albuquerque, N. M.| Albuquerque Broadcasting Corp. |
| WSB-TV | 8 | Atlanta, Ga. | Atlanta Journal |
| WAAM | 13 | Baltimore, Md. | Radio-Television of Baltimore |
| WMAR-TV| 2 | Baltimore, Md. | Abell Co. |
| WBAL-TV| 11 | Baltimore, Md. | Hearst Radio |
| WBZ-TV | 4 | Boston, Mass. | Westinghouse Electric Co. |
| WNAC-TV| 7 | Boston, Mass. | Yankee Network |
| WBEN-TV| 4 | Buffalo, N. Y. | Evening News |
| WNBQ | 4 | Chicago, Ill. | National Broadcasting Company |
| WBKB | 4 | Chicago, Ill. | Balaban & Katz |
| WGN-TV | 9 | Chicago, Ill. | Chicago Tribune |
| WENR-TV| 7 | Chicago, Ill. | American Broadcasting Co. |
| WLWT | 4 | Cincinnati, Ohio | Crosley Broadcasting Corp. |
| WEWS | 5 | Cleveland, Ohio | Scripps-Howard |
| WWJ-TV | 4 | Detroit, Mich. | Evening News |
| WBAP-TV| 5 | Ft. Worth, Tex. | Carter Publications |
| KTSL | 2 | Los Angeles, Calif.| Don Lee |
| Station | Location | Company |
|----------|-------------------|--------------------------------|
| KTLA | Los Angeles, Calif.| Television Productions |
| KFI-TV | Los Angeles, Calif.| E. C. Anthony |
| WTMJ-IV | Milwaukee, Wisc. | Bremer Broadcasting Corp. |
| WATV | Newark, N. J. | Elm City Broadcasting Corp. |
| WNHC-TV | New Haven, Conn. | Columbia Broadcasting System |
| WCBS-TV | New York, N. Y. | National Broadcasting Company |
| WNBT | New York, N. Y. | Du Mont |
| WABD | New York, N. Y. | N.Y. Daily News |
| WPIX | New York, N. Y. | American Broadcasting Co. |
| WJZ-TV | New York, N. Y. | Philco |
| WPTZ | Philadelphia, Pa. | Triangle Publications, Inc. |
| WFIL-TV | Philadelphia, Pa. | WCAU, Inc. |
| WCAUTV | Philadelphia, Pa. | Outlet Co. |
| WJAR-TV | Providence, R. I. | Havens & Martin |
| WTVR | Richmond, Va. | Intermountain Broadcasting Corp.|
| KDYL-TV | Salt Lake City, Utah | |
| WRGB | Schenectady, N. Y. | General Electric Co. |
| KSD-TV | St. Louis, Mo. | Pulitzer Publishing Co. |
| KSTP-TV | St. Paul, Minn. | KSTP, Inc. |
| WSPD-TV | Toledo, Ohio | Fort Industry |
| WTIG | Washington, D. C. | Du Mont |
| WNBW | Washington, D. C. | National Broadcasting Company |
| WMAL-TV | Washington, D. C. | Evening Star Broadcasting Corp.|
BIBLIOGRAPHY
For those interested in more detailed information and further study of the various aspects of television, the following reading is suggested:
THE FUTURE OF TELEVISION, by Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., Harper & Bros., New York, 1947.
TELEVISION TECHNIQUES, by Hoyland Bettinger, Harper & Bros., New York, 1947.
TELEVISION—EYES OF TOMORROW, by William C. Eddy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1945.
WE PRESENT TELEVISION, by John Porterfield and Kay Reynolds, W. W. Norton & Co., New York, 1940.
TELEVISION PROGRAMMING AND PRODUCTION, by Richard Hubbell, Murray Hill Books (Rinehart and Co.), New York, 1945.
TELEVISION SHOW BUSINESS, by Judy Dupuy, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y., 1945.
HOW TO WRITE FOR TELEVISION, by Allan Douglas, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1946.
THE VALUE OF INTRA-STORE TELEVISION, New York University, School of Retailing, N. Y., 1948.
AN INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION, by C. J. Hylander and Robert Harding, MacMillan Co., New York, 1941.
AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS, by Ralph G. Hudson, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1945.
HERE IS TELEVISION, by Thomas Hutchinson, Hastings House, New York, 1946.
TELEVISION PRIMER (Production and Direction), by Louis A. Sposa, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1947.
PIONEERING IN TELEVISION, (Excerpts from Statements and Addresses by David Sarnoff), Radio Corporation of America, 30 Rockefeller Plaza, New York, 1948.
RADIO'S 100 MEN OF SCIENCE, by Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., Harper & Bros., New York, 1944.
GETTING A JOB IN TELEVISION, by John Southwell, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1947.
TELEVISION, THE REVOLUTIONARY INDUSTRY, by Robert E. Lee, Essential Books, New York, 1944.
ELECTRON OPTICS IN TELEVISION, by E. G. Maloff and D. W. Epstein, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1938.
TELEVISION, by V. K. Zworykin and G. A. Morton, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1940.
TELEVISION BROADCASTING, by Lenox R. Lohr, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1940.
TELEVISION SIMPLIFIED, by Milton S. Kiver, Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1946.
ELECTRONIC TELEVISION, by George H. Eckhardt, the Goodheart-Willcox Co., Chicago, Ill., 1936.
ELECTRONS IN ACTION, by James Stokley, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1946.
TELEVISION, VOL. I, II, III & IV, Collected Addresses and Papers, RCA Review, RCA Laboratories Division, Princeton, N. J.
INDEX
Actors, 69, 78-80, 82, 84
Advertising, 52, 88
Alexanderson, Dr. E. F. W., 23
Antenna, 34, 36, 37-44, 96, 97-100, 111, 112, 114, 120
Audience, 84
Audio engineer, 54, 55
Baird, John Logie, 23
Baseball, 58, 60
Bibliography, television, 124-125
Broadcasting, 18-20, 40, 61, 111
Camera, 13, 23, 26-34, 51-64, 76, 89, 111
Camera man, 27, 51-64
Cartoonists, 86
Cathode-ray tube, 23, 112
Channels, 43, 102, 104, 108-109, 118-119
Coaxial cable, 34, 43, 103, 104, 112
Color television, 109-110
Comedians, 82
Commercial announcements, 88
Conductors, 86
Control room, 54-60, 112
Definitions, 111-121
De Forest, Lee, 19
Dewey, Thomas E., 72, 82, 83
Dipole Antenna, 44, 96-100, 112, 114
Downes, Olin, 64
Educators, 87
Electromagnetic waves, 16-17, 113, 120
Electron, 113
Electron beam, 32, 49
Electron gun, 32, 49, 113
Electron multiplier, 29, 31, 33-34
Electron tube, 19, 23, 25, 26-35, 45, 46, 93, 113
Electronic television, 23-25, 26-64
Electronics, 113
Empire State Building, 25, 34, 36, 37
Ether, 16-17, 113
Eye, how it functions, 11-13, 48, 50
Faraday, Michael, 15
Federal Communications Commission, 108, 109, 118
Fessenden, Reginald A., 19
Field events, 55-62
Films, 52, 100, 102, 104-105
Fleming, John Ambrose, 19
Fluorescence, 48-50, 114
FM (Frequency Modulation), 43, 91, 115
Football, 60, 62
Frames, 48, 114
Ghosts, 44, 115
Glossary, 111-121
Green, Dwight, 72
Heaviside, Sir Oliver, 17
Heaviside layer, 115
Henry, Joseph, 15
Hertz, Heinrich, 16-17
Huygen, Christiaan, 16
Iconoscope, 23-25, 91, 115
Image orthicon, 28, 29-34, 74, 89, 115
Infra-red rays, 29, 115
IQ, television, 89-110
Jenkins, Charles Francis, 20-23
Kinescope, 23-25, 45-50, 91, 95, 116
Kinescope recorder, 116. See Recording
Law, Dr. Harold B., 28, 29
INDEX
Light, its relation to television, 11-17
Luminescent, 114. See Fluorescence
MacDonnell, Kyle, 67-69
Magicians, 86
Make-up, 71, 72, 75
Marconi, Guiglielmo, 17
Maxwell, James Clerk, 15-16
Mechanical system, 20-23, 117
Microphone, 50, 52, 91
Musicians, 84, 86
National Broadcasting Company. See NBC
NBC, 25, 36, 54-55, 62, 64
NBC Symphony Orchestra, 62, 64
Networks, 3, 38-43, 99, 101, 104, 105, 118
Newscasters, 86-87
Nipkow, Paul, 20
Orthicon. See Image Orthicon
Performers, 66-88
Picture tube. See Kinescope
Political conventions. See Politics
Politics, television in, 66-67, 69-75, 81-82, 83
Prizefight, 62, 85
Producer, 54
Program director, 54, 56, 58, 60
Programs, 50-64, 100-102
Projection receiver, 45-48, 93-95, 118
Quiz groups, 87-88
Radio, relation to television, 97-98, 118
Radio Corporation of America. See RCA
Radio relays, 3, 33, 35, 38-43, 55-62, 99, 105, 107, 119
Radiotelephony, early developments, 19
Range, of television, 34-37, 102, 104
RCA, 25, 91
RCA Laboratories, 23, 29, 109
Receiver, 13, 14, 44-50, 91, 93-97, 100-104, 107-110
Recording, 104, 116
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 66
Rose, Dr. Albert, 28, 29
Sarnoff, David, 23, 25
Scanning, 20-23, 32, 115, 117, 119, 121
Schenectady, 41
Screen, 45-50, 93, 95
Singers, 84
Sound, 43, 50-52, 91, 97
Speakers, 81-82
Sponsors, 88
Sports, 59-63, 82, 85
Sports commentators, 58-60, 82
Stage plays, 77-82
Stations, television, 122-123
Steinmetz, Charles Proteus, 17
Studio, 52-55
Superheterodyne, 120
Synchronization, 120
Technical director, 54-64
Telegenic, 95
Television,
actors, 69, 78-80, 82, 84
advertising, 52, 88
antenna, 34-44, 96-100, 111, 112, 114, 120
audience, 84
baseball, 58, 60
bibliography, 124-125
camera, 13, 23, 26-34, 51-64, 76, 89, 111
cameraman, 27, 51-64
cartoonists, 86
channels, 43, 102, 104, 108-109, 118-119
coaxial cable, 34, 43, 103, 104, 112
color, 109-110
comedians, 82
commercial announcements, 88
conductors, 86
control room, 54-60, 112
cost of receivers, 93-94
definitions, 111-121
dipole antenna, 44, 96-100, 112, 114
directors, 52-64
do's and don'ts, 81-88
educators, 87
electron beam, 32, 49
electronic "eye", 22-25, 26-34, 45-52
electron gun, 32, 49, 113
evolution of, 11-25
field events, 55-62
films, 52, 100, 102, 104-105
fluorescence, 48-50, 114
FM, 43, 91, 115
football, 60, 62
frames, 48, 114
ghosts, 44, 115
glossary, 111-121
how you see by, 26-64
iconoscope, 23-25, 91, 115
image orthicon, 28, 29-34, 74, 89, 115
IQ, 89-110
kinescope, 23-25, 45-50, 91, 95, 116
light's relation to, 11-17
magicians, 86
make-up, 71, 72, 75
mechanical system, 20-23, 117
music, 62-64
musicians, 84, 86
NBC, 25, 36, 54-55, 62, 64
networks, 3, 38-43, 99, 101, 105, 118
newscasters, 86, 87
performers, what they should know about TV, 66-88
politics, 66-67, 69-75, 81-83
prizefight, 62, 85
programs, 50-64, 101-102
projection receiver, 45-48, 93-95, 118
questions and answers, 89-110
quiz groups, 87-88
radio relays, 3, 33, 35, 38-43, 55-62, 99, 105, 107, 119
range, 34-37, 102, 104
RCA, 25, 91
receiver, 13, 14, 44-50, 91, 93-97, 100-104, 107-110
recording, 104, 116
scanning, 20-23, 32, 115, 117, 119
screen, 45-50, 93, 95
singers, 84
sound, 43, 50-52, 91, 97
speakers, 81-82
sponsors, 88
sports, 59-63, 82, 85
sports commentators, 58-60, 82
stage plays, 77-82
stations, 122-123
studio, 52-55
synchronization, 120
techniques, 77-88
test pattern, 106, 109, 121
transmitter, 33-43, 57, 92, 97, 99, 101, 107
tuning, 108-110
ultra-short waves, 18, 34-44, 97-99, 107, 121
Television Broadcasters Association, 25
Tesla, Nikola, 17
Test pattern, 106, 109, 121
The New York Times, 71-72
Toscanini, Arturo, 62-65, 86
Transmitter, 33-43, 57, 92, 97, 99, 101, 107
Truman, Harry S., 72, 73
Tuning, 108-110
Ultra-short waves, 18, 34-44, 97-99, 107, 121
Video, 91, 121
Video engineer, 54, 59
Waves. See Ultra-short waves
Weimer, Dr. Paul K., 28, 29
Wireless, invention of, 17
WNBT, 34, 36, 43, 53
Zworykin, Dr. V. K., 23-25, 29, 115, 116
mechanisms which match the human eye, the necessity for lofty antennas and relay stations, the coaxial cable, then the receiver itself. He describes how a television program is put together, both in the studio and in the field; where the television cameras are placed at sports events, music concerts, etc.
One whole section of the book is devoted to testing your television I. Q. — questions most frequently asked by the average listener and direct answers in simple, every-day language. Another section is virtually an everyman’s television dictionary. There are many full-page photographs of television in action: mobile field units, studio productions, relay stations, operating technicians, production details, television baseball games, boxing matches, football games, etc. There are charts illustrating television principles and maps showing station locations. Here, indeed, is the simple direct explanation of what television is and how it works to bring its modern scientific miracle into the American home.
APPLIED PRACTICAL RADIO
Five large volumes . . . the most remarkable Working Guide ever prepared for Radio! Filled with the facts you need to know to build yourself a big-pay future in this profitable field! Coyne has included in one easy-to-use set of books, everything in radio, "screened" of all unnecessary detail, and organized so it can be quickly understood and used for constant reference. Quickly covers basic radio principles, then takes you step-by-step through every latest development. Hundreds of up-to-the-minute subjects — such as High-Frequency, Short-Wave, Multi-Bands, Auto and Aviation Radio, Public Address Systems, Frequency Modulation and Television! Here's radio today, complete! Remarkable step-by-step photographs show equipment in various stages of construction. Over 1,600 pages of practical radio facts.
5-Volume Set, $15.00; Individual Books, each, $3.25
ELECTRONICS
Especially written for busy electricians who want practical "on-the-job" simplified electronic information. Electricians should find this book a "gold mine" of easy-to-follow electronics data. Starts right at the beginning for it explains in simple language the basic principles of electronics. Fully illustrated with helpful photographs, diagrams, and tables. Endorsed by leading manufacturers, union officials, educators, etc. 400 pages, $3.75
ELECTRICIANS HANDBOOK
Here is the book every electrician needs. It contains the latest code requirements, building codes, rules, tables, charts, testing guides, size of wire to use on certain jobs, motors, currents, and hundreds of other things every electrician needs to refer to at various times. Every subject is indexed and covered in just a few pages. You can look up any subject you want in an instant. You will have available for immediate reference over 600 different electrical subjects. Electronics, too, are included. $2.75
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Summer Reading with Sora
B I N G O
- Borrow a book with Sora!
- Read a Sora Sweet Reads ebook
- Read a new book in a series
- Read a picture book
- Read a mystery
- Read a book of poems
- Finish 3 books this summer
- Read a book about a different culture
- Read a book about animals
- Listen to a Sora Sweet Reads audiobook
- Read a book about saving the earth
- Read a book that encourages mindfulness
- Read a comic/graphic novel
- Read a book about space
- Read a book outside
- Read a book that inspires invention
- Read a book about a sport
- Recommend a book to a friend
- Read for 1 hour
- Read a biography
- Read a book about art or music
- Use the define feature in Sora
- Return a book early
- Add your public library in Sora
SUMMER READING Challenge on Sora
How many books will your school read?
Help win ebooks for your school by reading all summer long!
Calculations will be counted from June 15 - September 6.*
* Totals will be divided by enrollment for final determination.
PRIZES
1ST PLACE: $1,000 IN EBOOKS
2ND PLACE: $750 IN EBOOKS
3RD PLACE: $500 IN EBOOKS
DIGITAL RESOURCES ALL SUMMER LONG
Visit: www.oneida-boces.org/summerreading or click on the icons below:
- Sora: Borrow audiobooks and ebooks from Sora
- Snapp: Digital streaming and ebooks
- Search: Research databases and ebooks on Search
- Discovery Education: Digital streaming
If you forgot your username or password, please contact firstname.lastname@example.org.
Visit your local public library for more summer reading opportunities!
SUMMER READING Challenge on Sora
How many books will your school read?
Help win ebooks for your school by reading all summer long!
Calculations will be counted from June 15 - September 6.*
* Totals will be divided by enrollment for final determination.
PRIZES
1ST PLACE: $1,000 IN EBOOKS
2ND PLACE: $750 IN EBOOKS
3RD PLACE: $500 IN EBOOKS
DIGITAL RESOURCES ALL SUMMER LONG
Visit: www.oneida-boces.org/summerreading to check out the digital resources below:
- **Sora**
Borrow audiobooks and ebooks from Sora
- **Snap**
Digital streaming and ebooks
- **Search**
Research databases and ebooks on Search
- **Discovery Education**
Digital streaming
If you forgot your username or password, please contact email@example.com.
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Righting a historical wrong
UVic’s Landscapes of Injustice project documented historical wrongdoings and supported community efforts to build Esquimalt’s new pavilion.
BY JONATHAN WOODS
When the doors opened to the newly constructed Gorge Park Pavilion this past June, it offered landmark recognition of the local impacts of discrimination that shattered a community 80 years ago.
In 1942, the Japanese Canadian community on the Pacific Coast was torn apart by the federal government. Over 22,000 Japanese Canadians—the majority Canadian citizens by birth—were deported from a federally defined “protected zone” along BC’s coast and sent to internment camps in the interior of the province and beyond as a purported national security measure.
Among the uprooted were brothers Kenzuke and Hayato Takata, the operators of a popular Japanese-style tea house and garden—Canada’s first—in what is now Esquimalt’s Gorge Park. The government seized the Takatas’ estate, as with all Japanese Canadian property aside from one small business, then challenged them to take with them on their person to the internment camps. However, under the government’s neglectful custodianship, the property quickly fell victim to looters and vandals, and was left to waste. It wasn’t until 1949, four years after the end of the war, that Japanese Canadians were allowed back to the coast. The Takatas, their livelihood in Victoria ruined, relocated to Toronto to start over.
A legacy of disconnection
Speaking at the grand opening of the new pavilion, Dillon Takata, great-grandson of former tea-house owner Kenzuke, related his personal experience as an example of the disruption and trauma that internment and dispossession had on the Japanese Canadian community.
“I grew up like many Japanese Canadians of my generation, disconnected from the past, cut off from my roots,” Takata recalled. “I carried a Japanese name, but had
SEE GORGE PAVILION, P.8
New banners in heart of campus carry messages of welcome
BY TARA SHARPE
Two banner designs featuring new Indigenous art now float overhead on light posts in the heart of campus as a visual sign of greeting to this place. One features a figure with arms down, designed by the artist as a marker for welcoming visitors and guests to this land of the la:k’agaw̓ people, whose traditional territory includes the western strands, with a gesture of peace evoking the sky and waves of the coast. The other is filled with earth tones of cedar and sand inviting reflections of land and connection, with the second figure’s arms raised in a gesture of welcome gesture after feasting.
The banners are the artistic work of August, a Coast Salish, multi-media artist from shishalh Nation whose work is inspired by traditional teachings and encounters with nature.
Welcoming gestures of art
The banners, installed along the 1.2-kilometre campus greenway—including the main pathway near First Peoples House—will be accompanied at night by designs from two spindle whorls, also created by August.
“I really wanted a gesture of welcoming,” August says, “of coming in—for anyone new to campus, Victoria or Canada, and those who are visitors and guests here, feel a welcome and that compassion for learning about the culture and to get to know the lands that you are on. And for Indigenous students, faculty and staff at UVic, it’s about seeing this art in the centre of the campus.”
August, 7, in gratitude for their contributions to the campus greenway project. August was invited to the second annual Indigenous Welcome to Campus—where the UVic community came together to acknowledge the traditional territory of the la:k’agaw̓ peoples, and to experience and learn from the knowledge, teachings and practices of local Indigenous communities.
Artist’s designs light up a path of reconciliation
Spindle whorls are typically used by Coast Salish female and Two-Spirit weavers to spin animal hair into wool for textiles. August’s two whorls will be projected by light as stencils on the ground and will
SEE WELCOME BANNERS, P. 3
New student housing and dining hall opens for fall term
The newest and largest student housing and dining project on the UVic campus is opening to its first batch of residents just before the start of fall classes.
Nearly 400 students arrive on campus on Sept. 4 to move into the residence that will become their full home, with activity and build a community of friends.
There are six two-building projects providing 783 total student spaces, with 398 beds opening for students in Building 1 this month. The eight-storey Building 1 and 11-storey Building 2 are located on Ring Road south of the Student Union Building, with ocean views to the east and mountain views in all directions. Building 2 is set to open in June 2023.
The new buildings are the largest capital project since UVic’s history, and the first since the Campus Plan was renewed in 2016. In addition to student housing, Building 1 features the Cove dining hall that is open to the entire campus community, and Building 2 will feature two 225-seat classrooms, an Indigenous student lounge and meeting rooms.
“Each year, UVic receives a high demand for on-campus housing,” says Jed Dunn, executive director of Student Services. “We’re thrilled to be opening these new buildings with modern amenities and student supports that form an incredibly important part of the UVic experience.”
Through the extensive consultation that we did for this project, we heard that housing was number one priority for students,” says Mike Wilson, dean of Campus Planning and Sustainability. “We are really proud of the green building technology and leading-edge sustainability features used in Building 1, which means it will be UVic’s first Passive House-certified building with enhanced energy efficiency as well as comfort for occupants.” In August, 240 people were working to complete the finishing touches on the building for student move-in. Up to 350 people were employed on site during the construction phase of the project.
From the ground up
Work on the site of the Student Housing and Dining project began in summer 2019, with an Indigenous land blessing ceremony—the first in the university’s history—taking place in January 2020. Deconstruction of the Cariboo Campus Centre and the previous dining hall took place in summer 2020. The installation of the Modular Dining Facility (MOD) allowed the construction schedule to be expedited so that work progressed on both buildings simultaneously, saving 18 months on the original construction schedule.
An official ceremony and celebration will be held later this fall.
The $292.2 million project is supported by funding from UVic, the Province of BC and the University of Victoria Foundation as an investment in sustainability.
Passive House design
- The buildings are designed and constructed to Passive House and LEED Gold standards. Passive House design principles aim to reduce energy consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, maintenance and replacement costs by investing in a higher-performing building envelope.
- Mass timber is a key component of the building construction and reduces the buildings’ carbon footprints.
- The re-certified kitchen in Building 1 reduces overall GHG emissions by 83% compared to natural gas.
- Windows are triple glazed with strategic solar shading, and automatically open to keep the inside temperature comfortable.
- Heat recovery ventilation reduces the need for space heating.
- Electric air source heat pumps and other measures reduce GHGs for hot water heating by 88%.
Facts and figures
- Building 1: 16,589m²
- Building 2: 15,899m²
- Total number of beds: 783 (621 net new beds on campus)
Food kiosks will offer plant-based options, soups, salads, stir-fry, sushi and a convenience store.
- The dining hall staff will sort, compost and recycle all waste without a garbage can in view.
- The upstairs multipurpose room can be locked off for use for special events and can be rented by community groups.
- The state-of-the-art servery is built to serve 10,000 meals a day, with approximately 50 staff. Lockers, showers and storage are provided for staff.
Spirit of place
- Elders from the Songhees and Esquimalt Nations have guided the project team in incorporating Indigenous design elements and teachings.
- An Indigenous student lounge will be available in Building 2 when it opens.
- Indigenous artwork will be featured in both buildings.
- Paving on the campus greenway to the south of Building 1 features a weaving pattern, and lights along the greenway will also project a Coast Salish design.
Full story: bit.ly/22_housing
UVic plays key role in new West Shore campus in Langford
UVic is playing a key role in bringing new post-secondary learning opportunities to southern Vancouver Island by partnering with Royal Roads University (RRU) and Camosun College to create a West Shore campus in downtown Langford.
“We’re glad to be able to bring more education options to the Greater Victoria area, including sought after UVic programming, such as computer science, engineering and humanities,” says UVic President Kevin Hall. “This collaborative campus is a new and promising model of delivering programming that meets community demands and serves the needs of West Shore students and the region.”
UVic plans to offer first- and second-year programming at the West Shore campus, starting with computer science and software engineering courses as well as a core course in humanities, fine arts or social sciences. Offerings will complement UVic’s existing programming at the main campus, with students having the flexibility to take certain courses at either location. The West Shore campus is expected to open in fall 2024 and will provide pathways to UVic’s main campus for upper-year students.
“We want to meet learners where they are,” said Langford Mayor Chris van der Velde, who called the area “one of the fastest growing regions in Canada.” Says Vice-President Academic and Provost Elizabeth Croft, “This exciting partnership between UVic, Camosun College and Royal Roads represents an opportunity to expand our high-quality academic offerings while serving the needs of the growing and diverse community.”
UVIC is contributing $1 million toward the $98-million project, which also includes significant contributions from the RC government and City of Langford, along with investments from UVic, RRU and Camosun. As well, the West Shore campus will provide space for the Heritage Institute of British Columbia and the Sooke School District (SD 62).
The West Shore campus will be built to zero-carbon building design standards, making it the first public secondary institution in BC to target this—and will also seek LEED Gold certification. The campus also aligns with United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, including quality education, climate action and building sustainable cities and communities.
More info in the BC government news release: news.gov.bc.ca/27263
UVic to deliver world’s first custom MBA in Indigenous Reconciliation
UVic’s Peter B. Gustavson School of Business is set to co-create and deliver the world’s first custom MBA in Indigenous Reconciliation. This reflects the university commitment to build strong partnerships with local community social service agencies that are working in harmony to support Indigenous Peoples, listen to their communities and rectify past injustices.
“The MBA, which will be developed in partnership with the BC Association of Aboriginal Friendship Centres (aocafc) was unveiled today at UVic as part of an $8.4-million funding announcement by the Ministry of Social Development and Poverty Reduction that will create an action framework to improve access to post-secondary community social services. The MBA program will also draw on funding from bcaafc and Indspire, an Indigenous national charity that invests in the education of First Nations, Inuit and Métis Peoples.”
“We are honoured by the invitation to collaborate on this unique program,” says Saul Klein, dean of the business school. “This MBA will equip leaders in social services, government and non-profits with meaningfully advance reconciliation in their organizations and across our broader society.”
The MBA in Indigenous Reconciliation will support UVic’s commitment and actions on truth, respect and reconciliation, including developing new pathways for Indigenous students to higher education. It joins programs such as UVic’s Indigenous language revitalization and the world-first JD/PhD UVic program in Indigenous legal orders and Canadian common law, which graduated its inaugural class in June 2022.
The MBA in Virtual Industries reflects on industries eroded by colonial policies and practices and is committed to offering programs that meet the needs of the local Indigenous communities,” says UVic Vice-President International and Global Engagement Robina Thomas. “The MBA in Indigenous Reconciliation is a powerful example of the critically important programming that is achievable when we follow the Hulq’um’i’num’ teaching Tsits’uwatlal to help each other work together.” Congratulations to the partners and scholars who came together to make this MBA possible.
Following a closed-enrollment model, students in the program will be selected by a committee from the province, industry and government. Drawing from the non-profit, social-service and government sectors, cohorts will be intentionally designed to include Indigenous and non-Indigenous participants. “Indigenous reconciliation is a lens for everyone to look through,” says Gustavson professor Brent Mainprize. “This program brings together Indigenous and non-Indigenous business leaders to learn from each other about their cultures and build a shared understanding of and commitment to reconciliation that can be designed in the classroom and immediately put into action in students’ organizations and communities.”
In 2019, Gustavson was invited by bcaafc to develop a unique program focused on social innovation. The 36 Challengers is a province-wide youth entrepreneurship initiative that mobilized Indigenous youth in creating businesses uniting the three Cs: community, culture and cash. The challenge saw more than 700 entrepreneurs under the age of 25 participate in its community-based training workshops and mentorship program from 2019 to 2021.
“It is a true honour to have the opportunity to co-design another unique, forward-thinking innovation from bcaafc Executive Director Leslie Varley,” adds Mainprize.
Gustavson has previously co-created an internationally award-winning Indigenous-focused MBA in Sustainable Innovation, setting the framework for bcaafc and the provincial government’s vision to come to life in the MBA in Indigenous Reconciliation, which is expected to launch in Spring 2023. These programs reflect UVic’s commitment to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly ones that seek to end poverty and hunger and to promote healthy lives and well-being, as well as inclusive and high-quality education.
Ocean Networks Canada receives “big science” funding for ocean, climate and blue economy initiatives
UVic’s Ocean Networks Canada (ONC) will benefit from new federal investment in its world-leading ocean observatories located on the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic coasts of Canada. The support will help drive innovative climate solutions, safer coastal communities, Indigenous ocean stewardship, a healthier ocean and a sustainable blue economy.
“The funding has been awarded to UVic through the Canada Foundation for Innovations (CFI) Major Science Initiatives Fund, which supports a portion of the operating and maintenance costs of selected national science facilities,” said Canada, ONC will receive an investment of almost $115 million over six years to continue advancing ocean observing—extending the reach and application of its open-access big data to benefit society, economy and industry.
In the past 16 years, ONC has expanded beyond its early work observing the Salish Sea to becoming a true marine observatory, including with installations and local and Indigenous partnerships on all three coasts of Canada, attracting more than 23,000 users of its scientific data around the world.
The ocean data that ONC collects from its cabled, mobile and community-based observing networks supports scientific discovery, climate impact monitoring, marine safety, tsunami and earthquake early warning, innovation in climate change mitigation, and a sustainable ocean economy, says Kate Moran, president and chief executive officer of ONC.
“Canadians can be proud of their national observatory that not only yields valuable insights into this undersea world that covers two-thirds of our planet, but also contributes to global efforts to accelerate climate innovation in ocean nature-based and technological climate mitigation solutions and coastal resilience.”
More importantly, “the investment makes clear that ONC, through its work with the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, can continue working with partners in Canada and around the world to advance progress in pursuit of bold ocean science,” that promotes ocean resilience and a citizenry engaged with the oceans’ role in supporting life on this planet,” UVic President Kevin Hall says.
“This funding recognizes ONC for its leadership and the profound difference it’s making on all three Canadian coasts and internationally. As a research university, we take pride in working in partnership to create a better world—by taking action on climate change and working with partners to make life better on land and below the water.”
WELCOME BANNERS CONTINUED FROM PAGE 1
be operational very soon. The artistic work will be lit up all along the greyway from Gordon Head Road to Ring Road, including main entry areas, crosswalks and in all five of the spaces around UVic’s new student housing and dining complex.
Whirling with the power of flight in a symmetrical eagle design, one of the spindle whorl designs symbolizes a message of encouragement for people to emerge from the comfort zone and rise above challenges, says Juan August, who has named it “Reaching Greater Heights.”
The other designs, called “Salish Medicine,” is also contemporary but August hopes it additionally captures a sense of the “trace-like” experience that is part of the traditional use of these sacred headdresses when the weaver is spinning the wool.
“I knew this was my life purpose”
In Coast Salish tradition, intricately carved horse posts stand at the entrance to traditional longhouses to welcome people into the surroundings. A year before they began work on the UVic project, Juan August was mentoring with a Coast Salish artist “who’s inclined to fall into the history and reviving of Coast Salish horses posts.” After his student project met with that project, he fell in love with the history, such as the work of Master Carver and Tsartlip First Nation artist Charles Elliott in the 1980s. Moving forward from there to now, I want to continue that revival in practice,” he says.
August was born “in the traditional unceded lak’oon and w̱SÁNEĆ territories now referred to as Victoria,” and recalls their first art supplies being their uncle’s old paintbrushes. “I can picture myself painting at two years old.”
“I knew this was my life purpose to do art. I can’t see myself doing anything different.”
Campus greeningway project
The entire greeningway runs through the centre of the UVic campus and, when complete, will be a shared space for nature, culture, history and ecology. It will include ecological feature, communal tables, tree canopies, benches and other viewing platforms, as well as interpretive art and signage to highlight Indigenous history, languages and connections to the land.
Paving stones along the greeningway will also be arranged in cedar-weaving design patterns.
“A guiding principle of the greeningway project is to reflect Indigenous ways of knowing and being within the landscape,” says Mike Wilson, UVic’s director of campus planning and sustainability. “I know I speak for others involved in conceptualizing the project in saying how delighted I am that Margaret’s artwork now being raised across campus and her contributions toward creating a welcoming and inclusive campus environment.”
Art on campus and beyond
Putting art at the heart of the UVic experience is nothing new here. Our university has more art on view in public spaces than any other Canadian university.
At any one time, approximately 2,000 pieces of art are in place from more than 19,000 in the university’s overall art collection, all overseen by UVic’s Legacy Art Galleries. Legacy staff continue to partner every season in artistic and community collaborations that reflect diversity and explore important ideas and today’s most pressing issues, as well as enriching engagement with communities through programming and a perpetual array of compelling and educational exhibitions.
Caroline Riedel, acting director of the galleries, says “Legacy is delighted to forge stronger ties between campus and Indigenous artists with this project. This is an opportunity to move artwork outside the gallery walls to the land, to celebrate and foreground Coast Salish artists and communicate our commitment to reconciliation.”
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Whether it’s state-level adoption of spyware or the mass collection of personal information by major companies such as Google, Facebook and Microsoft, spying on Canadians is becoming more commonplace—helped by new laws that support routine mass surveillance.
“Canadians are no longer protected by citizenship from being spied on by intelligence agencies,” says UVic sociologist Midori Ogasawara, who has interviewed both Edward Snowden and AT&T whistleblower Mark Klein for her dissertation research.
Ogasawara is a former journalist and a global expert in security intelligence and surveillance research. “The Canadian security agencies, such as the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (csis) and scmi, have been spying on Canadians for a long time,” she says.
Q: Are Canadians being spied on by their own security agencies?
A: Yes. In the 1970s, a parliamentary committee determined there was using illegal activities to threaten Canada’s democracy. So, the scmi was created to follow a strict mandate under ministerial control. However, the government’s spying activities basically continued and over time, the intelligence agencies were equipped with new electronic tools.
Q: What are your thoughts on the recent revelation that acar were likely using the now internationally blacklisted Pegasus software from the NSO group?
A: The secret use of spyware by acar clearly demonstrates the ongoing violation of privacy rights by security agencies. The scmi admitted it used software with capabilities that are eerily similar to the now internationally blacklisted Pegasus software developed by the NSO Group. What the scmi call On-Device Investigative Tool, if it is in fact the Pegasus software, is infamous for hacking activists and journalists who are critical of the government. This news is shocking and deeply concerning that Canada is also one of those government customers for invasive spyware, whether it’s NSO or not.
Q: How do our current laws actually support greater surveillance activities?
A: In the last decade, Canada has passed serial laws to support the expansion of surveillance activities by various agencies, all under the name of anti-terrorism or protecting Canadians from cybercrime. This is a legislative trend that has been legalizing various illegal surveillance activities; it doesn’t actually try to stop the illegal surveillance, nor does it protect the rights in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
For example, Bill C-15 legislated telecommunication providers voluntarily providing subscriber information to law enforcement without warrants and lowering the standard for judges to order the interception of communications.
Bill C-14 removed territorial restrictions on csis activities and allowed the agency to conduct activities that could even breach the laws of other countries.
And then there’s the most controversial bill. It created a new power for csis to take measures to “reduce threats to the security of Canada.” The law gives csis a special power to stand above the Charter rights.
Q: How does mass surveillance work in Canada?
A: Mass surveillance activities by security agencies have been deeply hidden in many countries, but Snowden showed people that a significant part of today’s mechanism of mass surveillance is inherently global and collaborative.
Canada is part of the Five Eyes intelligence network—with the US, UK, Australia and New Zealand—that cooperates with the US National Security Agency (NSA) in sharing their citizens’ personal information. For example, the NSA embedded surveillance devices within communication infrastructure such as the transmission cables and routing facilities built by the major telecoms. They also have access to the servers set up by the big tech companies, such as Google, Facebook and Apple.
Q: What privacy advice do you have for Canadians interested in protecting their personal information?
A: There are a lot of things that you can do personally to protect your privacy, such as rejecting unnecessary cookies when accessing websites and choosing apps that employ end-to-end encryption. But when it comes to mass surveillance, we need collective protection by regulatory practices, such as the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation.
However, the law will never be able to catch up to the fast pace of technological development, therefore we have no ability to regulate technology. But we still need laws to protect people’s well-being.
This Q&A has been edited and condensed. Full interview: bit.ly/22-spy
UVic adds billions to provincial and regional economies
The University of Victoria’s activities, students and alumni help generate $3.3 billion to BC’s economy and overall prosperity.
An independent report by Ernst & Young Glass (now Lightcast), a leading international business services firm, indicates that UVic’s total impact in BC amounts to 69,987 jobs. The economic impact for Greater Victoria is $1.8 billion, or one out of every nine jobs.
“UVic is a proud partner in the Greater Victoria and BC economies,” says UVic President Kevin Hall. “The investment in our students, research and operations creates benefits for local businesses, community partnerships and residents as well as for UVic itself, while creating a more prosperous economy. Without a doubt, our ability to make this impact relies on our partners and supporters.”
The university’s role in one way is additive in helping students increase their employability and achieve their individual potential. UVic facilitates new research, fosters innovation and entrepreneurship, and enables arts and cultural activities. A direct contributor to economic growth through spending as an employer and buyer of goods and services, the university also draws visitors generating new jobs and opportunities for the region.
The report, released at a Greater Victoria Chamber of Commerce event this summer, provides a local and provincial economic impact analysis for the fiscal year 2019/20. Areas of focus include operational research, construction, tourism and student spending, as well as spin-off company and alumni impact.
“From the networking sessions to customized placements, I was fully supported by the professors inside the wider UVic community which allowed me to not only graduate with an MBA degree but also set the foundation for the creation of FreshWorks,” says Chris Mod, CEO and co-founder of FreshWorks Studio, an award-winning firm that designs and develops custom apps.
“We have grown FreshWorks to 100+ diverse individuals representing 21 different countries and speaking 31 languages in beautiful Victoria. It helped us to put Victoria on the map.”
The study also considers UVic as an investment from the perspective of students, taxpayers and society concluding it provides a strong return on investment that includes social benefits through its partnerships.
Data from the report also shows that despite covid-19, UVic’s impact continued to grow in fiscal year 2020/21.
Report highlights
Overall, UVic contributed $3.3 billion to the BC economy and 61,8 million in added income to the Greater Victoria economy. The impact is just over one per cent of the Greater Victoria area’s gross regional product—a local-level equivalent to national GDP.
In terms of its research activities and innovation, UVic contributed $201.3 million to the province and $213.9 million in added income to the region.
In the 2019-20 fiscal year, UVic’s operating spending reached $486.8 million, contributing to the regional economy, growing to $548.5 the following year.
UVic activities and students supported one out of every 69 jobs in the province and one out of every nine in Greater Victoria.
The increased earnings of alumni contributed $2.4 billion to the province and $917.2 million in added income across Greater Victoria.
UVic also attracts students and visitors from outside the region and around the world who spend money on food, accommodation and entertainment. Student spending added $182.2 million in income to the province and $171.2 million to the region.
“UVic is an important economic engine for Greater Victoria, not only as a large employer but also for the vital role it plays in educating and future workforce and contributing expertise, thought leadership and innovation,” says Emilie de Rosenroll, founding CEO of South Island Prosperity Partnership.
Tackling the water and sanitation crisis in Canada and abroad
If problems around water quality and wastewater in remote and poorly served communities are to be solved, they’ll need funding, local involvement and technical know-how.
Caetano Dorea, a UVic professor in civil engineering, is leading a team that has been awarded a $3.65-million Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) grant to train emerging engineers to work on water and sanitation projects in low-resource contexts in Canada and abroad.
The project brings together researchers and students from eight Canadian universities—UVic, University of British Columbia, Simon Fraser University, Western University, University of Guelph, University of Toronto, Carleton University and Laval University, where Dorea previously taught. It will give the students broader exposure to different training and institutions, as well as hands-on experience.
“The goal is to produce engineers with practical experience who can work with communities and agencies to find solutions to their water and wastewater problems,” says Dorea, who leads the Public Health and Environmental Engineering Lab, Canada’s first research group dedicated to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). Another aim is to promote research that’s needed to develop sustainable water and sanitation services in impoverished areas of the marginalized members of the global community.
The project reflects UVic’s long history of research and training initiatives on sustainable water management. This year, UVic was ranked among the world’s top 25 universities for its work to improve access to clean water and sanitation—one of the UN’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals.
Issues with safe drinking water and safe disposal of wastewater are not unique to low- and middle-income countries, he says, noting that he and his colleagues use the term “low-resource context” because “inequalities are independent of the income level of a country.” In Canada, for instance, there are rural and Indigenous communities that are served under boil-water advisories for more than two decades and some six million people face water and wastewater management challenges.
“They need to achieve the same water quality standards as everyone else,” Dorea says, “and yet, they have fewer resources and lower capacity.”
He expects the project will continue the same type of collaborative research that has taken place in the past, ranging from Nunavik in northern Quebec to communities in Malawi, in southeast Africa.
Such communities often have a water source that’s contaminated, meaning their water needs to be treated before it’s consumed, he explains. In these situations, the solution can often involve providing systems to do treatment at the point of use. However, such technology, which is designed in well-controlled lab conditions, doesn’t always work as planned in the real world.
The NSERC CREATE grant will help opportunities train engineering students to collaborate with local authorities, implementing agencies and NGOs working with low-resource communities and the communities themselves to find “fit-for-purpose” solutions. Many communities already know what the solutions are but need help refining them.
Such immersive experiences are key to the educational benefit students will receive.
“During this training experience, what we want to do is to make sure the students have the right heads, hands and hearts,” he says. “Behind these students, there are humans. You think in a different way when you have an understanding of the intricacies you’re addressing.”
The program, which involves approximately 40 grad students, is funded for six years. Dorea hopes it will jumpstart WASH as a more widely studied academic discipline in Canada and a critical mass of water- and sanitation-related expertise.
New BioInnovation Hub set to enhance collaboration in BC’s life sciences sector
A new front-door to UVic opens this month to advance health and life sciences innovation through partnership with Vancouver Island Life Sciences.
The UVic BioInnovation Hub is a collaborative workspace in Saanich where entrepreneurs and life sciences organizations can connect with UVic researchers, access equipment and tools, share resources, showcase new technologies, and explore opportunities for collaboration.
Located in the Saanich Plaza retail mall, across from Uptown, above Sowercoid and adjacent to Save-on-Foods, the Hub provides short-term incubator space for early-stage start-ups and hot-desk capacity during its operating hours of 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday to Friday. Other occupants and users at the 1,188-square-foot space include private firms and professional-services companies in the life sciences and related sectors including PharmaBioSource and the Victoria Hand Project. UVic’s Centre for Advanced Materials and Related Technology will also have a presence onsite to help facilitate university-industry collaborations and access campus resources such as Biomedical Core for equipment, facilities, research talent and technical expertise.
“We were thrilled to be partnering with the local business community to help accelerate growth in the region and provide a welcoming space for innovators and entrepreneurs to test new ideas,” says Lisa Kalyanchuk, UVic’s director of innovation and entrepreneurship.
“The goal is to bring UVic expertise and resources into the communities we serve and open up new pathways for collaboration.”
Victoria Hand Project CEO Michael Perone and Kim Arkle show off prosthetic arms at the new BioInnovation Hub. UVIC PHOTO SERVICES
The UVic BioInnovation Hub is part of a series of community-based innovation hubs committed to UVic’s broader Innovation Network, which seeks to raise the university’s profile as a catalyst for social and economic development and collaborative, interdisciplinary problem-solving in the region.
The hub expansion builds on the success of the Coast Capital Innovation Centre, a well-known pillar and campus resource for entrepreneur support and support. Since its launch in 2010, the centre has helped more than 1,300 students from all faculties across campus and supported the launch of over 150 startup companies. UVic at KWENCH opened its doors in the fall of 2021 and in 2022 to support women entrepreneurs and planning for additional locations is underway, including a new hub at the West Shore campus in Langford.
Over the past decade, nearly 400 UVic researchers working in life sciences and health sciences have published more than 3,000 papers that have cited over 75,000 times. Over half of these papers were co-authored with researchers in another country, demonstrating the impact of the work on a global scale.
Key partners, sponsors, funders and supporters include commercial property management firm Hansons Investment Ltd., Genome British Columbia, and Mayor Fred Haynes from the District of Saanich who have brought interested parties together.
The BioInnovation Hub and its activities are part of UVic’s commitment to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals including those addressing healthy lives, inclusive quality education and fostering innovation.
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Farquhar set to amplify Indigenous voices
The University of Victoria and the Farquhar at UVic have launched Voices in Circle: Amplifying Indigenous Cultural Voices, a performance and engagement series featuring established and emerging Indigenous artists.
The series will feature Indigenous artists from all over Canada whose work ranges from visual arts, dance, theatre, burlesque, drag, comedy and mixed media to visual arts. The program is guided by an Indigenous and Métis Programming Circle, a collective of Indigenous artists in curatorship where an arts organization’s leadership are cultural gatekeepers.
“Decolonization is more than just changing the line up of performers to include more diverse artists,” says Deirdreanne, programming circle member, UVic alum and PhD candidate, arts and craft professional, and former City of Victoria Indigenous artist in residence. “The decolonization is about shifting the power structures at the center that keep dominant voices perpetuating in the arts. Co-creating an artistic vision requires all voices to be heard, deep listening and deep respect for each another.”
“We’re making space for a new way of doing things,” says Farquhar Director Ian Case. “UVic is committed to walking the path towards truth and reconciliation, and how our art and cultural sector is changing. We’re committed to changing with it.”
Voices in Circle stands among a small number of Canadian universities to host a series that focuses on Indigenous performance and community engagement. “Other universities have started speakers series and have increased representation in arts,” says Case. “But Voices in Circle appears to bring together its audience to think about and implementing how Indigenous artists engage with audiences.”
“This initiative is taking the first step in truly dismantling some of institutionalized artistic spaces,” says programming circle member, carver and musician Tejas Collison.
“The series goes beyond performances. The programming circle members are working with the Farquhar to weave in meaningful community engagement activities to complement performances. Artists will engage with the general public, local artists, Elders and Indigenous communities to explore cultural resurgence, language revitalization, artistic collaborations and mentorship opportunities—in addition to more traditional audience engagements such as panel discussions.”
“Indigenous voices are on the rise and we need to create civic engagement and creative atmospheres that support shifting the paradigm,” adds Deirdreanne.
“Voices in Circle is doing the important work of talking the talk and importantly walking the walk. By implementing a circular approach to meetings and discussions says Collison, “these values are carried throughout all aspects of the initiative …shining a much-needed light on the often invisible and silenced Indigenous artists from around BC.”
“It has been so powerful to sit together with other Indigenous and Métis people, and to speak openly and honestly about what we see in our communities,” says Deirdreanne, programming circle member, Métis performance artist and director of engagement programs at Pacific Opera Victoria. “We are needed, and the best effect is that we can look for those who have not been in these spaces is a responsibility, but also so encouraging.”
Having “working with the Farquhar through Ian Case has given us the time and space to co-create a circle of leadership, and a way of co-leading that honours all the voices in this room, creating more opportunity to be of benefit to our local Indigenous communities. We are building trust through relationships built on respect and a true sharing of power.”
Among the first artists to be featured are:
- **Inuit** sister award-winning performer, composer, activist and musicologist Jeremy Dutcher (Sept. 9)
- **Inuit** sisters PuqSiq, performing haunting traditional and original compositions (Oct. 12)
- **Canadian Hip-Hop** and intercultural duo of Haisha and Snotty Nose Rez Kids (Nov. 30)
- A variety show featuring local Indigenous artists (Feb. 2023)
- Winnipeg-based multi-instrumental singer-songwriter Sebastian Gaskin, last year’s Western Canadian Music Award-winning R&B Artist of the Year (March 11)
Voices in Circle is supported by funding from the Government of Canada and through the Province of BC through the BC Arts Council. Tickets are now on sale through the UVic Ticket Centre.
Royal Society of Canada recognizes seven UVic researchers
From palliative care and supramolecular chemistry to experimental psychology and the history of Victorian researchers, each of whom is making a unique and lasting contribution to the world, are being celebrated this month with the country’s highest academic honour by the Royal Society of Canada (RSC).
From the fields of humanities, science, social sciences, engineering, and human and social development, Trevor Laurin (psychology) and Cornelie Bohne (chemistry), Cynthia Milton (history of research and innovation), Kelli Sagnihotra (music), Marc Laprairie (French and Francophonie studies), Michael Masson (psychology) and Ray Siemens (English, computer science) are elected to the RSC as new fellows.
The work done by all seven scholars across disparate fields highlights the importance of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the work with the scholars’ achievements helping to echo a sense of purpose and innovative progress for all places on our planet.
Trevor Laurin (psychology and ethics), leads a research program rooted in Northern partnerships and examines environmental change in the western Arctic. Using a combination of field studies, remote sensing, and collaboration with Inuit health and Inuulitsivik experts, Laurin’s team identifies what makes Northern ecosystems sensitive to change, and explores how these transformations are impacting Northern communities.
Cornelia Bohne is a world leader in supramolecular chemistry—the study of large structures held together by forces other than chemical bonds. At UVic, she has developed specialized techniques to understand the dynamics of supramolecular systems, making breakthrough, fundamental knowledge for future advances in drug research.
Cynthia Milton illuminates two fields: colonialism and racialized violence. Her work and research interrogates alter state violence. In short, she studies the legacies of political violence and who, in a society, has the power to tell stories about conflictual and contested pasts. Milton’s work aims to advance the practice of accounting and listens to the voices that have often been excluded from national narratives. She also studies how dominant groups navigate our present era of post-truth and accountability.
Kelli Stajduhar’s internationally renowned work in palliative care is based on a simple premise: everyone should die with dignity. Her research is particularly important for people who have lived with chronic illness and who experience its health effects have been marred by distrust and stigma.
Marc Laprairie specializes in the life and work of cult figure Boris Vian, a French poet-hack and inventor. In 2018 Laprairie won made a *moule* (a mold) of the *Pieds des Palissadiers/Chaussées*. He earned this title, one of France’s highest honours for culture and education, after three decades of research on Vian. Laprairie and other scholarly peers who include teacher-researcher-novelist group Oulipo, founded a year after Vian’s death in 1959, whose followers blend mathematical algorithms into literature.
Michael Masson, a world leader in the understanding of human cognition, has shown us how to learn and read more effectively and how to wield a teapot—or a scalpel—more safely. Through his research, Masson explored connections and associated risks between thought and emotion that illustrate the skills such as “our ability to grasp a teapot and pour a cup at the same time” for planning which instrument to use next and what to do with it.
Ray Siemens is renowned for his insights into the history of communication, value of books and future of reading. A leading expert in his field, he says digital humanities “is where humanity meets computing.” Fortunately UVic’s Canada Research Chair in Humanities Computing and as a Distinguished Professor in the Department of English with a cross appointment in computer science, Siemens maintains a central role in the digital aspect of the humanities, with its societal significance poignantly emphasized during the pandemic with our reliance on remote access.
Full story: [http://22.RSC](http://22.RSC)
As Indigenous elders pass, how can younger generations best learn and increase their fluency with traditional languages? Theatre professor Kirsten Sadeghi-Yekta believes applied theatre techniques can be an important part of the language-learning equation, and this month’s Indigenous Theatre Festival Reawakening Language on Stage offers a glimpse into how performing artistically augment classroom education.
Running at the Phoenix Theatre from September 16-18 in collaboration with the Hul’q’umi’num’ Language Academy (hluqumun.com), Hul’q’umi’num’ Language Academy and other university partners, the festival offers a weekend of performances, workshops and discussions aimed at sharing research-based knowledge on the best practices for using theatre as a tool for this essential project.
“It’s about inspiring other communities who are struggling to maintain their languages,” says Sadeghi-Yekta. “We’re hoping to offer a spark for people to see that it’s possible to learn traditional languages through alternative ways—it doesn’t only have to be in classrooms.”
Sadeghi-Yekta has been engaged with this project since 2015 and her work has been supported by a number of grants, including most recently a three-year Partnership Development Grant with linguistics professor Sonya Bind as co-lead. She was originally invited to participate by HLCs language coordinator Brenda Thorne (now director of the Enumeynax First Nations) and SFU linguist Dinna Gerdis, who were looking to find new ways to revitalize the Hul’q’umi’num’ language—which was traditionally spoken across a wide geographical area, ranging from now-Washington State and the Fraser Valley to the Gulf Islands and Vancouver Island.
“Joan brought us together was a fantastic idea,” recalls Sadeghi-Yekta, a multi-lingual applied theatre practitioner whose international experience working with different cultures was ideally suited to this project. Given that language learning has always been an integral part of Indigenous communities, theatre seemed an ideal fit for this project. “There was a steep learning curve on both sides to understand each other’s cultural protocols and the language of applied theatre—but the beauty of live theatre is you always start with your body, so we began by finding ways for participants to move past the discomfort of performing.”
Currently working with about 60 participants, Sadeghi-Yekta combines theatre-based techniques with community-inspired storytelling to help participants increase their fluency, focusing on nourishing a sense of excitement in speaking and performing only in Hul’q’umi’num’…so festival audiences shouldn’t expect any English words!
“The whole point of the festival is that we want to celebrate Indigenous languages without translation,” she notes. “If we provide subtitles, the language we’re towards Hul’q’umi’num’ could easily go extinct. It’s a very complex language to learn.”
Hul’q’umi’num’ speaker and Co-wichwa’thubex member Tara L. Morris is a PhD candidate in linguistics and linguistics who is working with Sadeghi-Yekta on the festival; now co-director of the featured play Jealous Moon, Morris has been involved since 2015 in a variety of ways. “It’s my interest being a student, learning the Hul’q’umi’num’ vocabulary for the play, acting it out and now helping teach and direct it,” she says.
Ironically, Morris’ grandmother—the late Theresa Thorne—helped create the Hul’q’umi’num’ dictionary and actually worked with SFU’s Gerdis years ago. “It’s such an honour to now be involved at this level; she was so proud of me. I think one of the most important thing: we’re fighting for our language—we don’t want it to be extinct—so we’re organizing and presenting and revitalizing with these younger generations.”
Sadeghi-Yekta estimates there were over 50 fluent Hul’q’umi’num’ speakers when she began this project—a number that has now sadly dropped to less than 30 over the covid years.
“Our elders are passing so quickly that we’re trying to make sure we find ways to expedite the process and ensure the next generation learns,” she says. “The great thing about this project is that it inspires specifically younger participants to commit to the learning of the language—and to feel confident in speaking it—which is where it all starts.”
Given that the festival has been twice-delayed due to covid, she is excited to finally bring Reawakening Language on Stage to campus. In addition to the theatre performances and workshops, the festival will also include important life lessons about persisting, building confidence, overcoming adversity and helping others. Expect heartfelt messages of sorrow and reconciliation, loss and hope, and the realization that Indigenous languages are not just an object of study but a means of artistic expression, and the innate hope of galvanizing a new generation of Indigenous performers.
“Participants always tell me that they’ve wanted to play again through the theatre, and it’s one of the few times they can laugh again without focusing on other worries,” says Sadeghi-Yekta. “They say that it’s brought the community more together as well—and that’s a huge compliment for the art.”
Gorge Pavilion
CONTINUED FROM P. 1
no knowledge of the culture, spoke not a word of the language. There was a constant internal dissonance. A sense of self that was lacking.’
It took until 1985 for the Canadian government to acknowledge the injustices brought upon Japanese Canadians during the war era. Locally, the Township of Esquimalt refurbished and re-opened the Gorge Park Japanese gardens in 2009.
Opportunity for concrete reparation
In 2017, when land became available for new parks in the jurisdiction, the local Japanese Canadian community, led by the Victoria Nikkei Cultural Society (vncsc), came together to field a proposal to build a Japanese-style tea house and garden in Gorge Park in honour of the Takata original establishment. The effort was supported by UVic’s Landscapes of Injustice project, a recently-completed seven-year national project based at the Centre for Asia-Pacific Initiatives that investigated the dispossession of Japanese Canadians during the internment era. The Landscapes team, led by UVic historian Jordan Stanger-Ross and Project Manager Michael Abe, provided the ‘historical imperative’ behind the proposal, answering a specific focus question of the “wartime destruction” of the original tea gardens at the hands of local residents and letters written by the Takatas during their internment. Information upon hearing of the destruction of their home and garden and the sale of their possessions while they were interned in the internment camps.
The group hired the tea house replacement proposal undertook a public campaign to raise awareness about the importance of rebuilding this erased landmark, writing appeals, drawing media attention and interviews, meeting with the mayor, attending council meetings, and contacting local business, churches and other establishments. The Landscapes team organized an UVic student community-oriented event to support the proposal, gathering funds to build a permanent replica to honour the Takata family, and presented from the Royal BC Museum and Township of Esquimalt archives.
At the pavilion’s public grand opening on August 18, Dillon’s 96-year-old grandfather, who spent his childhood on the property, came from Ontario to be in attendance. Dillon spoke of his own daughter now attending a Japanese immersion preschool up the street at the Craigflower schoolhouse, and the importance of places where Japanese Canadians “can come and feel a connection to the past, feel a pride in our heritage,” and repair the cultural disconnect that plagued so many of his own generation. While acknowledging the ongoing work of anti-racism and the Indigenous people who lived in the area for millennia prior to overseas arrivals, he took the opportunity to celebrate the moment like the ‘breakings of a new community’ of Japanese Canadians on the West Coast.
Broken Promises, a museum exhibition created by the Landscapes of Injustice project in partnership with the Nikkei National Museum and the Royal BC Museum, will be on view at the Royal BC Museum until Nov. 13. royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/centre-for-ap-initiatives.org/landscapesofinjusticenp/vncsc.ca | e3e8fd89-8aa7-41a5-8fff-65ff3e4643da | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | https://www.uvic.ca/communicationsmarketing/assets/docs/ring/archives/2022/ring-2022-06-sept.pdf | 2024-04-20T01:31:02+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817463.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240419234422-20240420024422-00112.warc.gz | 936,432,781 | 10,627 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.960564 | eng_Latn | 0.997863 | [
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DITCH THE DIRT
Pupil activity sheets
practicalaction.org/schools/ditch-the-dirt
| Goal | Title | Description |
|------|-------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 | No poverty | End poverty in all its forms everywhere. |
| 2 | Zero Hunger | End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture. |
| 3 | Good Health & Well-being for People | Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. |
| 4 | Quality Education | Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. |
| 5 | Gender Equality | Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. |
| 6 | Clean Water & Sanitation | Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. |
| 7 | Affordable & Clean Energy | Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable modern energy for all. |
| 8 | Decent Work & Economic Growth | Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. |
| 9 | Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure | Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation. |
| 10 | Reducing Inequalities | Reduce income inequality within and among countries. |
| 11 | Sustainable Cities & Communities | Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. |
| 12 | Responsible Consumption & Production | Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. |
| 13 | Climate Action | Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts by regulating emissions and promoting developments in renewable energy. |
| 14 | Life Below Water | Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. |
| 15 | Life on Land | Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. |
| 16 | Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions | Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. |
| 17 | Partnerships for the Goals | Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. |
Photographs from Turkana
Practical ACTION
Scientists play a big role in investigating and analysing water quality. This includes water from rivers, water holes and at water treatment works.
Your science investigation is to analyse the odour and appearance of four different water samples.
Use the Water grading strips to help you score on the quality of its appearance, where 0 = Clear and 4 = Very dirty.
| Water Sample | Odour | Appearance – your description | Appearance – your score |
|--------------|-------|-------------------------------|-------------------------|
| 1 | | | |
| 2 | | | |
| 3 | | | |
| 4 | | | |
| Clear 0 | Some cloudiness 1 | Cloudy 2 | Dirty 3 | Very dirty 4 |
|---------|------------------|----------|--------|--------------|
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
Investigating sieving
Sieves are often used to separate solid materials from a liquid.
Imagine you are a group of scientists who have been given a sample of dirty water. Investigate and record your findings about the water sample before and after it has been sieved. Run the experiment with two sieves with different sizes of mesh.
Recording your results
| Properties | Description of the smell (odour) | Description of the appearance | Weight of solids in sieve (g) |
|-----------------------------|---------------------------------|-------------------------------|------------------------------|
| Water before sieving | | | |
| After sieve 1 | | | |
| After sieve 2 | | | |
| After sieve 1 and 2 together| | | |
1. What solid materials have been separated out from the water sample through sieving?
2. Which type of sieve/s would you recommend to Kenyan scientists to include as part of a water cleaning system?
Imagine you are a group of scientists who have been given a sample of dirty water. Your challenge is to design and make a water filter that removes as much ‘dirt’ from the water as possible.
Before making your final filter for the challenge, make and test two different water filters. You could try changing:
- the materials you use to make the layers
- the order of the layers
- the depth of the layers
Record the information about the samples before and after the water has been filtered for 5 minutes.
### Filter investigation
| Water properties | Describe the smell (odour) of the water | Describe how the water looks | Grade the quality of the water (0-4) | Amount of water collected (ml) in 5 minutes |
|------------------|----------------------------------------|-----------------------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| Water before filtering | | | | |
| Water filter 1 | | | | |
| Water filter 2 | | | | |
Ditch the dirt challenge
Draw your final idea for your group’s water filter. Label the materials and quantities you recommend to use in the filter.
Final test results
| Water properties | Describe the smell (odour) of the water | Describe how the water looks | Grade the quality of the water (0-4) | Amount of water collected (ml) in 5 minutes |
|------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| | | | | |
Based on your results, what recommendations would you make to Kenyan scientists to include in their water filters for use by people collecting water from ground water holes?
The target for Global Goal 6 on Clean water and sanitation is to ensure everyone has access to safe and affordable water.
Why is the cost of a water filter for the community in Turkana important to consider?
| Material | Cost per unit (Kenyan shillings) | Quantity used | Total cost |
|---------------------------------|----------------------------------|---------------|------------|
| 2 litre plastic bottle or plastic tub | 20 | | |
| Gravel | 100 per cup | | |
| Coarse sand | 100 per cup | | |
| Fine sand | 120 per cup | | |
| Marbles | 200 per cup | | |
| Cotton wool | 5 per ball | | |
| Paper towel | 5 per towel | | |
| Cloth | 20 per 10 cm² | | |
| Elastic band | 5 per band | | |
| Card | 10 per sheet | | |
| Junk modelling material | 5 per item | | |
Overall total
Look at the things that are often found in dirty water in the table below.
Place a tick in the boxes that contain the ‘dirt’ that your water filter is likely to have filtered out.
| Sand | Pesticides | Viruses |
|------|------------|---------|
| Bleach | Stones | Salts |
| Bacteria | Shampoo | Soil |
| Urine | Drugs | Animal faeces |
| Small twigs | Aluminium | Leaves |
Do these results mean your filtered water is safe to drink? Yes / No
What ideas do you have for ways of removing the contaminants that your filter has not removed to make the water safe to drink?
Research: safe to drink
Step 1 – Find out the different types of contaminants that can be found in ‘dirty’ water.
Step 2 – Research the different ways in which those contaminants can be treated to make the water safe to drink.
Record your findings. You can include pictures as well as notes.
Team Feedback
Imagine you are a water scientist working for a company that is keen to invest in ideas that help people in Turkana have access to clean water.
Listen to the presentations from each group. Think about how well they did in terms of the criteria in the table below. Make notes and give them a mark out of 5 for each area, where 5 is the best.
| Team name | Team work | Research | Developing and finalising ideas | Model | Presentation | Final score |
|-----------|-----------|----------|---------------------------------|-------|--------------|-------------|
| | Did they work well as a team? | How well did they carry out their research? | Did they develop some good, innovative ideas, and improve on them? | How good is the final model? | How well did the team communicate their work? | | | <urn:uuid:15961861-22b3-450c-b90c-5979929d7995> | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | https://www.teachitscience.co.uk/attachments/33902/ditch-the-dirt-student-worksheets-practical-action.pdf | 2019-01-19T14:51:39Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583668324.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20190119135934-20190119161934-00388.warc.gz | 933,753,580 | 1,915 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.991693 | eng_Latn | 0.99931 | [
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Exeter township, in the northeastern corner of Fillmore County, is bounded on the north by York and on the east by Saline counties, on the south by Liberty and on the west by Fairmont townships. The land is fairly level. Indian Creek rises in Sec. 18 and flows northeast into Sec. 4, where it turns eastward to Saline County and later joins the West Blue River. A branch of Johnson Creek rises near the southern edge, in Sec. 33, and flows northeastward, zigzagging through Secs. 23, 24, and 25 toward Saline County and the Blue. In 1966, the township had 33 irrigation wells in operation.
The township is crossed from east to west, just south of its center (through Secs. 24 to 19), by the main line (Chicago-Denver) of the Burlington R.R., closely paralleled by U. S. Highway 6. The Fremont-Superior branch of the Northwestern R.R. slants across it from the northeast to the southeast corner (Secs. 1 to 31). Both railroads pass through the village of Exeter.
Warren Woodard was the first settler in what later became known as Exeter township, settling here in 1870.
A special meeting of the County Board was held on May 27, 1871, for the purpose of dividing the county into Commissioner Districts. The county was to be divided into three districts by two east-and-west lines; thus each district would be 8 by 24 miles. The north district was to be designated No. 1, the middle district No. 2, and the south district No. 3. This put Exeter township into District No. 1.
On February 6, 1872, Orlando Porter was appointed road overseer for Precinct 1. On March 16, 1872, Warren Woodard was appointed to the same post, as Mr. Porter failed to qualify.
A meeting of the county board on November 9, 1872, decided that the county should be divided into precincts six miles square. The date for the reorganization was set for Tuesday, January 7, 1873. The meeting for Exeter township
---
**Exeter Township Homestead Map**
| William C. Anderson | John W. Atkinson |
|---------------------|------------------|
| John S. Dart | |
| Willard C. Woodworth| Charles H. Dorathy|
| John B. Drummond | Patterson Ryan |
| T. C. Chamberlain | Lawrence Ryan |
| James F. Kelsey | Calvin P. Angell |
| Benjamin F. Stilley | Henry Worzmann |
| S. A. Shelly | Wm. Wright |
| John N. Dayton | Wm. N. Babcock |
| John E. Ingham | Joh Hathaway |
| William D. Paine | Ellen G. Wilcox |
| Joseph E. Dickinson | Henry C. Young |
| Alfred Dickerson | John T. Berland |
| Oliver P. Chapman | |
| Henry Hammond | Bennett Erwin |
| Michael Swedey | Lemuel T. Mead |
| Frank E. Graver | James Brooks |
| James A. Huff | James G. Hasey |
| James M. Russell | Wm. H. House |
| John Tanner | Abigail Rice |
| Palmer Rice | Alonzo Rice |
| Harrison A. Sturdevant | |
| Edward D. Young | Minor orphan children of deceased | Samuel E. Bond |
| Thomas B. Farmer | Fritz Metzger |
| Caleb J. Litch (Harris) | Peter Becker |
| James W. Eller | James Treaster |
| Daniel S. Williams | |
| Richard Taylor | |
| B. H. Brayer | Thomas D. Richardson |
| Luana C. Harris Widow | Nathan S. Babcock |
| Jacob P. Shelboll | William Miner |
| Aaron Lindsay | Henry Dykman |
| Albert A. Miner | Samuel Bailey |
| Margaret Makinson | Wm. Shadden |
| James Alexander | Nicholas Baker |
---
School Land
---
93
was to be held in Exeter. Officials at this time were: Judges of the election, C. J. Chamberlain and Harvey Wright; clerks of the election, Warren Woodard and Michael Swadeley; justice of the peace, N. S. Babcock; constable, William Miner; road supervisor, O. P. Chapman.
Exeter township included the following school districts: Nos. 20, 22, 23, 24, and parts of 94 and 95. School terms averaged from $1\frac{1}{2}$ months to 4 months; teachers' salaries ranged between $25 and $40 per month. Homestead maps in the county clerk's office show that most homesteads ranged from 40 to 160 acres.
School District No. 22, taken during the 1896-97 school year. Top row, left to right: Nanny Brown, Minnie Menke, Anna Becker, Herb Decker, Ellie Dumpert, Herb Jensen, Frank Becker, Helen Decker, Lenora Cortwood, Anna Menke, Ore Rice, Mary Becker. Middle row: Ed Becker, Clarence Brown, Emma Long, Barbara Dumpert, Helen Becker, (behind) Frank Becker, Sophia Menke, Tracy Becker, Minnie Becker, Charley Trauger. Front row: Paul Becker, Nettie Long, Jessie Long, Lizzie Becker, Ann Alexander, Rosie Dumpert, Dora Becker, Lettie Rice, Alice Long, Louise Becker, Lottie Cook, Katie Knox (teacher).
District 95 in 1912-1913
In the picture (not listed in order) are: Walter Howarth, John Barbur, Sam Eurich, John Krejci, Mary Krejci, Mildred Dyer, Anna Sladek, Lizzie Eurich, Mabel Krejci, Emily Horne, Mamie Ruhl, Willis Miller, John Miller, Lloyd Steyer, Frankie Krejci, Gladys Dyer, Lucile Barbur, Ruth Horne, Lillie Miller, Harold Dyer, Frankie Loukota, Willie Eurich, Dorothy Horne, Mamie Loukota, Clara Miller, Tommie Rose, Vera Miller, Jimmie Loukota, Ernest Dyer, Alice Miller, Hazel Sircin, Willie Sircin, Julia Rose.
FAMILIES
There is more, much more, to be said about our early pioneers and homesteaders than can be compressed into any one book. Much time, thought, and effort have gone into preparing this material. It could not exist even in this condensed form without the Pioneer Stories of the Rev. G. R. McKeith (collected for the purpose of recognizing pioneers' Memorial Day, June 14, 1914, and published at Exeter in 1915), and the articles entitled "Pioneering in Nebraska," written by Miss Elula Smith (later Mrs. Ben Smrha) about her father, Dr. H. G. Smith. Many of our elder citizens have given much of their time and effort in trying to help piece together the events and stories of pioneer life. Many things would not be recorded on paper if it were not for their memories of the past.
Mrs. T. D. Clarke was asked to compile the history of Exeter, and had started on this, but her health forced her to give it up. Some of our information is from her previous efforts. Mr. and Mrs. N. F. Whitmore, the Lesher Blouchs, the Frank Cravens, and the T. D. Clarkes were most helpful with information, and with clippings and pictures from past years. Dr. Claire Owens, although 90 years old and blind, was extremely helpful because of her remarkable memory. Another source of information was the cemeteries, with dates, spellings, and sometimes causes of death.
Rev. George R. McKeith, pastor of Baptist Church from 1913 to 1917 and author of Pioneer Stories of Fillmore County.
Without doubt, there are many things that could have been written down, given time and space. We wish to take this opportunity to thank all who helped in any way with the compiling of this material. If anyone in our community, or their pioneer ancestors, has been left out, the omissions were certainly not intended.
—Mrs. Robert E. Trauger (Exeter township) and Mrs. Roy Stubbendick (Exeter town)
Mr. and Mrs. James Alexander left Aberdeen, Scotland, for Exeter, Nebraska on June 22, 1872, and eventually arrived at Pacific Junction, Iowa. Here they were left on the open platform without a home or shelter; but they had some beds and rugs, and, the weather being fine, they unpacked these and spread them carefully on the platform. With the starry heavens for a covering they passed the night. They next made their way to Lincoln, and on to Exeter. The party consisted of six people: Mr. and Mrs. Alexander, two small boys, a grandmother, and a girl who looked after the children. Mr. J. K. Barbur happened to be near by when they got off the train and offered to take them to their destination.
Mr. Alexander bought the rights of a homestead—the S $\frac{1}{2}$ of the NW $\frac{1}{4}$ of Sec. 24—for $50 and sent the necessary filing fee of $14 to Lincoln. It was not until some time afterward that he learned that the money had been used for some other purpose. This meant that, in the eyes of the government, the land was not his, and he had to pay the $14 a second time. Such was the character of some of the people with whom the pioneers had to deal.
They rented an old soddy on the adjoining land for $1 a month. The house had but one room, and the roof leaked so badly that they had to use umbrellas in rainy weather. The floor, being dug out, made a good receptacle for water, and was at times more like a duck-pond than anything else. Probably the rent charged was sufficient for such a house.
During their sojourn in this house they were called upon to celebrate their first July Fourth. Mr. and Mrs. James Horne, having heard of the new arrivals from Scotland, and being themselves of the same hardy stock, naturally felt inclined to make a friendly visit, and made the Fourth of July the occasion. With their two children, they called upon the Alexanders, who at this time had no stove, chairs, table, or bedspreads, but they had brought with them some of the Scotch oatmeal, the real thing that makes their people sturdy and strong, and some tea and coffee. With these and other good things they celebrated their independence.
They made a dugout on their own land for a home. This also had only one room, wherein they had to make the most of little space in this broad land. The capacity and furnishings of this house were at times taxed to their utmost potential. On one occasion when Mr. Alexander was attending prayer meeting in town, seven wayfaring men presented themselves asking for a night's shelter. Here indeed was a task, but with the hospitality of the West, these men were taken in and sheltered, being made as comfortable as possible on the floor, while the members of the household slept on boxes.
They were often brought to church services by Harry Sturdvant, a charter member of the Exeter Congregational Church. He had a good measure of the old-time religion in his soul; in fact, it was "pressed down and running over," and so great was the overflow that the journey by wagon was made lively with his singing. So real was his experience of the love of Christ which sought outward expression that where he failed in voice volume, he made up with his feet on the bottom of the wagon.
Exeter Cowboy Band
On June 18, 1885, the Exeter Band attended the National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic in Portland, Maine. The Exeter Band was chosen as State Department Band of the G.A.R. in competition with the bands from Fairbury and Steele City. The band had fine silver-plated instruments and owned about $1,500 worth of property, including a band wagon.
Mr. John C. Bonnell, an officer of the Burlington system, served as publicity man throughout the trip. As he gave the boys the title of "Cowboy Band from Nebraska," large and curious crowds were always in evidence.
The members making this trip were: John Lewis, Will Lewis, Charles Dorthy, M. L. Mead, J. W. Eller, Charles Bartlett, Sam Logan, Joe Hassler, Charles Parish, Henry Fisher, J. C. Wilson, Charles Pflug, and Job Hathaway, all of Exeter. In order to fill in some of the parts where the regular members were unable to go, Silas B. Camp and Ed Dempster of Geneva and D. C. Moffatt and Charles Finnacle of Friend were taken. Frank Osborne, a colored man, was taken along as property man.
The officers were Joe Hassler, president, J. C. Wilson, leader, and Job Hathaway, drum major. Circled, Colonel Nathan S. Babcock.
T. C. Allen came to Exeter in 1891, bringing his family a year later. During the next few years he worked at various jobs. He had always been interested in road improvement and so he began selling road equipment such as graders and steel tiling, which had just been invented and manufactured by Lee Arnett of Lincoln.
During the off season Mr. Allen often drove Dr. McCleary's team when the doctor made calls. On these trips over all kinds of roads, he conceived the idea of using some kind of heavy drag that could be piled over the roads as they dried so that the ruts could be filled and not be allowed to get deeper and deeper.
Dr. McCleary supplied the money to construct the first drag. They decided to build the idea along to the whole township and their drag was used for many years. Thus Mr. Allen was responsible for the first "Good Roads" development in the state of Nebraska.
Colonel Nathan S. Babcock came from New York State in 1871. As the railroad ended at Lincoln, he made his way to Seward, and walked on from there, looking for a family near Indian Creek. Nothing like a house could be seen anywhere, until at last he noticed a stovepipe sticking out of the ground on a little hill. Closer investigation revealed a dugout, with one of the best rooms he ever saw. He afterward made his way to Exeter, where the only house visible was the one built by Warren Woodard. While crossing the country, he noticed the horses acting rather queer; then a man mysteriously put in an appearance, asking the colonel what he was after. He assured the man that he was after no mischief, when the man said, "But you have your horses on my house!"
When the colonel brought Mrs. Babcock to their claim — the E ½ of the SW ¼ and the W ½ of the SE ¼ of Sec. 2, T8, R1W — they came in a wagon without springs, and their seats were wooden chairs, less than an ideal outfit for a 50-mile trip over the prairies. Their household goods did not arrive for a week after, so they built a fire on the hillside. They cooked their meat on the end of a stick, boiled the potatoes in a teakettle, and for plates used shingles, which, with the companionship of silverware, provided quite a contrast in dining experience.
Out here, there was nothing to distinguish weekdays from Sundays. They lost track of the Sabbath for a time, and were no doubt glad when they once more knew one day from another. Rattlesnakes were numerous then; no less than 36 were caught in one day. Colonel Babcock had several rattles to show for his efforts.
Talking of the grasshopper plague, they told of having given to a brother back East an account of the numbers and destruction of the invading host. The brother wrote back, "That is a good fish story you have out West." They finally sent him a small piece of soil about an inch square so he might see the grasshoppers hatch out, instructions being given as to what to do. That small piece of earth contained so many young grasshoppers that they never more doubted the western story.
Mrs. L. T. Blouch gave Bess Streeter Aldrich this portrait of the colonel:
"Colonel Babcock, who served in the Civil War, was an aristocratic-looking man who always wore his full uniform on Decoration Day, and rode his beautiful black horse with much dignity. What a thrill we children used to have when we visited their home and saw his sword and all of the rest of an officer's regalia hanging on the wall. He even took the sword down and let us take it in our hands."
Mr. and Mrs. William N. Babcock came to Nebraska in the fall of 1870, remaining through the winter in Ashland. Mr. Babcock took up a claim on the E ½ of the SW ¼ of Sec. 20 in February, 1871, and they moved onto it in May. This land adjoined that of Dr. Smith, part of which is now included in the town.
Their first shelter was a tent made of four sheets sewed together, a home not destined for long life. Within their first week here, they were favored with a typical Nebraska storm, which just after midnight brought down their tent so completely that it could not be re-erected. They made their way barefoot toward the Smith home, being assured they were on the right land by locating a furrow which the doctor had struck around his claim. They made what runs were possible with each lightning flash, finally reaching the dwelling. They were welcomed gladly by Mrs. Smith, who told them she could well guess what had happened. The following day reported the sad condition of their belongings. The men went that same morning to secure lumber for a more permanent home, during the building of which the Babcocks stayed with the Smiths.
During their brief tent life, Mrs. Smith was their first caller. Making her way across the prairie, she had to wade through a ditch. On reaching the other side, she found a large rattlesnake in the grass. She knew that the Babcocks slept on the ground and wondered if she should tell Mrs. Babcock about it. Thinking that if a snake were near her home, she would like to know about it, she decided to tell her. But Mrs. Babcock just laughed and didn't seem frightened.
Mrs. Babcock had to go to the Woodard home, a mile away, whenever she needed a pail of water. Since Mr. Woodard was also the postmaster, she also had to go there for the mail. During one of those trips, she was overtaken by a storm and had to wade through water waist deep to get home.
On another occasion when she was caught in a storm, and sought shelter in the Smith home, she caught Mrs. Smith going through one of her wet-weather experiences. She was sitting on the bed with her umbrella up and with basins placed around the floor, catching the water.
The Babcock sod house was 12' x 14', and in this building she taught the first local school, having as pupils three Woodard children, Charles Smith, and her own boy, Fred. In this small home, too, she provided lodgings one stormy night for a family of eight persons who were passing through.
It was not uncommon for men to get lost on the prairie. Perhaps the women were not so venturesome, and yet they must have been courageous at times. One dark night when Mr. Babcock was away from home, his mother called at the door, saying he was lost, and would they direct him to Dr. Smith's house. Nothing found, Mrs. Babcock went out and put the man on the right trail, telling him to look for the lighted lantern which the doctor kept burning, and he would surely find the place.
Mrs. Babcock helped Dr. Smith when a nurse was needed. A Mr. Sheldon asked Dr. Smith for help and as a result Mr. Sheldon came to get Mrs. Babcock. They set out in the wagon. After traveling for some time they realized that they were lost; then they saw a house which the doctor thought was his home, but to his disappointment it was not. They went on again, and at last they saw a light. On approaching the house, they had found the right one.
One Sunday morning an Indian loomed through the Babcocks' window, and before any information could be given, he was in the house. On looking around the room, he saw a scarlet shawl. Then he commenced saying some sort of rigmorale, the only word she could understand being "papoose." So, taking it for granted that he wanted the shawl for his baby, Mrs. Babcock let him have it. Then he admired Mr. Babcock's cap, and, anxious to get rid of him, they gave him the cap also. The Indian was delighted and left.
The Texas cattle passed over the prairie, often 15,000 in a herd. One day a cow strayed from the herd and was seen by the Dolan boys. They, of course, could not undertake catching her alone, so they sought the help of Woodard, Babcock, and Smith. These set out after the cow, no easy task, for if the cows saw them first, it was sure to go for them. Sure enough, the cow saw them and ran about to make a rush at them, when they all fired, bringing it to the ground. The cow was quartered, each man getting a quarter of beef. As the Dolans had no place to store their share, it was packed away with Babcock's beef on the sod roof. All went well until about midnight, when wolves scented the meat and would have had it, for they had already brought it to the ground. If they had not been able to frighten the beasts away, the beef would have been lost.
Main Street looking north. Dr. O. P. Baker's Dentist and Real Estate office is the second building on left. He practiced in Exeter from 1880 to 1912.
Dr. O. P. Baker first visited this neighborhood with "Joe" Shaub, who at that time was a grain buyer along the Burlington. After visiting for some time, the doctor found it necessary to go 2 miles out of town to the Willard Payne place to eat and sleep. During that visit he bought a quarter section of land one mile east of town and then went back to Morrison, Illinois, where he told the merchants about Exeter. As a result of his description of this country and its possibilities, he sold five farms without the buyers' ever coming to look at them.
In February, 1874, he built a house on the farm he had bought. But a neighbor thought the country was getting too thickly settled, so he sold his 80 acres and left for the West. In September, 1874, he brought a party of 275 land-seekers from Illinois, and, even though that was the grasshopper year, he sold five farms in one day. Again, in 1875, he brought out a party numbering 265 persons and succeeded in locating 230 people within 16 miles of Exeter.
Dr. Baker advertised these Nebraska lands extensively and, though at that time a nonresident, he did a great deal to help to settle this country. He moved to Exeter in 1880, and thereafter made his home here. Being a dentist, he became the first dentist to practice in Exeter. He continued to practice here about 32 years; then, owing to failing eyesight, he sold out. He had worked continuously in his profession for 46 years.
—From "Pioneer Stories"
John T. Borland had made his way from Crete to Pleasant Hill, where he met James Horne, who persuaded him to come out nearer his place. He accepted the help offered, and Mr. Horne helped him to locate on the SE ¼ of Sec. 32, one mile west of his own homestead. Mr. Borland returned to Illinois, and, making everything ready, he and his wife, with their goods, returned with a mule team, commencing the journey on April 17, and reaching the homestead on May 12, 1871.
On reaching their homestead, Mr. Borland made a kind of gypsy tent or cabin, by making walls of sod on which he placed the top boards of the wagon box, and the wagon cover. In this home, the size of an ordinary wagon box—containing one room which did service as kitchen, bedroom, and living room—they lived nearly three months. The cookstove stood at the entrance, with the cooking plate just inside the tent, the back part and pipe outside. Their straw bed was on the floor, and a coulour was on the ground, but was carried outdoors in the daytime to give sleeping room.
The first July Fourth celebration held in the neighborhood was at Turkey Creek, in 1871, when a Rev. Beggs of the Free Methodist Church gave the address.
Mr. Borland soon erected a sod house with a shingle roof and a board floor, and plastered throughout with a mixture of lime and sand. Being some 3 miles from the railroad, they were not visited by either Indians or adventurers, but they had their share of visits from coyotes, which relieved them of their chickens and turkeys. They also lost small pigs in the blizzard of 1873. Otherwise they were remarkably free.
An interesting note on the grasshoppers was the way Nature freed the country of the pest. Their visit left millions of eggs in the soil, waiting to be hatched in the spring. But that next spring was varied. After a few warm days helped to hatch out the young grasshoppers, there would come a cold rain or snow, which killed them off. This happened several times until hardly a grasshopper remained.
Mr. Borland had the honor of bringing the first load of lumber into the town of Exeter. It was secured at Crete, and used in the Smith & Dolan store building.
James W. Dolan left Corning, Iowa, February 1, 1871, and reached Lincoln the same day. After learning, at the U. S. Land Office at Lincoln, that the first location where there was plenty of land was Fillmore County, he took the stage to Crete, with John F. Evans, an old army comrade. From Crete, they walked westward, following the grade stakes of the railroad. He reached the Warren Woodard home in the evening and spent the night. The following day, Mr. Woodard took him to look at government lands in the vicinity. He selected the NE ¼ of Sec. 20. He then walked back to Crete, took the stage back to Lincoln, filed his claim, and pre-empted, in the name of his brother William, the NW ¼ of the same section. This was about February 20, 1871.
He went to Lincoln on April 13 and bought lumber to build a house. It was hauled from Lincoln to the land in one wagon load with one team of horses. The total cost of the lumber, with one window, and one door, was $43. The hauling cost $12. The house measured 12' x 14'. He used siding boards for the roof, as being less expensive than shingles. The hardware cost $3. A young Englishman, William Hannes, the principal local builder at the time, assisted in the building. The entire cost of the house was approximately $65. A box bed of boards was built in one corner of the room. An empty nail keg and a soap box were used for seats. These and a small board table made up the furniture.
Black crickets were plentiful during the summer and entered the house in large numbers. They enjoyed roosting on and chewing Mr. Dolan's clothes during the night. It was his custom before dressing in the morning to give the clothes a good shaking to dislodge the crickets. One morning while performing this daily stunt, he disturbed a good-sized rattlesnake that had entered through the floor during the night by way of an accommodating knothole. The snake replied to the shaking of the clothes with his rattle-box, so Mr. Dolan had to be disposed of the first thing that morning. Rattlesnakes were not as numerous as crickets, but there were too many for comfort.
James Dolan's farming outfit consisted of one yoke of oxen, costing $135; one secondhand farm wagon, $70; one 12" breaking plow, $29; and a limited supply of hand tools, spade, axe, hammer, etc.
He and his brother William dug a well 40-odd feet deep, and broke up 30 acres of prairie on their claims during the spring. This was mostly planted to corn, which did fairly well and helped to inspire confidence, there being at that time much discouragement and doubt as to the country's future. Some hay was cut in the
slough, using an Armstrong Mower.\(^1\) The corn was also cut and saved with the hay for feed. All this came in handy the following winter. During the summer, while farm work was slack, he sometimes walked to Crete, where he worked at unloading lumber for which he was paid $1 per carload. During the summer of 1871, the B. & M. R.R. was extended from Lincoln to Hastings.
In the fall of 1871, the new town having been located, Mr. Dolan disposed of his farm apparatus and engaged in merchandising with Dr. Smith as a partner. He later abandoned storekeeping to enter the lumber and grain business, erecting one of the best modern grain elevators on the Burlington line.
On October 4, 1876, he married Ida M. Hager, the second daughter of A. T. Hager, another early pioneer and the first treasurer of Fillmore County. In the spring of 1880, Mr. Dolan disposed of his business interests in Exeter, and moved to Indianola, Nebraska, where he entered in banking and real estate. There he served on the school board for 24 years and was a state Senator from the district in the sessions of 1883 and 1885. In October, 1904, he moved to Los Angeles, California.
—From “Pioneer Stories”
R. H. Downey, son of Mr. and Mrs. William Downey, came to Nebraska with his parents in May, 1871. His father homesteaded the W \( \frac{1}{2} \) of the NE \( \frac{1}{4} \) of Sec. 2, Liberty township, in June, 1871, and he lived with his parents in a sod house.
He married Anna Coates in 1886 and moved to Council Bluffs, Iowa, where he worked for two years in a railway freight house. While they lived there, a daughter, Pearl Anna (Steyer) was born (October 14, 1887). Feeling that the city was not the best place to raise a family, he returned to Exeter. Their first son, Chester H., was born on October 14, 1889, while they were briefly living with his parents.
Then, on the SW \( \frac{1}{4} \) of Sec. 36, Exeter, near his father’s place, they built in 1889 a large two-room sod house, with walls 3’ thick, plastered walls and ceilings, and a wooden floor. This sod house saw the births of another daughter, Ethel Leona (Trauger), on September 10, 1891, and another son, Harold L. Downey, on July 2, 1894. The family lived in the soddy until 1904, when they moved into a newly constructed frame house.
In addition to farming, Mr. Downey engaged in well digging. He was first in partnership with his uncle, Chester Stephens, but later bought out Mr. Stephens’s share of the business. The sod house, which had the distinction of being the last in Fillmore County, was not torn down until 1916.\(^2\)
Chester Downey married Edith Kail in 1923, and Harold Downey married Louise Diekman in 1918. Harold had one son, Glenn L. Downey, who now teaches at the University of Nebraska. Glenn’s children are Robert Alan, Linda, and Barbara.
R. H. Downey retired and moved into Exeter in 1923. Mrs. Downey passed away in 1934, and Mr. Downey in 1937. Their children, all now deceased, passed all their lives in the Exeter community. Pearl Anna, who married Elzie Steyer, died on June 16, 1953; Chester died on May 16, 1966; Ethel Leona, who married Charley Trauger, died on October 5, 1964; and the youngest, Harold, died on June 20, 1963.
Sherman R. Downey was born on December 27, 1867, in Mendon, Michigan. He came to Nebraska with his parents around 1875. They made the journey in a covered wagon pulled by a team of horses. Mr. Downey remembered that one of the horses was completely blind, and that his parents had started the trip alone, but were joined by six different families along the way.
Mr. Downey vividly recalled the loss of the family dog on the trip. When they discovered that the dog was missing they turned back for 2 miles to where some men were working on the road. The men declared they knew nothing of the whereabouts of the dog, but Mr. Downey always felt they had taken him, as he had seen his pet just before they encountered the road crew.
During the six-week journey, and until they obtained suitable shelter here, John Downey and his sons slept under the wagon, and the womenfolk slept inside. They settled on the SE corner of Exeter township and built a sod house which had a sod roof for three years until it was replaced by a shingle roof. Mr. Downey declared that a “soddy” made a quiet, comfortable home.
He recalled an interesting experience with their oxen. While still residing in Michigan, his father had taken Sherm to the mill to grind some sacks of wheat. They had stopped the yoke of oxen near the mill pond and had just stepped into the mill when they heard a big “splash!” Investigating, they found the oxen swimming in the cool, refreshing pond with the overturned wagon floating along behind. The sacks of wheat were salvaged and dried, and another trip was made to the mill to obtain the much-needed flour.
Sherman Downey was married to Edith Dreher in 1904. They moved to Glenwood Springs, Colorado, where he was in the hardware business for two years. Returning to Exeter in 1906, Mr.
\(^1\) Younger readers may not at once recognize this as a joking name for a scythe.—Editor’s note.
\(^2\) Mrs. Harold Downey, who supplied the Downey birth and death dates, tells us that the “Old Downey House” pictured in G. R. McKeith’s “Pioneer Stories” with his account of William Downey (with whose Liberty township story we seem also to have placed it) was in fact the R. H. Downey soddy described here. —Editor’s note.
Downey and Bert Dyer opened the Dyer & Downey Implement Company.
While they lived in Exeter, two daughters were born: Dorothy (now Mrs. Wayne Alwod, of Dallas, Texas) and Geraldine (Mrs. Edward Fitzgerald, of Lincoln). In 1928, they moved to Grafton, where Mr. Downey operated an implement business during most of the next 40 years. In recent years, Mr. and Mrs. Downey divided their residence between Grafton and Memory Manor in Exeter. They celebrated their 63rd wedding anniversary in 1967, and on December 27, 1967, he celebrated his 100th birthday. The couple had three grandchildren and one great-grandchild. Mr. Downey passed away in Exeter on February 2, 1968.
Thomas B. Farmer came to this area from Bloomington, Indiana. In October, 1870, he arrived in the neighborhood in company with Warren Woodard. He spent the winter near the Blue River in the Sutton and Grafton district, trapping mink and beaver, and living on grouse, rabbits, and turkeys shot in the neighborhood. Here, with a companion, he had made a small dugout, but was often alone for several weeks at a time. Once, while he was alone, he came back from looking over his traps and found near by several hundred Omaha Indians. He was naturally somewhat alarmed. But these Indians were out hunting and fishing, with no intention of injuring anyone. He saw them go into camp, after which a few would come around and look into his shack, but in no way interfered with his property.
In the spring of 1871, he homesteaded on his claim, the E ½ of the NE ¼ of Sec. 28, and built a sod house. Later he returned to Bloomington, where he was married on March 18, 1873. When his bride came to Exeter, she expected to see a town, and wondered why she was dropped off the train onto the open prairie. "Why am I left here?" she asked. "Where is the depot?" Then she found, to her amazement, that the town of Exeter consisted of one building, the store recently erected by Messrs. Smith & Dolan.
In due course the grasshoppers relieved them of five acres of corn, besides their garden truck, and the mosquito netting from the windows.
They became the parents of Frank Farmer, born in 1874, who became a nationally known singer. Mabel Farmer Manning, born in 1876, a lifelong resident of Exeter, was a great help in the compilation of this history. She passed away on October 15, 1967.
Henry Hammond, a native of Indiana, went first to Illinois, and then came to Nebraska. In the fall of 1870 he filed on the NW ¼ of Sec. 4. He then went to Nebraska City, where he worked during the winter, and settled on his homestead in the spring of 1871, having only a yoke of oxen and $5 in money with which to start the new life. Like most of the pioneers, he met with many reasons to be discouraged; but he held on with faith and confidence, until, finally successful, he raised a worthy family and lived to an honored old age, the satisfactory results of years of honest toil.
About one year after he homesteaded, he was married to Catherine (Kate) Drummond, sister to "Pat" Drummond; her sister Margaret married Michael Sweeney. These all homesteaded about the same time and in the same neighborhood.
In the winter after their marriage they received word that Mrs. Hammond's sister was very sick, so they set out that same night to do what they could. After staying overnight, they returned the next morning to find that their house had been robbed and burned, and they were left with nothing but what they had on. There was abundant evidence that the house had been robbed as well as burned, for several half-burned articles were found in parts of the room out of their proper places, and the fire had been so clever as to completely burn (?) several good-sized chunks of meat, without completely burning the wooden cask in which they were packed. The culprits were never definitely located, though it was never thought likely that anyone had come all the way from Florida, or any other outlandish place, to commit such a deed upon the struggling poor.
Because of this misfortune many people advised them to give up and return East, but they decided to remain and fight out life's battle on the claim. During the winter he would haul firewood for 8 or 10 miles, often in the severest weather with no warmer clothing than his overalls. Their daily fare was mostly milk and corn meal, varied only by a change to corn meal and milk. They were thankful for having a good cow for whose contributions to their bill of fare they were very grateful. Mr. Hammond, who was a Civil War veteran, said he thought "The Army rations in wartime were never more limited than in this case."
During the great blizzard, many people in the neighborhood were suffering with the muscles, and Mr. Hammond lay ill. The snow found its way inside through a crack in the north side of the roof, gently and imperceptibly yet definitely accumulating. By morning there was a wagonload on the floor, the beds were covered, and quite a quantity of snow water lay in the hollow places of the sick man's pillow. The fires were out and no firewood could be found anywhere. Mrs. Hammond never felt more hopeless or discouraged in her life. But soon Michael Sweeney came to the rescue with his arms full of kindling, and helped in other ways. He afterward had to dig through five feet of snow to recover the Hammond hogs.
The grasshoppers were just as considerate with the Hammond farm as with any in the district. After their visit, 60 rows of corn stalks contained only half a bushel of corn. A remarkable thing regarding the grasshoppers was their surviving a heavy hailstorm. Although they lay so thick everywhere, and the hail came so thick and fast that it could be scooped up by the pail full, it seemed that the hail had not killed the grasshopper. But it was not a "survival of the fittest."
Henry G. Hammond's barber shop in 1895. (Notice the photographer in the mirror.) Henry G. Hammond was the son of Henry Hammond.
Job Hathaway, Willard Payne, and Elmer Wilcox came together, in the spring of 1871, from Greenwood, Illinois, in covered wagons. They settled on Sec. 30, one mile west of town. Mr. Hathaway filed on the NE ¼, Mr. Wilcox on the SE ¼, and Mr. Payne on the SW ¼; the remaining NW quarter was taken later by the Rev. John E. Ingham. In due course Mrs. Hathaway came West and was met by her husband in Lincoln.
Mr. Payne built a frame house in the middle of the section so that a portion of it was on each claim, and they all lived in the same house, each homesteader having his particular corner. In this way they met the requirements of the law by each man sleeping on his own land. This house ultimately became the property of Mr. Hathaway.
On one occasion a man came up to the house on horseback and asked for a night's lodging. Mr. Hathaway was away and Mrs. Hathaway did not like the idea of having the strange man in the house, so she asked Mr. Payne what he thought. After looking the man over, he decided it would be all right, as the man looked respectable. The man slept with Mr. Payne, and some time during the night, Mrs. Hathaway was alarmed to hear that Payne was receiving a good pounding and shouting to the man, "You donned old fool! The fight seemed so real that Mrs. Hathaway jumped through the bedroom window and was making her way to the neighbors' when she heard the call. "Come back, lady! Come back, lady!" It appeared that the stranger had been dreaming about a fight, and in his sleep had commenced to let fly at Mr. Payne. Needless to say, the man was full of apologies, but it hindered Mrs. Hathaway from ever again taking a stranger into the house.
Charles Hole came to America in 1870, from West Pennard, near the famous city of Glastonbury, Somersetshire, England. After spending some time in Boston and in Detroit, he made his way to Exeter in April, 1872, and homesteaded 80 acres 3 miles S of town, the W ½ of the SE ¼ of Sec. 6, Liberty township.
Mr. Hole married and settled in Exeter in 1878. Then, in 1881, he built a home here and in 1915 they had the distinction of being the only residents to have lived in one house for so long a time.
Mr. Hole had come to Exeter with a Frank Appleby, a carpenter, who died at the Warren Woodard residence in the spring of 1872. He was the first white man to be buried in this vicinity.
James Horne was a native of Low Coats, Lanarkshire, Scotland. After working as an engineer on the Caledonian Railway, he came to America in 1853, where he found work with the Hudson River R.R. (later the New York Central). In 1858, he visited his old home and there married Jane (or Jenny) Miller, and the couple soon came to America. They settled for the next 11 years in Poughkeepsie, New York,
where he continued working for the railroad. They then moved to Illinois, where he worked for the Illinois Central R.R. for some five years. He had already bought 90 acres of Illinois land; so that when the "Western Fever" broke out, he was a ready candidate for infection. He first had a look at Canada; that did not seem promising, so he visited Kansas. That did not impress him, either; but Nebraska did.
He returned to Illinois, sold out his interests there, and homesteaded 3 miles SE of Exeter, on the E ¼ of the SW ¼ of Sec. 4, Liberty township. There he built a sod house. A few years later they moved across the road into Exeter township (the SW ¼ of Sec. 34) and built a frame house, living there until his death in 1902. It was told of him that when he began farming, his knowledge of the art was so slight that he had to ask how to unhitch a horse; but he became a successful and highly respected farmer.
The children of James and Jane Horne were Will, George, Agnes, James, Francis, Lillian, John, and Ben.
After his father's death, James F. Horne in 1903 moved his family onto the home farm in Sec. 34. He had married Edith Alice Howarth on November 8, 1900. To this union five children were born: Emily, Ruth, Dorothy, Richard, and Esther.
James and Edith Horne replaced the frame house in 1924 with a new one and lived there until his death on July 14, 1934. His son Richard and mother Edith Horne and daughter Esther lived together here until Richard married Doris Hetherington on October 12, 1940. To this union were born Frances, James Richard, and John Carl. They lived on this farm until Richard's death on November 1, 1961.
Richard's son James and wife Sandra, sons James Talbot and Richard Ray, are now living on the Horne farm. A Horne family has been living on this farm for 97 years.
Jane Horne passed away in January, 1916, and Edith Howarth Horne on February 24, 1952.
Frank Augustus Lewis was born in Piper City, Illinois, September 1, 1873. He came with his parents to a farm near Exeter as a young lad and attended school in District 22.
On January 30, 1895, he was married to Minnie Frances Trauger. They lived at Hebron for several years, then moved to Exeter where Mr. Lewis began working for the Smith Index Factory. He remained with this firm for 53 years, retiring in 1955. He was a lifelong member of the Congregational Church, serving as treasurer for 20 years, and as deacon for 43 years.
Mrs. Frank Lewis was interested in civic affairs and served as Worthy Matron of Exeter Chapter 256, O.E.S. She was also a member and Regent of Stephen Bennett Chapter of the D.A.R.
Mr. Lewis passed away on February 3, 1959, and Mrs. Lewis on November 12, 1961.
Mr. and Mrs. Caleb J. Litch homesteaded here in 1870 on the E ½ of the SE ¼, Sec. 28. They built the one-storied part of their frame home in 1870. The two-story addition, in 1872, made their home one of the first two-storied homes with an open stairway, and other such fine details, to be found in the county. They had one son, Lester, who in young manhood homesteaded the W ½ of the same quarter (where Gerald and Margaret Becker now live). He died as a young man.
C. J. Litch passed away in the early '80's. Charley Trauger's father, M. E. Trauger, had a story about Mr. Litch's passing. Mrs. Litch had asked Mr. Trauger to take a telegram to the depot, wiring for a former minister to come and conduct the burial services. The message said that Mr. Trauger would meet the train and bring the minister to the Litch home. Somewhere along the line, the message got mixed up for when the minister got off the train, he showed great shock. He finally stammered, "Why, Mr. Trauger, I came here to conduct your funeral, and was under the impression I was to be met by Mr. Litch!"
Both Mr. and Mrs. C. J. Litch lie buried in the center of the Exeter Cemetery, and their graves were at one time surrounded by four large pine trees.
This farm is owned today by Mr. Charley Trauger, and the original family house is still standing. —Mrs. Robert E. Trauger
Lemuel T. Mead, a native of Fort Branch, Gibson County, Indiana, came to Nebraska in March, 1870, bringing his wife and little son; his two daughters followed later. They settled in Lincoln, where he worked as a wagon-wright for David Bowen, the first blacksmith in Lincoln. Mr. Mead being the first man to do the wood work.
In the fall of that year, he came out West and secured a claim, but returned to Lincoln and worked there till spring. They came to the homestead—the SE ¼ of Sec. 4, in March, 1871. Their first house was one room, 18' square. Their first barn was a tent, and during the severe winter their cow's mouth was badly frozen, but with careful nursing it recovered from that misfortune. Mr. Mead recalled one year when it was so cold that he harvested his wheat wearing an overcoat.
On one occasion they gave dinner to some Pawnee Indians. When it came to the helping of themselves with the butter, they simply took a chunk in their hands and ate it clear. There was no need for knives or spoons; "they were in no degree fastidious," (as Rev. McKeithen phrases it), "but were evidently quite original, fingers having been made long before spoons."
A neighbor, who came to visit with his wife and children, were once going to town with Colonel Babcock, who provided the conveyance. When about half a mile from Mead's home they were overtaken by a fearful windstorm. None of the party could remember just what happened; but they found themselves lying in Mead's wheat field. The wagon box in which they were sitting was carried off the running gear and tipped over into the field. The party was badly bruised but not seriously hurt. Because of the apparent damage to the young wheat, Colonel Babcock suggested payment, but Mr. Mead said, "We will wait until harvest and see how things turn out." The incident became a standing joke with Mr. Mead, as he always said he had better wheat on that particular spot than anywhere else in the field.
Mr. Mead built his own workshop and did a great deal of wagon repairing and other work for several years.
One of the most pleasing sights in those early days was the prairie mirage, when, in the clear weather of early morning, they would often see that wonderful illusion which often proved such a snare and disappointment to weary travelers on the plains. This optical phenomenon would sometimes give the effect of a vast lake, or a river with trees growing on its banks, or a great city. At other times it would come more as the "Looming," where distant unseen objects would be observed in the sky, the town of Fairview being reflected in that way. People used to say, "the air is glorified." So one morning the Mead boys went out of doors, and upon seeing the mirage, ran into the house exclaiming, "Oh, Mama, the air is glorified this morning!"
Mr. Mead lived on the homestead 11 years, then moved to Exeter, where he died on April 17, 1901, in his 75th year. Mrs. Mead lived until February 8, 1913, and was 82 when she passed away. They both joined the United Brethren Church held in the Redfern schoolhouse. Mr. Mead remained a member until his death. Mrs. Mead was a member of the Methodist church when she died.
Mrs. Mead's genealogy showed her family related to General Robert E. Lee, and Mr. Mead's traced a relationship to Sgt. John Pritchett, a soldier of the Revolution.
Louis Menke came from Germany and homesteaded along the Blue River north of Exeter about 1870. He married Anna Becker and they made their first home in a soddy. At that time they got supplies from Crete. In 1873, they moved, with one child, to a farmstead 2 ½ miles E of Exeter and built a log cabin. This was their home for several years before they built a frame house. The old house and the new both stood until 1940.
The Menkes raised nine children on this farm. They were Rica (Dumperi), Mary (Jansen), John, Anna (Barkmeier), Minnie (Hammond), Sophia (Mathews), Lena (Mathews), Henry, and William. Two children died in infancy. The father, Louis, died in 1902. Mrs. Menke continued to live on the farm until 1917, when she moved into Exeter.
William H. Miner came from Illinois in 1870 and located on the NW ¼ of Sec. 12. He lived through the first summer in a tent, which became a well-known landmark and a place of call for many of the incoming travelers. The countryside was one vast open plain without a shade tree, and wild animals appreciated even the shade offered by tall grass or weeds. Once, an antelope was enjoying what shade a large sunflower could give, when Mr. Miner crept up and shot it. In that easy way he secured a supply of good meat.
At one time Mr. Miner had gone to Weeping Water for a load of corn and was within 3 miles of Cordova when he became lost in a snowstorm. He dug his way into a snowbank and crawled in with his blankets, staying there until morning, the horses having to make the best of the situation.
An Irishman named Pat McMann, whom he had known in Illinois, was passing over the plains to Colorado and called upon him. When he left Mr. Miner, he gave him some nails as payment for his hospitality. These nails were kept in a tub and Mr. Miner, needing some one day, put his hand into the tub and grabbed a rattlesnake.
Jacob Pflug at the age of 16 joined the Union Army and was mustered out in May, 1865. He married Hannah Sayles of Lyons, New York, on November 6, 1865, and on November 7 set out for Nebraska. From St. Louis he rode on a load of goods to Nebraska City. In April, 1866, Mrs. Pflug took a train to St. Louis and then came by boat to Nebraska City.
They lived in Nebraska City until 1868 and then moved to Lincoln, where he and his brother had a grocery store at what is now 10th and P Streets. There were no walks in Lincoln in those days and many times the streets were very muddy. They attended the ceremony of the laying of the cornerstone of the first State Capitol. A picture of their small son, the late Jake C. Pflug of Ohiowa, and one of the small son of Lincoln's Mayor William T. Donovan were placed in the cornerstone.
In 1881, he took a 160-acre claim about 5 miles NW of Exeter (the SE ¼ of Sec. 12, Fairmont township) and for a number of years clerked in Dr. H. G. Smith's general store. Many times he walked the 5 miles to and from work. The general store included dry goods, groceries, hardware, implements, and the post office and real-estate office.
In 1882, he sold the farm to Philip Schaefer, Sr., whose son, Philip Schaefer, Jr., still owns it. He then engaged in the implement business in Exeter from 1882 until 1909, when he sold out and retired on account of failing health.
Mr. Pflug was prominent in the early history of Exeter and held many places of trust. He was for many years a member of the school board and also superintendent of the Methodist Sunday School. He was a member of Lincoln Lodge No. 19 of the Masons for more than 50 years. Mr. Pflug was the first Oracle of the Royal Neighbors when it was organized in Exeter.
Mr. and Mrs. Pflug were the parents of 14 children. Mrs. Pflug died November 30, 1908, and Mr. Pflug on August 20, 1923.
—Mrs. Herbert Howarth
John Redfern came with his parents from England, and lived for some time in Peoria, Illinois. He came to Nebraska in 1870 and lived for three years near Nebraska City. When they arrived at the Missouri River, it was frozen over, but as the ice was too thin to be safe for heavy traffic, they walked across it in knee-deep snow, and had to wait some time for their goods. They settled on land 3 miles N of Exeter, and had a family of seven children to care for, and only one span of mules with which to start life in the new land. They built a sod house and passed through the usual pioneer hardships, surviving hail, blizzards, and grasshoppers. One day one of the boys went around the house to pick up what he thought was a piece of black cloth; to his surprise, he found it to be a rattlesnake.
Their house was open for preaching services and Sunday School, Mr. Redfern being a great Sunday School worker. "Father" Green would preach there,—an old man who was one of the best known and most respected characters in the district.
John Redfern died on November 17, 1901.
Alonzo Rice, a native of New York State, came to La Platte (formerly Lorimer Mills), Sarpy County, from Pennsylvania. After working there for about three years he came with his brother, Palmer, and secured a claim on Sec. 14, the S ½ of the SE ¼, July 30, 1870. The only thing visible on the prairie when he located was a tent used as a home by "Bill" Miner; there were no houses, and the nearest thing to a tree was a sunflower.
To find one's bearings when traveling over the prairie, one had to look for some stovepipe sticking out of the ground—the sure sign of a dwelling—and then ask their township, section number, and probably the lay of the land, north, south, east, and west.
The nearest town and post office was Camden (which old maps show to have been 3 or 4 miles S of the present Milford). Alonzo Rice set out early one morning to go there. It was his custom when traveling in the dark to note the location of a certain star, but after he had gone some distance, somehow the stars got changed around and he lost his "lucky star" o' star of hope. After traveling for some time, still believing he was going in the right direction, he recognized, as the dawn came, not far away his own house. He guessed that the horses, realizing the aimlessness of the effort, had made tracks for home.
During those early days, Mr. Rice would go to Hebron, on the Little Blue, and work in the stone and lime quarries. The sections west—Sec. 15, and a school section—remained open prairie for some time after he located, and antelope grazed there in the summer time. Mr. Rice remembered the coming of James Alexander. The canny Scot, "brand-new fre the land o' heather," had failed to locate his land (the NW ¼ of Sec. 24) and Mr. Rice had to help him find it. The growing corn on the Rice farm was a source of wonder to the stranger, as it was so unlike anything he had seen growing in the old country.
Mr. and Mrs. Palmer Rice, taken on their Golden Wedding anniversary in August, 1914, at their farm home 2 ¾ miles NE of Exeter.
Palmer Rice, brother of Alonzo, worked for 5 ½ years as a day laborer in the lumber woods of Pennsylvania, and in 1869 moved to New York State. He and his wife decided that their chances for success there were too limited, and he secured a covered wagon and three horses and started westward. They set out on April 25, 1870, in spite of snow that had fallen in the forenoon, and made their way to Nebraska. For many miles along the road, as they passed through the villages, the covered wagon was such an unusual sight that the youngsters called them Gypsies, and in some places they were not allowed to camp. The journey to La Platte took seven weeks.
After staying a few days with Alonzo at La Platte, Palmer Rice took the ferry across the Platte River, rode on a construction train to within 7 miles of Lincoln, and then walked to the city. There he inquired about homesteads, and found many people ready to offer information and especially willing to help them locate in their particular county. The description of this area seemed especially favorable. When he returned to La Platte, the brothers decided to come out and secure homesteads.
They made their way to Camden, an old freighting town, where they met Fred Roper, a land agent, who brought them into the country to see the land. Liking this neighborhood, they decided to locate here, selecting the S 1/2 of Sec. 14. They stayed overnight with the Miner brothers, who at that time lived in a tent, and the next day had dinner with Schuyler ("Elkhorn") Jones. They located the land with Mr. Roper's help. He counted the horse's steps from Miner's corner, and then looked for the next stake which at once gave them the situation of their claim. It was decided that Palmer would take the S 1/2 of the SW 1/4, brother-in-law John Tanner the N 1/2 of the SW 1/4, brother Alonzo the S 1/2 of the SE 1/4 and their mother the N 1/2 of the SE 1/4.
Then they returned to La Platte, but came out again to the claims in the fall and put up a sod house, made some hay, and again went back to La Platte for the winter. In January, 1871, Palmer Rice helped to move Mr. Tanner onto his claim, and on the return trip had his first experience of Nebraska's cold weather. Not being prepared for it, he had a hard time to keep going. If he had in the least missed his way, he would have frozen to death.
He made another trip in March, bringing Mrs. Rice and part of his goods. The sod house in the meantime had shrunken so much that the winds had no difficulty in finding their way into the house, especially at the eaves. Because of the cold house, Mrs. Rice was ill for some time after her arrival.
Palmer made another trip to La Platte in April to help move the other relatives to their homesteads. At Camden, he saw Dr. H. G. Smith, with a load of lumber, nails, etc., stuck fast in the Blue River. He went at once to the doctor's assistance. With some chains and ropes, they braced the wagon to bear the strain and then hitched the extra horses and soon had the wagon on dry land.
The loss of corn crops to the grasshoppers in 1874 induced many people to return East, but the Rices decided to remain. Fuel would be scarce that winter. So they set up the stove in the cellar and lived there, using cornstalks for cooking and heating. One day when Mr. Rice was in the field cutting cornstalks, some Indians came by the house. Mrs. Rice, although alone, was not afraid, as she knew their dog would keep the Indians at bay, and he did.
Many of the local farmers were afraid to sow their wheat the spring after the grasshoppers' visit. It was feared that the large number of their eggs left in the soil would make a wheat crop impossible. But Mr. Rice, believing that there was no great risk, secured extra land, farmers supplying the wheat and accepting his note. The average yield was 12 bushels an acre. The first sales brought 55 cents a bushel, but the price rose to $1.30 a bushel. Mr. Rice had made a good speculation.
During his first year here, this district was under the jurisdiction of Saline County, and settlers paid their taxes there. Then Fillmore County was organized. Mr. Rice sat on the first election board for four townships, the meeting being held in James Horne's yard. Mr. Horne was away buffalo hunting at the time.
The Tanners' four-year-old son, Alonzo, was buried on the Palmer Rice farm.
Mrs. Jennie Roper Rogers ("Aunt Jennie") was born Jennie Abbott, in El Paso, Illinois, the daughter of English parents. She had two brothers, Sam and Frank. Their father spent much time and money trying to prove that he was heir to a wealthy estate in England. Jennie attended Mt. Carroll Seminary at Mt. Carroll, Illinois, where "Frank" Hubbard was also a student and the two girls formed a friendship which lasted many years. Jennie was invited to a nutting party at the Hubbard home and there met the elder brother Elbert, who later became a well-known author. A girl who later became Mrs. A. J. Sawyer of Lincoln attended Mt. Carroll, and she and Jennie became fast and in fact lifelong friends.
Jennie taught school at least one term. Then at 19 years of age she was married (after prayer meeting) to Schouler Roper. The newlyweds, with Sam, Frank, and their mother, came to Nebraska in 1873, in a covered wagon, crossing the Missouri River on a ferry at Brownville. They took up a claim near Exeter, where there was not much to be seen but prairie grass which billowed in the wind "like the waves of the sea." This was a tree claim and many fine old cottonwoods which Jennie helped to plant are still standing. They lived in a sod house. Jennie and her brother fought a prairie fire one day when the men ran away and saved their belongings. One wild morning was of holding a lantern all night while the men tried to remove a horse from the well into which it had fallen. A little son, Charles, was born the following summer. He later became the founder of the Roper Mortuary in Lincoln. At times it was necessary to place an umbrella over the baby to keep him dry when the rain came through the roof. One time, soon after the birth of one of the children, a pig wandered in at the unscreened door when Jennie was left alone for a few minutes, and tipped over the slop pail. At Christmas time the Ropers and Farmers took their two babies (Charles and Frank) and journeyed to Crete to have the babies' pictures taken. They had wrapped them up so snugly that both babies broke out with the heat.
They later moved into a frame house. One day when Jennie and the baby were at home alone the Indians came, tried the doors (which were locked), and snooped all around the place. She had seen them coming and hid herself and the baby in the box stairway, trying to amuse the baby, so he would not cry, by counting the buttons on the front of her dress. Her husband did not get home until dark, but the Indians had long since gone.
They moved to town, bought a little home, and went into the restaurant business. Three more sons were born, one of them dying in infancy. Then the husband died, leaving Jennie with three little sons and a mortgage on the house. Sympathetic friends made up a purse and paid off the mortgage. Then the young widow went to work to support her family, doing dressmaking, nursing, and whatever there was to do. There were no widows' pensions in those days.
Her two brothers, one of them married, had gone on to western Nebraska, and settled on a ranch on Pumpkin Creek, near Bayard. Two children were born to Sam and his wife. Soon after Jennie became a widow a call for help came from the brothers. Sam and his wife were stricken with typhoid. Jennie went and did what she could, but both died, leaving two little orphans, a boy and a girl. Jennie brought them home with her, then her own children took the fever and her son Charles died. Relatives of her husband, living in Illinois, offered to take her brother's two children to raise, if she would bring them there. After reaching Illinois her brother's little boy became ill with the fever and died.
She returned to Exeter and again took up the struggle to make a living for herself and two sons. There was always time for work in the little Baptist Church, of which she was a loyal member for years. There was also always time to give many babies their first bath, nurse the sick, and help prepare the dead for burial. She became Aunt Jennie, Aunt Jen, or Auntie Rogers to most of the children in town.
In 1905, Jennie Roper married my father, Merritt L. Rogers, and became our second mother. The Rogers family came from Nebraska from Illinois about 10 years later than the Ropers. There was a triple wedding ceremony when my father and Aunt Jennie, and my two sisters, Ruth and Bessie, were married. Ruth and Clint went to Chicago to live, and Bessie and Valentine Babcock went to western Nebraska. Mother said, "One flew east and one flew west and one flew over the cuckoo's nest!" I was the one that flew over the cuckoo's nest.
Among the pioneer experiences which I have heard her tell many times were the grasshopper invasions, and the great blizzards. During one blizzard Frank and Sam Abbott were caught in the barn for 24 hours, drinking the cow's milk for food. And the grasshoppers were so numerous that they covered the sun.
When sewing for a living, she made wedding dresses for brides, then tuckered in a bonnet for the bride, fashioned from bits of fern leaf and pink begonia blossoms from her own window. Many times she was called on to dress the bride and then attend the wedding as an honored guest.
Before coming to Nebraska she and her mother sent to friends in England for enough black silk to make a dress for each. These friends cut several lengths for the skirts and sewed them together, thus evading the duty. Jennie wore her dress just twice before leaving Illinois, and when they wanted to tree-claim their Nebraska land, they sold her silk dress for $20. (They needed $14.) She also brought 20 yards of heavy woolen cloth, carefully folded and packed, for they were in need of cash. She said, "Oh, yes, I sold everything I had which was salable," and when I jokingly said, "But you did not sell the baby," her eyes twinkled and she replied, "No, everyone had babies."
My father was employed in the Tag Factory and earned very good wages for those years. He and Mother took great pride and joy in remodeling the home, installing a hot-water heating plant, water, electricity, and a telephone, and the front porch which they always enjoyed so much. It was a real satisfaction to both to reserve onetenth of their income to use in generous support of their church and Baptist missions, besides many other good causes.
This has not been written with any idea that it was a literary gem, but only as an effort to record a few of the events in a very outstanding life of a pioneer woman of great character and courage. Bess Streeter Aldrich was particularly interested in the story about the silk dresses.
—Julia Rogers Bloach
Parker Ryan was born at Waterloo, New York, and afterward lived in Peoria County, Illinois. He came to Nebraska with his brother Lawrence Ryan, Pat Drummond, Michael Sweeley, and Henry Hammond in 1870. They filed for homesteads in that year, Parker Ryan taking the NE ¼ of Sec. 8, Lawrence Ryan, the SE ¼ and Pat Drummond, the NW ¼ of the same section. Michael Sweeley settled on the SW ¼ of Sec. 4, and Henry Hammond on the NW ¼. Mrs. Ryan and the children left Peoria in March, 1871. They stopped a week at Afton, Iowa, where Mr. Ryan met them and brought them on to Lincoln. They completed their journey here in wagons, arriving at the homestead on April 6, 1871. For some time after they arrived, they camped, using the wagon beds for sleeping.
Five days after their arrival, the two Ryans, Drummond, and Sweeley set out for Lincoln to obtain goods and machinery. On the next Saturday morning, bright sunshine promised a pleasant day, but before long clouds began to gather and rain began to fall, followed by a snowstorm which developed into a blizzard. Mrs. Ryan and her small children sought shelter in the wagon. A brother-in-law, Oliver Johns, nailed some carpet over the wagon front to help matters. Then he, with his wife and mother-in-law, went into the other wagon. Luckily, they had a barrel of crackers with them, although there was nothing eatable in the wagon with Mrs. Ryan and the children. The storm increased in fury and continued incessantly until two o'clock Tuesday afternoon, during which time the mother and little girl had nothing to eat or drink, and the baby just what was possible from a mother receiving no nourishment. Mr. Johns had come close a time or two to ask after them but was unable in the storm to render any help. When the storm abated, he speedily sought to relieve them. He found everything frozen so hard that an ax was necessary to cut a way into the wagon. Soon after they had been liberated and a fire started, the other men returned. They had gone no farther than Walnut Creek, where they were stopped by the storm. They had anxiously returned to see if their people were still alive. Their cattle were lost in this storm, but were afterward found near Turkey Creek. A homesteader down there had taken them in and fed them.
Shortly after the Ryans went into their new home—a house of one room, 14' x 16'—they had to entertain three gentlemen who were traveling through the country. Their visitors were a judge and two lawyers from Omaha. The accommodations were very scanty. It was decided that the judge and lower lawyer would sleep on the table, while the other lawyer would sleep on a rug under the table. Matters would not have been bad, considering these limitations, had not the judge fallen off the table onto the lower lawyer, who happened to be lying at the time partly out from beneath the table, in an unconscious search for a softer place.
The homesteaders had to live close to their lands in those days, or someone was sure to jump their claim. When the Ryans were away once visiting friends in the East, on the return journey they met several men with two wagons. In conversation the men told them they were on their way to jump a claim, giving the number and location of the land, which was supposed to be the Ryan homestead. Here was an opportunity to show tact and wisdom and to prove that "a closed mouth makes a wise head." They journeyed on, but when near the homestead the Ryans managed to get ahead of the other wagons, and had their wagon full length on the claim in time to retain it before the men realized what had happened.
The SW ¼ of Sec. 10 was jumped five times, three men losing their lives as a result. Two men were killed outright, and the third died of his wounds. Two of these men fought and killed each other, one being shot dead just as he ran his pitchfork through the other. Each lost his life as well as the claim.
One day two men came up to the house and were asking particulars regarding the country when they noticed the well-marked trails of the Texas cattle. One of them asked the women if they were Indian trails! One woman, answering in fun, said they were. They looked rather frightened. They next asked if the women ever saw any Indians, and were told, "Yes, lots of them; we saw 20 Indians not long ago." (They did not add that they were seen in the company of a government agent.) This proved to be enough information for the men, for they turned their horses and fled back eastward, and, though they had one of them blow off, they did not stop to pick it up.
While the men were digging a well at Mr. Drummond's, one morning Mrs. Ryan decided to go along. The screen door had been left open, and when they returned about 11 p.m. Mrs. Ryan thought she heard an unusual sound as she placed the baby in bed. Mr. Ryan assured her that he could not hear anything. After much reassurance she finally got into bed, only to jump out again declaring that she heard a sound like a muffled rattle. Her husband told her to get back into bed, and commented, "It's just like a woman to be frightened of the noise of a cricket!" The next morning they were up early. Mr. Ryan returning from the well digging, and Mrs. Ryan getting ready to do the family wash. While she was busy about the boiler, the little girl came running out of the house screaming and shouting, "A snake! a snake!" On going inside, Mrs. Ryan saw the snake sitting on the bed "rattling to beat the band." It had been lying there between some quilts that were between the bed and the mattress, and right in the place where she had slept all night. When the bedclothes were pulled off for the washing, the snake had been liberated and made its way to the top of the bed. With a hoe, Mrs. Ryan attacked the snake. It would stand on its tail and strike at her, then coil and strike again. She managed to keep clear of its blows, and after great difficulty and determination she succeeded in laying the reptile low. Needless to say, there was no washing done that day. When Mr. Ryan returned, he found his wife in a sad state; she could not speak, and he was at a loss to know what had happened. At last she struggled to the door and out to where the dead snake lay, and with one desperate effort, she said, "There's your cricket!" There was no going to bed that night, as everything in the house was turned out to make sure there were no more snakes around, for even the brave man had become weak at the thought of having slept in the bed with a rattlesnake. It had eight rattles and a button (nearly nine years old) and measured nearly three feet long.
The first crop on the Ryan farm was a five-acre field of oats, which seemed in every way satisfactory. As this was to be the first thrasher in the neighborhood, everyone was curious to know how it would turn out. On the thrashing day, the homesteaders gathered from far and near, bringing not only their horses to pull the wagons, but their other stock as well, as there would be no one home to feed and water them. Although the house was only one room, 60 men, women, and children were provided with dinner, and every horse had a taste of oats. The horses were tied up wherever possible around the place, and for each group a bushel basket of oats was thrown on the ground. This necessarily meant some amount of waste. When the thrashing was over, there being no money, the thrashers received 10 or 12 bushels of oats for helping with the work. Then, when Mr. Ryan came into the house, Mrs. Ryan wanted to know how he would take care of the oats that he had not ground. "Oh, I think I can manage to take care of my share of the oats all right," he replied. Undoubtedly he could, for the quantity of oats that fell to his lot after his wholesale feeding of his neighbors' horses measured half a bushel.
Charles C. Smith was born at Junius, New York, in 1866 and came to Nebraska with his parents in 1871. After high school, he went to Doane College at Crete and received his Bachelor of Science degree in 1887. Mr. Smith retained a lifelong interest in the college. He was secretary of the board of directors (1901-1915) and chairman of the board (1914-1915 and 1925-1934). He also earned a master's degree at Eastern Business College at Poughkeepsie, New York, in 1888.
As a young man Mr. Smith filed on a homestead near Grover, Colorado, and was cashier of a bank at Grover for a short time. He came back to Exeter and worked in his father's bank. It was then that he saw the need of the bookkeeping aid which he invented and began manufacturing in 1896.
In 1911, Mr. Smith was elected to the Nebraska Senate and served one term. He was a member of the National Stationers Association, director of Associated Industries of Nebraska (of which he was president in 1921), director of the Nebraska War Work Council of the Y.M.C.A. during World War I, state director of the Y.M.C.A. from 1917 to 1923, president of Exeter American Red Cross from
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1 This seems to be an error in McKeith's account. The blizzard described is clearly the blizzard of Easter Sunday, April 13, 1873. Parker Ryan's granddaughter, Mrs. Edith Hill of Lincoln, tells us that the arrival date (April 6, 1871) is correct, but that her grandfather was caught in the Easter blizzard of 1873 while bound not for Lincoln, but for Nebraska City.—Editor.
Since the nearest doctor was 26 miles away, Dr. Smith was called upon to care for the sick and continued to do so until another doctor located here.
Provisions were scarce in the immediate neighborhood. Dr. Smith had brought a good supply for their own use, but was not willing to sell out of his little stock. As a result, he decided to order a stock of goods from Chicago and open a store. An 8' x 16' room was added to the house, and two dry-goods boxes served as counters. The stock of goods arrived at Lincoln, but when he arrived there he did not have the money to pay the freight. However, an old friend, hearing of his plight, loaned him the money. So he gathered his goods and returned home and was able to meet the demands of the neighborhood through the little store. Soon Dr. Smith and James Dolan built a larger store, for general merchandise.
The Smith house was once visited by two Indians from a railroad car that had been switched off near the homestead. As was their custom, they stealthily drew near the house, looked through the windows, and then walked in. Mrs. Smith was scared at first. One of the Indians was carrying a bow about four feet across, and a quiver of arrows. After a serving of fried cakes and other eatables, they went away satisfied.
During a thunderstorm, a flash of lightning made its way down the chimney and melted the ends off the wires stretched across the store, strung with different kinds of tinware. The commotion can well be imagined. Fortunately the lightning missed the grocery can and passed through the corner of the floor without causing a fire.
The first child born in Exeter was Anna E. Smith, daughter of Dr. and Mrs. Smith. Their son Charles later made the family name widely known by inventing the adjustable tag. The first tag factory, founded by Charles C. Smith and located in Exeter, was known as the "Adjustable Index Factory."
When the post office was relocated in Exeter, Dr. Smith was appointed the first postmaster at a salary of $10 a year.
Dr. Horace G. Smith first arrived in Nebraska on January 1, 1871. He walked from Lincoln to Milford and then on to the future site of Exeter. He spent his first night here in the home of Warren ("Boss") Woodard. Then the only house in the neighborhood, this was on the NW ¼ of Sec. 28, ½ mile E of present Exeter, now the home of Leo Charles Becker.
While looking for a place to locate, he noticed survey stakes along a prospective line of the coming Burlington & Missouri River R.R., and another line of stakes about 1½ or 2 miles to the south. Wanting to be near the railroad, he selected a homestead close to each line of the survey. He knew that either site might be taken before he reached the land office at Lincoln, and that the railroad would not be laid in both places. Upon his arrival in Lincoln, he found that the south location had already been claimed, and so he filed on the north location, the SE ¼ of Sec. 20. Fortunately, the northern survey line was the one chosen by the railroad.
Dr. Smith returned to Allegan, Michigan, to bring his wife and son, Charles, to the homestead. They came to Lincoln by rail, and from there west, they came in a heavily loaded lumber wagon. The first night was spent in a one-room farmhouse. It had two beds, one occupied by the owners, the other by the three Smiths. Two hired men slept on the floor. The next day, in attempting to go through a draw filled with water, they got stuck. Dr. Smith walked out on the wagon tongue, unhitched the horses, and rode out to get help. He borrowed a wagon, drove into the stream, and with the help of another man, little by little, they unloaded the stranded wagon so that it could be pulled out. That night they spent in the vicinity of Dorchester. The third day, they arrived at their homestead. A house of boards and battens was built in such a way as to be ideal for a dry climate, but in about three weeks the rain came. Mrs. Smith found an umbrella too small to cover the bed and had to resort to carpets to keep the sleeping place dry. The house was the last one west at that time, the next being 22 miles away.
It was in this house with one room, two windows, and a door, that they entertained the gentleman sent out by the railroad to help the Town Company lay out the town.
Nesbit Taylor and his wife Mary Singer Taylor and family came to Exeter from their home near Covington, Kentucky, in 1871. The family consisted of two boys and four girls: John Edwin, Richard Lewis, Lucy Mary, Eliza Jane, Laura Ann, and Emma Alice Taylor. Nesbit Taylor bought land between the T. B. Farmer and the Warren Woodard homesteads—the W ½ of the NE ¼ of Sec. 28.
Mr. Taylor built a house and barn, planted many trees and shrubs, and in other ways improved the land. Many of the old settlers have told of the good times the local young people had at the Taylor home in the early days. The Nesbit Taylor family brought Southern hospitality with them and made every visitor welcome.
Mr. Taylor later bought an acreage adjoining the west edge of Exeter and moved to town. Part of this acreage became the Nesbit Taylor Addition to Exeter. Edward (or Ed) Taylor, Nesbit's oldest son, was street commissioner and sexton of the Exeter Cemetery for many years.
Two daughters married sons of early settlers, Charles Paine and William Dillon; another married Frank T. Whitmore, a young watchmaker from Boston, Massachusetts. He had a jewelry store in Exeter from 1880 until 1886. Edward Taylor brought his wife with him from Kentucky; Richard L. married Ella Barnes, daughter of another early settler.
The Nesbit Taylor family experienced all the hardships and tribulations common to the early settlers.
Nesbit Taylor, his wife Mary Singer Taylor, John Edwin Taylor and his wife Nancy Taylor, Lucy Taylor Whitmore, and Ella Barnes Taylor are buried in the Exeter Cemetery. —Nesbit F. Whitmore
W. H. Taylor was born in County Tyrone, Ireland, a country which has given birth to some of the finest pioneers. Mr. Taylor left Ireland at the age of four on a sailing vessel. The voyage lasted eight weeks, during which time most of the family, including himself, had smallpox. They first settled in Canada, in Carleton County, Ontario, in what was then an unbroken wilderness. Wild animals and Indians were their nearest and most numerous neighbors. Cutting down trees and clearing off the logs and brush was the bane of pioneer life in Canada; it was heartbreaking work compared with anything the early settlers in Nebraska had to contend with.
At 16, he left Canada and went to Seneca County, New York, an old settled county whose well-tilled fields, fine orchards, and beautiful lakes made it one of the most delightful counties in the world. So he became (as he says) a citizen of the United States by choice and not by accident of accident of birth, and such people, when they usually do, make pretty good citizens. Mr. Taylor said, "People, like cabbages, improve by transplanting, and transplanted brawn and brain rule the world." He was proud of having always been an asset to the country, and never a liability.
After working by the month on a farm and chopping wood, a chum and he took a wild-goose chase west, working as they went, till they crossed the Mississippi at Quincy, Illinois, their objective point being Leavenworth, Kansas. From there, they expected to drive mules across the plains to Salt Lake. They went no farther, and within a year Mr. Taylor was glad to find himself back in Seneca County, with a very poor opinion of the West.
He had saved some money, so he turned his attention to securing a better education. Being blessed with a retentive memory, he soon mastered the common branches, and then obtained a higher education in the Waterloo Academy, the Fort Edward Institute, and the Oswego Normal School, teaching school between times.
It was during this time that Dr. Smith, who had known Mr. Taylor from the time of his coming from Canada, came out to Nebraska. Mr. Taylor came to Exeter on the last day of April, 1873, and on the first day of May had a half interest in the firm of "Smith & Taylor." He was too late to get a homestead, but though he missed the homestead, he lost no time prospecting, and therefore suffered none of the privations some of the homesteaders suffered through.
Mrs. Smith kindly provided him with accommodation in their home, the only dwelling on the town, with one room and a lean-to, but he had a comfortable bed on a couch behind the cookstove.
J. W. Dolan had just opened a lumber yard but had his office in the store. He slept on the counter and opened the store in the mornings.
Mr. Taylor was, from the first, delighted with the gently rolling prairie, and never was homesick. It rained the first night of his arrival, and came very near keeping it up for the traditional 40 days and 40 nights, till the whole country was nearly flooded. In going from the Smith home to the store he would take off his boots and socks, roll up his pants, and wade through the water.
Some things in the new country seemed strange to him, such as the frequency and velocity of the windstorms and the amount of electricity in the atmosphere. He had not been long in the store, when a man came and asked if he had seen a stray railroad car go by. It seems that a boxcar with open brakes had been left on the siding at Fairmont, and the wind blew it onto the main track, and it went clear to Dorchester before it was headed off. In the usual thunderstorms of those days there was one continuous glare of lightning, and peal after peal of thunder.
Something that surprised him in the pioneers of Exeter was the ability of some who, from appearances, did not seem to have much. The county, towns, and school districts had all just been organized, and someone had to fill the offices, so nearly every boy or man held an office of some kind. One was chief of the police, another notary public, another constable, and some school officers.
A person appointed to an office, even if he had no special qualifications, but was of the right stuff, could soon qualify. These people had qualified, and he felt cheap to hear them using legal terms of which he knew nothing. Here is one illustration: 'When the settlers began to break up the land it was difficult to prevent 'movers' from driving across the plowed ground. Two miles east of Exeter, a very youthful-looking boy from Maine was plowing with a team consisting of one ox and a cow. He was barefooted and arrayed in an old straw hat, a cotton shirt, and an old pair of overalls, held by one suspender with nails at buttons. When on the other side of his plowing, he saw a 'mover' drive onto the east side. He stopped his team and hailed the man. 'Don't you see any sign telling you to keep the section line?' 'Yes! but this don't do any harm, and I'm in a hurry.' To which he replied, 'I don't care if you are, I can't have people driving over my plowed land, and I want you to go right back and keep the section line!' 'Guess I won't go back now,' said the man. 'Well, if you don't, I'll have you arrested when you get to Exeter!' 'Where is Exeter?' the man asked in surprise. 'Don't you see that building off to the west?' 'That's Exeter, is it? Then who will arrest me?' 'I will, I am the constable!' Then, with a look of contempt, the man replied, 'A h— of a looking constable you are! Get up, ponies!' And he drove on and was not arrested, but no one enjoyed the joke more than Fred Sturdevant, the boy constable.
Mr. Taylor missed the April storm of 1873, but had some experiences with Nebraska blizzards. One he did not forget was this: A party was being held at Walter Doyel's, 5 or 6 miles NE of Exeter, to which Mr. Dolan and he had been invited. It had been a beautiful, mild January day, and they hired a team and lumber wagon and started a little after dark for the house. Mr. Taylor did not know the way, but Dolan claimed he did. A gentle snow from the south began to fall soon after they started, and soon the wind whipped around to the north, and they were in a blizzard. They were soon chilled to the marrow, and could hardly see the horses, and got completely lost somewhere along Indian Creek. He said some uncomplimentary things to Dolan for taking him out on the prairie and losing him, but finding that Dolan's horse got cold, and could not walk, also that he didn't know where he was, but after what seemed a long time, he spied a light and drove straight for it—and it happened to be Doyel's house. He often wondered how many may have been lost either in a forest or on a prairie. A person loses all sense of direction, hardly knows "straight up," and can scarcely believe his own eyes when he comes to familiar scenes. Having been lost in a wood in Canada with night coming on, with bears, wolves, and panthers at no great distance, and again after dark in a blizzard on Nebraska's plains, he could testify that it is not an agreeable sensation.
But "Sweet is pleasure after pain." When they got into the house, the dance was in full swing, and the discomforts of the trip were soon forgotten, especially as this was where he first met the girl who became a lifelong partner of his joys and sorrows.
He had another an Indian scare. In the fall of 1873, the first telegraph operator had come to the office, and he was a man who never made anything less in the telling. On Saturday the news came over the wire, that the Indians were on the "war path" and had committed some depredations and had killed a few homesteaders about 75 or 100 miles west of Exeter, and the agent said they were headed this way.
On Sunday evening, the agent and most of the men folk were scattered in different directions, visiting their best girls. Will Dolan and Taylor were the only able-bodied men left in town, the rest being women and children. As they were eating supper by lamplight, the talk drifted mostly to Indians and the probability of their coming to
Exeter. The Indian stories went around the table, when all at once a big Indian stuck his face right against the window. Then he, with his squaw, came in and said, "How?" and, shaking hands all around, asked for something to eat. They naturally thought these two were the forerunners of the whole tribe, so Dolan and Taylor went out to reconnoiter. Every dog in the vicinity was barking. Taylor had a revolver, and Dolan had an old army musket, but there was nothing in the store larger than No. 8 shot. There was some lead and that they hammered out and put into slugs. Dolan, armed with the old musket, and Taylor, with the revolver and a corn-knife, did valiant picket duty most of the night. In the morning, the old Indian and his squaw called and were again supplied with food, and so ended the Indian scare.
Of this incident, Mr. Taylor said: "I had been used to Indians in Canada, where they had the reputation of being truthful, honest, and civil; no one in Canada thought of having any fear of Indians. When only 7 or 8 years old, I was often the only man (?) about the place, and we slept soundly with dozens of Indians camped across a narrow stream from our shanty. When I came to the United States, I was surprised to hear them spoken of as being dishonest, treacherous, and deceitful. It was simply a reflecting on treatment. It is easy and popular to find fault with the English government (and it has faults in plenty); but the way England has always treated the Red Man and Black Man stands out in happy contrast to the way those people have been treated by any other nation."
M. E. Trauger settled in Exeter township in 1879, after first visiting here in 1877.
The ancestors of the Traugers in America were located in the province of Hessen Darmstadt, Germany. In 1747, three orphan children—Christian, Henry, and Eliza—embarked for the New World, arriving in Philadelphia on October 9. According to the custom of the time, they sold themselves to a merchant for their passage and worked at Shipport, Pennsylvania, to repay him. In 1767, Christian and Henry moved to Nockamixon Township, in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, purchasing adjoining farms, which are still in the Trauger name.
Lewis Trauger, grandson of Henry, migrated to Sussex County, New Jersey, in September, 1818. His son Elias, who was killed while serving in the Civil War, was the father of M. Edmund Trauger. M. E. Trauger was born April 7, 1845. He spent his boyhood on the farm, 1½ miles SE of Flatbrookville, New Jersey, but found farming difficult in the mountainous terrain. His diaries, which he started in 1866, show that he supplemented his income by cutting hoop poles (for making barrel hoops) and railroad ties (for which he received about 40 cents apiece). He also taught school.
On November 19, 1873, he married Mary Caroline Hill. On August 16, 1875, they journeyed to Illinois and Iowa, visiting relatives and seeing for themselves if the stories of the glorious West were true. In the spring of 1876, they left the land of their birth and moved to Morrison, Illinois, where a daughter, Minnie Frances, was born on March 9, 1877.
While living in Morrison, Mr. Trauger met Dr. O. P. Baker, whose glowing reports of the land around Exeter induced him to come out and see for himself. Arriving in Exeter on Friday, December 14, 1877, he stayed for a time at the home of the F. M. Bucks. He looked at land as far west as Grafton before returning to Illinois, but was most impressed by the Exeter area. Back in Illinois, he worked as a farm laborer and saved his money, to be able to establish a home in Nebraska.
Mr. Trauger and Lyman Beech, who settled in Fairmont township, rented a railroad car and loaded their belonging at Sterling, Illinois. They got to Exeter at 11 A.M., February 28, 1879. In those days, when you rented a boxcar you were allowed to ride free in the caboose. Before they left Sterling, a man—name unknown—asked Mr. Trauger if he could ride in the car and look after the team of horses and the cow. He wanted to go West, but had no money. En route to Nebraska, they encountered a snowstorm and extremely cold weather. The fellow stated that he would have frozen to death had not the cow co-operated by lying down and allowing him to lie next to her.
In the Trauger's "Old Timers" Museum you will find today most of the furniture and machinery brought here in 1879. This museum was started by M. E. Trauger's grandson, Robert Edmund, in 1950 as a family hobby, to perpetuate the pioneer memories of this area.
Mr. and Mrs. Trauger bought 80 acres of railroad land, the S ½ of the SW ¼ of Sec. 27. They lived for one year on the F. M. Buck farm 1½ miles S of Exeter and farmed this as well as their own 80 acres.
In 1880, they moved to Dr. O. P. Baker's farm one mile E of Exeter. That spring, they planted trees on the south side of their 80, planning to build there soon. But this plan was delayed by the fact that in 1880 he had the opportunity to purchase the N ½ of the NE ¼ of Sec. 33 from Caleb Litch. In 1881, after purchasing and adjoining the original 80 he had bought in 1879, he then decided to abandon his proposed building site and instead built on the west side of the north 80, so as to be closer to the town of Exeter. Dr. Baker had made him a very good price on the 80 he had purchased from Mr. Litch. He sold this on January 7, 1893, and was forever thankful that he had done so, because of the drouth of the middle 1890's.
A son, Charles C. Trauger, was born on September 22, 1886, while they still resided on the O. P. Baker farm.
In 1888, his dream of a house of his own came true. The house was almost lost before they moved. While they were plastering the house, they had a stove in the front stairs to keep the plaster from freezing. Mr. Trauger had walked halfway home when he felt that he should go back and check the stove again. When he arrived, he found that a live coal had fallen from the stove and had started a small fire on the floor of the hallway. He easily put it out, but was aways thankful that something had told him to return.
Mrs. M. E. Trauger passed away in 1923, and her husband on May 30, 1934.
Charles Trauger married Ethel L. Downey on August 31, 1919. They had two sons, Donald, of Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Robert, of Exeter. Charles Trauger still resides on the farm with his son Robert, Robert's wife Shirley, and their children, Charles and Lynelle, and Melissa.
The wagon tracks of a main trail leading from Exeter southeast to Tamarack Creek are still visible on a strip of the Traugers' native prairie. Grandpa Trauger wrote in his diary that he had to string a barbed-wire fence across the farm to keep people from driving across his land.
M. E. Trauger was a charter member of the Exeter Methodist Church. Since he joined in 1879, there has always been a Trauger on the official board. He canvassed for shares in the Exeter Rolling Mills & Elevator Association, and also for the canning factory. He served on the school board of District 22 for a number of years from 1880 onward. He was also township treasurer for many years, and was a member of the board of supervisors during the construction of the present courthouse in Geneva in 1893.
—Mr. and Mrs. Robert E. Trauger
Trauger's "Old Timers" Museum is located on the Trauger farm. Besides household, town, and farm items, it has a remarkable collection of threshing machines. The 1890 Frick Portable and 1893 Belle City Hand Fed thresher pictured here were used in Exeter's celebration of the State Centennial.
Warren Woodard homesteaded the NE ¼ of Sec. 28 in 1870. This first homestead, although "out" in the township, actually set the stage for the founding of Exeter. Mr. Woodard was a lawyer. Before coming to Nebraska, he had lived in Michigan. As a member of Co. F, 10th Regiment, Michigan Volunteer Infantry, he had participated in 12 battles during the Civil War. After being mustered out in 1865, he spent two years in the nursery business in Illinois.
Mr. Woodard's house was the first post office, established in 1871, and named for him. He was postmaster until the post office was moved to Exeter proper at a later date. He was the first justice of the peace in Fillmore County, appointed in 1872. He was also one of the clerks when Fillmore County was organized in the spring of 1871. Many of the old deeds carry the acknowledgment of Warren Woodard.
The Woodards had four children: Eugene, May, Leon, and Arthur. In 1876, Mr. Woodard erected a 15-room hotel in Exeter, a two-story building which would house 30 people.
The *Fillmore County Democrat* reported, on May 13, 1893:
"Boss Woodard was a welcome caller at our headquarters Monday. He was in a genial mood, and gave us a little interesting ancient history. He told us that at the time he had the hotel here, he ran an express to Friend. The former and the Exeter newspaper went up here, and he carried them in his express wagon to Friend, where they were printed, and then brought them back the same way. In the words of A. [Artemus] Ward, or somebody else, 'Things is different now.'"
Mr. and Mrs. Willard C. Woodworth came to Nebraska in 1872 and homesteaded on the SW ¼ of Sec. 6, 3 miles N and ½ mile W of Exeter. When settling on their land, they were anxious to have everything in as good order as possible, so they spent their ready money on improvements. But that year's farming did not meet their expectations, and soon they needed for food the money which they had spent on the house, barn, and well. They had to go to Lincoln for credit, where fortunately the Farmers' Grocery Stores readily allowed them $5 worth of provisions until a wheat crop was forthcoming to pay for them.
Eleven antelope ran on their claim for about six months after they located, and hunters would ride over the land in every direction. About that time, Mrs. Woodworth was very ill, and, failing to get hired help, had to do the work as best she could. One day a huntsman said, "Lady, you look sick; can I get you some water?" The man was not only kind enough to get a pail of water, but went out and shot a prairie chicken which he gave her, expressing the hope that she would soon get better. Then, after showing this unexpected kindness, the stranger passed out of her life.
Some neighbors named Crooker living on Indian Creek had a siege of measles. Six in the household were stricken down at one time; so someone thought of asking Mrs. Woodworth, as there were two women in her house, and her mother, and one might be spared. Mrs. Woodworth went willingly, hardly expecting to find conditions as bad as they were; and for three nights and days she never rested in her efforts to help them through, but one girl died in spite of all the care.
Some time later, Mrs. Woodworth had typhoid fever. Miss Crooker, a schoolteacher, called one day, and, seeing her condition, went home and sent her father and mother to look after her. They remained and cared for her until she recovered.
The Horton schoolhouse was the place of worship for their neighborhood, and they were members of the Church of God who worshiped there. In those early days, men would attend the services barefooted and in overalls, while the women wore large sunbonnets.
In later days, "Father" Green of the U.B. Church, a native of Lancaster, England, and a York County homesteader, came often to preach; in fact, for a long time, he was the only preacher there. True to his native-country characteristics and training, he was a very "deep" preacher, and of great fervor in his devotions. He was always careful to kneel when he prayed; he was not ashamed to bow himself before his God. He would always spread a large red handkerchief on the floor—evidently to save his best trousers, even though the newness had long since departed. "There were giants in those days," men mighty in faith and prayer. He died about 1895, over 80 years old, and is buried in the Exeter cemetery.
Exeter
Exeter was located on the E ½ of Sec. 20. Most of the ground occupied by the village was a part of the original homestead taken by Dr. Horace G. Smith. He came here in January, 1871, to look at the land, and homesteaded on the SE ¼ of Sec. 20. In February, 1871, the NE ¼ of Sec. 20 was the homestead of James W. Dolan; the NW ¼ was the homestead of William Dolan; and the SW ¼ of Sec. 20 was homesteaded by John N. Dayton and William N. Babcock, each taking 80 acres. The first homestead in the neighborhood was that of Warren Woodard, on the NE ¼ of Sec. 28. This was the stopping place for many settlers as they first came to this area. It was also the first post office, called Woodard Post Office; the next nearest post office was at Lincoln.
It was by chance that Dr. and Mrs. Smith located on a spot where the Burlington & Missouri River R.R. also located. (This lucky chance is described in the account of Dr. Smith). The Burlington extended its line from Lincoln to Hastings in the fall of 1871. The depot was built in 1872.
Few towns have been named in as unique a way as Exeter. The railroad proposed to build a line from Crete westward, with towns approximately eight miles apart and named in alphabetical order. It is believed that the name was suggested by some settlers from around Exeter, England, who had located in this area. Thus we have the towns of Dorchester, Exeter, Fairmont, Grafton, Harvard, Inland, Juniata, Kenesaw, and Lowell.
Dr. Smith had built a small house, and it was here that the gentleman sent out by the railroad town company was to meet with the people to decide on a town site. A. B. Smith surveyed the land. The land homesteaded by Dr. Smith and J. W. Dolan was considered a little too flat for a town, but this site was chosen anyway. Dr. Smith and Mr. Dolan each
gave a share of their land for the town site. The post office was moved from the Woodard home to the site of the town now called Exeter and Dr. Smith was appointed postmaster. Dr. Smith had added a small lean-to onto his one-room house; this was to become the first store as well as the post office.
The first hotel was built in 1872, by L. Keneval. The first grain warehouse also opened for business in that year. The first marriage was that of J. W. Eller and Frances Hager, in November, 1872. The first schoolhouse was erected in 1873. Exeter was incorporated as a village on April 1, 1879.
During the time between the first homesteaders in 1871 and the incorporation in 1879, many changes had taken place. Many people had decided to settle here and had built houses, and some had put up places of business. The town was beginning to take shape. The Smith store became Smith & Dolan; in 1873, it became Smith & Taylor. Mr. Dolan opened a lumber yard and a grain elevator on the Burlington line.
When people gather in a community, they tend to form some kinds of clubs. One of the first, the “Lyceum,” was a literary club, known as the Exeter Lyceum; in 1876, they had a Lyceum paper, the Exeter Evening Post, made up of poetry, wit, and wisdom, as well as discussions on political and theological topics. By this time, the second hotel had been built, by Warren Woodard. In 1878, many more businesses were opened, including two large grain elevators. The trees planted by the first settlers had grown enough to give some shade and to improve the appearance of the town. F. M. Ziska had opened a general-merchandise store in the late 1870’s. This store was destroyed by a fire in 1889, along with many other business places.
A meeting had been held to form a school district, and it was decided to build a 24’ x 36’ wooden school building. The schoolhouse was also the meeting place of the Lyceum and many other activities, including Sunday church services. Some groups met in the second-story room of the new Smith store.
The churches were organized very early in the 1870’s. The Congregational Church was organized in 1872, and so was the Baptist Church. The Methodists also organized
Main Street today has changed considerably in 95 years or so. Then the street was just plain dirt and when it rained it was nothing but mud. And it was a few years before the wooden sidewalks were laid. Later it was graveled and in 1937 paved. At one time U.S. Highway 6 came right down Main Street but is now routed through the south side of town.
In the main intersection a windmill provided drinking water and supplied a horse trough. Many people got their water there until they could put down their own wells. Many also had cisterns to catch rain water, which was good for washing and bathing, but not so good as well water for drinking.
This windmill also had a bell on top, which rang every night at 9 o'clock, the curfew hour for children. They knew that they had better either get home before it sounded or really scamper the minute it did start to sound. This bell also sounded fire alarms and substituted for the ringing of church bells.
For many years, the only means of fire-fighting was the bucket brigade. Later, there was a hose, rolled up on a large wheel, which could be pulled to the fire. In 1905, two big air-pressure water tanks were installed near the present firehouse. The firemen have always been a voluntary group. The city got a fire truck in 1928, and a new one was purchased in 1961. But the firemen are still volunteers, usually numbering around 25. They are an extremely necessary and devoted group of men.
Exeter has been plagued by many fires. A fire started on the corner of the present Barkmeier store and burned south to the brick bank building on a Halloween night some time around the turn of the century. Another fire in the early 1900's started on the south end of the same block and burned all the buildings to the north, stopping again at the brick bank building. Another fire in the same period burned all the buildings north of the "Auditorium" and gutted that building also. Nearly one-half of the block on the east side of the main street closest to the Burlington tracks also burned in the early 1900's. This fire started in a bakery on the northeast corner of that block. The "Rink" was a victim of fire, and the brick school also burned in 1915. Most of these fires occurred before any fire equipment was available. So they relied on the bucket brigade for many years. By the time the brick school burned in 1915, the fire department had a water-pressure hose which did save the new school building that was nearly completed behind the old one.
Ruins after auditorium fire, Monday night, April 26, 1909.
Mr. and Mrs. Emory Yates in front of their tailoring shop in 1902. The Yateses also had the first "picture show" in 1908. (This building, which stood where Erdkamp Motors driveway is now located, was Exeter's first saloon, called "The Blind Pig.")
Fire burned the east side of Main Street in the early 1900's.
New sewer line in 1927—taken west of Dr. Wiggins' house. Lou Worthel, Bill Buck, unknown, "Bus" Baker, Art Buck, Joe Gephart, Dan Sullivan, Mr. Alexander.
In 1928, the water tower was erected, with a tank within a tank. The inner tank was to furnish water to the sprinkler system in the tag factory in case of fire. Mr. C. C. Smith, who contributed to the erecting of the tower, influenced its size and construction with a view to insuring the safety of his factory.
Exeter installed in 1927 a municipal sanitary sewer system, which includes a storm sewer system as well as a sewage-treatment plant.
Electricity came early to Exeter. Charles Smith installed a coal-fired steam engine back of the tag factory for a power plant. There was an underground tunnel from the factory to the power plant. The people of Exeter benefited by being able to have electric lights and machines with electric motors. Housewives could have washing machines and electric irons. Mr. Smith sold this power to his fellow citizens until 1912 or 1913, when Consumers bought the power plant from him with the understanding that they would convert all the electric motors for alternating current from the direct current provided by the Smith plant. When Mr. Smith supplied the power, the electricity went off at midnight. As Exeter had electricity so early, it is a bit startling now to look at old pictures of Main Street and see the light-wires and the light hanging over the middle of the dirt street with no cars parked along it. With the passage of time, newer and better lighting systems were installed on the streets. The city fathers decided in 1955 to put the same kind of light along the highway as those on Main Street. They were to put 21 lights, three to a block, 150 feet apart, on the south side from the Dinneen garage to the Hiway Cafe.
The first telephone in Exeter was one put in between John Craven's place of business and his home. Mr. Craven's brother, who worked with the Bell Telephone system at the time, helped to install it. Then a few people had their own telephone systems. There were 15 to 20 telephones with numerous wires running from one house to another. Eventually this worked into a larger group that wanted telephones. So there came to be a control and a central operator in the Exeter Enterprise office. At one time both the Independent Telephone and the Bell Telephone companies operated in Exeter.
In the early 1900's, believing that Exeter needed a playhouse or theater, W. H. Wallace got a company of businessmen together to build a theater. Among those contributing, besides Mr. Wallace, were lumberman John Craven, J. N. Cox, W. H. Taylor and A. M. Ziska (all in the lumber, goods and grocery business), stock dealer Joe Coates, and John Ohm. The brick building, called "The Auditorium," was built about 1905 or 1906, with W. P. Wallace, son of W. H., as manager.
In 1908, Mr. and Mrs. Emory Yates installed movie equipment and Exeter enjoyed its first "picture show." These were silent pictures, and feeling and emotion were conveyed by overacting on the part of the actors and by the piano music that accompanied the show. Miss Ann Yates played the music for the movies and used cue cards that came with every film. Each show started singing slides and Mr. Alfre Howard sang, accompanied by Ann Yates (now Mrs. Ann Saunders). Mr. Bernard Nevin played drums to piano accompaniment. Mr. Nevin later taught music for many years at Midland College in Fremont.
Early in 1900, the Pflug Implement Store north of the theater burned, setting fire to and gutting the Auditorium, and destroying the blacksmith shop to the south. The owners immediately had the building rebuilt, with some changes. Instead of a flat roof and level floor with posts through the center to support the roof, it was finished
band concerts in the summer. Some donations were made and George Harrison was contacted. With the help of the vocational agriculture boys and some of the community-minded men, the band shell was built from plans designed by George Harrison and Tim Ruhl. Intended as a multi-purpose band shell, 32' wide, 20' long, and 12' high, it was built on a vacant lot near the old mill by the water's edge, and served for many enjoyable band concerts. It was later moved to the vacant lot in the middle of the west side of the main business district on Main Street. It has since been torn down to make room for the new bank building.
At one time, Exeter had two depots, adjoined by small parks. The Chicago & Northwestern depot was sold and torn down for lumber in 1951. The Burlington depot is still very much in use and has been remodeled just recently. T. J. Parker became the depot agent in 1965.
With the coming of so many people to Exeter in the 1870's, it was soon evident that a cemetery would be necessary. W. H. Taylor and Charles C. Smith were both actively interested in the needs of the town. Mr. Smith owned land and sold lots for the cemetery, a non-profit organization in which shares were sold to help meet the cost of upkeep. The town was given the cemetery in 1947, since when it has been tax-supported. Donations have been used for improvements, such as access of water and maintenance of roads and buildings. Some of the trees that Pat Murphy donated to the cemetery when it first started are still growing there.
A newspaper, the Exeter Enterprise, was started on September 29, 1877, by William A. Connell, who went broke after three months and gave up. His last issue was dated December 1, 1877. He was succeeded by William J. Waite, who revived the paper on January 12, 1878, and continued as editor for many years. The following is a business directory drawn from the revived Enterprise of 1878:
J. W. Dolan .................................................. grain and lumber
H. G. Smith, W. H. Taylor and P. W. McCauley .................. general merchandise
Failing Brothers ........................................... general merchandise and drugs
Hannes & Stilley .......................................... hardware and grain
J. H. Edney .................................................. hardware and implements
Dayton Brothers ........................................... furniture
Dr. G. W. Whipple ....................................... physician
Dr. R. Beecher ............................................ physician
Job Hathaway .............................................. carpenter
Warren Woodard ......................................... Centennial Hotel
J. P. Kettenwell .......................................... meat artist (That was his own term)
Elias Peterman ........................................... harness shop
T. B. Farmer ............................................... contractor
S. F. Root .................................................. boot and shoe maker
Charles Hole .............................................. plasterer and chimney builder
John Barsby ................................................ collector
T. W. Lowrey & Co. ..................................... grain, flour, coal, and implements
M. Wiseman ................................................ blacksmith
On April 3, 1879, the Exeter Enterprise, with proper booster spirit, had these things to say: "The demand for houses is on the increase; 25 could find renters if they were to be had." "Build a house and be in fashion." "Fillmore County is one of the best Eastern-advertised counties in Nebraska. It must be so; else why would so large and steady a stream of immigration be constantly pouring in?" In 1892, another newspaper, the Exeter Eve, was started. In 1893, this became the Fillmore County Democrat, and then the Exeter Democrat later in the same year. The name was again changed in 1899, to the Fillmore County News, and that name has remained.
Among pleasant gatherings were what were known as "The Sings," held in private homes, when the singing of favorite hymns was a delight to all. As many as 50 people would come from far and near to share in such gatherings.
One place of much activity was "The Rink," built originally for roller skating. It was a large building with a gallery or balcony around its inside. This came to be used for social functions such as dances and the big Fourth of July celebrations that the pioneers appreciated so much. At one end of the building was a stage, which was the scene of many plays, traveling shows, vaudeville acts, etc. Uncle Tom's Cabin was one of the plays that a traveling group presented here. This building was later destroyed by a fire.
By 1882, the town had a population of more than 400. By that time the town had two banks, the Bank of Exeter and the Wallace & Co. bank. More clubs had formed, including the Odd Fellows, the Masons, and the Grand Army of the Republic. The old schoolhouse had been outgrown and
a larger school was in the making. The new building was to cost about $7,000.
A foundry was started in 1910. Sam Spitz had been harvesting for people but decided to start making castings and molds so that he could make iron parts for machinery, such as wheels, cog wheels, and so on. The foundry was started in the town proper, but because many of the townspeople complained about the soot, about 1920 it was moved to Hastings (where it is still operated by Sam's son, Louis Spitz).
J. N. Cox started a general-merchandise store in 1884. Some time after the turn of the century, Exeter had a Y.M.C.A.; dates are not available, but it was of short duration. About the same time a Sons of Veterans Club was formed; dates for the organizing and disbanding of this are also not available. Exeter had a race track in the south part of town, used for horse racing. There was also a ball park near by.
The following list of businesses appeared in an 1893 issue of the Fillmore County Democrat:
Costello & Swasey .......................................................... Tonsorial Artists
John Mohr ................................................................. Exeter Jewelry
J. N. Cox ............................................................... general merchandise
Craven Bros .............................................................. lumber, coal & lime
Dr. E. L. Ramsdell ..................................................... drug store
First National Bank .................................................... H. G. Smith
E. H. Buck & John Ohm ........................................... blacksmiths
Alta V. Robinson ....................................................... milliner
James Kelly .............................................................. meat market
I. T. Powell .............................................................. liveryman
J. C. Smith .............................................................. grocery store
A. S. Cookus .......................................................... blacksmith
John McDonald ....................................................... photographer
W. H. Taylor ......................................................... general merchandise
H. S. Bedford ......................................................... Exeter Roller Mills
J. C. Pflug ............................................................... grocery store
C. H. Wullbrandt & Son .......................................... general merchandise
Exeter National Bank ............................................. W. T. Taylor, president
W. H. Wallace, cashier
J. A. Nye ............................................................... ice cream parlor
H. S. Greenawalt .................................................. Merchants Hotel
Henry Randell ......................................................... shop store
C. A. Songer .......................................................... implements
Mrs. R. R. Crooker ................................................ milliner
J. W. Taylor .............................................................. grocery store
F. M. Ziska .............................................................. general merchandise
W. J. Nevins .......................................................... druggist
W. N. Babcock ......................................................... insurance
The same 1893 issue of the Democrat described the school: "The schoolhouse is a fine, large, brick, two-story building in the eastern part of town. Five teachers are employed at this time. The subjects taught are: Algebra, Rhetoric, General History, Civil Government, Bookkeeping, English Literature, Latin, Physics, Geometry, Botany, and Elocution. The total number of pupils in 1893—318." Dr. Claire Owens was the first music teacher in this school; she started teaching here in 1898, just after graduating from the School for the Blind at Nebraska City. (A full account of Dr. Owens appears elsewhere.)
By 1907, many changes had taken place. The population had increased and more business places had opened or changed hands. Joseph Coates, a dealer in livestock, had all his envelopes printed with a glowing description of Exeter. The following passage is from the back of one of these envelopes:
Exeter, Nebraska (The good roads town). Located 44 miles west of Lincoln, on the main line of the Burlington railroad, its junction with the Chicago & Northwestern. Has population of 600. "The best little town in Nebraska." Exeter is the recognized trade center of a large territory in one of the most fertile regions in Nebraska and nearly all lines of business are represented. These advantages combine to make Exeter one of the most desirable business points, as well as a pleasant residence town, in the State, and progressive men will find opportunities here, both in capital and labor. Farm lands sell from $60 to $100 per acre, and a splendid system of modern roads reaches nearly all parts of our trade territory. Two telephone systems with their country lines reach almost every farm for many miles and
3 rural mail routes completely cover the territory with daily service. Its citizens are enterprising and progressive and will extend to all desirable comers a hearty welcome. Our excellent public school employs 9 teachers and carries the work to the State University standard. A Catholic parochial school employing 4 teachers will be open in September; 5 fine churches; 1 other building; 2 banks; 4 grain elevators; 1 flour mill; 2 hotels; 2 newspapers; 4 department stores; 2 drugstores; 2 hardware stores and other branches of business well represented. The professions include 4 physicians, 2 dentists, and no attorneys (in which line there is a good opening). Smith's Adjustable Index Tag Factory is located here and employs about 100 people. A cigar factory, laundry, bakery, pop factory, broom factory, canning factory, as well as a first-class clothing store would find a good location. Inquiries will be answered by J. C. Wilson, Sec. Commercial Club.
Just how much influence this letter had would be hard to say, but there have been a bakery and a canning factory here since that time.
By 1915, the town had grown enough to need more land for new homes, and so the SW ¼, Sec. 20, and part of Sec. 10 had been annexed.
It is interesting to compare 1915 prices with those of today. These market prices were found in the Fillmore County News, December 9, 1915.
**Market prices 1915**
| Item | Price | Seller |
|-----------------------|---------|---------------------------------------------|
| Wheat No. 3-93; No. 2 | 95c | Dr. E. L. Armstrong...chiropractor |
| Corn | 52c | J. A. Craven......lumber and grain |
| Oats | 32c | Dyer & Downey........implement |
| Hogs per cwt | $6.00 | Debus Bros.............wholesale and |
| Cream | 33c | retail bakers |
| Chickens | .69½ lb.| J. B. Klotz............Rexall Drugs |
| Old roosters | .62 lb. | Wallace & Co...........banker |
| Ducks | .08 lb. | Farmers & Merchants Bank |
| Geese | .07 lb. | Brown & Bickert.......merchandise |
| Turkeys | .15 lb. | Dr. F. T. Butz........dentist |
| Butter | .25 lb. | Dr. A. N. House........dentist |
| Eggs—cash 24¢, trade | .25c | Exeter Electric & Power Co. |
| Potatoes, per bushel | .75c | McKeag & Hill...........real estate and |
| | | insurance |
**Variety store**
Karl F. E. Wegener, M. D................................physician and surgeon
Guy Phelps had just bought Mr. Schriener's interest in Phelps & Schriener........................................................druggist
At this time Exeter had a population of 1,100. The above list was taken from just one paper, so the list of businesses is not complete.
In 1915, the Burlington and Northwestern railroads both had depots. Exeter had excellent rail transportation east or west.
Exeter is also well located as to highways. U.S. Highway 6 once went down the main street but it has been in the south part of town for quite some time. A major east-west road, it joins U.S. Highway 81 at Fairmont, giving access to north and south roads. Interstate 80, not far away, is a great help.
**Library**
The first library was actually a loaning of books by Mr. and Mrs. J. B. Klotz. Mr. Klotz had a drugstore and a good supply of books that he was willing to share with others.
1910-1911: A library was started by the Exeter Dramatic Club, which sponsored plays, socials, card parties, and tag days to raise funds. A library of 1,000 volumes was established.
1915: The library was managed by the Exeter Library Association. Books were for everyone to use, whether members or not.
1936: The Exeter Woman's Club started a library again. It was taken over by the Exeter Village Board some years later and became a tax-supported library, with Mrs. Lillian Perry appointed
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**Photo from William Ruhl**
Catholic School—about 1907
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**Photo from William Ruhl**
Left to right: Bert Dyer (in car), Sherm Downey, Mr. McClean (machinery salesman), and John Downey—taken in 1909.
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**Photo from Mrs. Ann Saunders**
Exeter Dramatic Club about 1911. Seated, left to right: Emory Yates, Ilma Agur, Eunice Wilson, Keith Graul. Standing, left to right: Willard Steyer, Murine Allen, Mary Ann Yates, Katherine Sullivan, Bernard Nevins.
George Horton behind counter in his grocery store in 1920. This building now houses the Exeter Library.
librarian. Mrs. Perry has continued in that capacity since 1936 to the present time. The library was moved to its present location in 1938. There were 3,500 books on the shelves, but many needed to be discarded because they were too worn and so the real number would be less than 3,500.
1968: The library has a collection of 5,264 books. The Woman's Club has given $20 yearly for the summer story hour and reading program.
Mr. and Mrs. Dick Manning gave a movie projector to the library in memory of Mrs. Dick Manning's father, Mr. John Schwab. Mr. and Mrs. Elmer McCabe gave a set of *Encyclopaedia Britannica* in memory of Mrs. McCabe's father, Mr. Link. Many books have been given to the library at various times by individuals or groups.
**Banks**
In the late 1870's, William H. Wallace of Morrison, Illinois, homesteaded on Sec. 28 in Exeter township. Soon after, seeing the need for some sort of financial aid for the community. Mr. Wallace made small loans to individuals. As an office, he used a small room in the rear of a harness shop, in which he placed a small iron safe, which thus became Exeter's first bank vault. He later organized Wallace & Co., a private bank, located on the present bank site. This bank later operated under a state charter, under the same name, and then became the Wallace National Bank, under a national charter. In the year 1922, the Bank of Exeter was also in operation.
The Wallace National Bank was operated by William H. Wallace as president until his death in 1926, when his son, William P. Wallace, became president. Lesher T. Blouch acted as bookkeeper, assistant cashier, and cashier from 1907 to 1946.
After some years, two other banks were organized in Exeter, the Exeter State Bank and the Farmers & Merchants Bank. The Exeter State Bank was later acquired by the Wallaces. It was operated separately for several years and was then consolidated with the Wallace National Bank. The Farmers & Merchants Bank and the Wallace National Bank were both liquidated in 1933 and the First National Bank of Exeter was organized with H. M. Link as president, Frank Craven, vice-president, and Lesher Blouch, cashier. Mr. Blouch retired from the bank in 1946, after having been affiliated with the banks for approximately 40 years. He was also treasurer of the Village of Exeter for 41 years. After Mr. Link's death in 1961, Elmer McCabe became president of the bank, Roy E. Stubbendick, vice-president, and Lillian Barkmeier, cashier.
In 1966, plans were completed for a handsome new bank building, which was built on the vacant lot two doors south of the former bank site.
First National Bank, established in 1934. This building is now occupied by a barber shop.
New First National Bank Building (taken in 1968)
Street scene in Exeter, July 4, 1897—Royal Neighbors of America team drilling. Stores, left to right: P. W. McCleery's photo gallery; Lodge hall top floor, J. N. Cox dry goods on street level. Stores, right to left: T. B. Farney harness shop, Enterprise paper, Dr. E. L. Ramsdell drugstore.
**Clubs and Organizations**
1882: By 1882, many clubs had organized; however, exact dates are not available. The organizations at that time were the Masons, Odd Fellows, and Grand Army of the Republic.
1880: The I.O.O.F. started with 10 members; present membership, 23.
1883: Rebekah Lodge organized in 1883; present membership, 45.
1893: There was an organization called the Sons of Veterans Club, but no other information is available.
1897: The Royal Neighbors of America organized in 1897 with 24 charter members. The R. N. of A. had a drill team at one time, and the Cordova and Milligan R. N. of A. transferred to Exeter Camp 504. The present membership is 43.
1898: The Woman's Club organized in 1898 with about 20 charter members. Dr. Claire Owens was one of these and served as president of the club for four years and as parliamentarian for 31 years. The club was inactive during World War I, but reorganized in 1926 and became a federated club. The Woman's Club sponsors the "Y" Teen girls. The present membership is 50.
The Bide-A-Wee Kensington Club had started in the early days as a birthday club and had Sunset Parties for ladies over 65.
1914: Masonic Lodge No. 283 was chartered in 1914; extinct in December, 1952.
1915: Clubs in existence in 1915 were the G. A. R., the United Workmen, Woodmen of America, and Knights of Pythias.
**Chamber of Commerce:** The exact date of organization is not known. It was known as the Commercial Club in 1907. This civic organization has grown considerably in the last few years. The membership in 1965 was 62; at present there are 101 members.
**Lions Club:** First charter, February 1, 1944. Once had about 35 members; reorganized, 1952; present membership, 16.
**Business and Professional Women's Club:** Organized in March, 1954, with 18 members. Membership in 1966, 23.
**American Legion:** William Sullivan Post No. 218, organized in 1926, named in honor of first serviceman from this community to give his life in World War I. Charter members, 10; present membership, 88.
**American Legion Auxiliary:** William Sullivan Unit No. 218, the auxiliary, was organized in 1930 with 14 charter members. Mrs. Gertrude Clinton was first president. The ladies have been very active in the community. One of their yearly activities has been to decorate veterans' graves on Memorial Day. Present membership, 61.
**Eastern Star:** The Exeter chapter of the Eastern Star organized in 1914.
**D.A.R.:** Exeter has not had an active organization of its own, but 5 or 6 ladies from Exeter were members of the Geneva and Fairmont groups.
**Happy Hour Club:** The Happy Hour Extension Club, organized in 1917, was first called the "Jolly Twenty." When the membership increased the name was changed. Present membership is 20.
**Sunshine Extension Club:** Organized in 1925 with 14 members; present membership, 10.
**Evergreen Extension Club:** Organized in 1926 with 12 members; present membership, 13.
**Trilby Extension Club:** Organized in 1930 with 14 members; present membership, 16.
**Lady Bird Extension Club:** Newly organized in 1966 with 9 members.
There are various other clubs, as for bridge and similar functions. There are also many 4-H clubs, too numerous to list.
**SCHOOLS**
The coming of education to Exeter was described by Miss Elula Smith in the *Fillmore County News*, April 4, 1935. The first school was taught by Mrs. William Babcock in her sod house. Her pupils were Fred Babcock, three Woodard children, and Charles Smith. The article does not give the year, but it must have been 1871 or 1872. County Superintendent G. W. Gue issued the usual notice: District No. 20 was to be formed of Secs. 19, 20, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, and 33; he notified Job Hathaway that the organizational meeting would take place at Mr. Smith's store at one p.m. on February 9, 1872. The first officers elected were H. G. Smith, moderator; Job Hathaway, director; and Henry Young, treasurer.
Later, the citizens were summoned to discuss plans for a schoolhouse. Mr. Farmer was chairman of the first school board, Jim Dolan, secretary, and John Dayton, treasurer. Miss Smith wrote: "Mr. O. P. Chapman opposed everything that was suggested, but the majority ruled and plans were made for the building. When the meeting was about to adjourn, Mr. Chapman said, 'I move that $100 be appropriated to provide a bell for this schoolhouse.' His motion went over big." The contractor for the building was Ben Stilley, and one of the carpenters was Mr. Farmer.
Soon after this meeting a 24' x 36' building was erected on the corner of Exeter Avenue and South Boundary Street. (This site is now, in 1966, a vacant lot at the NE corner of the intersection of Main Street and U.S. 6.)
Exeter Public School Faculty in the late 1890's. *Back row*: Mabel Farmer, Floy Clark. *Front row*: Mary Scherzer, Etta Morgan, J. T. McKinnon, superintendent.
The old school burned in 1915, just as the new one (at left) was being finished.
It was not many years before this building was outgrown. In 1882, the new brick building in the east part of town was finished and occupied. Mr. Chapman's bell was transferred to it and for many years summoned the children to school. It is said that when this building burned in 1915, the bell gave one last peal as it dropped into the flames. A new brick building was already being built, because the 1882 building was no longer large enough. Although the new building was very close, it was not damaged by the fire. Rev. G. R. McKeith wrote in 1915: "The last, but not the least of Exeter's improvements, is the erection of a $40,000 school building, a magnificent, commodious, and well-arranged property, well fitted, and equipped to meet the needs of the town and district for many years."
During recent years, the Exeter Public School has undergone many changes and improvements. In 1945, the school was housed in one building and, because of the war, many departments needing improvements had to wait until equipment was available. One of the first improvements made was the building of a three-unit kitchen and remodeling of the homemaking department. Other improvements included lights for the football field; building the gymnasium-auditorium; fluorescent lighting for some rooms; new football bleachers; redistricting, which brought the buses and the establishment of bus routes; a Vocational Agriculture building; and a hot-lunch kitchen. Much obsolete and worn-out equipment has been replaced.
By 1961, standards and pressure by the State Department of Education for more playground space forced the school to use the football field to meet this requirement. The land east of the school was purchased for a new athletic field, football and track. The field was named "Scott Field" in memory of Scott Briggs who died while a senior in Exeter High. He was the son of Mr. and Mrs. Max Briggs.
As enrollment continued to increase, to provide necessary facilities the district voted a $200,000 bond issue in 1965. This amount was for the construction of seven elementary classrooms, a multi-purpose room, and kitchen facilities for the whole school. This new building is located south of the gymnasium. The old building has been remodeled to make more and larger rooms for the Junior and Senior high grades.
There are many organizations within the school system:
F. F. A. organized in 1954—48 members in 1966
F. H. A. organized in 1956—15 members in 1966
Pep club—67 members.
"E" club—35 members.
"Y" Teen club—83 members.
Student Council—15 members.
Music Dept.—89 students in vocal groups
Exeter has organized an M.A.T.H. honor club, called "Mu Alpha Theta." There are 18 full members and 8 associated members. There are two associated clubs, the "Y" Teen Council Mothers and the Exeter Baby Mothers Club.
| Band | Athletics |
|-----------------------|--------------------|
| Stage band | Football |
| Varsity band | Basketball |
| Junior band | Track |
| Beginners band | |
The Exeter Public School in 1966 had an assessed valuation of $5,829,065 and a mill levy of 28.6. Exeter can still boast of its accomplishments in this department. The Exeter School has the lowest school-tax rate in Fillmore County, and ranks among the lowest in schools of comparable sizes.
There were 341 pupils attending the public school, which, combined with the 62 parochial pupils, gave a 1966 total of 403 pupils attending school in Exeter.
**CHURCHES**
In 1915, Exeter had six different churches or meeting places: Congregational, Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist, Christian, and Christian Science. At present (1968), there are only the Congregational, Methodist, and Catholic churches. The others have either joined with other denominations or disbanded.
**Congregational Church**
In a room known as the Exeter Hall, over the H. G. Smith store, the Congregational Church was organized on March 31, 1872, with 11 charter members. They put up their first church in 1872. It was remodeled in 1937, with a 10-foot addition on the west, an alcove for the pulpit, and north new seating, and a new furnace. In 1924, a structure, one-half unit, 30' x 32', with full basement, was added on the south. The church has observed four major anniversaries, its 40th, 50th, 60th, and 85th. It owned a parsonage until 1964, when it was sold. In 1960, the church became yoked with the First Congregational
Church of Friend. The Rev. Donald Cassiday of Friend serves both congregations. One notable earlier pastor was the Rev. G. R. McKeith.
An article by Miss Belle Alexander (undated) provides additional information:
"The settlement of this township began during the year 1871 and religious services were held in various homes in the neighborhood. The first preaching service was held at the home of J. K. Barbur. It was in this same home that the first prayer meeting was held and the first Sunday School organized. Services were held in Exeter Hall for about $1\frac{1}{2}$ years and then moved to the new schoolhouse just finished on the corner of Exeter Avenue and South Boundary St. This building was a room 24' x 36', well seated with patent seats and answered the purpose very well. The Congregationalists were the first to organize but the Baptists and Methodists organized soon after. They continued to worship together until 1878, the Congregationalists furnishing the pastor one-half of the time and the Baptists and Methodists the other half. The charter members of the Congregational Church were John K. Barbur, Kate Barbur, Albert T. Hager, Clarissa L. Hager, Frank E. Hager, Orson Hager, Elias J. Hager, J. G. Smith, Catherine Smith, Harrison A. Sturdevant, and Rice Kelly."
In 1966, this church had 108 members, and Sunday School averaged from 50 to 60 members.
Christian Church
This note on the Christian Church was supplied by J. C. Wilson:
"The Christian Church was started in 1898, when 19 members organized the Church of Christ in Exeter. Those attending were two young boys, three men and their wives, three young girls, and eight old women. Brother Johnson was the elder, Brother Starr and later, Franklin Hoot were the deacons, Mrs. Starr was the deaconess, and Mrs. C. A. Bickel was the church treasurer. After a few weeks, 14 new members were added to the church. Fifteen months later a building was erected at a cost of $1,400."
Twenty-five years later the attendance had reached 96 at the Bible School. The church held regular services until July 1, 1956, when they were no longer able to keep going, and decided to disband. The parsonage and church building were sold and removed from the lots. However, the Christian Women's Fellowship have had regular meetings and in 1966 were continuing to meet.
St. Stephen's Church (Catholic)
The history of the parish of St. Stephen's at Exeter is not well known until 1873. It is probable that Father Kelly, who lived in Lincoln, passed through Exeter in 1870 and said Mass at the residence of F. McTygue south of town.
The first part of the old church was built in 1874 or 1875. Part of the priest's residence was built in 1878. In 1883, the residence and the old church were completed and some improvements were made. A new church was erected in 1901 and 1902. A parochial school was erected in 1907 and opened in September, 1907, with Dominican Sisters in charge. The new priest's residence was built in 1910. A storm damaged the church in 1918, and it was repaired and improved. The church was completely redecorated some time between 1940 and 1949, and an electric organ was added.
The school was remodeled in 1934. It has always had a good library and in 1952 the collection of books was accessioned and tabulated and many new volumes were added. A new set of encyclopedias was purchased in 1954.
The Dominican Sisters remained until 1940, when the Felician Sisters came; they are still there.
The St. Stephen's School and Home Association, formerly the St. Stephen's P.T.A., was organized in 1935; one of its notable successes has been the hot-lunch project.
Msgr. Patrick Healy who came in 1949, celebrated his Golden Jubilee of ordination June 24, 1954. Upon the death of Msgr. Healy in 1956, Msgr. Henry H. Ingenhorst was appointed pastor of St. Stephen's and installed on October 3, 1956.
A extensive remodeling program was undertaken in 1961, including a complete interior decoration and the installation of a new heating system. In the spring of 1964, St. Stephen's parish purchased property to serve as a convent for the teaching staff. The school building underwent some needed repairs and its educational facilities were considerably expanded. On September 17, 1964, Msgr. Ingenhorst celebrated his Silver Jubilee of ordination with the assistance of the congregation and visiting clergy.
St. Stephen's Church had 477 members in 1966 and the St. Stephen's Parochial School had 62 pupils.
Photo from Robert Trauger
St. Stephen's Catholic Church in 1902
Photo from R. D. Erdkamp
St. Stephen's Catholic Church as rebuilt in 1918.
Christian Science Society
The Christian Science Society organized in 1897. First meetings were held in a room of the Smith factory. In 1900, it changed its name to First Church of Christ, Scientist and met in a room above the First National Bank.
A concrete-block church was built in 1907, with Frank Craven the general overseer. He also laid most of the block. The church
averaged 35 members. The congregation decided to disband in 1951 and the building was sold to the Assembly of God. Two years later this church also found it necessary to disband. The building was sold in 1953 to Ted Larsons, who remodeled it into a private home.
**Methodist Church**
As early as 1871, religious services were being held in private homes. The first Sunday School was organized 4 miles S of town and was carried on successfully for several years. The class was organized by the Rev. D. B. Lake in an 18' x 25' room above the H. G. Smith store on the lot now occupied by the Barkmeier store; entrance was by an outside stairway.
From this class three denominations—Congregational, Baptist, and Methodist—were organized at different times during the year 1872. In 1873, the first schoolhouse was erected, and this was used for some time by all the denominations.
Members of the different denominations took turns doing the janitor work and ministers came from near-by towns every two weeks for preaching services. After a few years, the school had to be given up and the Methodists found new quarters over the W. H. Taylor store. Rev. Davis from Indiana was the first resident pastor. He received the huge sum of $450 per year and furnished his own house, which later became the first Methodist parsonage and served as such until the early 1930's. Until then, there had been no board of trustees, so the organization could not legally own property. In that year, J. P. Kettlewell, T. B. Farmer, C. A. Songster, W. L. Hildreth, Elias Peterman, and M. E. Trauger were named trustees. In 1880, there came some inclination to raise money to purchase lots on which to erect a church. The first effort was made at the close of a midweek prayer meeting at the home of a member. A collection was taken, but this fell short of the required amount. After the singing of a hymn, Mr. Songster suggested another collection, and this process was repeated until the needed amount was raised.
A 22-foot lot was purchased and the railroad company donated another, and, in 1881, the first Methodist Episcopal Church of Exeter was erected on the site of the present building. The structure was 28' x 48'. Eliminate the main auditorium of the present building and weld the east and west ends together and you have the original building.
Several years later the Epworth League sponsored the purchase of the bell which is still in use. The lighting system consisted of large kerosene lamps hung from the ceiling and heat was furnished by a large coal stove placed a little back of the center of the room. Later a large round "Oak" stove was placed under the building after the manner of a pipeless furnace.
In 1905, the Rev. J. W. Lewis convinced the members of the need for a more modern building and submitted a plan for the remodeled church, which was dedicated with fitting ceremonies in 1906.
The Ladies' Aid furnished the large north window and the G.A.R. donated the south one, with the understanding that they might use the building for their annual Memorial Services without charge as long as needed.
In the meantime, the board of trustees had purchased the building on the southeast corner of the block for a parsonage and during the pastorate of the Rev. W. Hull this building was extensively remodeled.
The church, as dedicated in 1906, was used with normal repairs until 1927, when, because of a substantial gift to the church, the members thought it advisable to refinish, redecorate, and fully modernize the building.
In the winter of 1934-35, the ceiling of the main auditorium was lowered and the church was completely redecorated. A large gas furnace replaced the former coal furnace and a gas floor furnace serves the west room.
In 1939, the church tower was made higher to house a "Singing Tower," a gift from Frank Farmer of Denver as a memorial to his parents, the late Mr. and Mrs. T. B. Farmer. The tower may be heard in all parts of town and as far as 5 miles in the country. The Singing Tower here was the first in a Nebraska church.
In the spring of 1944, the Sunday School and Mission Study Class gave the church an American flag and a Christian flag.
In March, 1945, the picture, "The Open Door," with its spotlight, was a gift from Frank Farmer. At the same time, the cross and candle holders were given by the Sunday School and Mission Study Class.
Sponsored by the W.S.C.S., a committee composed of Mrs. Pearl Steyer, Mrs. N. F. Whitmore, and Mrs. D. L. Hall prepared an honor roll of our World War II servicemen. An artistic frame was made and presented by Mr. and Mrs. Whitmore and a record book was presented by Mr. and Clyde Trimbath. Mr. and Mrs. D. L. Hall presented a container for the record book and a group of friends had a spotlight installed for the display.
The church kitchen was remodeled in 1951. In 1959, the basement was remodeled and Sunday School rooms were partitioned off. At the same time a chapel for the M.Y.F. was installed in the east end of the basement and a new furnace was also added.
In 1961, a new parsonage was erected. In 1964, the sanctuary was repainted, the church floors were refinished, and new furniture was provided for the pulpit.
At this time (1966) the church has approximately 250 members and 130 enrolled in the Sunday School.
**Baptist Church**
The Baptist Church was organized in 1872. The church building was erected in 1879, rather like the Congregational and Christian, but a little smaller. It stood facing north on the place where the Farmer Mortuary is now located. In later years a parsonage was built just east of the church, mostly by the labor of members. The Baptist Church was fortunate to have an outstanding quartet that was well known for their renditions of anthems at Sunday morning worship.
The first Communion set of plates and goblets were made of pewter. Later Mr. and Mrs. L. Gilbert presented the church with a beautiful silver Communion set. The silver set is at present in the museum at Nebraska City.
When the congregation became quite small, because of deaths and families moving to other communities, it was decided to disband. Those who wished joined with the Congregational Church in a federation of the Congregational and the Baptist in January, 1918.
It was necessary to use the Baptist Church for classrooms for school at the time when the first school grew too small and the new school had not been completed.
The church and parsonage buildings were sold about 1923. The church was torn down and the parsonage was used in the rebuilding of the Farmer Mortuary.
**CIVIC ACTIVITIES**
**Farmer Male Quartet**
The original Farmer male quartet, organized in the late 1920's, was composed of P. R. Farmer, 1st tenor; T. D. Clarke, 2nd tenor; A. E. Bashford, 1st bass; and L. T. Blouch, 2nd bass. Mrs. W. P. Wallace was the accompanist. They immediately selected suitable numbers and started meeting regularly for rehearsals. As soon as it became known that they were ready for public appearances, they were much in demand. They sang at many different functions and entertained in Exeter and community and in other Nebraska towns and communities.
Frank Farmer, of Denver, a brother of P. R. Farmer, became interested in the quartet, and gave much of his time and talents to their rehearsals. When in Exeter, he often accompanied them on singing engagements, where he would lead in community singing and also sing solos.
The quartet also furnished the music for many funerals. This was a part of the service Mr. Farmer offered to the public without extra charge. In January, 1934, the quartet had several recordings made of both their sacred and secular numbers. They also had photos taken for use in their work.
The community was shocked and saddened when P. R. Farmer was critically injured in an auto accident; he passed away September 22, 1935. P. R. Farmer was the father of Burton Farmer of Exeter and Paul Farmer of Geneva. Both the sons are morticians, as was their father.
Mr. Bashford passed away in April, 1946. The two remaining members of the quartet, Mr. Blouch and Mr. Clarke, continue to make their home in Exeter.
It is interesting to note that Mr. Clarke learned to sing as a boy when he lived on the Isle of Man, an island between England and Ireland.
**Medical Center**
The Medical Center began by a vote of the people at a special election in February, 1956. The town board accepted the architect's plans in July and asked for bids. The building of brick-veneer construction, cost approximately $25,000. Its 28' x 50' area provides 15 rooms, which include a waiting room, three examination rooms, two laboratories, and two private offices. It is completely air-conditioned, with tile floors and smooth plaster walls throughout. The first doctor to occupy the building was Dr. James E. Loukota. At present (1966) the building is being used by two dentists who come out part time from Lincoln—Drs. Harold Demaree and Clifton Hicks—and by an optometrist, Dr. Delwyn Anderson, who comes once a week from Geneva.
The people of Exeter have tried, so far unsuccessfully, to interest a doctor in locating here permanently; but they have not yet given up either hopes or efforts.
**Memory Manor**
A retirement home for many of our pioneers became a reality in 1965. Memory Manor is a result of community co-operation. Mr. Turner, president of Bethel Homes, Inc., agreed that if the local area would raise $25,000, Bethel Homes would build a 45-bed modern nursing home. In the same spirit in which pioneer Nebraskans long worked together, the money was raised; and we now have, in a handsome building on the north side of U.S. 6 at the western edge of Exeter, a pleasant refuge for those who wish to rest, or who because of illness have laid down the plow, shovel, hoe, pot, or pan, and must relax in the well-earned, kind care of others.
**Swimming Pool**
The Exeter Woman's Club decided, in May, 1963, to promote the project of a city swimming pool. The club's Community Improvement Committee asked for, and obtained, a meeting with the state Department of Health. The village board co-operated, and a meeting of interested citizens evoked considerable enthusiasm. The board deExeter Post Office in 1912. *Left to right:* Mort Rasmussen, William Hildreth, Postmaster; Ed Mitchel, Grace Hildreth (Agur), Joe Rogers.
Rural Route delivery started about the year 1880, with three routes. The first carriers were George Borland, Smith Wallace, and Fred Phillips. Other carriers included Williams Mitchel, Ed Hall, Mort Rasmussen, Paul Farmer, Seron Manning, and Joe Rogers.
We now have two routes out of Exeter. The carriers are (1966) Kenneth Taylor (Route 1) and John Drummond (Route 2).
This is but one story of many rural mail carriers. On April 27, 1911, a young man sorted up a pouch of mail at the local post office and started forth on his rounds as a rural letter carrier. Forty years and three days later he made his last official delivery to the patrons on Route 1, Exeter. He was J. D. Rogers, who made his first delivery as a temporary carrier. He received his permanent appointment in June, 1911. The first route was 24 miles long, when there were three routes out of Exeter. When the routes were consolidated, Mr. Rogers became carrier of Route 1, 43½ miles long. Through all the years, however, he served the same area north of town and many of the same families.
For conveyance he used horses, motorcycles, various types of automobiles, the last that vehicle known as a Jeep. It was computed that Mr. Rogers traveled about 500,000 miles as a mail carrier.
**BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY**
**Elevators**
The first elevator in Exeter, built in the 1870's, was owned and operated by James Dolan. By 1878 there were two elevators; names of owners other than Mr. Dolan are not available.
In 1907, there were four elevators. One was the Rager Co. Elevator, between the Burlington stockyard and the station. This is believed to be the elevator later owned by Joseph Coates. W. W. Kimberly and Co. was located by the Burlington depot. It is now (1966) the location of the Co-op elevator office. The Kimberly Elevator was sold to the William McNeil Grain Co. between 1910 and 1920. The Nye, Snyder & Jenks Elevator, located south of the Methodist Church, was operated by George Horton. There was also the Trans-Mississippi Elevator.
On April 8, 1911, farmers of the Exeter community met to organize a Farmers' Elevator. Permanent officers were Walter Howarth, president, and Levi Steyer, secretary. One month later, $4,000 was pledged, to be divided into $25 shares, with no one to have more than eight shares.
In September, 1911, the board met and bought the Trans-Mississippi Elevator for $3,000. With a few added expenses, the total cost was $3,206.90. S. G. Manning was hired as manager. Business prospered and the year 1912 showed a good profit. In 1913, coal sheds were built. Total bushels of grain bought in 1912 were 207,040 (including corn, wheat, and oats). During the next 10 years, big business items were grain, coal, flour, cement, binder twine, and apples. At times, apples were bought by the carload. Profits were good annually. New board members were Walter Howarth, Levi Steyer, Will Jansen, Henry Kolar, Sam Gillan, Fred Underwood, and N. M. Becker.
The big addition of this decade was the purchase of the Joe Coates Elevator, on the Burlington, in May, 1919, for $5,000. Assets
at end of this period were $24,677.87, with 221 stockholders and 405 shares. Levi Steyer resigned as secretary of the board.
The second decade (1920-30) saw important figures and changes take place. After 11 years, Walter Howarth resigned because of ill health. Before leaving, Mr. Howarth gave a full report, showing a large saving to patrons. In 1924, 372 cars of wheat, corn, and oats were shipped. A new grain elevator business was added; Mr. Glenn's bid was accepted and then gasoline and fuel was sold to patrons. In October, 1929, George Thompson became the new manager. There were policy changes during this time. Interest on stock was frequently as high as 10 per cent. The board added William Morgan and E. J. Barbur to its list of directors.
The next decade (1930-1940) was a period of drought and depression. Wages had to be cut, and the board offered to share undivided profits in grain, whatever was needed, to help the even more unfortunate farmers in northern Nebraska. Rough times continued. Wages again had to be cut; the secretary voluntarily reduced his pay. Patrons' credit started, and it was necessary to borrow money with which to operate. That year, 1936 brought the need for a grain business, with Hans Nelson in charge of this department. The board now included new members John Due, Herbert Howarth, John Miller, Charles Trauger, Jim Krejci, Godfrey Mueller, Axel Nelson, and Bob Doupnik. In December, 1939, there were 154 stockholders and 261 shares.
Between 1940 and 1950, some facilities became obsolete; the result was the purchase of the McNeil Elevator on the Burlington for $10,000. Now the old Coates Elevator was torn down for the lumber. The '40's saw some wage increases for the manager and employees, with year-end bonuses. Many repairs were made on the elevator, with some grain-storage capacity added. Also added were several small buildings. Business directly reflected the fruitfulness of the years. The new directors added were Frank Lovegrove, Roy Eberhardt, Bert Schwab, William Keil, Walt Guthrie, Willard Steyer, and Olaf Due. In 1947, Walt Barkmeier resigned and Bill Ruhl was hired as the new manager.
The decade 1950-60 was an unusual one. The first five years showed substantial additions. A larger scale, a new feed house, and a roller mill to process feeds, were added. The commercial fertilizer business expanded considerably. The short period from 1955 to 1961 saw great expansion in storage facilities, increasing capacity to 600,000 bushels. A $19,780 grain dryer, a liquid fertilizer plant, and a 5,000-gallon bulk oil tank were added. In 1964, an anhydrous plant and equipment were added, as well as a 4,000-gallon tank for the oil plant. In 1965, a molasses blender, with a 4,000-gallon molasses storage tank, was added.
Thirty-five names have appeared on the board of directors list.
The latest names added were Aaron Guthrie, Harve Johnson, John Leif, John Geiger, Jay W. Dyer, Eric Rasmussen, and Joe Hassler. The last total showed 540 stockholders and 5,650 shares, indicating growth and progress.
The Farmers’ Elevator, now known as Exeter Co-Operative Elevator Co., has been fortunate in having had only four different managers during its 55-year life. The board of directors were also dedicated men. One member, Fred Underwood, missed only one meeting in 37 years.
Photo from John Bacon
Smith Tag and Index Factory. The addition was built about 1910.
Charles C. Smith Index Tab Factory
The first successful factory in Exeter was that set up by Charles C. Smith for making index tabs. About 1895, while a clerk in his father’s bank, he devised some adjustable tabs to flag frequently used accounts and save a good deal of time. Callers at the bank who saw these tabs in use took to asking him if he would make a few for them to use in their businesses. This was the very modest beginning of a business that, in later years, gave the name of Exeter more nearly worldwide recognition than any other American town of its size.
By 1896, Charles Smith was receiving enough orders to justify opening a small factory and employing workers. His first factory was in the directors’ room of his father’s bank. The business prospered and quickly elbowed its way out of the directors’ room. It might even be said that it elbowed the bank right out of the bank building and, in time, also absorbed an adjoining building. When even this grew inadequate, an addition was built onto the back of the plant.
During the early years of the business, Mr. Smith gave primary consideration to developing, improving, and expanding his line of products, first in the continental United States, and then in foreign countries. He also aimed at improving manufacturing procedures. He was instrumental in developing machinery to decrease the amount of hand work in making his products.
The tabs are used to mark books and card systems. Some, made wholly of steel, are called Signals or Guides. The signals may be either plain or printed with months, numbers, or letters. The guides have insertable paper labels protected by a celluloid covering.
The leather tab (which has the distinction of being the first and oldest) is made of bronze clips with a projection of leather, this being stiffened by a filler of felt.
The gummed strips, made of paper, cloth, and leather, differ from the tabs and signals in that they are not removable, but are gummed to the paper or card in the place desired for indexing. The cloth and leather strips may also be celluloid covered, which provides a means for slipping a paper label under the celluloid thus making an index which can be removed. These items are sold by the foot but in actual use are cut up into as short lengths as desired.
At one time, almost all the signaling items used throughout the world were made in Exeter. Although competitors later arose, the Exeter factory long remained the acknowledged leader for quality signaling. As this is written (1968), the Exeter factory has been discontinued.
The business which Mr. Smith built up was incorporated after his death. The present owners are largely people who either worked for him or sold the products which he manufactured in Exeter.
The *Lincoln Journal and Star* reported, in June, 1953:
“An old Exeter business firm under new ownership and has been expanded. Following Mr. Smith’s death in December of 1951, the firm came under trusteeship of the First Trust Company of Lincoln. Mr. Smith’s daughters, the heirs, then converted the estate into cash, the purchaser being York businessman Willis E. Stover. According to the records in the office of County Judge Guy A. Hamilton, the amount involved in the liquidation transaction was $23,500.
“The new corporation has bought the business from Stover. The corporation is capitalized at $100,000. Incorporators were Charles Peables, Robert L. McCloskey, and Delores M. Link of Washington D. C.
“An expansion of domestic sales is planned but no change in manufacturing personnel or plant organization is contemplated, according to manufacturing manager Nesbit F. Whitmore of Exeter. Thirteen persons are now employed.
“William H. Cravens of Round Hill, Virginia, is president of the corporation. Glen F. Monnig of Exeter is vice-president and general manager and has been acting secretary and treasurer. Nina Chambers is office manager.
“The ‘Government Schedule of Supplies’ has listed the firm’s products for more than 40 years. Most of the stockholders, a corporation officer reports, other than officers and employees, are persons in the stationery and office fields.”
The Lincoln Star in 1957 said of a long-time member of the firm:
"After 57 years with the local Charles C. Smith Index Tab Co., Nesbit F. Whitmore has retired. Mr. Whitmore joined the firm in 1900. His first salary, as a boy of 15, was $1.50 for a 25-hour week.
"His first duties included scuffing the small steel tabs so that glue would stick to them more readily. Mr. Whitmore, in his long tenure with the company, saw the firm's output increase from one lone type of index tab to more than 50 various sizes, shapes, and colors.
"His title before he retired this month was vice-president in charge of production. His inventiveness and mechanical inclinations have resulted in many improvements in the operations.
"Mr. Whitmore's second job at the plant was a 'printer's devil.' From 1908 until 1951, when Charles C. Smith died, he was in charge of production.
"Mr. Whitmore has seen the firm's personnel vary in number from six or eight to more than 70. Labor-saving machines, many of which Whitmore had a hand in inventing, have reduced the need for workers but have speeded production.
"Mr. Whitmore invented one machine himself and it is one of the most used in the plant. It takes rolls of cloth and pressboard and makes them into a gummed index stripping. One of his last jobs before he retired was the making of more than 800,000 tabs for an airline on this machine. Mr. Whitmore has now retired."
Thane D. Croston was manager of the Charles C. Smith Index Tab Co. from January, 1956, until October, 1959. After leaving the Smith plant, Mr. Croston started his own factory.
Debus Bakery
In 1912, the Debus Brothers, Sander (Sam) and Henry, started a bakery in the back room of their ice-cream parlor. After operating here for one year, they bought a lot on East Main St. and erected a building on it. (This building is now occupied by Bob's Body Shop.) Their only piece of machinery was an electric dough mixer. The rest of the work was done by hand. They installed a Peterson Pegan continuous fire-brick oven. As time went on and their business increased, they purchased more equipment. They hired T. D. Clarke as a helper in February, 1916. Their output at this time was an average of 800 loaves of bread per day. They also baked rolls and pastries.
In 1917, the brothers dissolved the partnership. Henry went to Fremont, and Sander became the sole owner and manager. T. D. Clarke remained as an assistant baker and Mrs. Nellie Taylor as clerk.
During World War I, many commodities were scarce and Sander was compelled to use substitutes in his bakery goods. He succeeded well with substitutes while many other bakers were not so successful. This news spread rapidly and in a short time he was averaging 3,500 loaves of bread per day, besides the rolls and pastries. The shop was shipping baked goods to many other towns, by express, on both Burlington and Northwestern trains. This expansion necessitated more help, and Sander secured the services of his half-brother, A. J. Maser of Lincoln. Other helpers included Faye and Donald Johns, Clyde Long, and Noel Smith. Mrs. T. D. Clarke assisted Mrs. Taylor as clerk.
In 1923, Sander decided to move his bakery to Hastings and formed a corporation. Frank Craven, one of the incorporators, became vice-president and continued in that capacity until 1956 when Sander Debus passed away. Mr. Craven then became president until another company bought out the corporation in 1964.
(Frank Craven built the first reinforced concrete silo in Nebraska in 1908. The silo is still in use today.)
Exeter Canning Factory
A two-story frame canning factory 24' x 80', with frame porch and attached stairway, was located in the east part of Exeter in the Smith addition, near the C.B. & Q. R.R. This plant, owned by A. J. and Cordelia Bird, canned tomatoes, corn, yellow string beans, and peaches.
On this land was an orchard which had peaches, plums, cherries, and apples. Some of the apple trees had been grafted with other trees and produced large crab apples.
The canning factory, first started in 1890, was sold to H. S. Bedford in 1893. Some time between 1893 and 1902, the building was destroyed by a fire.
Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Hill bought the land in 1902. The building was gone but some of the foundation was still there, and later some of the labels were plowed up. While the factory was in operation, a large amount of canned corn had spoiled. These cans were dumped, and heavy rains, falling soon after, washed the cans onto some of the farmers' land, much to their disgust.
Exeters has also had a cannery factory several times, but they were never successful and of short duration.
Exeter Roller Mills
Founded as a co-operative in 1886, the Exeter Roller Mills was later purchased by H. S. Bedford. In 1893, the Fillmore County Democrat said:
"It is one of the boasts of the city and stands among the best mills in the State. The capacity of this mill is 100 barrels and among his favorite brands of flour we note 'Our Best,' 'Silver,' and 'Ladies Favorite.' Mr. Bedford ships his flour to all points in Nebraska and has also a wholesale house at Lincoln, and branch or exchange houses at Seward and Bee. In connection with his mill here, he has a large storehouse 244 x 80 feet, two stories high, in which now is stored 65,000 sacks of flour, a sight of behold."
Exeter Roller Mills in 1886
Newspapers
The Fillmore County News was operated for approximately 15 years by Richard Ferguson, 1938-1953, when Mr. and Mrs. Bill Sand purchased the paper. The Sands were here for six years, until 1959. At that time the News was sold to John Farley, who had the paper for six months.
The present publishers are Mr. and Mrs. Al Bonta. They purchased the paper in February, 1960. The Bontas commuted from Alexandria for six months before they could find adequate housing for themselves and their nine children.
The Bontas had operated the Alexandria Argus for eight years before coming to Exeter. After the Alexandria paper was sold, Mr. Bonta worked for 1½ years for a newspaper in Fairbury.
The Fillmore County News has 750 subscribers.
Kittinger Mink Farm
The mink business started in 1944, more as a hobby than a business. The Burton Kittingers began with five young mink the first year, then traded the surplus males for more females. Some of the mink were raised on shares with other mink ranchers. Another rancher would furnish the breeding stock and the mink were raised by the Kittingers for half.
Mr. Kitinger had been in the blacksmith and welding business, but the mink business demanded more of his time and after a few years he sold the shop and devoted his time to mink raising. For the last several years the Kittingers have kept about 400 breeding females and pelt around 1,500 to 1,600 mink each year.
A 25-ton freezer-cooler, and a 1-ton feed mixer and grinder are used to handle about 1,700 lbs. of feed per day in summer and fall, mostly chicken and beef by-products.
The Kittinger mink farm raises three different colors of mink—the pastel, sapphire, and natural dark mink.
The Kittingers are members of the Great Lakes Mink Assn., the E.M.B. Assn., and the Nebraska Mink Growers Assn.
In November, there is a mink ranchers' show at Kearney. A few from other states also enter mink. Competition is keen: the best mink of each color wins a trophy and the next four best win ribbons. The Kittingers have won two trophies and numerous ribbons.
March is the month for mating the mink. Most of the young are
born in May. The average litter is from 3½ to 4. Some females will have 1 or 2 young mink, while others may have from 8 to 10. The average weight of a new-born mink is ½ ounce. A full-grown female weighs 2 to 2½ lbs.; males weigh up to 6½ lbs. Plenty of feed and water are important to the growing mink. The mink are pelted in December and the furs are shipped to New York for auction.
Photo from Burton Farmer
Kittinger Mink Farm in 1967
Modern Products, Inc.
Modern Products was incorporated in 1959. The first product manufactured came several months later from an idea brought to the company by Ray T. Hall. The idea was for a machine to bore horizontal holes in the ground. Anyone operating a trenching machine needs an earth auger of this sort when he encounters something that cannot be trenched, such as a railroad track, highway, driveway, or street. Holes are drilled to carry water mains, sewers, telephone cables, electric cables, gas lines, etc.
A network of distributors was built up, covering the United States, Canada, Alaska, Japan, Thailand, and South America, enabling the firm to capture its share of the world's auger market. The products are advertised in national trade magazines and through personal contact with distributors.
This product caught the interest of the Omaha Steel Co., who considered the auger line and a small trencher introduced by Modern Products, Inc., as ideal companions to their recently acquired Brown Trencher line and the Modern line was bought up by Omaha Steel.
Fire destroyed a portion of the Modern Products building in 1967. The building, now owned by Ray T. Hall, has been reconstructed and houses the offices of the Horizontal Boring Co.
Plettner Hatchery
The Plettner Hatchery started in 1919 in a home basement. Here a capacity of 2,200 eggs were hatched in common lamp incubators. In 1927, the home business was discontinued but resumed, with a 30,000-egg capacity, in the old Fillmore County News building (later sold to the American Legion).
The hatchery was moved in 1931 to the Odd Fellows building, operating four 60,000-egg machines. It moved again in 1939 and ran 120,000-egg machines. The hatchery was a partnership between John and Elmer Plettner from 1927 till 1950, when the partnership dissolved. The hatchery has since been discontinued.
Photo from William Ruhl
Aerial view of Exeter business district—July, 1957
Photo from John Terril
John Terril in his creamery on the west side of Main Street (1924)
BUGS AND WEATHER
Grasshoppers
The early settlers were faced with many obstacles. The breaking of the prairie was backbreaking labor; then they had to wait, hope, and pray that the rains would come at the right times, plentiful enough but not too much, to permit a bountiful harvest. These were things that could at least be foreseen. But the grasshopper plague was something totally unexpected, and they could do nothing but watch their crops vanish in a matter of days—or hours. Many homesteaders gave up and returned to their native states. Others gave up farming and sought other occupations. E. S. Coates wrote, in a Nebraska Farmer article:
"They came for three years. The family had 40 acres in crops. One day about the middle of July, just a few days before their 20 acres of wheat was to be cut, the wind changed from the south, where it had been for a few days, around to the north. Soon came a roaring noise and a haze. Then came a rain of grasshoppers. In two days, the garden, potatoes, wheat, and the corn—everything was gone. The hoppers rose and sailed off on the south. In the spring, the family got seed to plant the 20 acres again, and broke up some more land, planting it to corn. They harvested a small grain crop last year, but the hoppers came again in August, took the corn, took the late garden and potatoes.
"The next spring, they planted all the plowed ground and broke more. They harvested a big wheat crop, the corn was in the roasting ear, the potatoes were immense, and it seemed the pioneers' cupboards would be full. They planned a mass meeting at the settlement to give thanks for the absence of the grasshoppers and for a full crop. The preacher had just offered a prayer of thanks, when wind came up from the north and the grasshoppers began to fall on the assembly. The worst grasshopper scourge of them all was on. The hoppers were so ravenous, they ate the corn and then crawled into the shocks and ate the heads off the grain.
"The hoppers had stayed that fall and laid eggs. When the crops were nicely up, millions of them hatched out and began to feed. Everyone despaired. The day my folks were packing up to go back to Iowa, a brisk wind came out of the north. The grasshoppers arose in a huge cloud and left forever." [This three-year siege occurred in northeastern Nebraska.]
In the locality around Exeter, they were bad only one year, according to Miss Elula Smith:
"Some of the farmers were quite unfortunate. Mr. A. T. Hager had purchased a harvester and he and his son Orson and Mr. Farmer had cut the Hager wheat and finished that belonging to the Alexanders at noon, July 10, 1874. After enjoying one of Mrs. Alexander's bountiful dinners, Mr. Farmer was walking home. A cloud seemed to be passing over the sun, and soon there were grasshoppers everywhere, a smaller species than we are accustomed to see. They not only destroyed the crops and gardens but feasted on the mosquito-bar covering the windows. They evinced a great fondness for onions, destroying them so completely that nothing was left to tell the tale but the ground holes where they had grown. The air was literally alive with hoppers, so much so that the youngsters went out with barrel staves and beat down the insects. They were so thick on the Burlington track, and the wheels slipped so badly, that the engineer was unable to stop the train at the depot, but when he got the train stopped, he headed to the station.
Grasshoppers were back again to plague the farmers in the 1930's. Although by now the farmers were better equipped to deal with them, they again consumed distressing amounts of the farm products. Many farmers put out poisoned bran, but this did not prove to be very effective. The grasshoppers not only ate grains and gardens, but were known to have chewed on fence posts and even on clothes that were hung out on lines to dry. The problem seemed to solve itself as the drought of the 1930's passed. Since that time, many insecticides have proved to be quite effective.
Blizzards
Of these storms, Miss Elula Smith wrote:
"One of these storms long to be remembered was the Easter storm which began on Sunday, April 13, 1873, and lasted three days. Something which seemed like solid snow commenced falling at daybreak. Snowdrifts covered everything and in some places nearly all the stock froze.
"During one blizzard, Mr. Chris Kobe [a few miles away in York County] had to feed corn to his cattle through a hole in the roof of the barn, and he shoveled in snow to quench their thirst. He had to keep this up for two weeks. [During the storm] he found his way from the barn back to the house only by following a lariat rope.
"Many of us recall the blizzard of January 12, 1888, and have read the story of Minnie Freeman, later Mrs. J. C. Penny, who kept her scholars in a sod house until the roof blew off and then tied them together with strings and took them safely to the home of a settler. She was called the 'Nebraska heroine.'
"In Exeter, it was one of those mild days that often come in January. Many of the children went to school without coats or hats. Mattie Wallace (Crooker) was without a coat or hat; however, Del Van De Venter loaned her his coat. The storm broke right after recess and our parents began arriving to look after us. The older scholars helped to get the younger ones home, so none of the children in town had to remain at the schoolhouse overnight. Belle Alexander was attending school in the district 2 miles E of town. Miss Ada Robinson was the teacher. After the storm commenced, her brother came from town and carried in firewood. One of the older boys took the horses to a farmer's barn. A Scotch neighbor made some scones and another sent cookies. The teacher and scholars remained at the schoolhouse, and several walked home in the morning over the snowdrifts.
"To one person, at least, the storm was a welcome relief. Gertie Barbur (Rasmussen) was attending a country school taught by Nettie Manning. Gertie didn't like the teacher and was often compelled to stand on the floor because of some misbehavior. Such was the case on this particular afternoon. When it commenced to storm, she was allowed to take her seat.
"One mother, southeast of here, perished in her effort to go to the schoolhouse to get her children."
There have been many blizzards since that time, but none that claimed as many lives or caused as much loss of livestock. Nowadays, the hazards of a blizzard cannot compare with those of pioneer days. We have better ways of getting through the snow (though even these are not 100 per cent effective), and we have radio weather forecasts which enable us to anticipate storms and take precautions. Even so, Nebraska blizzards are not to be taken lightly.
Main Street looking south (1937)
Drought
One major hazard in farming country is drought. The two worst in our history were those of 1893 and 1934; statistics are not infallible, but the 1934 drought may have been the worst ever. That year very few farmers had any crops at all, and the next year was not much better. But conditions slowly improved, and the land was green once more. Many became discouraged and moved elsewhere; but the pioneer spirit was still present, and most stayed on and kept trying and survived. | 6cb63d64-e7cd-4157-9726-ef2deb142d2c | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://www.fairmont-nebraska.org/vimages/shared/vnews/stories/5afdabc70b12c/FCS_pages093-124_ExeterTownship.pdf | 2021-05-12T12:04:57+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243989693.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20210512100748-20210512130748-00466.warc.gz | 813,871,737 | 42,669 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997938 | eng_Latn | 0.99928 | [
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Flying Saucers Still Skimming After 21 Years
By William E. Burrows
WASHINGTON.
The flying saucer game has gone into its 21st year. Any number of people can play — regardless of whether they know what they are talking about—and about 5 million have.
The game was started on June 24, 1947, by an Idaho businessman named Kenneth Arnold who, while flying past Mount Rainier in Washington, claimed to have seen nine objects that "flew like a saucer would if you skipped it across water." A reporter described them as "flying saucers," and the name stuck.
The object of the game is to state publicly whether unidentified flying objects (UFOs) exist, and if so, whether they are manned or controlled by intelligent beings from space.
UFOs are defined as flying objects that cannot be rationally accounted for as man-made or natural.
Then "evidence" in the form of UFO sightings is given to support the assertion, and the other sides rebut it. Evidence is the most important word in the game.
Participants may join any of the following sides:
— The undecided, many of whom are scientists, who call for more and better ways of investigating the evidence.
— The believers, who claim that the evidence is overwhelming and that the government is withholding information.
— The doubters, who argue that the evidence is inconclusive and that the government is not withholding information.
— The cultists, who believe that the government is involved in a conspiracy to hide the truth about UFOs.
Photograph, which Ralph Ditter, a Zanesville, Ohio, barber, says he took on Nov. 13, 1966, at his home, shows a typical configuration of an unidentified flying object.
One of the most controversial photos ever taken, originally published by a Cologne, Germany newspaper. Story alleges that two FBI agents are leading a silver-clad occupant of a flying saucer down an American street. No additional information has ever been published.
Seen Saucer?
Scientists Here Ask Phone Call
A group of Pittsburgh scientists, organized to investigate "flying saucers" (UFOs), said yesterday they are geared up and ready to go into action.
They've taken the name "UFO Research Institute," have established a 24-hour answering service, and equipped themselves with geiger counters, tape recorders and cameras.
"Anyone who sees a UFO within 200 miles of Pittsburgh should call us at 391-2766," said Stanton Friedman, a Pittsburgh nuclear physicist and one of several scientists on the Institute's board of directors.
A call to that number, Friedman said, will provide instant contact with a trained scientist who, if the occasion warrants, will head for the location of the UFO sighting immediately — any time of the day or night.
The small moon "spirit" observed in the Astral travels of Emanuel Swedenborg of the 1700's perfectly describes the crewman of a flying saucer or UFO which crash-landed near Mexico City in January, 1952 and is shown above as a corpse on display between two German biochemists. It shows also his approximate size. This is stamped "secret" in the U.S. but the picture was obtained from West Germany. Is this the type of being which might be living in the Moon? Certainly there is a great deal of activity in certain craters of the Moon which shows up to close Lunar observers.
Yet these sightings are in no way different than what has been seen on the Moon for a long, long time - in fact, for..........
For the last hundred years and more responsible observers have verified unusual observations over the world as well as mysterious meteorites have made the headlines of newspapers that the celestial neighbors to the astronauts to the moon, the moon, live phases of activity.
These objects range from bright lights, then random colored lights, to white and jet black spots. Peculiar ripples/lines are seen not only by astronomers, but also they are shown with clarity by the 359 inch telescope of San Pedroman. These strange phenomena that raise the question to within 31 miles of the moon theory about their something is moving along trails for the first time outside of the asteroids. Objects seem to be moving across the Moon during 1948 or using instruments of higher power the surface of the moon have been revealed. Many of the objects crossing the moon are seen to emit a shadow. Lights from the dark portion of the moon have otherwise given.
The very strong hypothesis is put that all of the Lunar and have another reason perhaps less than the meaning possibility that other entities might well have been making them as an experiment since studies long before came through into our own atmosphere via the atmosphere. Observers reference to flying saucers, UFO's or spacecraft appear all have written history from the time of Leonardo da Vinci in 1480 B.C. These might well have been, and could be now, based in the Moon. They might well be from Mars or Venus. More has one month ago, 1964 at its own 9 and 10 miles in diameter, there seems to have "disappeared" 120 miles lights with light signals of its own.
**SOULS CROSSING THE MOON**
*SCIENCE* July 11, 1952. Mr. W. H. Bracke, director of the Smith Observatory, saw a flash caused when a man slowly crosses the moon in two directions. The apparent diameter is 1/100th of the moon is crossed. See illustration three feet across.
Dr. F. R. Schmitt (POPULAR ASTRONOMY) reports on the lunar surface. The moon's surface has been estimated to be 750 miles long and 50 miles wide.
William Schmitt (1894-1951). Your members of today were born by 85. Lunar to cross the moon. Lunar (1972-42) Mueller reports on luminous, number at break spherical bodies.
*POPULAR SCIENCE* 74-112. Serials tells of a shadow that subsides over 11:30 on the Lunar edge. Find the area in right, but note when this region was discovered. The area is the blue region. The light red line end point is not a broken shadow. There are reasons that part of the scene became illuminated and the object was lost to view, but even its shadow underneath was used.
*MONTHLY NOTICE OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY* 74-121. "Moonlike appearance of the moon's face and edge of the moon on 19 March 1951. In the center of the moon's face, a small spot. The moon shows with observation from the moon intensity of the eclipsed lunar disc... rather figured with red and having no pattern with light as if there were not an eclipsed earth."
*POPULAR ASTRONOMY*-Paul Smith of Michigan, Canada, during an eclipse of the sun on August 2, 1948, saw a series of five flashes across the moon and each series in parallel lines.
*ASTRONOMICAL NEWSLETTER*-4-5-52. Fred Schmitt of Europe earlier shot on 3-12-51, 1952, saw an eclipse of each parallel plus that "I do not know what is made of it"... closely resembling the color of the
HOT-AIR BALLOONS, KITES HAVE TRIGGERED UFO REPORTS
Virginia Phelps and S/Sgt. Harold Jones of Blue Book Office
Student Balloons Keep Cities Nervous
By JACK JONES
Daily News Staff Writer
Building flying saucers may never replace a trip to Fort Lauderdale as the favorite spring past time of college students—but there’s some evidence students are turning to UFOs as the weather becomes warmer and there’s an urge to get out and do something different.
They’re not really UFOs. They’re really homemade hot-air balloons, made of plastic and powered by candles.
BUT THEY give rise to plenty of UFO reports—take it from the Air Force investigators of Project Blue Book at Wright-Patterson Air Force base.
Last month at least 15 unidentified flying object reports were traced to the hot-air balloons. Since last December the total is 24.
And there’s no telling how many of them have gone unidentified or reported to local authorities but not to the Air Force.
THE REPORTS have come in from California to New Jersey and many places in between. By some coincidence, many seem to come from college towns, such as Claremont, Calif., Winston-Salem, N.C., Urbana, Ill., Galesburg and Monmouth, Ill., Portland and Corvallis, Ore., Tucson and Tempe, Ariz., and Morgantown, W.Va.
The hot-air balloons generally are similar to one described recently in a published “expose” of flying saucer hoaxes.
They’re made from the plastic bags used by dry cleaners. A framework, usually made from plastic drinking straws, holds the bottom open and supports a small, birthday cake candle.
THE RESULT is a hot-air balloon that not only flies a considerable distance but gives off a ghostly, flickering light on a dark night.
Once in a while, like out in Portland, Ore., they set somebody’s house on fire.
The Blue Book office recently acquired several examples of the plastic balloons as well as another kind of UFO. This was a red plastic kite, equipped with a battery-powered light bulb. Police found it near Galesburg, Ill., after a rash of flying saucer reports in the Quad Cities area.
Early in the Spring of 1949
Almost 16 years ago an unidentified flying object landed on a ranch near Aztec, Mexico. The thirty-six foot saucer one member of the two-man crew was found lying dead across the sill of the door which he had apparently opened on landing. Death seemed to have been caused by the "Bends" that affliction which has agonized deep-sea divers and upper stratosphere flyers in the past when they moved suddenly from one air pressure area to a greatly different one. The other spaceman was dead by the ship's instrument panel.
Within three hours scientists from Denver were on the scene and shortly transported, marked as "ammunition" on army trucks to Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
What did the scientists find out? The saucer was propelled by electromagnetic power and traveled at the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second.
The photo below is one of the "little men."
27 inch man purportedly captured, early 1950, after flying saucer landed near Mexico City.
The believers, who think UFOs are from out of this world, but admit a lack of concrete proof.
**Friend or Foe?**
—The cultists, who call themselves “scientific UFOlogists,” and not only insist that UFOs are intelligently controlled by beings from space, but in many instances they have communicated with the spacemen and have gone for rides in their vehicles (which come in a variety of shapes, including saucers, cylinders, balls and cones). This group subdivides into those who think the spacemen are friendly to earth. And those who think they mean us harm and constitute a menace.
—The doubters, who think UFOs are really either man-made (balloons, satellites, planes, rockets), natural (comets, planets, clouds, birds, ball lightning, meteors), or products of pure imagination or illusion.
The cultists are the most vociferous players and the most publicity seeking. They play with religious fanaticism, and even trace visits by space creatures to the Bible. Lot, for example, could not have eaten with angels because angels are spiritual. Lot, the cultists insist, broke bread with members of an intergalactic expedition.
This infuriates the calmer believers who retort, somewhat self-righteously, that cultists are “fools,” “fast-duck artists,” and “hoaxers.”
The believers have formed into two main groups: the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization in Tucson, which publishes a journal of sightings called the APRO Bulletin, and the National Investigation Committee on Aerial Phenomena (NICAP) in Washington, which puts out a similar bimonthly publication called the UFO Investigator. There are hundreds of smaller groups around the world, most putting out their own less ambitious, but often more spectacular journals.
NICAP, which claims a world-wide membership of 13,000 people, is headquartered in a third-floor suite in northwest Washington.
There, a staff of 10 persons updates files bulging with thousands of sighting reports, answers queries, stores hundreds of books, periodicals and assorted works by the cultists, and plots recent sightings by sticking red thumb tacks in a large map of the United States.
NICAP says many of the reports in its files have been checked out by about 30 subcommittees around the country staffed by scientists, engineers, technicians and other “reliable” people working on a voluntary basis.
In 1984, NICAP published hundreds of its best sightings in a 184-page book called “The UFO Evidence,” which concluded that UFOs are “vehicles of extraterrestrial origin, controlled by intelligent beings from one or more planets in or beyond our solar system.”
Dr. J. Allen Hynek, head of Northwestern University’s Astronomy Department and an Air Force UFO consultant for 18 years, says he has never seen a UFO, but “too many reliable people have seen them to dismiss the phenomenon.” Reliable witnesses are everything, the astronomer says.
While no well-known astronomer claims to have seen a UFO, Prof. James McDonald, of the University of Arizona’s Department of Meteorology, says there now are so many “credible” reports that they “must be given extremely serious scientific attention.” Hynek agrees wholeheartedly.
So does NICAP, which is why, they say, much of their time is spent checking out witnesses and debunking reports and photographs made by hoaxers and the mentally unbalanced. And that is why NICAP makes a fetish out of mentioning the scientists, engineers, technicians and other “reliable” persons on its subcommittees who make and examine reports.
**Pilots’ Favorites**
Everyone’s favorite witness, however, is the professional pilot, who is trained for and works in the sky. He has built-in credibility. Pilot reports of near misses with UFOs, or of violent, buffeting attacks on their planes, are taken as gospel.
But seldom, if ever, do the reports mention the kind of aerial optical illusions that cause startled pilots to maneuver violently to avoid hitting other planes that seem just beyond the cockpit, when actually, they may be more than a mile away.
And rarely do pilots’ reports of buffeting attacks take account of CAT (Clear Air Turbulence), which does not appear on radar, but which is strong enough to tear the four-story-high tail off a B-52 jet bomber as if it were tinfoil, as happened a few years ago. Flaps also have been reported in South America, Australia, Central Europe, and the Northeastern and Central United States.
And sightings, by the way, have been recorded on and off since the 18th century, but not as saucers.
Through last year, the Air Force investigated 11,108 sighting reports and determined that 676 of them could not be traced to rational causes. Believers suspect that the number of UFOs is actually far greater, because the project has been manned only by a major, a sergeant and a secretary not up to the enormous task of a thorough investigation.
Believers and cultists also charge the Air Force with fabricating “preposterous” explanations for some sightings. A typical example, NICAP says, was telling a witness that he had seen four stars from the constellation Orion, rather than a UFO, when checking a stellar chart would have shown that Orion was on the other side of the earth when the sighting was made.
The cultists accuse the Air Force, and every other governmental agency in the world, which they collectively call “officialdom,” of plotting to keep the “facts” from the public to avoid panic.
So the Air Force, out of apparent exasperation, last year awarded a $300,000 contract to the University of Colorado to conduct its own investigation under the direction of Dr. Edward U. Condon, former director of the National Bureau of Standards. The Colorado report is due early next year.
**Ruled No Threat**
Meanwhile, the Air Force insists that “there appears to be no verified and fully satisfactory evidence of any case that is clearly outside the framework of presently known science and technology.” In other words, there is no threat to national security, the Air Force says.
UFOs, says a psychiatrist, are really people who need to feel important or who must compensate for their weaknesses by belief in beings superior to themselves. Being “experts” or something with scientific connotations makes them more potent, he adds.
Flaming Objects Seen by Many Traced to a Soviet Space Shot
By WALTER SULLIVAN
At about 9:45 P.M. Eastern Standard Time on March 3, a woman in Indiana looked out a window and saw a procession of fiery objects fly past in the sky.
"Two or three minutes later," she reported to the United States Air Force the next day, "my cousin, my aunt and my uncle came running into the house and yelling and trying to tell me about the U.F.O. [unidentified flying object] they saw.
"It was at about treetop level and was seen very clearly and was just a few yards away," she continued. "All of the observers saw a long jet airplane looking vehicle without any wings. It was on fire both in front and behind. All observers also saw many windows in the U.F.O."
A woman in Ohio told how her dog, when the U.F.O. passed over, had lain between trash cans in her driveway and whimpered, "like she was frightened to death."
The woman, although she had slept 10 hours the night before, said she had had "an overpowering drive to sleep." She had the same experience after seeing a U.F.O. in 1966.
In Tennessee, a woman reported seeing a craft with rather square windows and what seemed to be a riveted metal fuselage. The absence of sound terrified her, since she believed the vehicle to be only 1,000 feet overhead.
What she and the other witnesses saw, the Air Force believes, was the re-entry into the atmosphere of the booster rocket, or other launching components, of Zond 4, a space vehicle launched from the Soviet Union the day before. A study of Air Force files in Ohio has shown it to be one of the most thoroughly documented — and revealing — U.F.O. episodes to date.
Moscow announced on March 3 that Zond 4 had been placed in a parking orbit until it would be in the proper position for launching into "outlying regions of near-earth space."
Some thought its task was to photograph the moon and return to earth, but apparently the mission was unsuccessful.
Yesterday the North American Air Defense Command confirmed its assessment that the fiery objects seen over the Eastern United States were debris from the Zond 4 launching. Meanwhile, the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization, which has been tracking the sightings, is continuing its investigation.
Continued on Page 10, Column 1
ANN ARBOR, Mich. (UPI)—At least 12 policemen and 40 other persons said Monday they watched a weird flying object, guarded by four sister ships, land in a swamp near here Sunday night.
Descriptions of the unidentified flying objects tallied closely. Patrolman Robert Hunawill said he and other residents of the area saw similar craft before dawn last Monday and Wednesday.
In Washington, the Air Force said it knew nothing of the reports. The Air Force’s Michigan headquarters in Battle Creek, central point for radar systems throughout the state, would not talk to newsmen.
A United Press International reporter and Donald Merkel, 18, son-in-law of a man who claimed he saw the object and drew a picture of it, donned hip boots and slogged through the 300-acre swamp Monday looking for traces of the craft.
They found nothing but marsh grass, quicksand and muck. However, the two persons who reportedly were closest to the object, Frank Mannor, 47, and his son, Ronald, 19, said it did not appear to touch the ground but sat on a base of fog.
Frederick E. Davids, State Police commissioner and head of Civil Defense for Michigan, launched an investigation.
“I used to discount these reports too but now I’m not so sure,” Davids said.
Mannor and son said they ran to within 500 yards of the object as it sat on the fog-shrouded base in a big swamp about 12 miles northwest of here.
Mannor said the craft was shaped like a football and was about the length of a car with a “grayish yellow” hue and a pitted surface “like coral rock.” It had a blue light on one end and a white light on the other, he said.
“They were pulsating and each of them looked like they had a little halo around it,” Mannor said.
Other witnesses saw only the lights but their descriptions, including those of policemen, tallied closely with that of the Mannors. Robert Taylor, police chief of Dexter, a small village near here, said he watched the object on the ground from the Mannor home.
“I saw a red glow down in the swamp,” Taylor said. “It was a pulsating bright red and then it grew dimmer. I put the binoculars on it and saw that there was a light on each end of the thing.”
Mannor said the object took off with a sound like the echo of a ricocheting bullet when his son broke the silence by saying, “Look at that horrible thing!”
Stanley McFadden, Washtenaw County sheriff’s deputy, said he and Deputy David Fitzpatrick watched the object zip over their car about the same time the Mannors reported its takeoff.
Other witnesses said the object flew over the Mannor house after taking off.
Hunawill said four other unidentified flying objects hovered in a quarter-circle over the object in the swamp. When it took off, they vanished with it, he said.
Six police cars and a helicopter searched for the objects vanished from sight. McFadden, Fitzpatrick said, they saw the object, but no more of the object.
Flying Saucer Is Traced to Space Shot by Soviet
Continued From Page 1, Col. 3
nomenon Office of the Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio had assembled some 70 eyewitness accounts of the episode.
A study of this file illustrates the excitement that grips some observers when confronted with a U.F.O. However, it also shows that others, such as airline pilots, can help reconstruct what actually happened, particularly when their reports are sufficiently numerous to weed out these that are misleading.
Included in the file are reports from an Eastern Airline pilot over Connecticut, a United Airlines flight over Indiana, an American Airlines plane over Pennsylvania, a Piedmont Airlines pilot over Virginia and an Air Canada pilot north of Toronto.
Their in-flight reports led the air traffic control centers of the Federal Aviation Agency in Indianapolis and New York to search their radar scopes, but no unidentified objects below 60,000 feet could be detected.
At least two of those reporting to the Air Force guessed that they had witnessed the re-entry of a spacecraft. Most pilots, however, were perplexed by what seemed a formation flight of several vehicles. Most also thought the strange craft were only a few thousand feet above them, instead of near the fringes of space.
A 98-Cent Bargain
Such a "formation flying" seems typical of unplanned re-entries. Yesterday, satellite trackers at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Mass., recalled what they refer to as the "Milwaukee Miracle." Early on Sept. 5, 1962, one of its Moonwatch Aerial Phenomenon Office in Ohio, believes from the reports on file that the debris passed over Lexington, Ky., and Pittsburgh, Pa. Any surviving fragments, according to his estimate, fell near the Pennsylvania-New York line.
Further Clues Sought
His office has been phoning police barracks throughout the suspected impact area in a search for further clues. However, specialists at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory doubt that scraps like those that fell in Wisconsin will be found in that area, much of which is forested.
A number of the reports on this episode came from motorists, including business executives and other well-educated observers. Several ruled out a meteorite plunge on the ground that the object changed course in mid-flight. This may have been an illusion caused by motion of the observer.
Almost all were impressed by the silence of the flight, but one man reported a sound like that of a tin sheet being thrown, a scientific point of view.
U.F.O. Reports Decline
Despite the March flurry, a puzzling aspect of the U.F.O. situation, according to Colonel Quintanilla, is the sharp decline in reports of sightings this year. They are reaching the Air Force at roughly one-quarter the monthly rate of a year earlier. In Washington yesterday, the headquarters of the National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena said that it, too, had seen a sharp decline from a year ago. There was also a slight drop from 1966 to 1967.
In 1966, several much-publicized U.F.O. episodes in Michigan and elsewhere apparently stimulated further reports. As of last weekend the Air Force had received 156 reports since Jan. 1. Of these 21 were attributed to planets or other astronomical objects, 19 to aircraft, 10 to balloons, 8 to earth satellites and 22 to other known causes. There are 35 cases pending and 41 that have not yet been identified.
A University of Colorado study of the U.F.O. phenomenon, directed by Dr. Edward U. Condon, is being drafted and should be released by the end of this year. It is an attempt to assess the phenomenon from a scientific point of view.
SPRING AND UFO COME TO MICHIGAN
40 Others Sight Weird 'Saucers'
—At least 12 policemen said Monday they saw an unidentified object, guarded by four other craft, in a swamp near here Sunday night.
The unidentified flying objects were seen by 60 people, Robert Hunawill said Monday. He said the area saw similar sightings on Tuesday and Wednesday.
The Air Force said it knew nothing about the Air Force's Michigan test range, a 50-mile trek, central point for military activity in the state, would not be involved.
A national reporter and photographer saw a drawing of a man who was killed in the swamp and drew a picture of the object. The man slogged through the swamp looking for traces of his son.
The marsh grass, quicksand and mud trapped two persons who, reported the object, Frank Mannor, 38, and his son, 19, said it did not fly but sat on a base in a big swamp about 12 miles northwest of here.
Mannor said the craft was shaped like a football and was about the length of a car with a "grayish yellow" hue and a pitted surface "like coral rock." It had a blue light on one end and a white light on the other, he said.
"They were pulsating and each of them looked like they had a little halo around it," Mannor said.
Other witnesses saw only the lights but their descriptions, including those of policemen, tallied closely with that of the Mannors. Robert Taylor, police chief of Dexter, a small village near here, said he watched the object on the ground from the Mannor home.
"I saw a red glow down in the swamp," Taylor said. "It was a pulsating bright red and then it grew dimmer. I put the binoculars on it and saw that there was a light on each end of the thing."
Mannor said the object took off with a sound like the echo of a ricocheting bullet when his son broke the silence by saying, "Look at that horrible thing!"
Stanley McFadden, Washtenaw County sheriff's deputy, said he and Deputy David Fitzpatrick watched the object zip over their car about the same time the Mannors reported its takeoff.
Other witnesses said the object flew over the Mannor house after taking off.
Hunawill said four other unidentified flying objects hovered in a quarter-circle over the object in the swamp. When it took off, they vanished with it, he said.
MICHIGAN SHERIFF'S DRAWING OF MYSTERIOUS UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECT
Sketch depicts football shape, placement of lights and an antenna-like object.
Six police cars chased the formation but the objects vanished.
McFadden, Fitzpatrick and Mrs. Mannor said they saw the object rise from the swamp to tree-top level, than sink again, apparently to land.
McFadden said at least 60 persons saw one or more of the objects in the air or on the ground.
FLYING OBJECTS — These three blobs are flying saucers, according to Francis Geary, a high school photography student, who said he took this photo at Big Sur last year. He turned the photos over to Louis Peresenyi, Monterey High School football coach, who also thinks these are saucers.
SAUCER? — Francis Geary of Seaside, a high school photography student, reportedly took this picture of what he feels is a flying saucer at Big Sur a year ago. Young Geary said he thought the diameter of the object may have been more than 200 feet.
It began on June 24, 1947.
A civilian pilot, Kenneth Arnold, took off in his own plane from a field at Chehalis, Washington, bound for Yakima. The time was about two in the afternoon.
Arnold's flight plan took him in the direction of Mount Rainier. In the bright afternoon sky, he suddenly spotted nine strange objects flying in a diagonal chain-like formation.
Geese?
Jet aircraft?
He watched them, calculated their speed, concluded it must be at least 1600 m.p.h.—.
That night, on the ground, Arnold talked to authorities. He was certain he'd seen something besides a mirage. What, exactly, he didn't know (nor does he today, according to published reports; nor does the Air Force, for certain — the Arnold sighting remains a part of the small percent of Unidentifieds).
In describing the objects, Arnold likened their appearance and mode of travel to saucers skipped across smooth water.
Saucers?
Flying saucers.
The identity of the newsman who made up the term is lost, but the term has been around ever since.
And so have the saucers, if you want to call them that; or the UFO's or aerial phenomena if you want to be more exact.
Commercial pilots have seen them. Barbers have seen them. Co-eds, social workers and nuts have seen them. Some members of the nut fringe have even "gone aboard" and tooted off to this or that planet. One such "contactee" made quite a few dollars from books which contained fakey smudged photos of something that looked like a 1920 dining room ceiling light fixture. The contactee asserted that he rode aboard this "craft" and even ate lunch in a New York City short-order joint with two of the splendid, intelligent, benevolent interstellar pilots, each of whom ate a peanut butter sandwich and drank a Coke.
From Arnold to the Lubbock Lights—from the things that appeared visually and on radar over Washington, D.C. in 1952 and threw the public, with some help from the enthusiastic press, into a panic, to the bloody light falling whatever—it—was at Exeter, New Hampshire in '65—from the Michigan swamp-gas business in 1966 to a picture that was probably in the paper yesterday or will be next week...the UFO phenomenon has proved irresistibly intriguing to Americans.
Some interpret the lights, silver cigars, jet-propelled gravy boats and other aerial doodads, as evidence of visitation of the Earth by survey teams or scouts from some far-advanced, faraway star civilization.
Some, as noted, claim to have met the saucer crews. Psychologists point out that perhaps the star-creatures who step from these ships and speak to the "contactees" in the Mojave Desert or some other godforsaken place are God substitutes, pseudo-religious creations rising from the smoke of the subconscious of whoever sees them. The cause of such visions may be the cosmological confusion that has arisen as science relentlessly strikes down old belief after old belief.
Sort of a sub-group, a few degrees to one side of the "contactees" but with some overlapping too, is made up of the civilian "investigators" and other UFO cultists who are not only convinced that we are being watched, but that the U.S. Government, from the Pentagon on down, is lying to us, muzzling the authorities, keeping the "news" or the "truth" under wraps for heaven knows what reason—the view, in other words, being that we have already been contacted. An alternate theory of theirs: we are building super-secret saucer craft but for one reason and another the public is too dumb to be let in on it.
This popular Conspiracy-of-Silence idea rises vigorously every time there's a rise in the incidence of sightings, and is just as vigorously denied in high places every time.
The Lights In The Sky—Are What? continued
Some other people, somewhat more reasonably, acknowledge the existence of the lights, cigars, flying plates, *et al.*, don't know what they are and would like to find out.
A still smaller group holds much the same idea as above, modified as follows: most, if not all of the sightings can be logically explained, and should be, first in the interest of national security, second in the interest of satisfying scientific curiosity.
Place in this last group Project Blue Book at Wright Field, Dayton.
It operates from a small but comfortable office in Building 275. Star-charts brighten the walls. A small green ceramic elf sits on the edge of a large ashtray on a desk beside a neat white sign reading, *Hector Quintanilla, Jr., major, USAF*.
The man behind the desk is the man who runs Blue Book these days. With his gray-framed glasses and direct brown eyes and a quiet voice, you imagine comes in part from his Spanish heritage, he looks a bit more the scientist than the career officer.
In fact he is both, being a physicist trained at St. Mary's University in San Antonio.* Major Quintanilla has been a member of the Air Force for 18 years. He has headed up Blue Book for the past 43 months.
On his staff are a metallurgist (Lt. William Marley), a non-commissioned officer who handles administrative duties (S/Sgt. Harold Jones), and two women who type and do the things that need to be done in an office.
Just five against a whole host of alien invaders? Alarming!
Isn't it?
No, because, as the major explains it, the lights in the sky usually have a comprehensible cause. The cause can be determined by detective work. It is the job of Blue Book to do just that, as scientifically and objectively as possible.
The major likes to define his terms, too.
The Air Force puts no faith in *flying saucers*. This is a press term, remember, and should be equated only with stories of discs that land someplace carrying purple humanoids who speak exclusively to lonely souls in some desert, but never to the President or Congress or any group, and then fly off again, the pilots presumably munching peanut butter sandwiches. *Saucers* are fiction; there is simply no proof.
But the Air Force does recognize and believe in the existence of the UFO's. That is, *unidentified* flying objects. The things seen, heard and reported, whether they be lights, silver cigars, supersonic bullets or sky-diving meat platters.
It is the job of Major Quintanilla and his group to find out, if possible, what the sky-diving meat platter that someone probably saw really was. Blue Book strives to transform the U in UFO to I. for *identified*.
The Air Force got interested in the matter in the first place back in '47 after the Arnold sightings. The Air Corps, as it was known then, felt there was enough substance in sightings to warrant the study, particularly from the angle of a potential threat to national security.
A policy letter issued in December, 1947 by General Nathan Twining asked the old Air Materiel Command at WPAFB to make a detailed study under a classification of Restricted and the code name *Sign*.
The study concluded that the phenomenon did not present a threat to security, but was worth further study. The project was continued under the code name *Grudge*. Its classification remained Restricted. Finally, in 1952, the project's classification was removed and a nickname (as opposed to a code name for classified work) chosen. Blue Book has operated under that nickname ever since.
Over the years, techniques for gathering and evaluating information have been refined, and the range of scientific disciplines involved in investigation broadened.
Today, a UFO investigating officer is stationed at every Air Force base in the U.S. It is his duty to look into sightings in his area and relay information to Major Quintanilla's section. The major often does additional field investigation himself if the case warrants.
All project records are here. Major Quintanilla presses a button beside a rectangular opening in one wall. There's a motor sound and tiers of vertical files on a kind of dumb-waiter rise past the opening. The index tabs read all the way back to June, 1947.
The major tells you that this is the only place within the governmental structure where this information is kept. Further, the files are permanent. They are not destroyed after three years, as is the case with many official records. Rising up past the opening on those shelves are 20 years of things in the sky, each incident neatly foldered and labeled.
In all, the shelves contain records of more than 11,000 sightings which have been reported and investigated since the day Arnold took off for Yakima.
Often the detectives can find explanation of a sighting in some of the official data which flows regularly into the major's office.
Among other things, *Blue Book* keeps track of all the satellites orbited by the U.S. and other countries. It monitors dates and times of all missile launchings from the East coast, the West coast, from Polaris subs undersea, etc. It receives top-level meteorological data on conditions all over the country.
From such material, a UFO can be revealed as, let's say, a weather condition (temperature inversions can bollax radar, as in Washington, D. C. in '52): or a satellite breaking up and burning up part by part in the atmosphere.
Here, by way of example, is Blue Book's tabulation of causes for 1966 (a busy year: only 1952 had more sightings) —
| Causes | No. of Sightings |
|-----------------|------------------|
| Astronomical | 255 |
| Aircraft | 270 |
| Balloon | 32 |
| Insufficient Data | 242 |
| Other | 94 |
| Satellite | 109 |
| Unidentified | 30 |
| Pending | 28 |
| TOTAL | 1060 |
In the "Other" category are lumped such diverse causes of optical misinterpretation as *Missiles/Rockets; Flares/Fireworks; Clouds/Contrails* and a *Miscellaneous* that includes such tan-
Michigan brothers claim they took a picture of a UFO behind their home on Lake St. Clair. This drawing is based on their widely published photograph.
talizing footnotes as *lighthouse* and *blimp*. There's a *Hoaxes* entry too: people have tried to trick up photos to deliberately fool the experts in the past.
Blue Book prepares an annual summary of its findings. This is customarily done in February.
And over the years, roughly 5 percent of all sightings have remained classed as *Unidentified*. The Air Force does not go further. That is, the Air Force does not publicly speculate on what these sightings might have been, certain only that the total range of sightings represents no security threat.
That is the primary job anyway, seeing to security, and Blue Book gets it done.
Still, the 5 percent is tantalizing.
To shed more light, Blue Book utilizes not only all of the Air Force resources at WPAFB, of which Major Quintanilla is justifiably proud, but also the services of outside consultants.
The principal one is astrophysicist J. Allen Hynek of Northwestern. Dr. Hynek, he of the highly photographable beard, leaped to national prominence last year when the TV cameras ground away at the Detroit Press Club and reporters rushed into print with Dr. Hynek's explanation of the Michigan sightings—swamp gas.
Quite soon after, it might be noted parenthetically, another rash of sightings popped out. The major says that the sighting reports always increase sharply the moment the press gets hold of one good story and gives it national play. These sightings are relayed to UFO officers at various bases: to the Dayton base; even to Major Quintanilla himself, unfortunately on his home phone at wild hours of the night.
It happened that way again after Michigan, though the major seems philosophic about it, smiling as if to say people are people and it's his job to listen to everyone. He emphasizes that. The Air Force listens to everyone.
In pursuit of further knowledge—and probably to help bury the ghost of the Conspiracy-of-Silence theory as deeply as possible—the office of the Secretary of the Air Force last year granted slightly more than $300,000 to the University of Colorado.
The money is to be used for an independent study of UFO's. Underway since November, the study is headed by noted physicist Dr. Edward Condon. At the end of about 15 months, Colorado will write a report for the USAF.
Major Quintanilla stresses that Dr. Condon and his researchers will get any information and records for which they ask and are free to call upon academicians of any discipline they feel is relevant.
It's an odd way to go about a study, to say the least, if, as some do maintain, the Air Force is murkily at work trying to hide something from us.
Asked to define the purpose of the study, Major Quintanilla replies, "Simply to answer this question a little more clearly—what *are* we experiencing? Most stimuli can be explained. Not all. We hope the Colorado conclusions will offer some suggestions, and will be accepted by the scientific community and the American people."
So the UFO watch goes on from Dayton—
"It's a fine place for this operation," says the major. "Within the Wright-Patterson complex are the best facilities you could want . . ." He ticks them off. "Photo interpretation. One of the best radar analysis complexes in the world. The Air Force Materiel lab right over there to run spectros, chemical analyses. All of the scientific disciplines are available here, every one. You name it, we've got it." He adds, "Maybe this was one of the big reasons the project was placed in Dayton in the first place, and has stayed here."
What *are* we experiencing?
Using this area's formidable concentration of skills and brainpower, Project Blue Book asks the question, and will continue to ask it, presumably until the time when even the 5 per cent Unidentified disappears, and we know. «
*Local note: Like U.D., St. Mary's is operated by the brothers of the Society of Mary.*
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Editorial
Introducing Pulse Notation
Dave Dargie
Understanding African Music
Mandy Carver
The Nature and Scope of African Marimba Playing
Patience Musandirire
Publications and DVDs
Editorial
A significant aspect of music-making in Africa, so often commented on by overseas visitors, is how music skills are acquired so easily through the informal learning experience of community life. In contrast, many in the "Western world" struggle to attain music skills despite the many formal educational opportunities available. One example is when David McAllester, well-known American ethnomusicologist and educator, visited the Venda in South Africa, he was astonished to discover that musical performance is for all people in Venda. He wrote in *Becoming Human through Music*, that "this is a staggering discovery for a music teacher in our civilization which is obviously "advanced", but where we worry about the high proportion of people who ... are paralysed musically".
Dave Dargie's article, "Introducing Pulse Notation", furthers our understanding of this unique feature of African music. Dave is a long time contributor and supporter of *The Talking Drum* (TTD). His research has opened many doors for educators keen to draw on aspects of music making in Africa.
Mandy Carver's article: "Understanding African Music" is drawn from her recent publication of the same name. The source for her material is the ILAM (International Library of African Music). In the words of Diane Thram, the editor, "One of Hugh Tracey's concerns was that the changes brought by modernization and urbanization that accompanied the colonization of Africa would, over time, cause the music he was recording to disappear. To this end he believed that it was imperative to provide material for African music education in the schools. With the publication of Understanding African Music, the ILAM Music Heritage Project SA is providing practical materials for contemporary curricula that pay attention to African musical values and systems of organization. It is providing music teachers and students and any other users of this book with a listening and visual experience that is sure to increase their knowledge of African music and at the same time enrich their lives." Hugh Tracey initiated this, and Mandy Carver is realizing and serving the cause of African music in the schools. Andrew Tracey's generosity with his knowledge and his enthusiasm as a teacher and his publications contributed to her work. This unique publication should be in every school. See page 12 to order a copy. South Africa is fortunate that the legacy of Hugh Tracey continues and is preserved at the ILAM, a rich depository of African music. TTD is only one of many beneficiaries.
Finally, from Patience Musandirire comes "Marimba Playing Technique". He is an active member of PASMAE (Pan African Society for Musical Arts Education) with an interest in African marimba playing techniques, the nature and scope of African music, African drumming, and musical arts education. Currently he works in Orapa, Botswana as a musical arts education teacher and consultant of African musical arts in marimbas, where he runs an annual marimba festival for private schools in northern Botswana, hosted by Livingstone House School in Orapa.
In the last editorial I said we may have only one issue in 2013. If, however, there are sufficient submissions for a second issue, this will appear in December, but if not, then this is the only issue for 2013, our twentieth year.
Elizabeth Oehrle
*The Talking Drum wishes to thank the Bartel Arts Trust for their generous support.*
Introducing Pulse Notation
© Dave Dargie, University of Fort Hare
1. Introducing Pulse Notation
1.1. Pulse notation is a way of transcribing music which uses more than one rhythm system at the same time. It is especially useful in transcribing cross-rhythm, in which one rhythm system is based on duple beat patterns (beat patterns using multiples of two beats) and another rhythm system uses triplet beat patterns moving simultaneously with the duple pattern(s). Such a system can be referred to loosely as a “2-vs-3” combined pattern.
Hugh Tracey, Ethnomusicologist in the field c. 1950.
© ILAM—photo used with permission.
1.1.1. Cross-rhythm therefore means rhythm which uses rhythm patterns of “2-vs-3” or “3-vs-2” beats simultaneously.
1.1.2. Derived cross-rhythms. The way cross-rhythm is used in much African music may include very complex derived cross-rhythms. In Thembu Xhosa music, for example, one finds patterns of 4-vs-3, 10-vs-8, 12-vs-13 and other complex patterns. The pattern of 10-vs-8 occurs because of alterations to original beat patterns by equalisation of beats. The 10 beat pattern may be derived from an original 12 beat pattern in the following way. Suppose that sung syllables are placed on only 10 of the original twelve beats. Instead of two sung syllables each being stretched over two beats, the beats are adjusted so that 10 equal beats now fit into the “space” of the original 12 beats. In this way the singers have equalised each sung tone.
If the song is sung using the original 12 beat pattern, the singers clap 8 beats “against” the 12 sung beats. This rhythm of 12-vs-8 is simply the cross-rhythm pattern 3-vs-2 sung four times. When the original 12 beats are equalised to 10, the new 10 beat pattern still fits exactly with the 8 beat clapping pattern used by the singers. This is a typical Thembu practice which gives great impetus and power to the song, while at the same time creating a problem for the analysts. Even when the analyst has worked out what is happening in the music, it is clearly not easy to transcribe a cross-rhythm of 10-vs-8 beats using normal notation. Pulse notation offers a way of writing out such music much more easily.
1.1.3. Other ways of disguising rhythm. For a long time musicologists were not able to analyse Xhosa rhythm. This was in part because of the use of cross-rhythm and equalisation of beats mentioned in the previous section 1.1.2, but also because Xhosa musicians use other methods of rhythmic disguise. One extremely effective way of disguising rhythm used in Thembu Xhosa music is rhythmic delay. When such delay is used, then singers may clap or dance on beats which fall after the voice beats. The way they do this is to use a different rhythm system for body movement from the system for the voice beats. The main difference is that the voice beats and the body movement beats have different main beats. Typically, body movement main beats fall a very rapid pulse after one of the voice beats (not necessarily a voice main beat). The rapid pulse system separating the two beat systems is typically rapid triplets. In addition, it may happen in some songs that clapping beats and foot beats do not coincide.
All this means that it is not at all easy to transcribe Thembu Xhosa and other similar music. If one observes Thembu singers, even very young children, performing a song, what they are doing may seem very easy and natural. But when one tries to imitate them, one may find it is anything but easy to do so correctly. Because such singers are well used to using their rhythm systems, they can slot into such rhythms in a very natural way, without any bother of writing out their music. But for outsiders trying to understand what is happening, it is often necessary to find a way of first writing out the music correctly in order to be able to study it. For this, pulse notation is a very useful tool: not primarily to learn to perform the songs, but in order to understand and analyse them.
2. Introducing Pulse Notation
To illustrate pulse notation, the very well-known Xhosa “Click Song”, Iggirha lendlela nguQongqothwane, is useful. Here a traditional version of the song is used, not the popular version which alters the traditional original in a jazz or popular way.
The “Click Song” is a cyclic song. This means that the song is based on a cycle of beats and a harmony pattern linked to the beats. This beat and harmony cycle is sung over and over
again. The melodies used all fit into the basic rhythm and harmony pattern of the cycle. So to transcribe the song we use a basic score pattern showing this cycle, which is 8 main beats. The singers sing a rhythm pattern of $8 \times 3$ beats, making 24 beats in all. To reflect the pattern of the cycle, one can construct a representative grid. The five clef lines represent the pitches of the notes in the usual way. But vertical lines are drawn over the clef lines to represent the beats. Thick lines may represent main beats, thin lines represent beats carrying less emphasis.
**Call-and-response form.**
Traditional Xhosa songs typically use call-and-response form. There is a song leader (or leaders) who sing the “call”, the leader part, and the follower(s) sing the response. The leader and follower parts may or may not overlap, and there are typically a number of follower parts. These follower parts may be parts all singing the same text at the same time at different pitch levels. This creates a system of parallel harmony. But different followers may also use parts which do not use the same text, and which overlap (i.e., start at different points of the cycle, so that a part begins before another part has completed its cycle). In writing the various parts into the score in the grid lay-out, if the cycle can fit into one line across the page, then one line should be allocated to each sung part, whether a leader or a follower part. The idea then is that a singer singing that particular part will start at a designated point of the line, sing to the end of the line and continue again from the beginning of the same line.
**Building a complex whole from simple elements.**
The “Click Song” uses a typically Xhosa simple melody. Many Xhosa songs become complex by weaving a number of simple elements into a complex whole. These elements include polyphonic parts and harmony parts (using the Xhosa system of parallel harmony). They include using more than one rhythm system simultaneously. Our transcription will need to show all of this in a clear way. So each part, leader or follower, must be allocated its own line. Harmony parts may either be written on a separate line running next to the main melody line, or, if there is enough space, the harmony parts may be written on the same line as the melody being harmonised.
**Scale, harmony and melody.**
The “Click Song” uses the Xhosa hexatonic (six note) scale, written here as F-G-A-B-C-D. This scale comes from the musical bows used by the Xhosa, especially the *uhadi* calabash bow, which has been used by the Xhosa people for hundreds of years. The “Click Song” is also noted for using the Xhosa harmony system, two major chords a whole tone apart. This harmony also comes from the musical bows. In this transcription the chords will be written as F major (F-A-C) and G major (G-B-D).
The melody of this song is both simple and typically African, with phrases beginning high and falling to their end. The song uses two sets of text lines and two melodies. It will be seen that the two melodies are harmonic parallels of each other.
**Singing with the *uhadi* bow.**
The “Click Song” is popular with bow players. For our example an *uhadi* bow version by the noted Xhosa musician, Mrs Nofinishi Dywili (d. 2002) is used. Recordings of this song, performed by Nofinishi Dywili, are included on the CD “Songs of Nofinishi Dywili no 1: solo bow songs”, and on the DVD “Performance at the Home of Nofinishi Dywili” (Nofinishi Dywili with the Ngqoko Group). Both CD and DVD were recorded by D. Dargie, and copies of the recordings may be obtained from the International Library of African Music (ILAM) at Rhodes University in Grahamstown, or from the author. The transcription will reflect both a solo and a group version of the song.
Here now are transcriptions of the “Click Song”, using both normal notation and pulse notation, to demonstrate a system of pulse notation.
2.1. The Melody of the “Click Song” in normal notation.
The melody of the “Click Song” is composed of both leader part and follower part. When one person sings the song, leader and follower parts may be joined into one melody, as shown in Example 1.
Example 1: The Melody of the “Click Song” in normal staff notation.
2.2. The same melody as in example 1, in pulse notation.
A grid has been constructed by drawing vertical lines across the clef. Care has been taken to lay out the score so that at a glance the score reader may see what beats are equal and where the beats fall into the rhythm scheme. When a note is held over more than one beat, this is indicated by a line drawn from the note across the next beat line(s). When the sound stops, nothing is written on the beat line when the singer is silent. Rests, note tails and flags are not used. This is how the melody line of the “Click Song” looks in pulse notation. Compare this with example 1. Note that the singer begins after the double bar near the end of the line; this beginning note is also written, for clarity, in brackets at the beginning of the line. The main beats are represented by thick lines, the other beats by thinner lines. In this way it is intended to make the rhythm of the song immediately “visible” without having to decipher tails and flags (or dots) appended to the notes.
Example 2: The melody of the “Click Song” in pulse notation.
2.3. Nofinishi Dywili’s uhadi version of the Click Song melody, and use of pulse delay.
Nofinishi was seldom satisfied to play a song without adding some “salt” or “spice” through the rhythm. She often made use of “dotted rhythms”, as shown in the transcription of her bow version of the “Click Song”.
Example 3: The melody of the “Click Song” as played on the uhadi musical bow by Nofinishi Dywili, and the introduction of pulse delaying for the clapping.
In fact, Nofinishi’s bow rhythm is not a “dotted rhythm” as in western music. It is a combination of the triple rhythm used by the singers and the simultaneous duple rhythm of the body movement (clap and dance). This can be made clear by using pulse notation. For this, a grid is drawn which shows patterns of 3 and 2 simultaneously. This grid is shown in the top line of the score in Example 4. Both rhythm systems use the same main beats. The triplet rhythm is then represented by main beat (thick line) plus two equally spaced thin lines for the other triplet beats. The duple beat is represented by the main beat plus the dotted lines crossing the clef. Now it can be seen how the notes represented in Example 3 by semiquavers fall in Example 4 on the vertical dotted lines.
Example 4 goes on to show how the clapping of the singers fits into the pattern. In the lower line of Example 4, at first four “bars” (indicated by dotted lines) show the duple rhythm represented by dotted quavers on the top line of the clef, two to the “bar”. On the middle line of the clef the actual clap used by the singers is shown, each time falling a semiquaver behind the notes actually on the beats (on the top line of the clef). This is because the singers are using beat delay technique for their clapping. The claps fall behind the main beats by a rapid (triplet) pulse. After the slanted double bar on this clef the claps, indicated by x marks, are clearly shown falling behind the main beats by a triplet pulse by the vertical lines across this lower clef line. Dots link the two clefs, showing clearly how the clap sounds fall a rapid pulse behind the melody tones.
Example 4: Nofinishi’s uhadi melody in pulse notation.
3. A full performance of the “Click Song”, shown in pulse notation.
A transcription of a performance of the “Click Song” by a group of singers led by Nofinishi Dywili with the *uhadi* musical bow may now be attempted. This transcription is based on a performance by Nofinishi with the Nggoko Xhosa Music Ensemble, shown in video on the DVD “Performance at the Home of Nofinishi Dywili”, mentioned above. This transcription, spread over five lines of score, includes material not shown in the examples above, as follows:
**Top two lines show:** the *uhadi*: fundamentals (on the lowest line of the bass clef) in solid notes, and overtone melody (in the treble clef) also written in solid notes. The other audible overtones, in treble and bass clefs, are written as hollow notes.
It can be immediately seen that the overtone patterns are patterns of parallel harmony. It is on these patterns of harmony that Xhosa singing in harmony is based.
**Third line:** melody of the lead singer. In the earlier examples the melody was shown as a whole, as sung by a solo singer. The melody in fact is a combination of the parts of the lead singer and the follower(s). In the group performance transcribed here, Nofinishi Dywili both plays the *uhadi* and sings the leader part. Her colleagues in the Nggoko Group sing the follower parts. When the song is sung by a group, as here, the melody is divided as shown. The leader sings what is shown on the third (middle) line of the score. The leader begins with the note shown at the extreme right of the line, immediately after the double bar.
**Fourth line:** melody and parallel harmony of the followers. The melody of the followers completes the phrases begun by the leader. This is shown in the fourth line of the score. When harmony is used by some of the singers, it moves parallel with the main follower melody. In the fourth line of the score the main melody tones are written with solid notes, the harmony is written with hollow notes. Seeing that the followers’ part completes a phrase begun by the leader, the followers’ part also begins after the double bar near the end of the line.
**Fifth (bottom) line:** the clapping rhythm, with pulse delay. Again the claps are indicated by the mark x. The claps on the clapping main beats fall a rapid (triplet) pulse behind the voice beats. It should be noted that this causes the claps on the unstressed clap beats to coincide with the third of the voice beat triplets.
Example 5: A performance of the “Click Song” by Nofinish Dywili with *uhadi* calabash bow, with members of the Nggoko Xhosa Music Ensemble (The “Nggoko Group”).
4. In Conclusion.
Some work still remains to complete the transcription, including writing the texts into the score. But it is hoped what has been shown so far will suffice to give an introduction to a system of pulse notation. If one gets used to it (which is easy enough), then one can gain a good idea of a complete song performance at a glance – including pitch notations, rhythm patterns and all. The great majority of the transcriptions in the book *Xhosa Music* (Dave Dargie, 1988, published by David Philip, Cape Town) have been written using this type of pulse notation.
The International Library of African Music (ILAM) in Grahamstown, South Africa recently published my book, *Understanding African Music*. This textbook is designed for music students aged between 15 and 18 years and uses numerous recordings from the ILAM archive to illustrate important African musical concepts. With chapters based on key African elements of music, the text describes and explains many principles of sub-Saharan music making. Included in each chapter is a case study of one particular musical practice that illustrates the musical concepts being discussed as well as several classroom activities which allow students to get hands-on experience of those concepts. Chapters on Community, Participation and Relationships, Movement, and the Environment extend the familiar list of the elements of music. The book is richly illustrated with photographs from the ILAM archive and is accompanied by a disk containing 96 audio tracks and 3 video clips.
The material in this article is drawn from the book. Tracks are available for free download from: http://files.ru.ac.za/?a=d&i=ijukpqhl8B Password: 1954
For information on buying the book please contact firstname.lastname@example.org.
**Amabele-o-iyé**
Ethnic group: BaMbuti
Language: Asoa
Recorded: Congo, 1952
Performers: Moisi, Magdalena, Teresa
This song was sung by three Mbuti grandmothers in the Ituri Forest, in the Congo. It is sung on mnemonics – the words do not mean anything, and the vocal lines are improvised.
**Amabele (Ituri Forest)**
Lesson Ideas
Listen to the track
Use the score to sing in three parts
Write out the scale on which the song is based
Use the scale to improvise some independent lines that add to the texture of the song
Try an instrumental version, relying on improvisation, rather than score reading
Samandoza Iwe
Ethnic group: Shona
Language: ChiShona
Recorded: Zimbabwe, 1951
Performer: Muchaenda Sigauke (leader)
This dance is performed by young men and women and one dancer in the centre of a circle.
Listen to the song and try to clap the pattern after hearing it a few times. Try to start the pattern with the performers on the audio track. Once this has been done aurally, look at the score below. Clap bar 1–5 together. Form two groups and have one group clap in 4/4 while the other claps the pattern. Then clap the second pattern against a steady 4 (starting at bar 6) and note the difference in the feel between the two.
The rhythm that is clapped in Samandoza Iwe is the first line – the second (bar 6) is the same rhythm shifted back one crotchet.
Inkulu into ezakwenzela
Ethnic group: AmaXhosa
Language: IsiXhosa
Recorded: King Williamstown district, South Africa, 1957
Performer: Nontwintwi
Instrument: Ukhadi
Translation: “Something very bad is going to happen”
This is intimate music that is meant for singing with people close by, as it is very quiet and contemplative. Although the ukhadi bow can accompany groups of singers, it is primarily a woman’s solo instrument. When listening to this song, you need to imagine a hut at night, the wind murmuring outside, the hut full of people, sitting on the floor, their faces lit by the faint glow of embers from the fire in the centre. Everyone is very quiet – listening. When he recorded the ukhadi players, one man told Hugh Tracey that to listen to this music properly, you need to listen in silence – lie down and close your eyes. And then you must think of places far away where you’ve never been and try to imagine what it is like.
The ukhadi
The bow has two fundamental notes – the open string and one fingered note which raises the open string by about a tone. The note that is perceived is an octave above the actual fundamental and the player taps out a rhythmic foundation on the bow. By moving the calabash, which is attached to the bow, closer or further away from her chest as she plays, the performer selects particular harmonics which resonate in the calabash and create a delicately quiet melody. (These harmonics are difficult to distinguish against the louder bow rhythm.) The harmonic melody could be the one she sings, or it could be a counter melody. To the bow player, her ukhadi is like a partner with whom she performs a duet.
In this song, the bow plays the additive rhythm, 3 + 3 + 2. The song is made up of variations of a few key phrases. Most of them have a downward contour. The Xhosa language dictates the rhythm of the sung melody, which follows the rhythm of the spoken words. The clicks contained in isiXhosa were inherited from the San, the hunter gatherers who long ago migrated to the arid desert areas of Botswana and Namibia.
Features of this music
Scale: Xhosa scale is based on the harmonics produced by the musical bow. The ukhadi has two fundamental notes a tone apart produced with the open string and one fingered note a tone above it. The scale is formed from the major triads built on these roots, using the 2nd and 5th partials of the harmonic series resonating in the gourd. The Xhosa scale is like a diatonic major scale with a raised 4th and no leading tone. The ukhadi is not tuned to a fixed pitch, but will be tuned to a note that suits the singer’s range.
Clap as in performance
6 Clap starting on the beat - note the difference
The Xhosa scale
Tonality: A limited number of notes in a scale will limit the harmonic possibilities. *Uhadi* music is built on two chords which alternate in different rhythmic patterns. Two-chord structures are common in African music, with the interval between those chords varying in size.
Lesson ideas
1. Questions for Listening
- Identify the additive rhythm played by the bow. Can you transcribe it?
- How many beats does the bow's repeating cycle consist of?
- Describe the contour of the sung phrases.
- What is the singer's range in the song?
2. Using the Xhosa scale, improvise downward melodies on your instrument.
3. Using the Xhosa Scale, the two chords built on fundamentals a tone apart and an additive rhythm of $2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3$, compose a 16 bar piece.
4. Class task – Using marimbas / xylophones
- Limit your composition to 8 bars
- Identify the notes of the two triads to find the scale you will use.
- The bass players play the progression limited to 2 notes, using a simple repeating rhythm.
Example 1.
Example 2.
The bass is played repeatedly in order for students to experiment with improvising a melody.
Experiment with improvising a melody using the notes of the scale that you identified.
Listen to yourself and repeat the parts that sound good to you.
Remember which notes sound good with which chord.
Work with a partner and take turns to play, in a call and answer form.
Each partnership plays for the whole group.
Allow bass players the chance to improvise by swapping parts.
The role of marimba music in developing musical arts practices in Africa seems to be dying away, mostly due to lack of proven models and methods pertaining to the art and science of playing this instrument. This paper addresses Zimbabwean marimba playing through the use of a method derived from one cultural practice that existed, and to some extent still exists, within some African cultures, the practice of "polygamy". There are many methods that are used to play marimbas around the world, and most have been infected by western musical ideologies that dilute the traditional African marimba feel. Whilst it is a display of skill and very exciting to play a "rock" composition on the marimbas, the scope at which it appeals to the methodological compositional structure of African musical arts is largely lost, and as a result, this does no justice to the intrinsic nature of African marimba music.
Introduction
Mans, (2006) discusses ways of empowering the future audience in cognitively identifying with the indigenous creative ideas and cultural meanings of the African indigenous musical arts systems and type. In this regard, I will introduce my model that could be useful for discussion and conceptualizing Zimbabwean marimba playing. Advocacy of this model in marimba playing will help uphold the characteristics of African music for the present and future audiences in the development and preservation of musical arts education. I have called this model the "Musandirire Polygamy Model in Zimbabwean Marimba Playing".
My model of Zimbabwean Marimba Playing arises from the ideas of polygamy, and also takes into account the characteristics that form the basic principles of African music. Though the practice of polygamy has since stopped in some African cultures, it is the system that exists or used to exist in that practice that forms the fundamentals of my polygamy model in Zimbabwean marimba playing.
Though the modern world condones the practice of polygamous marriage as an absurd primitive traditional practice, there is much that we could learn from it. The learning perspectives bring out some fundamental responses that in my view have immense meaning when we "philosophically" compare a marimba ensemble to a polygamous family structure, as explained in my model in the paragraphs that follow.
Why Zimbabwean Marimbas?
Marimbas were introduced to Zimbabwe in the 1960s. The Zimbabwean approach in African marimba playing is embraced the world over as a way to understanding the development of marimba music in African cultures. Through attending conferences and African musical arts exhibitions and also as a marimba expert, I have come to know that Zimbabwean marimbas have appealed to many the world over. I realized this as I have been involved in a number of practical researches and musical arts exchange programs around the world, where the Zimbabwean marimba playing technique played a major role in
educating foreign cultures about African marimba music.
This is evident in countries like Norway, Sweden, and Netherlands etc. where they have on-going cultural exchange programs with marimba instructors' from Zimbabwe. In the USA, local communities and guest performers produce an annual African cultural music concert and workshops called Zimfest. These workshops and concerts are based on different musical cultural activities from Zimbabwe, and Zimbabwean marimba music is very popular.
Zimbabwean Marimba Music in Relation to the Characteristics of African Music
Marimba instrumental music in Zimbabwe is borrowed from the mbira songs. The mbira is the most musical instrument that conforms to ancestral and spiritual values and activities in various cultures in Zimbabwe. The mbira music is reproduced on the marimba because people identify with it; thus, it preserves cultural significance. It is only right that we play true African music on the African marimba instrument as a way to sustain the continuous existence of meaningful African musical arts in African societies. We may concur about the aspect of culture being dynamic and consent that there is always change in customs as generations interrelate, but true appreciation of African music will command us to revert to the old methodological systems that form the foundations and fundamentals of true African musical arts compositions. Marimba music is also associated with patterns of "call and response". The compositional structures of songs include the aspects of polyphony and polyrhythm which are the basic elements that give identity to African music.
This style is common in Southern Africa where there is dominance of the call and response fashion. Since African traditional music is music that is mostly learnt through the oral tradition, one expects that different traditional songs may be recomposed and adapted because that will not alter the musical value contained in them.
Polygamy in the African Music Context
It is important for us to first understand what polygamy is, and dissect the family system and structure of a polygamous marriage in African cultures. This will act as a point of departure for us to be able to understand how the Musandirire Polygamy Model in Zimbabwean Marimba Playing works.
Polygamy in Africa refers to a marriage situation where one person is married to more than one life partner. This system was practised or is practised by men who marry more than one wife and consider the woman as the sole home maker who carries all the composite burdens which culture and tradition expects of her. Polygamy trends vary from culture to culture.
The Role of the Mother
The mother's role in a polygamous family situation cannot be over emphasized. The first wife in most instances gives direction to the other wives. Children stay with their mothers in separate houses built by the husband for each wife.
It is therefore the duty of every mother to discipline her children according to the expected behavior required. Wives depend on each other to accomplish the burden of work and child bearing. Although there is always some hatred and jealousy among the wives, fighting and witchcraft are rare owing to the terms and cultural expectations attached to their marriages. A wife who causes trouble and upsets the family harmony would cause her parents to return the wealth paid for her bride price. As a result, each wife tries to contribute positively to the upbringing of the whole family. It is the job of the first wife to educate the younger wives on how the family should be run.
However, each wife is independent to run her homestead the way she desires. Serious issues would always be referred to the first wife who acts as the mother of the family. When there is a family function, each wife and her children would bring their field produce for the enjoyment of the united family. This also shows who the hard workers are and who needs advice to improve their harvest.
Children follow the examples given by their mothers and their behaviour shows the kind of teaching they have received.
In a polygamous family, the father is seen as a man of few words, who supports and oversees the family business. Most of the physical work is coordinated by the firstborn son of either wife. This first born son acts as the backbone of the family and is responsible for teaching his young brothers, always checking that the girls behave and report back to father.
Musandirire Polygamy Model in Zimbabwean Marimba Playing
In defining the Musandirire Polygamy Model in Zimbabwean Marimba Playing, I have allotted each marimba a comparable place in the polygamous family e.g. mother, son etc.
The soprano marimba -mothers
The soprano marimba, the highest pitched instrument, acts as the mother instrument in the marimba ensemble. There are usually two or more sopranos in a marimba ensemble, and in this kind of situation, one needs to identify the mother as in polygamy.
This is the instrument that is responsible for starting the songs by
playing the call melodies or the question parts. It is not common to start a musical performance all at once. The performance is built up as many independent instruments join in until everyone gets a part in the music.
The mother soprano persistently gives the identity of the song by constantly playing the lead question parts throughout the composition, and ultimately controls what other instruments play. She sings the song whilst others respond.
She speaks with authority and talks a lot so that she attracts everyone's attention. She plays many variations covering all the octaves and she is at liberty to make inroads into the melody lines played by other sopranos.
The rest of the "mothers"/sopranos support the mother soprano by answering her call melodies. They play short polyphonic melodies that always leave room for each other as the music interlocks. In polygamy, there should be no competition amongst the sopranos, and they should most of the time aim to play their answering parts in different octaves. It should be taken into account that everyone has a unique input towards the success of every composition. The sopranos always refer their answering melodies and rhythms to the mother soprano. The energy of the performance should be felt as people join in with their individual artistic skills that also include improvisation. These are true values of African music that should be recognized as we try to sustain the development of African musical arts education.
Across Africa, women are known for ululating as a way to show their gratitude towards any good deed done in the family; likewise the mother sopranos are responsible for playing the ululating parts by 'rolling' their hammers on a high pitched note. This could be done at climaxes depending on the structure of the song.
Rolling of marimba hammers should not be used as a sign to end a performance, which has become the norm with most marimba players. It should however be noted that the success of this marimba family depends on the ability of the mother marimbas to appreciate their different roles and positions in the big "polygamous" family.
**The tenor marimba –children**
The tenors act as the children in the marimba family. They play polyrhythmically with each other. There should be at least one tenor to complement the mother soprano steadily with its melody throughout the performance.
As the children in the polygamous family, the tenors are dependent on what the mother soprano plays. Though they may at some point play polyphonic melodies, they are not free to conflict with the sopranos, but must support and harmonize them. Lastly, no child is allowed to play what any other child may be playing.
**The baritone marimba –first born son**
The baritone acts as the son of the family and as the 'small father'. As in polygamy, he is responsible for man's work that upholds family values. He acts as the handy man, acting on instructions from the mother and the father. The baritone is free to play independent responding and harmonizing rhythms that bind the music together. He is the link between the mothers and the father. Studies of polygamy show that the 'small father', thus the baritone, enjoys respect from the mothers, as he is expected to take over if the father dies.
**The bass marimba –father**
In marimba playing, the bass is the father, maintaining a steady pace that provides a continuous firm underlying rhythm to other instruments. All other instruments can play different variations but will still come back to fit in the underlying sound provided by the bass. The bass does not play variations or any rhythms he feels like, corresponding to the smaller number of notes that he has. Normally the bass marimba is limited to 8 or 9 notes. The polygamous father is a man of authority but few words. He makes a marimba composition enjoyable especially if he joins last.
**Conclusion**
The relationships inside a polygamous family and a marimba ensemble are comparable, and this can lead to greater understanding of African group musical dynamics. In my polygamy model, it is very important to understand the dynamics of the polygamous family structure before applying it to the playing of the Zimbabwean marimba playing technique. Ultimately one expects to hear a rich and well balanced performance that has appreciation of the different contributions brought in by the unity in the polygamous marimba ensemble. Everyone has a unique input towards the creation of music and their contribution is what brings the people together towards achieving one common goal. "All fingers are not of equal size, but each finger has its special capacity in performing life functions" Nzewi, (2007:53).
My model could be an answer to marimba performers and learners who may not know exactly how to start teaching and learning the Zimbabwean marimbas
**YouTube links:** "Musandirire Polygamy Model in Zimbabwean Marimba Playing"
Taimboreva:
http://youtu.be/wjzdhQ294L8
Shaka Zulu:
http://youtu.be/ZHGEL-Aec34
**References**
Chiwore, E., Furusa, M., Masasire, A., Mberi, E. N., Mutsvairo, S. (1996). *Introduction to Shona culture*. Effiel Flats. Juta Zimbabwe.
Mans, M. (2006). *Centering on African Music as Arts Education*. Pretoria. African Minds.
Nzewi, M. (2003). *Acquiring Knowledge of the musical arts in traditional society*, In *Musical arts in Africa: Theory, Practice and Education*, (Ed) by Herbst, A.; Nzewi, M.; Agwu, K. Pretoria. Unisa Press.
Nzewi, M. 2007. *A contemporary study of musical arts*. Vol. 3. Centre for Indigenous African Music and Dance. Cilimda Series.
Publications
newbooks!
International Library of African Music | South Africa
Understanding African Music
"Understanding African Music is a splendid volume of musical treasures from cultures and countries of sub-Saharan Africa. The book successfully accomplishes its aim to orient readers to the vast expanse of music and musicians, to ways of thinking and behaving musically and to the human capacity for cultural-artistic-social expression.
There are critical lessons to be learned about African music and culture through the activities carefully framed by the author in the reading and listening that leads to them. There is nothing like it in the field. It is a textbook, a guide to deep listening, a study of the innovative musical ways of the human mind and body. The book is a shining realization of ILAM's hope to fulfill Hugh Tracey's 1960s vision for repatriating the music he recorded to its communities of origin by creating textbooks designed to teach African music in the schools." — Patricia Shehan Campbell, University of Washington, Seattle
"There is nothing like it in the field."
The author, Mandy Carver (MEd University of Pretoria) is Director of Music at the Diocesan School for Girls in Grahamstown and a part-time lecturer at Rhodes University in teacher education.
"This in depth, beautifully illustrated exposition of the music practices and thinking of sub-Saharan Africa will be a rich resource. Mandy Carver has assimilated and presented the cultural material in accessible language and presents an impressive selection of recordings from across the continent, drawn from ILAM's collection of field recordings. — Emily Akuno, The Kenya Polytechnic University College, Nairobi
TO ORDER email email@example.com www.ru.ac.za/ilam
The Talking Drum
Back issues of most editions available at R15 each, plus postage.
A New Direction for South African Music Education Elizabeth Oehrle
This series of ideas, based on African, Indian and Western music is for music educators who desire to broaden the basis of music education. The starting point is the musical experience based on these musics, and sound is the medium of instruction. Each lesson is devised so that children are active in discovering characteristics of the different musics as well as their own creative potential. Although the book was published in 1988, the material is still strikingly relevant.
R 90 South Africa
R120 other African countries
R130 USA and UK --includes airmail posting
Payment via Electronic Banking:
First National Bank, Davenport Branch
Branch number 220226
Acc Name: NETIEM
Account Number: 62108269756
Swift Code: FIRNZAJJ762
DVDs
The following historic video documentaries are compiled into four DVDs. See *The Talking Drum* #31, for a detailed listing of DVDs itemised here. These DVDs produced by E. Oehrle are solely for educational purposes and are copyright controlled.
**DVD 1 — R90**
- **DANCING:** V. GODDARD 20min
- **SPOORNET GUM BOOT DANCERS** with Blanket Mkhize and Johnny Hadebe and introduction by Carol Muller (1994) 50min
**DVD 2 — R100**
- **AFRICAN DRUM MUSIC** (1993) 38min
- **WEST AFRICAN KORA MUSICIANS** and **MASTER DJEMBE DRUMMER:** Dembo Konte & Kausu Kuyathe from the Gambia and Adama Drame from Cote d'Ivoire (1994) 45min
**DVD 3 — R210**
- **TRADITIONAL AFRICAN MUSIC** and **BARBER-SHOP SINGING** (1994) 50min
- **PANPIPE WORKSHOP** with ALAIN BARKER (1994) 35min
- **MBIRA DZAVADZIMA PLAYERS:** MUSEKIWA CHINGODZE and WILLIAM RUSERE from Zimbabwe (1994) 35min
**DVD 4 — R280**
- **RITUAL DANCERS:** SHANGAAN, MAKISHI AND NYAU (1994) 50min
- **MASKANDA COMPETITION** (1993) 33min
- **INTRODUCTION TO UHADI, ISANKUNI, UMRHUBHE,** and **ISITHOLOTHOLO**
by Dr. Luvuyo Dontsa from the University of the Transkei and
**CHIPENDANI MUSICIAN** (1994) 15min
- **RHYTHMS OF THE TABLA** with YOGESH SAMSI (1993) 30min
DVDs available on request: Prof. Elizabeth Oehrle – NETIEM
School of Music, UKZN · Durban 4041 · South Africa · Tel/fax: +27 (031) 209-5895 · E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:636fa0f9-af9c-47ad-a33e-8102c6154c1b> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | http://disa.ukzn.ac.za/sites/default/files/file/TDJuly2013.pdf | 2017-04-24T17:01:01Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917119642.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031159-00623-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 110,579,646 | 9,644 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.97351 | eng_Latn | 0.998775 | [
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Swiss Food System Landscape
This map exhibits the interdependency of the Swiss food system in the global context. It also exhibits the flows and interactions of goods within the Swiss food system and beyond. The facts and figures are derived from the literature review.
The map is based on the casual loop model, it encapsulates the relationships between the actors with representations of key parameters (i.e causes, issues, processes and how they are interlinked).
The areas of focus in the system are key factors and consequences of the Swiss food system.
Legend
- Switzerland links
- Food exporting countries links
- Global trade links
- Flow of materials
+ Positive casual link (direct relation)
- Negative casual link (Indirect relation)
Areas of focus
1. Immigration as a driver for population growth
2. The population growth trend is expected to drive the need to import food
3. Switzerland has one of the highest per capita imports of any country.
4. Switzerland's dependency on global imports puts its food security at risk during a supply chain disruption
5. Switzerland's livestock are heavily reliant on imported fodder
6. The demand for soy meal has a negative ecological and social impact on food exporting countries like Brazil
Key Findings from primary research:
- Food culture: Lack of awareness of where the animal feed that goes into their meat comes from, and what would happen in the scene of a supply chain disruption of animal feed.
- Swiss consumers place higher regardance on the origin of meat than foreign consumers
Swiss Food consumers demographic
Changes in household structure
Aging population
Urbanization
Engaged with meat avoidance diets
High meat consumption
Lack of knowledge on "good" vegetarian recipes
Highest meat consumption
Meat is part of their traditional diet and meat is often considered "incomplete" without it
Highest meat avoidance group
Motivated by environmental & health reasons
Swiss society lifestyle shift
Food & Nutrition
Swiss Food Security
Impacts on exporting countries
Unforeseen changes and social instability
Environment & nature resource deterioration
Increase in demand for land for agriculture and water rights
Instability of agricultural commodities, food, and feed prices
Climate change
Food exporting countries
Brazil, USA, Argentina
Belgium, France, Germany
Thailand & Vietnam
Spain & Italy
Pratts & Vegetables
Money flow
Exports goods
Switzerland has one of the highest per capita imports of any country. This is partly due to the relatively high population density, as well as the country's limited arable agricultural area due to its geography and climate. (Ferjani, Mann, & Zimmermann, 2018)
Switzerland's dependency on global imports puts its food security at risk in the face of climate disturbances and global epidemics like SARS-CoV-2, Which revealed the vulnerability of global food chains to export bans, border restrictions, and food flow interruptions. (Monastyrnaya, 2020)
Soy cultivation has become an indirect cause of deforestation and land expansion, as well as a source of societal unrest. Which has been connected to bad working conditions and breaches of human rights in Brazil and Paraguay. (Jennings, McDermott, & Devreze, 2020) | 4f844836-ced2-4d01-8d6d-8e774919a459 | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://hub.hslu.ch/design-kunst/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2022/06/Wu-SystemMap.pdf | 2023-09-27T11:14:27+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510297.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20230927103312-20230927133312-00777.warc.gz | 340,400,853 | 662 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995002 | eng_Latn | 0.995002 | [
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NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.
THE VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS UNDER DOMESTICATION. By Charles Darwin, M. A., F. R. S., etc. With a Preface by Prof. Asa Gray. In two volumes, with Illustrations. New York: Orange Judd & Co.
Darwin in his great work, "Origin of Species," broached the theory that all living creatures descended from a single prototype. In that work he promised at some future day to give us his reasons for this theory. The work before us is the fulfillment of that promise. As a most valuable contribution to scientific literature it will be hailed by men of learning everywhere, for it is the most wonderful storehouse of facts that has ever been gathered together in one book, and these facts have a higher significance than those of Geology or Astronomy, or even Chemistry, for they are all facts relating to life. If they do not deal largely with human life they at least prepare the way for a future Darwin.
Darwin reasons from the known to the unknown in the largest sense of the term. He shows us how great have been the variations of plants and animals under domestication, leading us to believe from this, that if the time is sufficiently extended, all the variation which is seen in the animal and vegetable world may be accounted for without separate creation for different species. Much of this variation is the result of "natural selection," made necessary by the "ever-recurring struggle for existence;" in which those variations, however slight, which are favorable, are the ones which are preserved, while those which are unfavorable are destroyed. This natural selection has been going on since the divine Creator inhabited the globe, and more now than ever before, because man brings his own intelligence to bear upon the subject. The principles of selection under the influence of man, he divides into three kinds, Methodical Selection, in which man endeavors to modify a breed to some standard; Unconscious Selection, the result of choosing the most valued, and destroying the less valued individuals; and Natural Selection, in which is implied that those plants or animals best fitted for life, survive and propagate their kind. We must content ourselves with a few selections taken almost at random, but which will illustrate the character of the work, and we hope give our readers such a taste of it that they will desire the two volumes for their libraries. The first extract refers to the variation which takes place in our well-known wheat plant when exposed to various modes of culture, and different climatic conditions:
"Wheat quickly assumes new habits of life. The summer, and winter kinds were classed by Linnaeus as distinct species; but M. Monnier has proved that the difference between them is only temporary. He sowed winter wheat in spring, and out of one hundred plants four alone produced ripe seeds; these were sown and re sow n, and in three years plants were reared which ripened all their seed. Conversely, nearly all the plants raised from summer wheat, which was sown in autumn, perished from frost; but a few were saved and produced seed, and in three years this summer variety was converted into a winter variety. Hence it is not surprising that wheat soon became to a certain extent acclimatized, and that seed brought from distant countries and sown in Europe vegetates at first, or even for a considerable period, differently from our European varieties. In Canada the first tillers, according to Kalan, found their winters too severe for winter wheat brought from France, and their summers often too short for summer wheat; and until they procured summer wheat from the northern parts of Europe, which succeeded well, they thought that their country was useless for corn crops. It is notorious that the proportion of gluten differs much under different climates.
The weight of the grain is also quickly affected by climate: Loiseleur Deslongchamps sowed near Paris fifty-four varieties, obtained from the south of France and from the Black Sea, and fifty-two of these yielded seed from 10 to 40 per cent. heavier than the parent seed. He then sent these heavier grains back to the south of France, but there they immediately yielded lighter seed.
"All those who have closely attended to the subject insist on the close adaptation of numerous varieties of wheat to various soils and climates, even within the same country; thus Colonel Le Couture says: 'It is the suitableness of each sort to each soil that will enable the farmer to pay his rent by sowing one variety, where he would be unable to do so by attempting to grow another of a seemingly better sort.' This may be in part due to each kind becoming habituated to its conditions of life, as Metzger has shown certainly occurs, but it is probably, in main part due to innate differences between the several varieties.
"Much has been written on the deterioration of wheat; that the quality of the flour, size of grain, time of flowering, and hardiness may be modified by climate and soil, seems nearly certain; but that the whole body of any one sub-variety ever becomes changed into another and dissimilar variety, there is no reason to believe. What apparently does take place, according to Le Couture, is, that some one sub-variety out of the many which may always be detected in the same field is more prolific than the others, and gradually supplants the variety which was first sown."
How came our grains and fruits to be of the improved sorts so valuable to man is an interesting question, as they undoubtedly were originally wild and uncultivated. A single paragraph on this point will show no doubt the correct process:
"The savage inhabitants of each land, having found out by many and hard trials what plants were useful, or could be rendered useful by various cooking processes, would after a time take the first step in cultivation by planting them near their usual abodes. Livingstone states that the savage Batokas sometimes left wild fruit trees standing in their gardens, and occasionally even planted them, 'a practice seen nowhere else among the natives.' But Du[chaullu saw a palm and some other wild fruit trees which had been planted; and these trees were considered private property. The next step in cultivation, and this would require but little forethought, would be to sow the seeds of useful plants; and as the soil near the hovels of the natives would often be in some degree manured, improved varieties would sooner or later arise. Or a wild and unusually good variety of a native plant might attract the attention of some wise old savage; and he would transplant it, or sow its seed. That superior varieties of wild fruit trees occasionally are found is plain, as in the case of the American species of hawthorn, the cherry, plum, peach, and hickories, specified by Professor Asa Gray. Downing also refers to certain wild varieties of the hickory, 'as being 'of much larger | <urn:uuid:194c2da4-d12c-47a8-a11a-6971db9d8243> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1868_Review_Variation_WaterCure_A2161.pdf | 2023-12-05T01:22:14+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100540.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20231205010358-20231205040358-00424.warc.gz | 10,376,794 | 1,419 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998694 | eng_Latn | 0.998694 | [
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I. READING COMPREHENSION: (8 marks)
Read the text, and then answer the questions.
Yesterday, an electrician and his apprentice came to my house to repair some electrical wires in the kitchen. The apprentice was ready to take instructions and do menial tasks like cleaning the floor, picking up bits of wires and putting tools in the box.
While watching the boy at work, I remembered the days when my father used to take me to the neighbouring construction site. There, I learned to lay bricks, mix cement and push a wheelbarrow without saying a word.
I liked both men because they worked hard and silently in a very hot day. When they finished the work, they gave me the bill. The next morning, they sent me a message asking if I was satisfied with their service. I said I had no recommendations. “It is refreshing to see people working jointly and professionally and feeling proud of what they have done,” I said to myself.
Adapted from thoughtleader.co.za/ismaillagardien, January 15, 2014
Comprehension questions.
1- Tick (✓) the appropriate box (☐).
(1 mark)
The text is mainly about:
a) Remembering old days. ☐
b) Doing work seriously. ☐
c) Complaining about work. ☐
2- Are the following statements true or false? Tick (✓) the proper box.
(1 x 2 = 2 marks)
| Statements | True | False |
|-------------------------------------------------|------|-------|
| a) The writer was not happy with the work done.| | |
| b) The writer has building skills. | | |
3- Read paragraph 1 and answer the following question:
(1 x 2 = 2 marks)
What kind of tasks does the apprentice usually do? (Give two examples)
a-
b-
4- Fill in each blank with one word from paragraph 3:
(1 x 2 = 2 marks)
The electrician and his apprentice are ________________ of their work. They want to know how people feel about their ________________.
5- What does the word underlined in the text refer to?
(1 mark)
There (paragraph 2) refers to ____________________________.
II. LANGUAGE: (7 marks)
1- Fill in the blanks with 5 words from the list below. There are two extra words: \((0.5 \times 5 = 2.5\) marks\)
colder / with / skills / at / air-conditioning / tools / larger
Mechanics repair car parts and systems. In smaller garages or companies, a mechanic must be familiar all of these systems such as brakes and to diagnose customers’ problems. In garages, however, technicians must be able to use a range of like jacks, screwdrivers and electronic diagnostic equipment. They must also have good to find and repair breakdowns. These days, mechanics are in demand in a variety of sectors.
2- Match the sentence parts in column A with those in column B to get a coherent paragraph. There is an extra sentence part in B. Write your answers in the space provided. \((0.5 \times 4 = 2\) marks\)
| Column A | Column B |
|-----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| ① Parents want their kids | @ use them wrongly. |
| ② They buy them phones to be | b of danger. |
| ③ But phones are also a source | c to be safe. |
| ④ Children may | d bad behavior. |
| | e in contact with them. |
Answers:
| ① + ............... | ② + ............... | ③ + ............... | ④ + ............... |
3- Circle the right option. \((0.5 \times 5 = 2.5\) marks\)
Tom is a disabled child. He was born with (hear / heard / hearing) problems. He does many of the things a normal child does. However, he can’t (watch / attend / repair) a public school. He needs extra school support. He also needs the (equipment / iron / wood) that helps him get around. For example, he must wear a hearing (aid / machine / ring) to be able to listen to others. Tom has got many friends. They are helpful. They have (learning / learn / learned) some signs to communicate with him.
While working in a carpentry workshop at your technical school, one of your classmates had a small accident and cut his finger. You have decided to write an article for your school magazine to show how sorry you are and to give your schoolmates some advice on how to keep safe.
DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME OR SIGN THE ARTICLE. | <urn:uuid:ef4dfc92-abb3-469b-90cb-cdcedadb1ffb> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://www.9web.edunet.tn/2016/technique/anglais.pdf | 2018-07-17T15:36:40Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00427.warc.gz | 395,132,158 | 1,008 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998012 | eng_Latn | 0.999344 | [
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FORT VICTORIA
CORRIDORS OF HISTORY
Zimbabwe and Lake Kyle
Enjoy a comfortable flight to Fort Victoria with Air Rhodesia. Explore the Ruins and surrounds, Karanga Village and Museum. Visit Lake Kyle—second only to Kariba in size. This and more on Air Rhodesia package tours.
This pamphlet has been produced by the Publicity Association of Fort Victoria, Kyle and Zimbabwe. If you would like further information about the area, please write to Box 340, or telephone 2643 Fort Victoria.
It was on the 14th August, 1890, that the Pioneer Column, with 117 wagons arrived at a site about 8 km south of the present town. The original mud fort is now marked as a National Monument. Because of the scarcity of water, the pioneers moved to the present site, between the Mucheke and Shagashi rivers. Here they built a simple fort of solid masonry walls, in the form of
a laager with two look-out towers, and named the settlement after the reigning sovereign.
The west wall and two towers are still extant. One tower houses a large bell which is rung each evening, and the other tower contains a number of photographs and relics of pioneer days.
The search for gold, and the offer of 3000 acre farms to the pioneers, encouraged men to settle in the area. Before the turn of the century 140 mining claims had been registered. However, very few claims are worked today, and other minerals of great value were to be discovered many years after the pioneers had staked their first claims.
In 1891 the first Anglican church was built, and this was also used as a school room. In 1894 the first form of local government, the Sanitary Board, was formed. The pioneers were rapidly followed by traders, the first to arrive was the Bechuanaland Trading Company and they were closely followed by the Meikles Brothers.
The settlers soon developed recreational facilities, and by 1895 the Gymkhana Club had been formed, with Dr. Starr Jameson as President. By 1902 a race course had been built and regular race meetings were held. It was about this time that the Victoria Sports Club was formed.
The first financial bank, a branch of the Standard Bank, was opened in 1911. Motor cars were first seen in the town in 1913, and it was in 1914 that the branch line between Umvuma and Fort Victoria was opened.
In 1926 the Town Management board was constituted, and in 1928 the Waterworks and Power Station were opened. Communications were not easy, and during the 30s strip roads were built, and low-level bridges constructed. Swollen rivers during the rainy season would hold up traffic for many days.
During the second World War an Italian prisoner-of-war camp was set up on the outskirts of the town. The beautiful chapel built by the Internees is now a well known place of tourist interest.
In 1946 the first scheduled air service by Southern Rhodesia Air Services was instituted. The first step of importance in the industrial field was the opening of a large Gold Storage Commission factory in 1947. Over the years many light industries have been developed. By the 70's fine national highways, and a good aerodrome opened up communications considerably, and the town has developed accordingly. Municipal status was attained in 1953, and the town is proud of its civic centre, with Town Hall, Municipal Offices, Public Library, and an outstandingly fine civic Theatre - The Charles Austin Theatre.
**Pioneer Landmarks**
**The Bell Tower** is a well known landmark in Fort Victoria. It is part of the original Fort, and the Bell still tolls at 9 p.m. each evening, and also to acknowledge very significant events. The tower overlooks Allan Wilson Street.
---
**OUR ELEPHANT NEVER FORGETS**
National and Grindlays remember all the little things that make the running of your finances that much smoother. And we never forget that you, as a customer, are a valued and respected friend.
It's the personal service and attention to your particular needs as an individual which make banking with us so much more satisfying.
**FIND YOURSELF AT GRINDLAYS**
NATIONAL AND GRINDLAYS BANK LIMITED
Head Office in Rhodesia: 64 Baker Avenue, Salisbury.
Branches at Salisbury Rd, Bulawayo Rd, Fort Victoria, Swild, Que Que and Umtali.
The Pioneer Display Tower is also part of the original Fort. It houses a collection of photos, and relics of Pioneer times. It is open to the public between 4 p.m. and 6 p.m. each weekday, and is situated in Hughes Street.
Original Fort at Clipsham Approximately 8 km south of Fort Victoria on the Beit Bridge road, is Chipsham Farm and here the original walls of the mud fort built by the Pioneers can be seen. The National Monuments plaque has been erected at the fort.
Pioneer Cemetery is situated 10 km from Fort Victoria. Travel along the Beitbridge road, and turn off to the right, direction signs are seen on the roadside. The little cemetery with so many un-named graves is symbolic of those courageous men of whom so little is known, their life span was so short in a country with many difficulties in those primitive times.
Providential Pass The discovery of this pass in the hills, by the hunter Courtney Selous, who was commissioned by Rhodes to lead the Pioneer Column, brought a sense of relief to the travellers who had spent many weeks travelling through the Lowveld from Fort Tuli in the South West of the country. Having reached the higher altitude it was decided that the column had reached a suitable area to make its first settlement. A Memorial marking the site is situated about 12 km from Fort Victoria on the Beitbridge road. A lay-by has been constructed at the memorial to allow travellers to draw off the road at this point.
Ranching and Farming
The Victoria Group of European Intensive Conservation areas comprises Victoria Central, Victoria East, Mushandike, Nuanetsi, Chiredzi, Sabi Valley, Chatsworth and Gutu, and covers an area of 2 723 379 ha. The mean annual rainfall varies from 1000 mm in the Northern parts to 375 mm in the frost-free lowveld of the South. Cattle ranching is one of the main enterprises, and beef produced in the area makes a significant contribution to the country's exports. Pig production is also keen in the district, and dairying plays a minor role and is confined to the highveld areas. Expansion of irrigation along the banks of Lake Kyle is taking place; here maize and winter wheat is grown. Mushandike dam supplies water for irrigation, and in this area barley, winter wheat, maize and cotton is grown.
Industrial Possibilities
The Cold Storage works was established here because of the high cattle population of the district. Light industrial expansion has taken place gradually, with most noticeable growth during the past three years. There are several engineering works, plumbing works, irrigation services, as well as tyre retreading factories, diamond drillers, printers and refrigeration works. A brewery for African-type beer has expanded considerably, and there is also a large brick and tile works and a fibreglass factory. There is an abundance of water, and labour suitable for industry is available.
Minerals and Mines
Fort Victoria is the centre of an active Mining District, producing a large variety of minerals including asbestos, copper, chrome, lithium, scheelite, tin and tungsten. Asbestos is concentrated at Mashaba, and at Glenclova the lithium deposit is the largest in the world. Emeralds are found at Chikwanda.
Mucheke Township
Fort Victoria is probably the most progressive town in Rhodesia in the matter of housing its 9,000 African population. Council has erected modern houses with full amenities, electricity, water and indoor sanitation.
There are two Primary and one Secondary schools. Council have recently opened a Training Centre for boys and girls of school leaving age.
The township has an excellent sports stadium, and with other playing fields caters for 7 teams in the National League and 12 in the Amateur League.
Other sporting facilities available include Tennis, Netball, Boxing and a Swimming Pool for the children.
In addition the Council has provided clinics, a Cinema, a modern Library and there are active Women's Clubs, Youth Clubs and a Children's Creche. Jairos Jiri have an excellent centre for disabled young people.
There are two modern taverns each with its own bar lounge, cocktail bar, food kiosks, dance floors.
Theatre
Fort Victoria has made a contribution to Rhodesian theatre far in excess of its size as a town and is possibly the best known centre of theatrical activity outside of Salisbury and Bulawayo. With the opening of Rhodesia's most modern intimate theatre, the Charles Austin Theatre, the Fort Victoria Drama Circle enters a new phase in its history.
In addition to staging about six productions per year of its own in the theatre, the Drama Circle acts as host to many visiting companies both from South Africa and Rhodesia, resulting in a reasonable frequency of shows in the theatre. In addition, the theatre bar is open every Friday evening and Saturday midday, and guests of members are welcome.
The Drama Circle has won numerous awards in past National Drama Festivals, and with a large and enthusiastic membership, the high standard of production is maintained.
The Charles Austin Theatre is a civic building and forms part of the Civic Centre complex in the Queen Elizabeth Gardens. It is named after Alderman Charles Austin in recognition of his many years of service to the Fort Victoria community.
Places of Interest for the Tourist
Pride of place goes to Great Zimbabwe Ruins: These fantastic buildings of stone were first discovered by Adam Render, an American of German Descent in 1867 and the first written reports were made by Karl Mauch in 1871, a German Geologist who was taken to the Ruins by Adam Render who was a hunter and trader in Ivory.
The entire area covers some 714 ha., and can be roughly divided into three sections, the Great Enclosure, the Acropolis, and the Valley Ruins. Guide Books on the Ruins can be purchased at the Site Museum, at Zimbabwe, and these give details of the area, and suggest best ways of walking around the Ruins. A minimum of at least one full day should be allowed in the tourists' itinerary to explore this vast expanse of Ruins.
The secret of the Ruins is still hidden, and many are the speculations as to its origins.
In the site museum there are models to scale of the main sections of the ruins, and also a number of relics which have been recovered by Archaeologists over the years. Numerous books have been written about the Zimbabwe Ruins, and appendix in the "Guide to the Zimbabwe Ruins" mentions some books and publications on Zimbabwe, which could be of interest to the student or archaeologist.
Also at the Ruins is a 19th Century Karanga Village. This is a replica of the type of African Kraal which existed when Europeans first came to Zimbabwe. Here museum exhibits can be seen in their correct setting.
Adjacent to the Ruins is a most attractive Aloe and Succulent Garden, about 4 ha. in extent. These gardens are at their most colourful in June and July. A flight of steps up the rock-face at the back of the gardens goes up to an excellent lookout point, from where Lake Kyle can be seen.
Kyle
Lake Kyle The Dam Wall is approximately 15 km from Zimbabwe Ruins. It is the second largest dam in Rhodesia. The dam wall was completed at a cost of $4,000,000 in 1961. It was originally built for the irrigation of the vast citrus and sugar estates in the Lowveld, where the towns of Chiredzi and Triangle have now grown up.
The tourist attractions of the lake have developed over the years, and here Angling Tournaments are held, national Sailing Schools, National Power Boat Regattas, and many hundreds of enthusiastic fishermen enjoy holiday fishing at the lake. The lake is stocked with bass and bream as well as many other species of fish.
At the Dam Wall there is an attractive little chapel, St. Andrew’s Chapel built by the water bailiff Mr. Tom van Graan - the church is a memorial to his young daughter Marie Elizabeth who was killed in a motor car accident.
Inside the chapel there are seven different types of minerals coming from mines in the Fort Victoria district. The church is interdenominational.
Kyle Dam Statistics
- Basin capacity: 1,329,700,000 cubic metres
- Height: 63 metres
- Catchment Area: 398,856 hectares
- Surface Area: 9,100 hectares
- Shoreline: 240 km
- Spillway length: 61 metres
- Crest: 314 metres
- Thickness: Top 3 metres Base 7 metres
- Concrete Volume: 1,840 cubic metres
- Annual Release: 11,090,000 cubic metres
Motor Sales & Agencies (Pvt.) Ltd.
Agents for:
ALFA ROMEO & MAZDA
24-HOUR PETROL SALES
Phone 2646 P.O. Box 415
FORT VICTORIA
Mushandike National Park
Situated to the west of the town, Mushandike covers an area of 13 360 ha. The dam is well stocked with black bass and bream. It is here that the R.E.C.C.E. School - Rhodesian Educational Courses in Conservation and Environmental Studies - is developing a unique school. Each week 50 Standard Five pupils from schools throughout Rhodesia attend a course of practical training in the concept of Nature Conservation.
Rock Paintings
There are many rock paintings in the area, all have been sign-posted with the "National Monuments" sign. Some of the best known are found at Chamavara Cave, which is situated some 8 km southeast of the Murray MacDougall Drive. Reference to the National Monuments "A Guide to Zimbabwe Ruins" will assist with a considerable amount of information regarding local rock paintings.
Italian Chapel
This Chapel was built by the Italian Prisoners of War of the 5th Camp extension of Fort Victoria during the years 1942/46. Most of the Prisoners of War originated from Ethiopia. The Chapel was built more or less as it stands at present, with the exception of the two wings, which were added after the war. Here the remains of 71 Italian Prisoners of War who had died in captivity were interred. Other camps were situated in Salisbury, Gatooma, Lusaka, Gwelo, Umvuma, Selukwe and Chipinga.
The paintings and mosaics of the Apse are the works of an Italian Civil Engineer, who was himself a Prisoner of War. The Murals and paintings of the Aisle were done by the Italian Authorities in 1956/57 at the time when the wings and tombs were constructed. On the 27th January, 1957 the Chapel was consecrated by Bishop Francis Mazzieri.
An African watchman is on duty everyday. Mass is celebrated each Saturday morning, and each year on the first Sunday in November a special memorial service is held in honour of those Italians who died in the two world wars.
FORT VICTORIA - Facts & Figures
Altitude: 1,082m above sea level. Climate: Moderate. Average Rainfall: 650mm
Population
Municipal Area:
- European: 2,800
- Asian & Coloured: 400
- African: 11,000
Total Valuation
| Land | 3,256,135 |
| Improvements | 16,023,690 |
Municipal Tariff
Water: Domestic; First 2,000 gallons $2.60, balance of next 13,000 gallons at 45¢ per 1,000 and thereafter 35¢ per 1,000.
Commercial; First 2,000 gallons $2.60, balance 75¢ per 1,000 gallons per month.
Public Health: Services; Domestic; Residence; $4.50 per month per stand. Flats; $3.25 per month per flat.
Commercial; $3.50 per stand per month with sliding scale assessed on floor area of building. (Special concessions to large consumers of water and electricity by arrangement).
Rates
Rates on Land:
- Land: 3.5¢ in the Dollar.
- Improvements: .5¢ in the Dollar.
Residential Land:
- Land: $2,500 per hectare.
- Building Clause: Minimum $8,000 to $10,000 depending on site and main buildings.
Industrial Land:
- The calculated price of Industrial land (heavy and light) is $97.07 per hectare, with $107.6 added for Ratlispur facilities.
Electricity Supply Commission Tariff
Domestic; Within Municipal Area; Minimum 19 units per month at 10¢ per unit. Next 31 units per month at 7¢ per unit. Next 200 units per month at 1.25¢ per unit. Balance of monthly consumption at 1¢ per unit. Minimum per month $1.90.
Commercial; Within Municipal Area; First 28 units per month at 10¢ per unit. Next 72 units per month at 7¢ per unit. Next 500 units per month at 3.3¢ per unit. Balance of monthly consumption at 1.25¢ per unit. Minimum per month $2.80.
Further information obtainable from the District Manager, Electricity Supply Commission, P.O. Box 5, Fort Victoria. Telephone 2138/9. The above tariff is subject to review.
Places of Worship
Anglican Church
Methodist Church
United Apostolic Faith
Presbyterian Church
Church of England in Southern Africa
Roman Catholic Church
Baptist Church
Dutch Reformed Church
Church of Christ
Rhodesian Hervormde Church
Full Gospel Church
Seventh Day Adventist Church
Sporting Facilities
The Victoria Sports Club has excellent bowling greens, tennis courts, squash court and an 18 hole golf course, also sports fields for rugby and cricket.
There is a clay pigeon shooting club, a rifle club, a fine Municipal swimming pool, a keen swimming club, a badminton club, and a table tennis club.
Medical Facilities
Hospital services include a General and Maternity Hospital, with ante natal clinics provided at the latter.
There are six doctors and one dentist. Medical Superintendent; Dr. Ascough, Dr. Theron, Telephone 2112/3. Dr. Hacker and Dr. Campbell-Rose, Telephone 2424 Surgery. Dr. Sinclair and Dr. Warne, Telephone 2550 Surgery. Dr. Shay, (Dentist) Telephone 2336 Surgery.
Hospital visiting hours: 3.30 to 4.30 p.m. and 7 p.m. to 8 p.m. daily. Maternity Home: 11 a.m. to 12 noon, 4 p.m. to 5 p.m. and 7 p.m. to 8 p.m.
Transport
RHODESIA RAILWAYS operates a Bus Service to and from Salisbury and Umtali three days a week.
ALICK STUART run a daily bus service to and from Bulawayo every day except Sundays.
U.T.C. run a week-end excursion luxury coach tour from Salisbury to Zimbabwe.
SUPER EXPRESS BUS SERVICE will hire buses for special tours - previous arrangements must be made.
Taxis
CAR HIRE: Duly's, Rent-a-Car, and Herst, have cars for self drive.
SUPER EXPRESS TAXIS .................................................. Telephone: 2870
AI TAXIS ........................................................................... Telephone: 2696
FORT VICTORIA'S FRIENDLIEST STORE
BALMAIN
SPAR
SUPERMARKET
BOTTLE STORE
RHOD. COPPER
Phone 2915
LADIES' & MEN'S
FASHIONS
SCHOOL UNIFORMS
MATERIALS
Phone 2708
Education in Fort Victoria
Fort Victoria High School, Tel. 2549, P.O. Box 241
A co-educational Government School which is comprehensive in character. The school has fine up-to-date hostels, and caters for both day and boarding pupils. The academic forms study to write Rhodesian Certificate of Education, and the Ordinary and Matriculation levels, and certain subjects taken at "A" level. The school also provides for the study of Commercial and Technical subjects. Well planned playing fields, and all sporting facilities are offered the pupils. Over 600 children attend from the age of 12 + in forms one to six.
Fort Victoria Junior School, Tel. 2833, P.O. Box 113
A Government School with approximately 450 pupils from the age of 7 + to 12 years studying in Standards one to five. The school has hostels and caters for both day and boarding pupils. The traffic training school, sponsored by the Rotary Club of Fort Victoria, is one of the best equipped in the country.
Fort Victoria Infant School, Tel. 2974, P.O. Box 74
A Government School for infants one and infants two. The school has 6 teachers and approximately 157 pupils from the ages of five to seven years. The school has lately built its own swimming pool.
Andrew Louw School, Tel. 2983, P.O. Box 249
A small country school, eight kilometres from Fort Victoria, covering the full range of primary and junior education, from infants one to Standard Five. Facilities for day and boarding pupils.
Helen McGhie School, Tel. 2748, P.O. Box 322
Government School for Coloured and Asian pupils covering full range primary and junior education from infants one to Standard Five. The school has approximately 110 pupils and five teachers.
Fort Victoria Nursery School, Tel. 2293, P.O. Box 313
Privately run by a local committee this school takes 48 pupils from the age of 3 to 5 years at the cost of $25 per term.
The Murray MacDougall Drive
Named after Tom Murray MacDougall, the first man to plant sugar in the Lowveld, and thus project the idea of irrigating the vast Lowveld area.
The Drive is approximately 17 km and is fully tarred, with attractive laybys for picnickers. The Drive links the eastern side of Kyle with the roads on the Glenlivet side of the Lake, thus completing a circular route around the lake, land joining the Fort Victoria/Birchenough Bridge road.
Glenkyle Caravan Park
GLENLIVET, LAKE KYLE
Turn-off 24km from Fort Victoria on Fort Vic./Umtali road
Pleasant location on the shores of Lake Kyle, among the beautiful Glenlivet mountains. Also within reasonable distance of Zimbabwe Ruins. From your caravan you can sit and watch game on the opposite Game Park bank.
Bring your Binoculars. Rowing Boats for Hire. Excellent Bass and Bream fishing. Fully equipped Caravans for hire on site. Ample hot water. Electric light and power points. Supply Store. Domestic servant available on request.
Under the personal supervision of MAX & WIN WEBSTER
P.O. BOX 469
Telephone 2727-22
FORT VICTORIA
The WOODEN MASK
at Zimbabwe Ruins
Offers you the largest selection of CURIOS in the District
P.O. Box 457 Fort Victoria
Trade Enquiries Phone 2463-17
CALL ON US FOR THE BEST SELECTION OF CURIOS - COPPERWARE - GEMSTONES - POST CARDS - FILMS - SLIDES AND ALL TYPES OF AFRICAN CRAFTS
WE PACK & POST TO ALL COUNTRIES
Kyle Game Park
An attractive park of some 8,000 ha., with 64 km of game viewing roads winding through the park. The reserve has a large variety of antelope, as well as many other animals including white rhino, giraffe, buffalo, zebra, ostriches and smaller animals. The game park is open throughout the year, and only during a very wet rainy season may some of the roads be closed for a few days at a time. Most delightful lodges are situated on the side of a hill overlooking the lake, also an extremely attractive caravan and camping site. Enquiries regarding pony trails and wilderness trails through the park should be made to the Wardens in charge.
Colcom!
For the coming holiday period don’t forget your —
★ Tomato Sauce
★ Tinned Curry & Rice
★ Baked Beans
★ Pâté de Foie
★ Tinned Cocktail Sausages
You know it’s good ‘COLCOM’
The choice of CARAVANERS, HEFS, CAMPERS
For visitors staying in the Zimbabwe area a short cut to the Kyle Game Park can be taken by travelling across the lake on a ferry. Up to four vehicles can be taken on the ferry at a time. The journey takes about twenty minutes, depending on the level of the lake. Charges are $2.00 per vehicle and 25¢ per adult.
It runs between 7.30 a.m. and 5 p.m. every day, has no set timetable but is moored on the Zimbabwe side of the lake, and travels whenever cars arrive.
Find something different!
- A FUN-THING FOR A FEW CENTS ... OR AN INVESTMENT WORTH MANY DOLLARS.
Shiriya Mwari
tel 2693 art & handcraft
allan wilson buildings (next to Post Office)
ZIMBABWE SAFARI LODGE
Overlooking the lovely Zimbabwe Valley. From our verandah you can see the fascinating Acropolis and the Temple of the Zimbabwe Ruins. This unique hotel, set in the heart of Zimbabwe country, with Lake Kyle nearby, offers comfort, personal service, private bathroom to every bedroom, and a glorious swimming pool.
Private Bag 9090 Telephone 2449
FORT VICTORIA
Le Rhone Game Farm
Situated in the hills east of Zimbabwe, this game farm offers excellent opportunities for viewing and photographing Rhodesia's wildlife at close quarters. A feature of the farm is the Lion Park where lions may be seen and studied in their natural surroundings. Other species to be found on the farm include cheetah, leopard, elephant and a variety of smaller animals. There is a curio shop at Le Rhone, and teas and cold drinks are available.
Associations and Clubs
Advanced Motorist Club
Agricultural and Horticultural Society
Anglican Church Women’s Association
A.R.N.I.
Business and Professional Women’s Club
Bridge Club
Boy Scout Association
Catholic Women’s League
Fort Victoria Angling Society
Fort Victoria & District Arts Council
Fort Victoria Drama Circle
Fort Victoria Garden Club
Gem & Mineral Society
Girl Guide Association
Kyle Boat Club
Lions Club
Loyal Women’s Guild
Masonic Lodge
Motor Traders Association
M.O.T.H.S.
Nurses Association
R.A.O.B.
Red Cross Society
Rotary Club
Round Table
Rovers
R.N.F.U.
Rhodesia Caravan Association
Sea Horses Swimming Club
Small Bore Rifle Club
S.P.C.A.
Toc H
Victoria Singers
Victoria Sports Club
Women’s Institute
Missions
No publication on the Fort Victoria area would be complete without some mention of the numerous Missions which have developed and do tremendous work among the Africans.
The Morgenster Mission was founded by Rev. A. A. Louw in 1891, and is directed by the Cape Section of the Dutch Reformed Church. A large settlement has grown here, and schools and hospitals are attended by many Africans from all over Rhodesia. Their school for the deaf was one of the first of its kind in the country.
Copota School and Workshop for the Blind, is an offshoot of the Morgenster Mission. This too was one of the first schools of its kind in Rhodesia. Their choir is famous and has given concerts in many different countries. Tourists are welcome to visit the school, on Tuesdays and Thursdays, at 2.30 p.m. when they are entertained by the choir, and taken on a tour around the school, the printing works (where braille books are printed) and the workshops.
Serima, Gokomere and Bondolfi Missions are all run by the Roman Catholic order. They are well known for their very fine workmanship in carving, both wood and soapstone, also leather work and other handicrafts. Tourists wishing to visit the Missions should preferably make arrangements prior to their visit.
We make it so easy to travel.
Accommodation
Fort Victoria
CHEVRON HOTEL L * * .................. P.O. Box 245, Phone 2054/5
FLAMBOYANT MOTEL L * * ............... P.O. Box 225, Phone 2005/6
HOTEL VICTORIA L * ...................... P.O. Box 126, Phone 2978
FORT VICTORIA CARAVAN PARK ........... P.O. Box 17, Phone 2431
Fort Victoria & District
ZIMBABWE SAFARI LODGE L * * .......... P. Bag 9090, Phone 2449
GLENLIVET HOTEL L * ..................... P.O. Box 146, Phone 2727-19
ZIMBABWE RUINS HOTEL L * * .......... P. Bag 9082, Phone 2274
LE RHONE LODGES & CARAVAN PARK (P) P.O. Box 572, Tel. 2238-26
BEROMA HILLS CARAVAN PARK ............ P.O. Box 518
GLENKYLE CARAVAN PARK .................. P.O. Box 469
KYLE VIEW CHALETS & CARAVAN PARK ........ P. Bag 9055 Telephone 2238-22
KYLE NATIONAL PARK ....................... P. Bag 9136, Phone 2913
MUSHANDIKE NATIONAL PARK .............. P. Bag 9036, Phone 2945-25
ZIMBABWE NATIONAL PARK .................. P. Bag 9087, Phone 2463-19
ACE MOTORS
* SPACIOUS FORECOURT
* 24-HOUR PETROL SERVICE
* TYRE SERVICE
Phone 2963
Fort Victoria
Situated on the north east side of Lake Kyle this is a most attractive area, particularly during the September/October months when the Msasa trees which cover the hillside are in full colour. To reach Glenlivet travel approximately 27 km along the Birchenough Bridge road, then turn right, and the road runs along the Mtilikwe arm of Lake Kyle. Here there are attractive lay-bys, where beautiful views of the lake can be enjoyed. Glenlivet can also be reached by travelling from Zimbabwe to the Dam wall, cross the wall, and travel along the Murray MacDougall Drive, and a further 18 km will bring you to the Glenlivet Hotel. A caravan park on the shores of the lake is situated about 7 km from the Birchenough Bridge turn-off.
FOR SAFETY AND SAVINGS ON THE ROAD FIT BU-POL RETREADS FROM
RTS
RHODESIAN TYRE SERVICES
RHODESIAN TYRE SERVICES
P.O. Box 212
Telephone 2278
FORT VICTORIA
FLAMBOYANT Motel
Pull into the Flamboyant Motel, one of Rhodesia’s newest motels. The perfect stop-over between South Africa and Salisbury. Ideally situated just outside Fort Victoria, for touring nearby Zimbabwe, Lake Kyle and Game Park and the historic town itself. Let us pamper you after your tour of the many scenic attractions. Relax with a dip in our pool, a doze on our sunny verandah, a cool cocktail in the Blue Jay Bar. Wine and dine a la carte or table d’hote. And rest contented in the superb comfort of our rooms, carpeted wall to wall, and with all the modern comforts a weary traveller could desire. With service just a smile away. If you like to stay in style, you’ll love the Flamboyant.
P.O. Box 225 Telephone 2005/6
FORT VICTORIA
Shopping & Banking Information
POST OFFICE HOURS:
Weekdays.....8.30 a.m. to 4 p.m. Saturdays ... 8.0 a.m. to 12 noon
BANKING HOURS:
Barclays Bank International, Standard Bank Limited, National and Grindlays Bank, Rhobank.
The above banks are open on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays and Fridays from 8.30 a.m. to 1 p.m. Wednesdays from 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Saturdays from 8.30 a.m. to 11 a.m.
LIBRARY HOURS:
Weekdays 10 a.m. to 12 noon, 4 p.m. to 5.30 p.m. Saturdays 10 a.m. to 12 noon.
SHOPPING HOURS:
Weekdays 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. Saturdays 8 a.m. to 12 noon. SHOPS DO NOT OPEN DURING THE LUNCH HOUR.
PUBLICITY BUREAU HOURS
Weekdays 8 a.m. to 1 p.m., 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. Saturdays 8 a.m. to 11 a.m.
AERODROME:
Daily flights from and to Salisbury - weekdays. Flights to and from Bulawayo, Monday, Wednesday and Friday.
RENT-A-CAR
FOR CARAVAN OR CAR HIRE
Phone 2456/2338 P.O. Box 456
FORT VICTORIA
Publicity Bureau
Situated at the entrance to the town on the Beitbridge road is the Publicity Bureau. This building was opened in 1960, and here a most comprehensive supply of information can be obtained.
Fort Victoria being very often the first port of call for visitors from the South, it is here that they are able to obtain brochures, maps, information and advice on their entire holiday in Rhodesia. Although the Bureau specialises in the promotion of the Fort Victoria, Zimbabwe Ruins and Lake Kyle areas, a considerable number of publications supplied by the Rhodesia National Tourist Board, the Ministry of Information, and Publicity Associations, is kept at the bureau for the convenience of the tourist. Brochures concerning the Republic of South Africa, Malawi and Mozambique are also available at the Bureau.
An average of some 6000 people call annually at the bureau. The office is open from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. and from 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. on weekdays and from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m. on Saturdays.
Rhodesia's top three
MEIKLES, SALISBURY L***
Right in the heart of the capital, and internationally renowned for its cuisine and service. 111 rooms all with free T.V. and air-conditioning. 2 famous bars. First class restaurant with very popular dinner-dances to the music of a band of international standard.
THE RAINBOW, VICTORIA FALLS L***
A new luxury hotel set in lush tropical bushland, less than 1 km from the Falls. Internationally high standard of cuisine and service, at very reasonable rates; 46 fully air-conditioned rooms and unique bars including the "swim-up" pool bar.
BUMI HILLS SAFARI LODGE, LAKE KARIBA L-
A luxury lodge with private game-viewing patios on the edge of Lake Kariba. 30 double rooms, air-conditioned public rooms; game and photographic safaris with experienced guides; watersport and excellent fishing on the lake.
CENTRAL RESERVATIONS: Salisbury 705050. Telex: RH4214. P.O. Box 3598.
A TRADITION FOR SERVICE IN RHODESIA
Le Rhone
ZIMBABWE'S
LAKESIDE LODGES
& CARAVAN PARK
Only 4 km from the Zimbabwe Ruins, Le Rhone Lodges and Caravan Park nestles on Lake Kyle's placid shores - a sportsman's dream world of bass fishing, yachting, water-skiing. A photographer's paradise is only a few kilometres away at Le Rhone Game Farm - or take the ferry to Kyle National Park. Discover for yourself this exciting country.
There is a licensed restaurant with a la carte cuisine, and a cocktail bar with a view. All lodges are self-contained and serviced daily. The caravan park provides private ablution blocks for each unit. There is a filtered swimming pool, boat jetty and launching ramp for small craft.
LE RHONE LODGES AND CARAVAN PARK
P.O. Box 572, Fort Victoria. Tel. 2238-26
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Camberwell High School
PROSPICE
DECEMBER, 1957
Proslice
Magazine of the
CAMBERWELL HIGH SCHOOL
1957
"PROSPICE" COMMITTEE 1957
Editors: Rachel Faggetter, Robert Kearsley.
Sport: Christine Fisch, Ian Sonderhof.
Art: Carolyn Davis, Ian Baker.
Current Events: Jean Ireland, Ray Spark.
Form Representatives: Eril Setford, John Anderson, Carol Blake, Margaret Sproat, Peter Gallus, Nathan Moshinsky, Bill Goodenough, Margaret Livingstone, Bill Logan, Mavis Rodda, Kerry Pratt, Jennifer Livingstone, Joy Goldstraw, Gwynyth Thompson, Peter Simmenauer, Ron Ingram, Dorothy Packham, Joy Morton, Stephen Zyga, Peter Stevens, Duncan Ross, Robin Pratt, Robert Irvine.
RETROSPECT
It is my good fortune to have lived in a time of great change, of great advance in human knowledge, and the application of that knowledge to man's use. Not the least of these advances has been in the field of secondary education, and it is very gratifying to have played even a small part in this advance.
Until the beginning of this century, the education of most Victorian children did not go beyond the primary school stage, it being considered that such a standard was sufficient for their needs. But at this time the outlook of the average man was becoming increasingly democratic, and he realised that in a democracy, it is essential to have an enlightened public opinion to maintain and advance our democratic institutions, and that this could be assured only by further education. Thus our High Schools commenced, and have progressed until now there are more than one hundred in the State. The number itself is impressive, but our pride is rather in the high repute in which these schools are held. Their record of scholarship is outstanding, as shown by examination results and by the large number of ex-students who occupy responsible positions in the community. The first teachers insisted on a high standard of conduct, and this is still a notable characteristic of our schools.
Now, as the time has arrived for me to leave this work, I try to imagine the developments of the next fifty years and envy those young teachers who will participate in this development. My wish is that their years of service in the schools will be as happy as mine have been.
A. J. Ebbels,
VALEDICTORY
Five years ago, a stranger to most of us came to take charge of our school. He came to us with a reputation for efficiency and with a long record of experience. He assumed control in an unobtrusive manner, and within a short time the school under the stimulus of this new energetic personality was making further progress on the foundations laid by its two previous headmasters. Now, no longer a stranger to even the newest arrival, but having reached the statutory age for retirement, Mr. Ebbels relinquishes his post and enters upon a period of retirement which we know will be full of activity in some cherished direction. It is to wish him happiness and true satisfaction in the years ahead, commensurate with the hard work and enthusiasm of the years behind, that this valedictory is written.
Much could be said of the growing complexity of the task of running a school in these post-war days, of coping with a rapidly-growing school population in more or less static accommodation, of constant staff changes, of the problems presented by the enrolment of Asian and other migrant students. There is so constant a strain from so many directions that the effects on health are considerable. Yet, remembering all these factors, the most enduring impression Mr. Ebbels will leave with us will be that of a man of sympathy, understanding and humanity. Efficiency alone can be a cold quality; tact can be a mask; but to a man of goodwill there cannot fail to be a warm response. Through the years he has shared with us, rather than merely directed the manifold activities of this school, he has indeed displayed qualities of a man of good will, and from staff and pupils alike there has been that warm response which culminates now in this expression of appreciation and the very best of good wishes. Included in these we should like to include Mrs. Ebbels who, as a headmaster's wife and behind the scenes, has shared the burdens imposed by her husband's position. We hope that, with him, she will be long spared to enjoy the rewards that are now at hand.
This year our senior master, Mr. D. Gray, also reaches the retiring age. Although with us for only one year, it has taken us less time than that to discover that Mr. Gray is a true friend to those who merit his friendship. He has exerted a very real influence on the school and has shown an interest in its welfare and progress far in excess of what might reasonably have been expected from a man facing retirement at the end of the year. We are grateful to him for a year's efficient and cheerful service to the school, for his courtesy and friendliness, and for the sense of justice he has displayed in his dealings with the staff and the pupils. On their behalf, "Prospic" offers Mr. and Mrs. Gray their best wishes for a long and happy retirement at Cannons Creek (where the big fish go!).
Mr. A. T. Ebbels, B.A., Dip.Ed., Headmaster 1953-57.
CAMBERWELL HIGH SCHOOL
HEAD MASTER
Mr. A. T. Ebbels, B.A., Dip.Ed.
SCHOOL ADVISORY COUNCIL
Cr. R. C. Cooper (President), Mr. A. G. Brewer, Mr. B. M. Curry, Mr. H. P. Head, Mr. M. G. Levy, Mrs. T. Robinson, Mr. M. W. Yunghanns, Mr. J. G. Beanland, Prof. F. Duras, Rev. C. E. Martin, Mr. J. B. F. Moore, Mr. R. T. M. Pescott, M.Ag.Sc., F.R.E.S.
MASTERS
Mr. D. G. Gray, D.T.S.C., T.T.C. (Man. Arts); Mr. C. L. Hallett, B.A., Dip.Ed.; Mr. J. C. Tynan, B.Com., B.Ed., T.T.C. (Com.); Mr. R. A. Hart, B.Sc., Dip.Ed.; Mr. G. R. Horne, B.Com., Dip.Ed., A.A.S.A., T.P.T.C.; Mr. C. O. McCallum, D.T.S.C., T.T.C. (Man. Arts); Mr. A. J. Foster, B.A., Dip.Ed.; Mr. H. S. Begbie, B.Sc., T.P.T.C.; Mr. J. W. Onyons, B.A., Dip.Ed.; Mr. G. A. L. Adams, B.A. (Hons.), B.Ed.; Mr. L. L. Cropper, B.A.; Mr. W. J. Ferguson, D.T.S.C.; Mr. R. W. Keene, B.Sc., Dip. Ed.; Mr. A. M. H. Aikman, B.Sc., Dip.Ed.; Mr. O. D. Dowling, B.A., Dip.Ed.; Mr. J. R. Doble, B.Sc., Dip.Ed.; Mr. O. C. Ferris, T.P.T.C., Dip.Mus.; Mr. A. A. Hardenberg, B.A.; Mr. E. Harrison, B.A., Dip.Ed.; Mr. J. Gibbons, Mus.Bac., Dip.Ed.; Mr. D. G. McCurrach, B.Com.; Mr. J. Hobill, Dip.Phys.Ed., T.P.T.C.
MISTRESSES
Miss L. G. Trickett, B.Sc., Dip.Ed.; Miss M. E. I. Moore, B.Sc., B.Ed.; Miss E. M. Crane, 2nd yr. Arts; Miss A. E. Webb, B.A., Mus.Bac., Dip.Ed.; Miss D. Burke, B.A., Dip.Ed.; Miss R. M. Clark, M.A., Dip.Ed., Lib.Ass.Prel.Cert.; Miss M. Pettit, B.A., A.T.T.I. Cert.; Mrs. B. D. Gray, Dip.Ed.; Mrs. M. L. Burke, B.A. (part of year only); Miss M. J. Burns, B.A., Dip.Ed.; Mrs. J. A. Merritt, B.A. (Hons.), B.Ed. (Terms I & II); Miss D. V. Debney, B.A., Dip.Ed. (Term I & part II); Mrs. J. E. Ikin, B.A., Dip.Ed.; Mrs. M. Dawkins, T.T.C.; Dr. G. Huttner, Ph.D., Dip.Ed.; Mrs. G. Hurnall; Miss J. Issett, Dip.Phys.Ed., T.P.T.C.
PREFECTS
Girls: Nicola Donkin (Head), Christine Fisch, Elizabeth Allen, Rachel Faggetter, Georgette Fink, Heather Glastonbury, Jean Ireland, Pamela Morcom, Cedar Sonnenberg.
Boys: David Raby (Head), Graeme Cox, John Brown, John Graham, Greg. Hambrook, Norman Hogg, Hugh Hopkins, Ian Sonderhof.
HOUSE CAPTAINS
Churchill: Beverley Blight, Frank Moore.
MacArthur: Judith Firth, Robert Kaegi.
Montgomery: Wendy Norman, David Chesterman.
Roosevelt: Dorothy Green, Ray Spark.
FORM CAPTAINS
VIa: Helen Jenkins. VIb: Barry McIlroy. Va: Susan Fisch. Vb: Sue Roddick. Ve: Edward Cole. Vd: David Weeks. IVa: Oenone Lovitt. IVb: Margaret Horton. IVc: Winifred James, Michael Stevenson. IVd: Judith Montgomery, David Parker. IIIa: John Page. IIIb: Noelle Gray. IIIc: Ruth Hanslow, Colin Wilson. IIId: Pat Main, Stuart Weeks. IIIe: Barbara Cowan, Lee Austin. IIa: Christine Bellman, Geoffrey Allen. IIb: Julie Key, Barry Vincent. IIc: Gloria Crofts, Graeme Collins. Ia: Jennifer Gibbs, Geoffrey Wess. Ib: Elizabeth Roddick, Graeme Ellis.
PROSPICE COMMITTEE
Back Row: W. Logan, P. Gallus, K. Pratt, P. Simmenauer.
Third Row: N. Moskinsky, M. Sproat, J. Morton, C. Blake, N. Donkin, E. Setford, M. Livingstone, W. Goodenough, S. Zyga.
Second Row: P. Stevens, R. Ingram, M. Rodda, J. Livingstone, J. Goldstraw, G. Thompson, D. Packham, R. Irvine, D. Ross.
Front Row: C. Davies, C. Fisch, J. Ireland, R. Faggetter (co-editor), Miss Clark, R. Kearsley (co-editor), R. Spark, I. Sonderhof, J. Anderson.
EDITORIAL
THIS year, 1957, has witnessed the commencement of the International Geophysical Year, a venture unparalleled in the history of science. The aim of this vast movement is to further man's grasp of the universe, and to use the knowledge gained for the advancement of civilisation. The I.G.Y. is a rare example of man's co-operation with his fellow-man; scientists all over the world have agreed to work intensively in some particular field, and then to make their findings available to all nations, regardless of colour or creed.
Surely if this spirit of co-operation can develop in the field of science, it can also be infused into the even more vital field of international political relationships and understanding. Someone has said that increased knowledge brings understanding, that ultimate aim we should all strive for in our human relationships. Understanding means compassion and toleration, a readiness to see the other point of view.
If the men of science, whose work in the field of nuclear physics has placed man's destiny so perilously in his own hands, can work towards peace, surely we, as the future generation, can help to play our part in achieving a new age of harmony between nations and goodwill between all men.
R. Faggetter, R. Kearsley,
Editors.
OBITUARY
Dr. A. V. G. JAMES
It was with great regret that the school learnt of the recent death of Dr. A. V. G. James, Headmaster of this school from 1941-1947. Dr. James was appointed the first Headmaster, and was in charge during the difficult war period, when the school had to change premises, and then return. He was largely responsible for laying out the grounds, and the school owes much in every way to his foundation work.
As well as being the author of many standard Geography text books, he took a prominent part in the social life of the community, and was well-known and respected by teachers, parents and residents of Camberwell. His continued interest in the school was manifest by his presence at each Speech Night and other school functions. To Mrs. James and his family, we extend our very sincere sympathy.
Installation of Prefects and House Captains, 1957
The Annual Installation of Prefects and House Captains for 1957 took place at the Hawthorn Town Hall on Thursday, 21st March.
The guests of honour at the ceremony, Cr. W. A. Fordham, Mayor of Camberwell, and Cr. G. S. Slobom, Mayor of Hawthorn, were officially welcomed by Cr. R. C. Cooper, Chairman of the School Advisory Council.
As is now the custom, the Form Captains were installed at the same function, and when they had been called up on to the stage, Miss Trickett, the Senior Mistress, addressed them. They then received their badges of office from Cr. Fordham, and Helen Jenkins replied to the Mayor on their behalf. The House Captains, after being addressed by the Senior Master, Mr. Gray, then received their badges from Cr. Slobom, and Wendy Norman replied.
Finally, the Prefects were addressed by Mr. Ebbels, the Head Master. Solemnly they took the oath, and then in turn signed the prefects' book, which is a record of all the prefects throughout the history of the school. After Cr. Fordham had presented each prefect with the badge of office, the two head prefects, Nicola Donkin and David Raby, gave speeches on behalf of their colleagues.
A hymn of dedication was sung, followed by the school song, which was indeed a fitting end to such a solemn occasion.
— R. A. Spark, VIb.
Speech Night, 1956
Speech Night, 1956, was held on the 2nd November at the Hawthorn Town Hall, and was attended by only the senior classes. The programme opened with the National Anthem and two items by the school orchestra. Then followed an address by the President of the School Advisory Council, Councillor R. C. Cooper, J.P., and massed singing by the whole school. The Headmaster, Mr. A. T. Ebbels, made a report on the school year, followed by the guest speaker, Professor F. Duras, who spoke on the ideals behind the Olympic Games.
After some enjoyable singing by the Madrigal Groups, the prizes and sports awards were presented by Councillor W. A. Fordham, Mayor of Camberwell.
The senior choirs sang three items, followed by the massed singing of Tallis' Canon. Then Miss Egan and Mr. Hallett were introduced to the audience as the composers of the School Song. After a few words from them, the programme finished with the singing of the School Song and the National Anthem.
— J. Ireland.
PRIZES AND AWARDS
**Dux:**
Humanities: B. Mason.
Mathematics & Science: D. Wilson.
**Form VI**
English Expression: K. Price.
English Literature: J. Eltham.
French: B. Mason.
Latin: B. Gatzke.
History: J. Eltham.
Geography: N. Head.
Mathematics:—Pure: B. Firth.
Calculus & Applied Mathematics: D. Wilson.
Biology: S. Beilharz.
Chemistry: G. Sproat.
Physics: D. Wilson.
Accounting: R. Jones.
Music—
Girls: L. Carter.
Boys: P. Chesterman.
**Form V**
K. Greig, E. Setford, H. Hopkins, G. Thomson.
**Form IV**
J. Firth, B. Blight, M. Appleton, N. Seaton,
B. Jarasius.
**Form III**
O. Lovitt, M. Livingstone, L. Murray, W. Logan.
**Form II**
M. Keith, K. Yorg.
**Form I**
K. Walter, D. Packham, B. Vincent.
**Sports Awards**
**Girls:**
L. Anderson, J. Firth, D. Green, M. McDowell, K. Price.
**Boys — Re-awards:**
B. Blythe, G. Cox, P. Friend, D. Raby, N. Twitt, D. Weeks.
**Awards —**
C. Beed, J. Brown, R. Coppin, H. Davies, J. Eastham, A. Schwab, S. Weeks.
Gerald Robinson — First Class Honours in English Literature, British History and Geography. Matriculation Exhibition, Senior Government Scholarship, Commonwealth Government Scholarship.
Brian Firth — First Class Honours in Pure Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Chemistry and Music (Theory). Secondary Teaching Studentship.
MATRICULATION EXAMINATIONS, 1956
As last year (1956) was the first time students of Camberwell High School sat for the Matriculation examination, we are pleased to publish the following results, and to congratulate the successful candidates:
HONOURS
English Literature
First Class: G. Robinson; Second Class: J. Eltham, B. Mason.
Latin
First Class: B. Gatzke; Second Class: S. Beilharz, N. Head, G. Robinson.
Applied Maths.
First Class: D. Wilson, B. Firth.
Pure Maths.
First Class: B. Firth; Second Class: D. Wilson.
Physics
First Class: D. Wilson; Second Class: A. Evans, B. Firth, D. Seedsman, G. Sproat.
Chemistry
First Class: B. Firth, G. Sproat; Second Class: B. Gatzke, J. Clarke, D. Wilson.
Biology
Second Class: S. Beilharz.
Geography
First Class: L. Carter, G. Robinson; Second Class: B. Blythe, P. Chesterman, G. Galt, N. Head, R. Jones, K. Walker.
British History
First Class: G. Robinson; Second Class: C. Beed, H. Burden, L. Carter, J. de Mole, J. Eltham, H. Korman, B. Mason, C. Sonnenberg, K. Walker.
Modern History
Second Class: C. Beed, L. Carter, B. Mason, K. Walker.
Music (Practical)
Second Class: N. Head.
Music (Theory)
First Class: B. Firth.
Accountancy
Second Class: R. Jones.
German
First Class: S. Beilharz, B. Gatzke.
The following students gained their Matriculation Certificate
C. Beed, S. Beilharz, B. Blythe, H. Burden, A. Carter, L. Carter, P. Chesterman, J. Curry, J. Clarke, E. Clarke, J. de Mole, N. Dorkin, J. Eltham, A. Evans, B. Firth, J. Francis, P. Friend, G. Galt, B. Gatzke, N. Head, H. Korman, R. Jones, R. Lord, B. Mason, A. Meiers, K. Petrie, K. Price, K. Quinlan, R. Reading, G. Robinson, D. Seedsman, C. Sonnenberg, G. Sproat, K. Walker, D. Wilson.
(Continued on next page)
Matriculation Exhibition (General Award)
G. Robinson.
Senior Government Scholarship
G. Robinson.
Dafydd Lewis Scholarships
B. Blythe, G. Sproat.
S.E.C. Scholarship
D. Wilson.
P.M.G. Cadetship
D. Seedsman.
Commonwealth Government Scholarship Awards
C. Beed, S. Beilharz, B. Blythe, A. Carter, P. Chesterman, J. Clarke, J. Elham, G. Galt, B. Gatzke, N. Head, B. Mason, G. Robinson, D. Seedsman, G. Sproat, K. Walker, D. Wilson.
Secondary Teaching Studentships to Melbourne University
P. Chesterman, J. Clark, B. Firth, G. Galt, N. Head, R. Lord, B. Mason, A. Meiers, K. Price, G. Robinson, K. Walker.
REMEMBRANCE DAY SERVICE, 1956
Just prior to 11 o'clock on the morning of Friday, 9th November, work in the school ceased, and the pupils filed out to the front of the school to take part in a Remembrance Day service.
A guest speaker, Rev. W. E. Hadden, gave an inspiring speech on the need of all present and future generations to remember the deeds of the fallen, and what they did to benefit the future of the world. He was listened to by a silent and attentive gathering, and at the conclusion, the Headmaster requested that all should bow their heads in silent prayer for those who gave their lives for their country.
—Peter Nicholls.
ANNUAL SCHOOL SERVICE, 1956
The Annual School Service for 1956 was held once again in Trinity Church, Camberwell, on the 9th November. We sang several hymns, and the choir rendered the anthem "The Heaven of Heavens," whilst Mr. Krahnert accompanied us on the organ.
The Rev. Dr. Barton Babbage spoke of the tremendous change that was soon to take place in many of our lives, as we left the sheltered life to which we were accustomed, and plunged into the obscurity of the outside world.
At the close of the service, we all sang, "When I survey the wondrous Cross." —V. Frazer.
Snapshot by Joy Handley, IVa, winner of Out-of-School section, Snapshot Competition.
PREFECTS
Front Row (left to right): H. Glastonbury, D. Raby Head Prefect), Miss Trickett, Mr. Ebbels, N. Donkin (Head Prefect), I. Sonderhof.
Middle Row: P. Morcom, J. Ireland, R. Faggetter, E. Allen, G. Fink, C. Fisch, C. Sonnenberg.
Back Row: H. Hopkins, J. Brown, D. Rowland, N. Hogg, G. Hambrook, J. Graham.
SCHOOL DIARY
February 5: "Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more!"
February 22: Miss Alday leaves to become Mrs. Thurecht.
February 25: The Board of Inspectors arrive.
March 5: Roosevelt splash their way to victory in the House Swimming sports.
March 21: Prefects installed at Hawthorn Town Hall.
March 27: The male members of the school justify themselves as the superior sex by winning Inter-school Swimming Carnival.
March 29: Prefects partake of satisfying repast with the staff.
March 30: Many cases of indigestion.
April 5: Nature boy makes his bid to enter school.
April 12: Rowing Regatta — complete with musicians and cheer-leaders.
April 18: Easter vacation starts . . .
April 24: . . . . . . . . and ends!
April 25: Exams: "To fail or not to fail, that is the question."
May 16: Social — wow, such a night it was!
May 17: All have a well-earned rest.
May 28: Noses to the grindstone once again.
June 5: First XVIII just (?) beaten by University (20 goals).
June 15: Mr. Keene enters a bond other than a co-valent one. Congratulations!
June 18: Football team celebrates first victory against Northcote.
June 25: Cross-country run — "Fred and Jack enjoy a quiet stroll."
July 2: Combined High School Social — soft lights, soft music and very hard floor.
July 3: Football team unlucky after extremely hard match against Melbourne.
July 9: Football team annihilates Eltham.
July 16: Repeated against Box Hill.
July 19: Trip to Warragul — keen sporting rivalry — social.
July 20: Most boys return reluctantly after making many "conquests."
July 31: Visitors during the night.
August 6: Staff v. Form VI in gruelling football match. Staff won the match, but did they win the fight?
August 8: Exams: — "Dad, I am sure I will pass this time." — famous last words.
August 19: Choral competition. Montgomery warble their way to victory.
August 20: Correction day.
August 22: Mr. Adams leaves us for Cambodia. Our best wishes go with him.
August 24: School Fete — an eventful day!
August 27: "Er, half a minute, have you been to the 'Big Show'?"
August 29: Social c.f. May 16.
August 30: Teachers and pupils have a ten days' truce.
September 10: Final term begins.
September 24: House Athletic Sports, with Roosevelt victorious.
October 9: Inter-School Athletic Sports at Olympic Park; the spirit was willing . . .
November 13: The period of "hibernation" (or is it "aestivation"?—Ed.) begins for Form VI — 2 weeks for "swot vac."
November 25: Speech Night at St. Kilda Town Hall.
November 27: Final Matriculation exams. begin. "Like lambs to the slaughter" they go.
December 17: Final Assembly for Mr. Ebbels.
— R. A. Spark, VIb.
SCHOOL ACTIVITIES
CRUSADER-INTER-SCHOOLS' CHRISTIAN FELLOWSHIP
"Seek ye first the Kingdom of God and His righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you."—Matt. 6:33.
Every Monday, at 12 o'clock for the past school year, our Crusader-Inter-Schools' Christian Fellowship group has been meeting in Room 2, under the leadership of Mrs. Price, and, more recently, Mrs. Duerdoth. Although we have an average attendance of 35, there is still room for greater numbers, and we would like to see many more girls, especially from the Junior forms, next year. Besides our weekly meetings, we have had certain activities outside the school, such as the camp, which none of those who attended will ever forget, hikes and a social.
"The C.I.S.C.F. is strictly non-sectarian, its basis of belief conforming to the great traditional statements of the Christian Churches. Its aim is to foster all that is finest in youthful ideals and aspirations and to develop a true faith in Jesus Christ. It further stresses the importance of displaying Christian character in daily living, whether in the home, the class-room or on the sports field."
We would like to thank Mr. Ebbels and Miss Trickett for the help and co-operation they have given us, and all who have helped to make this year a success.
B. Millard.
W. Rodda.
FORM V. GEOGRAPHY EXCURSIONS
During 1957, the Fifth Form Geography classes have had some most interesting and instructive expeditions to various places.
Early in the year, the hidden wonders of Melbourne's port were revealed to us by the Harbour Trust. We cruised around the Docks and then out into the Bay, trying hard not to succumb to seasickness whilst busily munching sandwiches.
The Silvan Dam excursion was packed with thrills, including the exploration of dark tunnels, speed boat racing, and in one case, the perilous ascent of the tower.
The Shell excursion to Geelong had two main highlights, besides the purely geographical aspect. One was the delicious three course dinner served, and the other was Mr. Foster's jive exhibition on the way home in the bus.
Altona Oil Refinery excursion was most instructive, and we believe morning tea was provided for the enthusiastic geographers (c.f. Shell).
One thing about the General Motors Holden excursion has puzzled most of us. What were all those engines, noises and smells meant to signify? It was quite mystifying, but one positive thing we learned was that most of us look quite peculiar in spectacles.
We look forward to our excursion to Woodstock later in the year, where the Soil Conservation Authority has been combatting various types of soil erosion.
LIBRARY NOTES
This year, the library has been available to all forms at lunch-time, and on an average, 190 books have been borrowed weekly. Up to the end of July, 330 books have been added. As well as many reference books and recent novels, these include 20 of the "Young Traveller" series, a number of Biographies, and the full series of Longman's Colour Geographies. New periodicals subscribed to are:—Meanjin, UNESCO Courier, New Statesman and Nation, Music and Musicians, Australian Children's Newspaper, Australian Museum Magazine, Australian Stamp Monthly, Popular Mechanics, Popular Science. We also acknowledge periodicals sent to us by different firms and organisations.
The Art students are designing a book-plate, so that books donated to the library may be suitably inscribed. We commend to students leaving school this practice of donating a book to the library.
THIS YEAR IN SCHOOL MUSIC
When I was asked to write an article about the school music, various events immediately came to my mind. They were: The Secondary Schools' Music Festival, the Parents' Night, the Choral Competition and Speech Night, — four big events of the year in which music plays a most important part.
The Secondary Schools' Music Festival was held early in the year in the University's magnificent new Wilson Hall. A large number of schools entered, and all performed individually at a series of minor festivals. These were followed by a grand final night in which all took part. Our choir put up a very creditable performance, and thanks are due to Miss Webb for all her efforts expended on our behalf. On the final night, hundreds of parents were present to hear massed singing, choir and orchestral items. Altogether, the festival was a great success.
The second event that came to my mind was the Parents' night. A flute trio, made up of Jennifer Winford, Sandra Eltham and Elaine Robinson, rendered items which were greatly enjoyed by all present. The singing of the school Madrigal group was also greatly appreciated. It was a pity the Orchestra, which was in abeyance, was not able to perform here.
For the Choral Competition, House choirs, conducted and organised by House members, were hard at work during second term. The competition took place after the exams, Dr. A. E. Floyd being the adjudicator on this occasion. Lastly, in preparation for Speech night, we anticipate a busy third term of practice.
To sum up, this year has been, musically speaking, "allegro," and we hope that next year will be "vivace."
THE CHORAL FESTIVAL
This year, the annual Choral Festival was held on the 19th August at the Hawthorn Town Hall; this was somewhat later than usual, to enable practices to take place both before and after the examinations. The afternoon opened with the singing of the School Song and the welcoming of the adjudicator, Dr. A. E. Floyd, by David Raby, Head Prefect. Each choir sang a set song and a part song, while a group from each choir sang an unaccompanied three part song.
Set Piece
"Hand and Hammer" ......... MacMahon
Other Items
Roosevelt
"Beauty and Truth" ........ Coleridge-Taylor
"Breathe Soft" ............... Paxton
MacArthur
"Viking Song" ............... Coleridge-Taylor
"Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair" ........ Stephen Foster
Churchill
"Finlandia" .................. Sibelius
"O Peaceful Night" .......... (German)
Montgomery
"The Jovial Beggars" ........ Rowley
"The Gipsies' Laughing Trio" ....... Glover
While Dr. Floyd was reaching a decision, three pupils of the school entertained us with a flute trio. A new event on the programme was the appearance of press photographers who photographed both Roosevelt and Montgomery choirs.
Dr. Floyd then spoke, commending Miss Webb, our music teacher, on her work in helping the choirs, and commenting on the faults and good features of the various items. The results were then announced, with Montgomery house winning by one point. Dr. Floyd presented the cup to Montgomery's conductor, Wendy Norman, who then thanked him, and also thanked the other houses for their keen competition.
This most enjoyable afternoon was brought to a close with the singing of the National Anthem.
HOUSE NOTES
House members indicates that if Churchill persistently tails the field, the House scoring system should be abolished, the shame as one mounts the stairs at either end of the school being too great to bear. However, we look forward to success in the Choral Contest and the Athletic Sports. Our choir, although fairly well off in numbers, lacks volume, despite the untiring efforts of conductor Margaret Cole, and the great work of Frank Moore in conscripting the volunteers.
Finally, all members of Churchill join in thanking our House Mistress, Mrs. Gray, and Masters, Mr. Foster and Mr. Aikman, our Captains and their assistants for a very enjoyable, if not wholly successful, year. "The important thing is not to win, but to take part," and we've certainly done that.—R. Kearsley.
MACARTHUR
Under our two able House Captains, Judy Firth and Robert Kaegi, we have completed a fairly successful year. During her presence, Miss Moore was of great help to the girls, and Mr. Keene has given much of his valuable time to the boys. Mr. Ferris has been a dominant influence in the Junior House, aided by David Wilcox.
MacArthur is proud of the fact that we have been well represented in all the school sporting teams. In the swimming, we came third, and in the cross country, the final aggregate found us last.
Much hard labour has been carried out by our House choir conductor, John "Cactus" Anderson, with Judy Firth as our extremely capable accompanist.
With the Choral Festival and Athletics yet to come, we can only hold optimistic hopes about our chances in these events; at least we cannot do any worse in the Choral Contest than we did last year.
The House would like to convey its thanks to all those mentioned, and at this stage wish for the speedy and complete recovery of Miss Moore, of whose presence we were unfortunately deprived in second term.—J. G. Onto.
MONTGOMERY
Montgomery's efforts this year have been like the curate's egg — good in parts. We did very well in the Swimming Sports, coming second to MacArthur by only one point. We are reasonably confident of success in the Choral Contest, providing enough of the choir have recovered from 'flu to make the top note of "Hand and Hammer" audible, at least audible enough to reach the adjudicator. A number of our members were swimming champions, and we are hoping for the same result, if not better, for the Athletic Sports in third term.
We would like to thank our captains, Wendy Norman and David Chesterman, for their work throughout the year, and our House Teachers, Miss Crane and Mr. Onyons. Mr. Onyons deserves a special note of thanks for his efforts in recruiting boys for the singing practices.
—N. Donkin.
ROOSEVELT
Under the watchful eye of Miss Burke and Mr. Begbie, and with the leadership of Dorothy Green and Ray Spark, Roosevelt is completing another very successful year. We began our victorious season by winning the Swimming Sports in grand style. Modesty forbids us enlarging upon this except to congratulate our individual champions, Katrina Walter and Jeanette Anderson.
Next was the cross-country run in which we gained the most points, but congratulations must be given to Brian Maley on his well-earned win.
The House Choir practices are now in full swing under the able baton of Margaret Cowan, while Elizabeth Uren and Peter Jones thump out the accompaniment to a few feeble voices. It is with much torture and persuasion that we now have three permanent male members in our ranks, but nevertheless we hope our efforts will not be in vain. Time will soon tell.
Finally we must thank the other Houses for their friendly competition, and tell them not to give up hope when we streak out in front once again.
Lino-cut by Judith Hogg, Va.
INTER-HOUSE SWIMMING SPORTS
This year, the Annual Inter-House Swimming Sports were held at Camberwell Baths on Tuesday, 5th March.
The results were:
| | Girls | Boys | Total |
|----------------|-------|------|-------|
| 1. Roosevelt | 95½ | 96 | 191½ |
| 2. Montgomery | 75½ | 82 | 163½ |
| 3. MacArthur | 72 | 82 | 154 |
| 4. Churchill | 52 | 72 | 124 |
BOYS' SECTION
In the boys' section, the swimming was of a very high standard, especially in the Open Group, where a new record was established in every event.
The winners were:
**Diving**
David Taylor.
**Backstroke**
John Gordon, 31.8 sec.
**Freestyle**
Ong Choon Lim—
100 yds. 57.9 sec.
200 yds. 2.23.5 min.
**Breaststroke**
Eddie Koleits 34.6 sec.
**Butterfly**
Eddie Koleits 33.3 sec.
The Individual Champions were
Open: John Gordon.
Under 16: John Graham.
Under 15: Robert Lang.
Under 14: Terry Roberts.
Under 13: John Crout.
Under 12: Ross Horwood.
GIRLS' SECTION
**Open**
Winners were:
**Diving**
Hillary Savage.
**Backstroke**
Joan McNally.
**Breaststroke**
Frances Seedsman.
**Freestyle**
Gail Samblebe.
**Butterfly**
Pat Brewer.
Individual Champions
Open: Gail Samblebe
Joan McNally. Equal First.
Under 16: Jeanette Anderson.
Under 15: Pat Brewer.
Under 14: Katrina Walter.
Under 13: Bronwyn Reynolds.
Under 12: Necia Haxton.
ALL-SCHOOLS' SWIMMING CHAMPIONSHIPS
In these championships, held at the Olympic Swimming Stadium on the 30th March, Camberwell was well represented, and considering the numbers and high standard of the opposition, did very well.
Eddie Koleits won both the Under 19 Butterfly and also the Under 19 Breaststroke, with Norman Hogg second. The following boys succeeded in reaching the various finals:
John Gordon (3rd), John Graham (5th), Dieter Guenther (6th), Eddie Koleits (7th).
The school also reached the finals in the following team events:
Under 16 & Under 15 Relay (8th), Under 19 Medley (4th), Under 16 Medley (8th), and Under 14 Medley (6th).
ATHLETICS CHAMPIONS
Front Row: J. Reilly, G. Kemp, J. Morton, R. Horwood, K. Webster, J. Lockwood.
Back Row: J. Firth, J. Crellin, W. Lascelles, G. Cox, S. Weeks, D. Parker.
INTER-HOUSE ATHLETICS
This year, the House Athletics meeting was held on the school oval. This proved a great improvement on former years, and we would like to thank all those who helped to make the sports such a success, especially Miss Issett, Mr. Hobill and Mr. Aikman.
Individual champions were:
Girls
Open: J. Firth.
Under 16: G. Thompson,
J. Crellin.
” 15: G. Kemp.
” 14: J. Morton.
” 13: J. Reilly.
Boys
Open: G. Cox.
Under 17: D. Parker.
” 16: S. Weeks.
” 15: W. Lascelles.
” 14: K. Webster.
” 13: J. Lockwood.
” 12: R. Horwood.
Final Results
| House | Girls | Boys | Total |
|-----------|-------|------|-------|
| Roosevelt | 106½ | 197 | 303½ |
| Montgomery| 141½ | 154 | 295½ |
| MacArthur | 141 | 127 | 268 |
| Churchill | 110 | 148 | 258 |
INTER-SCHOOL ATHLETICS
Once again, the Inter-school Athletics Meeting was held at Olympic Park, on October 9. Camberwell came last in both the Boys’ and Girls’ sections, but in both sections there were a number of fine individual efforts.
In the Under 17, 440 yards, Jim Turnbull was most unfortunate to be disqualified, after finishing first and breaking the former record, for crossing into the wrong lane several yards from the finish.
Event winners were:
Girls
L. Ramshaw: Under 15, 75 yards, 100 yards.
J. Morton: Under 14, 75 yards, 100 yards.
Boys
K. Webster: Under 14, 75 yards, 100 yards.
The final points were:
Girls
MacRobertson: 121½.
University: 75.
Camberwell: 56½.
Boys
Melbourne: 135½.
Box Hill: 127.
Northcote: 120.
University: 91.
Camberwell: 69.
The afternoon of Wednesday, 27th March, was a memorable one for Camberwell High School sport this year. The school team won the Inter-High School Swimming Sports at the new Olympic Pool. The final points were:
- Camberwell: 93½
- Melbourne: 89
- Northcote: 74
- University: 50
- Box Hill: 49½
We gained four first placings in individual events:
- John Graham (under 16 backstroke)
- Ross Horwood (under 12 backstroke)
- Ong Choon Lim (open freestyle 100 metres)
- Edmund Koleits (open breastroke)
Ong Choon Lim's effort is particularly noteworthy as he not only set a record (64.1 sec.) but defeated John Olson (Melbourne High) who is a State swimming champion.
However, our success was due not only to a few boys, but to the fine efforts of all our swimmers. This is shown by the fact that we gained 14 second placings and 8 third placings. John Gordon and Robert Lang each gaining two second placings.
The sports were perhaps the most exciting held for many years and it was fitting that such a fine contest was held in the new Olympic Pool. Before the last race, the points were: Camberwell 85½ and Melbourne 84, the result of the sports depending on the final event (Open Relay).
Our team was: 1. John Gordon, 2. Norman Hogg, 3. Edmund Koleits, 4. Ong Choon Lim.
The race began amidst great enthusiasm and tension. Olson, swimming second for Melbourne, gained a lead of about three yards, with Camberwell second. Koleits reduced this lead slightly, but with one lap remaining, Camberwell were still two yards behind. However, Ong Choon Lim, our final swimmer, passed the Melbourne High swimmer with about 25 metres to go, and went on to win by two yards. The time for this event was 2 mins. 1.5 secs., breaking the existing record (2 mins. 5.4 secs.).
The swimming team is to be congratulated on this magnificent effort and for their co-operation with the Captain of Swimming, Ong Choon Lim, and Vice-Captain, John Graham.
Finally, the boys would like to record their appreciation of the untiring coaching given by Mr. T. Assell of the Camberwell Baths.
"Donkey Serenade" — Lino-cut by W. Logan, IV.c.
PREFECT PERSONALITIES
NICOLA DONKIN: Head Prefect, Captain of Hockey Team. Has a terrific stare, remarkable hair, an answer to everything. Theme song: Eat, drink and be merry for tomorrow we diet. For further details see Prospic's 55 & 56. N.B.—This is not an advertising stunt.
ELIZABETH ALLEN: Our Yankee Prefect. Is perpetually trying to understand the Australian way of life, especially the intricacies of school uniform. Her chief attribute is her hair; hence her theme song, "I'm a Lovely 'Black Eyed'!"
HEATHER GLASTONBURY: Feminine fatale! Is always laying in food supplies. Her problems seem mainly of a chemical and physiological nature, and she's perpetually discovering fresh new ones. Her favourite saying is, "Hey, Ant, can I borrow your Prac. Book?" Theme Song: If at first you don't succeed, try, try, try again, and if you do succeed, keep on trying.
RACHEL FAGGETTER: Prospic Co-editor! Peculiarity is her eyelashes which she flutters incessantly, though she swears she doesn't know a thing about it. Her ambition is to marry a wealthy squatter, and boy! does she mean wealthy! Theme song: "Waltzing Matilda" ("Down came a squatter . . . )
GEORGETTE FINK: Arrives 2 minutes before the bell, saying, "Hi, Rake, what've we got?" Her peculiarity is her smile which hides nothing, and she's our most innocent prefect! She hates being told that the French are like she's just the opposite, of course. Motto: J'attendrai. Theme Song: "Smiley."
CHRISTINE FISCH: Capt. of School Basketball team. Is perhaps the sanest prefect, but even she goes off the deep end once a week with the Doncaster Rebels, a basketball outfit. Her perpetual occupation is sneaking dark looks at Mr. Begbie when he expounds the peculiarities of the Dog Fis(e)h. Theme Song: Shall we dance?
JEAN IRELAND: Is by far the quietest prefect, whose only audible sound is a slight sigh when asked for the umpteenth time to lend out her notes. Her peculiarity is that she's brilliant at French and yet remains sane. Motto? Deenk miek for sanity.
PAM MORCOM: Basket-ball Vice-Captain —Is the girl who's driven to school each morning, mainly because of ill-effects. Is always saying "Ye gods and little fishes" when she's shocked, which happens quicker than you can say "Jack" Robinson. Theme Song: she can't sing.
CEDAR SONNENBERG: Is the prefect you can never find, for the simple reason that she's never here. SHE's always trying vainly to convince Mr. Hallett that she knows French. Her ambition is to marry, but don't ask whom —she doesn't know yet. Her probable fate is at least three marriages, and her motto? Never say die!
DAVID RABY: Head Prefect.
Pet Aversion: His cap.
Peculiarity: Wears his cap.
Perpetual Occupation: Dropping his nose.
Theme Song: "Little Boy Blew!"
Probable Fate: Who nose?
JOHN BROWN: Captain of Tennis.
Peculiarity: Can hit a tennis ball.
Ambition: To turn professional for £50,000.
Probable Fate: Assistant weed-puller at Kookaburra.
Pet Aversion: The weaker sex.
Favourite Saying: "Late again, Francis, lad!"
GRAEME COX: Captain of Football.
Favourite Saying: "Now, if there's one thing I like, it's . . . "
Perpetual Occupation: "Potting" lunch.
Pet Aversion: Work.
Theme Song: "Come Fishin'!"
Probable Fate: Oblivion.
JOHN GRAHAM:
Favourite Saying: "How ya goin', Hairy?"
Perpetual Occupation: Haunting the library.
Ambition: None at all.
Probable Fate: We can only wonder!
Theme Song: "Now is the Hour!"
GREG HAMBROOK: Captain of Cricket.
Peculiarity: Never rises before 9.30 a.m.
Ambition: To learn the "ins and outs" of his car.
Probable Fate: Driving, or horse-riding.
Favourite Saying: "How'd you go Saturday, Jack?"
Theme Song: "My Merry Oldsmobile!"
NORMAN HOGG:
Peculiarity: Plays golf 7 days a week.
Ambition: To win the British Open.
Probable Fate: Green-keeper at Wattle Park.
Theme Song: "No John, no John, no John, No!"
Perpetual Occupation: Replacing divots.
HUGH HOPKINS: Captain of Boats.
Ambition: Test Pilot.
Probable Fate: Disaster!
Peculiarity: Talks?
Perpetual Occupation: Paddling his own canoe.
Theme Song: "Row, row, row!"
DAVID ROWLAND:
Favourite Saying: "How's the work going, chum?"
Pet Aversion: Walking slowly.
Ambition: New Guinea Patrol Officer.
Probable Fate: Ornamental shrunken skull (size 7¾).
Theme Song: "Li'l Darlin'!"
IAN SONDERHOF:
Favourite Saying: "Now, I mustn't go out this Saturday night."
Perpetual Occupation: Going out on Saturday nights.
Pet Aversion: Learning mechanics.
Peculiarity: Supports country hospitals.
Theme Song: "Enjoy yourself, It's later than you think!"
"The Face of the Water" — by Fay Wellington, Yb.
FORM CAPTAINS
Back Row: E. Roddick, J. Gibbs, G. Webb, G. Ellis.
Fourth Row: G. Crofts, J. Key, C. Bellman, G. Allen, B. Vincent, G. Collins.
Third Row: B. Cowan, P. Main, R. Hanslow, P. Niquet, J. Page, J. Ware, S. Weeks, D. Austin.
Second Row: E. Mauger, W. James, M. Horton, O. Lovitt, B. Osborne, M. Stevenson, D. Parker.
Front Row: S. Roddick, S. Fisch, H. Jenkins, B. McIlroy, E. Cole, D. Weeks.
FORM NOTES
Form I
We are the “big noise” of the school, but in that respect, we are gradually decreasing. We had an interesting afternoon at the Melbourne Town Hall, when we went to hear the Victorian Symphony Orchestra. During 2nd term, Ia raised £5 for social services by holding a stall, and in the school fete, will be responsible for help on the flower stall and for a darts competition.
Form II
Form II have had a successful year, particularly in Sport, having in our ranks the Swimming champions Katrina Walter, Bronwen Reynolds and John Crout, and Kim Webster, Captain of the under 14 Football team. Several members also did well in the Cross-country run. We have appreciated the work of our Form Teachers and Form Captains during the year.
Form III
We have had some successful — and unsuccessful — achievements, under the capable leadership of our Form Teachers and Form Captains. Many of our boys distinguished themselves in the Under 14 Cricket and Football teams, and others are in the school hockey team. Several were rowing in the regatta. The girls have had members in the tennis, softball and basketball teams. We are hoping that the end of the year will see many other achievements.
Form IV
Form IV’s year has been highlighted by the combined Fourth Forms’ Social in first term. We are also indebted to Mr. Dowling who arranged for us to go to the “Merchant of Venice.” Our school work is conducted in quite an orderly confusion, and we are well represented in Sports teams, most members of our Forms taking part. We are now settling down to some earnest (?) study for our examinations, which loom in the near future.
Form V
Our Snow Trip to Mt. Donna Buang was very enjoyable despite the complete absence of snow. Many of us also attended the Inter-School social. To further our knowledge of Shakespeare, we went to the National Theatre’s production of “Macbeth.”
We have enthusiastically participated in every form of the Inter-School sports matches, and have many outstanding representatives in our midst, including John Gordon, the school swimming champion and Brian Maley, winner of the cross-country run.
Having made a contribution to our Social Service fund, we now intend to participate in the forthcoming fete with a few original ideas. Vb were very sorry to lose their Form Mistress, Mrs. Merritt, during 2nd term, and wish her and her husband every happiness while they are abroad.
Form VI
During the year, we have had several hikes in the Dandenongs, which were very educational, for we learnt how to climb up about 1,000 steps, and we studied the art of climbing waterfalls!
We are often to be seen making our way along the top corridor with preoccupied steps, heavy tomes under our arms, our destination being the library. Here we engage in some serious meditation on the Electro-chemical equivalent of a colloidal electrolyte, etc. . . . .
We have been well represented in all the sports teams and many of us are in the school choir. Those elite personages known as prefects all belong to our ranks, too.
Finally, we would like to thank all teachers who have taught, grinded, and generally shaped us for the future, during the six years that most of us have been at Camberwell High.
WARRAGUL VISIT, 1957
On the cold and frosty morning of Friday, 19th July, a group of eighty-six students and four teachers left Flinders Street on the "Gippslander" bound for Warragul. Amid general excitement, everyone settled down for the two hour journey, but not before exploring the full length of the train and sampling the delights of the Buffet Car.
At Warragul station, we were given a great reception by press and radio alike, and then we walked up the long hill to the school, where we got to know everybody over soup and buns. After the official welcome, the sports matches commenced amid the greatest interest, Camberwell having a field day. At 4 o'clock, we piled into the school buses which took us, sometimes as far as thirty miles, to the homes of our hostesses. At the social, everyone seemed to have a wonderful time, even though the hall was a trifle crowded. The Camberwell boys who danced every dance were greatly admired by the Warragul girls, who apparently are unable to budge their own males from holding up the walls all night. The supper was typical of the wonderful Warragul hospitality, as were the reports from all round of the staggering country meals and the real cows' milk.
Everyone managed somehow to catch the 9.45 a.m. train at Warragul next morning, though some, admittedly, were cutting things a bit fine. After what had seemed an amazingly short time, we were heading for home, sharing tales of milking cows and eating lashings of cream.
This year more than ever, there seems to be a feeling in both schools that this visit be conducted on a larger scale, with extra activities like debating being included in the programme. The Warragul visits are very thoroughly enjoyed by all who take part, not only from the sporting angle but from the wonderful friendship and goodwill experienced by all.—R.F.
In August of this year, we were extremely sorry to lose Mr. G. A. L. Adams who left for Cambodia to take up an appointment under the Colombo Plan. We would like to express our appreciation of his work as Sports Master this year, his vigour and tremendous enthusiasm in encouraging sport, as well as his friendly spirit and co-operation.
CRICKET — First XI
The season was an interesting one, although the team was defeated in each of its four encounters. The team was young, and with the experience gained, boys returning next year should form a strong combination. Sixteen-year old Alan Schwab was the outstanding performer with the willow, while Powell, aided by Jenkins, Fenton and Raby, did well with the ball. David Jenkins is only a fourth former and he bowled extremely well for his age. The highlight of the season was the near victory over Melbourne High.
Results
v. Box Hill
This opening match was played at Box Hill, and we were set the task of making 234 runs in 40 overs. We were not up to it, and after the dismissal of Schwab, the side collapsed, and we scored only 110. Chief wicket takers were Powell 4/53 and Jenkins 3/75.
v. University
We won the toss and decided to bat on a firm wicket. The bowling of Leigh proved too difficult and we were dismissed before lunch with our score only 65. Raby hit a fine 21, and a 6 scored by wicket-keeper Chesterman was a fine effort. University went on to score 5/175 at stumps.
v. Northcote
We again batted first, and fine hands by Schwab, Raby, Powell and Fenton enabled us to score 116. Northcote resumed after lunch, and were soon in trouble when 4 wickets were down for only 30 runs. However, a fine mid-innings stand enabled them to scrape home by 20 runs.
v. Melbourne
The team felt they were improving, and were full of confidence for the encounter against Melbourne. Going in first, we lost V. C. Cox early, and Raby soon followed. Schwab, Blanksby and Powell came to the rescue with the result that we scored 109 runs. Melbourne began confidently and had 45 runs up before they lost their first wicket. But then outstanding bowling by Jenkins, Fenton and Raby enabled us to fight back until they were 8/96. The excitement was terrific when they scraped their way to 9/108. A lucky snick through slips, however, finished the match, with Melbourne victors by 2 runs.
The team would like to express their thanks to the energetic efforts of sportsmaster Mr. Adams and to the untiring coaching of Mr. McCurrach.
G. Hambrook, Capt.
G. Cox, V.-Capt.
Second XI
The Second XI played three matches this year. Of these three, we won one and were narrowly defeated in two. The quality of the cricket and the spirit in which it was played by our XI, either winning or losing, were a credit to our school. Under the eye of Mr. Adams, who did a good job as selector, David Weeks as Captain, Marcus John as Vice-Captain, and certain young players, Eric Joiner, Eric Shade and Michael Stevenson, were introduced to senior cricket and played creditably.
BOYS' TENNIS TEAM
Back Row: D. Walter, J. Francis, I. Smith, J. Onto, R. Seedsman.
Front Row: G. Barrow, T. Eastham, J. Brown, G. French, A. Cole, G. Simmons.
Results
Camb. 6/83 v. Box Hill 4/70
Bowlers: Joiner 2/16.
Batting: Webster 21, Willing 19, John 20.
Camb. 7/91 v. Northcote 7/109
Bowlers: Pearce 4/19, Stevenson 2/40.
Batting: Weeks 41, Clarke 12.
Camb. 9/58 v. Melbourne 7/116
Bowlers: Shade 6/28.
Batting: Francis 15, Shade 15.
Under 14 XI
We played the first match of the season against Box Hill in an interesting game. Camberwell won by 41 runs. Box Hill batted first and were dismissed for 78, Vincent being chief wicket taker with 4/16. We then batted, and at stumps were 7/119. Top Scorers: Bradbury 23, Lawrence 25, Bond 20.
The next match was against University. In a thrilling game with the winning hit made in the last over, University won by 10 runs. Camberwell batted first and were dismissed for 64. Top scorers: Lovitt 25, Lawrence 12. The rest of the team failed to reach double figures. University then batted and made 7/74. Wicket takers: Vincent 4/28, Lawrence 2/12.
In the next match against Northcote, Camberwell had a comfortable win. We batted first and declared at 8/113. Run getters: Wilcox 33, Lawrence 27, Smith 17.
Northcote then batted and were dismissed for 24. Bowlers: Shade 5/3, Wilcox 4/5, Vincent 1/13. We then put Northcote in for the outright, but could dismiss only two batsmen for 10 runs. For the match, Shade took 6/9 and Wilcox 5/9. On the whole, Camberwell played well to win 2 out of 3 matches.
On behalf of the team I would like to thank Mr. Adams for staying on Monday and Tuesday nights to give us some very good practice.
David Wilcox, Capt.
Eric Shade, V.C.
TENNIS
This year the tennis has been fairly successful, as we have won 6 matches and lost 3. During the first term, the team won against Box Hill and Northcote, being defeated by Melbourne and University.
After reorganising the team, we met with greater success in the second term, defeating University, Box Hill, Northcote and Warragul, and being beaten only by Melbourne.
I would like to thank all members of the team for their co-operation throughout the year.
(Sportsmaster's comment:
I wish to record my appreciation of John Brown's efforts in organising the complete activities of the tennis this year).
Results
1. Camberwell 14 sets 110 games d. University 9 sets 95 games.
2. Camberwell 12 sets 92 games d. Northcote 2 sets 54 games.
3. Melbourne 7 sets 52 games d. Camberwell 3 sets 38 games.
4. Camberwell 14 sets 121 games d. Box Hill 3 sets 38 games.
5. Camberwell 10 sets 91 games d. Warragul 2 sets 49 games.
Won 4. Lost 1.
Players
J. Brown (c), G. French, T. Eastham, A. Cole, G. Barrow, D. Walker, G. Simmons, J. Onto, F. Seedsman, J. Francis.
ROWING
Rowing as a school sport has not been long established, but as a result of the enthusiasm of the oarsmen and their coaches, we were able to enter nine crews for the Annual High Schools' Head of the River on the 13th April.
In the second week of term, the Boat Club was formed, and the following officers elected:
President: Mr. H. S. Begbie; Vice-President: Mr. A. M. H. Aikman; Captain: A. H. Hopkins; Vice-Captain: F. R. Moore; Committee: E. Cole, K. Mayberry, G. Morris, I. Sonderhof.
Almost immediately, the crews were boated and commenced the long hard training schedule designed to have the oarsmen at top pitch for the 13th. Various terms such as "Pink pills," "Power ten," "You're late 3" and "4 laps around the oval, chaps," became very familiar. Lack of experience was evident, but under the Olympic-style tutoring of Mr. Aikman and Mr. Cowie, the crews soon developed into extremely hard-working combinations. We rowed many miles in training, and as the coaches cycled along the tow-path, bellowing orders through their megaphones, they became just as fit as the crews.
As a result of this keenness, eight of the nine crews reached the finals. The first heat of the eights proved extremely exciting when Camberwell beat University by 3 ft. Well rowed, eight! In the final, our lightweight crew (average 10 st. 6 lbs.) was at a slight disadvantage, and we secured 3rd place, two lengths behind the heavy Melbourne crew and one length behind the "bush-bred" Ballarat eight. The crews consisted of the following boys:
1st VIII
K. Mayberry (stroke), A. H. Hopkins, N. R. Fuller, F. R. Moore, K. T. S. Wild, I. L. R. Sonderhof, D. M. Taylor, R. G. Bell (bow), R. Mollison (cox).
1st IV
K. Mayberry (stroke), F. R. Moore, N. R. Fuller, A. H. Hopkins (bow), J. Morse (cox).
2nd IV
D. M. Taylor (stroke), I. L. R. Sonderhof, K. T. S. Wild, R. G. Bell (bow), D. Friend (cox).
3rd IV
G. Morris (stroke), J. Corrie, J. O'Hara, G. Shaw (bow), I. Tracey (cox).
4th IV
W. Caulfield (stroke), S. Weeks, R. Oliver, R. Lang (bow), R. L. Pearce (cox).
5th IV
J. I. Redfern (stroke), R. Powne, N. I. Bradbury, R. Taylor (bow), B. Patching (cox).
6th IV
J. K. Webster (stroke), I. R. Cole, J. J. Page, A. B. Hart (bow), I. Clark (cox).
Finally, we would like to thank our coaches, Mr. Aikman, Mr. Begbie, Mr. Corrie, Mr. George and other Hawthorn helpers, and also the oarsmen for the terrific interest and enthusiasm which they displayed. Altogether it was a highly successful season, and a strong foundation for years to come.
H. Hopkins, Captain.
F. Moore, Vice-Captain.
FOOTBALL
First XVIII
Camberwell High School 1st XVIII enjoyed their most successful season to date, winning five of their seven matches. Much of this success must be attributed to the time and energy of their coach, Mr. Keene, and the interest of Mr. Adams, Mr. Aikman and Mr. Hobill.
Mordialloc v. Camberwell
At Mordialloc Oval. In a practice game, in which 24 players were tried, Camberwell held off a strong finish from Mordialloc to win by 2 points.
Camberwell 7-4-46 d. Mordialloc 7-2-44.
Goals: Cox 2, Spark 2, Maley, Schwab, Gordon.
Best: Worley, Cox, Spark.
University v. Camberwell
Playing spiritless football, Camberwell was thrashed by a relentless University team. Only in the final term did Camberwell match their opponents, whose overall superiority was evident from the first bounce.
University d. Camberwell 21-14-140 — 2-7-19.
Goals: Spark, Parker.
Best: Spark, Chesterman, Hogg, Raby, Worley.
Camberwell v. Northcote
In a match marked by the infusion of fire and vigour into their play, Camberwell, after an even first half, played a strong third quarter, kicking three goals against the wind, established a winning break and gained their first win ever against Northcote. The dominance of the Camberwell followers inspired the whole team to a great victory.
Camberwell 9-10-64 d. Northcote 6-4-40.
Goals: Pearce 3, Powell 3, Morrow, Schwab, Hambrook.
Best: Hambrook, Chesterman, Hogg, Cox, John.
Melbourne v. Camberwell
Against the crack Melbourne team, considered to be the champions of Victoria, the team made a magnificent effort to lead well into the last quarter. However, in a few minutes of the final term, Melbourne goaled several times, the strong wind then making our task hopeless.
It was pleasing that Melbourne, through their coach, Mr. B. J. Munday, acknowledged our effort as one of their hardest games.
Melbourne 10-13-73 d. Camberwell 4-8-32.
Goals: Hambrook 2, Spark, Pearce.
Best: Cox, Hambrook, Worley, Chesterman, Raby.
Camberwell v. Eltham
In a non-competition game, Eltham were no match for the bigger Camberwell side who won easily.
Camberwell 24-17-161 d. Eltham 1-2-8.
Goals: Pearce 6, Hambrook 5, Schwab 4, Spark 2, Powell 2, Cox 2, Parker, Worley, Morrow.
Best: Hambrook, Spark, Worley, Schwab, Pearce.
Camberwell v. Box Hill
Playing with confidence, we overpowered and outclassed Box Hill to score an easy victory. It was evident that the younger members of the team were settling down and with competent players in every position, our evenness was a big factor in this win.
Camberwell 15-16-106 d. Box Hill 6-5-41.
Goals: Spark 5, Pearce 3, Schwab 2, Cox, Crocker, McFadden, Jenkin, Worley.
Best: Spark, Blanksby, Cox, Anderson, Pearce.
Warragul v. Camberwell
After Warragul had shocked the confident Camberwell with a first quarter lead of three goals, the team settled down to take control in the second term, and go on to a comfortable victory. The ability of the team to fight back from behind was a most pleasing feature of this final match of a most successful season.
Camberwell d. Warragul 13-16-94 — 7-5-47.
Goals: Pearce 5, Spark 2, Hogg 2, Schwab 2, Blanksby, Morrow.
Best: Worley, Spark, Cox, Hogg, Stevenson, John.
G. Cox, Capt.
G. Hambrook, V.-Capt.
Second XVIII
Under the able guidance of Mr. Aikman, the 2nd XVIII football team met with mixed success during the season. Our best performance was against University High School, and although beaten by four goals, we gave the opposition a hard fight and were not disgraced, which was contrary to some 'expert' opinion.
Results
University 12.6 d. Camberwell 8.8.
Goals: Schwab 3, Crocker 2, Bucknell, Morrow, Jenkins.
Best: John, McFadden, Roberts, Schwab, Crocker, Stevenson.
Northcote 11.13 d. Camberwell 2.8.
Goals: Duncan, Gallus.
Best: Webster, Roberts, Turnbull, Scurrah, Hopkins.
FOOTBALL TEAM
Front Row: K. Roberts, J. Anderson, D. Raby, Mr. Keene, G. Cox, A. Schwab, K. McFadden.
Middle Row: D. Pearce, P. Blunden, I. Jenkin, D. Chesterman, R. Spark, G. Powell, M. Stevenson, A. Worrley.
Back Row: R. Crocker, B. Maley, N. Hogg, G. Hambrook, M. John, B. Blanksby, R. Morrow.
Melbourne 12.7 d. Camberwell 1.4.
Goals: Duncan.
Best: Roberts, Duncan, Monaghan, J. Sonderhof.
Camberwell 17.23 d. Eltham 0.1.
Goals: Duncan 4, N. Roberts 2, K. Roberts 2, Taylor 3, Sonderhof 2, Guenther 2.
Best: K. Roberts, Sonderhof, Duncan, Gallus, Jenkin, N. Roberts, Taylor, Graham.
Camberwell 5.4 d. Box Hill 4.9.
Goals: Duncan 4, Graham.
Best: Graham, Taylor, Gallus, Duncan, N. Roberts, Kaegi.
K. Roberts, Capt.
R. Kaegi, V.-Capt.
Under 14 XVIII
This year the Camberwell under 14 Football Team has had a fair season, winning six matches and losing five. In the Lightning Premiership, we won our first three contests to enter the Grand Final, which we lost by a single point to Marcellin College after a very even struggle.
All members of the team would like to thank our coach Mr. Hobill for his keen interest and the professional advice he has given us.
The results of the matches are as follows:
Camberwell d. Hawthorn West Central 10.7 to 3.8
Goals: White 4, Cahill 2, Redfern, Lascelles, Bradbury, Webster.
Best: Lester, Williams, Selway, Bradbury, Cahill, Headberry, White.
University d. Camberwell 24.24 to 2.2
Goals: Bradbury, Williams.
Best: Bradbury, Selway, Webster, Collins, Williams.
Northcote d. Camberwell 17.14 to 2.3
Best: Webster, Bradbury, Lester, Waters, Cahill, Hotchins.
Gardiner Central d. Camberwell 5.9 to 3.12
Best: Lester, Webster, Waters, Lockwood, Bond, Redfern.
Camberwell d. Box Hill 4.4 to 3.7
Goals: Lovitt 2, Bond, Shannon.
Best: Webster, Lester, Williams, Selway, Bradbury, Cahill, Collins.
Eltham d. Camberwell 6.12 to 5.7
Goals: Lovitt, Lester, Bond, Shannon, Belzer.
Best: Lester, Tress, Bradbury, Selway, Collins, Lockwood.
Camberwell d. Deaf & Dumb 7.8 to 5.8
Goals: Page 3, Austin 2, Pearce, Lovitt.
Best: Page, Austin, Waters, Bradbury.
K. Webster, Capt.
N. Bradbury, V.-Capt.
BOYS' HOCKEY
Climax of this year's hockey was the match against Melbourne at Matlock Park. An overconfident Melbourne was beaten by a much smaller but superior Camberwell team. After a good goal by Camberwell forwards in the first half, a really hard game ensued, Camberwell winning by one goal.
Our team this year defeated Northcote twice, and also defeated Melbourne. Our only loss was against University, but we were playing under very poor conditions.
Success this year has been due mostly to coaching by Mr. Foster who gave up valuable time each Monday evening to improve our play.
The team had several young players who should keep up the strength of the team in future years.
Results
Camberwell 4 d. Northcote 1
Best: D. Weeks, S. Weeks, E. Shade.
University 1 d. Camberwell 0
Best: D. Weeks, S. Weeks, E. Shade.
Camberwell 2 d. Northcote 1
Best: D. Weeks, S. Weeks, M. Gill, E. Shade.
Camberwell 1 d. Melbourne 0
Magnificent performance by whole team.
M. Gill, Capt.
D. Weeks, V.-Capt.
SOCCER
Although only moderately successful during the season, the Soccer Team, led by Michael Taussig, won one match quite convincingly. Having lost over half of last season's team, we were in the throes of team building, and many of this year's team played soccer for the first time. Mr. Hardenberg and Mr. Doble gave the Captain and his assistant, Tom Shen, valuable support in their duties as co-trainers of the team. As indicated by the scores, we have improved steadily, our fine win against Box Hill being the culmination of an enjoyable season's soccer.
Results
Camberwell 0 v. University 9
Best: M. Taussig, J. Moo, D. Mun.
Camberwell 2 v. Northcote 9
Goals: D. Mun, T. T. Hock.
Best: J. Onto, M. Taussig, D. Mun.
Camberwell 0 v. Melbourne 3
Best: M. Taussig, J. Onto, T. Shen, T. T. Hock.
Camberwell 7 v. Box Hill 0
Goals: F. Tan 3, D. Mun 2, M. Taussig 2.
Best: D. Mun, M. Taussig, T. T. Hock.
M. Taussig, Capt.
T. Shen, V.-Capt.
VOLLEYBALL AT LUNCHTIME
As you can see, the battle on the volleyball court is rather popular. The rumoured reason for the match, apart from offering some physical exercise, is that the boys may have a chance to 'get back' on their teachers, and vice versa. Here we see Mr. Onyons delivering a characteristic smash, which few dare to intercept in case of broken fingers.—V.H., VIa.
Snapshot by Valerie Heath, VIa, winner of School Activities Section, Snapshot Competition.
BOYS' SOFTBALL
The team played only one match this year, against Warragul High School. After a bad start, Camberwell broke through in the 4th innings with 8 runs, and were untroubled to go on and win by 29 runs to 13.
Home runs: J. Graham, R. Kaegi, N. Roberts, I. Sonderhof, R. Spicer.
R. Kaegi, Capt.
I. Sonderhof, V.Capt.
CROSS-COUNTRY RUN
This year, the cross-country run was held over a slightly longer course, on Tuesday, 25th June. More boys competed this year than previously, mainly because of the enthusiasm generated by Sportsmaster Mr. G. A. L. Adams; out of a total of 324 boys taking part, Churchill headed the list with 91.
As in recent years, the Cross-country was again dominated by Roosevelt, who scored 483 points; second were Churchill with 333 points, third Montgomery 250 points, and fourth MacArthur with 243 points.
On the individual basis, the run was a victory for Brian Maley of Churchill, who won with the fastest time of 19 mins, with Ralph Hill second (19 mins. 15 secs.) a very creditable performance by both boys. The next three places were filled by Roosevelt runners.
Individual Champions
Open: I. Sonderhof.
Under 16: Brian Maley.
Under 15: R. Seedsman.
Under 14: R. Hartnett.
Under 13: J. Lockwood.
SCHOOLBOY CHAMPIONSHIPS
During the May holidays, several boys represented the school in both Tennis Championships at Kooyong, and Golf Championships at Greenacres Golf Course at Kew. In the Under 19 age group of tennis, John Brown succeeded in reaching the final and was defeated by M. Hobbs 6-5, 6-2. Both Geoff French, under 17, and Trevor Eastham, under 16, reached the semi-finals of their age-groups.
Golf
Norman Hogg entered the two-day Championship at Greenacres with great success, coming third in the 36 Hole Championship and equal first in the 36 Hole Handicap, with a total of 163. His second day round of 77 was the best for the day, winning the second 18 Holes Handicap event.
Congratulations to these boys for the excellent job they did in representing the school.
REPRESENTATIVES IN COMBINED TEAMS TO PLAY PUBLIC SCHOOLS
Camberwell was very well represented in the teams chosen to play the Public Schools. Graham Cox and Ray Spark were selected in the 1st Football XVIII, Brian Blanksby and Brian Maley in the Under 16 Football; David Weeks and John Farrant in the Senior Hockey, Eric Shade, Stuart Weeks and Barry Teesdale in the Under 16 Hockey, while John Brown, Trevor Eastham and Geoff French gained places in the Tennis team.
GIRLS’ SOFTBALL TEAM
Back Row: F. Wellington, L. Curran, H. Young, H. Lloyd, K. Hillman, F. Seedsman.
Front Row: L. Wilcox, L. Whalley, S. Fisch, B. Rennie.
GIRLS’ SPORT
SOFTBALL
This year we were unfortunate in not having a member of staff to coach our teams. The senior team did not manage to gain any victories, but the Fourth and Third Form teams must be congratulated on their victories over U.H.S.
Results
Seniors
U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 13-7.
U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 33-2.
M.H.S. d. C.H.S. 64-6.
M.H.S. d. C.H.S. 35-4.
Fourth Form
U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 20-13.
C.H.S. d. U.H.S. 21-11.
Third Form
U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 5-3.
C.H.S. d. U.H.S. 13-10.
M.H.S. d. C.H.S. 50-3.
HOCKEY
Although the first hockey team did not begin the season with any great successes, we have improved steadily throughout the year, as the results show.
1. U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 3-1.
2. M.H.S. d. C.H.S. 8-0.
3. M.H.S. d. C.H.S. 4-0.
4. C.H.S. drew U.H.S. 1-1.
5. C.H.S. d. W.H.S. 3-1.
The second school team, composed of girls mainly from Fourth and Fifth Forms, also did very well. It was the first year we have had a second school team.
1. U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 2-0.
2. C.H.S. d. M.H.S. 1-0.
3. C.H.S. drew M.H.S. 0-0.
4. U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 1-0.
5. W.H.S. d. C.H.S. 2-1.
We would like to thank Mr. Foster very much for all the coaching and general help he has given us throughout the year.
TENNIS
On behalf of the girls’ tennis team, I would like to thank Miss Alday (Mrs. Thurecht) who chose the team on her last day at school and gave us a few helpful hints. Although we were not a strong team, we had improved greatly at the end of the season. In the matches against MacRobertson and University High Schools, we were defeated, but we are looking forward to a better season next year.
VOLLEY-BALL
Under the able captaincy of Jennifer Page and Vice-Captaincy of Cedar Sonnenberg, we had a very enjoyable, if not wholly successful season. We feel that, although the victories were few, the team spirit was not daunted.
Results: C.H.S. d. U.H.S. 3-0, M.H.S. d. C.H.S. 2-1, M.H.S. d. C.H.S. 5-0, U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 2-1.
BASKETBALL TEAM
Standing: M. Cowan, C. Fisch, Miss Issett, P. Morcom, H. Jenkins.
Sitting: L. Brewer, B. Arnold. (Absent—J. Firth).
BASKETBALL
Although the two Senior Basketball Teams did not fare very well this year, we can hope for future successes, as the 4th and 3rd Form teams all had a number of wins. We would like to take this opportunity of thanking Miss Issett for her coaching throughout the year.
Results Seniors
June 5th 1sts. U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 29-4.
2nds. U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 19-12.
June 18th 1sts. M.G.H.S. d. C.H.S. 25-9.
2nds. M.G.H.S. d. C.H.S. 36-12.
July 16th 1sts. U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 37-10.
July 3rd 1sts. M.G.H.S. d. C.H.S. 39-11.
2nds. M.G.H.S. d. C.H.S. 27-13.
July 19th 1sts. C.H.S. d. W'gul 23-9.
IV Form
C.H.S. d. U.H.S. 25-20.
M.G.H.S. d. C.H.S. 25-7.
C.H.S. d. U.H.S. 21-20.
M.G.H.S. d. C.H.S. 36-13.
III Form
1sts. C.H.S. d. U.H.S. 20-17.
2nds. U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 7-6.
1sts. M.G.H.S. d. C.H.S. 41-22.
2nds. M.G.H.S. d. C.H.S. 23-12.
1sts. C.H.S. d. U.H.S. 22-10.
2nds. U.H.S. d. C.H.S. 17-9.
PARENTS’ ASSOCIATION
The Annual General Meeting of the Parents’ Association was held at the school on Monday, 18th March, with a good attendance of parents.
The following office-bearers were elected:
President: Mr. A. G. Brewer.
Vice-Presidents: Mr. E. Goodman, Mrs. I. W. Scott and Mrs. I. A. Robinson.
Secretary: Mr. B. M. Curry.
Treasurer: Mr. B. Pettigrew.
Much to our regret, owing to an interstate transfer, Mr. Pettigrew resigned and was succeeded as Treasurer by Mr. R. Key.
Membership of the Association for this year has dropped to 335.
We held a very enjoyable Social Evening in the Camberwell Town Hall on the 9th May, and our guests included the Hon. E. P. Cameron, M.L.C., Minister for Health, Mr. Vernon Wilcox, M.L.A. and Mrs. Wilcox, and representatives from other schools.
A great deal of time was spent by the Committee and parents in arrangements for our Fete which was held at the school on Saturday, August 24th. The weather was perfect and helped to make a very successful function, both socially and financially. On behalf of the Committee, I would like to express our sincere thanks to the school staff and students, and those parents and friends who gave so much help.
Our Headmaster, Mr. A. T. Ebbels, has, as usual, been most co-operative and helpful to us during the year and, indeed, ever since he came to the school, for which we are most grateful, and we wish him every happiness in his coming retirement.
— B. M. Curry, Hon. Secretary.
EXCHANGES
The Editors acknowledge with pleasure receipt of magazines from the following schools: Alexandra H.S., Bacchus Marsh H.S., Balwyn H.S, Bendigo H.S., Box Hill H.S., Carey Baptist G.S., Camberwell Girls’ S.S., Coburg H.S., Dandenong H.S., Drouin H.S., Eltham H.S., Essendon H.S., Fintona G.S., Geelong H.S., Hampton H.S., Hemingway Robertson Institute, Lilydale H.S., MacRobertson G.H.S., Melbourne H.S., Methodist Ladies’ College, Northcote H.S., Presbyterian Ladies’ College, St. Albans H.S., Scotch College, Seymour H.S., Sunshine H.S., Swan Hill H.S., Terang H.S., Wangaratta H.S., Warragul H.S., Yallourn H.S., Burwood H.S., Leongatha H.S., McKinnon H.S., Shepparton H.S., University H.S., Wesley College, Ringwood H.S.
SNAPSHOT COMPETITION
A satisfactory number of entries of varying standards was received. Mr. Ferguson, as judge, awarded first prize for school activities to Valerie Heath, and for out-of-school activities to Joy Handley.
BOOK REVIEWS
"THE DAUGHTER OF TIME"
by Josephine Tey
For centuries, Richard III has been regarded as one of the blackest villains in history, who began his short reign by murdering his two nephews, the Princes in the Tower, and ended it on Bosworth Field shouting "A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!" Josephine Tey presents a plausible and fascinating theory that this conception of the last Plantagenet king has arisen wholly from Tudor propaganda, that the usurper Henry VII was in reality responsible for the murder of the princes, a crime necessary to strengthen his own slender claim to the throne, and unscrupulously fastened the blame on the dead and dishonoured Richard.
"The Daughter of Time" is a detective story, a "whodunit" with a difference, not a history book. It is written in fictional form, its central character being a detective who, in a period of enforced inactivity in hospital, amuses himself by delving into the distant past. The devious inconsistencies in the story of Richard III, which have puzzled many historians, stimulated his curiosity and aroused his interest to such an extent that he began a detailed and at times baffling search to discover the truth. Slowly evidence of a crime is uncovered, a crime committed in the turbulent 15th century, in an England torn by the Wars of the Roses.
Slowly also Richard emerges, not as a ruthless murderer and tyrant, but as a leader of outstanding integrity, ability and courage who, in the two years of his reign, wrought many changes for the better in his country, and won the love of his people. When he was killed by treachery in the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, the Town Recorder of York wrote, "This day was our good King Richard piteously slain and murdered, to the great heaviness of this city."
The hunch-backed monster of history was Tudor fiction, and as soon as the Tudors no longer occupied the throne, vindications of Richard's character began to appear. Josephine Tey's book, beautifully written, fascinating and exciting in the slow unfolding of the mystery, has become extremely popular, and in reaching a wide public, has helped to spread, after all these centuries, what appears to be the truth. As the old proverb says, "Truth is the daughter of time."
—Louise Thorne, Vb.
(Modern historians do not accept Josephine Tey's interpretation, interesting as it is.—Ed.)
"The Diary of a Young Girl"
by Anne Frank
It was in 1942 that life suddenly changed for 13 year old Anne Frank, the younger daughter of German Jews who had migrated to Amsterdam nine years previously, when Hitler's persecution of the Jews began. For some time, the strictest rules regarding the Jews had been enforced; Jews had to wear a yellow star, Jews were forbidden to drive, Jews could not visit theatres or cinemas; in fact, Jews were practically debarred from society. But in July, 1942, came the dreaded stroke, and rather than obey the Gestapo summons, the family went into hiding.
It is the succeeding two years in hiding which form the subject matter for Anne's diary. Her father, realizing the future danger, had been for months preparing "The Secret Annexe," (as Anne called it), the sealed-off back rooms of an office building, now run by two Dutchmen. Shortly after their arrival, the Franks were joined by the Van Daans with their 16 year old son, Peter, and yet later, by the dentist, Dussel. And so, for two long years, the families lived together, never once venturing out-of-doors, suppressing any noise, and living in constant dread of discovery. But for their loyal Dutch friends who constantly supplied their needs in the way of food and clothing, this would have been impossible.
That is the general story. But Anne's intimate diary tells us of the details. We read of the stupidity of Mrs. Van Daan and the endless arguments, of the selfishness of Dussel and Anne's belief that her parents fail to understand her. And as we read, we see how Anne is gradually growing up, maturing prematurely in this forcing atmosphere. She realizes this herself and comments on the fact.
Anne is a child of amazing intelligence and gaiety. In terrifying moments and in monotonous days, she can always find some pleasure. Merely watching a sunset gives her the greatest delight, and she finds interest in studying the natures of the few people around her. Confined within these narrow limits, Anne manages to read numerous books, Greek history being a favourite topic. Towards the end, we hear of Anne's awakening love for Peter. All the exciting sensations of her love are faithfully recorded, and we can watch this love as it develops.
Then abruptly the diary ends. We are as unaware of the approaching doom as Anne probably was, for no mention is made of any particular fear of discovery.
But there is an epilogue in the book. Three days after Anne's last entry, the "Secret Annexe" was raided by the Germans. Mrs. Frank and Mr. Van Daan were put to death. Mr. Frank escaped. Six months later, Margot, Anne's elder sister, died from typhus, and her death "did to Anne what all her previous suffering had failed to do: it broke her spirit. A few days later, she died."
Anne had written in her diary: "I want to go on living even after my death." This she will certainly do, for she will live for many days in the pages of this remarkably well-written and informative diary.—A. Huttner, VIa.
ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS
ALMA MATER
(With apologies to Tennyson)
During the past few years, many strange expressions have found their way into our school. We wonder if, some day, there will arise an entirely new language, emanating from Camberwell High School.
"Good lad," he said, and pointed towards Room 5,
"The ringing bell will free you from this work.
The consequences of your late getting up,
One of the little problems of your life
Which you must learn to conquer, ere you die.
Just meditate, and you will see your fault.
It would be most commendable to try
To rise five minutes earlier each day,
And save all this lost time, and all our effort too."
"Not good," he said, "that young lads such as you
Should disobey the rules which keep you safe
From mental and from physical unrest,
A subtle trap, which has, alas, caught you
And others of your kind. Young players, all!
Just led astray by those who know full well
The meaning of all rules. Oh lads! When you
Are old enough to leave this dear old school,
Keep in your hearts this lesson — always be on time!"
— N.D., VIa.
THE DROUGHT
Already the blackened iron on the hut roof burnt to the touch. Inside, the heat was almost unbearable; the figure lying on the tanned-hide bunk stirred restlessly as jumbled images fled across his mind. Gradually the restlessness increased until, with a start, he awoke, dragged himself to a sitting position, squinted his eyes and gazed, as he'd done every day since this scorching drought began, out over the shimmering plain.
To Sandy McAlpine's tired eyes, it looked just about the same as it had yesterday, only a little drier, a little less hope-inspiring. The stunted tree near the door trailed its aching arms a little nearer the uncompromising earth; the cracked surface of the dried-up waterhole served only as a mockery to Sandy of the inviting greenness that had been this, his selection, a short eighteen months ago. As he chewed mechanically on the chunk of dried beef that served as a midday meal, Sandy's eyes were drawn to the pitiful heaps of bleached bones that were the sole reminders that he, Sandy McAlpine, had once been a prospering small cattle-raiser. Now, with the last of the cattle gone, he was unwilling to face thoughts of the future; all his savings were gone, that few hundred pounds he'd earned from the detested fossicking; looked as if he'd have to go back to it now . . . .
The small water-tank under the tree was nearly empty; Sandy trudged around to the lean-to behind the hut, where he was managing to keep his horse alive on what dry grass remained on the property. But he wouldn't be able to make the journey to the distant rock waterhole today, or any other day . . . the horse was dead! Sandy stared bleakly at the carcase, fingers groping unconsciously for the tobacco which had run out a week ago. He walked slowly back to the hut doorway, gazing unseeing at the little willy-willy dancing its way across the lifeless plain. The drought's taken everything now, he mused bitterly, everything but life itself. The heat was more intense than ever inside the hut. Sandy tossed his few belongings into his bag and threw himself on to the bunk, his fingers playing over the simple carving on the butt of his rifle. The silence that had once seemed so friendly to him now became oppressive, an enemy waiting to pounce . . . .
Two gaunt crows flopped wearily on to the bare boughs of the stunted gum, seeking a respite in their ceaseless foraging for food and water. But their rest was not to be, for the sound of a shot from the direction of the hut sent them flapping onward; living objects suspended between a brassy sky and a barren earth, symbols of despair over a stricken land. To the crows that shot had merely indicated humans, and they were best avoided; but to the now lifeless clay inside the hut, the shot was a parting knell to an empty life, a signal of release to a soul embittered by hardship, and tortured by Life's enemy — DROUGHT.
— Robert Kearsley, VIb.
FRIENDLY ADVICE
Dear Lin,
I was very glad to receive your letter again after such a long interval. Thank you very much for the lovely photos you sent me. My cousin and I are surprised at the beauty and splendour of the city you live in. We are equally thrilled at your description of the people you met, the places you visited and the experiences you had during your long summer holidays. How very fortunate you are when compared with all the folks at home!
Dear Lin, you know very well that we were the best of friends before you went overseas to study. And I am quite sure that the bond of our friendship is still the same, even though we are now separated by distance. We have always confided in each other our thoughts and aspirations, and we have always asked for each other's opinions before we took any important step in our lives. Furthermore I think we are both true exponents of the maxim 'give and take.' And with such a long history of friendship between us, I think it is but natural for me to take the privilege of speaking frankly to you.
In your letter, you said that since your arrival in the city, you began to realise what a great world it was, and how wonderful life could become. There were so many beautiful things which made life happy. You felt sorry for the years you had wasted in the small home town, and in order to enjoy life to the full, you were not going to waste even a minute of it from now on. That, I agree is what happens to any person when he comes into contact with a bigger and more advanced city or country. But your saying that you were contemplating discontinuing your study after the coming term, in order to gain more experience in life, makes me doubt the wisdom of such a move.
From my limited experience, I have heard and seen a number of men and women who would have made a success of their lives today had they not made a wrong decision at the crucial moment. All of them possessed the faculty for learning, the good fortune to go overseas and study, but they had been a failure because they were dazzled by the attractions of the big city. They had forgotten the real purpose of their going to the city. They were intended to become learned, and later to spend a useful life with their acquired knowledge.
Unfortunately, it was usually too late when they discovered the cause of their misfortune. How they wished that they had resisted the temptations offered by a big city! As they were young and quite innocent then, they were only too eager to take to enjoying life. Now they have to spend their remaining life lamenting their ill-luck, nay foolishness, of not knowing earlier.
Therefore, I earnestly hope that you will consider the idea of leaving your study midway. Certainly, dear friend, you will not disappoint all the friends and folks at home who have placed so much hope in you. You know very well that we will always stand by you through thick and thin, and we hope you will not let us down.
With best wishes to you,
Yours sincerely,
Cecily.
— Cecily Chin, Va.
THE SIXTH-FORMER
(With apologies to Roderic Quinn)
He wields his pen in the frosty morn,
The ink flows clean and free;
He must not cease ere the work be done,
For a student wise is he.
At his desk he sits in the fading light,
Oh, life of misery!
And though the seat of his pants wear thin,
A giant at work is he.
He scrawls his Maths. on blotted page,
With a weary hand scrawls he;
When guesswork bold has wrought its will,
What shall the harvest be?
Though lessons be his sole regard,
Though he give of his best,
Forsakes the joys of social life,
He shall not pass the test.
Not grinding toil if he would pass,
But rest and relaxation;
And like the bear, the winter he
Should spend in hibernation.
Though now he be in prime of youth,
If work be his whole rule,
When age has bent his hoary head
You'll find him still at school.
— Jean Ireland, VIa.
GIRLS’ HOCKEY TEAM
Standing (left to right): M. Sproat, N. Donkin, Mr. Foster, H. Glastonbury, W. Ablett, D. Schmidt, R. Faggetter.
Kneeling: D. Green, J. Tress.
Sitting: D. Organ, M. Cole, S. Roddick, S. Cox.
AUTOMATION
During the early nineteenth century, the ordinary working people of England lived under the fear that widespread unemployment would prevail in their country. That was the time of the Industrial Revolution, when machines were invented and introduced into the factories.
Today, a similar fear seems to be with us that automation will cause unemployment and poverty amongst workers. But if we look at the question closely, I think it can be shown that this is unlikely. Automation, when all is said and done, is merely a new word for the great increase and progress in mechanisation. And surely mechanisation has been making progress since the Industrial Revolution itself. At the present time, the newest and most feared innovations appear to be automatic control and the electronic computer. Both of these are more effective than man himself because of superior efficiency, precision and reliability, and thus the worker is afraid of being thrown out of work. But it must be remembered that the machines themselves require supervision, and there is a great shortage of the highly-skilled technologists needed for the introduction of these machines into the factories.
Automation will also necessitate a certain amount of shift work, an idea which, at the moment, does not appear to be acceptable in all places. However, when automation is finally introduced into all factories and into the home, the ultimate results will be less manual labour and more leisure hours which, it is to be hoped, people will be able to spend profitably.
There is, too, another side to the story. In E. M. Forster’s short novel, “The Machine Stops,” we have a truly horrifying picture of what could happen if automation got out of hand, — when machines no longer served man, but man was subject to, and actually worshipped the machine; and the human race was slowly being destroyed by its own creations. Whether this story was written merely for the sake of a story, or whether it is intended as a grave warning, is difficult to say, but surely we can have sufficient faith in our own common sense never to allow mechanisation or automation, call it what you will, to reach such an extent.
However, to take things from a less serious point of view, perhaps the real reason for automation can be summed up succinctly in the following lines, reproduced here by kind permission of the author:
“Men are getting lazier every day,
They only want their women, wine and pay,
They love to shirk
And hate to work,
And thus is automation here to stay.”
— Christine Fisch, VIa.
THE FIFTH FORM SNOW TRIP
What a day! A snow hike to Donna Buang all complete with 80 of us, two small buses and no snow! Yet for all that everyone enjoyed their day immensely, especially the knee-riders and arm-holders.
We set out at about 8 am., and on reaching the terminus at Donna Buang, all turned out, only to pile back in again pretty quickly, because it was exceedingly cold. But after a few brave ones finally ventured out the others followed like a flock of sheep. Before lunch, we developed a terrific appetite by trudging slowly and laboriously two miles up the road to the tower, then sliding down with a speed which made the ascent seem ridiculous (even though in some cases the descent was faster than meant).
After a lunch of burnt or raw chops (depending on how hungry one was), everyone once more climbed to the tower, this time up a steeper, shorter??? path than the first, and then once more bumped down to the bottom. What to do now? We'd exhausted the tower and there was no snow. One of the Foster twins had a rubber ball which was unceremoniously taken from him, and the rowdiest game then began. Boys v. Girls and Teachers. Who won? Girls, of course!
Then, tired but happy, we piled into the buses only to find four people missing. Needless to say, this caused a certain amount of anxiety among the teachers, but when, after about half-an-hour, the adventurers returned, the buses set off, and the 1957 Donna Buang SNOW trip was over, even though the effects of that bus ride still remain in the hearts of some people.
— Anon, Vb.
POMPEII
On our recent trip to Europe, we visited many very interesting places. Among these was Pompeii, which we had the good fortune to visit when our ship called at Naples. This Italian city is situated on the beautiful Bay of Naples, with Mt. Vesuvius dominating the scene. It was the eruption of this volcanic mountain which, in A.D.79, covered the city of Pompeii with cinders and ashes to a depth of 21 feet, and it was not rediscovered until the 19th century. After seeing some of the sights of Naples and the handcrafts of the people, which include beautiful dolls and music boxes, we boarded a coach which took us to Pompeii, stopping en route at a cameo and mosaic factory where we saw skilled artists at work.
Our first view of Pompeii, which is about 15 miles from Naples, was most exciting. Here is a city several square miles in extent, and practically intact, except for its occupants. Most of the buildings, which are built of stone, are just as they were left, that terrible day so many centuries ago. Those buildings which had stone roofs are in perfect preservation; even the paint work and murals on walls and ceilings are still legible. In the shops, are still to be seen stone wine vats and grinding stones which the bakers used. One of the best preserved buildings is used as a museum, in which can be seen the money, tools, surgical instruments, cooking utensils, etc., which compare quite favourably with our modern ones. There were also the petrified bodies of people who were caught in the city at that time, but fortunately most escaped.
Going into one of the public baths we saw, through cavities in the walls, the steam heating system they used, and the copper water pipes, which all indicated a high degree of skill and knowledge. The open forum with columns and seating for the population, in which area the laws were made, is still there. The wealthy merchants of the city had their coats of arms laid in mosaic on the footpath outside their homes. Each had its little courtyard, many with fountains and garden beds. All the streets are paved with stones, and at intersections there are large raised stepping stones equivalent to our "Zebra" crossings and placed in such a manner that chariots would slow down. All in all, it was a most memorable visit, and we came away with the feeling that the people of that time were very civilised, even though eighteen centuries have passed since that devastating day.
— P. Rushton, Vb.
WATER SKIING AND THE JOYS THEREOF
On reaching the secluded township of Yarrawonga, situated on that quiet stream, the Murray, all members of our party emptied the car and trundled cake tins, thermos, beach bags, towels, skis and life jackets towards our selected log where the speedboat was moored ready for work.
Very soon, I was standing in the water, shivering of course, forcing my numb feet into sockets on the skis. The remaining portion of my anatomy previously protruding from the lake, namely that portion above the waist, was gingerly submerged, save for the essential respiratory organ, and I crouched back on to the skis, grabbing the rope with a remarkable measure of confidence. This was to be an experience —my first attempt to water-ski. An endless flow of kindly instruction penetrated my tingling ears as I concentrated on keeping my knees bent, leaning and pressing on the calf and heel muscles, and not failing to keep arms outstretched at all times.
The signal was given, the boat started off, I felt the tug on the rope. Slowly I was moving forward. My measure of self-control was astounding as the instructions flashed through my mind. One by one I followed them carefully, straightening my knees, leaning forward, and pulling the rope towards my shoulders. For the second, I seemed to have stopped, but that was only for the second. The one following found me landing most gracefully under my skis in the wake of the boat. Glub! Yes, I was at the surface again. Nothing like a cool shock to stimulate the nerves! Fishing for my skis, I sent them skimming toward the bank, quickly following myself.
This process was repeated several times at frequent intervals, until I completely lost my nervousness, and remained upright in a moderately satisfactory position, on the water, successfully completing one circuit of the lake in fine style. Coming to a gentle stop, I knew the thrill of success, the air of triumph, only to be greeted by a fellow sufferer with, "You think you're good, don't you?" To this I replied, "Certainly, and so would you if you'd had 35 tries."— B. Rennie, Vb.
MORNING
The light of day is breaking,
The dawn is silver-pearl,
And in the shadow'd places,
Soft skirts of grey mist swirl.
The faintest flush of crimson,
The herald of the light,
Dispels the velvet darkness,
The mantle of the night.
In dazzling shafts of glory,
The golden light streams down
Aslant the dewy leaflets
Of the forest's ferny gown.
By a streamlet in the valley,
Whose pools are molten gold,
In the music of a blackbird,
Are the joyful tidings told.
The world is bright with beauty,
Another day is here,
Oh, rise, all ye who hearken!
The Lamp of Life burns clear.
—Wendy Dabourne, IVa.
A DREAM IN THE LIBRARY
There he stood, the untidy little man, with the overcoat with the fringed hem, the squashed hat and the battered brief case, at the front gate, which was swinging gently to and fro on its hinges. His face bore an anxious, if rather awe-struck expression. As another swift gust of wind swept across the cold dark moors, he drew his ragged coat more tightly around him. Then with a purposeful stride he walked up to the door of the parsonage at Haworth.
The door was opened by a very plain young woman, but her face was full of expression. It was such a gentle face; the eyes were meek, surmounting a pleasant little nose. There were lines of pain around the mouth, yet her countenance wore a sweet look of patient suffering. In explanation came the words: "I'm Anne Bronte, and Emily is expecting you!"
The girl showed him into a warm study. Surely he did not deserve such niceness. As he entered, another sister, supposedly Charlotte, slipped from the room. He was alone in the Presence. He saw a striking visage, with a well-defined jaw, and enormous eyes. The hair was severely drawn back from the forehead. The face was intelligent, and the eyes had wrinkles of humour at the edges.
PROSPICE
He shifted his gaze to the window. The wind was raging, bending the trees. The moors were menacing. They were dark, and stretched to infinity. The grey-black expanse of the sky was threatening. Was a storm brewing? It was as nothing to the storm of gratitude in his heart, gratitude for this opportunity. He shivered. Would that it would pour in torrents, wiping out this blackness, and leaving the world clean, unsoiled, as God had first created it!
He could understand now the moral upheavals of Heathcliff. He could hear a plaintive voice crying, pleading, wailing, beseeching "Let me in; I'm lost, lost on the moor!" The wind howled. He saw a little white hand clutching at the bars, grasping, grasping, yet never quite reaching, never . . . quite . . . reaching . . .
★ ★ ★
And the librarian found him there, as she came to close the library. A copy of "The Life of Charlotte Bronte," by Mrs. Gaskell, lay on the floor, and he snored blissfully and gently, while he held to his chest a copy of "Wuthering Heights."—Betty Veitch, Vb.
"MOUNTAIN GALLERY"
"The most brutal crime committed against the Australian bush at the hands of the white fellow is the burning of the holy forest and the destruction of the native animals that live in them." These words are written on a tablet at Mr. Ricketts' Mountain Gallery, Mount Dandenong, where this photo of an aboriginal's head was taken. Mr. Ricketts has lived there since 1937; he owns four and a half acres of land, and has built a small house from slabs of timber in a clearing which he levelled out with a spade.
Mr. Ricketts lives very close to nature there; many of the forest birds will fearlessly eat out of his hand, and the lyre-birds, the shyest of all, come round his house when no strangers are there. He has an intense love for all the birds and trees around him, and also for the Australian aborigines in their native state. Several times he has gone to live with them in order to understand them, and seeks to help them by interpreting their ways and legends to the white man through his sculpture.
He is self-taught and intensely individualistic. He uses a soft clay for his work, which is baked for three days in a home-made kiln. He has no help from the Government, but is supported by a small number of patrons, and the money he makes by selling some of his work. Some were accepted by the Sydney National Gallery.
Mr. Ricketts' home is indeed a Gallery, filled with his clay models, aboriginal faces peeping out of every nook and cranny. It is open to the public at all times, and is well worth a visit of inspection.—Joy Handley, IVa.
'FAIRYLAND'
Have you ever been to 'Fairyland'? I went there only the other day. To reach it you must take a trip up to Olinda in the Dandenongs, and turn off the main road at the Log Cabin Tea Rooms. Up on the hill, on the corner of Ridge Road and Sunset Avenue, delightfully situated, is 'Fairyland'—Peg Maltby's studio.
On either side of the gate are two of her paintings. The first is of an aboriginal child, and the other a painting of Australian Wildflowers. On either side of the path, through the neat flower-filled garden, are little, painted garden gnomes, sitting among the plants.
The door stood invitingly open, when we paid a visit there, and we stepped into a fresh attractive room hung with pictures. A tall, pleasant, elderly man appeared to show us round and answer our questions.
Most of Peg Maltby's pictures are delightful little fairyland scenes or pictures of fairy folk. She also paints Australian native birds and flowers, and those active paintings of aboriginal children, which are so popular now.
In three corners of the rooms are three little dioramas. Tiny modelled figures of fairies, elves and animals have been arranged among natural flowers and grasses. Each little scene has its own story which hangs in a frame beside it.
Peg Maltby also illustrates and writes children's books. I have one of hers on my bookshelves — "Meet Mr. CobbleDick." It is full of intriguing sketches as well as many beautiful full page pictures.—R. Whitelaw, Vb.
THE PROGRESS OF SINGAPORE
Many still have the misconception that Singapore is a jungle land, frequented by the Sakais (aborigines), and that if one did set foot on it, the dangers of head-hunters, disease, humid climate and boiling sun would seal one's fate. However, this is a misconception of this little island of two hundred square miles, which is now well on its way to the spotlight of fame and publicity.
When Sir Stamford Raffles first set foot on this island in 1819, he predicted for it a bright future. Then the rush for tin on the mainland helped to set it on its feet. In its strategic position, Singapore served as a link between the East and the West. Its importance was fully realised in the Second World War, when the Japanese over-ran the island. The good harbour with its efficient management facilitates trading of a kind that enriches the country. The fact that it is a free port, and the importance of the products of the mainland, tin and rubber, certainly make it the apple of Britain's eye.
Modern developments have followed, such as 'American' skyscrapers, houses, factories, smooth wide roads brilliantly lit, electricity, water works, gas works. Thus all modern luxuries are available for tourists. The City Council functions with vigour, whilst the Rural Board concerns itself with decentralisation. Social services provide for the welfare of the people. Hospitals with all modern equipment care for the sick. All these have achieved world standard in a very short time, and Singapore has earned for itself the reputation of being the cleanest city in the East.
Education for the children and illiterate is not neglected. Many new schools have been built, and their success is shown in the high percentage of passes in the Overseas Examinations. Two universities have been erected, one with the financial help of the Government, the other by public-minded people. But even these cannot cope with the great demand for higher education and thus many students migrate overseas to Australia, England and America.
With the increase in importance both politically and commercially, men of Mr. Lin Yen Hock's calibre have come to the fore. With the co-operation of the people, he is helping the government to run smoothly. Of course, there were subversive elements — as would be expected — who tried to excite the workers with words of honey and the promise of another El Dorado, but truth, as was learnt from past experience, has prevailed.
When the people were roused out of their main concern, business, to the realisation of their own efficiency, it was decided to despatch a delegation to England with the intention of obtaining complete independence, a Herculean task for the new-born infant. The talks ended "in smoke," but the people were not in the least put off. They were as determined as ever to obtain what they cherished, and put faith in the maxim, "Where there's a will, there's a way." Finally, perseverance brought its reward, for the second conference concluded with smiles on both sides. The half-loaf promised by Britain has been accepted as a start, further developments being awaited.
The once-believed Singapore has vanished forever. The swamp of long ago is no more there, a dream that is no more remembered. It has been transformed overnight, so to speak, not by the touch of the magic wand but by the sweat of the people. The rapid developments of the last decade will not terminate here either. There is still room for expansion, and many situations for bright young men who have initiative. Wouldn't it be wonderful if the two hundred odd square miles of Singapore were covered by edifices of all colours and hues? That surely will not be long in coming.
Ying Yam Kee,
Johnny Moo,
Vlb.
TELEVISION
A box with a glass pane placed right in the centre, an aerial wired to the roof, to the chimney preferably, a wire connecting the two, and another from the box to a plug.
Marvels! You have a T.V. set!
Switch it on! What happens? Nothing.
You turn one of the two knobs under the screen.
Hooray! You can see a few lines and patterns.
Tut-tut! — not focused!
You turn the other knob. The lines disappear altogether.
Ah-ha, some noise comes from the box!
Someone is talking.
After more turning and twisting both knobs, you are able to hear it clearly — but no picture at all!
Ah, now it comes, a picture and sound!
What a wonderful instrument this is!
Blow it! You've missed the programme you most wanted to see.
In anger you turn off the set.
You fool, now you have to go through it all again!! — Sandra Levi, IIIc.
A GEM IN THE MALLEE
Two hundred and sixty miles from Melbourne, in Northwest Victoria, lies the small Mallee township of Rainbow. It was from here, one morning in early September, that my parents, my sister and I started on a trip to Wyperfeld National Park.
We kept a wary eye on the weather, as the sandy Mallee roads can be very treacherous when wet. Several miles from Rainbow, we made a very interesting stop at Lake Albacutya. This lake has been dry for twenty-seven years, but now, after heavy rains, it is full, and provides a harbour for the wild birds and animals that frequent the area. The colourful plumage of the birds, together with the golden wattle and bright wildflowers made a truly beautiful sight.
Traversing rolling wheat country, we arrived at the tiny railway siding of Yaapeet. As we turned to the west, the tall wheat silos of Yaapeet were quickly lost, and we were travelling through a vast loneliness, the only sounds being the gentle soughing of the wind in the tender, green wheat shoots, and the discordant cawing of a crow over the plains.
Wyperfeld National Park, the largest in Victoria, is two hundred and sixteen square miles in extent. The country north of Wyperfeld lay below the sea in ages gone by, and the Murray, Murrumbidgee, Darling and Wimmera emptied into a great gulf. As the land rose, the sea receded, leaving an area of great lakes. The plants and animals have had to adapt themselves to the drought conditions, with many remarkable results. Here is where the Mallee fowl builds its "incubator" nest, and the emu roams the plains. The beautiful parrots, scrub robins, Gilbert whistlers and many others make their homes remote from the disturbing presence of man. The most beautiful and rare wildflowers of our State bloom in riotous profusion in this fantastic country with a beauty peculiar to itself.
— Rosemary Mead, IVd.
SOCCER TEAM
Back Row: T. Roberts, D. Mount, C. Notley, Tan, T. H., Ying, Y. K., B. Van Twest, Tan, S.H.
Front Row: Tan, P. S., J. Onto, M. Taussig, Mr. Doble, Mr. Hardenberg, T. Shen, Mun, K. T., Moo, K. C.
Holding Ball: P. Stevens.
CAMBERWELL HIGH SCHOOL AND YOU
In starting this article, I would make it clear that I mean by "you" every pupil who attends this school, from the First Form to the Sixth.
In my slight experience, I have seen the effect enthusiasm can have in a school. I have seen enthusiasm in this school, but it is only a minor effort compared with what it could and should be.
We have seen this enthusiasm in our sport organisation, and time was sacrificed for this task. It appeared in cricket practices; the only reason it did not have the success it deserved was because of lack of numbers and facilities. We had it in the rowing, where students who had the ability were prepared to train over a long period. It brought us victory in the Swimming Sports. We saw this fine spirit in the football, first with the improved dress of the team, then with the victories of a determined and fiery team. Let us hope it will appear in the Athletics.
It is not only in sport that this wonderful earnestness should prevail, but in other activities at lunch-time and after school. It could be shown in the formation of clubs and societies of different kinds, such as a Debating Society, Literary and Dramatic Societies, Record Club, Pen-friends Club, Chess and Draughts Clubs, Scientific Club, Art Club, Dancing Club, and others. These could be brought into the daily routine of the school, and be appreciated by every teacher and student who has some interest in Camberwell High. But they will not succeed unless we overcome the apathy often shown in our attitude.
The forming of a school's tradition is helped by these clubs, and now that we have Matriculation classes, we have the opportunity to form a tradition in this way, as well as by high scholastic results, and organised coaching in sport. By our enthusiasm, we can help to make Camberwell High School a school where teachers and students will desire to go, and build up a worthy school spirit.—M.S., IVc.
A CAUTIONARY TALE
(With apologies to Hilaire Belloc)
Here is a story of sadness and woe,
Of what befell Willie a few weeks ago,
A boy who loved pudding and biscuits and cake,
And scorned any warnings his dentist might make.
He raided the larder between every meal,
A toothbrush was something he really did feel
Was useless, until crunching toffee one day,
His teeth started aching. What utter dismay!
To his consternation, the dentist then said
That all Willie’s teeth must be pulled from his head.
The agony that our poor Bill had to bear
Will remind him forever on what he must fare.
And so all my friends who like food that is sweet,
Remember poor Willie — and be more discreet!
—Kay Ireland, IIId.
GIRLS’ TENNIS EIGHT
Standing: S. Webster, M. Cole, J. Ireland, F. Wellington, S. Roddick, M. Lander.
Sitting: E. Zselenyi, D. Schmidt.
“THE MURRAY GENERAL”
The Murray Glen General Store, settled complacently amongst the tall upright eucalypts and low mulga scrub, smiled benignly on one and all, for today he was celebrating his 100th birthday anniversary. Old Father Crump, who was born the day the store opened, had died only last year, leaving the “Murray General,” as it was affectionately known, the oldest inhabitant of the Glen. Just one hundred years ago, Mr. Wills had erected a modest wooden building on this site. Subsequent owners had added to and fortified the erection, making today’s ancient but solid Murray Glen General Store.
The Glen had seen many different types of people, but the store was their general meeting place, where all the district decisions were made. People came to regard it as a shopper’s paradise. Safety pins, underwear, shoes, stockings, soap, sweets, food, cosmetics, bath-tubs, beds, chairs and tables were among the items purchasable.
That day, the store was a happy meeting-place, but as darkness fell, it gradually lost its contented look. The benign smile changed to a ghostly leer, and the silver patches of moonlight were interspersed with eerily-shaped shadows. No comforting glow of light could be seen in the store window, as there was no electricity in the area. A cloud blotted out the moon, and as the wind rose, sinister creaking noises could be heard mingling with the whistling of the gale.
The moon, reappearing, outlined small trees bent double by the force of the wind.
Suddenly, lightning flashed, showing up the landscape with ghostly brilliance. A terrific roll of thunder sounded overhead, giving the impression that the very earth had exploded. Another flash followed, more brilliant than the first, and a bolt of fire sped for the store. In an instant, the building was a mass of flames. Quickly it was burned to the ground. The rain which had started to pour down soon put out the glowing coals, and as the storm died down again, all was calm and still.
Next morning, old men and young boys, arriving early for their weekly supplies, were petrified with horror at the sight which met their eyes. Their beloved Murray Glen General Store had gone, and in its place were a heap of blackened wood, and twisted shapeless masses of metal.
All in the surrounding district were very unhappy at the loss of the store, so they set to and built another. Today, if you go to the thriving township of Murray Glen, you will see, set on the side of a hill, a modern building of ugly red brick. This new store, unlike its predecessor, has an extremely discontented expression. Not all goods are stocked, and would-be purchasers often leave unsatisfied. No longer is it used as the district meeting place. In fact, this modern store has none of the qualities for which the “Murray General” was famed.
— Marion Keith, IIId.
PROSPICE
TO SYDNEY BY THE DAYLIGHT EXPRESS
A journey which I shall never forget was the trip to Sydney last January on the Daylight Express. I woke very early that morning, as I had to be at Spencer Street Station by 8 a.m. We arrived in plenty of time, to find the train, consisting of seven sitting cars, a buffet car and a parlour car, already in the station. I was well settled, when at exactly 8 o'clock, diesel B82 let out a musical blast on its horn and rolled the nine car train towards Albury. While passing through the suburbs, it kept down to about thirty-five miles per hour, but after Broadmeadows, it nearly doubled its speed. I had a window seat which helped me in my train timing. I found the average speed from Melbourne to Albury to be fifty-seven miles per hour, and the maximum sixty-nine miles per hour.
Within forty-five minutes, we were throbbing over the Great Divide outside Kilmore. After an hour or so, the novelty of sitting in one position wore off, so I decided to explore. I found the cars much noisier than the advertisements stated, and standing in the car ends was absolutely deafening. Then I went into the buffet where I found the food very good. I also visited the Parlour Car which gave an excellent view of the passing panorama, and is the last word in luxury and comfort.
As the mileage rolled on, we entered the rich, but at that time very dry pastureland, flanked by tall stately gums. Along here, the Hume Highway followed the now single line, the double line having ended at Mangalore. The train thundered through Glenrowan, the home of the Kellys, and on to Wangaratta, where a good view of Mt. Buffalo could be seen. Finally, at twelve o'clock, we rumbled over the still flooded Murray and ground to a halt at Albury's long platform.
The New South Wales division awaited our arrival, and after a quick change of trains, a red and gold diesel pulled the eight-car train towards Sydney. We roared over a level single track where the "Rock," a huge outcrop resembling a lion, could be seen. One hour and forty minutes later, the train halted at Wagga Wagga for two minutes. As I was getting cramped, I once again began to explore. The carriages were of the saloon type and were fitted with fluorescent light. There was also a buffet car, where the service, like the food, was excellent.
Forty minutes later, a halt was made at Junee, a busy rail junction, for six minutes. Leaving Junee, the train travelled over undulating country until the Bethungra Hills were reached. Here is situated the Bethungra Deviation which enabled the gradient on the up-line to Sydney to be reduced by half, so that a pilot engine is unnecessary. After short stops at Cootamundra and Harden, we continued through lush sheep pastures to Yass Junction, thence over the Breadalbane Plains, where I recorded the highest speed of the trip, seventy-one miles per hour.
After a six minutes stop at Goulburn, a busy railway junction, we departed into the gathering dusk, proceeding up the long grade to Moss Vale. By then it was dark, and after leaving Picton, I became lost as to where we were. The darkness ended in a blaze of lights as we thundered through Liverpool, the beginning of the Sydney electrified area. The train reduced speed and crawled through the outer suburbs, until eventually at 9 p.m., I was met by my uncle at Strathfield. That night, as I lay in bed, I reflected upon a most enjoyable trip.
— Peter Harcourt, IVd.
BOYS’ HOCKEY TEAM
Back Row: I. Cole, K. May, I. Fraser, R. Kotzmann, B. Teasdale, A. Carter.
Front Row: D. Munro, F. Bruce, M. Gill, Mr. Foster, D. Weeks, S. Weeks, J. Farrant.
IN A COUNTRY STORE
The door stood ajar. In the cool darkness of the interior of the local country store, comfortably-clad, suntanned farmers discussed the wool market, crops and other people’s business.
Leaning against the wide, cumbersome counter of the “Grocery Department” of the store, which smelt pleasantly of cereals, hessian bags and dust, was Mr. Jim Shepherd. Jim Shepherd was a stocky person, with muscles that rippled when he moved. Hot and unshaven though he was at this time, it was he who stood, clean-shaven and impeccably dressed, to read the announcements at the small brick church on the hill each Sunday.
Near Jim stood his elder son, a younger, more handsome edition of his father, with brilliantly white teeth and a wit as sharp as the scythe he was leaning on. Standing erect and angular a few feet away, stood Joseph Elliott, a tall, fair, shrivelled personage who was much older than the rest of the company. Joseph always stood erect, spoke precisely, and acted deliberately. His two sons were his main source of worry; they insisted on doing most of the heavy work on the farm. They were also his main topic of conversation, apart from “the poor season it is this year.”
Folded up in the corner of the store, wedged between the biscuit tins, sat young, six-feet-odd-tall Bill Roberts, contributing little to the conversation, but missing none of the gossip to take home to his wife. Despite this weakness, Bill is the salt of the earth, — always there in time of need, or in time of trouble.
In the time we have spent observing these farmers, the topic of conversation has varied from Joseph Elliott’s new fencing and the cricket team’s outstanding win last Saturday and their chances for next weekend, to the minister’s buying a new car, the arrival of the local policeman’s sixth son, and the never-failing topic of the weather.
Jim Shepherd was just commenting on how fortunate they had been during the harvesting, as they had had no rain. As he was saying this, through the half-opened door with the squeaking but useless spring, came the District’s Chief Pessimist, Harry Schulz. His figure was silhouetted as he came through the door, a thin, miserable, worried-looking, bow-legged individual, whose greeting was:
“I don’t like the look of the weather. I’m sure it’s going to rain tonight. Never get those hundred acres taken off.”
“Never mind, Harry,” said Bill, taking the very words from the mouths of the three others, “You’re far from ruined yet.”
No one took Harry’s moans seriously.
Bill took Harry’s entrance as a cue for his exit, and before long the company had dispersed, each going his own way, after a satisfactory, if not profitable morning.
— Gwynyth Thompson, IIId.
THE WANDERER
As he wanders from track to track,
His heavy swag upon his back,
He watches animals, trees and birds,
The slowly moving cattle herds.
He rests awhile beside a stream,
Where silver fishes dart and gleam,
The bell-birds make a joyous sound,
As autumn leaves float to the ground.
Then once again he’s on his way,
Roaming, carefree, all the day.
So we leave him, the wandering one,
To the moon and the stars,
when day is done.
— Margaret Perry, IIIc.
TARANTELLA ON THE CROSS-COUNTRY
(With apologies to Hilaire Belloc)
Do you remember the run,
Dear friend?
Do you remember the run?
And the straining that's pertaining
To all excessive training,
And those who were groaning and those
who were moaning,
And those who were beginning to bend?
And the cheers and the jeers as each runner
appears,
Plodding, staggering on to the end?
Do you remember the run, dear friend,
Do you remember the run?
And the cheers and the jeers as each runner
appears,
Whose muscles are torn,
And whose hope is forlorn,
And the wheezing of his breath and his
lungs?
And the Blow! Blast! (and worse)
Of the curse
Of the hapless on the ground, and the sound
Of his friends all jeering,
Sneering,
Appearing
Laughing and leering,
Hurrying to their unlucky companion, run
To make fun —
And the Thid, Thod, Thud on to the bend!
Do you remember the run,
Dear friend? .
Do you remember the run?
Never again,
Dear friend,
Never again.
Only a sport for men
Who are reaching a score not after ten.
All bare
Is the route of the moot, destitute
Of any
Of the feet of athletes, and is there
All bare,
But for the shoe
Left by the one who never knew.
— Keith Ward, IIIa.
THE FASCINATION OF MAPS
From earliest times, map makers have tried
to represent the earth's surface on a chart. In
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when
people thought the earth to be flat, queer maps
were drawn of places visited by traders in their
caravans or in their small sailing vessels which
crept around the coasts of Europe, Asia Minor
and Africa.
Throughout the years, men have tried to tell
their stories with the help of maps. Whether
they tell of travel, beauty, horror, or of unique
discovery, untold work has been put into every
stroke, dot and circle. The charting of coast-
lines plays an important part in map-making,
and often many thousands of miles of coastline
have to be duplicated before a map is complete.
Scientists and astronomers put years of observa-
tion and calculation into weather charts.
The difficulty of map-making is today some-
what lessened by the use of aeroplanes, as in the
latest Antarctic expeditions, where it would be
almost impossible to work without the help of
modern equipment.
The map-makers of today allow for the play
of one's imagination, which is the ability to
picture and understand the setting and physical
features of a map. To do this, one must mentally
see the vegetation, population, factories and ter-
rain together with any other distinguishing fea-
tures likely to be in that region. This ability
often depends on the age of a person and the
stage and state of his education. A little boy
views a map of America with a different idea
in mind from that of his father. The little boy
pictures cowboys and Indians with perhaps an
occasional town amongst the hills, whereas his
father thinks of the development of factories,
atomic projects, high-powered cars, wide roads
and large cities, and perhaps an occasional
Indian, when he thinks of Texas.
The advantage of maps in different walks of
life is invaluable. To holiday-makers, the
purchase of a map greatly assists in viewing,
searching and discovering. The same applies
to travellers going interstate or abroad. To school
children, a map is often clearer than a book.
Maps also play an important part in military
operations. To the surveyor, town planner,
builder, architect, astronomer, pilot and sea
captain the study of maps is the most important
part of their work. — Len Cook, Vc.
A WASTELAND WHERE NO-ONE COMES OR HATH BEEN SINCE THE BEGINNING OF TIME
It is a lonely, sandy waste, torn by the cruel hands of winds, trodden upon by no man, seeing nothing of modern monsters and succouring neither man nor beast. The very trees are twisted in great grotesque shapes, shapes that point to hell as though they know that is their ultimate destiny; yet these trees are dead. Everything is dead.
The only movement is of sand, whipped by the wind into howling, blood-sucking tornadoes, or blown screaming over trees, rocks and pile after pile of dead wood.
No rain has ever fallen. No rain will ever fall. Time has forgotten this desert. God has forsaken it. No one remembers it because no one has ever seen it. No thing knows of it or has ever seen it except the blood moon by night and the searing sun by day. The sun rises, the sun sets; the moon rises, the moon sets, but never at any TIME, because Time has forgotten this place.
Trees die and crash to earth; no one hears them, no one sees them. The rocks eroded by the continuous lashings of the sand finally crumble, forming more, more, more sand. The tops of many trees are hidden beneath this ever-rising sand, but are they trees? Can you call twisted grey trunks and clinging grey branches trees?
Perhaps, at one time, you have wondered why the earth is tilted on its axis? This is to allow the baobab trees to grow upright. Before the beginning of time, the earth was covered with these trees, but when the sun's rays reached their jelly-like foliage, many of the weaker trees melted and became salty oceans which cover great portions of the land. The other trees withered and fell. The burning sun was destroying them, and finally, just before time began, there were only three or four hundred left.
Perhaps the lonely waste is where the trees began, perhaps it is where they will end; yet there are no beginnings and ends where there is no time. Days are merged into nights, there is no commencement and no finish. Time has not begun, time will never finish; love has not started, love will never die; joy has not grown, joy will never cease; but this desert will live eternally because it is in existence and any power that exists, can never perish.
— Frances Seedsman, Vb.
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Developing Open Source Dataloggers for Inquiry Learning
George Hloupis, Vassilis Bimpikas, Ilias Stavrakas, Konstantinos Moutzouris,
Charalampos Stergiopoulos and Dimos Triantis
New Technologies and Methodologies in Education Unit, Department of Electronics,
Technological Educational Institute of Athens, Agiou Spyridonos, Egaleo, Athens, Greece
Keywords: Dataloggers, Arduino, Open Source, Inquiry Learning, Project-based Learning, Hands-on Assignments.
Abstract: There exists a continuous need to promote better Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education at the younger students. To satisfy this need hands-on laboratory assignments and inquiry learning projects are widely accepted as appropriate approaches. One key issue for both approaches is the effective and adaptive data logging. This article describes the development of educational datalogger devices, using open source software and hardware which can be used to collect, present and save data for both offline and online analysis. The novelty of the proposed devices lies on the fact the presented implementations are not dedicated devices bind to specific features but they can be seen as educational datalogger platforms which are expandable and adaptive to students’ needs in a minimum cost since they are based in open source solutions.
1 INTRODUCTION
The systematic displeasure with science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) among young people (McCormarce, 2010) is a challenging problem that remains unsolved. Its solution is not necessary only because today students are potential tomorrow scientists but also because we demand from them to be critical reviewers of scientific knowledge: “improving the public’s ability to engage with such socio-scientific issues requires, therefore, not only a knowledge of the content of science but also a knowledge of ‘how science works’” (Osborne and Dillon, 2008). Recent studies (European Commission, Science education now, 2007) present a lack of interest among young people towards scientific topics which leads to declining number of university graduates in STEM areas. This is reflected as a shortage of scientists and engineers in the job market which comes in contrast with the prediction that there will be significant needs for medium and high-skilled jobs as pointed out by several studies [US Dept. of Commerce (2011) indicates 17% grow from 2008 to 2018, compared to 9.8% growth in non-STEM fields; European Table of Industrialists (2009) estimates 50 million new STEM jobs by year 2020)]. It is more than obvious that adequacy in STEM can serve as a major keystone in developing adequate Research & Development capacity leading in this way to competitive innovators that will possibly lead the technology market far more competitive than in previous years.
A critical determinant on the above is an education approach that will be able to enable young people’s corresponding key abilities (e.g. the ability to learn how to learn, developing mathematical, scientific and technological skills, being creative and active citizens). Students must be exposed to this type of education very early in order to spark their interest and ensure they received all the required supplies leading towards to a valued university degree in STEM areas. There is no doubt that teachers, schools and the education system at whole have the responsibility to cultivate a positive attitude to science to young people (Gras-Velazquez et. al., 2009). Their motivation is of major importance in order to decide studies in STEM areas. Schoolchildren’s views of science are formed usually at primary school level and these views are highly committed to their attitudes to science and technology (Osborn and Dillon, 2008). As Gipps (2002) pointed out “Scientific inquiry cannot be made independent of the context, observer or means of observation, and its successful prosecution will usually require creativity and intuition, qualities that
do not appear on standard diagrams of ‘scientific method’”. Science oriented project provides the students the outline of the thinking and planning skills required by professional scientists (Hodson, 1998). Under this approach students can get some idea of the people who sometimes guess, often try things without knowing what the exact result will be and it is not rare that many experiments “fail”. Shapiro (1996) asserts that the lack of investigation results that the majority of students completed their secondary programs having missed involvement in developing an understanding of the very nature of science itself.
Data logging lends itself particularly well to scientific inquiry and may be the best educational use that can be benefited of this technology (Gipps, 2001). Data logging methods allow pupils to assume more responsibility and control in their science practical investigations. The instant display of measurements allows students to set new hypotheses and change conditions to carry out further experiments. Graph generation soon enough after making a prediction greatly facilitates the pedagogical technique of ‘Predict-Observe-Explain’ (Osborne and Hennessy, 2003) with rapid feedback and the possibility of sorting out of the reasons for unsuccessful predictions. Students were able to ‘feel’ how the action and sensing reaction are related and can therefore have a better understanding of the meaning of the graph. Instant data logging and analysis are strong motivating factors for students to collect multiple data through repeated measurements. Thus, this combined (logging and analysis) process enables students to experience the entire inquiry process as holistic and cyclical (Rogers and Wild, 1994) a scenario that is rare in a conventional science practical lessons.
The purpose of the current paper is to demonstrate the design and implementation of three low cost educational dataloggers based on Arduino open source prototyping platform suitable for carrying out the scientific inquiry learning outcomes. The obvious purpose of our efforts is the minimization of the cost (comparing to corresponding solutions) along with the provided flexibility (e.g. open source firmwares for different measurement scenarios, unrestricted changes through Arduino or Visual programming environment) as well as easiness to use (e.g plug & play sensors, wizard type questions, touch screen for user input, ready to run experiments).
2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR AN EDUCATIONAL DATALOGGER
A modern educational datalogger must be capable of providing some advantages over its predecessors. Some of them can be the deconstruction of traditional boundaries between distinct learning environments, the strong search capabilities, the interaction ability as well as the effective learning and familiarization with state-of-the-art technologies. These advantages lead to some basic design requirements as below (Hloupis et al., 2012):
- Ease of use: Students without computer experience must be able to use it (e.g. use of phone-like touch screens).
- Adaptability: student’s needs and skill must define system’s boundaries (e.g. no need for excessive training in order to use the datalogger)
- Suitability: Subjects must provided with various ways of gathering the learning outcome (e.g. a solar energy experiment must be carried out by means of different sensors)
- Availability: operations and functions must be available using simple procedures (e.g. adding a new set of sensors must be a common procedure independent from sensors’ type)
- Usefulness: actions and dissemination must be in familiar forms (e.g. data transfer by means of SD cards of USB drives, data processing with ready-to-run software)
- Open source and low cost (e.g. users must be able to select the desirable features and characteristics from a range of cost effective options)
The above design requirements can be weighted proportionally leading to implementation solutions that will be different in their final form. In the current study the prototypes of three representative solutions are demonstrated where briefly described at Table 1.
The selection of Arduino platform as the core of the proposed educational dataloggers dictated from two additional factors (except the fulfilment of design requirements that stated earlier): its open source characteristics and the huge amount of support that can be found in Internet today. For readers that are not familiar with Arduino platform excellent introductory material can be found in official site (www.arduino.cc) as well as in several textbooks (Banzi, 2011; McRoberts, 2010; Oxer and Blemmigs, 2009; Noble, 2012).
Table 1: Features of proposed educational dataloggers.
| Short name | Common Features | Main (additional) Features | Firmware / hardware provided | Final Cost |
|------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------|
| Medimnos | • Plug & Play, colour coded external sensors | ✓ LCD character screen | YES (Arduino codes & Schematics) | ~20€ |
| | • Real time clock (RTC) | ✓ Push button control | | |
| | • Data capturing interval selected by the user. | ✓ 8 Analog inputs | | |
| Kyathos | • Data storage on an SD card for offline analysis. | ✓ 1.8” 18-bit Color TFT | YES (Arduino codes & Schematics) | ~40€ |
| | • Battery operated. | ✓ Joystick control | | |
| | | ✓ 16 Analog inputs | | |
| | | ✓ Data sent over the USB for online analysis. | | |
| Kotyli | | ✓ Touch screen with custom designed interfaces (software provided) | YES (Arduino codes, Graphics Schematics) | <100€ |
| | | ✓ Predefined experiment templates | | |
| | | ✓ 16 Analog inputs | | |
| | | ✓ Data sent over the USB for online analysis. | | |
3 EDUCATIONAL DATALOGGER PROTOTYPES
3.1 Common Features
Since the prototype dataloggers share some common features, these will be explained in detail initially.
• **Plug & Play external sensors.** Ease of use can be highly benefited if we release users from obligatory sensor selection. Keeping in mind that the proposed dataloggers can be used even in primary schools curricula we propose a colour code scheme for sensor signalling. Under this approach the students only have to match the colour of sensor outlet to corresponding coloured input of the datalogger. A quick visual check by the teacher can ensure the validity of the connection increasing at the same time students’ confidence.
• **Analog inputs.** The low cost Arduino versions that based on AVR MEGA 328 microcontroller can provide 6 (Uno, Leonardo, Diecimilla, Pro, Lilypad) or 8 (ProMini, Nano, Fio) analog inputs. From them only 4 remain free for user input. To overcome this limitation we use only one analog input coupled with an 8x1 or 16x1 multiplexer and leave the remaining three reserved for future purposes.
• **Real time clock.** All measurements are time tagged by means of onboard RTC in YYYY/MM/DD HH:MM:SS format. The RTC is connected to its own battery so that the date and time information are not lost when main power is removed from the datalogger. Time data appended to analog inputs values providing a unique text string for each measurement.
• **Data capturing interval selected by the user.** It is not expected that the students (especially the younger ones) will be familiar with terms like “refresh rate”, “frequency”, “period”, “time interval” etc. To overcome this shortage before every new measurement cycle we prompt a message to the user asking “how many times per hour” and waiting for the user input (using Up/Down keys). Under this approach teachers can easily explain more practically how the measurement sequence evolves (i.e. the number 6 means that the datalogger is going to measure every 10min). The hour basis was selected as a compromise between rapid measurements (e.g. sound, luminosity) and slower ones (e.g. temperature, humidity). Since the system is open source, in the provided software code, the teacher can easily change the capturing interval (i.e. by setting it in a per minute basis) as well as the prompt message.
• **Data storage.** The use of SD card except its obvious function of saving data offers two alternative impacts on hands-on approach: On one hand it provides an excellent springboard to the teacher in order to demonstrate (i.e. through educational gaming: “Spies and Secret Agents” where the precious SD cards hold the important
data) to students the difference between the instrument (e.g. the “system that measures”) and the results (e.g. the “data”). On the other hand the datalogger is capable for field measurement installations where the students can exchange the SD cards in predefined times (e.g. Weekly outdoor temperature measurements with SD card switching every morning in order to examine previous day’s measurements).
- **Battery operated.** The datalogger is powered from a 9V rechargeable battery. This is not mandatory since the datalogger designed in such a way that can accept power with minimum at 7V and maximum at 15V in any kind of popular formats (NiCd, NiMH etc.). There is also provision for the use of photovoltaic cells as power module providing in this way easy, long term installations for field measurements.
### 3.2 Medimnos Prototype
This is the prototype that implemented using cost minimization as major design consideration. The modular view of this datalogger is shown on Fig.1. The main components of this prototype is a “barebone” Arduino board, a SD Card module, a RTC module, a voltage regulator, a 8X1 input multiplexer and monochrome LCD screen (Fig.2).
The sequence of actions for the student is straightforward (italics in parentheses are explanations of user actions) as below:
i) Startup *(Toggle On/Off switch – Welcome message appears)*
ii) Measurement quantity selection *(using Up/Down buttons)*.
iii) Define measurement repetition *(response to question “how many times per hour” by means using Up/Down buttons)*
iv) Selection of concurrent measurement *(response to question “Add measurement ?” by means using Up/Down buttons).* “Yes” means return to Step ii) while “No” means go to next Step
v) Start Measurement *(user prompted with a message “Ready? Press Start” in order to start measurement sequence)*
Termination of measurements is achieved by pressing “Stop” button.
Data recorded in SD card as text files. Their names are in format `dataYYYYMMDDHHMMSS.txt`, where the values derived from the timestamp of 1st measurement. Every new measurement creates a new file. Inside the text file data are appended in tabular format with one header row, as below:
| Date | Time | Temp | Humidity | Sound |
|------------|--------|------|----------|-------|
| 2013/12/14 | 18:39:45 | 23.5 | 45 | 40 |
| 2013/12/14 | 18:41:45 | 23.4 | 45 | 52 |
| 2013/12/14 | 18:43:45 | 23.4 | 46 | 61 |
The tabulated format allows rapid import to all post-processing software (e.g. MS-Excel, OpenOffice etc.).
As long as the datalogger measures, the values of all the measuring quantities (i.e per analog input) displayed on LCD screen. The refresh rate of display is the same with measurement’s rate if this is not smaller than 30secs. If this is not happens (i.e. infrequent measurements) then the displayed value is the average value for the last 30secs of the measurement. This is done fully automatically and after the 30secs interval the current (or the averaged) value of the next measurement quantity is displayed. Under this approach every value is displayed for 30secs and if all the 16 analog inputs will be used 8mins required. Anytime the user can push the Left/Right buttons in order to see the value of Previous/Next measuring quantity without waiting
30secs for automatic switching.
### 3.3 Kyathos Prototype
This prototype uses an Arduino UNO board, a SD Card module, a RTC module, a voltage regulator, a 16X1 input multiplexer and a 1.8” color TFT screen with resolution 160x120 pixels with joystick selector. The Kyathos prototype can provide the values of all the measuring channels at the same time in TFT screen and these values can be colour marked (i.e. if a specific threshold is exceeded the presented value can be presented with red color) as presented in Fig.3.
In addition, student is able to see additional screen plots with real time graph (Fig.4) of each the measurement quantity gathering in this way a preliminary but rapid view of quantity’s behaviour. Effective visualization therefore reveals the meaning of data at several levels of detail, initially from a broad overview to the fine structure after data processing. This approach was selected since psychologists and education researchers very early proved the vital role of visual imagery in the processing of information (Bishop, 1989; Del Grande, 1990; Dreyfus, 1991; Presmeg, 1986; 1992) while problem-solving models (Goldin, 1987; Lowrie and Hill, 1996; Pirie and Kieren, 1991; 1992) have emphasized the role that imagery plays in the processing of information.
Simultaneously with screen presentation data sent to USB port providing in this way a route to real time data visualization in PC. At this point the students were able to see real time display of their measurements.
A free for educational use software packages like Stampplot (www.stampplot.com) can recognize the data stream from USB port and present it in familiar ways to the students (i.e. like gauges or indicators) as presented in Fig.5.
Obviously the teachers are free to select any other alternative freeware solution (i.e LiveGraph, qSerialTerm, JGraph, Kst) since the data stream that is sent over USB is fully configurable in the
provided Arduino codes. The remaining characteristics (SD card storage, sequence of measurement actions) remain the same as Medimnos except the use of joystick as selector instead of push buttons.
3.4 Kotyli Prototype
Mobile, handheld technology has become the leading trend of daily routine and the integration of touchscreen technology into mobile handheld devices is quickly becoming equally common. Based on this fact it is not unlikely to consider that students has become more familiar with touch screens rather than develop corresponding computer skills; i.e. keyboard input, mouse handling e.t.c., for data input. Increasing usability and easiness led to the current prototype solution that is based on Medimnos prototype except that color TFT screen replaced with a 3.2” resistive touch screen. Resistive touch screens are pressure sensitive, so they can be operated with any input device, including a gloved hand or stylus. A solution like the above provide the flexibility to design custom graphics and user input interfaces thus increasing the adaptability of the datalogger to various hands-on projects (e.g. results of temperature measurements can be presented in a thermometer gauge). All the graphics can be designed in accompanying comprehensive software IDE for Microsoft Windows that provides an integrated software development platform for all. Buttons, labels, dials, gauges, input and backgrounds can be easily created using drag-n-drop actions. Upon completion the user uploads the graphics and the relevant Arduino code is generated automatically.
An additional feature that added to Kotyli prototype is the use of predefined experiment templates. A set of common experiments (i.e. temperature measuring with one or two sensors, pH measurements, voltage measurements of common type batteries, solar activity during one day e.t.c.). To enhance the use of this feature a visual open source language for programming, Minibloq (http://blog.minibloq.org/) was selected in order to release teachers from configuring the Arduino using textual programming. Once installed, the program uses the usual drag-and-drop blocks editor style of working. The novel features are that there is simulation of the hardware and the code corresponding to the visual program can be seen in another window. Creation of new blocks is possible and this is the feature that used for uploading predefined experiments. Minibloq can be used also for any other procedure (i.e. uploading new datalogger firmware or design new experiment) as described in Medimnos and Kyathos prototypes. A representative screenshot form is presented in Fig.6.
The measurement sequence is slightly altered in relation with previous two dataloggers. Initially the
Table 2: Examples of inquiry based activities by means of proposed dataloggers.
| Activities’ aspect | Level | Used sensors |
|--------------------------------------------------------|---------|-------------------------------|
| Sound proofing, Sound sources | Primary | Microphone |
| Light passing, reflection materials | | Photoresistor |
| Sun as a source of heat & light | | Photoresistor, Temperature |
| Insulation, Heat Energy | | In / Out Temperature |
| Distance & Proximity measures | | Sonar |
| Motion classification | | Accelerometer |
| Energy Harvesting | | Voltage/current |
| Water quality | | pH |
| Endothermic reactions | | Temperature |
| Testing Sunglasses | | UV photodetector |
| Crushing & Centripetal force, Tensile strength | Secondary| Force |
| Environment & pollution | | Gases - Dust |
| Weather prediction | | Barometric – anemometer - humidity |
| Renewable resources (sun, water, wind) | | Flow - Voltage - Solar - anemometer |
student is asked if he wants a new or a predefined experiment. In case of predefined experiment button is pressed a list is loaded and the student just selects one from the list. In case of new experiment selection, a new screen asks the student to select the desired measuring quantity. The student selects by pressing the corresponding button and the next screen used for the definition of measurement repetition (question “how many times per hour”). After this, a message “Add measurement?” is appeared, providing the student the opportunity to append another quantity in measurement sequence. Next a screen appeared with a prompt message (in which port the sensor must be inserted) and a “Measure” button. Finally the results of the measurements presented as dials or gauges in real time. The whole sequence in screenshots is presented in Fig.7.
4 DIDACTIC UNIT EXAMPLES
The proposed experimental prototypes can be easily imported to STEM oriented class courses. Following an inquiry based approach students can experiment using their educational dataloggers as proposed in Table 2.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The design of an Arduino based portable datalogger devices has been described. The choice of Arduino as the core platform dictated from its suitability for starter projects, its cost and durability, a thriving community offering support and ideas and a maturity that is rare in open source solutions. Along with the programming easiness it seems that Arduino platform will prevail very shortly as the low cost solution even for educational projects. The three presented prototypes share some common features (Plug & Play colour coded external sensors Real time clock, Data capturing interval selected by the use, Data storage on an SD card for offline analysis, Battery operated) but each one has its own additional and unique features: Medimms prototype implemented as low cost solution, Kyaithos focus on real time presentations of results by sending data over USB and presented them at the same time in a color TFT screen (as independent values or as real time graphs) while Kotyli designed using the increasing usability and easiness as major determinants (using resistive touch screen and animated graphics for data presentation). Regarding Kotyli, the obvious comparison with Smartphones or Tablets, highlights its two main advantages against them: the fully configurable user interface (through open source solutions) and the sensors’ plug-n-play capability (without using the USB port).
The intention of the authors is that the proposed implementations will act as starting points for adaptive designs to several curricula since the open source character of the designs ensures that this is an ongoing research. Along with the availability of Arduino codes it not overweening to claim that this open source platform will be accompanying the educational system for the next years.
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Osborne, J. and Dillon, J., 2008. *Science education in Europe: critical reflections*. Available at: http://www.pollen-europa.net/pollen_dev/images__Editor_Nuffield%20report.pdf (last accessed January 2014)
Osborne, J., & Hennessy, S., 2003. *Literature Review in Science Education and the Role of ICT: Promise, Problems and Future Directions*, NESTA FutureLab series, (Report 6), 1-41.
Oxer, J. and Blennings, H., 2009. *Practical Arduino*, Technology in Action series, Apress.
Pirie, S., & Kieren, T., 1991. *Folding back: Dynamics in the growth of mathematical understanding*. In F. Furinghetti (Ed.), *Proceedings of the 15th PME Conference* (Vol. 3, pp. 169-176). Italy: Program Committee for the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education.
Pirie, S., & Kieren, T., 1992. *Watching Sandy’s understanding grow*, Journal of Mathematical Behaviour, 11, 243-257.
Presmeg, N. C., 1986. *Visualization in high school mathematics*, Learning of Mathematics, 6 (3), 42-46.
Presmeg, N., 1992. *Prototypes, metaphors, metonymies and imaginative rationality in high school mathematics*, Educational Studies in Mathematics, 23 (4), 593-613.
Rogers, P. & Wild, P., 1994. *The use of IT in practical science - a practical study in three schools*, School Science Review, 75(273), 21-28.
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INSTRUCTIONS:
Prior to admission, a feeding plan shall be established and written for each infant (age 6 weeks - 12 months) in consultation with the parents and based on the written recommendation of the child’s pediatrician or family physician. Feeding plans must be continually updated by physician or parent. [470 IAC 3-4.7 (b)]
The following feeding plan has been recommended for this child.
| Age in Months | Time to Feed | Formula / Food Item and Amount | Special Instructions | Signature and Date of Parent or Physician |
|---------------|--------------|--------------------------------|---------------------|------------------------------------------|
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
Signature of physician / nurse practitioner
Date signed (month, day, year)
INSTRUCTIONS: This is a guideline. Each child will grow at a different rate.
1. Formula and juice may be offered in a training cup when a child is ready.
2. Formula is used until 12 months unless otherwise stated by a physician.
3. Only plain, strained, mashed or chopped vegetables, fruits and meats are offered.
4. Most children are ready for foods of coarser consistency between 9 - 10 months of age. Mashed or chopped table foods may be used.
5. Strained or mashed foods should be introduced at 6 months if the infant's neuromuscular system has developed appropriately. Indications for solid foods are: the ability to swallow non-liquid foods, to sit with support, head and neck control, and to show that the child is full lean back or turn away.
6. Finger foods may be offered between 9 - 12 months when infant is developing finger / hand coordination.
### 2 MONTHS - 5 MONTHS
| TIME INTERVAL | Month 2 | Month 3 | Month 4 | Month 5 |
|---------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 6:00 a.m. | 4 - 6 oz. | 4 - 7 oz. | 5 - 7 oz. | 5 - 8 oz. |
| 10:00 a.m. | 4 - 6 oz. | 4 - 7 oz. | 5 - 7 oz. | 5 - 8 oz. |
| 2:00 p.m. | 4 - 6 oz. | 4 - 7 oz. | 5 - 7 oz. | 5 - 8 oz. |
| 6:00 p.m. | 4 - 6 oz. | 4 - 7 oz. | 5 - 7 oz. | 5 - 8 oz. |
| 10:00 p.m. | 4 - 6 oz. | 4 - 7 oz. | 5 - 7 oz. | 5 - 8 oz. |
| 2:00 a.m. | 4 - 6 oz. | 4 - 7 oz. | 5 - 7 oz. | 5 - 8 oz. |
### 6 MONTHS - 12 MONTHS
| Total Amount of Formula Per 24 Hours | Month 6 | Month 7 | Month 8 | Month 9 | Months 10, 11, and 12 |
|--------------------------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|-----------------------|
| | 30 - 48 oz. | 30 - 32 oz. | 29 - 31 oz. | 26 - 31 oz. | 24 - 32 oz. |
| TIME INTERVAL | Month 6 | Month 7 | Month 8 | Month 9 | Months 10, 11, and 12 |
|---------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|-----------------------|
| 7:00 a.m. | 5 - 8 oz. formula
2 - 3T baby cereal * | 6 oz. formula
2 - 3T baby cereal * | 7 - 8 oz. formula
3 - 5T baby cereal * | 7 - 8 oz. formula **
4 - 6T baby cereal *
2 - 4T fruit | 6 - 8 oz. formula ** (1 cup)
1/4 - 1/2 baby cereal *
2 - 4T fruit |
| 9:00 a.m. | 5 - 8 oz. formula | 6 oz. formula | 1/2 cup Vit. C fortified fruit juice
1/4 dry toast or 1 cracker | 1/2 cup Vit. C fortified fruit juice
1/2 dry toast or 2 crackers | 1/2 cup Vit. C fortified fruit juice
1/2 dry toast or 2 crackers |
| 12:00 Noon | 5 - 8 oz. formula
1/2 dry toast or 2 crackers | 6 oz. formula
2 - 3T strained vegetable | 7 - 8 oz. formula
5 - 9T vegetable
2 - 4T fruit | 7 - 8 oz. formula **
1 - 2T meat
5 - 9T vegetable
2 - 4T fruit | 6 - 8 oz. formula ** (1 cup)
2T meat
2 - 6T potato, rice, noodles
5 - 9T vegetable
4 - 6T fruit |
| 3:00 p.m. | 5 - 8 oz. formula | 6 oz. formula
1/2 dry toast or 2 crackers | 7 - 8 oz. formula
1/2 dry toast or 2 crackers | 7 - 8 oz. formula **
1/2 dry toast or 2 crackers | 6 - 8 oz. formula ** (1 cup)
1/2 dry toast or 2 crackers |
| 6:00 p.m. | 5 - 8 oz. formula
2 - 3T baby cereal * | 6 oz. formula
2 - 3T strained fruit
2 - 3T baby cereal * | 7 - 8 oz. formula
5 - 9T vegetable
2 - 4T fruit
2 - 5T baby cereal * | 7 - 8 oz. formula **
5 - 9T vegetable
2 - 4T fruit
1T meat
4T baby cereal * | 6 - 8 oz. formula ** (1 cup)
2T meat
2 - 6T potato, rice, noodles
2 - 4T vegetable
2 - 4T fruit |
| 9:00 p.m. | 5 - 8 oz. formula | | | May start sleeping through the night. |
* If dry cereal is used, mix cereal and formula in a bowl. Feed with a spoon.
** Formula may be offered in a training cup. | <urn:uuid:4b8f947c-2253-45fd-b9e0-1d10b95bc3ad> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://adventuresparnets.weebly.com/uploads/3/9/6/1/39617295/infant_feeding_plan_1.pdf | 2018-07-17T15:10:49Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00443.warc.gz | 10,243,432 | 1,488 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.98513 | eng_Latn | 0.98365 | [
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Troop Travel Resource Packet
Updated 9/19
| Topic | Page |
|--------------------------------------------|------|
| Evaluate readiness | 3 |
| Sleeping arrangements | 4 |
| Travel progression | 5 |
| Creating a plan | 6 |
| Girl planning | 7 |
| GSUSA travel chart | 8 |
| Planning sheet | 9 |
| Sample planning timeline | 10 |
| Sample meeting planning schedule | 11 |
| Checklist | 12 |
| Girl packing list | 13 |
| Chaperones | 14 |
| Keeping girls safe | 15 |
| Transporting girls | 15 |
| Inclusion | 16 |
| Emergency Procedures | 17 |
| Guidelines for trips | 18 |
| Plan 2 insurance form | 19 |
| Plan 3 insurance form | 20 |
| Rent/lease vehicle form | 21 |
| Girl/Adult health history form | 22 |
| Individual trip permission form | 24 |
| Year permission form | 25 |
| Council cares instructions | 27 |
| Council cares forms | 28 |
| Injury and incident form | 30 |
This supplement includes tips and tools to support you. Use this resource in conjunction with Volunteer Essentials as well as any applicable Safety Activity Checkpoints. You are responsible for using current materials and standards.
For any overnights or travel, a troop must be in good standing:
- At least one attending leader has New Leader Training.
- All persons attending are current registered members; adults have current background checks
It is recommended leaders review the appropriate additional training materials for their girls’ program level.
Share this information with your group, girls, and parents. Touch base with your Service Unit when you need advice. Reach out to staff at Council when you need help. Most of all, enjoy the process of working with your girls to plan great trips!
**Evaluating Readiness**
**Girls**
As you begin to plan trips, from the simplest to the most complex, ask yourself what the girls are ready for. Build necessary skills and give girls opportunities to practice.
For any kind of trip, girls need practice in some basic life skills as well as specific travel-related skills. Give them a chance to experience progressive trips before taking an advanced trip. Girls need to be able to adjust to differences in culture, noise, language, money, temperature, etc. as they get farther from home. The longer a trip, the more girls will need endurance, independence, ability to manage gear, and the ability to stay patient with each other. What are some skills girls should learn and practice as they progress through the levels of trip taking?
- Being away from home, her routine and familiar surroundings for longer and longer periods
- Taking care of herself
- Organizing and keeping track of her own belongings
- Good safety practices
- Good manners
• Able to get along with others for longer and longer periods – accepting responsibility for their own behavior
• Comfortable with a hotel
• Budgeting and fiscal responsibility
• Able to handle emotions
• Planning and evaluation
• Making choices and group decisions
Girl Scout Juniors and above should be actively engaged partners in determining where, when and how they travel or participate in activities.
**Adults**
Adult readiness is a factor when it comes to troop travel. To make complicated plans and raise funds, the troop will need parental support and ‘buy-in’. Parents need to have clear communication through the planning and travel process. Be sure to communicate the mission and vision of the trip, how money will be managed, specific transportation, safety, and sleeping plans.
If a parent doesn’t have confidence in their daughter’s ability to be independent, it can be very difficult to ‘let go’. Be sure to provide progressive experiences that allow girls to develop skills in a safe setting – and then share those successes with families.
If you notice that several parents are feeling uncomfortable with the idea, this may be a sign that you are attempting a plan that is a bit too ambitious. Review the progression so far, and talk to your parents about the steps taken and what steps will help them be more comfortable.
**Sleeping Arrangements**
If girls are sleeping in separate tents or rooms, there should never be 1 adult female chaperone in same sleeping space with girls. It is ok to just have the girls in this sleeping area, or to have two adult female chaperones in any space the girls are sleeping. If any of your chaperones are male they must sleep in a separate space away from the group, including his/their own daughter(s).
**Let’s get going!**
Travel Progression in Girl Scouting
**Field Trip**: also called a day trip. Start with 1-2 hours and may go as long as all day. Daisies and older.
Girls:
- Use the buddy system
- Learn something new
- Use basic planning skills and decision-making
- Able to listen, and follow rules
- Appropriate public behavior
**Overnights**: 2 or less nights in a lodge, cabin, hotel, museum. Start with 1 night close by, then move farther and farther away. Daisies and older, depending on activities planned and trip length.
Girls:
- Use the buddy system
- Develop independence
- Added complexity of skills and planning experience
- Wider options due to distance possible
- Able to spend overnight away from home
- Can take of their daily routine (comb hair, brush teeth, dress themselves, etc)
- Can pack, carry and keep track of own gear
- Has endurance for longer days
- Understands what to do if separated from group
**3 Nights or more**: Juniors and older.
Girls:
- Experience of a big adventure
- Experience new pace or vibe
- See significant sites
- Possible new culture
- Try new forms of transportation
- Get off the beaten track
- Polite behavior on public transportation
- Ability to handle own money
- Flexibility (things will change)
- Able to spend extended periods in a vehicle for travel
International Travel: 3 or more nights away, outside the Country using air travel. Cadettes and older.
Girls:
- Potential for life-changing experiences
- Once in a lifetime opportunity to travel abroad with the troop
- Practice foreign language
- Experience a different economy
- Open girls’ eyes to the world!
- Cultural and economic sensitivity
- Able to maintain personal safety
- Able to safeguard money, valuables, and documents
- Able to navigate complicated travel arrangements
- Physical and emotional endurance for long trips
Everybody loves PIE (Plan, Implement, Evaluate)
Plan, what plan?
As leaders we empower the girls to plan their own adventures. You are there to guide them. Brainstorm ideas with the girls.
What do they want to include on the overnight?
- Is there a theme?
- What will we do? Journey activities? Take Action project?
- Where shall we go?
- What gear do we need? Shall we buy it? Borrow it?
Have the girls develop the Ground Rules with you.
- If they create them, they own them and are more likely to follow them.
Discuss quiet time, lights out, wake up time before the trip
Discuss the new experiences they may have:
- Strange surroundings
- Sharing space with another group
Review health and safety procedures – Check Safety Activity Checkpoints!!!
- Fire drill
- Meeting place
- What to do if separated from the group
- Plan simple meals everyone can eat
- Have a backup plan
- Include some free time!
- Create a Kaper Chart
- Hold a Family Meeting before the trip
- Explain the ground rules for the trip, set limits, agree on consequences.
Implement – Have a great time!
Evaluate
What went well?
What could have been better?
Shall we do this again? At this place? This time of year?
Should we go somewhere else?
Planning Progression
What can the girls do?
Daisy Girl Scouts can help plan snacks, help with trip ideas…
Brownie Girl Scouts can help plan snacks, help with trip ideas, what to pack, where to go, when to go, what to eat, help with shopping…
Junior Girl Scouts can help plan snacks, help with trip ideas, what to pack, where to go, when to go, what to eat, help with shopping, do the shopping, decide on sleeping arrangements, decide how long the trip will be, work out a kaper chart, research trip ideas and gather information, surf the net for information…
Older Girl Scouts can help plan snacks, help with trip ideas, what to pack, where to go, when to go, what to eat, help with shopping, do the shopping, decide on sleeping arrangements, decide how long the trip will be, work out a kaper chart, research trip ideas and gather information, surf the net for information, plan the budget, make phone calls, fill out paperwork, plan overnights for others…
Let’s get going!
Girl Scout Travel Progression
Progression allows girls to learn the skills they need to become competent travelers, including how to plan and organize trips. Because when girls take the lead, the possibilities are endless.
LOCAL FIELD TRIPS
Get your travel feet wet! Walk to a nearby park or take a short ride to a firehouse or other local spot.
Keep it girl-led: girls choose the location.
DAY TRIPS
Take an all-day trip!
Keep it girl-led: girls choose the location and activity (perhaps working toward a badge) and make plans for lunch.
OVERNIGHTS
Start with one night, maybe at a camp or museum. Progress to a weekend trip in a nearby city or state park.
Keep it girl-led: girls plan the activity and meals, create travel games, and pack their own overnight bags.
REGIONAL TRIPS
Spend three to four nights away somewhere a few hours from home.
Keep it girl-led: girls plan key details of the trip, such as the itinerary, the budget, the route, and lodging.
(Extended trip insurance required.)
NATIONAL TRIPS
Travel the country! Trips often last a week or more. Girls should think beyond a typical vacation destination and consider historical sites, museums, or national parks!
Keep it girl-led: girls lead the entire planning process and might add a community service or Take Action project.
(Extended trip insurance required.)
INTERNATIONAL TRIPS
Travel the world! The most challenging trips usually take one to three years to prepare. Consider visiting a WAGGGS World Centre!
Keep it girl-led: girls download the Global Travel Toolkit and plan their entire trip (including learning about the language, culture, passports and visas, exchange rates, etc.).
(Extended trip insurance required.)
INDEPENDENT TRAVEL
Older girls with national or international travel experience can travel nationally or internationally independently through their council-offered travel opportunities or GSUSA’s Destinations program. Check with your council, or visit the Girl Scout Destinations website!
When moving up to each level of the progression, consider girls’ independence, flexibility, decision-making skills, group skills, and cross-cultural skills.
Leaders
Traveling with Girl Scouts is unique because girls take the lead—during the planning and on the trip. This builds their skills, develops their confidence, and teaches them how to overcome challenges and practice collaboration. Girls are most likely to achieve these outcomes when they travel with the recommended girl/adult ratios (without too many adults on the trip.) Consider starting your travel experience by inviting parents/guardians to join local field trips and day trips. By the time girls are ready for a weekend trip—and definitely when it comes time for a regional or national trip—they should be ready to do the planning and make decisions. When too many adults participate, trips become less girl-led. Avoid having an excess of parents join your regional, national, and international trips. When girls have the chance to travel independently (with their troop leaders, of course!), there’s no limit to what they can learn about themselves and achieve.
Check with your council about age requirements. Girls should have experience at every level of the progression before moving on to the next level. For regional travel, girls must be Juniors or older. For national and international trips, girls must be Cadettes or older.
This is a sample of a check list you can use with your girls. It will help them learn what needs to be done in order to plan.
**TRIP PLANNING SHEET**
Kind of trip____________________________________________________
Dates_________________________________________________________
Trip coordinator_______________________________________________
Phone________________________________________________________
Where we are going:
Place_________________________________________________________
Address_______________________________________________________
Phone________________________________________________________
Adults in charge_______________________________________________
Phone________________________________________________________
Transportation:
Driver(s) Number of vehicle passengers
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Who is going? Their Job Check list
Transportation_________________________________________________
Food ________________________________________________________
Reservations___________________________________________________
Equipment_____________________________________________________
Route_________________________________________________________
Guests_________________________________________________________
Forms_________________________________________________________
Entertainment___________________________________________________
**CONGRATULATIONS!!**
You and your girls have planned a trip
**HAVE FUN!!**
Sample Timeline for Planning an Overnight Trip
Up to 6 months before the event
Select the place and date
Read relevant sections in Volunteer Essentials and Safety Activity Checkpoints
Get an idea as to how many girls and adults will be participating
Arrange transportation
Reserve (or arrange to borrow) necessary equipment
Decide on program activities
6 Weeks before the event
Confirm which girls and adults will be participating
Collect money from the girls and adults who will be participating
Send trip notification to Service Unit Manager or designated service team member
Send in registration form and fees
Determine an emergency plan with the girls
Plan activities and practice needed skills at meetings
1 Week before the event
Give a copy of roster of emergency phone numbers to the emergency contact person
Gather supplies and food (if necessary)
Arrange carpool(s) as necessary
1 Day before the event
Pack your personal gear and any group equipment at your home
Day of the event
Provide each driver with complete sets of health and permission forms
Help girls pack gear in car(s)
Do your best to leave On Time!
Go and Have a Really Good Time!
Let’s get going!
| Meeting | Meeting Content | Leader Activities |
|---------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 | Discuss overnight with group
Decide – where, what to do, what activities interest the girls
Discuss – what to wear, bring, pack, dressing in layers
Do – practice skills | Make reservations if necessary
Read and discuss issues in Safety Activity Checkpoints
Send home permission slips
Notify SU of trip |
| 2 | Consider everyone when planning menus – create shopping lists
Set the budget
Continue practicing skills | Inform families about the upcoming trip
Solicit volunteers – shoppers, drivers, emergency contact person, etc. |
| 3 | With the girls, plan the schedule of events for the overnight
Learn some songs | Start collecting permission slips |
| 4 | Practice safety skills – buddy system, looking for site hazards, fire drill, etc.
Practice simple first aid
Check first aid kit with the girls – what are these things used for? Is everything current? | Make copies of equipment list and send home with the girls
Collect the rest of the permission forms and any money. |
| 5 | Discuss expectations and behaviors for the overnight – what is and is not acceptable
Plan equipment needed
Review and practice needed skills | Set up transportation system for the trip
Call adults willing to take girls shopping for food and packing for trip |
| 6 | Make kaper chart
Review plans for the trip
Answer questions/concerns | Check arrangements with drivers, shoppers, chaperones, etc. |
Checklist – Do I have it all?
___ Itinerary
___ Roster of participants
___ Confirmed reservations
___ Council Cares form submitted/approved if financial assistance is needed
___ Emergency Phone number for Council
___ Paperwork to bring with you
___ Health History – both girl and adults
___ Physician signed health records (if trip is more than 2 nights)
___ Accident/Incident Report
___ Emergency Contact information
___ Medication information – All meds must be in original container with a signed note from the parent/guardian
___ Things to bring
___ First Aid Kit (also one per car-if applicable)
___ Confirmation of travel arrangements – keys and other items
___ Review ‘car manners’ with girls and adults
___ Receipts for all fees paid
___ Check that everyone’s gear is packed into the cars
Suggestion: Use a notebook or folder to organize your paperwork so that everything is easily accessible.
Let’s get going!
Sample list of girls packing list
Please check Safety Activity Checkpoints for more comprehensive lists, then customize it based on your plans.
___ Permission slip
___ Health history
___ Sleeping Bag/Bedroll
___ Pillow
___ Pajamas/sweat suit
___ Bandana/hat/visor
___ Closed-toe shoes
___ Jacket/sweatshirt
___ Rain gear
___ Change of clothes (socks, pants, shirt, underwear)
___ Toiletries
___ Small towel and washcloth
___ Flashlight with new batteries
- Make sure that everything is labeled. Do not pack valuables or items that are irreplaceable. Pack clothing that can be layered for better comfort.
- FAMILIES! Please be sure to keep us informed as to where you can be reached during the night. If your child needs to be picked up, we will need to contact you quickly.
Supervision of Girls – Who should be chaperones?
Adults accompanying a group should be chosen for their patience, flexibility, and good judgment. They should understand their roles and responsibilities during the trip.
- The Leader should explain her/his expectations to the adults on the trip as early in the planning process as possible.
- Adults should understand the plans the girls have made for the trip.
- Adults should understand safety and emergency systems for the trip (at the site and while in transit) as well as the buddy system.
- Adults who will be driving need to practice safe driving.
Supervision means:
- Being a role model by your words and actions.
- Taking full responsibility for an activity or group of girls when asked to do so.
- Providing effective discipline when needed by taking the girl away from the group. Criticize the behavior, not the girl.
- Knowing where all the girls are at all times by performing regular head counts.
- Being visible to girls who need help.
- Helping girls understand how to do unfamiliar tasks while giving them real responsibility for finishing a task so that they see themselves as useful, competent and successful.
- Providing praise for effort and achievement.
- Intervening before injuries occur.
- Encouraging girls to try new things.
- Watching, Guiding, Directing.
- Being knowledgeable about the activity to be supervised and the potential for injury.
Supervision is **not**:
- Leaving the area when the girls have gone to bed.
- Being involved with the adults instead of the girls.
- Doing the project for the girls.
- Only interacting with your daughter.
Try to avoid having a girl and her parent/guardian in the same group when feasible. Both will have a better chance for success.
Keeping Our Girls Safe – Our Primary Goal
Background Checks for Chaperones
Girl Scouts of Central & Southern NJ (GSCSNJ) is committed to providing a safe and quality program for girls as they participate in Girl Scouts. In order to safeguard the girls in our care, criminal background checks will be conducted for all volunteers providing direct service to girls (this includes chaperones). The background check, includes criminal records searches of convictions, arrests, court records, inmate records, and sex offender registries.
Volunteer Essentials and Safety Activity Checkpoints
Please refer to these comprehensive resources before, during and after any trip. You can find them on our website at gscsnj.org/forms
Forms
Communication with GSCSNJ is accomplished by the use of forms. Here are the forms you will need to complete/follow to have a safe and successful trip:
- Parental Permission
- Troop Trip Guidelines
- Online Troop Trip form (for 3 nights or more)
- Plan 2 insurance (option insurance for trips over 2 nights or attendees who are not registered Girl Scouts)
- Girl/Adult Health History
- Financial Aid (Council Cares)
- Injury & Incident Report
All of these forms may be found in this packet or on our website at: http://www.gscsnj.org/council/forms-and-documents.html
Transporting Girls Reminders
For any driving, read Transporting Girls in Volunteer Essentials, and share the Checklist for Drivers with your chaperones. Here are some reminders that apply to travel:
- Drivers-must be 21+, background checked, registered members
- Route Selection-plan routes of no more than 6 hours of driving per day, unless you have relief drivers. Take breaks every 2 hours.
- Vehicles-must be insured, registered and in good repair
- Everyone must have a proper seatbelt or safety seat
- Supervision-if a group is traveling in one vehicle, there must be 2 unrelated, approved volunteers in the vehicle, one of whom is female. If group is traveling in more than one vehicle, the entire group must consist of at least 2 unrelated,
approved adults, one of whom is female. Plan so that a single car is not separated from the others for an extended length of time.
- **Caravans** - Do not do this. This is when one car follows closely behind another. Make sure everyone has directions and participant paperwork. Plan catch-up stops so following drivers don’t get nervous about losing the lead car.
**Inclusion**
As you know, Girl Scout’s promise to be a ‘sister to every Girl Scout. In practice, that means we include others, even when doing so presents challenges. You might need to find ways to accommodate:
- Those who learn differently
- People with physical or mobility challenges
- Travelers with behavior that challenges others
- Girls who have little parental support
- Girls with financial challenges to pay for trips
- Those who have medical conditions, such as allergies, that may be unfamiliar to you
It is the responsibility of the troop adults to model respectful, inclusive behavior. This means that we make reasonable accommodations when possible. Inquire how to do that with direct, respectful questions. Address the girl when possible, and check in with the parents, too.
We hope this helps you in planning your troops trips. If you need additional support your Service Unit team is available as well as Council staff.
**Let’s get going!**
Procedures for Handling Emergencies and Serious Accidents
For serious accidents, major emergencies, camping disasters, fatalities, etc.
If you are the Person in Authority on the scene of the emergency:
1. CHECK the scene and check the person
2. CALL 9-1-1
3. CARE for the person based on the conditions you find
4. On camp property, notify the Ranger on-site.
5. Put a responsible adult in charge of other troop members.
6. Notify the families of the injured person(s).
7. Call the Girl Scout Emergency Call Center (877) 539-6711, state the nature of your emergency. Be sure to give the operator your name and phone number with area code, where you can be reached.
8. Have troop emergency contact call families of uninjured persons.
9. For your protection, DO NOT give any statements or information to anyone but the police. Refer all media inquiries to the Girl Scout Corporate Headquarters in Cherry Hill.
Girl Scouting builds girls of courage, confidence and character, who make the world a better place.
Troop Trip Form should be completed online at https://gscsnj.wufoo.com/forms/gscsnj-troop-trip-form/
Troop leaders are reminded to conduct trips consistent with all GSCSNJ rules, regulations, and policies. These can be found on our website under the forms tab in Volunteer Essentials, Safety Activity Checkpoints, and Council Policies. Leaders are expected to review these requirements before planning a trip and adhere to them during the trip. **Permission from parents/guardians is required to take girls on any trip.**
| TYPE OF TRIP | PROCEDURES | DEADLINE FOR APPROVAL |
|-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------|
| Day Trips | • Discuss trip ideas/activities with girls.
• Review the Safety Activity Checkpoints and Volunteer Essentials for the activities involved
• Plan 2 Insurance is available
• All adult chaperones must be registered and background checked
• Record trip in VTK year plan | No approval required. |
| Overnights 1 – 2 night | • Discuss trip ideas/activities with girls.
• Review the Safety Activity Checkpoints and Volunteer Essentials for the activities involved
• Plan 2 Insurance is available
• All adult chaperones must be registered and background checked
• Record trip in VTK year plan | No approval required. |
| Trips of 3 nights or more | • Discuss trip ideas/activities with girls.
• Review Safety Activity Checkpoints and Volunteer Essentials for the activities involved
• Complete and submit Troop Trip Form online
• Plan 2 Insurance is available
• All adult chaperones must be registered and background checked
• Record trip in VTK year plan | Complete online form 4 weeks prior to travel dates. |
| International Travel | • Discuss trip ideas/activities with girls.
• Review the Safety Activity Checkpoints and Volunteer Essentials for activities involved
• Contact council for details on planning international travel
• Complete and submit Troop Trip Form online
• Plan 3PI Insurance is available
• All adult chaperones must be registered and background checked
• Record trip in VTK year plan | Complete online form 6 months prior to travel date. It is suggested to start planning 1 year prior to trip. |
| Troop meetings in homes | • Review Safety Activity Checkpoints and Volunteer Essentials for activities involved
• GSUSA and GSCSNJ discourage use of private homes for troop meetings
• All homeowners insurance is primary insurance | GSUSA and GSCSNJ discourage use of private homes for troop meetings. |
*Plan 2 Insurance is available for purchase for extended trips and non-members participating in trip/event. Personal insurance is always the primary insurance.*
Plan 2
Enrollment Form
Girl Scouts of Central & Southern NJ
Name of person submitting this form ________________________________
Contact phone number (____)________________Email____________________
Service Unit Name ____________________Troop number_________________
Schedule of Each Event
Please provide Accident Insurance to cover all enrolled participants in the following approved, supervised Girl Scout activities.
| Name and Location of Event | Beginning Date MM/DD/YYYY | Ending Date MM/DD/YYYY | Number of Participants | Number of Days | Number Participant days (participants X days) | Premium Each Day @ .11 cents | Total amount due |
|----------------------------|---------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------|---------------|---------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|-----------------|
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
(Check made payable to GSCSNJ for the TOTAL PREMIUM shown above enclosed.
MINIMUM PREMIUM is $5.00)
Total Premium Amount Due $ ___________
Please mail Check and form 4 weeks prior to event to:
Girl Scouts of Central & Southern NJ
40 Brace Road
Cherry Hill, NJ 08034
Plan 3PI
Enrollment Form for International Trips
1. Submit the completed enrollment form through the Girl Scout Council for Approval
2. Following council approval, the Council will process the completed enrollment form and troop trip roster. (Make check payable to GSCSNJ).
Council Code No. 1 3 1
Name of applicant______________________________________________________
Address________________________________________________________________
City_________________________ State_____ Zip___________________________
Telephone________________________________________________________________
Email:___________________________________________________________________
Troop #__________________________________________________________________
Service Unit______________________________________________________________
Council approval is required
Please provide Accident and Sickness Insurance to cover all enrolled participants in the following approved, supervised Girl Scout Trip (except statutory employees covered under worker’s compensation).
Trip Schedule
| Name and Location of Trip | Beginning Date MM/DD/YYYY | Ending Date MM/DD/YYYY | Number of Participants | Number of Days | Number Participant days (participants X days) | Premium Each Day @ $1.17 | Total amount due |
|---------------------------|----------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------|---------------|---------------------------------------------|--------------------------|-----------------|
| Sample: Country | 02/05/xxxx | 02/09/xxxx | 25 | 5 | 125 | $1.17 | $146.25 |
Total Premium Amount Due $_____________________
Attention Troop Leader:
Please attach the completed trip roster to this enrollment form.
Important Note to Leaders: Please prepare and bring a list of emergency parental, guardian or personal contacts and their telephone numbers for all participants with you during the trip
(Check made payable to GSCSNJ for the TOTAL PREMIUM shown above enclosed. MINIMUM PREMIUM is $5.00)
Please mail Check and form 4 weeks prior to event to:
Girl Scouts of Central & Southern NJ
40 Brace Road
Cherry Hill, NJ 08034
Please complete all the information that applies:
Troop Number(s): __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Service Unit: ________________________________
Name(s): ________________________________ Position: ________________________________
Address: ________________________________ City: _____________ State: ____ Zip: _________
Phone # (s): (Area Code) - __ __ __ - __ __ __ __ __ __ Email ___________________________
Destination: ______________________________ Date(s): ___/___/___ to ___/___/___
# Girl Scouts: _______________ # Non-Scouts: _______________ # Adults: _____________
Vehicle Type: (Bus ___ ) (Auto ___ ) (Pick Up ___ ) (Truck ___ ) (Other ___ ) (Number of Vehicles: ___ )
Vehicle Make: ______________________________
Vehicle Make: ______________________________
Vehicle Make: ______________________________
*REMINDER CHECKLIST*
_____ Certificate of Liability Insurance (Acord 25) from Rental Agency Submitted to GSCSNJ ($1,000,000.00) when leasing a vehicle
**Certificate holder must read: Girl Scouts of Central & Southern NJ, 40 Brace Rd, Cherry Hill, NJ 08034
_____ Rental/Lease Agreement Submitted to GSCSNJ
_____ Application for Troop Travel Submitted to GSCSNJ (Completed)
_____ Application for Troop Travel Approved
If you have any questions, please contact a GSCSNJ council office
Participant has the following health conditions/allergies/dietary restrictions (food and medications):
- [ ] ADHD
- [ ] Asthma
- [ ] Diabetes
- [ ] Headaches
- [ ] Seizures
- [ ] Other: ____________________________
- [ ] Allergies (Specify): _______________________________________________________
**AUTHORIZATION**
Emergency Contact (non-parent): ________________________________________________
Relationship: ____________________________ Phone: ___________________________ Cell: ______________
**FOR GIRL – Parent/Guardian Authorization**
This health form is completed and accurate. I know of no reason(s), other than the information indicated on this form, why my daughter/girl should not participate in the prescribed activities except as noted. In the event that my daughter/girl needs medical attention while participating in Girl Scout activities, I authorize the adult in charge to see that my daughter/girl receives routine healthcare, medications, reasonable first aid and to transport my child to a health care facility for emergency services as needed.
Signature of parent/guardian: ______________________________________________ Date: ______________
**FOR ADULT – Member Authorization**
This health history is complete and accurate. I am able to engage in all prescribed activities except as noted.
Signature of adult member: ______________________________________________ Date: ______________
**To the parent/guardian:** The health of the girl is primarily the responsibility of her parents or guardians. The Girl Scout organization strongly recommends annual health examinations, dental checkups, and immunizations against preventable diseases. The Girl Scout policy on health and safety implies a responsibility to the participants for their protection. It also implies the right of the organization to be assured, as far as possible, that the participants are physically able to take part in the activities. * A record of health examination (physical checkup) given by a licensed physician within the preceding 12 months is obtained before a girl participates in resident camping, in a trip of more than three days, or in contact sports on an organized, competitive basis.
**To the leader:** All leaders at GSCSNJ are advised to obtain and store girl health histories, and those of any adults attending troop trips. Health history forms can be submitted in a sealed envelope only to be opened in the event of an emergency. Due to HIPAA laws, a health history form cannot be required. For various reasons, some parents/guardians may object to immunizations or medical examinations. Provisions should be attempted for these girls to attend Girl Scout functions in a way that accommodates these concerns. The following activities can not be participated in without a completed and signed health history form: water sports, horseback riding, skiing, hiking, gymnastics, and other physically demanding activities.
PARENT PERMISSION FORM FOR INDIVIDUAL TRIPS
This form is needed when a parent chooses to give permission for trips individually and/or trips 3 or more nights and/or over 350 miles from meeting location.
My Troop No: ___________________________ Leader: ___________________________ Phone No: ___________________________
Permission for participation in (activity): ________________________________________________________________
At (Location): ___________________________ Date(s): ___________________________ Cost: ___________________________
Departure Time and Place: ________________________________________________________________
Returning Time and Place: ________________________________________________________________
Personal or Group Equipment: ________________________________________________________________
Troop Leader or Event Coordinator: ________________________________________________________________
Name of First Aider attending: ________________________________________________________________
[ ] Certification expiration checked [ ] Not needed for this event [ ] Provided at event
Our daughter ___________________________ Troop No. ___________________________
Has our permission to participate in the Girl Scout activity
On date(s) ___________________________ at time ___________________________ at (location) ___________________________
Adult(s) accompanying my daughter will be (if required by leader to meet Safety Activity Checkpoints)
In case of emergency, we can be reached by phone at: (h) ___________________________ (cell) ___________________________
Name: ___________________________ Address: ___________________________
Additional Emergency Contact: ___________________________ Phone No.: ___________________________
Address: ___________________________ Relationship: ___________________________
Girl Scout Safety Rules in effect for this activity:
- Buddy system – no girl shall go anywhere without a buddy (adult or another girl)
- No alcohol or smoking is permitted
- Seat belts must be utilized for all passengers in ever vehicle
- Car seats must be utilized when required by law
- Every car must have directions to the location of the event
- Every car must have a first aid kit
- If you are a driver, please make certain you have a current driver’s license, insurance and the car is in good repair.
Additional information or special needs for this trip:
Signature of Parent/Guardian ___________________________ Date ___________________________
YEARLY PERMISSION FORM FOR TROOP MEETINGS & TRIPS
FOR YEAR 20___ - 20___
Girl's Name: ____________________________ Troop #: _______________ Date of Birth ____________
Street Address: __________________________ City: _______________ State, Zip Code: _________
Home Phone: ____________________________ Grade in Fall: _________ School: ________________
Permission for Trips [ ] YES [ ] NO Initialed __________
My girl has permission to travel to, attend, and participate in troop and council sponsored activities that are less than 350 miles from her troop meeting location or less than 3 nights.
* By checking 'no' I am requesting to sign individual permission slips for every trip.
My daughter can return home from meetings by the following means (check all appropriate).
________ mother/father/guardian will pick her up
________ is allowed to go home with fellow Girl Scout name ______________________________________
________ is allowed to walk home ________ anytime ________ Alone ________ with_________________
________ is NOT allowed to leave with _______________________________________________________
________ Other family members that might pick her up: _______________________________________
Please list any medical condition you would like the leaders to be aware of such as asthma, allergies (food or medicine or insect bites), etc. If any medication is being taken by your daughter during the meeting time or at any Girl Scout activity, please inform the leaders. NOTE: Participants with allergies must fill out an Allergies and Anaphylaxis Emergency Action Plan Form, found under Forms at GSCSNJ.org
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Special dietary needs:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Parent/Guardian Contact Information:
Name: ____________________________ Relation to Child: _______________ Cell Phone: ____________
Home Phone: _______________ Work Phone: _______________ Email: ______________________
Name: ____________________________ Relation to Child: _______________ Cell Phone: ____________
Home Phone: _______________ Work Phone: _______________ Email: ______________________
TURN OVER – 2 sided form
If I cannot be reached in the event of an emergency, the following person is authorized to act in my behalf:
Name: ___________________________ Address: _______________________________________
Cell Phone: ________________________ Relationship to Girl: __________________________
Home Phone: _________________ Cell Phone: __________________ Work Phone: ____________
Physicians Name and Phone: _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
I have registered my daughter on line or I have given my daughter’s troop leader permission to register her online for the Girl Scout year. I give permission for my daughter to be a member of Girl Scouts of Central & Southern NJ.
Parent/Guardian Agreement:
I have read and understand this annual permission slip. I may change or revoke any aspect of this agreement at any time by submitting my request, in writing, to the troop leader.
Parent/Guardian Name___________________________________________________________
Signature: __________________________ Date: __________
MEDIA RELEASE FOR MINORS
For Troop Meetings and Activities from ____________ to ____________ Girl Scout year.
Media Permission
When participating in Girl Scout activities I give my consent for my daughter to be interviewed, photographed, videotaped, or electronically imaged for the purposes of promotional materials, news releases, or other published formats for either the local Girl Scout Councils or Girl Scouts of the USA. *The images will be sole property of the local Girl Scout Council or Girl Scouts of the USA. I hereby release and hold harmless the local Girl Scout Council and Girl Scouts of the USA from any claim arising from the use of these images.
NAME OF MINOR (please print): _________________________________________________
ADDRESS: ____________________________________________________________________
CITY __________________________________________ STATE ______________________ ZIP_____
DAYTIME PHONE NUMBER: (____) __________________ ADDITIONAL PHONE (optional) (____) ____________
Release for Minors (those under the age of eighteen): I, the undersigned, being a parent or guardian of the minor, hereby consent to the foregoing conditions and warrant that I have the authority to give such consent.
NAME OF PARENT/LEGAL GUARDIAN (please print): _______________________________
SIGNATURE OF PARENT/LEGAL GUARDIAN (REQUIRED): ____________________________
DATE: ____________ PARENT/LEGAL GUARDIAN EMAIL ADDRESS*: ______________________
(*will not be used for any other purposes or distributed to third parties)
Instructions for Completion of Council Cares Financial Assistance Application
By design this application should be filled out by the Parent or Guardian with assistance from the troop leader except when the Girl Scout is registered independently. It is the Council’s goal to offer financial assistance to those in need. Our ability to award assistance is dependent upon the availability of funds.
Council offers the opportunity for all girls to participate in our Product Program Sales to assist with the funding of Girl Scout programs and events. Please ask your troop leader or call 856-795-1560 for information regarding our Product Program Sales.
Things You Should Know:
- Maximum amount awarded for Troop Dues is $40 annually
- Shop awards are valid for 30 days. You will not receive the awarded merchandise after 30 days.
- You will not be reimbursed for items previously purchased or money spent.
- Adult Volunteers needed to support the ratio of supervision for a program may apply for up to 50% of the cost of the program and required resources for their volunteer position.
- You can only apply for financial assistance for programs and materials to be used during the current Girl Scout year. The Girl Scout year begins October 1st.
Completing the Application
1. **Part A**: General Information must be completed for all applicants.
2. **Part B**: If you need assistance with our membership fee only, complete sections A and B. Sign application and send all paperwork including your registration form to our Cherry Hill or East Brunswick Service Center.
3. **Part C**: The Troop Leader, Parent or Adult Applicant must complete. Please be sure to answer all questions fully. *Incomplete forms delay the approval process.*
4. **Part D**: This section should be completed by the Parent/Guardian of the Girl Scout. Information regarding income and expenses is required in order for us to complete the review process. Attach a proof of income such as but not limited to, previous year’s tax return, unemployment letter or current pay stub. Please provide any extraordinary financial circumstances which may be pertinent to your request. Criteria for financial awards are based on county median household income and income per capita information for the preceding 12 months. Make sure you have read and complete the application in its entirety before you sign and date.
5. Allow 1-2 weeks for processing a request (if application is complete).
6. You may scan and email this application to firstname.lastname@example.org.
7. You may drop this application off at our Cherry Hill or East Brunswick service center.
**Attn: Financial Assistance Application**
8. You may mail this application to the Service Center listed below:
**Attn: Financial Assistance Application**
Girl Scouts of Central & Southern NJ
40 Brace Road
Cherry Hill, NJ 08034
Application For Council Cares Financial Assistance
Part A – General Information
Name of applicant (please print clearly) ................................................................. Grade (girl) Date of Birth (girl)
Name of parent/guardian (if applicant is under 18) .................................................. Phone Number
Address ........................................................................................................ City/State/Zip
Email Address ........................................................................................................ Troop # ........................................................ Service Unit
Currently Registered? Level (Circle One) Daisy Brownie Junior Cadette Senior Ambassador
Adult (Circle One) Yes No
Registered Independently? (Juliette) Yes No
The following background data is requested to measure our progress toward serving girls and adults within our jurisdiction. Please check applicant’s Race and Ethnicity:
American Indian/Alaskan_____ Asian_____ Black/African America_____ Hawaiian/Pacific Islander_____
White Other Multiple Hispanic Non-Hispanic
Part B - To Be Completed by Parent or Adult Applicant
Request for Membership Fee
Girl Scouts of Central & Southern New Jersey is committed to ensuring all girls can participate in Girl Scouting, regardless of socioeconomic status. Membership financial assistance provides need-based financial assistance to individuals (girls and adult volunteers) looking to become Girl Scout members. Financial assistance is meant to be supplementary. Parents are encouraged to pay a portion of the $40 fee (girls) and $25 fee (adults) when possible.
I am requesting Council Cares Financial Aid for membership registration due to financial need. GSCSNJ reserves the right to request proof of income.
Amount paid by Family $........................................ Total amount requested $..............................
...........................................................................................................................................................................
Parent Signature ........................................................................................................ Date
Part C- To Be Completed by Troop Leader and/or Parent
(Please circle what is being requested)
This Girl Scout has had the opportunity to participate in Council product program(s) in the past year: Yes/No (Circle One)
Daisy: Tunic (size: ), Starter Bag; Journey $
Brownie: Vest or Sash (size: ), Starter Bag; Journey $
Junior: Vest or Sash (size: ), Starter Bag; Journey $
Cad / Sr / Amb: Vest or Sash (size: ), Starter Bag; Journey $
Uniform Components (Please circle all that apply):
Membership Pin or World Trefoil Pin, Council ID Set, Troop Numerals, Insignia Tab, Flag Patch $
List Programs, Events, or trips $
| Name(s) and Date(s): | $ |
|----------------------|---|
| Name(s) and Date(s): | $ |
| Troop Dues: | $ |
| | **Total** $ |
| | **Troop Contribution** $ - |
| **Grand Total = All expenses minus (-) troop contribution** | **Grand Total** |
**Leader Signature:** ____________________________ **Date:** ____________________________
**Part D- To Be Completed by Parent/Guardian**
| Parent Occupation(s) | |
|----------------------|---|
| Daytime Phone Number | E-mail Address (if different from above) |
| Total annual household income (salaries, interest income, investments, alimony, child support, social security, public assistance, unemployment) | Last Year $
Current Year $ |
Indicate any extraordinary financial circumstances which might impact on the above (continue on another sheet if needed)
**Important Notes!**
Be sure to fill this application out completely before submitting. Incomplete applications will delay the approval process.
*Girl Scouts of Central & Southern NJ, Inc. will provide assistance to those in need depending on the availability of funds. We do not reimburse for any prior expenses or items that were purchased or paid for out of pocket.*
**Signature**
**Parent/Guardian Signature (required)** ____________________________ **Date:** ____________________________
The purpose of this form is to notify Council Staff when injuries occur. A form should be completed for all injuries (requiring more than a simple Band-Aid), regardless of severity. It may also be used to report accidents and serious incidents that are beyond normal conditions members should expect as part of Girl Scouting (e.g. fights, “near miss” accidents, lost children, etc.)
Date Form Submitted ___________________________ Date of Occurrence _______________
Name of Person Submitting Form ____________________________________________________
Phone # _________________________________ Email _________________________________
Name and Status of Person(s) Directly Involved:
| Name | Status |
|------|--------|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
The Occurrence took place during (please check one):
- [ ] Troop Meeting
- [ ] Troop Activity or Outing
- [ ] Troop Trip
- [ ] Troop Camping
- [ ] Summer Camp
- [ ] Council Sponsored Program or Event
- [ ] Other ______________________________
Location of Occurrence ___________________________________________________________
Address ________________________________________________________________________
Troop # ________________________________
Brief Description of the Occurrence (add additional sheet of paper if necessary)
Was anyone injured?
☐ No
☐ Yes Name of Injured Person(s) ________________________________
Description of Injury _______________________________________
Was Medical Attention Immediately Sought or Provided?
☐ No
☐ Yes Please describe _______________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
For girls, was her parent(s) present?
☐ Yes
☐ No
Name & Phone # of Party who informed parents_______________________________
How and when were the parents informed? ____________________________________
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A WILD THING INSIDE US: A LITERATURE WORKSHOP ON MAURICE SENDAK’S
WHERE THE WILD THINGS ARE
TRABAJO DE TITULACIÓN
PARA OPTAR AL TÍTULO DE PROFESOR DE INGLÉS
Y AL GRADO DE LICENCIADO EN EDUCACIÓN
Estudiante: Macarena Alexandra Álvarez Valenzuela
Profesor guía: Pablo A. Villa Moreno
Primer semestre 2014
# Table of contents
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 4
Theoretical framework
- Definition of literature ................................................................................................. 6
- Exploring children’s literature ...................................................................................... 11
- *Where the Wild Things Are*: the Book That Broke the Rules .................................. 16
- Picture storybook: a strong pedagogical tool ............................................................ 21
Methodological framework
- Contextualization ........................................................................................................ 26
- Needs analysis results ................................................................................................ 28
- Rationale ..................................................................................................................... 32
- Syllabus design ............................................................................................................ 34
- Outline: description of the workshop .......................................................................... 36
Didactical Sequence
- General programming of the workshop ....................................................................... 41
- Lesson plan samples ................................................................................................... 47
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 56
Appendixes ..................................................................................................................... 57
References ...................................................................................................................... 98
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all the people who help me to finish with this academic and life process. Without their support, this project would not be possible.
To my guide teacher, Mr. Pablo Villa, thank you for all! Your enthusiasm, infinite patience and faith in me throughout this semester have been extremely helpful. You always knew where to look for the answers while leading me to the right source, theory or perspective.
To my family and my closest friends whose unconditional love and encouragement gave me the strength and confidence to continue and defeat every obstacle in the most difficult times.
Thank you
and let the wild rumpus start!
“Children are tough, though we tend to think of them as fragile. They have to be tough. Childhood is not easy. We sentimentalize children, but they know what’s real and what’s not. They understand metaphor and symbol. If children are different from us, they are more spontaneous. Grown-up lives have become overlaid with dross.”
Maurice Sendak.
Introduction
Many research papers on Literature in the ESL classroom have exposed the several arguments against using literature to teach English. Neither the National Curriculum, nor the Ministry of Education has presented any proposal integrating the use of a novel or story book to learn the English Language. In fact, there are many teachers that are still skeptical of using literary texts with their students because of the following reasons: literature, due to its structural complexity and its unique use of language, does little to contribute to teaching grammar; the study of literature will contribute nothing to helping our students meet their academic and/or occupational goals; literature often reflects a particular cultural perspective; thus, it may be quite difficult for students (McKay, 1982).
This graduation project aims to explore and defend the use of literature within the ESL classrooms—more specifically through the use of a masterpiece of children’s literature: *Where the Wild Things are*, a 1963 children's picture book, written and illustrated by the American author Maurice Sendak. The book will be taught through an extracurricular workshop oriented to 3rd and 4th graders of Elementary School. The main goal of this workshop will be encouraging and developing students’ imagination and spontaneity through the interactive use of the book, as well as fostering their ability to comprehend and reproduce the tale/story (storytelling). Thus, students will achieve that through their involvement in the different assignments and tasks proposed by the teacher. Enhancing critical thinking trough different themes, which are going to be introduced and discussed during most of the workshop lessons, will be as well an important part of it.
Maurice Sendak changed the rigid conception of modeling children’s behavior through a literature that did not reflect the inner self of girls and boys. The rupture produced by Sendak and his contemporaries explored the real nature of children rather than using literature as instructional pieces establishing what children should be according to the adult modeling of that society. For this reason, the project will propose a fresh perspective on Sendak’s work through an innovative teaching methodology taking into account the students’ needs and expectations.
The project will be divided into three major parts: theoretical framework, methodological framework, and didactical sequence.
First, in the theoretical framework it will be discussed how literature can be defined, taking into account different authors’ perspectives; such as Barthes with the problem of the detachment of the author from the literary text and Eagleton with the use of language in a literary piece. Imagination as an essential aspect of a literary text is also discussed at this point through the vision of two important Romantic poets: Percy B. Shelley and Samuel T. Coleridge. Both revitalized the concept of imagination and their statements on it will enlighten its complexities.
Secondly, in the methodological framework it will be explained the contextualization of the project through the elaboration of a needs analysis that will help shape basic elements of the workshop, then the rationale and the syllabus. Finally, in the third part of this project, the didactical sequence will be established through the general programming of the workshop, three lesson plan samples and the materials that will be used.
Theoretical Framework
Definition of Literature
The challenge to discover the perfect definition of “literature” is a road that has been travelled by many authors and passionate readers. Many scholars describe literature as the art of written words that introduces the readers to a different perspective—whether in the form of a novel, poem, biography, memoir or short story that potentially will have a lasting artistic value. It is an object of amusement, comfort, intellectual challenge, and among others. However, most of its definitions are broad and vague, and they have undergone many changes over the centuries. Actually, the versatility of the concept is the only thing that is certain about defining literature.
Approaches to defining literature have been studied and described in depth by many scholars, but from the reader’s perspective rather than the author’s. In Barthes’s critical essay “The Death of the Author” (1967), he challenges the theological importance of the author in the reading of a text and advocates the reader’s option to ignore the author’s background as interpretative authority and focus more on the work as its own value of judgement. For Barthes, the reception of a piece of writing generally transforms into the object of enquiry instead of the writer’s inner process of production which becomes a subjective value judgement that is constantly changing hand-in-hand with literary tastes. The author’s work has a direct connection with the author himself and all the external elements surrounding the literary text (historical period, sociopolitical aspects, context, etc.). All of those elements end up limiting the interpretation of the text as nothing but the reader’s interpretation. The inability of text to truly capture the “passions, humours, feelings, impressions” (Barthes: 1967, p. 385) of the author are “lost, infinitely deferred”
because of the subjectivity of the reader. Definitively, the reader holds more responsibility to the text than the author or more clearly in Barthes’ words: “the birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the Author” (386).
Literature depends on the use of the language and the different readings that people can conclude from a literary text; therefore, it is the art that comes from the human ability to create language. In this regard, Terry Eagleton, prominent British literary theorist, provides with a further explanation: “language draws attention to itself” which means that “literature transforms and intensifies ordinary language, and deviates systematically from everyday speech” (Eagleton: 1983, p.2). He argues, based on observations to the Russian Formalists ideas of literature, that perhaps literature is a kind of writing which uses language in peculiar ways, drawing the attention of the readers, taking them away from the canons of the language rules and society’s constructs. Especial texture, resonance of words, sound, imagery, rhythm, syntax, metre, rhyme, narrative techniques are the elements that form the author’s abstraction, causing a different effect on the readers.
On this regard, Eagleton quotes the Russian formalist critic Roman Jakobson who says that literature is an “organized violence committed on ordinary speech” (p. 2) which means that it constitutes a deviation from everyday speech that intensifies and estranges the speech patterns. Nevertheless, he criticizes the movement by saying that the formalists analyzed literary work mechanically as a particular organization of language; literature was not a reflection of ideas, or social reality, but a material to be studied. According to this movement it was a mistake to see literature as an expression of the author’s feelings or thoughts because literature was only made of words and, therefore, there were not second readings. They overlooked the analysis of the content (topic or theme on any field) by being
only concerned with the structures of language rather than the meaning within a literary text. As Eagleton pointed out content was merely the motivation of form: “Animal Farm for the Formalists would not be an allegory of Stalinism; on the contrary, Stalinism would simply provide a useful opportunity for the construction of an allegory” (p. 3)
Eagleton also argues that because of its nature, literature cannot be in fact objectively defined. Even though there are many pieces of writing which are intended to belong to a certain genre in literature (poem, play, novel, etc.), that does not guarantee the readers will read the literary text in the way that was intended for.
On this subject, literary texts tend to relate with relativism which means that there are no valuable distinctions because anything may be called good literature—whatever each person or society thinks it is good or bad.
According to Jim Meyer, there are many definitions of literature which follow the *Criteria* *l* Approach, also known as the Checklist Approach. The attempt of it is to provide criteria which must be met by all texts in order for them to be called literature. That criteria or canon is defined by a community through the course of its history (2).
Meyer’s perspective is closely related to what Eagleton writes regarding literature in academic institutions: if those authorized voices coming from academic circles decide that specific piece of writing is literature, then it seems to be settled as so in the reading community. However, this very community may determine the change of this value and standards are re-examined. That is because our history has suffered deep transformations and scholars have tried to examine how these changes have influenced the different assumptions of what is literary and what is not. Eagleton makes an interesting comparison when he mentions the possibility of a future society which is unable to understand
Shakespeare finding him limited or irrelevant just as present-day graffiti artists. Communities from different historical periods have built a variety of value-judgement towards literary expressions. Hence, literature cannot be seen as an objective or rigid category, but as a “deeper structure of belief which is ‘apparently’ unshakeable” (p. 14). The direction of the concept of literature in this project goes towards the function of a literary work (insights and issues) more than the form (use of language) because of the consequences that aspect may bring to the reader, especially in the case of children. The aim of this work is to develop and enhance opinion, different perspectives, and most importantly imagination, rather than analyze the different ways in which language is used in a literature piece.
Since literature is open to interpretations, it is the reader’s imagination that brings life to a literary text. Literature affects the readers by triggering their imagination through language, and the interpretation of that language makes literature.
Since early times, there have been discussions around the definition of imagination. Romantic critics from the 18th century made its definition central to their discussion and established a separation between reason and imagination; the former related to critical purposes while the latter to poetic issues. On this regard, Percy Shelley, one of the major English Romantic poets, proposed a radical vision: imagination rather than being an inferior mental activity it is the most sublime form of human expression. As Shelley himself pointed out: “Reason is to imagination as the instrument is to the agent, as the body to the spirit, as the shadow to the substance” (324). It means that literature has become a tangible expression of imagination; it is the honest ability to express and explore our inner world and create bridges between our perception of the outside world and our thoughts.
Samuel T. Coleridge English poet, literary critic, philosopher and founder of the Romantic Movement drew his attention to imagination and transformed it into an integral and prominent part of his literary theory—as well as his contemporary Shelley. According to Coleridge, imagination is divided into two types: primary and secondary. Primary imagination is "the living power and the prime agent of human perception" (96); therefore, it is how we perceive the world around us and it is a faculty which is inherent to the human race. Secondary imagination is the poetic vision, the ability and power that the author has "to idealize and unify" (96) through a literary work. To Coleridge, imagination is the highest state of mind, the most revitalized and meaningful method of expression which has been developed to expand the scope of human comprehension. Therefore, using literature within the English classroom (L2) may be useful to increase knowledge and understanding between the cognitive and the affective/emotional aspects of the self that interact in the contact with the literary text. This literary imagination helps readers to develop deep thinking through intuition, senses and feelings.
The goal of this project is not only oriented to the understanding of children towards a literary work, but also towards the creation or reproduction of a story. Therefore, the use of imagination will be vital throughout the entire project because at its finest imagination leads to originality, creativity, and production.
Exploring children’s literature
According to many scholars on the field of literature, the study of children’s literature involves three elements: the literature, the children, and the adult critics. For that reason, it would be essentially important to include the definition or at least the relationship between them to get a better understanding about the subject. We may immediately assume that children’s literature is a classification of books which is aimed to a particular reading audience who are, as the category establishes, children. The definition of children’s literature, then, is supported by the connection with the reading audience; however, who is in charge of defining what literature for children is and what is not? Or who does write children’s literature? Those are questions that already have been answered, but there is little agreement on what actually constitutes children’s literature.
According to Lynch-Brown and Tomlinson, “children’s literature is good-quality trade books for children from birth to early adolescence, covering topics of relevance and interest to children through prose and poetry, fiction and nonfiction” (4). In this definition it is mentioned the existence of trade books which are primarily for the purpose of entertainment and information rather than a purpose of instruction as textbooks; they are also called library books or story books and they are recognized by their design and content. Children’s literature is supposed to speak to the child through amusement and inherent pleasure, and not primarily by didactic messages that may result instructive, intrusive, and even monotonous to the reading children.
The general topics that it may be found in children’s literature are experiences of childhood set in the past, present, or future, as well as things that are of interest to children. The
stories are told in an honest, straightforward, humorous, or suspenseful manner emphasizing the hope for a better future rather than the hopelessness of the moment. Lynch-Brown and Tomlinson also argue that “the best children’s books offer readers enjoyment as well as memorable characters and situations and valuable insights into the human condition” (4). On this respect, Joan Glazer and Gurney Williams state that good children’s books are characterized by “strong materials—good plots, rich settings, well-developed characters, important themes, and artistic styles…bold and imaginative language” (34).
At this point, it is important to bear in mind that definitions of ‘childhood’ have differed throughout history, and from culture to culture; hence, childhood is a concept that constantly changes within any social framework taking into account all the moral, and ethical values. As it was mentioned above about the definition of literature, children’s literature is expected to transform over the years as well as what has happened with fairy tales: “these stories circulate in multiple versions, reconfigured by each telling to form kaleidoscopic variations with distinctly different effects” (Tatar: 1998, p. ix). The fairy tale may be one of the most important cultural and social influences on children’s lives. It has always been a powerful discourse, capable of being used to shape attitudes and behavior within a culture; fairy tales have shaped children's lives—their values and relationship to society.
However, nowadays children’s books are, most importantly, literature. And as it was said above, it is not a matter of instruction, but an imaginative shaping of experiences and thought through the use of different structures of language. Children should read stories that challenge them to reflect on the world surrounding them. Stories are thus much more than a
book because they provide readers with coherence and significance; they are means of reflecting and structuring on our experiences. There is an inherent and universal necessity to speak out our minds, to story our experiences, and even though there are no restrictive rules or cannons to follow while constructing a story, readers subconscious recurs to the stories that already exist within our culture.
Lynch-Brown and Tomlinson also argued on the value of literature in children’s lives and learning. Why may literature may affect children’s lives? Because it enhances enjoyment, personal and cultural identity, imagination, knowledge, insights, understanding, empathy, and literary preferences. Good books will always offer enjoyment, whether in the form of a novel, a poem, or short story. Enjoyment in children’s literature is determinant because it provides with funny, scary, or even mysterious narrative experiences which most of the times can lead to a fruitful life of reading enjoyment. Besides, children’s literature provides with cultural and personal identity because it connects generations; readers go back to their roots and family heritage which help them to understand their present. Children can explore the “multiple connections of their identities, including race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, language, disability, region, family structures, and social class” (Lynch-Brown & Tomlinson: 2005, 6) and, in consequence, get to know “the tales, characters, and expressions that are part of our cultural heritage is part of being culturally literate”. Children’s books are also a good source to encourage imagination. Since children are shown a different perspective through a tale or story, they use imagination in order to develop understanding. There is also a transformation in the child because he/she enters to a world where the characters must solve problems and make life decisions. Children can thus criticize and empathize with the story and characters, and as a result formulate their
own moral concepts and values. Good children’s books also provide with factual knowledge and insights into life in an emotional and reasonable way. In addition, literature helps children to develop empathy through the appreciation of the human needs across history. Literature plays an essential role while facing intercultural tolerance and understanding. Once children immerse themselves into the story and get to know the characters’ strengths and weaknesses, they are capable to empathize with different realities and apply that learning process to their own lives.
Another relevant result of children’s interaction with literature is the literary and artistic preferences that they may develop once they are exposed to different literary and artistic styles. This can be a very positive aspect to be exploited because “the more children know about their world, the more they discover about themselves—who they are, what they value, and what they stand for” (Lynch-Brown & Tomlinson: 2005, 6). Besides, personal interest towards a reading material is a very powerful motivator for becoming a lifelong reader. Children’s literature is also a tremendous opportunity because it gives them the opportunity to know more about text structures, literary elements, as well as reading and writing strategies.
During the last decades, in the actual discussion of works of children’s literature, the critics’ attention is primarily focused on how the book will attract the child rather than if that kid is going to love the book. It has been self-imposed that only children’s literature critics can actually judge which books are good for children and why those books are appropriate or not. Literary critics judge based on what they believe a book does for children, so they judge based on their ideology, on what they expect children must be. On that aspect, John Stephens, in his book *Language and Ideology in Children’s Fiction*,
argues that writing for children usually has a final purpose or intention which is to foster in the young reader socio-cultural values that are presumably shared by the author, the audience, and the critics. Those socio-cultural values include contemporary morality and ethics, as well as aspirations about the present and future. Stephens considers that each culture’s future is invested in its children, so “children’s writers often take upon themselves the task of trying to mould audience attitudes into ‘desirable’ forms” (Stephens: 1992, 3). For this reason, children’s literature authors may use their stories to either “attempt to perpetuate certain values or to resist socially dominant values” (3).
Some authors have claimed, for example, that they do not incorporate moral messages into their books, while there are some others that assume a responsibility and try to incorporate ethic messages into their stories whenever they can.
Children’s literature delivers a message across generations. Just as Lynch-Brown & Tomlinson (2005) mention, children appreciate literature within any kind of culture, context, and age:
“A child leans forward, head cupped in hands, eyes wide with anticipation, listening to a story. Whether that child is seated beside an open fire in ancient times, on a rough bench in a medieval fairground, or on the story rug in a modern-day classroom, this image signals the same message—children love a good story.”
Where the Wild Things Are: the Book that Broke the Rules
The original purpose of children’s books was to model good behavior. They were (and still some of them ‘are’) meant to encourage young readers to be what society wanted them to be. However, Maurice Sendak (1928-2010), the worldwide known writer and illustrator, broke the rules and brought subversion to the genre along with his contemporaries by making his characters act more naturally and welcoming a visual aesthetics closer to the grotesque and scary. After Sendak, children’s stories were no longer unnecessarily scary, silly or too elaborated, and rather than reprimand the reader, those stories encouraged children’s natural behavior.
Maurice Sendak was born in Brooklyn, New York. Since he was a little boy, he spent much of his life indoors because he was a frail child. It was during this time that he familiarized with books and began to draw exploiting his imagination. After graduating, in 1948, he began working at night as a window dresser while studying at the New York Art Students League. Throughout the 1950s, Sendak became a full-time, freelance children’s book illustrator. From his beginnings, he thought children’s books illustrations were at their finest the imaginary world of the reader. Even though Walt Disney’s movies were inspirational for him, in terms of illustration, he rather preferred to draw grotesque characters with notorious imperfections. In 1963, Maurice Sendak illustrated and wrote his most famous and acclaimed storybook Where the Wild Things Are, the story of a boy named Max, who is sent to his room only to find his imagination has created a new world, a world full of ferocious monsters. The book was translated into fifteen languages and selling more than two million copies. That was the cornerstone for Sendak to create popular children’s books, including the also acclaimed In the Night Kitchen (1970).
In 1970, Sendak became the first American to win the prestigious “Hans Christian Andersen Award” for excellence in children’s book illustration. After that, he continued to write and illustrate, but included within his work the production and designing of different performances. Even though Maurice Sendak’s books were once considered inappropriate, throughout the years those books became one of the most challenging and important ones in children’s literature. Sendak himself have explained that *Where the Wild Things Are* was once considered ugly, far-fetched, and too frightening to children. However, he always defended his books and talk back to all the experts, critics, and psychologists that were against his work.
Sendak criticized the psychologist Bettelheim, telling the *Pittsburgh Post-Gazette* (Aug. 10, 2001):
> When [*Where the Wild Things Are*] that came out, there were psychologists who said, "This is a bad book. Any mother who sends their child to bed without dinner is a terrible mother." They objected to that, they objected to him being so rude to his mother, they objected to her yelling back at him, they objected to the *Wild Things* being too scary. They objected to everything. When it was first published it was very novel and different. In fact, a very important psychologist [Bruno Bettelheim] said that. He did take that back later in life. He did me a lot of damage at the beginning."
Later on, Bettelheim admitted that he was not familiar with the book and that his comments were based on descriptions provided by the mothers of that decade. Furthermore, he confessed that he had never opened the book. He judged without any knowledge on what Sendak wrote and only paid attention to what society considered to be politely correct.
Bettelheim’s criticism was very negative; however, there was a positive reception of the book which was enjoyed by both children and adults. In 1964, it received the Caldecott Medal for the best American picture book, the most prestigious prize of its kind. Nowadays, there are almost 20 million copies of it in print around the world.
This storybook is a whimsical fantasy about a young boy whose imagination transports him far away from problems at home to a ‘wild land’ where almost anything can happen. The plot of the story is based on the consequences of this little boy’s mischief. At the beginning of it, Max is looking for fun, thus he dresses up in his wolf suit and does all kinds of things he should not do. His mother, tired of his antics, calls him a “WILD THING!” while Max shouts back “I’LL EAT YOU UP.” His mother’s decision is sending him to his bedroom without any supper. Once he enters his bedroom, a forest grows inside and Max sails away in a little boat to the land of the ‘wild things’. Although the ‘wild things’ look and sound fierce, the creatures decide that instead of eating him up, Max should be their king—since he is the most wild thing of all. So, fortunately, Max is allowed to continue with his rumpus. Even though the ‘wild things’ protest, Max sails back in his little boat to his own room where he finds his still-warm-supper waiting for him.
This is an appealing story because Max is an engaging character. All the situations that he lives and all the decisions that he makes from chasing his dog wearing a wolf suit to answering (rudely) back to his mother are realistic. In spite of the fact that most of the story is about Max dreaming or using his imagination to escape from his reality to a fantasy world, his emotions are purely realistic and comparable to what a child of his age may feel towards his own anger. Max is in conflict with his mother, but at the same time with himself. This story may be a common example of children getting angry with a particular
situation and fantasizing about what they could do if they ruled the world and then considering the consequences to finally calm down.
According to the writer Francis Spufford, *Where the Wild Things Are* is “one of the very few picture books to make an entirely deliberate, and beautiful, use of the psychoanalytic story of anger” (Spufford: 2003, 60). That anger developed by Max is presented through the conflict he has with his mother. He continues with his mischief when he is sent to his room, but, in spite of this, he transforms his anger and poured his emotions by creating a fantasy. Throughout the story Sendak’s illustrations and writing addressed to inner struggle, and unspeakable concerns about us and our loved ones. This is reflected through Max’s anger towards his mother (she does not appear in the story) who could be an absent mother or emotionally unstable, or a mother who does not understand Max’s concerns. Nonetheless, a positive or optimistic escape for Max’s anger is imagination and ultimately, fantasy. Another important point is how Sendak presents children’s tantrums in a familiar way; with all the childish rage states and how the adults and children react to that (Max’s misbehavior and his mom’s reaction sending him to bed without any supper). Max is wearing a wolf pajamas or costume, which represents a predator. At the beginning of the story he chases his dog with a fork and when his mother calls him “WILD THING!” he responds “I’LL EAT YOU UP!”. His mother’s reaction is radical because she deprives him from food and human affection. This situation may provoke fear in the child since the first and foremost givers of food and security are mothers. However, there is a concept of resilience presented at the end of the story—the capacity of Max to overcome troubles and worries.
Readers may believe that Max is dreaming, daydreaming or creating a fantasy regarding his recent experience with his mother. He has been called a “wild thing” situation that leads
him to imagine a world of terrible monsters with scary claws and sharp teeth. He is not afraid though, he feels he belongs to that world, and wants to rule it by being their king. Those monsters or wild things represent his inner fears, rage, and insecurity, so he is not the king of that new world (imaginative world), but the king of himself. When he returns from his trip, his supper was still hot and even inside his bedroom which demonstrates his mother still cares about him, in spite of the fact that they had an argument and they got mad at each other.
In a 2009 article published in *The Psychologist*, Richard Gottlieb, psychoanalyst, analyzed Sendak’s illustrations and writing regarding children’s rage states:
“Sendak’s work in *Where the Wild Things Are* is of particular interest to psychologists due to his strikingly unusual abilities to gain access to, and to represent in words and pictures, fantasies that accompany childish rage states […] It is this capacity, I believe, that contributes to the appeal of his work to children who are unable or unwilling to articulate these states, and to adults who have forgotten them or do not wish to know about them.”
Most of Sendak’s books focus on child rage and emotional reliance on the mother. According to Gottlieb that rage manifests in a state of consciousness, like a dream or fantasy. What Sendak psychologically portrays in his book is that Max can learn from his anger—a process that can be overwhelming and scary—and express that feeling in order to resolve his problems and fix his relationship with his mom.
Picture Storybook: a Strong Pedagogical Tool
Most children’s books are illustrated, but not all illustrated children’s books are picture storybooks. Picture storybooks hold a prominent place in children’s literature because of the juxtaposition of pictures and only a small amount of text: “In a picture storybook, pictures must help to tell the story, showing the action and expressions of the characters, the changing settings, and the development of the plot” (Huck et al., 1997, p. 198). What makes a picture storybook distinctive is that it conveys a message that along with illustrations is essential to the enjoyment and understanding of the story (Tomlinson and Lynch-Brown, 1996). Illustrations help to expand, interpret, explain or even decorate a written text (Bodmer, 1992). Thus, as Professor Fang (1996) argues in his article *Illustrations, Text, and the Child Reader: What are Pictures in Children’s Storybooks for?* the function of an art work in picture books is most often concerned with storytelling in the following ways:
1. **Established setting:** In literature in general, the setting is used to set up the location—where the story develops in time and place. Picture storybooks constantly rely on illustrations to replace the explanations (written text) of settings; they are brought to life through illustrations in a way words cannot do. Readers can easily identify the setting of the story just by viewing the pictures. Illustrations are also helpful in determining the mood of a picture book. In the case of Sendak’s *Where the Wild Things Are*, the author and illustrator uses dark and dull colors which help to maintain a mysterious feeling.
2. **Define and develop characters:** Since storybooks present short storylines, characters’ traits are not fully developed, therefore, illustrations must be appealing
and credible to children by portraying situations and emotions. In the case of *Where the Wild Things Are*, the author uses few words to describe Max, the ‘Wild Things’ or the rumpus that takes place after he is named the king. Nevertheless, the illustrations that he shows throughout those scenes help to understand the characters’ features.
3. **Extend plot**: Because picture storybooks, in most cases, use more illustrations than text the development of the story plot is shrunk. In the first pages of *Where the Wild Things Are*, readers know that Max is send to bed without any supper because of his mischievous behavior. Even though the text presented is short and it does not provide with further explanation, the pictures help to explain Max’s problem. As Professor Fang (1996) points out readers see Max:
“[… ] standing on books, hammering nails into the wall, and chasing the dog with a fork. The plot is further developed as Max’s imagination goes wilder and wilder. Although words alone tell little about what happens between the time Max leaves the wild things and returns home, the pictures compensate for such lack of details; the illustrations grow larger and larger as the story drama develops and then become smaller again as Max returns to his mundane life.”
Here the plot is extended beyond the meaning of the text through the use of images. This is helpful for the reader, since he can infer from the pictures.
4. **Provide a different viewpoint**: Illustrations are open to the reader’s imagination, thus, sometimes they tell a different story or convey a contradictory message. In the case of Maurice Sendak’s book, there are pages which do not have text, and it depends on the reader’s perspective how those illustrations continue with the story.
5. **Contribute to textual coherence:** Illustrations can be useful because they contribute to textual coherence when referential visual cues are presented. For example, the illustrations in *Where the Wild Things Are* provide coherence to the story, as Fang (1996) mentions, when Max is sent to bed:
“[…] the room gradually becomes the kingdom of the wild things, with trees growing naturally out of the bedposts and the shag rug turning into grass. As the plot progresses, the illustrations cover more and more of the page edging out print and when Max becomes king of the wild things, six pages of illustrations are uninterrupted by text.”
Pictures provide a visual context for written and spoken language by helping to create textual cohesion. Illustrations in picture story books have the purpose to capture the reader’s attention, tell a story, delight, and teach content. Therefore, it is relevant for teachers to understand this as a sensitive subject that needs to be dealt with carefully.
The creative imagination of both Maurice Sendak the writer and Maurice Sendak the artist makes his book such an extraordinary piece of work, since the text and the artwork complement each other, immersing the reader into the story. Sendak’s colored pen and ink illustrations are humorous and eerie at the same time, reflecting Max’s imagination and anger.
Another important point in picture storybooks has to do with quality in writing and illustration. Both writing and illustration must achieve originality and importance of ideas, as well as imaginative and meaningful use of language.
According to Lynch-Brown & Tomlinson (2005) in *Essentials of Children’s Literature*, the best children’s storybooks give readers enjoyment and valuable insights into the human condition, and have permanent historical value.
At this point it would important to answer the following question: why a storybook—and literature in general—is a strong pedagogical tool? Irma K. Ghosn in *Four Good Reasons to use Literature in Primary School ELT* explains the importance in terms of teaching and learning English through literature:
- First, authentic literature provides a motivating, meaningful context for language learning, since children are naturally drawn to stories.
- Second, literature can contribute to language learning. It presents natural language, language at its finest, and can thus foster vocabulary development in context. It stimulates oral language and involves the child with the text; it also provides an excellent medium for a top-down approach to language teaching.
- Third, literature can promote academic literacy and thinking skills, and prepare children for the English-medium instruction.
- Fourth, literature can function as a change agent: good literature deals with some aspects of the human condition, and can thus contribute to the emotional development of the child, and foster positive interpersonal and intercultural attitudes.
One of the best materials that teachers can use to prepare students for academic work in L2 is literature. The traditional textbooks might not be sufficient for the academic demands that have gradually appeared during the last decades. Hence, a syllabus that is based on authentic children’s stories provides a motivating environment for learning the L2 as well.
as fostering thinking development skills. Literature in the classroom is a powerful pedagogical tool because encourage pupils to participate and engage with language, content, and values.
Methodological Framework
Contextualization
School’s description
Caernarfon College was founded by John and Christine Eason in 1995. After working for forty years in nine different school through different continents (Europe, Africa, and South America), they decided to open their own school, therefore, they could offer an education in which they believed. The school is located in Casablanca Valley, between Santiago and Valparaiso. The school is very small and it does not have more than 120 students in total. Hence, the education provided becomes personalized, and has not remained a mass affair, with standard curricula, pedagogy, and assessment. Because of the use of the English Language in everyday situations, students have achieved a higher level of it in the four skills (writing, listening, reading, and speaking). As it is mentioned above, the strong sense of self-confidence and the good standards of spoken and written English in a range of contexts, enable students to achieve academic excellence.
Caernarfon College, to this day, places great importance on the idea of honesty applied into areas of life such as self-improvement, active participation and respect for others in all areas of life. In their vision, values are proposed regarding personal dignity and respect. They also believe in the idea of an integrated education by stating that there are links between the healthy mind and the healthy body. The school expects that students strive for excellence and integrity in intellectual, moral, artistic, sporting and social areas by following the different aspects of the National Curriculum of England and Wales. Caernarfon College is an active membership of the Association of British Schools in Chile (ABSCH) and the Latin American Heads Conference (LAHC) and incorporates to their
curriculum programs such as the International Baccalaureate (IB) and the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE).
**Class description**
The workshop proposed in this project (Storytelling Club) will be developed as an extracurricular workshop for 3\textsuperscript{rd} and 4\textsuperscript{th} graders of Elementary School. The students are previously given different workshop options, such as, Roller Skating, Contemporary Dancing, Choir, and the Storytelling Club; therefore, they are expected to choose their favorite one and actively participate.
The workshop is going to be taught once a week (on Thursdays) after regular classes and each lesson is going to last 90 minutes; 10 lessons in total. Besides, there is room only for 12 students.
The book chosen to introduce the workshop is *Where the Wild Things Are*, a 1963 children's picture book, written and illustrated by the American author Maurice Sendak. Storytelling Club members are invited to sail along with Max to the land of the Wild Things, by developing their own ideas and thoughts through the art of storytelling. The main goal of this workshop is encouraging and developing students' imagination and spontaneity through the interactive use of the *Where the Wild Things Are* book, as well as fostering their ability to comprehend and reproduce the tale/story. Students will achieve that through their involvement in the different assignments and tasks proposed by the teacher. An important objective will be enhancing critical thinking through different topics, which are going to be introduced and discussed during most of the workshop lessons. Important themes to be covered are: taking responsibility for our actions, empathy for others' feelings, pouring our emotions, resolving conflicts, among others.
Needs Analysis Results
In this section will be explained the reader survey that was applied to the proposed reading audience explained in the ‘class description’ section. On the left side there will be a circle/bar graph with the results, and on the right side a brief explanation of the results including the percentages (see Reader Survey on Appendix 1).
1. Gender:
47% of the interviewed students are girls, while the 53% are boys.
2. Age
26% of the interviewed students are eight years old, 26% are ten years old, while the 48% are nine years old.
3. Grade:
53% of the interviewed students are from 3rd grade, while the 47% of them is from 4th grade.
4. **Do you like to read?**
89% of the interviewed students like reading, while the 11% of them do not.
5. **Do you like to read in English?**
68% of the interviewed students like reading in English, while the 32% of them do not.
6. **Where is your favorite place to read?**
56% of the interviewed students like reading at school, while the rest of them like reading at the library, bedroom, home, or other (11% each of the categories).
7. **Which ones are your favorite books?**
47% of the interviewed students like reading books with pictures/illustrations, 37% books with big letters, 16% large books, while none of them like reading books with small letters.
8. Circle things you like to read about:
25% of the interviewed students like reading about animals, 10% about famous people, 11% about inventions, 8% about places, 7% about history, 14% about science, 10% about how to make things, 1% about how to do things, 13% about sports, and only 1% about other topic.
9. My favorite types of books are:
15% of the interviewed students like fantasy books, 17% fairy tales, 13% science fiction, 23% mystery, 11% myths and legends, while 21% of them like realistic fiction books.
10. Do you think you are a good reader?
79% of the interviewed students think they are good readers, while the 21% of them do not.
This report outlines findings about children’s reading preferences from a Reader Survey conducted in June, 2014. As it was mentioned above, the children who were interviewed are from 3rd and 4th grade in Caernarfon College Casablanca. The first three questions are addressed to know about the reading audience, and it summarizes gender, age, and grade. The fourth question goes straight to the point by asking the children if they like to read. The answer for this was not a surprise—89% of the students do like to read—since Caernarfon College students are accustomed to read more than usual in different subject areas. The fifth question asks students if they like to read, but in the English language. In this question most of the students answered that they actually like reading in English. A possible explanation of that would be that students are exposed to the L2 constantly through eight hours of English per week. Question number six also evidences the importance of the educational institution in its students’ reading development: their favorite place to read is, actually, school. Question number seven refers to children’s favorite books. The 47% of the interviewed students like reading books with pictures/illustrations, while 37% like reading books with big letters. Both results also evidence the impact that the school has had in the reading preferences that students have. Most of the books that they have read so far hold those characteristics—big letter plus illustrations. In question number eight and nine there is also a close bond to what they have read and the kind of stories they have been exposed to. The most recurrent topics/elements that they like to read about are animals, science, and sports, while the types of book they prefer are mystery, realistic fiction, and fairy tales. Finally, in question ten, students show their self-confidence, since the 79% of them consider that they are good readers because they most of the time can understand what they read in the L1 and L2.
Rationale
The ‘what?’ component
The chosen work is addressed for elementary school students from 3rd and 4th grade who have been immersed into active reading through their English lessons from playgroup. Most of them present an advanced level of English. The chosen work *Where the Wild things Are*—written by the world famous illustrator Maurice Sendak—is considered one of the most important pieces in children’s literature vernacular. The topics and content within the storybook are adequate for the intended audience in this project. Children from 7 to 9 years old will be exposed not only to the language but also to different tasks and activities containing universal values such as taking responsibility for our actions, empathy for others’ feelings, resolving conflicts, and among others. Therefore, this workshop will help students to develop a sense of criticism towards the society that surrounds them, especially their role in their core family.
The ‘why?’ component
One of the most important reasons behind this project is that this book is considered as one of the major pieces in children’s literature. However, when the book was published the importance was not such, on the contrary, it was considered to be part of a counter-culture because it showed a completely different perspective from the mainstream paradigms constructed by society of that decade. The importance changed as the 60s changed the world; the shift from the rigid and mostly instructional literature that molded children’s behavior to a more liberal way of thinking towards what children ‘should be’. Choosing this book wants to highlight the revolution that caused in its time, and its everlasting effect in the following decades until today. The book continues with a legacy—the importance of
fostering children’s imagination and respecting their own nature—that has remained even after half a century from being released. Another important element that supports the choice of this storybook is the language presented and the use of different visual cues that, considering the reading audience, will definitively help the reader to comprehend or at least grasp the meaning as it contains concise language, an easy storyline, and a simple sequence to follow. The use of illustrations also works with the comprehension as well as the development of imagination.
The ‘how’ component
There are four essential elements that are crucial to explain how this project will work: themes, storyline, language, and illustrations. First, universal themes are very important because children can identify themselves with different feelings and situations, such as fear, courage, sense of belonging, love, hope, and among others. Since universal themes are generative they allow the teacher (and students) to create different spin-off activities. Secondly, the storyline of *Where the Wild Things Are* is simple; there are not reminiscences or leaps throughout the story. Besides, there is only one main character with whom children can relate to. In spite of being an uncomplicated storyline, it is enjoyable either for the adult or the young reader. Thirdly, language is structured and predictable, using a lot of repetition and coordination (the use of the coordinated conjunction ‘and’ is constantly present). The use of a simple grammatical structure (simple past tense) helps the young reader, and even more the beginners. Finally, the illustrations presented in the story (whose authorship belongs to the writer, Sendak, himself) are aesthetically pleasing and help to clarify the text as well as being an extension or starting point of children’s imagination.
Choosing the appropriate type of syllabus
A syllabus is the single most important instrument of structure because it outlines the goals and objectives of a course, the evaluation scheme, materials to be used, topics to be covered, a schedule, etc. In other words, a syllabus is the teacher’s—and sometimes the student’s—final decision regarding the nature of language learning as well as the different goals to be attained. Hutchinson and Waters define syllabus as follows: “As it simplest level a syllabus can be described as a statement of what is to be learned; it reflects language and linguistic performance” (1987).
The previous definition of syllabus may be classified as a traditional one because it focuses on the product (outcomes and goals) rather than the process. Nevertheless, there are new perspectives regarding the purpose of a syllabus. Nowadays, a syllabus can be seen as a summary of the content to which learners will be exposed; the potential learning development that the learner can achieve through the teaching/learning process.
Each of the components within a syllabus will determine the learning experience. The teacher, and at the same time course designer, will set the goals and objectives, restricting, in some cases, the domain of knowledge for the learner. Finally, the grading or evaluation scheme tells students what kind of learning activities are to be valued (e.g., assignments, tests, papers, projects).
Nowadays, there are many different types of language teaching syllabi which can be applied in various learning/teaching situations. Planning lessons for a class or workshop can be a difficult task; however, if the syllabus reaches the needs and wants of the students, as well as the learning objectives, success can be achieved.
Two types of syllabi will be blended into the lesson planning for teaching *Where the Wild Things Are* in the workshop: content-based syllabus and task-based syllabus.
Content-based syllabus is a type of instruction design which is aimed to teach specific information and content using the target language. Therefore, learners get to know about a specific content (in this particular case, about the story presented in the book), but using the language they are trying to learn (L2), rather than their native language (L1). Both processes occur at the same time: developing knowledge about a specific subject and developing linguistic ability in English. Since the major goal of this project is to teach English through literature, this approach fits perfectly as content-based syllabus is thought to be a more natural way of learning both the first language and the target one. Language learning occurs concurrently with the content learning.
When using task-based instruction, language learning is also more natural and relevant. According to Nunan (1989) a task is “a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is primarily focused on meaning rather than form.” Hence, if task-based instruction (syllabus design) takes place, language learning is more meaningful and contextualized.
Both types of syllabi are very useful to construct the foundations of this project because the task-based approach of language teaching is connected with both communicative and cognitive processes, while the content-based language teaching deals with the information (content of the storybook).
Outline: description of the workshop
“A Wild Thing inside Us”: a Literature Workshop on Maurice Sendak’s
Where the Wild Things Are
| Teacher: Macarena Alvarez V. | Area: English |
|-----------------------------|--------------|
| Lesson Period: 1st semester | Sub Area: Literature-storytelling |
| Weekly Hours: 90 minutes | Number of Lessons: 10 (from the 1st week of April) |
Course Description
This course will be developed as an extracurricular workshop for 3rd and 4th graders of Elementary School. The students are previously given different workshop options, such as, Roller Skating, Contemporary Dancing, Choir, and the Storytelling Club; therefore, they are expected to choose their favorite one and actively participate.
The book chosen to introduce the workshop is Where the Wild Things Are, a 1963 children's picture book, written and illustrated by the American author Maurice Sendak.
Storytelling Club members are invited to sail along with Max to the land of the Wild Things, by developing their own ideas and thoughts through the art of storytelling. The workshop is going to be taught once a week (on Thursdays) after regular classes.
General Objectives
The main goal of this workshop is encouraging and developing students’ imagination and spontaneity through the interactive use of the Where the Wild Things Are book, as well as fostering their ability to comprehend and reproduce the tale/story. Students will achieve that through their involvement in the different assignments and tasks proposed by the teacher. Another important general objective is enhancing critical thinking trough different
themes, which are going to be introduced and discussed during most of the workshop lessons. Important themes to be covered are: taking responsibility for our actions, empathy for others’ feelings, pouring our emotions, resolving conflicts, among others.
**Specific Objectives**
Students will be able to:
- Read and understand the story presented in *Where the Wild Things Are*.
- Recall information from the story to activate previous knowledge before every lesson.
- Recognize new vocabulary (rumpus, wild, journey, sail, etc.) to thoroughly understand the story.
- Name the different characters (since the characters do not have names) to foster creative writing.
- Comprehend and analyze the different elements, relationships, or situations within the story and their effects (e.g. why was Max unhappy to be sent to his room?).
- Analyze the characters and author’s intentions throughout the story (e.g. why did Max send the Wild Things to bed without any supper?)
- Create different dialogues for the four pages without text in order to improve and practice writing and speaking skills.
- Retell the end of the story from the perspective of one of the characters.
**Expected Learning Outcomes**
Knowledge, skills, and abilities that students have attained as a result of their involvement in a particular set of educational experiences.
The students are expected to:
- Become familiar with reading and storytelling, as well as improve their writing and speaking skills through the tasks/activities presented throughout the workshop.
- Present a story in English in front of an audience.
- Understand one’s role in family (society) through the analysis of the story.
- Work effectively with others in groups.
- Practice language structures and put into practice new vocabulary.
- Retell stories using images as prompts.
- Improve pronunciation and fluency by explaining a story.
- Apply organizational strategies to write a story (e.g. first, then, last).
- Enhance their desire for reading in English.
**Contents and Themes**
Taking responsibility for our actions, empathy for others’ feelings, pouring our emotions, resolving conflicts, and among others.
**Key concepts**
Storytelling, children literature, illustration, children’s picture books, etc.
**Class Information:**
1. Number of Students: 12 students
2. Grade: 3\textsuperscript{rd} and 4\textsuperscript{th} grade, Elementary School
3. Period: Thursdays, after regular classes.
4. Type of Syllabus used: Content-based syllabus and task-based syllabus
5. Number of Lessons: 10 lessons, once a week.
Requisites
Only students from 3rd and 4th elementary school are allowed to participate in this workshop. They must be able to attend all the lessons, be enthusiastic and willing to learn new things. They also must be respectful towards the other members of the Club. Since they are exposed to reading activities during their English lessons (8 hours per week), the teacher will have high expectations regarding their reading performance.
Required materials:
1. Course Material: *Where the Wild Things Are* book.
2. Additional Materials: Worksheets, craft materials (cardboard, markers, color pencils, etc.), a recorder, speakers, and a projector.
Evaluations
The assignments and student’s participation will constitute a 75% of the final score of the workshop. The 25% resting will be creating an alternative ending of the story through the use of storytelling, writing and drawing.
Late Assignments
Students will have the opportunity to bring their late assignment the following class. For doing so, the lead teacher will send a note to the student’s parents explaining the objectives of the assignment. The student must do it at home, but he/she will have the opportunity to check his/her work with the teacher and classmates before handing it in. During this workshop there will be no tests; only assignments/tasks are going to be evaluated as a process and not as a final product.
Academic misconduct: The teacher of this workshop will uphold the fundamental values of honesty, respect, fairness, and responsibility. Students involved in this or any other
workshop are expected to always behave in a good way and be cooperative. If there is an academic misconduct, the teacher in charge will call the lead teacher to discuss the misconduct and decide on an adequate form of resolving the conflict.
**Course Assignments:**
| Speaking activities: | 30% |
|----------------------|-----|
| • Reading comprehension questions: class discussion in pairs (10%). | |
| • Creation of flashcards: checking pronunciation of new vocabulary (10%). | |
| • “Let the wild rumpus start!”: Use of new vocabulary through a game guided by the students (10%). | |
| Writing activities: | 30% |
|---------------------|-----|
| • Creation of a poster: positive and negative aspects of Max’s behavior (10%). | |
| • Help the *wild things* speak up!: students create text and/or dialogue for the four pages without text (20%). | |
| Final project: | 25% |
|----------------|-----|
| • Alternative ending for *Where the Wild Things Are*. Oral and written project plus drawing. | |
| Students’ participation: | 15% |
|--------------------------|-----|
| • Self-evaluation (10%). | |
| • Teacher’s evaluation (5%). | |
| Lesson | Activity/task | Objectives Students will be able to: |
|--------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 | The teacher introduces the cover of the book and students predict what it is going to be about. Students brainstorm on the board (see appendix 5). The teacher gives them a coloring sheet (see appendix 2) with the ‘wild things’ and they paint it. Students answer comprehension questions. The teacher uses a cardboard to introduce the classroom ‘wild thing.’ | Predict what the story may be about by looking at the cover. Answer comprehension questions and discuss in groups. Creation of the classroom ‘wild thing.’ |
| 2 | Reading *Where the Wild things Are* story book. The teacher will ask students to draw and paint their favorite part and explain in one sentence what happens in that scene. The teacher scaffolds the process of writing by giving examples on the board:
- Max is playing…
- Max is sent to his room…
- Max begins his journey…
- Max arrives at the Land of the Wild Things…
- Max stands up to the Wild Things…
- Max is made King… | Read the story and predict what may happen to the main character. Write a simple sentence that evidences what is happening in the image created by them. |
| | |
|---|---|
| 3 SEE LESSON PLAN SAMPLE | Max organizes the Wild Rumpus…
Max sends everyone to bed…
Max decides to return home…
Max is back in his bedroom…
Reading *Where the Wild things Are* story book again.
The teacher will ask students to think about new words that they learned while reading the story.
The teacher will give each of them 2 blank sheets where they have to write a new word and create a drawing of it. Each student must present the new word in front of the class. Then, students and teacher play the memory card game.
Activate previous knowledge. Create memory cards with new vocabulary learned throughout the lesson. Demonstrate comprehension of new vocabulary. Memorize new vocabulary and practice pronunciation. |
| 4 | Reading *Where the Wild things Are* story book again. Answering reading comprehension questions orally. They discuss with a classmate.
*Max was sent to bed by his mother without eating anything.*
1. How do you think Max feels when his mother sends him to his room?
2. Do you think that Max’s punishment is fair? Why or why not?
3. Is there a different punishment Read and analyze the story and develop both empathy and criticism towards the main character: Max. Give their opinion by using the chunks: I think, I believe, In my opinion, etc. Write sentences giving their opinions on a cardboard. Explain their sentences in front of the class. Answer possible questions from their peers. |
| | | |
|---|---|---|
| | 4. Should parents punish their children? Why or why not?
5. Do you think Max’s reaction was good?
6. What would you do in Max’s position?
The teacher scaffolds the students’ work and asks students to write the possible answers on a cardboard. | |
| | Students create two posters: one including the positive aspects of Max’s behavior and the other one including the negative aspects. The class is divided into two big groups.
The teacher gives each student a worksheet (see Appendix 3) where they can identify different adjectives that might describe Max’s behavior. | Activate previous knowledge.
Explain through adjectives the character’s personality.
Comprehend synonyms and antonyms in English.
Discuss in groups the growth of the character throughout the story. |
| | **Create the unspoken text**
Sendak has left four pages of *Wild Rumpus-ing* without text.
Students create story or dialogue for the four pages that only contain illustrations.
Students work in trios and they must write at least 2 sentences per illustration.
The teacher scaffolds the process of writing. The text must follow the storyline and agree the verb tense (simple past). They also are expected to use | Recall new acquired vocabulary.
Create sentences for the illustrations without text respecting other’s opinions.
Comprehend and show grammatical sequence through writing.
Apply writing strategies using different connectors. |
| | |
|---|---|
| | coordinating connectors such as first, then, last, and, finally, etc. (See appendix 4). |
| 7 | Students present the previous work in front of the class. The teacher gives them the respective illustrations, cardboards, and markers. Students must write in big and bold letters their sentences below each picture. Finally they present their group work in front of the class. After the first part of the lesson, students create a list of different actions (verbs) retrieved from the book (text and images). Students write those ‘actions’ in different sheets of paper. The teacher sticks those sheets on the board. |
| | Recall information learned from the story as well as demonstrate knowledge of the work done by the group. Explain orally what they did: process and product. Answer possible questions that the audience may have. Write different verbs taken from the story (images and text) which are going to be used next class. |
| 8 SEE LESSON PLAN SAMPLE | Creation of masks. Each student is going to create a ‘wild thing’ mask, they can use any material, but the base (paper plate) is going to be given by the teacher as well as Max’s crown. “Let the wild rumpus start!” This is a game that works exactly as ‘Simon says’, but students will use the list of verbs that they created last class. The teacher shows them a video taken from the movie adaptation, in which Max starts the rumpus. The teacher is in charge of giving to one of the students the power to start and lead the ‘rumpus’. |
| | Personify their ‘wild thing’ character through their craft work and imagination. Apply knowledge and understanding of new vocabulary learned through a total physical response activity. Associate the scene taken from the movie with the illustrations presented in the storybook. Follow and respect instructions previously given in class. |
| | There will be clear instructions and rules. |
|---|---------------------------------------------|
| 9 | **SEE LESSON PLAN SAMPLE**
“Where will the wild things go?”
As individual work, students create an alternative ending from the perspective of one of the characters (Max, Mom, a ‘wild thing’ or the narrator’s).
Students read the end of the story again. Then, they watch the end of the movie adaptation when Max leaves the land of the ‘wild things’ and returns home, spotting the differences between these two inputs and launching their imagination in order to create their own versions. The teacher gives them a blank sheet where they have to write all the vocabulary, grammatical structures, and connectors that they can recall. On the other side of the sheet, they must assemble sentences putting together their alternative endings. The teacher monitors their work and answers possible questions. The teacher scaffolds the process of creative writing.
Relate the endings presented in the storybook and the movie adaptation with their own perspectives. Recall vocabulary and writing structures covered in class. Create an alternative ending for the story using vocabulary, grammatical structures, and connectors learned throughout the workshop. |
| 10 | “Where will the wild things go?”
Students illustrate their alternative endings in a cardboard. They were previously asked to bring any material to create the poster. They write their alternative ending on the cardboard as a result of the storytelling resource inside the classroom. Consolidate the work done in the workshop by presenting the final project. |
well as stick their illustration. After that, students present their work in front of the class.
*The purpose of this final activity is to encourage students’ participation by presenting their work in front of a larger audience, and most importantly to the school community. The consolidation of the work happens not only inside the classroom but also inside the educational community as a whole.*
Answer possible questions from the audience and support their ideas (even if it is in L1).
Lesson number 3/ Lesson plan sample 1
Literature and storytelling workshop
Grades: 3\textsuperscript{rd} and 4\textsuperscript{th} (elementary school)
Activity
Students recall new words that they have learned while reading the story. They pick one and think about the perfect drawing for that word. The idea is to create a memory card game, therefore they will have to create two equal cards (same word, same drawing).
Objectives
Students will be able to:
- Activate previous knowledge regarding new vocabulary learned.
- Create memory cards with new vocabulary learned throughout the lesson.
- Demonstrate comprehension of new vocabulary.
- Memorize new vocabulary and practice pronunciation.
Materials for the lesson: blank sheets of paper, color pencils, and markers.
Timing: 90 minutes.
Place: classroom.
| Time | Lesson sequence | Teacher’s role | Students’ role |
|-------|------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 20 min.| **Pre-activity:**
**Warm-up.**
Reading *Where the Wild things Are* story book again. | Leads the reading by asking each student to read one part of the story.
Asks students to think about new words that they have learned while reading the story.
Gives each student two blank sheets.
Shuffles the students’ cards.
Lays out the cards face down in rows forming a large rectangle on the floor.
Makes sure the cards are not touching each other. They need to be able to be flipped over without disturbing any cards around them.
Explain the instructions.
Decide who will go first.
Explains that the game continues until all the cards are played.
Asks students to add one more word to the game. | Read the paragraph assigned. Ask if they have a question regarding pronunciation or understanding of the storyline.
Present the new word in front of the class.
Write and draw a new a word. Make two copies to play the game.
Hand-in the memory cards.
The first player chooses a card and carefully turns it over. Then, the player selects another card. If the two cards are a matching pair, the player wins those cards.
If the cards are not a match they are turned back over and it is the next player’s turn.
Students try to remember where the following matching cards were and turn them.
Create another pair of memory cards. |
| | |
|---|---|
| Explains the instructions again. | Help the teacher to lay out the cards on the floor. |
| Monitors the activity. | Make a circle and take turns to play. |
| Asks students to write the new words on the board without using the memory cards. | Write on the board the words that they can recall from the activity. |
| Asks students how many words they can actually remember. | Put the memory cards inside the box. |
| Gives students a box where they can keep the memory cards. | |
Lesson number 8/ Lesson plan sample 2
Literature and storytelling workshop
Grades: 3rd and 4th (elementary school)
Activity
“Let the wild rumpus start” Each student is going to create a ‘wild thing’ mask in order to participate of a classroom game. Students will also watch a movie adaptation.
Objectives
Students will be able to:
- Personify their ‘wild thing’ character through their craft work and imagination.
- Apply knowledge and understanding of new vocabulary learned through a total physical response activity.
- Associate the scene taken from the movie with the illustrations presented in the storybook.
- Follow and respect instructions previously given in class.
- Create a mask in order to personify a ‘wild thing.’
Materials for the lesson: paper crown, paper plates, crayons, markers, colored pencils, oil pastels, color papers, scissors, glue, etc.
Timing: 90 minutes.
Place: classroom.
| Time | Lesson sequence | Teacher’s role | Students’ role |
|-------|------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 20 min.| **Pre-activity:**
**Warm-up.**
Revising our action words. | Activates previous knowledge by asking students about the list of different actions (verbs) retrieved from the book (text and images). Asks students to repeat the words and explain the meaning of them. | Remember that those ‘actions’ were written in different sheets of paper and stick next to the board. Repeat and mimic the action verbs. |
| 35 min.| **While-activity**
Creation of masks | Explains that each of them is going to create a mask of a ‘wild thing’. Gives the students the base of the mask (paper plate), and other materials such as crayons, markers, colored pencils, oil pastels color papers, scissors, glue, etc. | Create a ‘wild thing’ mask, using the materials provided by the teacher. |
| 35 min.| **(Post- Activity)**
“Let the wild rumpus start!” | Shows a video taken from the movie adaptation where Max starts the rumpus. Explains the game’s instructions and rules:
1. Seat yourselves in a circle, or stand in a group. All the students must wear their ‘wild thing’ mask.
2. Teacher chooses one | Wear the mask while listening to the game’s instructions and rules. Play the game and wait for their turn to be the leader (Max). |
Lesson number 9/ Lesson plan sample 3
Literature and storytelling workshop
Grades: 3\textsuperscript{rd} and 4\textsuperscript{th} (elementary school)
Activity
“Where will the wild things go?” As individual work, students create an alternative ending from the perspective of one of the characters (Max, Mom, a ‘wild thing’ or the narrator’s).
Objectives
Students will be able to:
- Relate the endings presented in the storybook and the movie adaptation with their own perspectives.
- Recall vocabulary and writing structures covered in class.
- Create an alternative ending for the story using vocabulary, grammatical structures, and connectors learned throughout the workshop.
- Associate text and illustrations as a result of the storytelling resource inside the classroom.
- Consolidate the work done in the workshop by presenting the final project.
- Answer possible questions from the audience and support ideas (even if it is in L1).
Materials for the lesson: crayons, markers, colored pencils, color papers, scissors, glue, cardboard, etc.
Timing: 90 minutes.
Place: classroom.
| Time | Lesson sequence | Teacher’s role | Students’ role |
|------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 20 min. | **Pre-activity:**
**Warm-up.**
Spotting the differences between the storybook and the film adaptation. | Reads aloud the end of the story.
Shows the end of the movie adaptation, when Max leaves the land of the ‘wild things’ and returns home.
Asks students what differences they can identify in the two endings (film v/s storybook).
Divides the board into film adaptation and story book.
Writes a comparison sentence and motivates students to write their own on the board. | Read the end of the story again.
Watch the end of the film adaptation.
Go to the board and write a comparison between the film adaptation and the storybook. |
| 35 min. | **While-activity**
“Where will the wild things go?” | Gives a blank sheet where they have to write vocabulary, grammatical structures, and connectors.
Monitors students’ work and answers possible questions.
Writes on the board the sentences covered at the beginning of the workshop as a reminder:
- Max is playing…
- Max is sent to his | Write all the vocabulary, grammatical structures, and connectors that they can recall.
Ask if they have questions or doubts. |
| 35 min. | (Post- Activity) Writing an alternative ending for *Where the Wild Things Are.* |
|---------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | room…
| | ▪ Max begins his journey…
| | ▪ Max arrives at the Land of the Wild Things…
| | ▪ Max stands up to the Wild Things…
| | ▪ Max is made King…
| | ▪ Max organizes the Wild Rumpus…
| | ▪ Max sends everyone to bed…
| | ▪ Max decides to return home…
| | ▪ Max is back in his bedroom…
| | Scaffolds the process of writing.
| | Scaffolds the process of creative writing.
| | Monitors their work and answers possible questions.
| | Think about a possible ending for the story.
| | Assemble sentences putting together their thoughts.
| | Recall the previous writing exercise. |
Conclusion
Writing this graduation project has been very useful to reflect on the uses that literature may have in the different contexts of teaching and learning a second language.
The use of literature within the ESL/EFL classrooms and more specifically the use of the 1963 storybook *Where the Wild Things are* is something completely achievable.
Incorporating children’s literature within the classrooms means a huge change in what we teach since it becomes more meaningful and appealing to students of this decade. Using stories with children to develop critical thinking can be natural, familiar and most of the times enjoyable. We, as teachers, not only help children to become better thinkers, but also help them to understand and reach a higher literacy in the target language. If children love stories then they will love talking about them. Asking the right questions and providing the necessary support will allow children to develop higher thought processes. And as Ghosn (2002) points out:
“In the increasingly global world, language skills, intercultural awareness, and emotional intelligence are high priorities, especially in our struggle to create a more just and peaceful world […] children’s literature can provide a motivating medium through which these needs can be addressed in the EFL class. While literature can easily be used to supplement traditional ELT materials, it is also possible to structure an entire course for young learners around carefully selected stories and appropriate follow-up activities.”
This last quote evidences what was made throughout the entire project: literature was used as a powerful source material to structure an entire workshop to teach young learners.
Reader Survey
Girl _____ Boy _____ Age _____ Grade _____ Date_____________
1. Do you like to read?
Yes | No
2. Do you like to read in English?
Yes | No
3. Where is your favorite place to read?
School | Home | Bedroom | Library | Other:
4. Which ones are your favorite books?
Books with small letters | Books with big letters | Books with pictures/illustrations | Large books
5. Circle things you like to read about:
Animals | Famous people | Inventions | Places | History
Science | How to make things | How to do things | Sports | Other:
6. My favorite types of books are… (circle three):
Fantasy | Fairy tales | Science fiction
Mystery | Myths and legends | Realistic fiction
7. Do you think you are a good reader?
Yes | No
THESE ARE THE WILD THINGS!
PAINT THE ‘WILD THINGS’. THEN, WORK WITH YOUR PARTNER AND ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
1. WHAT ARE ‘WILD THINGS’? ARE THEY FRIGHTENING?
2. DO YOU THINK THIS IS A SCARY STORY? WHY?
3. ARE THEIR NOSES, MOUTHS, EYES, CLAWS, AND TEETH DIFFERENT FROM OURS? WHY?
4. DRAW YOUR OWN VERSION OF A ‘WILD THING’
5. SHARE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THE CLASS! 😊
IS MAX A ‘WILD THING?
1. UNFRIENDLY
2. SAD
3. FOOLISH
4. CAUTIOUS
5. SHY
6. SELFISH
7. DISHONEST
8. FEARFUL
9. FOLLOWER
10. CHILDISH
1. FRIENDLY
2. HAPPY
3. WISE
4. ADVENTUROUS
5. OUTGOING
6. UNSELFISH
7. HONEST
8. BRAVE
9. LEADER
10. MATURE
ANALYZE THE INNER QUALITIES OF MAX:
PUT AN “X” NEXT TO THE ADJECTIVE THAT BETTER DESCRIBES HIM AT THE BEGINNING OF THE STORY, AND A CIRCLE NEXT TO THE ADJECTIVE THAT BETTER DESCRIBES HIM AT THE END OF THE STORY.
Appendix 4
Cut-out images to create text and/or dialogue.
SENDAK HAS LEFT FOUR PAGES OF WILD RUMPUS-ING WITHOUT TEXT!
• CREATE STORY OR DIALOGUE FOR THE PAGES THAT ONLY CONTAIN ILLUSTRATIONS.
• WORK IN TRIOS AND WRITE AT LEAST TWO SENTENCES PER ILLUSTRATION.
• THE TEXT OR DIALOGUE MUST FOLLOW THE STORYLINE IN THE SIMPLE PAST.
• USE CONNECTORS TO ORGANIZE YOUR IDEAS
WHERE THE WILD THINGS ARE
STORY AND PICTURES BY MAURICE SENDAK
Winner of the Caldecott Medal
for the Most Distinguished Picture Book of the Year
194
The image shows a close-up view of a colorful, textured fabric with a pattern that resembles leaves or petals. The colors include shades of yellow, green, red, and white, arranged in a symmetrical design. The texture appears to be woven or knitted, giving it a tactile quality. The overall impression is one of vibrant, natural beauty.
WHERE THE WILD THINGS ARE
WHERE THE WILD THINGS ARE
STORY AND PICTURES BY MAURICE SENDAK
Harper Trophy
A Division of HarperCollins Publishers
The night Max wore his wolf suit and made mischief of one kind
The cat was tied up with a piece of cloth and was trying to escape from the room.
and another
The cat and the dog were playing in the kitchen, when suddenly the cat jumped up and down on the dog's back. The dog tried to get away, but the cat was too strong. The dog fell to the ground, and the cat landed on top of him. The dog was scared and tried to run away, but the cat was too fast. The dog was caught and the cat was happy.
his mother called him “WILD THING!”
and Max said “I’LL EAT YOU UP!”,
so he was sent to bed without eating anything.
The little girl was sleeping soundly in her bed, dreaming of adventures and magic.
That very night in Max’s room a forest grew
The cat was very tired, and he went to bed in the cupboard.
and grewThe hedgehog was very surprised to find himself in the garden, and he looked about him with great curiosity.
He saw a little girl sitting on a stone bench, and she was crying bitterly.
"Why are you crying?" asked the hedgehog.
"I have lost my teddy bear," said the girl.
"Oh, I'm sorry to hear that," said the hedgehog. "I'll help you look for it."
So they began to search the garden together, but they could not find the teddy bear anywhere.
Just then, the girl's mother came out of the house and called her daughter.
"Come inside now," she said. "It's time for tea."
The girl got up from the bench and went back into the house, leaving the hedgehog alone in the garden.
The hedgehog wandered around for a while, looking for something interesting to do, when he heard a noise coming from the house.
He crept closer and closer until he saw a cat sitting on a chair, purring contentedly.
The hedgehog watched the cat for a few minutes, then decided to go home. He turned and walked away, leaving the cat behind.
As he was leaving the garden, he noticed a small bird perched on a branch above him.
The bird chirped happily at the hedgehog, and the hedgehog smiled back.
He continued on his way, feeling happy and content, knowing that he had had a wonderful day in the garden.
and grew until his ceiling hung with vines
and the walls became the world all around
The moon was high in the sky, and the night was quiet. The forest was alive with the sounds of nature, but there was something missing. The animals had all gone to sleep, leaving only the trees and the moon to keep watch over the forest.
As the night went on, the moon began to set, and the stars started to appear in the sky. The forest was now bathed in a soft, twinkling light, and the animals began to stir. They woke up from their slumber and started to move around, searching for food and preparing for the day ahead.
The forest was a beautiful place, filled with life and color. The animals were happy to be back in their home, and they knew that they would have many adventures in the coming days. The forest was their world, and they loved it more than anything else in the world.
and an ocean tumbled by with a private boat for Max and he sailed off through night and day
and in and out of weeks
and almost over a year
to where the wild things are.
And when he came to the place where the wild things are they roared their terrible roars and grabbed their terrible teeth and rolled their terrible eyes and showed their terrible claws.
till Max said “BE STILL!”
and tamed them with the magic trick
of staring into all their yellow eyes without blinking once
and they were frightened and called him the most wild thing of all
and made him king of all wild things.
"And now," cried Max, "let the wild rumpus start!"
The animals were all very tired, and they fell asleep on the branches of the tree.
The wolf and the crow, the fox and the cat,
The lion and the tiger, the bear and the rat,
The owl and the raven, the hawk and the dove,
The eagle and the falcon, the vulture and the dove.
The wolf and the crow, the fox and the cat,
The lion and the tiger, the bear and the rat,
The owl and the raven, the hawk and the dove,
The eagle and the falcon, the vulture and the dove.
"Now sleep!" Max said and sent the wild things off to bed without their supper. And Max, the king of all wild things was lonely and wanted to be where someone loved him best of all.
Then all around from far away across the world he watched good things to eat so he gave up being king of where the wild things are.
But the wild things cried, "Oh please don't go—we'll eat you up—we love you!"
And Max said, "No!"
The wild things roared their terrible roars and gnashed their terrible teeth and roiled their terrible eyes and showed their terrible claws but Max stepped into his private boat and waved goodbye.
and sailed back over a year
and in and out of weeks
and through a day
and into the night of his very own room
where he found his supper waiting for him
The little boy was sleeping soundly in his bed, dreaming of adventures and wonders.
and it was still hot.
94
95
Also by Maurice Sendak
Winner, 1964 Caldecott Medal
Winner, 1970 Hans Christian Andersen Awards Illustrators Medal
Winner, 1982 American Book Award
Winner, 1983 Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal
Hector Protector and As I Went Over the Water: Two Nursery Rhymes
Higglety Pigglety Pop! or There Must Be More to Life
In the Night Kitchen
Kenny’s Window
Maurice Sendak’s Really Rosie: Starring the Nutshell Kids
Nutshell Library
Outside Over There
The Sign on Rosie’s Door
Very Far Away
Winner of the Caldecott Medal
References
Lynch-Brown, C. & Tomlinson, C. (2005). *Essentials of Children’s Literature*, 5th edition. Chapter 1. Learning about children and their literature.
Glazer, J.I. and Williams G, III (1979) *Introduction to Children’s Literature*, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stephens, John (1992) *Language and Ideology in Children’s Fiction*, London and New York: Longman.
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. [1817] “Bibliographia Literaria” The Critical Tradition. Ed., David H. Richter, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989.
Shelley, Percy Bysshe.[1821] “A Defence of Poetry” The Critical Tradition. Ed., David H. Richter, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989.
Meyer, Jim.“What is Literature? A Definition Based on Prototypes,” in *Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session*, 1997, Volume 41 Online. URL: http://www.und.nodak.edu/dept/linguistics/wp/1997Meyer.htm
Eagleton, Terry. [1983] “Literary Theory: An introduction” Anniversary Ed., Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008.
Barthes, Roland. “The Death of the Author.” *Art and Interpretation: An Anthology of Readings in Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art*. Ed. Eric Dayton. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview, 1998. 383-386. Print.
*Hutchinson, T., and Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.*
Nunan, D. (1988) *Syllabus Design*. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nunan, D. (1989). *Designing tasks for the communicative classroom*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McKay, S. (1982) *Literature in the ESL Classroom*. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 4.
Ellis, R. (2003). *Task-based language and learning*. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
Huck, C.S., Hepler, S., Hickman, J., & Kiefer, B.Z. (1997). *Children’s literature in the elementary school* (6th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Bodmer, G.R. (1992). *Approaching the illustrated text*. In G.E. Sadler (Ed.), *Teaching children's literature: Issues, pedagogy, resources* (pp. 72-79). NY: The Modern Language Association of America.
Fang, Z. (1996). "Illustrations, Text, and the Child Reader: What are Pictures in Children's Storybooks for?" *Reading Horizons*: Vol. 37: Iss. 2, Article 3.
Ghosn, I. K. (2002). Four good reasons to use literature in primary school ELT. ELT Journal Vol 56/2. | 13c6cfda-88a7-4aa4-9ab7-40f6aec7aee4 | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | http://opac.pucv.cl/pucv_txt/txt-4000/UCE4288_01.pdf | 2023-01-29T15:23:49+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764499744.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20230129144110-20230129174110-00713.warc.gz | 33,693,653 | 18,984 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.94528 | eng_Latn | 0.997767 | [
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The United States of America was established as an independent country largely because of the successful use of protest as a means of resisting British control. For example, the colonists went to great lengths to protest taxation by the British. King George wanted the colonists to pay taxes to England in order to help offset the cost of the soldiers provided to the colonists for military protection. The colonists did not believe that they should be taxed by England, because they had their own systems of government and taxation and were not represented in the Parliament in England.
The protest against the British started when a small number of colonists voiced opposition to taxation in written articles and speeches. Protestors eventually organized boycotts of English goods and demonstrations, such as the Boston Tea Party, and then grouped together in the gravest of all protest measures—the war now known as the American Revolution. Before beginning this lesson, students should have general knowledge of the events leading up to the American Revolution.
Key concepts
In the years leading up to the American Revolution, tension increased between England and the American colonies. Protest activities escalated, as did British efforts to maintain control of the colonies.
Key questions
What were specific issues of disagreement between England and the American colonists? What protest activities took place in Boston? How did the patriots, or the Sons of Liberty, in different colonies work together? What were the means by which each side (England and America) intended to achieve victory?
Goals of this lesson
This lesson aims to facilitate student understanding of some of the events and causes that led to the American Revolution and to acquaint students with popular pro-Patriot renderings of these issues created both at the time and in later years.
Objectives
1. Students will examine historic images and texts to interpret some of the events leading to the American Revolution.
2. Students will prepare and deliver oral presentations about the image or text studied.
3. Students will develop an impression of the types of protest that colonists used to resist British rule.
Materials
Master copies of all materials are provided.
1. Photographs:
a. “The Bloody Massacre perpetrated in King Street, Boston, on March 5, 1770,” by Paul Revere, 1770
b. “The Bostonians Paying the Excise-man,” by Philip Dawe, 1774
c. “Accounting of Cash Received”
d. “Pulling Down the Statue of George III,” c. 1860
e. “Battle of Bunker’s Hill”
2. Fact Cards (one for each image listed above)
3. Protest Analysis Worksheet
4. Protest Vocabulary List
5. Oral Presentation Rubric (sample)
Procedures
Day 1
Review the following British tax laws with students:
1. Sugar Act of 1764: Under this law, American colonists had to pay taxes on sugar and other goods imported from England.
2. Stamp Act of 1765: Under this law, taxes had to be paid on anything that was printed, such as newspapers, leaflets, and other items.
3. Quartering Act of 1765: Under this law, colonists had to provide food and shelter for soldiers in the British Army.
4. Townshend Act of 1767: Under this law, colonists were required to pay taxes on most items they imported from England.
Explain that the laws were designed to raise monies to help pay for the cost of the French and Indian War and the continued military protection for the colonies. Discuss both why the colonists protested these measures and why the British government felt the laws were just. Explain that disagreements over these laws and the lack of colonial representation in Parliament led to escalating protest measures and heightened British efforts to control the colonies.
Explain to students that they will now view images and documents that illustrate some of the colonial resistance efforts. Place the provided images on long table or attach them to a wall. Match each image with its fact card. Allow students time to walk around and preview all the images.
Divide students into five groups. Assign each group an image or draw a team number from a hat or cup and allow each team to choose their image. Instruct students to complete the Protest Analysis Worksheet using the image, fact card, and protest vocabulary list. At the end of class, collect the worksheets and check to make sure that each group is on the right track.
Day 2
Students will prepare oral reports about their protest image or document guided by the Protest Analysis Worksheets completed on Day 1.
Review the project guidelines, listed below, and the sample rubric with students. Have students use the remainder of the class to plan their presentations. Work not completed in class should be finished as homework.
Project Guidelines
1. Suggested presentation length: 3 to 4 minutes
2. Require the use of at least one visual aid (e.g. a drawing, a map, props, or costumes). Students should create a visual aid appropriate for their image.
3. Remind students that they will be evaluated on:
a. Participation of each group member and effort at teamwork
b. Clarity of speech and presentation
c. Accuracy of information presented
d. Appropriate use of time
e. Quality of visual aid(s)
Day 3
Allow groups to meet for ten minutes at the beginning of class to prepare for and rehearse their presentations. You may determine the order of the presentations or ask for volunteers. You may invite members of the audience to pose questions to the presenters or ask the audience to evaluate their peers by completing a modified rubric.
Option for extra credit: Courteous audience participation can earn students extra points.
Suggestions for student assessment
Students may be assessed on the Protest Analysis Worksheet, oral presentations, and audience participation.
Extension activities
1. Allow time for students to do additional research and write a brief essay about the issue that provoked their protest.
2. Read aloud books, articles, songs, or poems written by both the English and the colonists. For suggestions, see the “Additional resources” list below.
Additional resources
Banks, James A., et al. *Regions: Adventures in Time and Place*. New York: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Egger-Bovet, Howard, et al. *Book of the American Revolution* (Brown Paper School U.S. Kids History). New York: Little Brown and Company, 1994.
Fritz, Jean. *Can’t You Make Them Behave, King George?* New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, Inc., 1997.
Hoose, Phillip. *We Were There Too! Young People in U.S. History*. New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 2001.
www.historyplace.com
www.plpsd.mb.ca/amhs/history/loyalists.html
This lesson fulfills the following Illinois Learning Standards:
**English Language Arts**
- State Goal 3: Write to communicate for a variety of purposes.
- State Goal 4: Listen and speak effectively in a variety of situations.
- State Goal 5: Use the language arts to acquire, assess, and communicate information.
**Social Science**
- State Goal 14: Understand political systems, with an emphasis on the United States.
- State Goal 16: Understand events, trends, individuals, and movements shaping the history of Illinois, the United States, and other nations.
*History Lab* is made possible through a generous grant from the Polk Bros. Foundation. These materials were written and researched by Cynthia Townsend. Images and artifacts included in this lesson are for classroom reference and research use only and are not to be used for commercial reproduction, display, broadcast, or publication unless authorized by a letter of permission from the Chicago Historical Society. *History Lab* coordinated by Heidi Moisan of the Chicago Historical Society. The Chicago Historical Society gratefully acknowledges the Chicago Park District’s generous support of all of the Historical Society’s activities.
The Bloody Massacre perpetrated in King Street, Boston, on March 5, 1770
This image is for classroom reference and research use only. Not to be used for commercial reproduction, display, broadcast, or publication unless authorized by a “Letter of Permission” from the Chicago Historical Society.
The mandatory credit line is “Chicago Historical Society.” CHS: ICHi-07704.
The Bostonians Paying the Excise-man, or Tarring & Feathering
This image is for classroom reference and research use only. Not to be used for commercial reproduction, display, broadcast, or publication unless authorized by a “Letter of Permission” from the Chicago Historical Society.
The mandatory credit line is “Chicago Historical Society.” CHS: ICHi-08487.
| Date | Description | Amount |
|------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------|
| Dec 12 | To cash, for J. Wannycy for 150 lbs flour at $1.279.10.2 | |
| | To ditto, for 28 lbs butter at $4.19.1/2 | |
| | To ditto, for 12 pks butter at $2.5.0 | |
| | To cash, at the custom house for 3 bushels | |
| | To ditto, for 40 lbs flour at $7.5.0 | |
| | To an additional entry at the custom house | |
| | To W. Gedliff for 12 lbs butter at $3.6 | |
| | 10 pks butter | |
| | For Isaac Sebring for 60 lbs flour at $1.12.9 | |
| | For John Quackenbush for 50 lbs flour at $0.4.10 | |
| | For John Law for 22 lbs flour at $0.5.0 | |
| | To Shaw & Hudson for 24 lbs flour at $0.5.0 | |
| | To Isaac Low for 25 lbs flour at $0.5 | |
| | To Garrett Braddock for 1 ton flour | |
| | To Mr. Duryee for 24 lbs flour at $1.12.9 | |
| | To cartage for 1 ton butter at $0.10 | |
| Apr 23 | To Postage for a letter and storage for 10 lbs flour | |
| | To John Campbell for 40 lbs flour at $0.6.5 | |
| | To Cash, for James Anderson, 1 ton on $1.00 at $0.5 | |
| | To Chris Smith, on 250 lbs at $0.5 | |
| | To Anno Vandamont, 250 lbs at $0.5 | |
| | To 3 police officers | |
| July 3 | To cash, sent to the Bremen Office at $93.14.9 | |
| | To bad bill, loss on gold at $1.10.3 | |
| | To balance due | |
Errors Excepted: £1194.6.1
Peter Curtensius
| Date | Description | Amount |
|-------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------|
| Dec 12| By Lush Breed Isaac Roosevelt for Montg Ward | £400.11.11 |
| | By Do of Han Coome & Domes for West ward | 33.4.0 |
| | By David & Ch Duyshieck for East Ward | 229.10.9 |
| | By J Fallon & L Deyser for Dock Ward | 63.6 |
| 17 | By Rob Benson for North Ward | 47.3 |
| | By In Wiley for Hinleworth in 3rd Ward | 5.0 |
| | By Rob Benson for Oak ward | 0.0 |
| | By Ditto & Dav Jones for West Ward | 1.4 |
| 31 | By G Raphaelye for East Ward | 102.12.9 |
| | By 1 son of Iron of d. | 20.0 |
| 1775 | July 2 By J Smithson Subscriptions | 10.6 |
| | Apr 23 By Corret Raphaelye for East Ward | 42.4.1 |
| | By Isaac Roosevelt for Montg Ward | 137.0.11 |
| | By The Pattit which he collected in the different wards | 429.2 |
| | allow him for lost 256.1.9 | 27.13.0 |
**By Balance**
£1194.6.1
9.11
PULLING DOWN THE STATUE OF GEORGE III
This image is for classroom reference and research use only. Not to be used for commercial reproduction, display, broadcast, or publication unless authorized by a “Letter of Permission” from the Chicago Historical Society. The mandatory credit line is “Chicago Historical Society.” CHS: ICHI-20451.
BATTLE OF BUNKER’S HILL
This image is for classroom reference and research use only. Not to be used for commercial reproduction, display, broadcast, or publication unless authorized by a “Letter of Permission” from the Chicago Historical Society.
The mandatory credit line is “Chicago Historical Society.” CHS: ICHi-07720.
Fact Card 1
The Bloody Massacre perpetrated in King Street, Boston, on March 5, 1770
• The Boston Massacre occurred in March 1770.
• Feelings between the American colonists and the English were very negative because of the laws imposed on the colonists by the English government.
• Colonists often bothered the English soldiers by yelling insults or throwing small things like rocks at them.
• One night a group of colonists got into an argument with English soldiers. The confrontation escalated into a fight between the citizens and the soldiers. In the confusion, an unknown number of soldiers shot into the crowd and killed five colonists.
• Paul Revere, a talented silversmith and engraver and an ardent patriot, depicted the incident in this famous image.
Fact Card 2
The Bostonians Paying the Excise-man, or Tarring & Feathering
• Colonial protest actions were both spontaneous and organized.
• Protest measures ranged from peaceful (boycotts) to non-violent (damaging goods) to physical acts against people (tarring and feathering), especially those who represented the British Crown in official positions, such as a tax collector.
• Tarring and feathering was an old custom used to call attention to a person who was believed by his neighbors to have done something wrong. It was considered a community punishment, not an official punishment.
• When a person was tarred and feathered, hot tar was brushed on him and feathers were poured over the tar. The feathers would then be stuck to the person’s skin. This practice was meant to be painful and embarrassing.
Fact Card 3
Accounting of Cash Received
• American colonists protested England in many ways.
• After the Boston Tea Party, England stopped all shipping in and out of the Boston harbor (this is known as a blockade) until the Bostonians paid taxes on the tea.
• During the English blockade, the colonists had to do without many goods. Many also experienced financial troubles, because they couldn’t buy or sell things that needed to be shipped.
• Because of the financial troubles of their fellow colonists, many citizens from New York donated money to help the people of Boston.
• This record was kept of the donations.
Fact Card 4
Pulling Down the Statue of George III
• King George III was King of England during the time of the American Revolution.
• England needed money to pay for the French and Indian Wars that had happened in America.
• England felt that the American colonists should help pay for the conflict, because the outcome of the war had also benefited the Americans.
• Many of the American colonists disagreed with the English government, because they didn’t have any government representatives in England. They coined the famous phrase “no taxation without representation” to express their viewpoint. These colonists were known as rebels to the British but called themselves Patriots.
• Other American colonists agreed with the English government. These colonists were known as Loyalists.
Fact Card 5
Battle of Bunker’s Hill
• As the tension increased between the English and the colonists, both sides prepared for war.
• In April 1775, the American Revolution began. It lasted for six years.
• The professional British army was considered the best in the world.
• George Washington led the American army, which was largely made up of untrained militia.
• Many battles were fought including this one at Bunker Hill.
• To the surprise of the world, the Americans won their independence from England.
PROTEST ANALYSIS WORKSHEET
Use the protest image and its fact sheet to answer the following questions:
1. What is the name of your image or document?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Describe the image or document. What words, people, objects, or actions are included in the image or document?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. What type of protest does it represent? Was the protest violent or non-violent?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. What point of view does it express?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5. Are you able to tell which side won this particular protest? Why or why not? If your answer is “yes,” which side won?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
6. Do you think that this was an effective protest? Why or why not?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
7. What did you find most interesting about your image or document?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
| Protest Vocabulary List |
|-------------------------|
| **activists** | a person or persons that take(s) direct action to achieve a political or social goal |
| **banner** | a type of flag with words |
| **boycott** | a joining together of people to refuse to deal with or buy from another person or group |
| **chant** | to say or shout the same thing over and over |
| **demonstration** | to show feelings or views publicly by acting as a group with others |
| **empower** | to give power or authority to a person or a group |
| **leaflet** | a sheet of printed material that is often folded; a brochure |
| **march** | to walk together as a group |
| **petition** | a formal document signed by many people that asks for something |
| **picket** | a person stationed outside of a place in order to demonstrate against something |
| **protest** | to speak strongly against or to express disapproval |
| **rally** | a coming together to motivate people for a common purpose |
| **rebel** | to disagree with and to act against authority |
| **revolution** | an overthrow of a government or social system |
| **revolt** | to rebel against authority |
| **riot** | a violent public disturbance |
| **signage** | a public display of a group of signs |
| **slogan** | a saying associated with a political party or group; a phrase used with advertising |
| **speech** | a talk given to an audience |
| **war** | an armed (with weapons) conflict between two or more groups |
ORAL PRESENTATION RUBRIC
Each category is worth five points:
1. Division of responsibilities. (Did each team member play a role in the presentation?)
2. Level of teamwork. (Did the group demonstrate good teamwork skills while preparing for the presentation?)
3. Quality of speaking. (Could the audience hear the presenters? Did the presenters know what to say and when to say it?)
4. Quality and clarity of visuals. (Did the visuals match the topic being presented? Were they easy to understand?)
5. Accuracy of information. (Was the information presented accurate and applicable?)
Comments:
Grading scale: A = 25-23 points B = 22-20 points C = 19-18 points D = 17-15 points F = Below 15 points
Please give us your feedback! After reviewing and using this History Lab lesson, please send us your feedback. Your ideas and honest assessment will ensure that these lessons keep improving and will provide us with useful insight for future teacher fellows. To fill out this form online or discover additional History Lab activities, visit the educators section of the Chicago Historical Society’s website at www.chicagohistory.org.
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- [ ] America and Protest
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1. On a scale of one to five (with five being the best) rate this lesson in terms of the quality of the student learning experience it provides (circle one):
5 4 3 2 1
2. What were the strengths of this lesson? ________________________________________________________________________________________________
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3. What aspects of this lesson needed additional fine-tuning? _________________________________________________________________________________________
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Attn: History Programs Fax: 312-266-2077 | 396783ab-3e83-4f44-bace-ccd909884e47 | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://democracylimited.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/chm-historylab-protest-2.pdf | 2023-09-25T02:23:12+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506676.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20230925015430-20230925045430-00003.warc.gz | 218,772,980 | 4,770 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.969798 | eng_Latn | 0.998796 | [
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A Few Key Points
- The Royal Academy of Arts was established in 1768 to create systematic professional artistic training, criteria for critical review, and an exhibition space to display the best work by contemporary artists.
- During the 18th and early 19th centuries, an idealized style of painting, known as the “Grand Manner”—elevated pictures depicting historic events, biblical scenes of ancient myths, and touted them as the most noble.
- A new war with France from 1793 on gave added importance to the subject of the sea for British artists and their public because the nation wanted to signal its naval superiority.
- Landscape painting became a more valued category in England during the early 19th century, coinciding with a fresh wave of British nationalism.
- 19th-century England saw massive transformations in regards to economic growth and lifestyle; despite this, some artists, including John Constable, created nostalgically idyllic scenes devoid of signs of encroaching industrialization and urbanization.
- Animal paintings were a particularly popular subject for representation in England during the 19th century.
- Many 19th-century British artists started out as sign or coach painters; others began their career as apprentices to engravers, making prints after other artists’ work.
- J.M.W. Turner and John Constable were rivals within the Royal Academy of Arts.
- J.M.W. Turner was deeply inspired by, and drew upon, the signature light saturated vistas of the 17th-century French landscape artist Claude Lorrain.
- Other British landscape artists looked to 17th-century Dutch and Flemish landscapes for inspiration.
- Science and art merge in the directly observed studies of painters, like Constable, who were known to note specific details, such as cloud type, wind direction, and time of day, on the backs of their drawings.
While John Constable expressed personal feelings through the nostalgically tinged specifics of locality, J.M.W. Turner drew upon imagination and dramatic atmospheric effects to stir a sense of emotion.
Romanticism was a movement in literature, as well as the visual arts, that began in the late 18th century and reached its peak between 1800 and 1850. In contrast to the Neoclassical tradition that prized the idealization of history and a signatureless academic style, Romanticism promoted subjectivity, imagination, and individuality in both subject and style.
Romantic painters frequently explored the elemental forces of nature: sky, sea, light, weather, season, time of day, and ever-changing atmospheric conditions.
**Sparking Discussion**
- How do J.M.W. Turner and John Constable’s landscapes differ?
- In what ways do Turner and Constable’s art embody Romanticism?
- Why do you think that the Royal Academy of Arts condemned John Constable’s *Watermeadows near Salisbury*? How is it different from his other works in this gallery?
- Why do you think that Constable painted six-footers (monumental landscape paintings)?
- What effect does this scale have?
- How might (some of) these paintings speak to Britain’s sense of nationalism?
- Can you determine what kinds of clouds Constable has represented in the paintings in Gallery 87?
- How does Constable use trees within his compositions?
- What is the focus of each of Turner’s four maritime pictures?
- What can we tell about what life was like for people living in the 19th century from pictures in the gallery?
- What information do Constable’s *The Hay Wain* and *The Leaping Horse* offer us about agriculture and commerce around 1820 in England?
- What do these pictures seem to ignore from this time period?
- Why do you think the French Impressionists in the 1860s and 1870s were so impressed with Constable’s landscapes? What do you think they felt was relevant to their own artistic aims and interests?
**Other General Questions**
What do you notice about the artwork? What is emphasized or glossed over? What do you think the artist was trying to communicate through his picture? What visually suggests this
interpretation? How is this painting similar or different from other work(s) the class has looked at? What does it remind you of?
**Activities**
1. **The Story of the Sea**
Have students consider and look closely at both J.M.W. Turner’s *Life-Boat and Manby Apparatus Going off to a Stranded Vessel Making Signal (Blue Lights) of Distress* and his *St. Michael’s Mount, Cornwall*. Students should research the history of Captain George William Manby’s life-saving device, adopted in 1814, and that of St. Michael’s Mount, a medieval monastery on a tidal island in Cornwall. Have them select 1 of the pictures and write a 1-page description and analysis of what it represents.
For a further exercise, have students write a 5-page story based on the painting selected.
2. **Ode to a Location**
Around 1820, the area of Hampstead, England became a writer’s enclave, attracting some of Britain’s leading literary figures, including the essayist James Leigh Hunt and poets John Keats, Lord Byron, and Percy Bysshe Shelley.
The ode—a lyric poem in the form of an address to a particular subject, often elevated in style or manner and written in varied or irregular meter—was a favorite of many Romantic poets. Have students select and read an ode written by either John Keats (suggested: “Ode to Autumn”) or Percy Bysshe Shelley (“The Cloud”). There are many other odes to choose from. Students should analyze the poem. Then, they can be asked to create their own 1-page ode addressed to a place, a season, or an aspect of nature.
3. **The Mind of an Inventor**
Spurred by a devastating shipwreck he witnessed in which 214 people died, Captain George William Manby invented a maritime life-saving device. Known as the Manby apparatus, it consisted of a mortar-fired rope attached from the shore to the distressed ship. Officially adopted in 1814, the apparatus was used by the waterguard and HM Coastguard for many years. By the time of Manby’s death in 1854, it was estimated that 1,000 people had been rescued from stranded ships using the device. Manby also invented the portable fire extinguisher.
Exercise: Have students select, research, and write a 3-to-5-page paper about a 19th-century inventor.
Alternatively, have students (individually or in pairs) come up with their own invention. They need to give it a name, design, and describe what it would look like and what materials it would be made of, and list what its capabilities are/why it is needed.
4. **What Home Means**
John Constable’s *The Hay Wain* and *The Leaping Horse* depict the countryside around the artist’s boyhood home in East Bergholt, England. While the artistic style of these ambitiously large landscape paintings was deemed progressive in its sketchiness, the subject is nonetheless represented nostalgically as idyllic and timeless, devoid of signs of encroaching industrialization. Have students analyze how Constable’s pictures fit into and helped spur British interest in a homegrown genre of landscape painting, which rejected both the themes of elevated history painting and the “grand tour” scenes of Europe: Italy, Greece, the Alps, etc., that had typified British art (and collecting practices) of the previous century. Historical research topics should include an examination of increased British nationalism resulting from the wars with France, as well as the effects of industrialization and urbanization in England from the late 18th century through the late 19th century. This project can manifest as a class discussion or a written paper. | <urn:uuid:9d74d942-a227-45b3-a2c6-fd9f1ff22760> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://blvrd.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Boulevard-Victoria-and-Albert-Museum-Grades-6-12.pdf | 2018-07-17T15:38:41Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00436.warc.gz | 56,573,051 | 1,617 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997328 | eng_Latn | 0.997479 | [
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Life on the farm in 1896 was for the most part enjoyable and fruitful. Steam-powered tractors and threshers increased production and changed the face of agriculture across the country. One out of every three jobs in Utah was agriculture-related and the state's growing economy reflected agriculture's presence.
Farming continued to be the predominant way of life during Utah's first year of statehood as 62 percent of the population was rural. By 1896 the inhospitable soil encountered by the Mormon pioneers five decades earlier was well irrigated and made to blossom.
The values learned from nurturing life-giving crops from the stubborn soil remain in many Utahns today.
**A Slice of Utah History**
In 1896 Utah's population stood at 276,000. The average-sized family was five. There were 19,000 farms (13,000 in 1996). Most people owned their farm, and most farms were no larger than 50 acres in size (850 acres in 1996). Agriculture was the state's largest employer at 34 percent of total jobs.
The chief crops in 1896 were: oats selling for 39 cents a bushel (compared with $2.64/bushel in spring 1996); barley sold for 42 cents a bushel ($3.84 in spring 1996); and, wheat sold for 68 cents a bushel ($5.57 in spring 1996). Hay and grass were also important crops for Utah's livestock industry (see pages 5-23 for more crop and price comparisons).
**Commercialization**
Utah farmers changed the types of crops they grew during the years leading to statehood. Instead of focusing on self-sufficiency -- merely raising crops for family use -- farmers began raising crops for commercial markets. Farmers were seeking the better life offered by commercial enterprise.
Change was apparent in the products that were raised as it was natural and normal for Utah farmers to become involved in the expanding agricultural movements of the area and move on to become a part of our nation's great agricultural economy.
Utah farm life at the turn of the century is described in this diary recorded by Henry Lyman Marble III of Box Elder county.
**My Story**
By: Henry Lyman Marble III
"I learned to ride horses and to bring the cows home at night to be milked and take them back to the pasture in the morning. I learned to drive horses and to take care of them, even to nail shoes on their feet. At the age of eight years I drove six head of horses on a gang plow. I harnessed them, hooked them up and plowed all day down in the bend by the river about a mile from home. I also helped with milking cows and fixing machinery."
The industrial revolution produced steam-powered threshers and tractors that helped increase production and moved agriculture throughout the United States into the 20th century. In Utah a few wealthier families owned such equipment and either shared or leased the machines to their neighbors.
Population growth, improved irrigation and well drilling, and dry farming techniques helped increase the number of acres farmed in Utah threefold, from 1.3 million acres to 4.1 million acres (today Utahns farm 11 million acres).
Ranching in Utah also grew in productivity during the years leading to statehood. The number of sheep increased from 230,000 in 1880 to about four million by 1896. The number of cattle increased from 91,000 in 1880 to more than 300,000 by 1896.
Utah livestock brands. By 1896 cattle and sheep owners were moving away from using their initials as brands. Instead they began using the more traditional insignia brands. The brands above were recorded in July of 1896.
The Utah Department of Agriculture (UDA) traces its roots to the year of statehood when the 1896 Legislature formed the State Board of Horticulture. The board was responsible for organizing and promoting agriculture in the state and reporting the industry's progress to the governor.
The following are excerpts from the first report of the State Board of Horticulture submitted to Gov. Heber M. Wells in 1896.
"Sir:--I hereby submit to you my first annual report as President of the State Board of Horticulture under the provisions of the Horticultural Law, approved April 5th, 1896.
"Because of the decision in one of the lower courts of Utah Territory holding the former spraying law unconstitutional, and on account of the late date of the passage of the present law, few of the farmers in the State were prepared to properly comply with the provisions of the new law. The situation was still further complicated by delayed action upon the part of various Boards of County Commissioners in the matter of appointing county Inspectors as provided by the law. On account of these delays, the work of orchard disinfection was begun fully four weeks late than advisable and after numerous insects had grown beyond the effect of insecticides used. To further detract from the efficacy of the work, the frequent rains during the earlier spraying season rendered the work very difficult. Again, the unusual and disastrous windstorm of September 18th, 1896, destroyed practically all the Winter apples and pears, and made it impossible to estimate the real result of the year's work in ridding the fruit of insect pests.
"The insects and diseases known to exist in Utah at present are properly divided into three classes:
1st. Leaf eating or gnawing insects, such as the codlin moth or apple worm; the tent caterpillar; the canker worm; the pear slug; the cut worms and the various borers.
2nd. The suctorial, or sap sucking insects, such as the woolly aphis and the various species of green aphis which attack nearly every class of fruit and shade trees.
3rd. The fungus disease in its various forms of mildew, must, apple scab, pear blight and leaf spot.
"For each of these pests and diseases most effective insecticides and fungicides have been recommended and where properly used, have done much toward extermination of the pests."
Even before 1896, Utahns recognized the value of an organized agriculture program. The Deseret Agricultural and Manufacturing Society was formed to promote agriculture. The Society sponsored numerous territorial fairs before the first Utah State Fair took place in 1896.
Utah's pioneers planted the state's first crops in July of 1847. Even before their thoughts turned to building houses and stores, they turned a few dozen acres of fertile soil in what is now downtown Salt Lake City into Utah's first agricultural area. The seeds used to plant those potatoes, beans, corn, oats and buckwheat were carried with the pioneers on their overland trek to Utah.
Above: An earlyday parade float displays an agriculture theme. Left: Harvest time in the field. Family and friends turn out to bundle wheat stocks in this early 20th century picture. Below: Milking time. Children as well as adults bring their raw milk in for processing at this creamery.
Livestock also played an important roll in Utah agriculture history. Captain Howard Stansbury reported that in the area west of the Jordan River, a hardy grass called "bunch-grass" grew in sufficient quantity to afford "excellent pasture to numerous head of cattle."
In the years leading to statehood the number of Utah farm towns increased to 400. Streams and creeks along the Wasatch mountains and in high country plateaus were diverted for irrigation, giving Utah geography a north-south axis that contrasted to the east-west thrust of the nation.
Utah Department of Agriculture
In 1921 the Utah Legislature created the Department of Agriculture, consolidating the State Board of Horticulture and other agencies established years earlier to promote Utah agriculture.
The responsibility of the Department of Agriculture is to assist the private sector of our economy engaged in the production, processing, distribution, and marketing of agricultural products and to insure the consumer of high-quality and wholesome food products.
Century Farms & Ranches
The Utah Centennial Commission in 1996 set out to recognize and honor the many family farms in Utah that have endured for 100 years or more. Within weeks of the first public notice of the project hundreds of landowners responded with applications and phone calls to project cosponsors, the Utah Department of Agriculture and the Utah Farm Bureau Federation. A total of 433 family farms were identified as being 100 years old or older.
Landowners were to be honored with a special certificate and permanent sign to be erected on the property designating it a "Century Farm". The Centennial Commission also was to recognize each Century Farm landowner during a special awards ceremony at the 1996 State Fair.
The Century Farms & Ranches program will continue beyond the Centennial year. Landowners are encouraged to contact the Utah Department of Agriculture or the Utah Farm Bureau for information.
Summary
In 1896 Utah farms and ranches were expanding in number and size. The volume of acres farmed in Utah swelled to more than four million as farmers adjusted to new markets and opportunities.
Today Utah farmers and ranchers, and their counterparts across the country, face the challenge of survival as urban sprawl threatens their industry.
Meeting the Challenge
The Utah Department of Agriculture is meeting the challenge of urban sprawl in a number of ways:
Commissioner Peterson lead the community dialogue on preserving open space by working with farmers/ranchers and community leaders to find ways to protect vital farmland.
Governor Mike Leavitt along with the UDA planned and communicated open space values during an unprecedented Growth Summit. Later the Governor picked Commissioner Peterson to join his Open Lands Committee.
The UDA helped draft legislation to help local planning departments identify prime agricultural land as Utah communities cope with growth.
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I understand that these are to be Bible studies, and not sermons. I shall ask you to join with me in the study, in the reading, and hope you will have Bibles at hand, and will be present to read at any time any scripture that may be called for, and if so, we may enter into the work not as preachers, but as those who are to study simply under a leader.
I have been asked to lead in the study upon the person of Christ. I have been much embarrassed to know how to deal with this subject in the brief time that is necessarily allotted to the field. It can at best be only suggestive, but I would like to say this at the start, that my purpose in my own study of this theme and in anything I may present, will not be to present a theory about the person of Christ, but to come to a knowledge of him, to learn how we shall deal with him, and to see how this viewpoint will effect our study of the Bible and our teaching and preaching of the Bible. I ask that you will bear that in mind, that this viewpoint may have a very decided bearing upon the question of our own personal study of the Bible, and then necessarily upon our method of presenting the gospel. I ask you to bear that in mind.
Revelation 14:6: gives the foundation of this message.
Reading from the Revised Version:
"And I saw another angel flying in mid-heaven, having eternal good tidings to proclaim unto them that dwell on the earth, and unto every nation and tribe and tongue and people."
What follows is a development of the everlasting gospel and what conditions are created by the everlasting gospel, both for and against it, the fall of Babylon, the people who keep the commandments of God. But what I want to emphasize is that the message that we are to proclaim is the everlasting gospel.
Romans 1:1, 3, omitting, I think, the second verse.
"Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, separated unto the gospel of God . . . concerning his Son, who was born of the seed of David according to the flesh."
A definition, as it were, of the gospel. "The gospel of God concerning his son. We have other definitions of the gospel — "The power of God unto salvation to everyone that believeth"— but that grows out of this. This I take to be a fundamental statement. The gospel is the good news concerning his son, and our experience in the gospel depends upon our personal attitude toward his son. That is the primary thing. Out of that will come all doctrines, all experiences, but primarily the gospel is the good news to this world concerning his son. Our acceptance of the gospel is our acceptance of that good news, and that means actually the acceptance of the person of the one this good news speaks. But I want to emphasize those things. The everlasting gospel is this message. The same gospel as of old, the gospel is the gospel concerning his son. Now let us read another scripture, 1 Cor. 15:1-4 (R.V.)
Now what is the primary thing, a thing that he received and that he delivered to them first of all? It was facts concerning the person of Christ. The death of Christ, the fact that he was buried and knew he was dead. The fact that he was raised from the dead. Christ died and rose from the dead. That is what he delivered to them first. That is fundamental in the gospel, and in his letter to the Galatians in the fifth chapter. You remember the purpose of this epistle. He came and set forth Christ openly crucified among them. Some one else came and wished to add on something to that gospel, and their message was Christ and. That was the message from Jerusalem too, from the leaders. Paul withstood that message because he said it was contrary to the truth of the gospel. He even withstood Peter to his face because he went not according to the truth of the gospel of the son of God. Now summing up at the end, fifth chapter, second verse:
"Behold, I Paul say unto you, that, if ye receive circumcision, Christ will profit you nothing."
Now when he came to sum up the situation in these chapters, what was it? It was a question whether they had Christ or whether he profited them nothing. Whether they were in fellowship with Christ or severed from Christ. If they submitted to this new gospel of Christ and, they were severed from Christ, and that is the end of the gospel when they are severed from that person.
I wanted this as introductory to the subject. I feel that this subject is fundamental, and I believe it should have a very
definite influence upon our personal study of the scriptures and upon our writing, preaching, teaching, and that it should have a very definite bearing upon the influence of our courses of Bible study in our schools.
Now let us consider this question of Christ in the gospel as a part of a larger field. Personally I have found great help in looking at it in this way. I look at it this way: Here is this period of sin. We will say it is represented for us by It this ruler. Then comes in between two eternities. During this period, no new principles of the character of God are introduced, nothing new concerning the character, the purpose of God, are introduced. The same principles that belong in this eternity and that will be true in this eternity are true in this limited portion of time. It is simply a question of the application of those principles to peculiar circumstances during this time. That is what constituted the application of the good news concerning the son of God. During a part of this he himself was manifested in time. The most remarkable mystery of the gospel, that he who is from eternity to eternity should actually be manifested in time, so that finite creatures could deal with him as manifested in time out of those double eternities.
Let us read in the epistle of Colossians. It is upon this foundation that the Apostle places his gospel of salvation.
Col. 1:13: "Giving thanks unto the Father, who made us meet to be partakers of the inheritance of the saints in light; who delivered us out of the power of darkness, and translated us into the kingdom of the Son of his love." Note that he uses the word
Son here, not the kingdom of Christ nor the kingdom of God. This particular expression has its force here, as the use of the word Son in Romans, as we read, "The gospel of God concerning his Son." Not Jesus Christ, but his Son. "Were translated out of the power of darkness into the kingdom of the Son of his love. In whom"— observe the expression—"we have our redemption." That is sufficient. That covers it all. And that redemption we have in him has a distinction from a doctrine about him. That redemption is in him. "In whom we have our redemption, the forgiveness of our sins." "Who is the image of the invisible God, the first born of all creation". For in him were all things created, in the heavens and upon the earth, things visible and things invisible, whether thrones or dominions or principalities or powers; all things have been created through him, and unto him." (Revised Version, Col 1:15-17)
"In him." The distinction is worthy of careful attention. "In him." "Through him," "unto him," all things are created.
Seventeenth verse: "And he is before all things, and in him all things consist," or subsist, or hold together, or maintain their existence. In the 17th verse the expression is "before all things." This is more than an expression of time. It is an expression of time, but it is much more than that. Time grows out of the other. In the person of his Son, all things have their existence and upon his pre-existence the existence of all visible things depend. We have the expression in the third of Revelation, "The beginning of the Creation of God. Some have used that text to prove that Christ was a created being,
trying to parry the force of the text by saying we should say beginning. No, "He is before all things." There would be no visible things except for his pre-existence, and when the only-begotten came into the world, all manifestations that have appeared since that time were potentially in him.
And all visible things are but the manifestation to finite beings capable of being comprehended by the senses granted to created beings, or what was really in Him before He appeared in these visible forms. In Him all things hold together, subsist, have their existence. That is, His pre-existence is the existence of all things that now exist, that are visible to us. His continued existence is the condition upon which all present things continue to exist.
Now, why is that of any importance to us? That is the very foundation upon which he rested the statement. The existence of all things that now exist in material forms,—things visible and things invisible,—are based upon the pre-existence of Christ. The Son existed before all these things existed in time, and as an absolute essential condition of their existence. Why should we emphasize that? That is what He lays down here as the foundation of His gospel. That is why in Him we have redemption, for in Him this is true.
First "in Him," then "through Him," then "unto Him": "Through Him": He was the agent through Whom all things came into being. "All things were made by Him, and without Him was not anything made that was made." That is the very foundation of our hope of the gospel, of salvation.
"Unto Him": As "in Him," "through Him," so "unto Him." All things return unto Him, and you have, as it were, the circle in creation. It is the very same as we have it in the whole Bible, because when you have gone through the whole Scripture to the 22nd chapter of Revelation, you come back to the first chapter of Genesis, when and you have gone the circle of creation, you come back to the beginning. He is the beginning and the ending. We read in the first
chapter of John's gospel, "In the beginning the Word was." There is a great difference in the way you read that. We have to have the beginning of things. To us, there is a beginning; but when you strike that which to us was the beginning, you can look back and say the word was, with no time limit at all. It is because the Word was at that time that we call the beginning, that the beginning came, and that all things have come since the beginning, and that all things are now in our period of existence that we measure by time as finite beings must do.
It is because He was at that time that we call the beginning that we can rest our confidence upon Him as our Saviour, and upon no other basis. Therefore, in writing to the Colossians, where this error of gnosticism was creeping in,—a false interpretation of the question of creation,—that He pointed out to them that the foundation of the gospel rested there, and that a perversion of that was a perversion of the gospel.
We face the same thing today. It has been true all the time, that any error concerning the literal creation of the world leads to an error concerning the gospel. That is the basis of gnosticism,—new ideas concerning the relation of the Son of God to creation. And therefore He points out in this chapter that the Son of God is not a created being.
He does not use the term gnosticism, but he is meeting that error. We have the same situation today,—that is, such theories concerning the relation of God to material things; and we need to come back to this very same truth, that an error concerning creation is a certain error concerning the gospel; and for
this reason this period of time during which sin appears in the world is not a separate period to be taken apart from the two eternities, but must be considered in the light of those eternities, and the principles that applied before this period must be applied here, and the principles that applied before will be applied to all eternity.
Therefore, I regard this question of the person of Christ as fundamental to the whole question of the truth of the gospel, and notably so now in the situation that we face and the crisis that we have to deal with.
Not dwelling upon that further, but turning now to Luke 19:10: "The Son of man is come to seek and to save that which was lost." Here is a period of time during which a special work is done. Something has been lost. That which was lost is to be regained, and for that purpose the Son of man—notice the term—comes "to seek and to save that which was lost." Now we have in some places, as in 1 John 3:8, "For this purpose the Son of God was manifested." Now it is the "Son of man," and there is a difference in the use of the term. "The Son of man is come to seek and to save that which was lost."
Now refer to Eph. 1:9, 10. We have to break into this sentence: "Making known unto us the mystery of his will, according to his good pleasure which he purposed in him unto a dispensation of the fulness of the times, to sum up all things in Christ, the things in the heavens, and the things upon the earth;" now, if you will read this epistle to the Ephesians right through, and just note the number of times this expression occurs,—"In Christ,"
"in Him," "in Whom,"—you will find this whole epistle to be an exposition of the third verse: "Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath blessed us with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places in Christ."
The point I want to especially emphasize is the 10th verse. The expression used here is "to sum up all things in Christ." You have the Greek Testament, Brother Howell, and you see that that word means "to head up." We take the Latin word capit, which means head, and we put it into the verb, and we say "recapitulate" when we mean to sum up the whole argument. That does not exactly bring out the idea. If we could use the word to re-head all things in Christ, it would express the idea.
The first Adam was placed as the head of creation, the vice-gerent of God. He was crowned as king, crowned with glory and honor. He lost that place; but the purpose of God that a man shall be the head of this world in creation is not set aside at all, but in order that that purpose shall be carried out, His own Son becomes the man, the second Adam; and now it is His purpose to re-head all things in Christ, the person.
Our relation to Him, as to whether we acknowledge Him as the new head or whether we accept Him the god of this world who has obtained the headship, is wholly a question of our personal experience. It is not a question of assenting to some doctrines or some creed. Here is God's eternal purpose. Our relation to that eternal purpose as He is working it out in the person of His Son, is the whole question of our religion. If we acknowledge Christ to be the new head, and therefore accept Him as our head,
and accept the Scriptures statement, "Christ is the head of every man," that gives Him His place in this scheme. To do that means absolute surrender of self, absolute denial of the god of this world, absolute rejection of all the principles of the kingdom of this world, and a practical adoption in the life of the principles of the kingdom of which He is the head. That is religion. That means a very definite personal experience in this question of relation to God's eternal purpose.
Passing on now, turn to Acts 10:36. When Peter is preaching for the first time to the Gentiles, what does he set forth? This is the first going out of the gospel to the Gentiles, also to Cornelius. Verse 36: "The word which he sent unto the children of Israel, preaching good tidings of peace by Jesus Christ (he is Lord of all)---" Note the double force of that statement: First, his lordship; second, the extent of his lordship. Peter is preaching to the Gentiles. It is a question as to whether the gospel is to go to the Gentiles. Christ is the new head, but not of the Jews only,—He is Lord of all. That is the gospel, that is the good news.
2 Cor. 4:5: Here we have a little touch that I like in the Revised version. "For we preach not ourselves, but Christ Jesus the Lord"—who, who is Lord of all." We preach not ourselves, but Christ Jesus is Lord.
Now there are various phases of preaching Christ. This one is fundamental. This is the foundation truth. He is Lord of all. To submit to his rule is to be a Christian. To refuse his rule is to belong to the synagogue of Satan. There are two camps, just as real as in any war here upon earth. We are to view these things not as theoretical theories, but as actual facts in which we act a part; and that is what will settle the whole question of our personal experience. "We preach not ourselves, but Christ Jesus is Lord."
Phil. 2: --This brings us to the triumphs. In the early part of the chapter, after he has spoken of Christ having taken the flesh, humanity,—9th to 11th verses. "Wherefore"—because he became obedient even unto death, even the death on the cross, "wherefore God also hath highly exalted him, and given him the name which is above every name; that at the name of Jesus"—why Jesus rather than Christ? Why in the name of Jesus? It is not now in the name of Christ, in the name of the Son. It is in the name of Jesus Christ—Why? He has just told of his humility, being made in the likeness of man. Now the same one who was made in the likeness of man, the same One that thought it not a prize to be grasped to remain on equality with God, who emptied himself and took upon himself the form of a servant—that is Jesus; that in the name of that very person, Jesus, "every knee should bow...and every tongue
confess" that Jesus the Christ, "Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father."
Now from these simple Scriptures that I have read we see the field that I am leading to. The everlasting gospel, the gospel of God concerning his Son. His purpose is to reconcile all things in Christ, because in him all things are created. Now we must bear in mind that until he came into the world in this form there was not that distinction which we make between nature and grace, between natural and spiritual. It is sin that has brought that distinction to us. Before that all things were spiritual. All things were natural, but all things were spiritual, and there was not that distinction to be drawn between nature and grace, between natural and spiritual. Sin brought in that gap, that distinction. Now we have to recognize that distinction. Now he proposes to reconcile all things in Christ, and when that purpose is accomplished all things will be spiritual. All things will be natural, too, but they will be spiritual. There will not be that distinction to draw between them.
Now it is his purpose that the Son shall be the head; that he shall be Lord, and it shall be to the glory of God the Father. The question of our religion is not the question of our defending a creed; it is not a question of our proving that we teach doctrines in harmony with this book. Religion is a question of personal relation to a person. Out of that all doctrines will come. Upon that we have a living creed, and a living creed is always quivering — you cannot put it into a mold. A living creed means growth, advancement.
constantly. And when one grows he does not nullify what he was born with. Because a boy increases in weight, he does not spoil what he has grown before. So with a person who grows in the Christian life — he does not repudiate the growth already made, but he will be more than he was before of the same kind, and not contradict himself. The new growth created will not contradict itself, will not set aside fundamental things and get a new foundation. It will be a growth, it will be a life. The problem, of course, is how shall we deal with this question from this standpoint. This will govern the whole question of our personal study, of our teaching, of our writing, of our preaching — just how we relate ourselves to these simple facts that I have stated will determine whether we view things from the standpoint of doctrine, the standpoint of certain subjects that make up the gospel, or whether we view it from this one standpoint, the person of Christ and our relation to that person; and that out of that all doctrines shall be developed, and upon that all teachings shall be based. Now we will try to develop the same and more as we proceed.
Now let me call attention to another simple Scripture so familiar — John 14:8. This is the answer of Jesus. "Thomas saith unto him, Lord, we know not whither thou goest; and how know we the way? Jesus saith unto him, I " —I "am the way, the truth, and the life." That is, the way is not a path apart from a person. The person is the way. Through him we have access to one spirit unto the Father, and He is our only way to God. He was the only way out for God. If we can conceive this idea: When God the Father went forth he went
forth in the person of his Son. He himself is the way, and there is no other way back to God than by the way He manifested himself. He is the way. "I am the truth." Truth is more than a statement of fact. If I say, "I release my hand upon this ruler and it drops upon the table," that is a fact. That statement is true. That is not truth as spoken of in the Scriptures. That is not truth as it is in Jesus, because truth is a living reality. The law was given by Moses, but grace and reality came through Jesus Christ. Truth is a personality. All truth is in Him, and apart from Him all is false. That is the difference between semblance and reality. Sin is a semblance. Satan is a semblance, an appearance, a sham. Christ is reality. That is the contrast. It is in the person and what goes out from this person. To apprehend Christ as the person of truth, the reality, not a sham, not a mere appearance, not a shell that when one takes hold of it it will break and be found empty; but in him as a person is found all that is real.
Now it immediately follows from this that any one who pretends to have any truth outside of Christ is caught in a lie. That is the basis of all heathenism. They exchange the truth of God for a lie. If you look at that text in Romans — you look at it, Brother Howell. Romans 1:25 is the philosophy of all heathenism, whether in China or in the United States. You look, Brother Howell, and see if you do not find the definite article ————(Greek word mentioned)
(Professor Howell: Yes.) Now, instead of "they changed the truth of God into a lie," they "changed the truth of God
into the lie." What is the lie? 3 Thess. 2: After setting forth this description of the man of sin who sets himself up above all that is called God, or that is worshipped, so that he as God sitteth in the temple of God, shewing himself that he is God, Then what? — Ninth and tenth verses: "Whose coming is after the working of Satan with all power and signs and lying wonders, and with all deceivableness of unrighteousness in them that perish; because they received not the love of the truth, that they might be saved. And for this cause God sendeth them a working of error that they should believe the lie." Isn't it --Answer, Yes Sir. What is the lie? It is putting something else in the place of God. The lie that has caught the world is described here as the man who sets himself forth as God. That is the lie. What is the truth? That Christ is God. Here we face the message against the beast and his image. What is the lie? — Some one else in the place of the manifestation of God according to Christ. What is the truth? Christ in the manifestation of God. Does not that attach something else to our message against the beast and his image? We are not to magnify the lie, but we are to magnify Him who is the truth; and that will be the answer to the lie. All lies or falsehoods are summed up there. Isaiah says the one that has the mark of the image in his right hand is a lie. He is the truth. We are to magnify Him, the person, as the truth. And then we are to reveal the truth in our life. It is not sufficient to know what is truth. The truth is to be revealed in our lives. The truth is that Christ is Lord of all —Lord of me. That is the truth. That truth must be revealed in my life before that person can be revealed in my life; and the only way that that truth can be revealed in my life is that the
person who is the truth shall be there himself and reveal it. "I am the way, the truth, the life." The person is Christ. Amen.
Intermission
Elder M. C. Wilcox's paper followed.
Then C.P. Bollman.
PRINCIPLES OF PROPHETIC INTERPRETATION
by
M. C. Wilcox
Principles are greater than facts. They are to the student of the Holy Scriptures what the "blue print" is to the builder. The "blue print" enables the builder to place the many parts—often puzzling, individually and collectively considered, many quite similar—just where they belong in the finished structure. One timber is ten feet two and one-eighth inches long; another ten feet two and five-eighths inches long. Otherwise their dimensions are the same. The difference is the mere matter of half an inch, but in accurate measurement in a perfect structure, the little difference is vital. The blue print shows the place of each and both. We might crowd, hammer, and bolt them in out of place, but the frame is warped, its perfection marred, and the structure is inharmonious. The builder himself deteriorates in character by doing such faulty work. The following of the accurate measurements of the "blue print" would have saved him the fatal blunder.
There are many facts of Scripture which do not place themselves. Left to mere human conjecture, unguided by true principles of interpretation, men are liable to go astray in the placing of the fact. The fact is helpful in its own place. It is embarrassing if out of place, and its wrong application blinds the judgment and obscures the vision of him who so errs.
I will not attempt to enumerate all the great principles of interpretation. The task would be too great, and we would not have time to consider them. Those which follow will perhaps be sufficient.
to illustrate at least the importance of the blue print in the study of doctrinal questions.
1. The Unity of the Word
The sixtysix books, or tracts, as they have been called, are one book and have one author. They were given, it is true, through two score channels--more or less—and these books are stamped with the individual characteristics of the respective writers, but the author is divine. It was the eternal Word by the Spirit moving upon the men who wrote. These books are written in the words used by Moses, Samuel, Nathan, Joel, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Matthew, John, Paul, and the others; nevertheless the collection of these books are "the Word of Jehovah," "the Scriptures of Truth," "the Holy Scriptures." "The Spirit of Jehovah spake by me," said David, "and his word was upon my tongue." 2Sam.23:2. "Which things also we speak, not in words which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Spirit teacheth," says Paul. 1Cor.2:13. "Which the Holy Spirit spake before by the mouth of David concerning Jesus," says Peter. Acts 1:16. See also 1Peter,1:11, 2 Peter 2:21; 2 Tim. 3:16, et al. It is not the opinion of Moses or Isaiah or Jeremiah or Paul or Peter, or what these men think; it is the word of God.
It is the great Master Musician using all the various instruments on which to give to the world the harmonies of God. It may be a Jews' harp, a trombone, an organ, a piano; the music is that of the Master Musician speaking through the various instruments; or, to use another figure, the Master Architect building the temple of divine revelation by the different builders.
2. One Teaching
The Bible is one doctrine, one teaching, with its correlated parts. Sometimes we make these parts stand out as almost separate and unrelated doctrines, but they are all one and are ever known as one doctrine, or better, perhaps, as one teaching of God. "Doctrines"—plural—is left to error. Jehovah is one, "the same yesterday, and today, and forever," one omniscient, omnipresent, all-wise God of love and justice and mercy. He has one moral standard of righteousness, of character. The Bible knows but one all-sufficient Sacrifice and Saviour. The great divine plan binds together with the crimson and golden cords of truth and love the whole structure of His Word. It is divine and human even as its Giver, Christ Jesus is divine and human.
3. The Law of First Mention
By this we mean that the first mention of any great or important fact, event, or teaching carries that primary meaning throughout the Word. This must be in order to preserve the divine unity. The rule of the builder must be the same throughout. Elsewise we are left to conjecture and guess work. To illustrate: (a) "In the beginning," that unmeasured period antedating the six days of Genesis, gives the meaning to that expression in all subsequent passages, as in Prov. 8:22,23; John 1:1. (b) The sanctification of the seventh day, the origin of the Sabbath. Gen. 2:2,3. (c) The marriage relation. Gen. 2:18-24; Matt. 19:3-8. (d) The creation of man, the serpent, the fall of man, the Deluge, are a few other instances of what holds good throughout the Bible. The first mention expresses the divine thought not alone for that passage, but for the future.
4. The Law of Comparative Mention
The first mention, while revealing the principle of terminology in unity, does not always express the full meaning. This can be learned only by comparing all the passages upon the subject. The primal meaning is not changed, but modified, developed, as the Sabbath question, and the fall of man, for instance. To base all upon one mention only might lead us into extreme position.
5. The Law of Full Mention
The first mention of a fact or event or phase of truth is not always, or perhaps generally, a full mention, especially as so many of the first mentions are found in the marvelously condensed book of Genesis. But somewhere in the Word the thing is more fully developed, as for instance, the Seed of Gen.3:15, more fully developed in Galatians 3. Yet in the fuller development the primal thought holds.
6. The Law of Illustrative Mention
Oftentimes the great thought or phrase of truth is illustrated, as in the parable of the sower, the wheat and the tares, (Matt.13), the Good Shepherd (John 10).
7. The Word Paramount
The Word of God must be always paramount. Whatever devout men may hold, or have held, whatever may be the views of politicians, statesmen, or philosophers, however reasonable or plausible the views or opinions of these men may be, the Word of God is, and must be, paramount, although its verification or fulfilment may seem to human reason far away or humanly improbable. Depending upon the sayings or reasonings of men for the elucidation or fulfilment of
the Word, there is danger of making men paramount, or of narrowing and crystallizing the meaning of the expanding truth of God. It has been well said by a recent writer: "It is better to keep within the Bible itself for the settlement of its problems; and to treat the whole Book as the context of all its parts."
--"Companion Bible," Note at Beginning of Book of Job. The center and circumference of that word is Christ, the Alpha and Omega, a personal Saviour, Friend, and Guide.
8. Revealed, Not Reasoned Out.
Prophecy is given to the children of men that they may know what no human knowledge, reasonings, or teachings can tell them, of what shall come to pass hereafter.
There are many guesses made by the world, many political forecasts made of coming events. Some of them, read in the light of the lesson of causes and effects, in past history are in a general way remarkably correct, but nearly all fall wide of the mark and fail in the crucial test. The things predicted of God are usually the things which the heart of the world does not desire, nor its wisdom expect. And therefore, as expressed by the historian, John Clark Ridpath: "The tallest son of the morning can not tell a day before they take place, the events that occur." If men could know of themselves, we would not need the "more sure word of prophecy, which shineth as a light in a dark place, until the day dawn," and the day star arise in the hearts of the children of God.
Had the world known what God found it necessary to predict, they would not have crucified the Lord's Christ, persecuted His followers, nor ever have united church and state.
9. Aid of the Spirit
The same Spirit that inspires the Word is essential also to the understanding and interpretation of the revelation. Apart from the enlightenment of that Spirit, the wisest of men flounder in human conjectures and uncertainties. It is to definite prophecy, aided by the Spirit, not to the world, we must look for light. But note this, the Spirit does not lead us contrary to the Word. See 1 Cor. 2:6-15.
10. Not of Private Interpretation
It is a declaration of inspiration that "No prophecy of the Scripture is of any private interpretation." 2 Peter 1:21. Here are other renderings: "No prophecy of the Scripture becometh self-solving."—Rotherham. "No prophecy is an exposition of its own text."—Syriac. "No prophecy of the Scripture is of special interpretation."—A.R.V., Murrin. "No prophecy of the Scripture comes of one's own interpretation."—Baptist Version.
In other words, the same general principles must guide in all prophetic interpretation. In all great prophecies there are found symbols, descriptions, inspired explanations, and terms which will aid in the right understanding of each prophecy. Parallel descriptions and terminology should be given proper weight. Right interpretations and expositions are not inconsistent and contradictory. They do not devour each other. The one Spirit guides them all.
Under this head may be mentioned "Arbitrary Interpretation," a curse of the ages, which we unsparingly condemn in others, and justly so. When we are told that "the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God," we believe it to be utterly unjustifiable to say that the Word means a seventh day, or any seventh day, after six of labor. In other words, the Bible must be allowed to
explain itself. If prophetic, wait for the fulfilment of its predictions instead of looking for some prophecy to fulfil a certain event in our field of vision, but which in God's plan and purpose is of little import. Let us see things little which God sees little and things great which He sees great. 1 Cor. 1:18-11. Conditional
Some prophecies are conditional. These conditions, noted in different places, are clearly stated in Jer. 18:7-10. If a nation or people complies with God's terms, there is blessing, healing, and building. If the nation or people fail, the curse, the decay, the blasting, the destruction follow. Ignoring conditional prophecy, many are led astray regarding the future of the Hebrews, or Jews. Giving heed to the principle, one will be saved from shipwreck. Our boat will be kept clear from the rocks which have wrecked others, and toward which many are drifting today.
The prophecies to Israel may be summed up under three heads, as stated many years ago by Elder J.H. Waggoner:
(a) The prophecy is conditional, based on Israel's obedience to God.
(b) Some of the prophecies regarding the Jews were fulfilled in the restoration from the Babylonian captivity.
(c) Those yet to be fulfilled will be and must be fulfilled under new covenant conditions, since our Lord came. Consequently all unfilled prophecies which pertain to national Israel are conditional prophecies that can never be fulfilled to them as such. Heeding this will save us from great blunders.
12. Later Light
Some of the prophecies of the Old Testament seem to convey
the idea that Israelites (the Hebrews) are to be restored as a nation, and that in the last days they will be a separate people from the Gentiles, and that the Lord will use them for the salvation of the Gentiles in the last days. These erroneous views are based upon Old Testament prophecies alone. We will never read them aright until we read them in the light of the meaning of the origin of the name Israel, and the later revelations from God. Upon this we read: "How that by revelation was made known unto me the mystery...that in other generations was not made known unto the sons of men as it hath now been revealed unto us His holy apostles and prophets by the Spirit, to-wit: that the Gentiles are fellow-heirs and fellow-members of the body, and fellow-partakers of the promise in Christ Jesus through the Gospel." Eph. 3:3-6.
13. Nations and Persons
God's judgments on nations and individuals should not be confounded. A nation may and does close its career in God's plan, while the probation of individuals in that nation continues. When the chiefs of the Jewish nation rejected Jesus, and confirmed that rejection by saying, "We have no king but Caesar," the right of that nation to exist had ceased. But God was still calling every individual soul, as proved over and over again by the apostle Paul. So when this nation, or any other for that matter, turns from the light that God gives, and exalts itself in place of God, it passes its day of grace, and stands where God can care for it no longer. The destruction of nations in general comes under the plagues and at our Lord's advent. In the very nature of the case, there will be no individual nations in the resurrection of the unjust.
The judgment of persons will then occur. Let not the two be confounded.
14. Double Prophecy
Many of the prophecies of the Old Testament are double prophecies in which the local conditions of the prophet's time are so blended with greater future events that it is impossible to separate them, and we never can get a right understanding unless we recognize the fact that the prophecy is double. In other words, the foreground of the prophet blends with the larger and far future field, so that the objects seem as one. The nearer mountain seems one with the more distant peak or ridge. All blend in the far horizon. But if we were to climb the nearer mountains, we would find, perhaps, great valleys separating us from the higher elevations. The vision does not show the intervening valleys. The prophet sees the smaller, nearer mountain scenery blending with a far distant peak, making one mountain, seemingly, of the two. It is only by the aid of the Spirit of God that we can divide between the local and far-reaching prophecies. Sometimes we must wait for fulfilment.
15. Great Moral Principles
In every line of prophecy there are great moral principles of God's truth. If in the prophecy itself there is not that which gives convicting power to the message of God for the time, we may know that the interpretation is not of God. The true will lead to the great moral principles obligatory and permanent in the day of prophetic fulfilment. If these are minimized, the interpretation is wrong. These moral principles fall within the prophecy itself. Note these in the great lines of prophecy. To illustrate: In Daniel 2 and 3, we have the ambitions of men
set over against the revelation of truth, the kingdom of God and its holy principles set over against the principles of evil that tend only to decay and destruction. We have the deteriorating kingdom of men, and the everlasting kingdom of God. In Daniel 7 the principles and outworking of the union of church and state set over against the judgment of God, the law of God, and the people of God.
In Daniel 8 and 9 are the true Saviour and His mediatorship set over against the false man-made-saviours and their mediation which can not take away sin. There is a great moral principle embodied in every prophecy.
16 Evidence Cumulative
Every prophetic message goes prophetically forward to its climax, to the close of probation or the second coming of Christ. The evidence prophetical of its fulfilment is continually increasing. Not in worldly wisdom or evidence, but in prophetic fulfilment is this true. It does not bring those who believe in its true interpretation to constantly expect its fulfilment to meet human demands and as constantly repeated disappointment. The true prophetic interpretation is never disappointing, never anticlimatic, nor is it reactionary. It is ever cumulative in its evidence, cumulative in its convincing power, goes steadily onward consonant with other prophecies, and waxes clearer and stronger to its culmination. It does not foster fanaticism nor build on the insecure and inconsistent foundations of speculative, private interpretation or opinions of men. It builds the believer on the everlasting Rock.
17. **Willingness to Investigate**
He who follows truth is willing to be fair, willing that any theory or opinion that he has should be brought to the test of the Word. He believes that God's pathway of light shines with constantly greater effulgence to the eye of faith to the perfect day. But it is a characteristic of error to appeal to tradition, to endeavor to conserve God's truth (or what men may so denominate) by fencing it about with an appeal to human interpretation, "the fathers have spoken," and to characterize as heretics, not those who hold fast to the Word, but who do not hold equally sacred the opinions of men, some of whom, perhaps all of whom, were true to all the light that shone in their day. God's truth can not be fixed by mete and bound of human mind. He has ever greater light. Open the heart to its beams, tested by His Word, and follow the light which "shineth more and more unto the perfect day." See "Danger of Rejecting Light," in "Gospel Workers."
18. **Reasons for Prophetic Delineation**
Dynasties, empires, kingdoms, governments are brought into the prophetic field for three chief reasons.
(a) Because of some connection or relation with the people of God, so as to affect their welfares or work, as Midian, Moab, Edom, Philistia, etc.
(b) Because they are world-dominant, world-moulding powers, empires, systems which greatly affect other powers, and also the people of God, as Babylon, Medo-Persia, Grecia, Rome, the United States.
(c) Nations are brought into prophecy because God uses them as scourges to apostate peoples and churches, as Assyria, Egypt, and smaller powers in Palestine, and the Saracens and Turks in later times.
19. **Ending of Great Prophecies**
All the great prophecies end in the glorious triumph of Christ.
and His people, when to all worldly appearances and belief the triumph of error seems to be the triumph of truth. It demands faith, clear, strong faith to grasp the fulfilment despite appearances. To faith the evidence is clear and cumulative. But to the worldly view the triumph of worldly things is assured. The image of Daniel 2 is not the human view of the kingdom of men, but God's view. The image of Daniel 3 is man's view, a declaration of world-power still prevalent, viz., that the kingdom of man shall persist forever. Daniel 2 declares it will constantly change, and when it is world-embracing it will be struck by supernatural power and destroyed. Man will not expect that then, and no human reason could have marked out such a conclusion.
Never does a prophecy reverse this order by going from large to small, and imposing Christ's triumph on a sick and waning power. Rev.6:15
20. Types and Symbols Small
The types, the shadows, the symbols of the Old Testament, the beginnings of prophecy, are small, confined, limited, but typical, symbolical, of world-wide antitypes. To illustrate: The ancient sanctuary was a simple house having to do only with the nation of Israel, but it typified God's temple in heaven, "not made with hands," the center of all world-worship. Little Palestine, smaller than most of the States of this Union, was—is—a type of the oceanless new earth and home of all God's peoples. One wicked Jezebel becomes a type of the great apostacy of centuries; and Elijah, a single man, prophet to the little ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, becomes a type of those who bear to all nations of the world the last great threefold message of warning. Little Babylon, on the River Euphrates, becomes a type of the final organized kingdoms of darkness of the last days. The little king of the north becomes the type of a great overpowering confederacy.
21. World Dominion Not Territory
World-dominion, not territory, is the means of identification of world rule in the great prophetic chain of successive empires. Identical location is often involved, but it is not essential in identifying or determining earth rule. If it were, Rome would have no place today in the prophetic field as the successor of Babylon. To illustrate: Medo-Persia followed Babylon in world empire not because Cyrus, the conqueror of Babylon, placed his throne in Babylon or reigned in that city. As a matter of fact, the seat of his kingdom was elsewhere. Babylon was included in Persia, but the Persian empire included much more. Persia was the successor of Babylon because she was a world-dominant power.
Grecia succeeded Medo-Persia as a world-dominating power, but as a single united empire her seat of government was in Europe, far to the westward of Persia, at one time stretching to the east of Babylon, but afterward, especially in her divided state, abandoning virtually much of her eastern possessions. She succeeded Medo-Persia because she was world-dominant.
Rome succeeded Grecia, with her capital never in Asia. As a single united empire, she ruled over a greater territory than all her predecessors. Afterward, scourged by the Northern barbarians and weakened by wickedness and luxury, the empire was broken, the center of power and influence centering for awhile in Constantinople, and afterward among the ten divisions of Western Rome. Western Rome was the great power of prophecy. The City of Roma became the religio-political center of the world empire, and the dominant center of the Eastern hemisphere in Western Europe today. We call these divisions England, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, etc., but the prophecy knows them as the successive phase of the brass of Grecia, the horns of
the great and terrible beast of Daniel 7, and the great eastern world-powers of today. But, mark it well, these powers, though great and mighty, did not virtually and nominally control any extent of territory held by the old Grecian Empire. And yet they have been dominant over these, and their dominancy has been recognized. It is world-dominance, and not territory, that identifies Roman succession.
More than this, when a world power loses its world-dominance, or independence, it is dropped from the prophecy unless its connection with the people of God shall demand its continuance for a time. For instance, Daniel 11:1,2 notes only four kings in Persia, seemingly on the face of it, all that would reign. As a fact, nearly half a score more reigned before we come to the last King Darius Codomannus. The prophecy does not note them all. It is not dealing with men as Kings, but with world-dominion. The prophecy jumps from Xerxes, the rich king, B.C.485, to Alexander the Great in B.C.335, a distance of time of more than a century and a quarter. Why?—Because Persia reached her greatest power and extent under Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 521-486. Xerxes sought to enlarge his dominion by a conquering career in Europe, and ignominiously failed. Persia was no longer a dominant aggressive world-power. Her world-moulding influence had passed forever. The dominant world-power was rising in little Macedonia, and therefore Alexander, the world-conqueror, the one destined of God to give the world a language for the Gospel is next noticed. The remaining kings of Persia had little or no effect upon world conquest or human destiny. Therefore Alexander died in B.C. 323, and prophecy bridges to the quarto division of Alexander's empire, B.C. 301, twenty-two years later.
It again bridges centuries in passing over the remaining kings of Syria after Antiochus IV, B.C. 164, passing Egypt, passing the
Roman Republic, to Roman persecution under the Papacy, of which Antiochus (IV) Epiphanes was a type, and rushes on to the last days, when world apostacy shall stand up against the Prince of princes, to be overthrown, when that Prince of Life, "Michael, shall stand up."
The above principles will, I hope, lead us to the development and outlines of others. If by these brief suggestive statements, I have contributed toward this end, I shall be glad.
This presentation of the subject of the ten kingdoms is something which I undertake reluctantly, especially before so many of my brethren, every one of whom is probably just as familiar with the subject as I am, and a number of whom have doubtless given it special study.
The number ten is not mentioned in the second chapter of Daniel, and there is nothing in that chapter to indicate the number of parts into which Rome was to be divided, nevertheless that chapter may reasonably be made the starting point of a study of the ten kingdoms, because while that prophecy gives no hint of the number of parts it does tell us that the kingdoms would be divided, never to be reunited. The words of the angel to the prophet were:
"Whereas thou sawest the feet and toes, part of potters' clay, and part of iron, the kingdom shall be divided; but there shall be in it of the strength of the iron, forasmuch as thou sawest their iron mixed with miry clay. And as the toes of the feet were part of iron, and part of clay, so the kingdom shall be partly strong and partly broken. And whereas thou sawest iron mixed with miry clay, they shall mingle themselves with the seed of men: but they shall not cleave one to another, even as iron is not mixed with clay." Verses 41-45.
Division is here symbolized not by the two feet or the ten toes, but by the presence in both the feet and toes of iron and clay, two elements that cannot be united as can many other substances, as for instance most of the metals, some of them forming alloys which are stronger than and more enduring than either alone. But this is not true of iron and clay. To me it has for many years seemed unwise to say that in this prophecy the ten toes represent the ten kingdoms, for it is nowhere so stated in the Scriptures. All things considered,
it seems better to adhere closely to the words of the prophecy:
"whereas thou sawest the feet and toes, part of potters' clay and part of iron, the kingdom shall be divided." The number ten, if mentioned at all in this connection, should be presented, not from the standpoint from the second chapter of Daniel, but from the prophecy of the seventh chapter, which covers the same ground but gives more detail. A part of this detail is the definite mention of the number of kingdoms into which the empire was to be divided prior to the rise of the eleventh or little horn, namely, ten. Says the prophet,
"The ten horns out of this kingdom are ten kings that shall arise."
Here we are on solid ground so far as the number ten is concerned. Not only is the prophecy so plain as to leave no room for difference of opinion as to the tenfold original division, but there is no question of the location of all ten kings, or kingdoms in the Western Empire. The reasons of the great unanimity of opinion that exists here are thus stated by Sir Isaac Newton:-
"As concerning the rest of the beasts, they had their dominion taken away: yet their lives were prolonged for a season and a time."
And therefore all the four beasts are still alive, though the dominion of the three first be taken away. The nations of Chaldea and Assyria are still the first beast. Those of Media and Persia are still the second beast. Those of Macedon, Greece and Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, are still the third. And those of Europe, of this side Greece, are still the fourth. Seeing therefore the body of the third beast is confined to the nations on this side the River Euphrates, and the body of the fourth beast is confined to the nations on this side Greece; we are to look for all the four heads of the third beast, among the nations on this side of the river Euphrates; and for all the eleven horns
of the fourth beast, among the nations on this side of Greece. And therefore, at the breaking of the Greek Empire into four kingdoms of the Greeks, we include no part of the Chaldeans, Medes, and Persians in those kingdoms, because they belonged to the bodies of the two five beasts. Nor do we reckon the Greek Empire seated at Constantinople, among the horns of the fourth beast, because it belonged to the bodies of the two first beasts. Nor do we reckon the Greek Empire seated at Constantinople, among the horns of the fourth beast, because it belonged to the body of the third.—"Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John." Sir Isaac Newton, Part I, chap. 4, pp. 31, 32.
It may be well at this point to locate as definitely as possible the boundaries of Western Rome before it was divided. In this we need only quote from Rev. E. B. Elliott, noting that he follows Gibbon:—
"Beginning north from the Wall of Antoninus that separated England from Scotland, then following the Rhine up to its point of nearest proximity to the Danube source, i.e. half way between Strasburg and Basle; thence down the Danube to Belgrade; and thence in a southern course to Dyrrachium, and across the Adriatic and Mediterranean to the Syrtia Major and the Great Desert of Africa; it is to be understood that all to the eastward of this line belonged to the Constantinopolitan or Greek division of the empire; all westward,—including England, France, Spain, and African Province, Italy and the countries between the Alps and the Rhine, Danube, and Save, anciently known under the names of Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia in modern times as Switzerland, half Swabia, Bavaria, Austria, and the western part of Hungary,—to the Western or Roman division."—"Horae Apocalypticas," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A.M., Vol. III, p. 115.
It is only natural, having defined the boundaries of the territory in which the ten horns or ten kingdoms must be found among which the little horn was to arise, that we study the subject further and identify each of the political states that arose out of Rome at that time. However, we shall not find here the same agreement that exists touching the more general statements of the prophecy.
The reason for some difference of opinion here is: (1) the ten do not all arise at once; (2) few, if any of them, have always remained the same with the same name and exactly the same geographical boundaries; (3) there have not always been just ten, but sometimes less, and sometimes more than ten. As we study the various historical atlases, we find that there have been frequent and considerable changes which give the whole a sort of kaleidoscope aspect. Indeed it may not be an unreasonable view to say that except for a short time about 533, the prophecy contemplates uninterrupted and permanent division rather than mathematical exactness as to the number ten.
And this need not be a matter of surprise, nor does it in any way cast discredit upon the prophecy. True there is nothing in the prophecy of the 7th chapter of Daniel to prepare us for any change in the number or location of the kingdoms, but as in studying the 2nd chapter we instinctively, as it were, turn to the 7th chapter to determine the number of parts we should expect to find, so when the 7th chapter is reached in our study, we just as naturally turn back to the 2nd chapter to learn something as to the degree of stability of the several parts into which the kingdom is divided, and there we find something that fully prepares us for what we see in history, namely, the constantly varying picture presented by the maps of the different geographical divisions designed to assist the student who would, at different eras, identify as nearly as possible
the several kingdoms symbolized by the ten horns of the fourth beast of the 7th chapter. And what is it that thus prepares us to expect constant change among the kingdoms that were to arise in the Western Empire? It is this, recorded in Daniel 2:41-43:
"Whereas thou sawest the feet and toes, part of potters' clay and part of iron, the kingdom shall be divided; but there shall be in it of the strength of the iron, forasmuch as thou sawest the iron mixed with miry clay, And as the toes of the feet were part of iron, and part of clay, so the kingdom shall be partly strong, and partly broken. And whereas thou sawest iron mixed with miry clay, they shall mingle themselves with the seed of men; but they shall not cleave one to another, even as iron is not mixed with clay."
While as before noted there is in this scripture nothing to indicate the number of kingdoms, we are told not only that the kingdom would be divided, but that repeated and persistent effort would be made to reunite the several parts. This would necessarily mean many changes, not only in the personnel of rulers, but also in territorial boundaries, and probably also in names. That such efforts have been made, and that such changes have occurred is a matter of general knowledge. Those efforts resulting in many changes, have taken not only the form of matrimonial alliances indicated by the words, "they shall mingle themselves with the seed of men," but also the form of military conquests, and political combines, as in the case of the "Holy Roman Empire" which, however, as Voltaire, one of the most witty of Frenchmen, as well as one of the most astute of the men of his time, said was "neither holy nor Roman, nor an Empire."
It would require too much time to even name the many alliances, matrimonial and political, entered into for the purpose of reuniting,
if not all, at least several of the fragments of the Roman Empire. We must, however, mention Charlemagne, Otto the Great, Charles V, Napoleon I., and in our own day Wilhelm II., as conspicuous examples of rulers who have from time to time attempted, to outstrip in various ways if not practically to rebuild the Empire of the Caesars. Perhaps Otto the Great met with the most seeming success, as the so-called "Holy Roman Empire" endured in name from 962 A.D. to 1806, when, forced to the step by the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, Francis II. of the House of Hapsburg resigned the imperial title.
We need not trouble ourselves to define the boundaries of the so-called "empire" founded by Otto. It was an attempt, but not a successful one to gather together again the fragments of the Roman Empire, and was never taken seriously by anybody but the Hapsburgs and the Pope.
Returning from this slight digression, we are confronted at the outset by several lists of these kingdoms. Perhaps we should give first the list that appears in "Thoughts on Daniel and the Revelation" as follows:
The Huns, the Ostrogoths, the Visigoths, the Franks, the Vandals, the Suevi, the Burgundians, the Heruli, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Lombards.--p. 132.
Dr. Albert Barnes gives this list drawn from Roman Catholic sources:
1. The Ostrogoths in Moesia; 2. the Visigoths in Pannonia; 3. the Sueves and Alans in Gascoign and Spain; 4. the Vandals in Africa; 5. the Franks in France; 6. The Burgundians in Burgundy; 7. the Heruli and Turingi in Italy; 8. the Saxons and Angles in Britain; 9. the Huns in Hungary; 10. The Lombards at first upon the Danube, and afterwards in Italy.--"Notes on the Book of Daniel," p.322, (S. E. p. 534)
This Roman Catholic list is interesting chiefly as showing that they recognize the prophecy as applying to Western Rome and to the same era assigned to it by Protestants.
Elliott gives two lists, the first for the forty-seven years immediately preceding 533, as follows:
Anglo-Saxons, Franks, Allemans, Burgundians, Visigoths, Suevi, Vandals, Heruli, Bavarians, Ostrogoths.
And then this list of kingdoms existing in 533:
Anglo-Saxons, the Franks of central, Alleman-Franks of eastern, and Burgundic-Franks of southeastern France, the Visigoths, the Suevi, the Vandals, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Bavarians, and the Lombards.
The only difference between Elliott's first list and his second is that whereas the first names the Heruli as one of the ten, that tribe is dropped from the second list and the Lombards appear in their stead, and this for the excellent reason that by this time (533 A.D.) the Heruli had ceased to exist in Rome as a distinct people and the Lombards had moved in and had become a recognized political entity in northern Italy.
In determining the original ten according to the prophecy, we must note carefully what the prophecy itself says. In Daniel 7:24, we have this explicit statement:
"The ten horns out of this kingdom are ten kings that shall arise: and another shall arise after them; and he shall be diverse from the first, and he shall subdue three kings."
From this text, understanding the word "after" in its normal and obvious meaning, it seems necessary to conclude that all the ten are in existence when the eleventh or little horn comes up. The question then is, when did the little horn arise or come up? From the standpoint of the prophecy, evidently when it obtained recognition
as a power having authority to enter upon the work attributed to it by the prophecy, namely, (1) to subdue either directly or through chosen agencies other powers to its will. (2) Speak great words against the Most High, by arrogating to itself power, authority and functions belonging only to the Most High. (3) Wearing out the saints, and (4) assuming to change the laws of the Most High.
It may be said that the Papacy existed in Paul's day, but evidently it was the evil principle of self-exhaltation to which he referred in 1 Thess. 2:3-8, styling it "the mystery of iniquity," rather than the organic Papacy which later crystalized around the mischievous principle thus becoming the very embodiment or personification of that principle. This conclusion is indicated clearly enough by the reading of the scripture itself, and is borne out by the words of the angel to the prophet: "Another shall arise after them," that is, after the ten in point not of manner but of time. Therefore, we must find all the ten in existence before the appearance of the little, Papal horn. Each of the ten must be in existence when the papal horn arises, which could not have been earlier than the first letter or decree of Justinian upon this subject, March 25, 533.
The eleventh or little horn must be a real, tangible, organic entity, not merely a principle. The word "another" necessarily denotes some form of government at least resembling a kingdom, and just different from the others. It must be more than an abstraction. The principle, if such it be, must be crystalized, so that it appears just as definitely and clearly as do the ten that were to arise before it in point of time.
In his letter or decree of 533, preserved and handed down to
us in the Code of Justinian, Book 1, Title I, the emperor addresses the Pope as "head of all the churches." And that this may be more than an empty title the Emperor in effect pledges the imperial authority, saying, "We do not suffer anything which is mooted, however clear and unquestionable, pertaining to the state of the church, should fail to be made known to your Holiness, as being the head of all the churches. For, as we have said before, we are zealous for the increase of the honor and authority of your See in all respects."
This was emphasized the same year by the addition of the statement that the Bishop of Rome was he by whom heretics were corrected.
Thus the eleventh or little horn was to be diverse from those that were before it, and yet was to exercise real power. His dominion, though primarily spiritual, was to lay hold upon and to a greater or less extent to sway and to use political power even to the extent of imposing and inflicting penalties and waging war.
It may be objected that subsequent to this time Justinian himself greatly humiliated the Bishop of Rome by summoning him to Constantinople and by requiring him to practically acknowledge the patriarch of that city as his ecclesiastical equal. But Justinian could not undo what he had done. He could not change what he had written. A Vigilius might die practically in exile, but the papacy did not die. A royal decree had made not an individual but an office head over all the churches and corrector of heretics, and though an incumbent of that office might pass away the office itself remained, and still remains to this day.
From the words of the prophecy itself and from the testimony of history, the Papacy can not be assigned an earlier date than 533, and indeed we have until recently assigned it a date five years later, namely, 538. But if either of these dates is correct the Heruli
cannot be one of the ten, and consequently cannot be one of the three plucked up by the roots since as nearly as we can be determined by a study of the history of that people they ceased to be a power very early in the 6th century, certainly before 533.
Notwithstanding the fact that John Clark Ridpath states that the "first of the kingdoms established by the barbarians in Italy was that of the Heruli," it is more than questionable if the Heruli ever entered the Roman empire in any other capacity than as hired mercenaries, soldiers, or marauders. The seat of their kingdom was in and around the basin of the Elbe, well to the north of the northern confines of the Western Empire.
Perhaps in the past we have nearly all repeated glibly enough, at least in substance, the statement made in "Daniel and Revelation," namely, that "the three horns plucked up before it (the papal horn) were the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, and the Vandals. And the reason why they were plucked up was because they were opposed to the arrogant claims of the papal hierarchy, and hence to the supremacy in the church of the bishop of Rome."
While not stated in so many words the necessary inference from the foregoing is that the Heruli, like the Vandals and Goths, were Arians, and therefore a party to the controversy between Arians and Catholics. The fact is that, as briefly stated by the Britannica, Art. "Heruli," "The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow of their kingdom." Unlike the Vandals and Goths, the Papacy had nothing to do with their overthrow. They were completely overthrown in a purely political war with the Langobardi, or Lombards, seventy-five years before the latter became even nominally Catholic. Therefore, the Papacy or little horn, had neither interest nor part in the overthrow of the Heruli. Indeed, as the Papacy was not yet established
at that time, it was from the standpoint of prophecy non-existent when the Heruli were destroyed by the Lombards.
As before stated, the Heruli had their kingdom not in any part of the Roman empire but well to the North of it on the Elbe. Their first incursion into Rome seems to have been about 369 A.D., when they appeared temporarily about the mouth of the Rhine in what is now a part of Holland, but as late as the early part of the fifth century the Heruli still had their seat on the Elbe.
It is true that Odoacer, or Odivaker, is sometimes called the king of the Heruli, but he was not such in any proper sense of that title. He was not himself a Herulian, but probably descended from the Scyrris. His following in Italy seems to have been composed of recruits from the Rugii, Scyrris, Turcilingi, and Heruli, the latter probably only a small minority of the whole number. It seems impossible therefore, for this additional reason, that the Heruli could have been one of the ten kingdoms of the prophecy of Daniel seven.
That the Heruli never had a kingdom in Italy is further shown by the fact that today no man can definitely locate them in Italy apart from the motley throng of adventurers and mercenaries that followed Odoacer,—no one group of whom could be styled a kingdom to the exclusion of the others. Indeed as remarked by the "Britannica," 11th Edition, Vol. 15, p. 28, "The Herulian invaders had been but a band of adventurers; the Goths were an army; the Lombards, far more formidable, were a nation in movement." In fact the more this matter is examined in the light of modern research, the more evident it becomes that the Heruli never had any standing in Italy in any other capacity than that of barbarian warriors acknowledging no allegiance to any local leader except as he might either give or promise rewards in the shape of land, loot, and license.
As before remarked, if the Herulian kingdom on the Elbe, the only kingdom that that people ever had, was not one of the ten, and no one claims that it was, it could not be one of the three. The question arises at once as to the three horns plucked up by the roots in the presence of the little horn. The answer is (1), The Vandals, destroyed by the armies of Justinian 533, 534. So complete was the overthrow of the Vandals that they at once ceased to exist as a nation, and today though there are many called "Vandals," because they act like them, there is in the world no people who trace their descent to that nation. (2) The Ostrogoths decisively defeated by the forces of Justinian before the city of Rome A.D. 538, and sixteen years later destroyed as a nation, some retiring "to their native seat beyond the mountains," far to the north, as remarked by Ridpath, while the scattered Goths, not either killed or expelled from the country, were absorbed by the native Italic population, so that the Ostrogoths too ceased to exist even as a strain of the Italians. (3) The Lombards, or Longobardi, who direct invaded that portion of the Roman Empire now known as Lower Austria, where they established themselves about 487 A.D. They remained in Lower Austria until the early part of the 8th century, when they were invited by Justinian to settle in Noricum and Pannonia. (Southern Austria bordering on Italy.) They subsequently occupied that part of Italy now known as Lombardy.
Sometime prior to 508 A.D. the Lombards adopted Arianism, at least nominally, and a century later became Roman Catholic. In both instances however, they retained many of their former religious beliefs and practices. It seems to have been this fact that led to their final overthrow. As a nation the Lombards never became "good Catholics." And when their government ceased to be amenable to the Pope
it was overthrown in his interests, and at his suggestion and their territory was given to the Pope who thus for the first time became a temporal prince; and here instead of in the so-called donation of Constantine we find the origin of the temporal power.
Perhaps a few words relative to the overthrow of the Lombards will be of interest in this connection, and it may be best drawn from a Catholic source, hence I quote from the Catholic Encyclopaedia, Vol. 9, page 338, Article Lombardy: "The Lombards at the time of the invasion (of the empire) were for the most part pagan; a few had imbibed Arianism, and hence their ferocity against priests and monks whom they put to death. They destroyed churches and monasteries; they hunted and killed many of the faithful who would not become pagans; they laid waste their property, and seized Catholic places of worship to hand them over to the Arians. The holy pontiff, Gregory the Great (540-604) does not cease to lament the desolation caused by the Longobard slaughter throughout Italy. Slowly however the light of faith made way among them and the Church won their respect and obedience. This meant protection for the conquered. Gradually the Church's constitution and customs spread among the barbarians the ideas of Roman civilization, until at last, in defence of her own liberty and that of the people which the Longobards continued to imperil, she was forced to call in the aid of the Franks (under Pippin), and thus change the fate of Italy. This occurred (753) only after two centuries of Longobardic domination."
Inasmuch as the prophecy describes the little horn as a power "before which three of the first horns were plucked up by the roots," it does seem that we should be able to show that the papacy was in some way directly concerned in the plucking up of the three horns that were to fall before it, or as we read in verse 24, A.R.V., were
"put down" by it.
As before shown, there is no evidence that the papacy was in any way concerned in the overthrow, or destruction of the Heruli. But it is beyond question that the Vandals, the Ostrogoths, and the Lombards were all "put down", destroyed, or "plucked up" by the roots in response to demands of the Pope and thus directly in the interest of the Papacy, and by the Papacy, acting through its chosen agents and instruments. Of course the Heruli being eliminated as one of the three, it follows logically that they must be eliminated also as one of the ten. Indeed the Heruli lived and passed away before the Papacy became an established fact, and so before there was any point of contact established between them and the Papacy, and so before the era of the ten kingdoms of this prophecy.
To me it seems, as already stated, that the ten horns of the prophecy are the ten kingdoms that existed within the confines of the Roman Empire, when the Papacy emerging from its nonage entered upon its work of world domination, which was to last for 1,260 years.
As listed by Elliott, the ten "barbaric kingdoms formed by the invaders," existing within the limits of the Western Empire between the years 486 and 490, were, as we have seen, the Anglo-Saxons, the Franks, Allemani, the Burgundians, the Visigoths, the Suevi, the Vandals, the Heruli, the Bavarians, and the Ostrogoths.
This was before the acts of Justinian constituting the bishop of Rome head of all the churches, and corrector of heretics. A few years later, namely in the beginning of 533, Elliott, as already noted, finds that some changes have taken place; the Heruli are gone and the Lombards have come in. The enumeration given by Elliott of the kingdoms existing in 533, is I am constrained to believe, the correct list of the ten kingdoms as contemplated in the prophecy, and
that among them must be found the three plucked up by the roots. One reason for so believing is that with the exception of the three thusplucked up the kingdoms named are the ones whose peoples can be identified today. The Heruli are gone. They like the Huns were invaders, raiders, and freebooters only. They founded nothing, they established nothing. Properly speaking they had no kingdom in Roman territory. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths and the Lombards completely lost their separate national existence, and the two first named were so absorbed as to be unidentified today, but the Lombards have given their name to a considerable district in Italy, while the other seven existing as political units in 533 can all be identified today, not all as independent states, but as distinct strains, and amidst all the changes and in spite of the efforts by mighty rulers to have it otherwise, the division foretold in the prophecy of Daniel 2, persists. Referring to this phase of the prophecy and its fulfillment, Rev. T. R. Birks aptly says: "A tenfold division, such as some have looked for, mathematical and unvaried, would frustrate one-half of the prediction; and would deprive thereat of its freedom and moral grandeur. But now every part is alike accomplished. At the same time, by these partial changes in the list of the doomed kingdoms, the reproach of a stern fatalism which would otherwise cloud the equity of divine Providence, is rolled away."
And here we might well dismiss the subject of the identity of the ten kingdoms, were it not for the reason that it affords such an excellent opportunity to make a plea for tolerance of opinion on this and other subjects not vital to our Adventist faith, nor necessarily destructive of good Christian experience. Why should one be considered a heretic, or be even suspected because he believes that the Allepani and not the Huns should be reckoned as one of the ten? Or that the
Lombards rather than the Heruli were one of the three, or for the reason that he holds and teaches that the ten horns of Rev. 13 and 17, are not the same as the ten horns of Daniel's fourth beast?
Not one of these if fundamental, not one of them is one of the pillars of our faith. Granting that it is desirable that there be in our literature, especially in our books a good degree of uniformity in these respects, are not Christian liberty and Christian charity still more to be desired?
I have not cited authorities so called, as the purpose of this discussion, I understand, is not to settle doctrine, but rather to suggest that there should be more independence of thought and more of a burden to know each man for himself, and as a result of his own study, the reasons for his faith. May the God of all truth guide us into the truth, and may we all come to see eye to eye, not from blindly following any human leader, but from following the leading of the divine Spirit in the study of the Scriptures, that divinely inspired book that is able to make us wise unto salvation through faith which is in our Lord Jesus Christ.
Afternoon session
A. G. DANIELLS: The way is now open for any who wish to do so to ask Professor Prescott questions concerning the topic of the morning.
W. E. HOWELL: I would like to ask Professor Prescott if he is willing to enlarge just a little on the point of the "beginning" as he explained it this morning.
W. W. PRESCOTT: Taking the first chapter of John, the 3d verse: At a certain point where finite beings begin time, it does not mean that that is where the word began. When the scripture says, "In the beginning was the word, and the word was with God, and the word was God," it does not mean that when you get back to that point that we denominate the beginning, then looking back into eternity, you can point to the time when the word was.
H. C. LACEY: Can we go one step further and say that the word was without beginning?
W. W. PRESCOTT: I was going to raise the question. Are we agreed in such a general statement as this, that the Son of God is co-eternal with the Father? Is that the view that is taught in our schools?
C. M. Sorenson: It is taught in the Bible.
W. W. PRESCOTT: Not to teach that is Arianism. Ought we to continue to circulate in a standard book a statement that the Son is not co-eternal, that the Son is not co-eval or co-eternal with the Father? That makes Him a finite being. Any being whose beginning we can fix is a finite being. We have been circulating for 40 years a standard book which says that the Son is not co-eternal.
with the Father. That is teaching Arianism. Do we want to go on teaching that?
G. B. THOMPSON: "All things were created by him." Do you understand that to mean more than this earth?
W. W. PRESCOTT: Yes, whether they be thrones or principalities or powers or things visible or things invisible, all were created by him. That is, all existences of every kind depend upon His pre-existence; and all present existences depend upon His present existence. Without Him there would be nothing in existence, and without Him that which is now in existence would fall out of existence.
C. P. BOLLMAN: Isn't that usually applied to His having existed before the incarnation?
W. W. PRESCOTT: I am using it as applying to His existence previous to the existence of anything else.
C. P. BOLLMAN: I would like to ask, Do you think it is necessary, or even helpful in the defining of Christian doctrine, to go outside of the New Testament for terms to use in the definition?
W. W. PRESCOTT: As to whether or not we shall accept dictionary terms?
C. P. BOLLMAN: No, I do not mean that.
W. W. PRESCOTT: Please illustrate what you mean.
C. P. BOLLMAN: The scripture says Christ is the only begotten of the Father. Why should we go farther than that and say that He was co-eternal with the Father? And also say that to teach otherwise is Arianism?
W. W. PRESCOTT: I do not find in the New Testament expressions
as "co-eternal," but I find expressions that are equivalent to that, as I understand it.
C. P. BOLLMAN: Give an example, please.
W. W. PRESCOTT: I think the expression "I am" is the equivalent of eternity. I think these expressions, while they do not use the term co-eternal, are equivalent in their meaning. That brings up the whole question of the relation of the Son to the Father. There is a proper sense, as I view it, according to which the Son is subordinate to the Father, but that subordination is not in the question of attributes or of His existence. It is simply in the fact of the derived existence, as we read in John 5:26: "For as the Father hath life in himself, even so gave he to the Son also to have life in himself." Using terms as we use them, the Son is co-eternal with the Father. That does not prevent His being the only-begotten Son of God. We cannot go back into eternity and say where this eternity commenced, and where that eternity commenced. There is no contradiction to say that the Son is co-eternal with the Father, and yet the Son is the only-begotten of the Father.
C. P. BOLLMAN: I think we should hold to the Bible definitions.
W. W. PRESCOTT: We take the expression co-eternal, and that is better.
C. P. BOLLMAN: My conception of the matter is this; that at some point in eternity the Father separated a portion of Himself to be the Son. As far as the substance is concerned, He is just as eternal as the Father, but did not have an eternal separate existence. I do not think that approaches any nearer to Arianism than the other does to ________.
W. W. PRESCOTT: Suppose you say, There is the point where He had His beginning, and that back of that there was a time when the Father went forth in His Son. When you say a point, you conceive of it as a definite place and bring it into finite terms.
H. C. LACEY: May I say something on that point? Every year I am brought in touch with this from two points of view,—one in the Greek class, and the other in Bible Doctrines. Twice a year, and sometimes more frequently, I am brought face to face with this. "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." The same was in the beginning with God." The eternity of the Word is emphasized in that. When you come to the study of the deity of Christ, the fundamental attribute is eternity of existence. If Jesus is divine, He must have that essential attributes, and so I have dared to say that Christ is absolutely co-eternal with the Father. You can not say that back in some point of duration the Son appeared, and prior to that He had not appeared. I take it that God has no beginning. The Greek does not read, "In the beginning," but "In beginning,"—any beginning, every beginning. There is no article to it. It means that Christ antedated all beginning. The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit antedated all beginning.
I am just stating what I teach. I want to know whether this is so. That is what this council is for. I say that God was always in existence. Just as the light is always with the sun; the light comes from the sun, and so Jesus was always with God, always reigning with him. I have explained the meaning of the sun in this way. I son is always younger than his father. But if we bring into this divine conception the thought of motherhood and fatherhood as humanly understood, I think we are astray. It does not mean that Jesus had a mother, God is a Father. I am trying to explain what is meant by that expression that Michael in his ante-human existence was the son of God. I think those words are human words, used to express to us humanly speaking, the relation existing between the first and second person of the deity, and the priority of rank of the first person. The word is an expression of the relation of that second person to the first. He is as a son to the father. The Lord said of Israel, you are my first born. I will be a father to Israel, for the love that existed between them. To the first and only begotten son was a specially tender feeling, and to indicate the wondrous love of the first person of the Deity to the second, this expression is used. Never to indicate that the son came into existence after the father. Let us say this represents the six thousand years. Now back of this eternity, without end, God the Father spans that eternity.
I think we ought not to teach that there was a time when
He produced another being who is called the son. I want to know. The son is called eternal with the Father, another person living with him, a second intelligence in that Deity. The relationship between them is expressed by our human words father and son. The one was first in rank, the second, second, and the third third.
PRESCOTT
I think it will for us instead of attempting to reason out or to explain these things, to read a scripture. I think that will be a better plan than to spend a long time discussing themes, only that we may get the meaning of the scripture. Brother Lacey said eternity is an attribute of Deity. It is proof of the Deity. Now let us see how the scripture deals with it. Hebrews 1. The whole purpose of the chapter is to set forth the exalted character of the Son, and you will observe it is somewhat in harmony with what Brother Lacey has said. "God, having of old time spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers portions and in divers manners, hath at the end of these days spoken unto us in his Son, whom he appointed heir of all things, through whom also he made the worlds." (R.V.) The article is not used. It is the relationship that is emphasized. This chapter is to tell us of the Son. Here we find that expression, "whom he appointed heir of all things, through whom also he made the worlds." "Who being the effulgence of his glory," or the emanation of his glory, the raying forth of his glory, and the very image of his substance, in person. This word person
is one of the evidences of theological controversy that was attempted to be settled by translation. It is the idea of the fundamental. Going on: "Upholding all things by the word of his power." There we have the existence of all things being dependent upon him. Now it goes on in the fifth chapter, verse one, and proves that he is above angels. "Thou art my son. I will be to him a father." Eighth verse: "But of the Son he saith, Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever." In the tenth verse: "And, Thou, Lord, in the beginning didst lay the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the works of thy hands. They shall perish, but thou continuest," -- a much better word than "remainest." Him it was that continues. That is an eternal presence, simply, "Thou continuest." That is the attribute of his being as God. He is called God here in this very chapter. As a sort of evidence of the scriptural teaching that he is God, here is this expression, Thou continuest, without regard to beginning or end. In the thirteenth chapter of the same epistle: "He is the same yesterday, today, and forever." When did yesterday commence? Simply yesterday, that's all. "Jesus Christ, the same, yesterday, today, and forever." I think that is parallel with the 90th Psalm: "Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. . . . From everlasting to everlasting, thou art God. I think those statements apply to the same being. The same is true in the Book of Deuteronomy the 33rd chapter.
Deut. 33:26: "There is none like unto the God of Jeshurun, who rideth upon the heavens in thy help, and in his excellency on the sky. The eternal God is thy dwelling place and underneath are the everlasting arms." There is no revelation of God except in the Son, and here it says that the eternal God is thy dwelling place, it must be the Son. Underneath are the everlasting arms. The only support that we receive is from Christ, and in Christ. The only knowledge we have of God is through the Son, and the only relationship we have to God is through the Son. Every revelation of him of every sort whatsoever is through the Son.
C.P.BOLLMAN: Do you think that all those expressions there refer not to the Father but to the Son?
W. W. PRESCOTT: They refer to both, but the only revelation of him we have is in the Son, and therefore the Son must be with the Father, co-eternal, and the same expression applies. The Jehovah. Take the word Jehovah. The Jehovah of the Old Testament is manifested in Jesus in the New Testament. It shows in the word itself, as well as in the general teaching. Jehovah -- Jesus in Joshua, are the same. Joshua is simply the contraction for Jehovah. (A number of root words mentioned) Jehovah manifested for salvation is Jesus, and the Jesus of the New Testament is manifestly a manifestation of the Jehovah of the Old Testament.
J. Anderson: Did you state that he derived life from the Father?
W. W. Prescott: No. Simply in the fact that equality with the Father is derived equality, but equality is the same.
J. Anderson: I thought you said that he derived life from the Father.
W. W. Prescott: No. I used the Scripture statement — John 5:36: "As the Father hath life in himself, so hath he given to the Son to have life in himself." But the two expressions referred to must apply equally both to the Father and the Son.
Question: Simply a difference in what respect — that of rank with the Father?
W. W. Prescott: He himself says that "the Father is greater than I." He also said "I and my Father are one." And both are true.
(J. Anderson)
Question: If he is inferior in any respect to the Father how can he be God?
W. W. Prescott: I do not think that I used that expression term "inferior."
J. Anderson: But others may use that word in some instances — that the Son was inferior to the Father, and my inquiry arises that if it were true that Jesus the Son was inferior in any respect — in age, or in nature, or attributes; if that be so, how could he be God?
W. W. Prescott: I would not say that he was. I do not think I used that expression.
H.C. Lacy: Is it not that he is only inferior to the Father in rank — he is second in rank with the Father, and in all other respects is equal?
W. W. Prescott: We must, of course, in our dealing with the question, take his own statement both ways. When he said, "The Father is greater than I," we deal with that, and when he said, "I and the Father are one," we deal with that. We must have a conception of each one that will allow his own statement, what he himself says, to be true.
Question: As to Christ's preexistence, and the fact that he "emptied" himself.
W. W. Prescott: He was still divine.
Question: The question which comes to my mind is, How could Jesus being God, still be inferior to God?
W. W. Prescott: Yes, I think we must take that into account. I would not use the word contradictory to any expression of the Scripture. That shuts our minds to any understanding. Take the two statements referred to: "I and my Father are one," therefore they took up stones to stone him. What were they going to stone him for? "Because thou being man makest thyself God." He also said, "The Father is greater than I." Now to say these are contradictory shuts up the mind to correct comprehension of the truth. We must not say that. We must not use such expressions. We must not ask, How do you reconcile these two? I do not like to hear that expression, because it implies something that needs explanation or is contradictory. The contradiction is not in the word. The only difficulty is in the ability of the finite mind to comprehend all of God. And we shall always face difficulty. But I try to stay as closely as possible to the Scripture statements, and be careful in the use of words, and I do not try
to apply to reasoning power that will enable me to explain any Biblical terms. That will be impossible. Rather, as the question rose, as we examined referred to it this morning, we will get light, not by questioning, but by saying it is so first, then waiting for more. That is the only way we can get it. We know it is true. We know it is so. We know that what the Scripture says is so; there is no contradiction; and not wait till we see further light in it regard to it. But if we start with the thought that this is contradictory, the Spirit cannot bring light to bear upon it.
H.C.Lacey: Is not the thought, second in rank, preferable to the term "inferior"?
W. W. Prescott: One with the Father, one in authority, in power, in love, in mercy, and all the attributes — equal with him and yet second in nature. I like the word "second" better than "inferior,"— second in rank.
C.P.BOLLMAN: Subject to the Father — is not that the meaning of the word?
W. W. PRESCOTT: We might speak of many things beyond our comprehension.
(Paper read by Eld M. C. Wilcox at morning session was completed at this meeting.)
Discussion on M.C. Wilcox's topic.
PRESCOTT: Would Brother Wilcox be willing on the last point (Par. 22) to state what relation exists between our own view of interpreting scripture and what we'd be given to what others have taught or written, when we come to the study of Scripture.
WILCOX: I would state, so far as my own personal experience is concerned, I have not accepted of any view easily. I was an 'nridel when this message reached me and did not believe anybody's view of things scriptural. Consequently it was hard for me to embrace the truth—it was hard at that time. But when I gave myself to God I made up my mind I would follow any way he led, and I have taken the statement of others who had gone before. I did not have the time to investigate when I heard the message. But I have found real satisfaction in later years as I have studied the Word for myself to find that my view coincided with theirs—that the view I had accepted was in harmony with the Word of God. I can say so far as I know myself I have never departed or tried to depart find one single new thing—that was contrary to the great message and movement with which I am connected; but what did come to me came because it seemed the only logical outcome there was from the Scripture itself. I would like to say again I have never found anything yet that I studied earnestly and sought
God earnestly, and followed all the light I could get in every way—still holding to the Word, as the early men of the message did—that had taken me away from the message in any way or made me to look upon it with any less degree of devotion. In fact it has endeared it to me more and more, and I have seen more and more in it and the men connected with the movement, that has increased my confidence in the message and in its triumph.
F M Wilcox
How much shall we have regard for the historical development of truth, or its historical development in connection with the movement with which it is associated. You take it in the Psalms, and David repeatedly cites Israel to the leadings of God as an evidence, calls upon them to remember the way God has led them. It seems to me that we should remember that in the development of truth, the certainty of truth, the certainty of doctrines, just the same as in a material leading of God. I believe these principles that have been set forth in this paper are excellent. I believe that every man who has studied the scriptures of truth should seek to be led by the Spirit of God, but it seems to me that he must have in that study due appreciation for the study of his brethren, for their conclusions as well as his own, and for the historic development of truth in connection with the church of God, with the movement with which he is connected.
M C WILCOX
I think of one of the statements Elder Daniells read last night, found also in the chapter on the Danger of Rejecting Light in Gospel Workers, and also in manuscripts which different ones possess, that we should subject everything that we hold to the closest and most faithful scrutiny. I believe that. At the same time I believe that we ought to have regard for the leading of God in the message. I believe that also. I feel just as confident as can be that God has led all the way. But we all ought
to remember that while the Psalmist tells us that is true, yet in other places he shows that there was an imperfect people all the way, and we should not idolize the human agents that God uses.
LL Caviness
I appreciate very much this outlining of the principles of Bible interpretation. It seems to me very complete. But there is one that seems to me is often violated, that was not included. That is the law of the context. It seems to me it is very common to take a portion of scripture and apply it absolutely without any reference to the context with which it occurs. I find myself that I have to fight against that. It is so easy to take something in the Bible or the Spirit of Prophecy and apply it as being a principle of truth for the present time, when maybe it has an application for the present time, but it had a stronger application at some other time. I think that is one of the principles we ought to keep in mind, to think about the context in the study that we make, in order to get a right setting for the great truths God is making plain to us.
H C Lacey
It has seemed to me there is another, "The law of ancient Eastern usage." We must never forget that while the Bible is up to date, yet it was written in the East, and that expressions are used from the Eastern point of view that we must know not only the meaning of, but the manner in which they used it. The law of ancient Eastern usage does come in here in the understanding and interpretation of scripture.
G B THOMPSON
The Bible does not give any syllabus of principles on interpretation. How are we to know that our principles of interpretation are correct?
M C WILCOX
I thought that these had been tested in all the other prophecies. They have been in use all through the Message, and been tested out. The Bible does not give us any straightforward doctrines.
W W PRESCOTT
I would like to ask, according to the law of first mention, what is the meaning of a horn in the symbols of prophecy.
M C WILCOX
I do not know that I could give it off hand. I haven't thought of that in that particular light.
F M WILCOX
Give one of your own
M C WILCOX
It is not always used for the same thing. It is primarily used, to my mind, for exaltation, honor, power. "Thy horn is greatly exalted." From that derivation come the other meanings that stand for the very thing of power itself, kingdom, etc.
W W PRESCOTT
I was coming to a very specific thing. In Daniel the ten horns are ten kingdoms that shall arise. In Revelation the two horns are republicanism and protestantism. How shall we explain that according to the law of prophetic interpretation?
It seems to me that the very limitations given to those two horns give us a different view from the ten horns of the beast. He had two horns like a lamb. The Lamb is the symbol of Christ. The lamb that had seven horns. Perfection here is the great first quality. Two of those can be used to apply to civil power, and only two of the great principles of Christ's government can, and they are equality of man and the right to believe or refusal to believe — religious liberty and equality. It seems to me the definition there, Two horns like a lamb, shows that it is different from the horns of the beast. He didn't have two horns like a beast, but like a lamb. Those two principles are found in Christianity alone of all religions, and in the United States Government of all governments.
J N ANDERSON
Speaking of the matter of double fulfilment of prophecy, how may we know there may not be three?
M C WILCOX
There might be three
J N ANDERSON
Or four?
M C WILCOX
Or four.
J N ANDERSON
There must be a limit somewhere or else we would be led astray. I question the double interpretation. My study has led me to believe that there can be only one fulfillment, but several
applications. That one prophecy may illustrate other things, but the prophecy looks to one event and one event only is fulfilled.
M C WILCOX
Did not John the Baptist fulfill the type of Elijah?
J N ANDERSON
I agree in the matter of a type, but that is different from a fulfillment. Where one event becomes an illustration of another, there may be more than one application, but when you speak of one statement that is fulfilled entirely, to me that is very different, and I should feel some difficulty in following the Scriptures in that way.
W W PRESCOTT
Was the prophecy of Isaiah to Ahaz in the seventh of Isaiah fulfilled to Ahaz? No. Was it not fulfilled to Christ?
J N ANDERSON
My understanding to that would be that it was an illustration.
W W PRESCOTT
Then you will have to change the wording.
J N ANDERSON
I think the tenor of his writing would explain it that way.
W W PRESCOTT
How about Matt. 15:7, 8: "Well did Esaias prophesy of you, saying, This people draweth nigh unto me with their mouth, and honoreth me with their lips; but their heart is far from me."? Was not that fulfilled in Isaiah's time?
J N ANDERSON: The same truth is applied here, but the event itself was fulfilled in Isaiah's time.
W W PRESCOTT: How do you deal with the scriptures when they use the word fulfilled? Could you take it as it is?
J N ANDERSON: I think it means an application and not a fulfillment in that specific sense. That is my conception of it. The same truth is illustrated in both cases.
M C WILCOX: Do you not think there is such a thing as a partial fulfillment to Israel, and then a plenary fulfillment?
J N ANDERSON: I would say that it may be if the wording of the prophecy would warrant that.
M C WILCOX: The words are quoted in Matthew three and Luke three from Isaiah, and also in John 1:19. John quotes the very prophecy of Isaiah and applies it himself. He could not have fulfilled the whole of that.
J N ANDERSON: It may have been so large that he could not fulfill the whole. I feel a difficulty if we say it can be twice, it seems to me we have no check, and where shall we end? If we let down the bars with that sort of interpretation, why should we defend ourselves when the other man wants to take us still farther?
M C WILCOX: That is true of the great facts. It seems to me that the very giving of the prophecy and the plan of the prophecy itself, convey the correct idea. Take Isaiah 40. "The voice of one crying in the wilderness." That was fulfilled at the first advent of our Lord. You may make the prophecy broad and say it was fulfilled in Messianic times, but
you certainly find a partial fulfillment of that in John the Baptist, as stated in Matthew 3 and Luke 3. We know that the fulfillment of that application comes now just before his second advent, because the very terms of the original prophecy embraced both. I have never found any difficulty myself, not have I ever found any difficulty in convincing the outside people to whom I have talked. It seems to me clear that there can be the partial fulfillment in local conditions of the times of the prophet or a little later even, and the plenary fulfillment when He comes.
61st
Take the 69th of Isaiah: "The spirit of the Lord is upon me; because the Lord hath anointed me to preach good tidings unto the meek; he hath sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that are bound; to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord." He stopped there and closed the book and said, "This day is this scripture fulfilled in your ears." And yet we know that the very next clause, "and the day of vengeance of our God," is preached now for this time.
A O TAIT: I think that principle only applies to a certain class of prophecies, and that there are prophecies that can have only one definite fulfillment, and I think there would be no difficulty on that point. I think the point that Brother Anderson makes there is a good one, that there are certain prophecies that have a definite fulfillment, and only one, and that ends it.
W W PRESCOTT: Aren't we safe in using the scriptures themselves when they all maintain one fulfillment as a fulfillment?
A O TAIT: I was thinking in that connection of that prophecy in the second of Acts where Peter says: "This is that which was spoken of the prophet Joel." But it was only a part of the prophecy of Joel which was fulfilled then. The rest of it comes on later.
A. G. DANIELLS: If it has not a double fulfillment, then one fulfillment covers the entire Christian dispensation from Pentecost to the latter end.
E. R. PALMER: I understood that in presenting the matter, Brother Wilcox, with regard to the double fulfillment of prophecy, you limited it to Old Testament prophecy. Was that your intention?
M. C. WILCOX: Yes, that was it,—largely to the Israel of old.
F. W. FIELD: I will ask Brother Wilcox why he did not include the prophecy in Matthew 24 as an example of a prophecy with a double application. Sister White makes that very plain that in this prophecy the Saviour did mingle events with reference to the troubles that were coming upon Jerusalem, closing with the siege and destruction of the city, and events in connection with the persecution that followed.
M. C. WILCOX: That would be, of course, a prophecy to Israel of old.
J. W. ANDERSON: I had one little thought in my mind in regard to pentecost. Now it seems to me that that cannot be fulfilled a second time. I understand (I would like to be corrected if I am mistaken) that the Lord promised to send the Holy Spirit as a third person, coming ten days after the ascension of our Lord. And I understand that person has been in the world ever since that time. Now, that person can never be sent from heaven again, for He has never been withdrawn from the world, so that pentecost can never be fulfilled again. We cannot say that half of the Holy Spirit came then, and the other half will come later, because the third person was sent then, and has been here ever since.
M. C. WILCOX: That was the question that Brother Tait raised.
Of course we all agree on the question of the double outpouring, the early and the latter rain.
W. W. PRESCOTT: I think there are some features that should be considered. I would like to have a broader consideration of this question.
A. G. DANIELLS: We can divide the time tomorrow morning on the study of this question, and it seems to me it is worthy of it. I hope the Bible teachers will be ready, and let us make the hour very valuable. We will now have the discussion of Brother Bollman's paper presented this morning.
C. P. BOLLMAN: It seems to me, Mr. Chairman, inasmuch as there were quite a number of questions asked during the reading this morning, I ought to be allowed to finish reading my paper. There are only a few pages.
(There being no objection, Elder Bollman finished his paper.)
A. G. DANIELLS: Now, Brother Bollman, just state in a word or two what is your list of the ten kingdoms that meet the prophecy of Daniel 7.
C.P.BOLLMAN: Read the following, spoken of as "the second list." The Anglo Saxons, the Franks, the Alamanni Franks, or what we usually term the Alamanni, the Burgundian Franks, or what we usually term the Burgundians, the Visigoths, the Suevi, the Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Bavarians, and the Lombards.
QUESTION: Do the Bavarians take the place of the Haruli? (No answer given)
QUESTION: Which of the three were uprooted?
ANSWER: The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, and the Lombards.
QUESTION (G.B.THOMPSON): What former kingdom does this Bavarian kingdom take the place of in the regular list today?
C.P.BOLLMAN: That just depends on how you think of it in your mind. I should say it took the place of the Huns. But really it does not take the place of anything, because they have all changed.
VOICE: I suppose that it would take the place of the Huns years ago.
QUESTION: Did not the Alamanni take the place of the Huns years ago?
ANSWER: Yes, that is so.
C.P.BOLLMAN: You can say that I take up this book and put that book down. But suppose there are a whole lot of books laying around, and there was a different arrangement of the books, then it would be hard to tell what
book takes the place of another book. So it is hard to tell just what people take the place of other people. So we have several lists arranged. You say the lists are not identical. What particular country takes the place of some other country, I do not know.
VOICE: The query was on the list and not the territory.
QUESTION: What year was that list made up?
ANSWER: 533. This first list was made in 531, and he finds a change had taken place and he drops out the Heruli and puts in the Lombards.
A.O.TAIT: This list that you have given is the same as the one we have been using the last twenty years, aside from the Bavarians. You put the Bavarians in the place of the Heruli. The Heruli is the only one you have thrown out of the list that we have been using for the last twenty years, and you put the Bavarians in place of it.
C. P. BOLLMAN: In a sense the Bavariana take the place of the Heruli.
A.O.TAIT: I think that is the sense in which I asked the question.
C. P. BOLLMAN: It is a geographical proposition, and as the change has taken place between Elliott's first list and the second list, right in there; and in that sense these Lombards would take the place of the Heruli.
VOICE: I can see more reason for throwing the Haruli out than for putting in the Bavarians.
PROF. HOWELL: That is just what I would like to know — the reason for putting in the Bavarians.
A map was then produced and Elder Daniells pointed out the location of the various kingdoms as found today.
ELDER DANIELLS: I suppose Bavaria was about where it is now as placed on the map. This really gives two of these countries to the Germans — the Alamanni to the Germans and the Bavarians. So it makes two of these horns out of one class of people, it seems to me.
ELDER DANIELLS: May I now ask that the Bible and history teachers give us a statement of just what you are teaching in the schools.
PROF. SORENSON: I believe, brethren, that we have a real important paper before us this afternoon and this morning. Sometimes we may think these things do not matter much, that they are not essential to salvation. But they are vital. The interpretation of prophecy is essential to salvation in these last days. But there is a crusade of opposition against it, and an under-current among Seventh-day Adventists exists to put it away, and an attempt is made to wipe off the slate the entire program since the days of the apostles down to this present time. The hope of the Lord's soon coming, the hope we have stood for because of the prophecies, is the one thing the enemy is making great onslaughts against today, and when we can come to concrete views of this question, and when we can come to an understanding, we shall have reached the one thing
of importance in these last days. God has a great continuous message. Every part has its bearing on some other point. I have been very much gratified as I hard heard these papers today. These subjects have all been vital. Each links into some other prophecy, and when one moves we move the whole system.
The thing that impresses me in Elder Bollman's paper is that first foundation principle he lays down, that it is not a mathematical division of these ten kingdoms—they mingle themselves and then get apart again; they strive with each other, they clash each other up; and yet they meet the specifications of the prophecy. While God has determined how many there shall be, yet in the determination of God there is recognition of the right that men will exert themselves. We all believe in sovereign rights and human freedom. That applies to prophecy as well as to anything else. That is one of the finest things I ever got hold of. I might mention that as a denomination the question will be raised by people today, and by young people, of criticising the solid foundation of this whole question. We as teachers meet young people who are not afraid to say what they think, and we have to meet this question. Our friend, A. T. Jones, helped to create this sentiment, perhaps not so much at the time when he was in the church as since he has been out of the church, but he drew logical formulas that were not true. They were tremendously logical, but were not true, and that is why they were accepted by some people temporarily. We have had notions, and have had a fatalistic sentiment concerning a thing that is not in harmony with the words of Scripture themselves.
That one idea alone in Elder Bollman's paper is a wonderful point to get hold of. I find young people who want facts, who think for themselves, and who are not afraid to talk back to the teacher; and we find this fatalistic sentiment has crept in, and we must meet it.
W. W. PRESCOTT: Asks question about meaning of "fatalistic sentiment" — next reporter supposed to take.
PREScott: Just what do you mean by fatalistic setting of prophecy?
Sorenson: I mean that these kingdoms "had to come." When God speaks the things he has spoken will come to pass. But in the prophecy of the Second Chapter of Daniel this is not always so. This number of kings varies. Sometimes there nine, twelve, eight, and even five. Charlemagne reduced it to one. There is no specified number.
Wilcox: Is not this the plan that there was one time when there were just ten kingdoms?
Sorenson: Yes, but there are two times the ten kingdoms are mentioned(?). Here is a copy of one of the most recent and most reliable maps (turning to map) Here we have the ten divisions as referred to by Elder Bollman in 533. We have a definite ten, but there is still ten: The Anglo Saxons, Franks, Alamanni (the Bavarians are not definitely segregated yet) Odoacer king of the Burgundians, Visigoths, the Vandals, Suevi and East Goths, and then there is a section occupied by the Sigiri.
Prescott: What kingdom is Odoacer?
Sorenson: I call it as it is named on the maps. It is an aggregation of tribes occupying this section of the Roman empire. You must remember that these ten tribes were a good deal like our American Indians when the white people first came over. They had no cities, no commerce or private ownership in land, and therefore they could pick up and move from place to place. They had no distinct nationality.
Voice: Why not call it the Heruli, as it is mentioned in history?
SORENSON; Some histories do and some do not.
Here is this other map Elder Bollman referred to, in the year 533. It gives ten kingdoms.
PRESCOTT: Do you teach that to your classes?
SORENSON: I do not directly, but in dealing with this subject I include the idea that there is a change; and yet there is a t specified times ten kingdoms existing. I am not prepared to reject the Heruli as one of the kingdoms.
BOLLMAN: They were not a kingdom at the time of the Papacy.
SORENSON: I use two lists in my teaching to show the ten kingdoms at different times. In this later list the Heruli have gone off and the Bavarians have taken their places.
M. C. WILCOX: There was a time when there were ten kingsoms, and right at that time there came up another—the little horn—Is that the fatalistic idea?
SORENSON: I do not think so. But there is a point in Elder Bollman's paper I would like to ask him about: We say the Sabbath was changed by the Papacy. Now the Sabbath was changed before 533. So far as any change was ever made—And can we break that law until we bring the Papacy into the prophecy of Daniel? Is there any necessity of waiting until 533 before bringing the Papacy in?
PRESCOTT: (to Sorenson) Are we to distinguish in this question between the Catholic Church and the Papacy?
WASHBURN: The little horn became a monarchical power at the time Justinian constituted the Bishop of Rome a monarch.
PRESCOTT: Could you make a distinction that we had the Catholic Church which changed the Sabbath before we had the Papacy?
WASEBURE: Yes
WILCOX: I would call it a dominating power of the Papacy.
PRESCOTT: It leads us on to further distinguishing between the papacy as a monarchical power and the Catholic Church.
WILCOX: We may distinguish that the Little Horn is not the Roman Catholic Church.
SORENSON: (Pointing out the list on the map) Anglo Saxons, Franks, Alemani, Kingdom of Seragrius (south of the Franks)
VOICE: What do you mean by the kingdom of Seragrius?
SORENSON: It is that kingdom ruled by this man Seragrius who governed this territory.
WIRTH: Is not that a part of the Roman Empire?
SORENSON: Anyx Is there any ground in prophecy to show that these kingdoms must necessarily be governed by barbarian rulers. The prophecy does not say the empire was overrun with barbarians, but it does say the great Imperial unity was to be broken up into ten parts.
(Continuing reading the list): —Visigoths, Suevi, Vandals, Odoacer, East Goths. Thus in 476 was the Western empire extinguished. In 523 we have the list Elder Bollman refers to, which is still ten. It is the same territory: (Reading) Anglo Saxons, Franks, Alemani, Burgundians, Suevi, Visigoths, Vandals, East Goths, Bavarians, Lombards. In the Middle Ages we come quite often across about ten kingdoms.
PALMER: Might I ask Brother Sorenson whether in his teaching he would emphasize the persistency of the division of the Roman Empire according to the prophecy or whether he would emphasize the continuance of a definite ten.
SORENSON: When the Western Empire was broken up there were ten. When Justinian gave the Bishop of Rome power there were ten. There were two different times in history when there were ten. In my teaching I do not emphasize, simply referring the class to this fact.
WIRTH: I understand that really there are two positions. If we look at the Roman Empire in 475, it may include the Heruli, because Odoacer was at the head of world affairs there in 478. Then the Heruli would be one of the ten kingdoms. While Elder Bollman says the Heruli pushed off the stage of action in 533, and we must eliminate them, and therefore brings in the Bavarians. Is that right?
BOLLMAN: I think that is so.
WILCOX: Does not the very prophecy itself forbid the insistence upon a definite continuance of the ten kingdoms. If three are plucked up the prophecy does not insist that there were ten.
DANIELLS: Would Brother Premier like to speak his opinion?
PREMIER: I have been teaching the last twenty years the same list, and I feel to continue after what I have heard this morning. The Heruli were made up of four tribes. As long as we have been using the word "Heruli" it seems to me it would bring less confusion to the students if we were to go on using it.
PALMER: Might I ask Brother Sorenson whether in his teaching he would emphasize the persistency of the division of the Roman Empire according to the prophecy or whether he would emphasize the continuance of a definite ten.
SORENSON: When the Western Empire was broken up there were ten. When Justinian gave the Bishop of Rome power there were ten. There were two different times in history when there were ten. In my teaching I do not emphasize, simply referring the class to this fact.
WIRTH: I understand that really there are two positions. If we look at the Roman Empire in 475, it may include the Heruli, because Odoacer was at the head of world affairs there in 476. Then the Heruli would be one of the ten kingdoms. While Elder Bollman says the Heruli passed off the stage of action in 533, and we must eliminate them, and therefore brings in the Bavarians. Is that right?
BOLLMAN: I think that is so.
WILCOX: Does not the very prophecy itself forbid the insistence upon a strict discontinuance of the ten kingdoms. If three are plucked up the prophecy does not insist that there were ten.
DANIELS: Would Brother Prenter like to speak his opinion?
PRENTER: I have been teaching the last twenty years the same list, and I feel to continue after what I have heard this morning. The Heruli were made up of four tribes. As long as we have been using the word "Heruli" it seems to me it would bring less confusion to the students if we were to go on using it.
DANIELLS: There were ten, and the Heruli were on the stage of action, but the reason you say they dropped out is because they dropped out before the Papacy was legally established. But when the Empire was broken up and divided, even before the time the little horn came up, the Heruli did constitute a part of the division.
BOLLMAN: The point is this: That there comes up another little horn before the others or among the others, and there are ten. We must find ten in existence when the little horn comes up. I do not see how we can place the little horn earlier than 537 (?)
WIRTH: I think that Professor Caviness gave a good thought from the Hebrew regarding that expression "came up before the little horn," that according to the Hebrew it means "came up in the presence of the little horn,"—that is, that these three were plucked up and were not to be before the Papacy in time but "in the presence of" the Papacy.
PREScott: The little horn as a power changes the law. Now if we say the Sabbath was changed by the Laodicean Council in the fourth century, and the little horn power did not appear until 533, where are we on the change of the law?
VOICE: Was there any papacy before 533?
PREScott: It was a horn power. Not earlier than 533. But where the papacy changes the law. Now we say the Sabbath was changed as a climax in the Laodicean Council, but that could not be later than the fifth century. | a6f13b23-ddbc-404d-b7a4-213f65ed6868 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://documents.adventistarchives.org/Resources/1919BC/RBC19190702.pdf | 2020-10-31T19:20:53+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107922411.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20201031181658-20201031211658-00440.warc.gz | 281,775,388 | 27,535 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998545 | eng_Latn | 0.999217 | [
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ROADLESS AREA STUDY
Chevelon Canyon
June 1 - 5, 1972 (North Unit)
and
July 8 - 11, 1972 (South Unit)
/Being the fourth in a series of field studies conducted by the Saguaro Ecology Club on behalf of the Wilderness Society/
/The purpose being the determination of wilderness qualifications of selected Roadless Areas in the state of Arizona/
STUDY TEAM: North Unit
Robert Brooks
Kevin Dahl
David Finkelstein
Brian Massumi
Frank Richenbacher
Mike Ringer
Tom Wright
STUDY TEAM: South Unit
Tom Wright
Brian Massumi
David Finkelstein
Robert Brooks
Once again, special thanks to our mentor and guiding hand,
Mrs. Peggy Spaw
1505 E. Cherry Lynn Rd.,
Phoenix, Arizona
PREFACE
It must be made clear at the outset of this report that we are dealing with two roadless areas in Chevelon Canyon: the Forest Service roadless area extending from Woods Canyon Lake downstream to Chevelon Canyon Dam, and our proposal for a northern unit taking in a five-mile stretch of the creek from Chevelon Canyon Dam north to Chevelon Crossing. The matter is dealt with in detail under the Outside Influences and the Recommendations sections of this report.
I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
§1
Chevelon Creek originates about 50 miles southwest of Winslow, Arizona, at a spring-fed, marshy bog known as Alder Lake, located immediately north of the Mogollon Rim at an elevation of 7500 feet.
Flowing northerly, eventually to merge with the Little Colorado River, the stream first nourishes the fifty-one acre artificial Woods Canyon Lake and its dependent recreational development. Below the dam, Chevelon Creek runs dry for several miles, its vacant streambed lying at the bottom of a canyon one half mile in width. Despite the steepness of the slopes, which plummet eight hundred feet to the canyon floor, a uniform virgin stand of Engelmann and blue spruce, Douglas fir, and ponderosa pine thickly clothes this segment of the canyon. Flanking the barren creek bed and fringing frequent meadows, luxuriant forests harbor numerous species of wildlife; elk, deer, black bear, mountain lion, bobcat, wild turkey, and gray and Albert's squirrels all inhabit Chevelon Canyon and its many untouched tributary canyons.
The waters of Chevelon reappear four miles below the dam, in the vicinity of Deer Lake Canyon. Gradually gaining volume as it continues, the creek attains full strength shortly before it is once again impounded, forming Chevelon Canyon Lake.
§2
North of Chevelon Canyon Lake, spruce and fir yield to a zone of ponderosa and piñon pine. After the transition, the character of the canyon shifts, becoming narrower and more barren.
Ten to fifty feet from the water's edge, the cliffs rise abruptly at a forty-five degree angle. Where the slopes are less steep, lingering stands of mixed pine and juniper extend to the canyon
floor, but on cliffs with slopes from 45° - 90° juniper predominates with short grasses and an occasional prickly pear comprising the ground cover. The canyon walls, composed of sandstone and limestone, rise at a steady angle with no dramatic rock outcroppings interrupting their linear ascent to the rim.
The lack of substantial coniferous vegetation in the northern portion of the unit allows for the presence of a rich deciduous riparian community and a surprisingly large population of a most noteworthy inhabitant—the beaver.
The creek itself is a slow, clear, pure-running stream with average depths of two to four feet in areas where no obstacles occur. In these places, the streamside vegetation consists primarily of Arizona Walnut, Gambel's oak, assorted bushes, and, nearer the water, healthy fields of equisetum and grama grass.
Occasionally the waterflow is forced to a narrower bed and miniscule rapids appear. Where this happens, the canyon becomes overrun with wild rose and other shrubbery, many times choking the streambed with an impassable growth.
When the flow is obstructed, long, deep, broad pools form. One such pool, caused by a beaver dam near the mouth of Durfee Draw, is of exceptional proportions and beauty. Near one half mile in length and up to forty feet in width, it is surrounded by a cattail marsh and an extensive meadow interspersed with majestic groves of oak and walnut.
Areas such as this, common on a smaller scale throughout the canyon, and infrequently in the higher elevations of the south unit, are the cornucopia of Chevelon Canyon. They provide important wildlife habitat, as well as unparalleled opportunities for aesthetic enjoyment.
Unfortunately, they are also the haven of the trout and coho salmon that yearly entice a fleet of anglers to the canyon. Easy access points attract high concentrations of fishermen and the destruction associated with overuse is evident. It is only these few areas that form unwelcome interludes in the otherwise uninterrupted stretches of high-quality wilderness comprising the Chevelon Creek Roadless Area.
Grazing- The surrounding forests are heavily committed to sheep grazing, but again, the canyon itself has escaped being ravaged by its inaccessibility.
Water Rights- The Arizona Game and Fish Department controls most of the water in Chevelon Creek. The city of Winslow and several shepherders own rights, though their influence is limited and not to be viewed as an obstacle to wilderness.
Mineral Potential- None.
Access- Entrance to the canyon is easily managed at only one point, Woods Canyon Lake. There, paved roads lead to a popular campground intensively used by fishermen attracted to Woods Canyon Lake. Adverse impact is heavy, but restricted to the immediate vicinity of the lake and campground. Few people venture down the dry creek bed beyond the dam and into the roadless area. A primitive, unmaintained road leads to Chevelon Canyon Dam, but it is impassable to all but the most sturdy four-wheel drive vehicles. Access at all other points is extremely difficult and only possible by foot.
Recreational Use- Adverse impact from fishing and hiking is heavy only in the immediate vicinity of Woods Canyon Lake. Below the dam, damage is minimal. Elsewhere, the land is unharmed, with evidence of man nonexistent.
§2 North Unit
Private Land- none.
Timber- The extreme northern end, where juniper is the dominant species, is the only section of the entire roadless area where the land above the rim has not been "selectively" cut.
Grazing- Sheep are present in large numbers around the canyon, but rarely enter it.
Water Rights - Water rights are owned by the Game and Fish Department, the city of Winslow, and a few sheepmen.
At Durfee Crossing, a temporary water pump has been installed to provide water for stock tanks and the construction of a new road running parallel to the canyon on the west side, going from Woods Canyon Lake to Chevelon Crossing. (cf. "Access!")
Mineral Potential - none.
Access - Three unimproved roads allow the entrance of motorized vehicles.
The southernmost road is the nearly unusable trail to the Chevelon Canyon Dam. From the dam, a seldom-used jeep trail leads one mile downstream before the canyon walls become too narrow to allow passage. The end of this road marks the southern boundary of the proposed Northern Unit. The northern boundary is determined by the Chevelon Crossing road and bridge.
One and one half miles south of Chevelon Crossing, another road has been built into Durfee Crossing, presumably for installation and maintenance of the pump located there, previously discussed.
Recreational Use - Public use of this area of Chevelon is heavy and is likely to increase tremendously in the near future. Most of the use and resultant damage is concentrated around the Forest Service campground just south of Chevelon Crossing. Vegetation has been harmed by the evolution of unofficial trails and the irresponsible use of off-road vehicles. Litter, though not the worst of campground evils, is nonetheless the most disheartening when present in large volumes, as is the case here. Luckily, this destruction is not caused by serious hikers venturing far into the wilderness, and it is restricted only to its outer fringes.
Ecological Considerations - Chevelon Canyon provides, in its entirety, habitat to a large variety of important life forms.
Elk, bear, bobcat, mountain lion, Abert's squirrel, turkey, pygmy owl, bald and golden eagles, and osprey frequent the area. Perhaps of most significance is its enormous population of beaver, an animal becoming increasingly scarce in the state of Arizona. Although few in number in the South unit, the area above Chevelon Canyon Dam is little more than a five-mile long string of beaver ponds (of varying size and success).
Chevelon offers ideal habitat for diverse reptiles and amphibians, at least two of which, the Arizona Black Rattlesnake and the Arizona tree frog, are of very limited range.
The majority of Chevelon Canyon is in a natural condition, indubitably meriting wilderness designation; however, several serious intrusions have occurred at various points. In lieu of these developments, the Forest Service has seen fit to exclude from their proposal a vast area of prime ecological and recreational assets lying north of Chevelon Canyon Dam. For reasons adduced in the Recommendations section of this report, our study team proposes the inclusion of an additional five-mile stretch of valuable canyon-lands as a North Unit of the Chevelon Creek Roadless Area. To avoid confusion, the two units will be dealt with separately in this chapter. The area referred to as the South Unit extends from Woods Canyon Lake to Chevelon Canyon Dam, and is the only segment considered by the Forest Service. Our North Unit spreads from Chevelon Canyon Dam downstream to Chevelon Crossing.
§1 South Unit
Private Land - Formerly, Southwest Lumber Mills, Inc. and the John Page Land Company jointly held ownership to alternating sections of land in and around the Roadless Area. Recently, the Forest Service has acquired these sections by trading the private lands for lands elsewhere. Use of the formerly private land may have impeded wilderness designation. There is no longer any private land in the Roadless Area, but much remains on the surrounding rim country and may become a source of conflict in the future if the Sitgreaves National Forest does not immediately complete its plans for ownership.
Timber - The rim lands have been transected by multitudinous logging trails, rendering them undesirable and unsuitable as wilderness. Fortunately, due to the precipitous slopes, the canyon walls and floor have been spared from the saws of S.W. Forest Industries.
Three miles north of Chevelon Crossing, Chevelon Creek flows across the Sitgreaves National Forest boundary into an area of mixed BLM (880 acres) and private ownership. Being of very low elevation, the terrain changed dramatically from what has been described previously. The surrounding land becomes flat and barren, a straight-walled canyon defying entrance to the now sandy stream bottom.
Lacking nonconforming developments, this region (from Mormon Crossing to the Winslow-Holbrook road) is of strong wilderness potential. In addition to its importance as antelope habitat and to recreation in the form of boat trips, the area is distinguished by 32 unique geological formations. Formerly thought to be meteor craters, these strange potholes have been determined to have been formed by subterranean collapse.
Lower Chevelon Creek would undoubtedly constitute a valuable addition to the Wilderness System, and would complete protection of a truly exceptional perennial stream. It is hoped that the Wilderness Society will aid the efforts of Arizona conservationists in finding means of either transferring the land to BLM control or into the hands of a nonprofit land preserving charity such as the Nature Conservancy. Appended to this addendum are: a copy of a letter from William Breed, a northern Arizona Sierra Club official, calling this matter to the attention of Mr. Brandborg; and, a letter from the Nature Conservancy, expressing their latent interest in the affair.
If the Society can help in any way, it would be appreciated if it contact either or both of the affected parties.
III. RECOMMENDATIONS
Chevelon Canyon is an invaluable resource: ecologically and aesthetically. As such, we are obligated to preserve it in a condition as closely approximating its natural condition as it is now possible. A wilderness designation, it should be obvious, is the most efficacious and enduring means of doing so.
We therefore urge the inclusion of much of Chevelon Canyon in the National Wilderness Preservation System. We support the Forest Service preliminary proposal, but strongly urge expansion upon it.
In addition to the existing wilderness proposal (the area between Woods Canyon Lake and Chevelon Canyon Dam), we suggest a northern unit to extend from Chevelon Dam five miles downstream to Chevelon Crossing. We see no deterrents to such a plan; the pricelessness and wilderness character of the area is undeniable. The citizenry of the United States (both human and non) have but to benefit immensely from its perpetual preservation.
Wilderness alone, without proper management, is a defective tool. If uncontrolled recreational use is permitted, in the near future a legion of fishermen and nature lovers will descend upon Chevelon Canyon, debasing the lands adjacent to the thus far limited compensatory facilities, while simultaneously encouraging the proliferation of the scabrous developments necessary to accommodate their increasing numbers. Their effect is beginning to be felt. Woods Canyon Lake and Chevelon Crossing have already fallen to depredation.
With the construction of the new road from Woods Canyon Lake to Chevelon Crossing, larger numbers of people will be drawn to the north unit. The roads to Chevelon Dam and Durfee Crossing will
become easily accessible, stimulating use- and destruction. To avoid desecration of unharmed portions of Chevelon, vehicular access to all areas but Woods Canyon Lake and Chevelon Crossing should be discouraged perforce. This would funnel public use to areas already heavily visited, thus minimizing impact to the interior of the canyon, which is still of pristine quality.
It is our opinion that the primitive roads to Chevelon Dam and Durfee Crossing should be closed to public vehicles, the latter, perchance, to serve as a management enclave exclusively for Forest Service use.
We are convinced that if the above suggestions are successfully carried through, that maximum protection will be afforded Chevelon Canyon. We trust the Wilderness Society will accept these recommendations and will work to achieve their eventual actualization.
The larger portion of this report is based on information gathered by our study team on two visits to the canyon, the first to the North Unit from June 1-5, 1972, and the second to the South Unit from July 8-11.
Additional information was obtained from an interview with Harold Harper at the Sitgreaves National Forest office in Holbrook.
ADDENDA
I Vegetation Charts
II Inventory of Significant Wildlife
III Non-National Forest Lands on the Lower Chevelon
IV Sources
V Map
| **South Unit** | **Riparian Community** |
|----------------|------------------------|
| **Trees** | |
| Engelmann Spruce | most abundant; cover entire canyon floor except where meadows occur |
| Blue Spruce | |
| Douglas Fir | inconspicuous, but not uncommon |
| Ponderosa Pine | only enters canyon at northern section |
| **Shrubs** | |
| Wild Rose | found only in dry side canyons |
| Wild Grape | occasionally on lowest slopes and adjacent bottomland |
| **Groundcover**| |
| Wildflowers | diverse species grow abundantly everywhere |
| Nettles, Poison Ivy | too common on forest floors |
| Strawberry | dense patches occur near slopes |
| Grasses, Ferns | in excellent condition; form meadows frequently |
| **Canyon Walls** | **Rim Country** |
|------------------|-----------------|
| **Trees** | |
| Engelmann Spruce | clothe slopes thickly; most evident vegetation on |
| Blue Spruce | |
| Douglas Fir | inconspicuous when mixed with spruce |
| Ponderosa Pine | in lower elevations, replaces spruce; higher, where spruce is present, it is absent or rare |
| **Shrubs** | |
| — | |
| **Groundcover** | |
| Strawberry | only groundcover; most common on lower slopes |
| **Trees** | |
| Ponderosa Pine | dominant; heavily logged |
| **Shrubs** | |
| — | |
| **Groundcover** | |
| Grasses, etc. | sparse; grossly overgrazed |
| Community | Trees | Description |
|--------------------|--------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Riparian Community | Gambel's Oak | found in occasional groves, or solitarily on creek bottom and side canyon entrances |
| | Arizona Walnut | singly in meadows or streamside |
| | Single-leaf Ash | uncommon; in thickets where canyon is narrow |
| | Wild rose | especially thick where streambed narrows; less dense but present elsewhere |
| | Wild grape | |
| | Holly, etc. | |
| Groundcover | Grasses | everywhere in abundance and good health; knee-high in places |
| | Wildflowers, etc. | |
| | Equisetum | thick stands in meanders surrounding beaver ponds |
| | Cattail | |
| Trees | Rocky Mtn. Juniper | dominant; extends to floor of side canyons in lesser numbers; few on main canyon floor |
| | Alligator Juniper | rare; in side canyons |
| Shrubs | — | — |
| Groundcover | Mammillaria | common |
| | Prickly-Pear | sparse; inconspicuous |
| | Grasses, etc. | short; grows in unharmed clumps everywhere |
| | Lichen | scarce |
| | Moss | |
| Trees | Ponderosa Pine | dominant in higher elevations, where it sometimes occurs in the canyon; mixed or absent elsewhere |
| | Piñon Pine | mixed with ponderosa or juniper |
| | Rocky Mtn. Juniper | dominant at lower elevations |
| Shrubs | Wild Rose, etc. | few thickets; forest floor mostly clear |
| Groundcover | Indian Paintbrush | common |
| | Other Flowers | sparse |
| | Grasses, etc. | major groundcover; in good condition despite grazing |
Mammals
Elk
deer
black bear
coyote
bobcat
mountain lion
Albert's squirrel
beaver
Reptiles, Amphibians
Arizona black rattlesnake
Arizona tree frog
Birds
osprey
bald eagle
golden eagle
pygmy owl
In addition to raptars, Chevelon is sanctuary to a large number of smaller birds. To give an idea of the abundance and versatility of the birdlife, the following list of one day's casual sightings is offered:
blue grosbeak
western tanager
spotted sandpiper
hairy woodpecker
mountain chickadee
bank swallow
rough-winged swallow
mallard ducks
American coot
Brewer's blackbird
robin
morning dove
Fishes
Coho salmon
greyling
brown trout
rainbow trout
cutthroat trout
Lower Chevelon Canyon
Roadless Unit in BLM-Private Ownership
Improved Roads
Unmanaged Roads
Chevelon Canyon
Roadless Area - South Unit
Boundry -
Proposed Additions -
Side Canyons -
Chevelon Creek -
N
W
S
E
Deer Lake Canyon
South Fork
North Fork
Middle Fork
Palmira Creek
Woods Canyon Lake
Circle Bar Draw
Hogs Trap Canyon
Beaver Dam Canyon
Chevelon Canyon Lake
DAM
Chevelon Canyon Roadless Area - North Unit
Boundary -
Suggested Enclave -
Side Canyons -
Chevelon Creek -
Pipeline -
February 21, 1972
Mr. Stewart M. Brandborg
Executive Director
The Wilderness Society
729 Fifteenth Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20005
Dear Brandborg:
It has been some time since I last saw you in your office while I was in Washington lobbying for the establishment for the Pine and Sycamore Wilderness areas. Thought I would write to you today about another matter.
On the enclosed map I have outlined an area around Chevelon Creek to get you located in Arizona. This is between the Mogollon Rim and the Little Colorado directly south of Winslow for about 40 miles. The upper part of Chevelon Creek is in the Forest Service and is in elevations up to 7000 feet and this is the area that is being considered for wilderness. The lower area goes down to a much lower elevation and consists of a stream entirely in a sandstone formation with a limestone cap. The stream is sandy with very little in the way of rocks or pebbles on the bottom, and the water is perennial which is quite unusual for a stream in this area. To me, the whole stream would make a wonderful wilderness area. It is quite accessible in the spring and fall to boating parties (quite a bit of water comes down this creek). All types of wildlife like mountain lions to bobcat and beaver have been reported in this stream. The problem is although there are 880 acres in the lower part of the stream that are BLM land, the rest of it is in private hands.
I thought I would ask your advice as to what strategy you would use to try to get this land into the public domain so that it could eventually become wilderness. Would it be good to publicize the area as a recreation area to get a lot of people interested in it, or would it be better to work quietly and get the people who own the land along the creek to trade it to the BLM for land in other areas? Is it possible for people to donate land into the Wilderness Society and get a tax rebate on the value of the land so that the land can eventually be put into wilderness? We have one fellow over in Holbrook who is anxious
to get this land protected so he is spearheading the drive and we are sort of shooting out in all directions to see what would be the best policy to follow.
Best wishes on your work in Washington and hope that some time if you are in northern Arizona you will stop by to see me at the Museum.
Sincerely,
William J. Breed
Curator of Geology
WJB/dd
July 12, 1972
Mr. Brian Massumi
8132 E. Arlington Road
Scottsdale, Arizona 85257
Dear Mr. Massumi:
Thank you for your letter regarding Chevelon Canyon. At this point, the Conservancy is undecided about participating in the preservation of this area. We have several other high priority projects in Arizona which are consuming our energy and resources at this time and consequently cannot act until these commitments have been met.
If the opportunity arises, we will certainly contact you for the additional information we must have to establish Chevelon Canyon as a Conservancy project.
Thank you very much for your offer to help; I hope that we will be able to take action on this one in the not too distant future.
Very truly yours,
Bruce Wolfe
Southwestern Director
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Swat-A-Rhythm Game (& Variations)
a music game for 2-6 players
Materials: A fly swatter for each student, bug cards, and 5-8 rhythm example cards (a pdf of rhythm cards is available for purchase at ColorInMyPiano.com/shop).
Gameplay: Spread the rhythm cards out on the floor, within reach of each player. After the teacher finishes clapping the rhythm on one of the cards, the first student to swat the correct card earns a bug card. The player with the most bugs at the end of the game is the winner.
Variations:
• **Swat-A-Note** – The teacher calls out a letter of the musical alphabet, and students must swat the flashcard with the correct note on the staff. Or, do it backwards: Hold up a staff note-naming flashcard, and students swat cards that say A, B, C, D, E, F, or G.
• **Swat-A-Piano-Key** – After the teacher calls out a letter, students swat the corresponding piano key flashcard. Or, the teacher holds up a piano key flashcard and students swat cards that say A, B, C, D, E, F, or G.
• **Swat-An-Interval** – After the teacher plays an interval on the piano, the students swat the interval card they heard.
• **Swat-A-Melody** – Cut a short piece of sheet music into two-measure pieces. The teacher plays random sections on the piano, and students must swat which two-measure section they heard.
• **Swat-A-Term** -- After the teacher reads a definition of a musical term, students must swat the card with the correct term.
| Bug 1 | Bug 2 | Bug 3 | Bug 4 |
|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| Bug 5 | Bug 6 | Bug 7 | Bug 8 |
|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| Bug 9 | Bug 10| Bug 11| Bug 12|
|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| Bug 13| Bug 14| Bug 15| Bug 16|
|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| Bug 17| Bug 18| Bug 19| Bug 20|
|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
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BITE BACK
Tips on Identifying, Combating, and Preventing Bed Bugs
What are bed bugs?
- Bed bugs are small wingless insects that feed on the blood of people and animals.
- Bed bugs usually hide from light.
- Bed bugs cannot fly or jump.
- Bed bugs do not live on people but live near them.
- Bed bugs do not spread disease.
What do they look like?
Bed bugs are small, oval-shaped insects that feed on the blood of warm-blooded animals, including humans. They are typically reddish-brown in color and have a flat, broad body. Bed bugs are most active at night and can be found in various locations around a home or other structure.
Bed bugs are not known to transmit disease to humans, but their bites can cause irritation and discomfort. If you suspect that you have bed bugs in your home, it is important to take steps to eliminate them as soon as possible. This may involve treating the affected areas with insecticides, removing infested items from the home, and sealing cracks and crevices where bed bugs may enter.
If you are unsure how to proceed, it is recommended that you consult with a pest control professional who can provide guidance on the best course of action for your situation.
Figure 1: A small red mark on the finger.
Bed bugs are small, flat insects that feed on the blood of humans and other animals. They are typically reddish-brown in color and have a oval-shaped body. Bed bugs are most active at night and can be found in various locations around a home, including furniture, bedding, and cracks in walls. They are difficult to detect and can be challenging to eliminate once they have infested a property. If you suspect that you have bed bugs, it is important to contact a professional pest control company for assistance.
How do I know if I have bed Bugs
Do Have Bites?
Do you see feces, skins or blood stains?
Where Do I Look For Bed Bugs?
Bed
Timothy Myles
Bed
copyright, 2004 M. Potter University of Kentucky
Couch
Couch
Baseboards
Dresser
How do bed bugs get into my home?
Bus, Cinema, Beach, Library, Shopping
The City of Philadelphia has a long history of illegal dumping and littering. This problem is particularly acute in certain neighborhoods, where residents have been left to deal with the aftermath of construction projects, natural disasters, and other events that have led to the accumulation of debris and waste.
In recent years, the city has taken steps to address this issue, including the implementation of a new ordinance that requires property owners to remove any debris or waste from their properties within 24 hours of its removal. However, enforcement of this ordinance has been inconsistent, and many residents continue to face the challenges of living in areas where illegal dumping and littering are common.
One of the most significant challenges facing the city in this regard is the lack of resources to properly manage and dispose of the large amounts of waste generated by illegal dumping. The city has limited funding for waste management services, and the cost of proper disposal can be prohibitively expensive for many residents.
In addition, the city's waste management system is often overwhelmed during periods of heavy rain or snow, leading to the accumulation of waste on streets and sidewalks. This not only creates a public health hazard but also detracts from the overall appearance of the city.
To address these issues, the city needs to invest in more robust waste management infrastructure and increase funding for waste management services. It also needs to work with community organizations and residents to develop effective strategies for preventing illegal dumping and littering.
Overall, the issue of illegal dumping and littering in Philadelphia is complex and multifaceted. While there are no easy solutions, the city must take a proactive approach to addressing this problem in order to create a cleaner, safer, and more attractive environment for all residents.
I found Bugs! What’s next?
- **Notify your landlord immediately!** Tell him/her you think you have bugs.
- Your landlord is responsible to have the suite professionally inspected and exterminated.
- Your landlord is responsible to provide you with a set of instructions from the exterminator to prepare your suite for extermination.
- If your landlord does not respond to your request, call the Bed Bug Hotline for assistance (I have cards).
- The Bed Bug Hotline will send out an inspector to determine if bed bugs are in your building and, issue an order to treat.
Do not self treat! This may spread the infestation within your suite or to surrounding suites!!!!
ELIMINATE CLUTTER!
Washing Machine Care
- **Clean the Drum**: Use a mixture of white vinegar and baking soda to clean the drum. This helps remove any buildup and odors.
- **Remove Lint**: Regularly check and remove lint from the lint trap before each load. This prevents overheating and improves efficiency.
- **Check for Leaks**: Ensure there are no leaks around the door seal. A leaky door can lead to water damage and reduce the machine's lifespan.
- **Maintain Proper Ventilation**: Keep the exhaust vent clear to ensure proper ventilation. This helps in maintaining the machine’s performance and longevity.
- **Avoid Overloading**: Do not overload the machine. Overloading can cause poor wash results and may lead to damage over time.
- **Use Appropriate Detergent**: Use the recommended amount of detergent for your machine. Too much detergent can be wasteful and may cause residue buildup.
- **Regular Maintenance**: Schedule regular maintenance checks with a professional to ensure everything is functioning correctly and to prevent potential issues.
Dyson DC41 Animal Canister Vacuum Cleaner
The Dyson DC41 Animal is a powerful and versatile vacuum cleaner that offers exceptional cleaning performance for both hard floors and carpets. With its advanced technology, including a Cyclone technology that captures dust and allergens effectively, this vacuum ensures a deep clean without the need for pre-spraying. The DC41 features a compact design with a lightweight handle, making it easy to maneuver around your home. It also comes equipped with various attachments, such as a crevice tool and a dusting brush, which can be used for detailed cleaning in corners and tight spaces. Additionally, the vacuum includes a HEPA filter to trap 99.97% of particles down to 0.3 microns, ensuring a clean environment free from allergens and irritants. The Dyson DC41 Animal is an excellent choice for those looking for a high-performance vacuum that delivers thorough cleaning results.
Karcher SC 3 Steam Cleaner
The Karcher SC 3 is a versatile steam cleaner that can be used for a variety of cleaning tasks around your home. It features a powerful 1,500-watt motor and a 2.4-gallon water tank, allowing you to tackle tough stains and grime with ease. The machine comes with a range of attachments, including a scrub brush, a squeegee, and a crevice tool, making it suitable for cleaning floors, windows, and other surfaces. The Karcher SC 3 is also easy to use, with a simple control panel and a convenient carry handle. Overall, the Karcher SC 3 is an excellent choice for anyone looking for a reliable and effective steam cleaner.
Mattress Protector
Protect your mattress from dust mites, allergens, and stains with our waterproof mattress protector. Made from high-quality materials, it provides excellent protection while maintaining a comfortable sleeping surface. Easy to clean and maintain, it ensures a hygienic and comfortable sleep environment.
• The seal is broken by pulling the tab up and out.
Preparation
• It is very important that tenants follow the preparation guidelines provided by their landlord or hired pest control contractor.
• Proper preparation is key to reducing and eradicating bed bugs.
• Provides access to all areas for treatment
• Removes harbourage locations
• Reduces physical activity at location
Fighting bed bugs takes time!
- It is your landlord's responsibility to treat for bed bugs, it is **your** responsibility to cooperate. You can be held financially responsible or be evicted if you do not cooperate.
- Combating an infestation requires an IPM approach.
- In most cases, your suite will require two or more treatments.
- Preparation and cooperation between landlords and tenants is essential.
- Continue to monitor after treatment (traps, look for sign etc.)
Do I Need to Leave My Suite?
- Yes! You need to make arrangements to be out of your suite for 4-6 hours.
- If you have allergies, asthma, children under 4, are pregnant, or have other respiratory problems you should leave for 12-24 hours.
- Birds and pets should be removed for 4-6 hours.
- Fish tanks must be covered with the pumps turned off. Your exterminator should provide you with similar information. Follow your exterminators advice.
- If you are on EIA and need to be out of your suite overnight for health reasons, and have nowhere to stay, contact your EIA worker to ask about a hotel stay.
Continued Prevention
- Discarded items should be slashed, wrapped, and marked with bed warning tape. (see me for tape)
- DO NOT drag or carry infested furniture down the hallway for disposal. Wrap it first!
- Be community diligent. If there is furniture in your back lane, tape it. If your neighbour brings it in, you are back to square one!
- Be aware when buying second hand goods. Ask the provider if they have a bed bug strategy, inspect clothes diligently and place them in a dryer if in doubt.
- Avoid transferring bed bugs to other locations, do not leave items such as clothing beside your bed for harbourage.
- Inspect for bed bugs when staying at a hotel or other locations
- Inspect your belongings after returning from a trip or staying elsewhere.
Continued Prevention
Heat treatment is a cost effective way to prepare your items for moving.
Much more affordable than replacing items.
WEC
If you visit someone who has bedbugs
• They probably won’t find you in a few minutes!
• Unless it is a really bad infestation bed bugs are likely to stay in the bedroom.
• Sit on hard surfaces – soft cloth chairs can hide the bugs
• Keep your jacket on or hang it up
• Don’t put your bag on the floor
• Stomp off your shoes when leaving
• Brush off your clothes
• Change clothes before you go into your bedroom. Maybe in the bathtub so that if one drops off of your clothing you can pick it up and kill it.
Additional Resources
- www.bitebackwpg.com
- Province of Manitoba Bed Bug Website – www.manitoba.ca/bedbugs, ph. 1-855-3MB-BUGS(1-855-362-2847) or email: firstname.lastname@example.org
Additional Resources
- MGR Bug ‘N’ Scrub.
- Traps, interceptors, prevention tape.
- Educational Handouts.
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Maths
Year 5
Non-negotiable
Know number bonds to 10, 20 and 100 and related subtractions facts
Know decimal number bonds to 1 and 10
## Number and place value
| N | Assessed | Examples |
|---|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 | Read and write numbers up to 1,000,000 | |
| 2 | Know the value of each digit in numbers up to 1,000,000 | |
| 3 | Order and compare numbers up to 1,000,000 | |
| 4 | Understand negative numbers in context | |
| 5 | Count forwards and backwards with positive and negative whole numbers through zero | |
| 6 | Round any number up to 1,000,000 to the nearest 10, 100, 1000, 10,000 and 100,000 | |
| 7 | Solve number and practical problems that involve all of the above | Estimate the answers to calculations involving + - x ÷. |
| 8 | Read Roman numerals to 1000 (M) | |
| 9 | Recognise years written in Roman numerals | |
## Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
| A | Assessed | Examples |
|---|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 | Use formal written (column) method to add whole numbers with more than 4 digits | |
| 2 | Use formal written (column) method to subtract whole numbers with more than 4 digits | |
| 3 | Add and subtract numbers mentally with increasingly large numbers | 12,462 – 2300 = 10,162 |
| 4 | Use rounding to check answers to calculations | |
| 5 | Solve addition and subtraction multi-step problems in contexts | |
| 6 | Identify common multiples | |
| 7 | Identify factors, including all factor pairs of a numbers and common factors of two numbers | |
| 8 | Use known factors and multiples to solve multiplication and division problems | 18 x 20 = Factors of 20 → 2 and 10
18 x 20 → 18 x 2 x 10 = |
| 9 | Know and use the vocabulary of prime numbers, prime factors and non-prime or composite numbers |  |
| 10| Be able to work out if a number up to 100 is prime | |
| 11| Know prime numbers up to 19 | |
| 12| Use a formal written method to multiply numbers up to 4 digits by one or two-digit whole numbers, using long multiplication for 2 digit numbers | See route through calculation |
| 13| Multiply and divide numbers mentally using known facts | 42x6= Know 4x6 so can find 40x6, know 2x6 |
| 14| Use short division to divide numbers up to 4 digits by a one or two-digit number | |
| 15| Show remainders in division appropriately for the context | |
| 16| Multiply and divide whole numbers and those involving decimals by 10, 100 and 1000 | |
| 17| Recognise and use squared numbers and cubed numbers using \( \sqrt{x} \) and \( \sqrt[3]{x} \) | |
| 18| Solve problems involving + - x ÷ problems and a combination of these | |
| 19| Solve multiplication and division problems involving scaling by simple fractions | If 30 sweets cost £1.50, how much do 90 cost?
30 is 1/3 of 90 so 90 = £1.50 x 3 = £4.50 |
## Fractions
| F | Assessed | Examples |
|---|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| 1 | Compare and order fractions with the same denominator | 3/4 > 1/4 |
| | | 1/5, 3/5, 4/5 |
| 2 | Identify and write equivalent fractions | 1/2 = 2/4 = 3/6 |
| 3 | Recognise mixed numbers and improper fractions and convert from one to the other | Mixed number: 1 3/4 |
| | | Improper fraction: 7/4 |
| | | 7/4 = 1 3/4 |
| 4 | Write mathematical statements more than one as a mixed number | 2/5 + 4/5 = 6/6 = 1 1/5 |
| 5 | Add and subtract fractions with the same denominator and multiples of the same number | |
| 6 | Multiply proper fractions and mixed numbers by whole numbers | |
| 7 | Read and write decimal numbers as fractions | 0.71 = 71/100 |
| 8 | Recognise and use thousandths and relate them to tenths, hundredths and decimal equivalents | Know that 1/1000 is 10x smaller than 1/100 and 100x smaller than 1/10 |
| | | 7/1000 = 0.007 |
| 9 | Round decimals with 2dp to the nearest whole number and to 1dp | |
| 10| Read, write, order and compare numbers with up to 3dp | |
| 11| Solve problems involving number up to 3dp | |
| 12| Recognise the % symbol and know that it means number of parts per hundred | |
| 13| Write percentages as a fraction with the denominator 100 and as a decimal fraction | 50% = 50/100 = 0.5 |
| 14| Solve problems where you need to know percentage and decimal equivalents of 1/2, 1/4, 1/5, 2/5 and 4/5 | 1/2 = 50% = 0.5 |
| | | 1/4 = 25% = 0.25 |
| | | 1/5 = 20% = 0.2 |
| 15| Solve problems where the denominator of a fraction is a multiple of 10 or 25 | |
## Measurement
| M | Assessed | Examples |
|---|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| 1 | Convert between different units of measure | 250 m = 0.25 km |
| 2 | Understand and use equivalences between metric units and common imperial units e.g. inches, pounds and pints | 8 km ≈ 5 miles |
| | | 2.5 cm ≈ 1 inch |
| | | 1 m ≈ 40 inches |
| | | 1 kg ≈ 2.2 lbs |
| | | 30 cm ≈ 1 foot |
| | | 1 litre ≈ 1.75 pts |
| 3 | Measure and calculate the perimeter of compound shapes in cm and m – start to use algebra to show working out missing lengths | 5+Y=15 |
| | | Y=10 |
| 4 | Calculate the area of squares and rectangles using cm², and m² - start to use algebra to show working out missing lengths | |
| 5 | Estimate the area of irregular shapes | |
| 6 | Estimate volume using e.g. using 1 cm³ blocks to build cubes and cuboids | |
| 7 | Estimate capacity | |
| 8 | Solve problems involving converting between units of time | |
| 9 | Use all four operations to solve problems involving measure using decimal notation including scaling | Scaling: 1.5 times as wide as… |
## Properties of shapes
| Sh | Assessed | Examples |
|----|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 | Identify 3D shapes from 2D representations | How many cubes in: |
| 2 | Know angles are measured in degrees | |
| 3 | Estimate and compare acute, obtuse and reflex angles | Acute = <90°
Obtuse = >90° but <180°
Reflex = >180° but <360° |
| 4 | Draw given angles | |
| 5 | Measure angles in degrees | |
| 6 | Identify angles at a point and whole turn (360°), angles on a straight line and half turn (180°) and other multiples of 90° | identify right angles |
| 7 | Use the properties of rectangles to deduce related facts and work out missing lengths and angles | Recognise and compare different triangles, isosceles, right angle and equilateral |
| 8 | Understand and describe what regular and irregular polygons are | Identify and name parallelogram, rhombus and trapezium. Distinguish between regular and irregular polygons based on reasoning about equal sides and angles. |
## Position and direction
| P | Assessed | Examples |
|----|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 | Identify, describe and draw the position of a shape after reflection and know the shape has not changed | Reflection:
Every point is the same distance from the mirror line
The reflection has the same size as the original image |
| 2 | Identify, describe and draw the position of a shape after translation and know the shape has not changed | Translation:
Moving without rotating, resizing or anything else
All points of a shape must move the same amount |
## Statistics
| S | Assessed | Examples |
|----|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 | Solve questions and problems using a line graph | How many?
How many more?
What is the difference?
Comparisons |
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Ground Rules
What are ground rules?
Ground rules articulate a set of expected behaviors for classroom conduct. They can be set by the instructor or created by the students themselves (some people believe that students adhere more to ground rules they have played a role in creating).
How can we use them?
Ground rules should be established at the beginning of a course, and the instructor should explain the purpose they serve (for example, to ensure that discussions are spirited and passionate without descending into argumentation, to ensure that everyone is heard, to ensure that participants work together toward greater understanding rather than contribute disjointed pieces). Some instructors ask students to sign a contract based on the ground rules; others simply discuss and agree to the ground rules informally. It is important for instructors to remind students of these ground rules periodically, particularly if problems occur (for example, students cutting one another off in discussion or making inappropriate personal comments). Instructors should also be sure to hold students accountable to these rules, for example, by exacting a small penalty for infractions (this can be done in a lighthearted way, perhaps by asking students who violate the rules to contribute a dollar to a class party fund), by factoring conduct during discussions into a participation grade for the course, or by pulling aside and talking to students whose conduct violates the agreed-upon rules.
Sample Ground Rules for Discussions
- Listen actively and attentively.
- Ask for clarification if you are confused.
- Do not interrupt one another.
- Challenge one another, but do so respectfully.
- Critique ideas, not people.
- Do not offer opinions without supporting evidence.
- Avoid put-downs (even humorous ones).
- Take responsibility for the quality of the discussion.
- Build on one another’s comments; work toward shared understanding.
- Always have your book/readings in front of you.
- Do not monopolize discussion.
- Speak from your own experience, without generalizing.
- If you are offended by anything said during discussion, acknowledge it immediately.
- Consider anything that is said in class strictly confidential.
Sample Ground Rules for Lectures
- Arrive on time.
- Turn your cell phone off.
- Use laptops only for legitimate class activities (note-taking, assigned tasks).
- Do not leave class early without okaying it with the instructor in advance.
- Ask questions if you are confused.
- Try not to distract or annoy your classmates.
A Method for Helping Students Create Their Own Ground Rules
1. Ask students to think about the best group discussions they have been a part of, and reflect on what made these discussions so satisfying.
2. Next, ask students to think about the worst group discussions in which they have participated and reflect on what made these discussions so unsatisfactory.
3. For each of the positive characteristics identified, ask students to suggest three things the group could do to ensure that these characteristics are present.
4. For each of the negative characteristics identified, ask students to suggest three things the group could do to ensure that these characteristics are not present.
5. Use students’ suggestions to draft a set of ground rules to which you all agree, and distribute them in writing.
6. Periodically, ask the class to reflect on whether the ground rules established at the beginning of the semester are working, and make adjustments as necessary.
(Adapted from Brookfield & Preskill, 2005) | <urn:uuid:c09d8156-6fd4-4c81-80de-ffdbbc7d3083> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/solveproblem/strat-dontparticipate/groundrules.pdf | 2018-07-17T15:26:27Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00473.warc.gz | 864,695,554 | 681 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998685 | eng_Latn | 0.998721 | [
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3D Shapes Prisms A prism is a polyhedron for which the top and bottom faces (known as the bases) are congruent polygons, and all other faces (known as the lateral). This generator prints a selection of nets for the construction of common 3D shapes. Nets for the following polyhedra are included: cube, cuboid, cylinder, cone. What is the net of a shape? A few example nets together with their 3D counterparts.
3D Shapes Prisms A prism is a polyhedron for which the top and bottom faces (known as the bases) are congruent polygons, and all other faces (known as the lateral). Can you visualise whether these nets fold up into 3D shapes? Watch the videos each time to see if you were correct. Cut Nets Stage: 2 Challenge Level: Each of the nets of nine solid shapes has been cut into two pieces. Can you see which pieces go together?
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Home Paper Models of Polyhedra . Polyhedra are beautiful 3-D geometrical figures that have fascinated philosophers, mathematicians and artists for millennia.
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This tool allows you to learn about various geometric solids and their properties. You can manipulate and color each shape to explore the number of faces, edges, and. Identifying the nets of 3D shapes MRS J JONES What shape is this? It’s a cube What shape is this? It’s a cone What shape is this? It’s a cuboid What shape is this?.
This tool allows you to learn about various geometric solids and their properties. You can manipulate and color each shape to explore the number of faces, edges, and vertices.
A key stage 3 lesson on 3D shapes and their nets. This interactive lesson is designed for learners in years 7 to 9 with an extensive use of animation and sound.
Identifying the nets of 3D shapes MRS J JONES What shape is this? It's a cube What shape is this? It's a cone What shape is this? It's a cuboid What shape is this?.
Geometry Nets Information & Worksheets. "Math Salamanders Free Math Sheets". 3d Geometric Shapes Shape Salamander cuboid. Welcome to Math .
Shape and Space - 3D Shapes - Nets A Net is a 2D representation of a 3D shape that can be folded to form the 3D shape that it represents. A net of a shape is what it is. 3D Shapes Prisms A prism is a polyhedron for which the top and bottom faces (known as the bases) are congruent polygons, and all other faces (known as the lateral faces) are parallelograms. Cut Nets Stage: 2 Challenge Level: Each of the nets of nine solid shapes has been cut into two pieces. Can you see which pieces go together?
May 21, 2017, 18:57
Fun math practice! Improve your skills with free problems in 'Nets of three-dimensional figures' and thousands of other practice lessons. Identifying the nets of 3D shapes MRS J JONES What shape is this? It's a cube What shape is this? It's a cone What shape is this? It's a cuboid What shape is this?.
Here is our selection of nets for 3d geometric shapes, including nets for a cube, cuboid, prisms and pyramids. Each printable net is available with and without tabs.
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Home Paper Models of Polyhedra. Polyhedra are beautiful 3-D geometrical figures that have fascinated philosophers, mathematicians and artists for millennia. Cut Nets Stage: 2 Challenge Level: Each of the nets of nine solid shapes has been cut into two pieces. Can you see which pieces go together?
Home Paper Models of Polyhedra. Polyhedra are beautiful 3-D geometrical figures that have fascinated philosophers, mathematicians and artists for millennia.
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3d nets worksheet
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What is the net of a shape? A few example nets together with their 3D counterparts.
Hailey | Pocet komentaru: 5
3d nets worksheet
May 24, 2017, 23:51
Solid shapes and their nets Solid shapes --- cube--- tetrahedron--- octahedron--- icosahedron--- dodecahedron--- other shapes--- Euler’s formula--- glossary.
DISCOVERING 3D SHAPES. Mª ROSA GARCIA BLAZQUEZ. CEIP RAMON LLULL (RUBI).
10. Worksheet 6. Write the names of the shapes under their nets. Geometry Nets Information & Worksheets. "Math Salamanders Free Math Sheets". 3d Geometric Shapes Shape Salamander cuboid. Welcome to Math . Geometric Nets. For 3D Shapes: Printable Pack from. Bethany @ MathGeekMama.com. W j. S h. Includes nets with and without tabs!
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3d+nets+worksheet
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Fun math practice! Improve your skills with free problems in 'Nets of three-dimensional figures' and thousands of other practice lessons. A key stage 3 lesson on 3D shapes and their nets. This interactive lesson is designed for learners in years 7 to 9 with an extensive use of animation and sound
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4) Match the nets with the types of cuboids. 1. A. rectangular based cuboid. 2. B. cube. 3. C. square based cuboid. [1]. 5) Give ONE letter which touches the . Nets in Shapes Step-by-step Lesson- I haven't seen nets in years. The core. Matching Worksheet - Another series of great shapes that we have to match.
3d nets worksheet
May 27, 2017, 12:05
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This generator prints a selection of nets for the construction of common 3D shapes. Nets for the following polyhedra are included: cube, cuboid, cylinder, cone.
isaac | Pocet komentaru: 9
3d nets worksheet
May 28, 2017, 10:53
Geometry Nets Information & Worksheets. "Math Salamanders Free Math Sheets". 3d Geometric Shapes Shape Salamander cuboid. Welcome to Math.
A key stage 3 lesson on 3D shapes and their nets. This interactive lesson is designed for learners in years 7 to 9 with an extensive use of animation and sound Can you visualise whether these nets fold up into 3D shapes? Watch the videos each time to see if you were correct. The most coveted high performance vehicles in the. There is also a attached to the rear in attendance including famous women. If you're so 3d nets but this time rather last of which pre 4100 and Davita Prendergast. Stasi secret service which slave is freed the.
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NE | <urn:uuid:08964c3a-3738-4f15-b0b8-2fcfb14067d7> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://uqnx8oh.rg.ro/qv | 2018-07-17T15:40:36Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00466.warc.gz | 387,999,091 | 2,088 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995875 | eng_Latn | 0.997584 | [
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Fish camp makes anglers out of youth
By Christopher Kelley
LAMONT — Under sunny skies and on a lake surrounded by trees, the young campers at the Beau Turner Youth Conservation Center’s Fish Camp are learning the ways of the angler.
The weeklong camp just south of Monticello, for kids 9 to 15 years old, teaches all the finer points of the sport: tackle and bait information, fish biology, boat safety and how to clean and fillet fish. Campers are given tackle boxes, a rod and a reel, all of which are theirs to keep.
“They’re on the water 50 to 60 percent of the time they’re here,” said Rae Waddell, director of the Joe Budd Aquatic Education Center, where the program initially began. “It’s an immersion — we want to make them self-sufficient.”
BTYCC was opened in 2008 by Beau Turner, vice president of Turner Enterprises. The fish camp was expanded to the center last year. The center also hosts a hunting camp and is open to the public on weekends.
Kenneth Barker, director of the center, understands Turner’s devotion to the outdoors.
“Beau really wants to reach out to all kids and do whatever he can to offer any kind of opportunity to kids to get them outside,” Barker said. “It doesn’t matter if it’s fishing, going on a picnic or hunting.”
The fish camp is funded almost entirely by donations. When anglers purchase their licenses many retailers ask for a $5 donation to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, every penny of which goes toward youth camps across the state.
“I think it’s a good camp,” said Jacari Harris, 14, one of the program’s campers. “I recommend people come here.”
Fishing is a great way to spend time with family and friends, and it can be a fun and rewarding activity for all ages. Whether you're a beginner or an experienced angler, there's something for everyone in the world of fishing.
Here are some tips to help you get started:
1. Choose the right location: Look for areas that are known for good fishing, such as lakes, rivers, and streams. You can also check with local fishing clubs or organizations for recommendations.
2. Get the right equipment: Invest in a good quality rod and reel, and make sure you have a tackle box filled with hooks, lures, and other essentials. Don't forget to bring a cooler to keep your catch fresh.
3. Learn the rules: Make sure you know the regulations for the area you're fishing in, including any limits on the number of fish you can catch.
4. Be patient: Fishing can be a slow process, so don't get discouraged if you don't catch anything right away. Keep practicing and you'll get better over time.
5. Have fun: Above all else, enjoy yourself! Fishing is a great way to relax and unwind, so take your time and soak up the scenery.
Whether you're a seasoned angler or just starting out, there's no shortage of opportunities to hit the water and catch some fish. So grab your gear and head out to the nearest body of water – you never know what you might catch! | <urn:uuid:d7245abc-7e24-44a0-964f-17097ae65bbe> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://btycc.org/myJSSImages/file/TallahasseeDemocrat7_15_10.pdf | 2018-07-17T15:08:05Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00475.warc.gz | 60,446,276 | 659 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.9984 | eng_Latn | 0.998977 | [
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Discovering Swedish
EPISODE 1
“Verbs” and “Word Order”
Dialogue
Swedish
José: Hej! Är du Johanna?
Anna: Nej, jag* heter Anna. Jag kommer från Tyskland.
José: Åh, på så vis. José**. Trevligt att träffas.
Anna: Varifrån kommer du?
José: Spanien***.
English
José: Hello! Are you Johanna?
Anna: No, I’m Anna. I come from Germany.
José: Oh, I see. I’m José. Pleased to meet you.
Anna: Where are you from?
José: I’m from Spain.
Notes:
* Swedish pronunciation does not always reflect the spelling. The ‘g’ in ‘jag’ is often dropped in casual speech. Thus, when someone says ‘jag heter ___’, it may sound like ‘ja heter’. Although this is common practice today, it is never wrong to pronounce the ‘g’.
** When José gives his name, he just says his name and nothing else. The correct, full sentence would be ‘Jag heter José’, but Swedes often drop the ‘jag heter’ in spoken introductions. If you introduce yourself in writing, you have to use the full sentence.
*** The complete sentence would read ‘Jag kommer från Spanien’, but in casual speech ‘jag kommer från’ can be omitted when answering a direct question. While this is possible in English too, it is in my experience more common in Swedish, than in English.
## Key vocabulary
| Swedish | English |
|------------------|-----------------------|
| hej | hello/hi |
| hej då | good bye/bye |
| jag | I |
| du | you |
| ja/nej | yes/no |
| Jag heter _____ | I’m (my name is) _____ |
| Jag kommer från ____ | I come from _____ |
| Trevligt att träffas. | Pleased to meet you. |
| Varifrån kommer du? | Where do you come from? |
## Key sentences
| Swedish | English |
|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| Kommer du från tyskland? | Are you from Germany? |
| Nej, jag kommer från estland. | No, I’m from Estonia. |
| Vad heter du? | What is your name? |
| Talar du svenska? | Do you speak Swedish? |
Grammar Explanations
SVO The word order in Swedish is the same as in English, i.e. SVO (subject verb object):
Jag kastar bollen (I throw the ball)
s v obj.
VS? When asking a question, a different word order is sometimes necessary. This commonly happens when you take a statement and rephrase it as a question.
Consider:
Du är José (you are José).
s v
Är du José? (are you José?).
N/ProN + V + N This is one of the key sentence structures in Swedish, and the first of many that we would like to introduce: Noun or Pronoun + Verb + Noun.
Example:
| I | am named | Martin |
|---------|----------|---------|
| Jag | heter | Martin |
| ProN. | Verb | Noun |
| The dog | eats | the food |
|---------|-----------|----------|
| Hunden | äter | maten |
| Noun | Verb | Noun |
V + N/ProN + N? This is one of the key sentence structures presented in this episode: Verb + Noun or Pronoun + N + question mark.
Example:
| Are | you | José? |
|---------|----------|----------|
| Är | du | José? |
| Verb | ProN. | Noun |
| Drives | José | car? |
|---------|----------|----------|
| Kör | José | bil? |
| Verb | Noun | Noun |
| Country | Language | English |
|------------|-----------|-----------|
| Australien | Engelska | Australia |
| Danmark | Danska | Denmark |
| Finland | Finska | Finland |
| Frankrike | Franska | France |
| Grekland | Grekiska | Greece |
| Italien | Italienska| Italy |
| Japan | Japanska | Japan |
| Kina | Kinesiska | China |
| Nederländerna | Nederländska | The Netherlands |
| Norge | Norska | Norway |
| Polen | Polska | Poland |
| Ryssland | Ryska | Russia |
| Spanien | Spanska | Spain |
| Storbritannien | Engelska | The UK |
| Sverige | Svenska | Sweden |
| Sydkorea | Koreansk | South Korea |
| Tyskland | Tyska | Germany |
| USA | Engelska | The USA |
For those of you with a grammatical interest: Here’s a table with the most common primary pronouns.
### Primary pronouns
| person | number and gender | personal subjective | objective | possessive |
|--------|-------------------|---------------------|-----------|------------|
| 1st | singular | jag | mig | min/mitt/mina |
| | plural | vi | oss | vår/vårt/våra |
| 2nd | singular | du | dig | din/ditt/dina |
| | plural | ni | er | er*/ert/era |
| 3rd | masc. singular | han | honom | hans |
| | fem. singular | hon | henne | hennes |
| | non-pers. singular| den/det | den/det | dess |
| | plural | de | dem | deras |
---
**Notes:** * Sometimes you will hear Swedes say ‘eran/erat’ instead of ‘er/ert’, as in ‘eran bil’ (your car) or ‘erat namn’ (your name). This is informal Swedish sometimes used in spoken form. It should never be used in writing. The same applies to ‘vårar/vårat’ instead of ‘vår/vårt’.
---
### Building Sentences
Knowing those primary pronouns and the SVO word order, let’s see how easy it is to form a Swedish sentence...
**Subject** Use any noun (more on nouns in another lesson), name or subjective pronoun.
**Verb** Good news: each tense only has **ONE** conjugation. The subject doesn’t matter, the conjugated verb is the same for all subjects!
**Object** Use any noun, name or objective pronoun. With some verbs of course an object just doesn’t fit.
The general, unconjugated form of the verb is the infinitive. Swedish infinitives often end in -a. To use the verb vara (to be) in English you’d say I am, you are, s/he is, etc. In Swedish it’s always är in present tense, almost like saying “I is, you is, s/he is…” see, easy!
There is only one present tense. So comparing it to English, Jag läser can be translated as both I read and I am reading.
Now that you don’t have to memorize any conjugation patterns you can get a list of verbs and learn them! There are a few different types of verbs (different endings, as you’ll see below) but they are mostly very easy to remember! We will start off here with present and past (preteritum) tenses:
### FIRST CONJUGATION
| Infinitive/Infinitiv (-a) | Present/Presens (-ar) | Past/Preteritum (-ade) | English |
|--------------------------|-----------------------|------------------------|---------|
| Arbeta | Arbetar | Arbetade | Work (formal) |
| Bada | Badar | Badade | Bathe |
| Börja | Börjar | Började | Begin |
| Fråga | Frågar | Frågade | Ask |
| Hitta | Hittar | Hittade | Find |
| Jobba | Jobbar | Jobbade | Work (informal) |
| Plugga | Pluggar | Pluggade | Study (informal) |
| Prata | Pratar | Pratade | Talk |
| Sluta | Slutar | Slutade | End |
| Spela | Spelar | Spelade | Play |
| Stanna | Stannar | Stannade | Stop, Stay |
| Studera | Studerar | Studerade | Study (formal) |
| Svara | Svarar | Svarade | Answer |
| Tala | Talar | Talade | Speak |
| Titta | Tittar | Tittade | Look, Watch |
| Träffa | Träffar | Träffade | Meet |
| Öppna | Öppnar | Öppnade | Open |
### SECOND CONJUGATION
| Infinitive/Infinitiv (-a) | Present/Presens (-er, - ) | Past/Preteritum (-de, -te) | English |
|---------------------------|---------------------------|----------------------------|---------|
| Behöva | Behöver | Behövde | Need |
| Glömma | Glömmer | Glömde | Forget |
| Hjälpa | Hjälper | Hjälpte | Help |
| Hända | Händer | Hände | Happen |
| Höra | Hör | Hörde | Hear |
| Känna | Känner | Kände | Feel, Know (person) |
| Köpa | Köper | Köpte | Buy |
| Infinitive/Infinitiv | Present/Presens | Past/Preteritum | English |
|---------------------|-----------------|-----------------|---------|
| Köra | Kör | Körde | Drive |
| Lära | Lär | Lärde | Learn* |
| Läsa | Läser | Läste | Read |
| Resa | Reser | Reste | Travel |
| Ringa | Ringer | Ringde | Ring, Call |
| Ställa | Ställer | Ställde | Put, Set |
| Stänga | Stänger | Stängde | Close |
| Tycka | Tycker | Tyckte | Think (opinion) |
| Tänka | Tänker | Tänkte | Think |
| Åka | Åker | Åkte | Go |
**THIRD CONJUGATION**
| Infinitive/Infinitiv (-) | Present/Presens (-r) | Past/Preteritum (-dde) | English |
|--------------------------|----------------------|------------------------|---------|
| Bo | Bor | Bodde | Live |
| Tro | Tror | Trodde | Believe, Think |
**FOURTH CONJUGATION (IRREGULAR – FIND THE PATTERNS)**
| Infinitive/Infinitiv | Present/Presens | Past/Preteritum | English |
|----------------------|-----------------|-----------------|---------|
| Bära | Bär | Bar | Carry |
| Dricka | Dricker | Drack | Drink |
| Flyga | Flyger | Flög | Fly |
| Få | Får | Fick | Get, May |
| Ge | Ger | Gav | Give |
| Gå | Går | Gick | Go (walk) |
| Göra | Gör | Gjorde | Do, Make |
| Ha | Har | Hade | Have |
| Njuta | Njuter | Njöt | Enjoy |
| Se | Ser | Såg | See |
| Sitta | Sitter | Satt | Sit |
| Skriva | Skriver | Skrev | Write |
| Stå | Står | Stod | Stand |
| Säga | Säger | Sa | Say |
| Ta | Tar | Tog | Take |
| Vara | Är | Var | Be |
| Veta | Vet | Visste | Know (a fact) |
| Vinna | Vinner | Vann | Win |
In Swedish the verb lära (to learn) is reflexive, so when you “learn” you actually “learn yourself.” Use this verb with **reflexive pronouns** which we will introduce to you in another lesson. Ex. I am learning Swedish= Jag lär mig svenska. | <urn:uuid:473976fe-80b1-447d-a7f5-a336c7cf76c2> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://privat.bahnhof.se/wb413705/discovering_swedish/s1/01_Misi.se_DiscoveringSwedish_ep1.pdf | 2018-07-17T15:09:00Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00469.warc.gz | 302,452,603 | 2,983 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.987284 | eng_Latn | 0.992211 | [
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Discussion and Activity Ideas
- Ask pupils to begin a sentence with ‘I can see…’ to encourage close observation of different aspects of the works. Challenge pupils to keep discovering more and more detail.
- Ask pupils to begin a sentence with ‘I feel…’ to encourage the expression and sharing of their emotional responses to the works.
- Ask pupils to begin a sentence with ‘I think…’ to encourage the expression and sharing of their opinions and ideas about the works, using their imagination to answer why and how they were made.
- Ask pupils to begin a sentence with ‘I wonder…’ to encourage pupils to ask questions about the works, be curious, and inspire them to conduct further research. Question words may also be used, such as ‘How…’, ‘Why…’, ‘When…’, ‘Where…’, ‘Who…’, and ‘What…’
- Ask pupils to respond to the objects and environments in the artworks.
- What interests or appeals to you? Discuss and share thoughts as a group, and find out how different artworks mean different things to different people.
- What words would you use to describe the world depicted in the artwork chosen?
- Which world depicted in the artworks would you like to inhabit and why? What would you enjoy and not enjoy about living there?
- How do artists depict the real world in their work? Does this help us understand the world around us? Discuss where Perry is exaggerating, distorting, or imagining the real world.
Discussion and Activity Ideas for Your Visit in the VR Experience: Textiles
- What textiles can you see around you? (Boulevard has included 3 in its experience.) Are they woven? What other methods can be used to construct textiles?
- Research the history of tapestry in different periods and cultures. Find out what the function of tapestry was, what images were used, who made them, and what processes they used.
• Using squared paper, design your own tapestry by filling in blocks of color. Take this a step further and cut a piece of embroidery canvas to the same size as your design and cross-stitch the design.
• Using plastic or wire mesh, design and create your own tapestry experimenting with different found materials to weave with, such as plastic bags, paper, or twigs.
• Experiment with combining different colored threads to create new colors like Perry does for his tapestries. Using watercolor, create an image and try to match the colors with different thread combinations.
**Discussion and Activity Ideas for Your Visit in the VR Experience: Ceramics**
• Research the history of pottery in different periods and cultures (examples could include the extensive traditions in Greece, China, Japan, and North Africa). What kind of ceramics were used and what are the differences between stoneware, earthenware, and porcelain?
• Can you identify the type of ceramic, type of clay, and decorative technique used to create the pots in the exhibition?
• Using the handbuilding technique like Grayson Perry, create your own pot. Experiment with different sizes and designs of pot, thickness of coil, and shape so it does not fall over.
• Using the Sgraffito method, try scratching a pattern, text, or drawing into a piece of clay.
**Activities**
1. **Discussion and Activity Ideas for Walthamstow Tapestry, 2009**
Curriculum Links: art, design, technology, geography, literacy, history
Key Words: culture, community, industry, identity, symbols
In the *Walthamstow Tapestry*, Grayson Perry shows a journey of life seen through shopping.
• Can you describe, draw, or collage your journey to school? How do you get there? What do you see on your way? How do you feel on your journey?
• Can you describe, draw, or collage your perfect journey to school? What mode of transport would you use? Which places would you see on your way?
• Discuss what kind of place you think the tapestry depicts. What issues characterize the area, and what changes have taken place and why. You may want to think about the focus on shops in the area or changes in modes of transport.
• Discuss what your local area is famous for. What are its particular associations? What major changes have taken place in the area’s history? What people or groups is this area known for? What might be included in a tapestry depicting your local area?
• In groups, research and make a collaborative textile piece depicting and celebrating your local area. This could include yourselves, landmarks, buildings, people, attractions, or something of the local history.
• Perry references 4 elements that inspired him to create the *Walthamstow Tapestry*. Research and identify the similarities and differences between his tapestry and:
- The Bayeux Tapestry
- Picasso’s *Guernica*
- William Morris designs
- Sumatran Batiks
2. Discussion and Activity Ideas for *Ultimate Consumer Durable, 2005* and *Walthamstow Tapestry, 2009*
Curriculum Links: art, design, technology, geography, literacy, history
Key Words: consumerism, brands, identity, symbols
Grayson Perry has commented that *Ultimate Consumer Durable* might appear at first glance “like a storage jar that would have held spices, the sort of thing that once were traded there [Venice],” but laments, in the same breath, “now international brands that you can buy everywhere are all that’s sold in Venice.” While conceiving this object, Perry explains that he went through a book of traditional animal motifs from different periods and cultures and assigned each creature an international brand. Accordingly, there’s an Aztec Sony and a medieval Chanel. The artist has made his own name through ceramics; they have become his own ultimate consumer durable brand. So in a way, Grayson Perry is acknowledging that he is a brand as well.
• Looking at *Ultimate Consumer Durable, 2005*, and the *Walthamstow Tapestry, 2009*, discuss which shops/brand names featured in the works are familiar and what they mean to you.
• What images are they associated with, and why do you think Perry chose to represent the name with that image? For example, in the *Walthamstow Tapestry* why is the BBC (a TV channel in England known for its serious news reports and cultural programs) depicted as an old woman with a shopping bag and a walking stick? And why is Sony represented as Aztec in *Ultimate Consumer Durable*?
• Can you choose a shop/brand name from the work and design an image to represent it? For example, what would Disney/Nike/McDonalds be like if it was a person? What would it look like? What would it be wearing? What would it be doing?
• An animal? Like the animals found on *Ultimate Consumer Durable*, would it be a real or an imaginary animal?
• A building? What would it look like? What would it be made from? What would be inside it? What would it be for?
• A plate of food? What food would you include? What would it taste like? What would it smell like?
• Research the motifs and symbols of historical/ancient cultures like the Aztecs, and find out why they were used and what they meant. Can you redesign the motifs for our current culture?
*Optional Exercise: Compare either Grayson Perry’s *Ultimate Consumer Durable* or his *Walthamstow Tapestry* to Andy Warhol’s *Campbell’s Soup Cans, 1962* (at the Museum of Modern Art, New York)—Consider material, process, format, and respective messages about consumerism in the U.S. and England (during the time periods in which they were made).
3. Discussion and Activity Ideas for *Comfort Blanket, 2014*
Curriculum Links: art, design, technology, geography, literacy, history
Key Words: consumerism, brands, identity, symbols
This 3-part tapestry includes symbols of British culture from the historic Magna Carta to more contemporary cultural elements, such as wellies (a particular kind of rain boots), fish and chips, the £10 note with a medallion in the center showing Queen Elizabeth’s face, and references to famous people like rockstar David Bowie.
Discuss symbols of contemporary U.S. society, as well as from American history beginning with the time of America’s break with England in 1776. Do students share similar ideas about what represents American culture? Discuss what symbols might make us feel comfortable (as in Perry’s title “Comfort Blanket”), united, or fierce. Is it hard for America to reflect the many cultures and peoples that make it up?
Have students design their own horizontal tapestry (on paper) in 3 parts—representing aspects of American life from iconic food and clothing to places, institutions, and symbols of culture, history, and politics.
Have students design the front of a new American $10 dollar bill. What would it look like? What symbols would it include? What figure from history or contemporary culture would be featured on it? Ask students to explain their choices.
Have them research the final four historic women who were considered to replace Andrew Jackson on the American $20 bill: Harriet Tubman (ultimately selected), Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosa Parks, and Wilma Mankiller. Have students discuss why many people feel this is relevant for today’s society. This can take the form of a debate, in which students argue for one of the candidates considered, or propose their own suggestion.
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Will more STOP signs slow traffic on my street?
Under the right conditions, STOP signs can play an important role in traffic safety. However, STOP signs installed in the wrong place usually create more problems than they solve.
National standards have been established to determine when STOP signs should be installed. These standards consider traffic speed, number of vehicles, sight distance and the frequency of traffic gaps allowing safe vehicle entry onto a street or pedestrian crossing of a roadway.
STOP signs are not meant to be installed as speed breakers or to be a nuisance to drivers by interrupting their traffic flow. Four-way STOPS are only helpful when traffic volumes are high and close to equal on all approaches to an intersection.
Intersections with levels of at least 500 cars per hour for most of the day may benefit from four-way STOP Signs. For safety purposes, STOP signs should stop traffic on the lesser traveled street.
Will the city look into my concerns about STOP signs?
The City of Glendale receives many requests for STOP signs in neighborhoods. The city uses its own engineering standards and the national standards to determine whether a STOP sign is a useful and reasonable traffic control device for that location.
Studies in Arizona and across the country show that speed is reduced in the immediate vicinity of STOP signs installed as speed breakers or nuisances. However, speeds were found to be higher between intersections than before the signs were installed. This is caused by motorists “making up for lost time.” Nuisance STOP signs also increase air pollution, waste fuel and create additional traffic noise.
Low volume streets within neighborhoods tend to operate best under the state right-of-way law. This law requires drivers to approach an intersection cautiously and to control their speed to a reasonable level. An interesting note is that when STOP signs are placed on one street, speeds tend to increase on the other street. In these instances motorists assume they no longer have to drive as cautiously through the intersection because the other car is required to stop.
Remember the state law at intersections without STOP or YIELD signs:
When two vehicles enter an intersection from different streets at the same time, the driver on the left shall yield right of way to the driver on the right. The only exception is at a “T” intersection where the driver on the through street has the right of way.
For More Information...
Most drivers are reasonable. When confronted with unnecessary restrictions, motorists are more likely to violate them and they usually develop a contempt for all traffic signs...often with tragic results.
Glendale’s Traffic Engineering Department wants to work with you to ensure your driving safety.
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My dear Mrs. Catt:
Please find enclosed a copy of the resolutions which were presented to the League of Nations Commission on April 10, 1919. Attached to these is a copy of the letter which Mr. Frazer wrote Lady Aberdeen after the conference.
Sincerely yours,
Fannie Fern Andrews
The League of Nations Commission of the Peace Conference received on April 10, 1919, a deputation from the International Council of Women and the Conference of Women Suffragists of the Allied Countries and the United States.
The deputation was introduced by the Marchioness of Aberdeen and Temair, President of the International Council of Women, who assured the President and the Members of the Commission of the entire sympathy of the more than twenty million women represented by the delegation with the principles of the League of Nations, and their desire to ripen public opinion in its favor through the women's organizations working in all parts of the world. To obtain however the full co-operation of women, there were certain points which the delegation wished to urge on the consideration of the Commission.
1. That women should be equally eligible with men to sit on all bodies and to fill all offices set up under the League.
2. That States entering the League undertake to suppress all traffic in women and children and the licensing of houses of ill-fame.
3. That the principle of Woman Suffrage be recognized by the League of Nations as one which should be applied throughout the world, as soon as the civilization and democratic development of each country may so permit.
4. That the nations entering the League endeavor to make the aims and methods of their educational systems consistent with the general principles of the League of Nations and to this end agree to establish a permanent Bureau of Education.
5. That provision be made in the Covenant of the League of Nations for an International Bureau of Hygiene.
The above points were further explained by
Mrs. Corbett Ashby. England.
Madame Grinberg. France.
Mme. Avril de Sainte Croix. France.
Miss S. Margery Fry. England.
Madame de Witt Schlumberger.
Mme. Schiavoni Rosio. Italy.
Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews. U. S. A.
Dr. Girard Mangin. France.
Amongst others who accompanied the deputation were Mme. Bratiano, wife of the Prime Minister of Roumania; Mme. Brunswick; Madame d'Amatio Tivoli, Italy; Mrs. G. Rublee, U. S. A.; Madame Brogide, Belgium; Madame Puech; Mme. Maria Vérone.
Madame Jules Siegfried, President of the National Council of Women of France, thanked the President and Commission for their kind reception, and the deputation then withdrew.
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF WOMEN AND CONFERENCE OF WOMEN SUFFRAGISTS OF THE ALLIED COUNTRIES AND OF THE UNITED STATES
TO
THE PRESIDENT AND MEMBERS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS COMMISSION AND TO THE PLENIPOTENTIARIES OF THE PEACE CONFERENCE
I
THE POSITION OF WOMEN ON THE COMMISSIONS AND IN THE PERMANENT SECRETARIATS
Whereas the League of Nations is demanded by the masses of the people.
Whereas its character to be effective should be democratic and representative.
Whereas half the people of the world are women.
The International Council of Women and the Conference of Women Suffragists of the Allied Countries and the United States petition as follows:
That women should be equally eligible with men to the Body of Delegates, the Executive Council and the Permanent Secretariat and should be appointed to all the permanent Commissions on the same terms as men.
2.
MORAL QUESTIONS.
Whereas certain countries still maintain laws and customs which practically keep their women in a state of slavery:
a): That they decide the fate of children by promising them in marriage at an early age;
b): By the toleration of either the openly avowed or privately arranged sale of women.
Whereas the countries represented at the Peace Conference must recognize not only the right of Nations, but also of individual citizens.
Whereas the special measures taken under pretext of public health or public safety with regard to women who are, or are suspected of being, prostitutes, finally achieve the entire degradation of these unhappy creatures, are a danger to public health in creating a false feeling of security in a dissolute life, and are thus in themselves an incentive to disorder and immorality.
The International Council of Women and the Conference of Women Suffragists of the Allied Countries and the United States petition as follows:
1. To suppress the sale of women and children.
2. To respect and apply the principle of woman's liberty to dispose of herself in marriage.
3. To suppress the traffic in women, girls, and children of both sexes, and its corollary, the licensed houses of ill-fame.
3.
III.
SUFFRAGE.
Whereas the Peace Conference concerns the whole human race, as well women as men, and that from this Conference we trust there will issue the reign of lasting peace and the recognition of the right of peoples to a free self-determination.
Whereas no one can esteem himself authorized to speak in the name of the peoples so long as women, who constitute half the human race, are excluded from the political life of the nations.
Whereas those women who lack the suffrage are without a voice in the Government of their country, and that it is profoundly unjust that they can take no part in decisions which may issue in peace or war, decisions determining a future of which they, without a share in the responsibility, must bear the consequences.
Whereas though not combattants they play an essential part in war, since, by giving their sons for the defence of their country they furnish what may be called "human material."
Whereas on the other hand women have, during the war, shown the value of their work and their social activity.
Whereas the participation of mothers and wives in the suffrage would be one of the best guarantees for future peace,
Whereas the status of women has ever been recognized as the criterion of civilization and freedom in states.
The International Council of Women and the Conference of Women Suffragists of the Allied Countries and the United States of America petition as follows:
1) That the principle of Women's Suffrage be recognized by the Peace Conference and the League of Nations in order that it may be applied throughout the world as soon as the civilization and the democratic development of each State may permit.
2) That in any Referendum which may be taken to decide the nationality of a country, women shall, equally with men, be consulted as to the fate of their country.
EDUCATION.
Whereas a League of Nations should be not only an instrument of Peace but also an instrument of civilization;
Whereas for the maintenance of a League of Nations it is essential to teach children from an early age to understand its usefulness and its benefits and to respect its aims;
Whereas the true freedom of men and women can only be gained by a liberal and democratic education, open to all citizens alike;
The International Council of Women and the Conference of Women Suffragists of the Allied Countries and the United States petition as follows:
That a provision be made in the covenant of the League of Nations for an International Bureau of Education.
ARTICLE XXI.
The High Contracting Parties will endeavor to make the aims and methods of their educational systems consistent with the general principles underlying the League of Nations; and to this end agree to establish as part of the organization of the League a permanent bureau of Education.
The present Article XXI would become Article XXII.
HYGIENE.
In view of the vital importance of questions of Hygiene and their bearing upon present world conditions:
The International Council of Women and the Conference of Women Suffragists of the Allied Countries and the United States petition as follows:
That provision be made in the Covenant of the League of Nations for an International Bureau of Hygiene.
My dear Lady Aberdeen:
Just a line to tell you how much I was impressed by the recommendations of the Women's Delegation last night and especially by the manner in which they were made. When I was quite a young man at the State elections in California in 1892 I voted for woman suffrage so that my conversion does not date from yesterday. At the same time I felt that if any arguments had been necessary to fortify my convictions they were furnished by the ladies who, as President Wilson remarked, were teaching the men a lesson in brevity.
With congratulations to you as the organizer of this inspiring manifestation,
Believe me,
Sincerely yours,
(Signed) ARTHUR HUGH FRAZER. | 6d943ce6-0090-489c-afd6-2a9e06bcedce | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://cdn.alexanderstreet.com/dorp/apdf/0/71fd/f619/1003463247.a.pdf?e=1548790711&h=7c4e83f8a9c7a02463ea3e5db00165e7 | 2021-12-06T23:29:58+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363327.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20211206224536-20211207014536-00108.warc.gz | 234,083,392 | 1,791 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.991798 | eng_Latn | 0.996473 | [
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Dear Family,
During the next few weeks, our math class will learn about interpreting and representing data. You can expect to see homework that provides practice with tally tables, frequency tables, picture graphs, bar graphs, and line plots.
Here is a sample of how your child will be taught to solve problems using a bar graph.
**MODEL** Use a Bar Graph to Solve a Problem
Use the bar graph. How many more sports books than nature books does Richard have?
**STEP 1**
Identify the bars for Sports and Nature.
**STEP 2**
Count along the scale to find the difference between the bars. The difference is 5 books.
So, Richard has 5 more sports books than nature books.
**Activity**
Look for bar graphs in magazines and newspapers or help your child create his or her own bar graphs. Then ask questions such as “how many more” and “how many fewer” and help your child find the answers.
**Vocabulary**
- **bar graph** A graph that uses bars to show data
- **data** Information that is collected about people or things
- **frequency table** A frequency table uses numbers to record data.
- **line plot** A line plot uses marks to record each piece of data above a number line.
- **picture graph** A picture graph uses small pictures or symbols to show information.
**Tips**
**Reading Scales**
To make reading the length or height of a bar easier, use a straightedge or ruler to line up one end of the bar with the number on the scale.
Carta para la casa
Estimada familia,
Durante la próximas semanas, en la clase de matemáticas aprenderemos acerca de interpretar y representar problemas usando una gráfica de barras datos.
Llevaré a la casa tareas que sirven para poner en práctica las tablas de frecuencia, las gráficas de dibujos, las gráficas de barras y los diagramas de puntos.
Este es un ejemplo de la manera como aprenderemos a resolver problemas usando una gráfica de barras.
MODELO Usar una gráfica de barras para resolver un problema
Usa la gráfica de barras. ¿Cuántos libros más de deportes que de la naturaleza tiene Richard?
PASO 1
Identifica las barras para Deportes y Naturaleza.
PASO 2
Cuenta a lo largo de la escala para hallar la diferencia entre las barras. La diferencia es 5 libros.
Entonces, Richard tiene 5 libros más de deportes que de la naturaleza.
Actividad
Busque y recorte gráficas de barras de revistas o periódicos o ayude a su hijo a crear sus propias gráficas de barras. Después haga preguntas como “cuántos más” y “cuántos menos”. Ayúdelo a hallar las respuestas.
Use the Favorite School Subject tables for 1–4.
1. The students in two third-grade classes recorded their favorite school subject. The data are in the tally table. How many fewer students chose science than chose social studies as their favorite school subject?
**Think:** Use the data in the tally table to record the data in the frequency table. Then solve the problem.
| Subject | Tally |
|---------------|-------|
| Math | |||| |||| I |
| Science | |||| |
| Language Arts | |||| || |
| Reading | |||| |||| |
| Social Studies| |||| |||| || |
social studies: 12 students
science: 5 students
\(12 - 5 = 7\)
So, 7 fewer students chose science.
2. What subject did the least number of students choose?
science
3. How many more students chose math than language arts as their favorite subject?
4 more students
4. Suppose 3 students changed their vote from math to science. Describe how the frequency table would change.
There would be an equal number of students who chose math and who chose science.
The tally table shows the cards in Kyle’s sports card collection.
1. How many hockey and football cards does Kyle have combined?
- A. 5
- B. 8
- C. 12
- D. 13
| Sport | Tally |
|----------|-------|
| Baseball | |||| |||
| Hockey | |||| |
| Basketball | |||
| Football | |||| |||
Spiral Review (CC.3.OA.8, CC.3.NBT.1, CC.3.NBT.2)
2. There are 472 people in the concert hall. What is 472 rounded to the nearest hundred? (Lesson 1.2)
- A. 400
- B. 470
- C. 500
- D. 600
3. Max and Anna played a video game as a team. Max scored 463 points and Anna scored 329 points. How many points did they score in all? (Lesson 1.12)
- A. 892
- B. 792
- C. 782
- D. 134
4. Judy has 573 baseball cards in her collection. Todd has 489 baseball cards in his collection. How many fewer cards does Todd have than Judy? (Lesson 1.10)
- A. 84
- B. 94
- C. 116
- D. 184
5. Ms. Westin drove 542 miles last week and 378 miles this week on business. How many miles in all did she drive on business during the two weeks? (Lesson 1.7)
- A. 810 miles
- B. 820 miles
- C. 910 miles
- D. 920 miles
Use Picture Graphs
Use the Math Test Scores picture graph for 1–7.
Mrs. Perez made a picture graph of her students’ scores on a math test.
1. How many students scored 100? How can you find the answer?
To find the number of students who scored 100, count each star as 4 students. So, 20 students scored 100.
2. What does ⭐ stand for?
It represents 2 students.
3. How many students in all scored 100 or 95?
32 students
4. How many more students scored 90 than 85?
10 more students
5. How many students in all took the test?
50 students
Problem Solving
6. Suppose the students who scored 85 and 90 on the math test take the test again and score 95. How many stars would you have to add to the picture graph next to 95?
4 stars and half of a star
7. If 2 more students took the math test and both made a score of 80, what would the picture graph look like? Possible answer: there would be another row below 85. There would be half of a star next to 80.
1. Karen asked her friends to name their favorite type of dog.
| Favorite Dog |
|--------------|
| Retriever |
| Poodle |
| Terrier |
Key: Each bone = 2 people.
How many people chose poodles?
A) 10
C) 4
F) 6
D) 3
2. Henry made a picture graph to show what topping people like on their pizza. This is his key.
Each = 6 people.
What does stand for?
A) 2 people
B) 6 people
C) 9 people
D) 12 people
Spiral Review (CC.3.NBT.1)
3. Estimate the sum. (Lesson 1.3)
523 + 295
A) 900
C) 700
F) 800
D) 600
4. Estimate the difference. (Lesson 1.8)
610 - 187
A) 800
C) 500
F) 400
B) 600
5. What is 871 rounded to the nearest ten? (Lesson 1.2)
A) 900
B) 880
F) 870
D) 800
6. What is 473 rounded to the nearest hundred? (Lesson 1.2)
A) 400
B) 470
F) 500
D) 570
Ben asked his classmates about their favorite kind of TV show. He recorded their responses in a frequency table. Use the data in the table to make a picture graph.
Follow the steps to make a picture graph.
Step 1 Write the title at the top of the graph.
Step 2 Look at the numbers in the table. Tell how many students each picture represents for the key.
Step 3 Draw the correct number of pictures for each type of show.
Use your picture graph for 1–5.
1. What title did you give the graph?
Favorite TV Show
2. What key did you use?
Each □ = 3 students.
3. How many pictures did you use to represent sports?
2 pictures
Problem Solving
4. How many pictures would you draw if 12 students chose game shows as their favorite kind of TV show?
4 pictures
5. What key would you use if 10 students chose cartoons?
Each □ = 2 students.
1. Sandy made a picture graph to show the sports her classmates like to play. How many fewer students chose baseball than chose soccer?
| Favorite Sport | Basketball | Soccer | Baseball |
|----------------|------------|--------|----------|
| | 8 | 10 | 6 |
Key: Each \( \bigcirc = 2 \) students.
A. 3
B. 4
C. 7
D. 8
2. Tommy is making a picture graph to show his friends’ favorite kind of music. He plans to use one musical note to represent 2 people. How many notes will he use to represent that 4 people chose country music?
A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8
Spiral Review (CC.3.OA.9, CC.3.NBT.1, CC.3.NBT.2)
3. Find the sum. (Lesson 1.7)
\[
\begin{align*}
490 \\
+ 234 \\
\hline
\end{align*}
\]
A. 256
B. 624
C. 664
D. 724
4. Sophie wrote odd numbers on her paper. Which number was NOT a number that Sophie wrote? (Lesson 1.1)
A. 5
B. 11
C. 13
D. 20
5. Miles ordered 126 books to give away at the store opening. What is 126 rounded to the nearest hundred? (Lesson 1.2)
A. 230
B. 200
C. 130
D. 100
6. Estimate the difference. (Lesson 1.8)
\[
\begin{align*}
422 \\
- 284 \\
\hline
\end{align*}
\]
A. 100
B. 180
C. 200
D. 700
Use Bar Graphs
Use the After-Dinner Activities bar graph for 1–6.
The third-grade students at Case Elementary School were asked what they spent the most time doing last week after dinner. The results are shown in the bar graph at the right.
1. How many students spent the most time watching TV after dinner?
\[3\text{ students}\]
2. How many students in all answered the survey?
\[29\text{ students}\]
3. How many students in all played a game or read?
\[14\text{ students}\]
4. How many fewer students read than did homework?
\[6\text{ fewer students}\]
5. How many more students read than watched TV?
\[3\text{ more students}\]
Problem Solving
6. Suppose 3 students changed their answers to reading instead of doing homework. Where would the bar for reading end?
\[halfway between 8 and 10\]
1. The bar graph shows the number of sandwiches sold at Lisa’s sandwich cart yesterday. How many tuna sandwiches were sold?
- A 12
- B 16
- C 18
- D 20
Spiral Review (CC.3.NBT.1)
2. What is 582 rounded to the nearest ten? (Lesson 1.2)
- A 500
- B 580
- C 590
- D 600
3. Savannah read 178 minutes last week. What is 178 rounded to the nearest hundred? (Lesson 1.2)
- A 400
- B 280
- C 200
- D 180
4. Estimate the difference. (Lesson 1.8)
\[
\begin{align*}
&371 \\
- &99 \\
\end{align*}
\]
- A 500
- B 400
- C 300
- D 200
5. Estimate the difference. (Lesson 1.8)
\[
\begin{align*}
&625 \\
- &248 \\
\end{align*}
\]
- A 800
- B 500
- C 400
- D 300
Ben asked some friends to name their favorite breakfast food. He recorded their choices in the frequency table at the right.
1. Complete the bar graph by using Ben’s data.
Check students’ work.
Use your bar graph for 2–5.
2. Which food did the most people choose as their favorite breakfast food?
cereal
3. How many people chose waffles as their favorite breakfast food?
8 people
4. How did you know how high to draw the bar for pancakes?
Possible answer: since 12 people chose pancakes, I made the top of the bar end at the line for 12.
5. Suppose 6 people chose oatmeal as their favorite breakfast food. How would you change the bar graph?
Possible answer: I would make the bar for oatmeal end halfway between 4 and 8.
1. Gary asked his friends to name their favorite pizza topping. He recorded the results in a bar graph. How many people chose pepperoni?
- A 6
- B 5
- C 4
- D 1
2. Suppose 3 more friends chose mushrooms. Where would the bar for mushrooms end?
- A 2
- B 4
- C 6
- D 8
Spiral Review (CC.3.OA.9, CC.3.NBT.1)
3. Estimate the sum. (Lesson 1.3)
\[
\begin{align*}
&458 \\
+ &214 \\
\end{align*}
\]
- A 700
- B 600
- C 300
- D 200
4. Matt added $14 + 0$. What is the correct sum? (Lesson 1.1)
- A 140
- B 14
- C 1
- D 0
5. There are 682 runners registered for an upcoming race. What is 682 rounded to the nearest hundred? (Lesson 1.2)
- A 600
- B 680
- C 700
- D 780
6. There are 187 new students this year at Maple Elementary. What is 187 rounded to the nearest ten? (Lesson 1.2)
- A 100
- B 180
- C 190
- D 200
Solve Problems Using Data
Use the Favorite Hot Lunch bar graph for 1–3.
1. How many more students chose pizza than chose grilled cheese?
Think: Subtract the number of students who chose grilled cheese, 2, from the number of students who chose pizza, 11.
\[ 11 - 2 = 9 \]
9 more students
2. How many students did not choose chicken patty?
21 students
3. How many fewer students chose grilled cheese than chose hot dog?
6 fewer students
Use the Ways to Get to School bar graph for 4–7.
4. How many more students walk than ride in a car to get to school?
3 more students
5. How many students walk and ride a bike combined?
10 students
Problem Solving
6. Is the number of students who get to school by car and bus greater than or less than the number of students who get to school by walking and biking? Explain.
greater than; Possible explanation: \( 4 + 12 = 16; \)
\( 7 + 3 = 10; 16 > 10 \)
7. What if 5 more students respond that they get to school by biking? Would more students walk or ride a bike to school? Explain.
bike; Possible explanation:
7 students walk; \( 3 + 5 = 8 \)
students bike; \( 7 < 8 \)
1. How many fewer votes were for bench repair than for food drive?
- A 9
- B 10
- C 11
- D 16
2. How many votes were there in all?
- A 4
- B 14
- C 32
- D 34
Spiral Review (CC.3.NBT.1, CC.3.NBT.2)
3. Find the difference. (Lesson 1.10)
\[
\begin{align*}
&\phantom{-}650 \\
-&\phantom{0}189 \\
\hline
&\phantom{-}461
\end{align*}
\]
- A 461
- B 479
- C 539
- D 571
4. Greyson has 75 basketball cards. What is 75 rounded to the nearest ten? (Lesson 1.2)
- A 60
- B 70
- C 80
- D 90
5. Sue spent $18 on a shirt, $39 on a jacket, and $12 on a hat. How much did she spend in all? (Lesson 1.5)
- A $79
- B $69
- C $57
- D $51
6. There are 219 adults and 174 children at a ballet. How many people are at the ballet in all? (Lesson 1.7)
- A 45
- B 293
- C 383
- D 393
Use and Make Line Plots
Use the data in the table to make a line plot.
| Price | Number Sold |
|-------|-------------|
| $11 | 1 |
| $12 | 4 |
| $13 | 6 |
| $14 | 4 |
| $15 | 0 |
| $16 | 2 |
How Many Shirts Were Sold at Each Price?
1. How many shirts sold for $12?
\[ \text{4 shirts} \]
2. At which price were the most shirts sold?
\[ \$13 \]
3. How many shirts in all were sold?
\[ 17 shirts \]
4. How many shirts were sold for $13 or more?
\[ 12 shirts \]
Problem Solving
Use the line plot above for 5–6.
5. Were more shirts sold for less than $13 or more than $13? Explain.
\[ \text{more than } \$13; 6 > 5 \]
6. Is there any price for which there are no data? Explain.
\[ \text{yes; Possible explanation: there are no Xs above } \$15, \text{ so there were no shirts sold for } \$15. \]
1. Pedro made a line plot to show the heights of the plants in his garden. How many plants are less than 3 inches tall?
- A 4
- B 5
- C 10
- D 16
Spiral Review (CC.3.NBT.1, CC.3.NBT.2)
2. Find the sum. (Lesson 1.7)
\[
\begin{align*}
&\phantom{+}642 \\
+&\phantom{+}259 \\
\hline
&\phantom{+}901
\end{align*}
\]
- A 383
- B 801
- C 891
- D 901
3. Find the difference. (Lesson 1.10)
\[
\begin{align*}
&\phantom{-}460 \\
-&\phantom{-}309 \\
\hline
&\phantom{-}151
\end{align*}
\]
- A 61
- B 151
- C 161
- D 169
4. There were 262 hamburgers cooked for the school fair. What is 262 rounded to the nearest hundred? (Lesson 1.2)
- A 200
- B 260
- C 270
- D 300
5. Makenzie has 517 stickers in her collection. What is 517 rounded to the nearest ten? (Lesson 1.2)
- A 500
- B 510
- C 520
- D 600
Chapter 2 Extra Practice
Lesson 2.1
Use the Pets tables for 1–2.
1. Manny collected data about pets owned by students in his class. Complete Manny’s tally table and frequency table.
| Pets | Tally |
|------|-------|
| Cat | |||| |
| Dog | || |
| Bird | I |
| Fish | I |
| Pets | Number |
|------|--------|
| Cat | 4 |
| Dog | 2 |
| Bird | 1 |
| Fish | 1 |
Check students’ tables.
2. How many more students have cats than have dogs and birds combined?
1 more student
Lessons 2.2 – 2.3
Use the Seashells picture graph for 1–3.
1. Maggie has a picture graph that shows the seashells she collected. How many seashells did Maggie collect in all?
85 seashells
2. How many more cockle shells did she collect than lightning whelks?
15 more cockle shells
3. What if the key were “Each = 5 shells?” How many pictures would there be for conch?
4 pictures | <urn:uuid:52924b2a-1e39-4c4e-a6b3-927195ce44aa> | CC-MAIN-2019-26 | http://lukaclass.weebly.com/uploads/5/4/0/8/5408148/unit2_gomath_3rd_grade.pdf | 2019-06-16T03:05:32Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627997533.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616022644-20190616044644-00218.warc.gz | 106,514,918 | 4,994 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.921159 | eng_Latn | 0.994219 | [
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B.Tech 1st Semester Exam., 2013
ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Time: 3 hours Full Marks: 70
Instructions:
(i) The marks are indicated in the right-hand margin.
(ii) There are NINE questions in this paper.
(iii) Attempt FIVE questions in all.
(iv) Question No. 1 is compulsory.
1. Fill in the blank/Choose the correct option of the following (any seven): $2 \times 7 = 14$
(a) The primary fuel used in nuclear power plant is ____.
(b) Zeroth law of thermodynamics forms the basis of ____ measurement.
(i) pressure
(ii) temperature
(iii) heat exchange
(iv) work
(c) The percentage by weight of oxygen in atmospheric air is
(i) 19
(ii) 21
(iii) 23
(iv) 27
(d) An adiabatic system can exchange energy in the form of ____ only.
(e) During refrigeration cycle based on vapour compression system, the heat rejected by the refrigerant in
(i) condenser
(ii) expansion valve
(iii) evaporator
(iv) compressor
(f) The fluids used in the Electrolux refrigerator are ammonia, water and ____.
(g) Which of the following is fitted on a boiler to improve the boiler efficiency?
(i) Fusible plug
(ii) Safety valve
(iii) Steam stop valve
(iv) Economizer
(h) Steam power plant works on —— cycle.
(i) —— is used to mix air and fuel in a petrol engine.
(j) Aluminium-copper alloy is called ——.
2. (a) What is the status of nonconventional energy sources in India, and what are their future prospects?
(b) What is the origin of biomass energy? What is its global potential? Give its advantages and disadvantages.
3. (a) Differentiate between the following:
(i) Heat and work
(ii) Point function and path function
(iii) Intensive and extensive properties
(b) Air initially at a pressure of 75 kPa, at a temperature of 1000 K and occupying a volume of 0.12 m$^3$ is compressed isothermally until the volume is halved and subsequently it undergoes further compression at constant pressure till the volume is halved again. Calculate the work done.
4. (a) Explain the principles of fire-tube and water-tube boilers.
(b) With neat sketch, describe the function of fusible plug and water-level indicator in fire-tube boiler.
5. (a) What are the advantages of steam turbines over other prime movers?
(b) What are compoundings of an impulse turbine?
(c) What are the advantages of gas turbines over I.C. engines?
6. (a) Differentiate between two-stroke and four-stroke engines.
(b) Explain Otto cycle and derive an expression for efficiency of Otto cycle.
7. (a) What are the role of condenser in a thermal power plant?
(b) With neat sketch, explain the working of hydel power plant. Mention some hydel plants situated in India.
8. (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Refrigeration
(ii) Air conditioning
(iii) Unit of refrigeration
(b) Explain with neat sketch, the construction and working of vapour compression refrigeration system.
9. (a) What are alloy steels? Why is alloying done? Give some important alloying elements with their effects on steel.
(b) What are annealing and tempering? How do they effect on the properties of a substance? | <urn:uuid:eb08b01f-e942-48fc-a995-0fc1830a3ebb> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://www.akubihar.com/papers/btech-common-1-sem-elements-of-mechanical-engineering-021101-2013.pdf | 2023-09-25T19:20:49+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510085.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20230925183615-20230925213615-00383.warc.gz | 701,673,903 | 786 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.947128 | eng_Latn | 0.978585 | [
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Visiting the garden encourages students to work together towards a common goal. Planting seeds, watering plants, weeding and harvesting food allows students to experience the energy that comes from being part of a group, without the demands of conversation. After a morning in the garden, students get to walk away with skills, confidence, connections, and success – all accomplished in the great outdoors. The garden can be a very soothing environment – and our students especially like it when we sing “Take Me Out to the Compost” together! (for song see the last page)
Jean Polovchik has been at Crotched Mountain for 31 years, working with students aged 11-22 in a variety of capacities, including science teacher. She has a masters of science WHDFKLQJ IURP $QWLRFK 1HZ (QJODQG DQG UHFHLYHG) Graduate School. She received the Excellence in Teacher Award in 2003 from Massachusetts Association of Approved Private Schools (MAAPS).
Beth Simpson has worked at Crotched Mountain for 25 years, primarily as a life skills trainer. She has an associate of science degree in childcare from Bristol Community College in Fall River, Mass.
Good Resources:
Center of Discovery, Horticultural Therapy Institute,
Shelburne Farms
Take Me Out to the Compost
(sung to the tune of “Take Me Out to the Ballgame”)
Take me out to the compost
Take me out to the pile
Add some soil and a few good worms
I don’t care if I’m turned and I’m churned
‘Cause it’s root, root, root for the microbes
If they don’t live it’s a shame
For in two, four, six weeks, I’m out in the old garden!
Refrigerator Pickles
A favorite to make and eat at The Farm School
In a sauce pan, bring to boil and then set aside:
1 cup sugar
2 tbsp salt
1 tsp celery seed
2 cups vinegar
When liquid is cool, pour over:
6 cups sliced cucumbers
1 cup sliced green peppers
1 cup sliced onion
This basic recipe may be varied with different veggies or fresh herbs according to taste and supply.
How to Make Seed Balls
1 part seeds
4 parts garden soil or worm castings
5 parts powdered clay
1 tsp water
Mix ingredients and form into one-inch balls.
Allow to dry. | <urn:uuid:0648de41-f238-410f-b898-beccdb8f3e88> | CC-MAIN-2017-22 | http://cmf.org/uploadedFiles/Crotched_Mountain_School/Farm%20and%20Gardening%20Adaptations%20Vol%202%20Issue%201.pdf | 2017-05-22T21:19:36Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463607120.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20170522211031-20170522231031-00627.warc.gz | 73,677,448 | 520 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99754 | eng_Latn | 0.998328 | [
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Zacchaeus Climbs a Tree
2-5 Years:
Opening Prayer to welcome the start of the session. For example:
“Dear God, thank you for bringing us together again today. Please help us to learn about you. Help us also to do the things you want us to do and follow in your footsteps. Amen.”
Bible Story:
Tell the story of Zacchaeus climbing the tree to see Jesus (Luke 19: 1-10). You can tell this story from a children’s bible or just tell it in a way that this age group can understand.
Discussion:
Talk about how we all do things that are not good sometimes. Emphasize that even though we might not always do good things, that does not make us bad people in God’s eyes. Talk about how
we try not to do those bad things again and that God thinks that we are good people for trying to be good.
**Activity:**
Use butcher paper to draw a large tree. Give the children pre-cut leaves to tape to the tree. Then have them try to put a pre-cut Zacchaeus on the tree, (like Pin the Tail on the Donkey), to see if they can get him on a branch,
**Song:**
Sing the song *Zacchaeus Was a Wee Little Man*
Zacchaeus was a wee little man, and a wee little man was he.
He climbed up in a sycamore tree, for the Lord he wanted to see.
And as the Savior passed him by, He looked up in the tree,
And he said, “Zacchaeus, you come down from there;
For I'm going to your house today, for I'm going to your house today.”
Zacchaeus came down from that tree, as happy as he could be,
He gave his money to the poor, and said: What a better man I'll be."
**Closing Prayer** to ask for help to do good things. For example:
“Dear God, thank you for helping us learn about you. Thank you for loving us even when we are not so good. Please help us to do good things for you and for others. Amen.”
6-8 Years:
Opening Prayer to open the session. For example:
“Dear God, thank you for bringing us together again on this day. Please help us to learn from your words and follow in your ways. Amen.”
Bible Story:
Tell the story of Zacchaeus climbing the tree to see Jesus (Luke 19: 1-10). You can use a children’s bible to tell the story. If you do not have a children’s bible, you can tell the story in a way that children of this age can understand.
Discussion:
Talk about how Zacchaeus looked hard for Jesus and got very close to him. Discuss some ways that we can look for God in our own lives.
Activity:
Draw a large tree on butcher paper. Let the children tape precut leaves to it. Then let them try to put a precut Zacchaeus on it like Pin the Tail on the Donkey to see who can get Zacchaeus on a branch.
Activity:
Give the children figs to taste. Explain that Zacchaeus climbed a fig-sycamore tree to see Jesus.
Closing Prayer to ask for help in looking for Jesus. For example:
“Dear God, thank you for being there for us. Thank you for guiding us everyday. Please help us to look for you in our lives. Amen.”
9-11 Years:
Opening Prayer to welcome the start of the session. For example:
“Dear God, thank you for bringing us together to learn about you. Please help us to follow you and walk in your footsteps. Amen.”
Bible Story:
Have the several students take turns reading the story of Zacchaeus climbing in the tree to see Jesus, which is Luke 19: 1-10. After the passage has been read discuss what the story was about to make sure that they understood what they read.
Discussion:
Talk about how everyone sins. Remind the students that just because we sin does not mean that we are bad people. Talk about how we can show our disapproval of the sin that people commit without turning our back on the person who has committed the sin.
Art:
Give each student a piece of paper. Have them draw a tree. Then have them draw Zacchaeus in the tree and write “Luke 19: 1-10” on their paper.
Closing Prayer to ask for help in disapproving of sins but loving the sinners. For example:
“Dear God, thank you for leading us in our fellowship. Please help us to show people that we do not approve of the sins that they commit, but that we still love them. Please keep us safe in your care. Amen.”
12-14 Years:
Opening Prayer to open the session. For example:
“Dear God, thank you for bringing us together to worship you. Please help us to gain a better understanding of you and your words. Help us to follow your path. Amen.”
Discussion:
Ask the students if everyone sins or if there is anyone who does not sin, besides Jesus. Talk to them about sins and the sinner. Explain that everyone is a sinner because everyone sins, but that does not mean that we are all bad people.
Bible Reading:
Appoint several students to read Luke 19: 1-10. Have them read until the passage has been read completely. At the end of the passage discuss what happened in this story so that you can be sure that everyone understood what was read.
Discussion:
Remind them of the discussion before the bible reading. Discuss what they can do to show their disapproval of the sins that are being committed around them and show that they still love the sinner.
Closing Prayer to ask for help in disapproving of the sins committed around us. For example:
“Dear God, thank you for loving us unconditionally. Please help us to show others that we disapprove of the sins that they commit while we still love them. Help us to continue to grow in our faith. Please keep us safe in your care. Amen.” | <urn:uuid:8a0b8263-9966-47b6-8606-088ebcc83df2> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | https://twogcm.org/Forms%20and%20Files/cc_lessons/Lesson%2013.pdf | 2019-04-26T08:33:52Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578762045.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20190426073513-20190426095513-00458.warc.gz | 575,504,863 | 1,280 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.994253 | eng_Latn | 0.995911 | [
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2,445 Hours of Code: What I Learned from Facilitating Hour of Code Events in High School Libraries
2,445 Hours of Code
What I Learned from Facilitating Hour of Code Events in High School Libraries
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In 2013, as a long-term substitute school librarian at Dexter High School in Dexter, Michigan, I knew that expecting my principal to give me the go-ahead to coordinate an Hour of Code event for the entire student body was wishful thinking, but that is exactly what happened. Using what I learned that fall in Dexter I was able to coordinate a larger event in 2014 at a different school.
Hadi Partovi of Code.org conceived the Hour of Code “to get ten million students to try one hour of computer science” (Partovi 2013a). Organized by Code.org (a nonprofit 501c3 organization supported by Microsoft, Amazon, Google, Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg, and others), the goal of Computer Science Education Week (CSEd Week) is to bring awareness of the value of including computer science in school curricula, increasing future job opportunities for students worldwide (CSEd Week 2013a). Many online computer programming portals including Tynker, Lightbot, Codecademy, Scratch, and Khan Academy provide free online tutorials to teach students (ages 4–104) basic programming concepts in one hour (CSEd 2013b).
Planning and Prep
Having signed up with Code.org, I received an e-mail in October introducing the Hour of Code event; I immediately decided that facilitating an event at my school would provide a unique opportunity for my students to be exposed to computer programming—most for the very first time. I also hoped that an Hour of Code event would increase awareness among administrators, teachers, students, and parents of the value of a computer science education and create a demand for more computer science education in my district. My first step was submitting an enthusiastic proposal to my administrators. After discussing the benefits of the opportunity and the possible restrictions of our particular situation (including computer availability, curriculum support, teacher participation, and time available) we decided to give our teachers the opportunity to volunteer their classes for a one-day event.
I was pleased with the various promotional materials—posters, statistics, and videos—that Hour of Code provided to help introduce the event. The resource webpage also provided helpful answers and links to help facilitators promote, organize, and run the event. An online forum for questions also helped me understand how other organizers were dealing with some of the same problems I was attempting to solve.
One week prior to the event I presented the idea to the entire faculty at a staff meeting. I was concerned that such short notice wouldn’t give teachers time to adjust their lesson plans, but the second question I received about my event was, “Have you shared the sign-up yet?” Why were teachers so excited about this opportunity? Most schools don’t offer computer science classes (Towns 2014). Not enough students are exposed to computer programming—at Dexter High School and around the country. Teachers were excited because I was offering an opportunity for all of our students to try coding. My hope was that through involvement students and teachers would see the benefits of knowing how to program a computer, and the event would spark an interest in computer programming students and staff never knew they had.
<!--Students should be exposed to computer programming (preferably much earlier than high school) because by 2020 there will be one million more U.S. jobs in computing than people to fill those positions.-->
Amira and Ali, tenth-grade students participating in the Hour of Code at Huron High School.
Sixty percent of all projected math and science occupations will be in computing jobs. Computing occupations are among the highest-paying jobs for new college graduates (CSEd Week 2013c). These statistics are compelling, and after my staff presentation I had fourteen out of eighteen slots filled for my Hour of Code event and a waiting list for some class periods.
I wanted to give more students the opportunity to participate in my event. This is where I ran into a small snag. I had planned to contact the school district’s technology department to confirm that the server would be able to handle up to ninety students logging into the same website at the exact same moment to access the coding tutorials, but I didn’t ask the question until the week before my event. This caused a problem; I did not follow the chain of command. Word got back to the head of the technology department, and I explained how many students would be logging in at the same time. He told me that it wouldn’t work. I needed to come up with a remedy—two school days before my event.
There is nothing like someone saying that something can’t be done to motivate me to figure out a way to make it work. To decide if my event could even proceed, my wonderful tech-support person was sent to discuss options with me. During our discussion we talked about ways to limit the stress on the district’s server. The concerns of the technology department were the amount of available bandwidth our district shared with other school districts in our county and whether or not the server would crash. I was more than willing to adapt my plans—and we came up with a solution that I believe made the whole event even better. It was suggested that we pair students on each computer to immediately cut the demand in half. Brilliant idea! Why didn’t I think of it? Not only did the solution make sense on the technology side, but it also made sense from an instructional perspective. I had recruited a small group of volunteers to help me with the event (a few students from the University of Michigan’s School of Information and a few of our high school’s computer science students), but giving students the opportunity to help each other as they worked through the tutorial would reduce frustration and encourage cooperation.
Another solution was to pick a single tutorial for students to complete. Because students would have varying coding experience I thought each student should choose which tutorial to complete. The problem with this idea was that some tutorials included an explanatory video, which used too much bandwidth. It became my task to choose one tutorial that would be appropriate for all students regardless of their coding experience. This limitation also turned out to be a good thing, not only for reducing bandwidth usage, but also for my small group of volunteers. After I had picked a tutorial, I experimented to ensure that my volunteers and I would be able to troubleshoot issues for students. The chosen tutorial taught students how to code in JavaScript to write a program that would animate a word (Codecademy 2013). To understand the roadblocks students would experience accessing and completing the tutorial I ran through the tutorial myself multiple times in different browsers on both desktops and laptops to discover and fix problems before students encountered them. I also asked my student library aides to complete the tutorial to see how long it would take individuals with varying levels of coding experience to complete the tutorial. By having students complete the selected tutorial, I was able to better prepare myself and my volunteers to effectively help students.
Event Day
My introductory presentation explained the Hour of Code event: why learning to code is important, a quick explanation of how to work through the tutorial, and how to submit completion of the tutorial to the Hour of Code organization so that students’ participation would be counted. The kick-off video (Code.org 2013b) created by the Hour of Code set the tone for the importance of the experience and was carefully cast to feature people with whom students could identify, including Ashton Kutcher, Macklemore, Shakira, and President Obama. Students were excited. So was I!
During each class period throughout the day of my event, at any one time, 33 to 82 ninth-through twelfth-grade students worked together in pairs. Every time a new class entered the school library with their teachers, I gave my presentation, and then asked students to find a partner and go to the tutorial’s website to begin. Knowing that I had a student to teacher ratio of up to 30 to 1, I encouraged students to do three things before they raised their hands for help: check their code for typos, look at the instructions provided on the tutorial, and then ask someone nearby. This strategy worked extremely well. Students first helped themselves before asking for assistance from others. But as high school students are reluctant to raise their hands and I wanted everyone to complete the tutorial, I encouraged my volunteers to keep an eye out for students who looked like they were having difficulties. It
The author assisting students with a line of code.
<div>learn how to control your computer</div>
<script language="JavaScript">
</script>
<br>
<div>speak the same language as the computer</div>
<script language="JavaScript">
</script>
was surprising how few students had trouble completing the tutorial. I would estimate that the completion rate for the tutorial was about 95 percent for most classes, and this was among students who had little to no coding experience.
Once students finished the tutorial I encouraged them to try another tutorial from the Hour of Code’s website. I was pleased at how many students actually did this.
The experience of working through the tutorial helped students understand that they were the ones telling the computer what to do. The tutorial’s preview window showed the computer’s response to the changing code as it was input by the students. My students had fun doing the tutorial as they realized the power of a few simple keystrokes.
Though computer programming aligns best with the curricula of the math department, I stressed to my principal, the teachers, and my students that learning how to program a computer teaches you how to think. Knowing how to communicate with a computer in the language it understands teaches you how to work step-by-step through a problem until your goals are achieved. This idea was tested by the tutorial I chose. During one step of the tutorial the student was asked to write code for an “if/else” statement. This step gave me the opportunity again and again to encourage students to try different solutions that would end up with the same result. This process helped participants to understand that there are many ways to tell a computer what to do, but some options are simpler and more elegant than others. Students thought through the process: “What am I telling the computer to do?” “What is the tutorial asking me to do?” “What can I do differently to tell the computer to do what the tutorial is asking me to do?”
There were a few glitches with the tutorial I chose. It worked well, but sometimes the instructions were misleading. Students consistently had a problem with an instruction that encouraged them to use the “length” command to measure the number of characters in a string (data that is usually represented in text rather than numbers and is enclosed in quotation marks). Instructions were written in full sentences, and, sometimes, when the code to be entered was at the end of the sentence, students thought the period to complete the sentence was part of the code. Another problem was that even if a student’s code for a specific command was correct (that is, it would work), it might not have been what the tutorial was asking for. Another minor issue was that sometimes students tried to coast through the tutorial without following the instructions. The tutorial would prevent this from happening, but some students accidentally found themselves starting a different tutorial. These problems were easily rectified, as I was able to adjust my presentation to address these issues as the day progressed. However, having volunteers was extremely valuable to provide extra hands-on help to keep everyone progressing through the tutorial.
One of the most interesting moments was when a Spanish class came to the library. As I was about to present my introduction to the students, their Spanish teacher reminded her students that the next day they would be required to tell her “en Español” about their coding experience. Remembering that some tutorials are available in different languages I told the class that we were going to try a different Hour of Code tutorial and they would be completing it in Spanish.
The “Angry Birds” tutorial had an option to choose one of twenty-four other languages (Code.org 2013a). This suggestion resulted in the collective groan of thirty-three Spanish 5 students who were hoping just to play around for an hour. After a few false starts and a group effort to understand the initial instructions, every student was able to complete the Spanish version of the tutorial and their teacher announced that they would not have to report on their experience en Español during the next class after all. Afterward, the teacher asked me to provide her with more tutorials that could be completed in Spanish because she had never before seen her students so engaged in an activity. Overall, teachers were so pleased with the experience that I extended the event an extra three days.
More Successes
As a result of my initial experience facilitating an Hour of Code event, I had no qualms asking my principal last fall to allow me to facilitate an Hour of Code event at my new school, Huron High School in Ann Arbor, Michigan. My first Hour of Code event (at Dexter) had 580 participants, and this past year my second Hour of Code event (at Huron) had 1,865 participants. At both schools most students were trying computer programming for the very first time. Computer programming can be taught at any grade level—and the sooner the better. Last spring, through the Hour of Code website, I introduced coding to kindergarten students at Deerfield Elementary in Novi, Michigan—and to my delight most of those five- and six-year-old students were able to code to direct the Angry Bird through the maze.
My biggest takeaways from facilitating Hour of Code events will be to focus next year on recruiting participants from one subject area, most likely math. Also, now that all students at my high school have experienced an Hour of Code I intend to invite only ninth-grade students to next year’s event. Because the goal of the Hour of Code is to introduce students to computer programming, both of these changes would limit repeat participants during an event and, thus, retain the element of novelty and keep excitement building.
To date over 100,000,000 students worldwide have participated in the Hour of Code (CSEd Week 2014). The movement became so powerful that Apple announced that every Apple retail store in the U.S. would host “Hour of Code Youth Workshops” for children and teenagers during Computer Science Education Week (Partovi 2013b). President Barack Obama encouraged all students to not just “play on their phone,” but to “program it” too (Code.org 2013c). It is my hope that my events sparked an interest in my students, encouraging 2,445 participants to continue learning computer programming to become highly qualified for a job in computer science.
I encourage all school librarians to introduce their students to computer programming in any capacity. Check out the CSEd Week Hour of Code website this summer <csedweek.org> and consider hosting your own Hour of Code event next year in December. I know I will.
Photo Credit: Jo Mathis, Ann Arbor Public School District News
Jennifer Colby is the school librarian at Huron High School in Ann Arbor, Michigan. She is the author of the elementary-level informational text series Plants from Cherry Lake Publishing. At the Michigan Association of Computer Users in Learning conference in March she presented a Lightning Talk about how to facilitate an Hour of Code event. She is a member of AASL.
Works Cited:
Code.org. 2013a. “Code.Org—The Maze #1.” <http://learn.code.org/hoc/1/> (accessed December 11, 2014).
———. 2013b. “The Hour of Code Is Here.” <www.youtube.com/watch?v=FCgFBmH4fw&t=11s> (December 8, 2013).
———. 2013c. “President Obama Asks America to Learn Computer Science.” <www.youtube.com/watch?v=6XmhE1j9PY> (accessed December 11, 2013).
Codecademy. 2013. “Hour of Code.” <www.codecademy.com/courses/hour-of-code/0> (accessed December 5, 2014).
CSEd Week. 2013a. “About.” <http://csedweek.org/about> (accessed December 5, 2013).
———. 2013b. “Learn.” <http://csedweek.org/learn> (accessed December 5, 2013).
———. 2013c. “Promote Computer Science.” <http://csedweek.org/promote> (accessed December 1, 2014).
CSEd Week. 2014. “Try an Hour of Code.” <http://csedweek.org> (accessed February 12, 2015).
Partovi, Hadi. 2013a. “The Hour Of Code Is Here!” <www.linkedin.com/pulse/article/20131209083600-1287-the-hour-of-code-is-here> (accessed December 11, 2013).
———. 2013b. “The Hour of Code is Here!” Personal e-mail correspondence. December 11.
Towne, Steve. 2014. “Most Schools Don’t Teach Computer Science.” Governing (April) <www.governing.com/columns/tech-talk/gov-a-time-for-code.html> (accessed August 30, 2014). | a41c8a38-9307-43a8-a207-444cf4a1a749 | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://www.jencolby.com/uploads/6/9/3/2/6932959/2445_hours_of_code.pdf | 2024-05-22T07:52:16+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058534.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20240522070747-20240522100747-00043.warc.gz | 721,825,364 | 3,706 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.911885 | eng_Latn | 0.998635 | [
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TEST YOUR VOCABULARY FOR MEDICINE
a workbook for users
by David Riley
First published in Great Britain 1995
by Peter Collin Publishing Ltd
1 Cambridge Road, Teddington, Middlesex, UK
© Peter Collin Publishing Ltd 1995
You may photocopy the inside pages (numbers 1 to 48) for classroom use only.
You are not licensed to copy the cover.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0-948549-59-9
Text computer typeset by PCP Ltd
Printed by Biddles, UK
Titles in the series
Test Your:
Vocabulary for Computing ISBN 0-948549-58-0
Vocabulary for Medicine ISBN 0-948549-59-9
Useful Specialist Dictionaries
Dictionary of Computing, 2nd ed 0-948549-44-0
Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd ed 0-948549-36-X
Dictionary of Accounting 0-948549-27-0
Dictionary of Agriculture 0-948549-13-0
Dictionary of American Business 0-948549-11-4
Dictionary of Banking & Finance 0-948549-12-2
Dictionary of Business, 2nd ed 0-948549-51-3
Dictionary of Computing, 2nd ed 0-948549-44-0
Dictionary of Ecology & Environment 0-948549-32-7
Dictionary of Government & Politics 0-948549-05-X
Dictionary of Hotels, Tourism, Catering 0-948549-40-8
Dictionary of Information Technology 0-948549-03-3
Dictionary of Law, 2nd ed 0-948549-33-5
Dictionary of Marketing 0-948549-08-4
Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd ed 0-948549-36-X
Dictionary of Personnel Management 0-948549-06-8
Dictionary of Printing & Publishing 0-948549-09-2
To Order:
Contact your local bookshop or order direct from:
BEBC Distribution, PO Box 1496, Parkstone, Poole, Dorset, BH12 3LL
Tel: 0202-715555 Fax: 0202-715556
The worksheets in this book are based on the Peter Collin Publishing Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd ed. They contain a variety of exercises, all appropriate for students working in medicine. They can be used either for self study or in the classroom.
The book is aimed at students with at least an intermediate level of English. However, many people who work in medicine have to read in English on a fairly regular basis. This means that you may find lower level students with the passive vocabulary to handle many of the worksheets.
**Specialist vocabulary**
Students will sometimes tell you that they have no problem with specialist vocabulary: *I know the English of my job*. It is not a good idea to take this statement at face value. It can often mean that they understand the vocabulary of their job when they read it, in a manual or report for example. But knowing vocabulary involves more than simply recognizing it.
Sometimes a student understands the meaning of a word when reading or listening, yet finds it difficult to remember when it is needed for speaking or writing.
Students may remember the word, but use it incorrectly. This may be a grammatical problem, such as knowing that ‘output’ can be used both as a noun and as a verb. Or it may be a question of collocation: the way some words go together and some do not. For example, a surgeon may *make an incision* during an operation, but when he wants a piece of bread he simply cuts it.
Then there is the question of the sound of the word. Can the student pronounce it? And does she or he recognize it when s/he hears it pronounced?
For these reasons - memory, use and sound - it is important to give students a chance to practise and play around with specialist vocabulary so that they can learn to use it more confidently and effectively.
In some ways, learning specialist vocabulary is simpler than learning general vocabulary. It is rarely necessary to decide if a word is formal or informal in style. And most specialist terms have one single clearly defined meaning.
**But I know nothing about medicine**
You may be worried about trying to teach terms which you do not know yourself. After all, not many doctors teach English for a living. There is a solution. All the vocabulary taught or practised in this book is in the Peter Collin Publishing *Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd ed*, which gives definitions in simple English which students can read. Many of the example sentences and definitions are also taken from the dictionary. If you use these worksheets with students who work in the field of medicine and you make sure you have a copy of the dictionary handy for them to consult you should have no problems. Do not hesitate to refer students to a dictionary when they ask vocabulary questions: it is good learner training.
**Photocopiable materials**
All the worksheets can be legally photocopied to use in class, though if you intend to use most of the book with a class you will find it more convenient for them to buy a copy each.
**Extensions**
Many of the worksheets have extensions - pair work or discussions - based on the language in the main exercise. These worksheets can be set as homework and then followed up in the classroom.
**Vocabulary Record Sheets**
Encourage students to note the vocabulary they found useful at the end of each lesson, and to write example sentences showing how words are used and notes about meaning and pronunciation etc. Use photocopies of the Vocabulary Record Sheet, which you will find on page 35.
**Communicative crosswords**
At the end of the book there are three communicative crosswords. These are pair work exercises.
If you have not previously used this type of exercise, a possible procedure is given below.
1. **Set up.** Divide the class into A & B groups, with up to four students in each group. Give out the photocopies of the crossword, being careful not to mix up the two versions. Give each group a copy of the dictionary. Go through the rules with them. Point out that some answers may be acronyms or may consist of more than one word.
2. **Preparation.** The students discuss the words in their groups, exchanging information about the words they know and checking words they do not know in the dictionary. Circulate, checking that the work is going well and helping with any problems. This is an important stage: some of the vocabulary in the crosswords is quite difficult.
3. **Activity.** Put the students in pairs - one from group A and one from group B. The students help each other to complete the crosswords by giving each other clues
| - What's one down? | A B | A B |
|--------------------|-----|-----|
| - It's a person who works in a hospital | A B | A B |
*Students work in pairs, co-operating to solve their crosswords*
- A doctor?
- A sort of doctor. He does operations.
- A surgeon.
- Yes, that's right.
Alternatively, students can work in small groups, each group consisting of two A and a B team.
Make sure students are aware that the idea is to *help* each other complete the crossword, rather than to produce obscure and difficult clues.
We hope you and your students enjoy using this collection of exercises.
Adjectives 1
COMPLETE THE SENTENCES using the adjectives in the box. Use each adjective once only. The first one has been done for you as an example.
**Adjectives**
bitter compatible confused delicate highly-strung hoarse hygienic inactive inadequate inborn inoperable insanitary intoxicated left-handed motionless poisonous predisposed recognized safe sedentary
1. This is a **safe** painkiller, with no harmful side effects.
2. Some mushrooms are good to eat and some are ________________.
3. The donor's blood must be ________________ with the patient's.
4. The surgeon decided that the cancer had become ________________.
5. ________________ people need special scissors.
6. The body has an ________________ tendency to resist transplanted organs.
7. The hospital has ________________ staff to deal with a major accident.
8. This serum makes the poison ________________.
9. People in ________________ occupations are liable to have digestive problems.
10. Old people can easily become ________________ if they are moved from their homes.
11. Catatonic patients can sit ________________ for hours.
12. Don't touch food with dirty hands: it isn't ________________.
13. All the members of the family are ________________ to vascular diseases.
14. Oranges are sweet, but quinine is ________________.
15. The bones of a baby's skull are very ________________.
16. Cholera spread rapidly because of ________________ conditions in the town.
17. She is very ________________, so don't make comments about her appearance.
18. Are his qualifications ________________ in Great Britain?
19. He drank six glasses of whisky and became completely ________________.
20. He became ________________ after shouting too much.
**Extension.** Work with a partner, dictate the sentences to each other.
Symptoms & common illnesses ~ part 1
THESE WORDS ARE all used to talk about diseases: their symptoms and effects. Tick (✓) the ones you understand. Check the others in the dictionary.
| | | | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | allergic reaction | 5 | infectious | 9 | rash | 13 | spots |
| 2 | blisters | 6 | inflammation | 10 | resistance | 14 | stillbirth |
| 3 | cough | 7 | itchy | 11 | running nose | 15 | swell |
| 4 | fever | 8 | malformation | 12 | sneeze | 16 | swollen |
Read the descriptions below and match them to the names of illnesses in the box on the right.
1. A common illness, the symptoms of which include inflammation of the nasal passages, sneezing, coughing, a running nose and fever.
2. A common infectious viral disease of children, with mild fever, swollen lymph nodes and a rash. It can cause stillbirth or malformation of the unborn baby if it is caught by a mother while she is pregnant.
3. An illness, usually started by a viral infection, whose symptoms include inflammation of the nasal passages, sneezing, coughing, and a running nose. At present there is no cure for it.
4. An infectious disease of children, caused by a herpes virus, and characterised by fever and red spots which turn to itchy blisters.
5. An infectious disease of children where the body is covered with a red rash. It can weaken the body's resistance to other disease, for example bronchitis and ear infections. If caught by an adult it can be very serious.
6. An infectious disease of children, with fever and swellings in the salivary glands, caused by a paramyxovirus.
7. An infectious disease affecting the bronchial tubes. The patient suffers from a severe cough and makes a loud noise when inhaling after a coughing fit.
8. An inflammation in the nose and eyes caused by a reaction to flowers, their pollen and scent.
© Peter Collin Publishing.
Based on the Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd Ed. 1994. ISBN 0-948549-36-X.
Symptoms & common illnesses ~ part 2
ALL THE ILLNESSES in part 1 of this exercise also have informal names. Match the informal and formal names.
| INFORMAL | FORMAL |
|-----------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| 1 Chickenpox is the same as | allergic rhinitis |
| 2 A cold is the same as | infectious parotitis |
| 3 The flu is the same as | coryza |
| 4 German measles is the same as | influenza |
| 5 Hay fever is the same as | rubella |
| 6 Measles is the same as | rubeola |
| 7 Mumps is the same as | pertussis |
| 8 Whooping cough is the same as | varicella |
Exercise 2. Complete these six conversations between doctors and patients by writing in the name of the illness. Use the informal terms from the table above.
1 What seems to be the trouble?
My eyes and my nose are running all the time.
I feel terrible.
When did this begin?
At the beginning of July.
It's probably just ......................... .
2 What's the problem?
It's my son. He's got a rash and swelling in his armpits.
Does he have a fever?
Yes.
Hmm. He may have ......................... .
3 How are you feeling?
I've got this terrible cough
Mm-hmm.
And after I cough I make a noise when I try to breathe.
Sounds like ......................... .
4 How are you today?
Oh, not very well. I've got a cough and a terrible cold.
Do you have a fever?
Umm, yes I do.
It's probably a touch of ......................... .
5 What's the problem?
It's my daughter. She's got a fever and this swelling.
Where's the swelling?
In her throat.
It could be ......................... .
6 So, what can I do for you?
It's the twins. They're covered in these dreadful red spots.
Are they experiencing any itching?
Yes, they are.
It may be ......................... .
Extension. Practise the conversations with a partner.
Diagnosis
READ THE ELEVEN descriptions which follow, using your dictionary as and when necessary. What is the disease or illness being described in each case?
1. A disorder of the nervous system in which there are convulsions and loss of consciousness due to disordered discharge of cerebral neurons. In its more severe form, the patient may lose consciousness and fall to the ground in convulsions.
2. A condition where tissues die and decay as a result of bacterial action because the blood supply has been lost through injury or disease of the artery. Infected limbs may have to be amputated.
3. A condition where the lens of the eye gradually becomes hard and opaque.
4. A slow, progressive disorder of elderly people, it affects the parts of the brain which control movement. The symptoms include trembling of the limbs, a shuffling walk and difficulty with speaking.
5. An infectious disease, its commonest form attacks the lungs, causing patients to lose weight, cough blood and have a fever. It is caught by breathing in germs or eating contaminated food, especially unpasteurised milk.
6. A hereditary disease of the pancreas or mucoviscidosis, leading to malfunction of the exocrine glands. Symptoms include loss of weight, abnormal faeces and bronchitis. If diagnosed early, it can be controlled with vitamins, physiotherapy and pancreatic enzymes.
7. A serious bacterial disease spread through infected food or water. The infected person suffers stomach cramps, diarrhoea, cramp in the intestines and dehydration. The disease is often fatal and vaccination is only effective for a relatively short period.
8. A serious, infectious disease of children, its first symptoms are a sore throat, followed by a slight fever, rapid pulse and swelling of the glands in the neck. A membrane-like structure forms in the throat and can close the air passages, asphyxiating the patient. The disease is often fatal for this reason or because the heart becomes fatally weakened.
9. A disorder of the brain, mainly due to brain damage occurring before birth or due to lack of oxygen during birth. The patient may have bad coordination of muscular movements, impaired speech, hearing and sight, and sometimes mental retardation.
10. A virus disease, it can take a long time, even years, for it to show symptoms. It causes a breakdown of the body's immune system, making the patient susceptible to any infection.
11. Inflammation of the membrane lining the intestines and the stomach, caused by a viral infection, and resulting in diarrhoea and vomiting.
Extension. Write a description, in English, of a disease or illness and see if your partner can recognize it.
Talking about patients ~ nouns
ALL THESE SENTENCES describe patients and their conditions. Complete the sentences using the nouns in the box. The first one has been done for you as an example.
Nouns
accident ambulance biopsy consent effort examination excess exercise
injection intake intolerance overdose paroxysm programme rash recurrence
surgery tendency vaccination whisper
1. He developed an intolerance to penicillin.
2. He suffered from a ________ of coughing in the night.
3. She went into a coma after an ________ of heroin.
4. He had to undergo major ________ on his heart.
5. She took a ________ of steroid treatment.
6. He had a ________ of a fever which he had caught in the tropics.
7. There is a ________ to obesity in her family.
8. The X-ray ________ showed the presence of a tumour in his colon.
9. She had an ________ to ease the pain in her leg.
10. He doesn’t take enough ________: that’s why he’s fat.
11. The injured man was taken away in an ________.
12. She was advised to reduce her ________ of sugar.
13. The ________ of the tissue from the growth showed that it was benign.
14. The parents gave their ________ for their son’s heart to be used in the transplant operation.
15. She has a sore throat and can only speak in a ________.
16. It took her a lot of ________ even to walk a short distance.
17. Her body could not cope with an ________ of blood sugar.
18. He has been an invalid since he had the ________ six years ago.
19. The ________ has left a little bump on her left arm.
20. The ________ has left red marks on his chest and back.
Extension. Work with a partner, dictate the sentences to each other.
Pronunciation ~ word stress 1
ONE OF THE keys to English pronunciation is stress - emphasis. There are three possible patterns for three syllable words:
A: car-di-ac
B: ex-am-ine
C: pre-ma-ture
Read these four conversations. Find all the three syllable words and classify them by their pronunciation. Put them in the correct sections of the table on the right.
Dialogue 1
- When was she admitted to hospital?
• At about four o'clock.
- Has there been any improvement?
• No. Her condition's stable. We're waiting to see how things develop.
Dialogue 2
- What do you recommend?
• Well, first of all: cut down on fatty foods.
- Is that all?
• No. Regular exercise, no smoking and keep alcohol to a minimum.
Dialogue 3
- What's the problem?
• I went to give him his injection and I saw that he'd started to haemorrhage.
- We'll have to operate. Make sure all the equipment's prepared.
• I'll go down to the theatre and check.
Dialogue 4
- So, is it serious?
• Don't worry. It's probably just an allergic reaction.
- Are you just saying that to reassure me?
• You're fine. Look, I'm going to give you a prescription for some painkillers...
Dialogue 5
- Have you got the test results yet?
• Well, they're still incomplete, but it's clear that it's positive.
- Any idea when infection took place?
• I'd say five or six weeks ago, but that's just an opinion. Do you want to see her medical history?
Extension. Practise the dialogues with a partner.
Parts of the body crossword 1
ALL THE ANSWERS in this crossword are parts of the body.
ACROSS
1 Joins the femur to the tibia (4)
6 The first part of the small intestine (8)
8 Similar to 1 across, but in the arm (5)
10 It grows on your head (4)
11 The upper chambers of 18 across (5)
12 Breathing organs (5)
15 They carry blood to 11 across (5)
17 See you (3)
18 The organ which moves blood around your body (5)
21 Cell in the nervous system which transmits impulses (6)
22 An organ which secretes substances which act elsewhere in the body (5)
24 A substance which stores energy (3)
25 It keeps your outside in (4)
26 Type of nerve ending (8)
27 For hearing with (3)
DOWN
1 It cleans your blood (6)
2 A bag (7)
3 Without arms, legs or head (5)
4 A major artery (5)
5 Connected to 8 across, funnily enough (7)
7 Cavity in 16 down (5)
9 Narrow part of the body below the chest (5)
12 The major detoxicating organ (5)
13 The hard part of a finger or toe (4)
14 Cheekbone (6)
16 Protects the brain (5)
18 At the end of your arm (4)
19 The throat or neck, major artery (7)
20 Finger joints (8)
23 Bundle of fibres which take impulses from one part of the body to another (5)
24 At the end of your leg (4)
How it works 1
THESE SENTENCES DESCRIBE the way various systems work, but they have been divided into separate halves. Match the half-sentences in column A with the half-sentences in column B to make twenty sentences which are correct, complete and true. The first one has been done for you as an example.
A
1. The autonomic nervous system functions ...
2. Aspirin inhibits ...
3. Bacteria can mutate suddenly ...
4. The bones are joined ...
5. The blood vessel is a narrow channel...
6. The pituitary gland stimulates ...
7. The tip of the femur fits ...
8. The arteries provide ...
9. Bile circulates from the liver ...
10. The colon is divided ...
11. The chest expands ...
12. In holocrine glands ...
13. The prostate tends to enlarge ...
14. Impulses are transmitted ...
15. Ultrasound scanning provides ...
16. Oxygen is vital ...
17. The common carotid divides ...
18. The body has a natural instinct ...
19. Blood groups are classified ...
20. Nasal congestion can be relieved ...
B
... by a cartilage.
... as a man grows older.
... into a socket in the pelvis.
... with antihistamines.
... and become increasingly able to infect.
... the cells disintegrate as they secrete.
... the clotting of blood.
... a continuous supply of blood to the oxygenated tissues.
... into four distinct sections.
... independently of the conscious will.
... a picture of the ovary and the eggs inside it.
... to protect itself against danger.
... the secretion of hormones by the adrenal gland.
... which takes blood to the tissues.
... to the human system.
... to the intestines via the bile ducts.
... along the neural pathways.
... as the person breathes in.
... according to the ABO system.
... into two smaller arteries.
Extension. Work with a partner, dictate the sentences to each other.
Words with various meanings
SOME WORDS HAVE more than one meaning. For example, the word *pulse* means the pressure wave in an artery when the heart beats, but it also refers to a certain type of vegetable: beans and peas. In the table below nineteen meanings appear in the column on the left. Match each meaning to one of the seven words across the top. The first one has been done for you as an example.
| | cold | degree | fit | light | notice | patient | turn |
|---|------|--------|-----|-------|--------|---------|------|
| 1. | A person who is in hospital or who is being treated by a doctor. | | | | | | |
| 2. | To an attach an appliance correctly, eg: an artificial hand. | | | | | | |
| 3. | A unit of measurement. | | | | | | |
| 4. | To see or observe. | | | | | | |
| 5. | To change into something different. | | | | | | |
| 6. | Not heavy. | | | | | | |
| 7. | An illness, with inflammation of the nasal passages, in which the patient sneezes and coughs. | | | | | | |
| 8. | The level of how important something is. | | | | | | |
| 9. | To move the head or body to face in another direction. | | | | | | |
| 10. | Being able to wait a long time without becoming annoyed. | | | | | | |
| 11. | A piece of writing giving information, usually put in a place where everyone can see it. | | | | | | |
| 12. | To be the right size or shape. | | | | | | |
| 13. | A slight illness or an attack of dizziness. | | | | | | |
| 14. | A sudden attack of a disorder, eg: epilepsy. | | | | | | |
| 15. | A thing which shines and helps one to see. | | | | | | |
| 16. | A title given to a person who has successfully completed a course of studies. | | | | | | |
| 17. | Strong and physically healthy. | | | | | | |
| 18. | Not warm or hot. | | | | | | |
| 19. | Nearer white in colour than black. | | | | | | |
**Extension.** Work with a partner and test each other. One closes the book the other asks questions. For example *Tell me a word which means being able to wait a long time without becoming annoyed.*
SOLVE THE ANAGRAMS by reading the clues and putting the letters in order to form words. Write your answers in the grid to find the mystery word spelled by their initial letters.
1. Taking in and expelling air .................................................. RAEIINOPRST
2. Sensitivity to certain substances, eg: pollen .......................... AEGLLRY
3. Girl child ............................................................................. ADEGHRTU
4. Cut ....................................................................................... CHIINNOS
5. Surgical intervention ........................................................... AEINOOPRT
6. Study of the process of ageing .............................................. EGGLNOOORTY
7. Becoming worse after becoming better ................................. AEELPRS
8. Equipment ............................................................................ AAAPPRSTU
9. Give instructions for a patient to receive a dosage of a drug .... BCEEIPRRS
10. Place where sick people are cared for ................................. AHLIOPST
11. Physical or mental activity ................................................ CEEEIRSX
12. Ability of a person not to get a disease ............................... ACEEINRSST
Mystery Word: inner photographer
ON THE LEFT there are examples of twelve useful verbs in medicine, on the right there are definitions of the verbs. Read the examples and match the verbs (in *italics*) with the definitions. Then write the infinitive forms into the spaces in the definitions on the right. The first one has been done for you as an example.
| EXAMPLES | DEFINITIONS |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 After the accident the passengers were *treated* in hospital for cuts. | a) *diagnose* means to identify a patient's condition. |
| 2 He *depends on* drugs to relieve the pain. | b) ________________________ means to look after a sick or injured person. |
| 3 He *specializes in* children with breathing problems. | c) ________________________ means to make a patient healthy. |
| 4 She *suffers* from headaches. | d) ________________________ means to put at risk. |
| 5 She was *vaccinated* against smallpox as a child. | e) ________________________ means to give instructions for a patient to get |
| | a certain dosage of a drug. |
| 6 Some forms of cancer still cannot be *cured*. | f) ________________________ means to study or treat one particular disease |
| | or one particular type of patient. |
| 7 The calamine lotion will *soothe* the pain. | g) ________________________ means to have an illness for a long time. |
| 8 The doctor *diagnosed* appendicitis. | h) ________________________ means to treat a patient by cutting open the |
| | body and removing, replacing or repairing a part. |
| 9 The doctor *prescribed* a course of antibiotics. | i) ________________________ means to give a person immunization against a |
| | specific disease |
| 10 The drug *suppresses* the body's natural instinct to reject | j) ________________________ means to relieve pain |
| transplanted tissue. | k) ________________________ means to rely on or need something. |
| 11 The operation may *endanger* the life of the patient. | l) ________________________ means to remove a symptom. |
| 12 The surgeons decided to *operate* as the only way of saving the | |
| baby's life. | |
**Extension.** Work with a partner and test each other. One partner closes the book the other asks questions, For example: *Tell me a word which means: to identify a patient's condition.*
Instruments & equipment
DO YOU KNOW what the instruments you use are called in English? Read these descriptions. Which item in the list of instruments and equipment does each one refer to? The first one has been done for you as an example.
List of instruments & equipment
bandage; catheter; curette; drain; forceps; gag; hook; pipette; probe; scalpel; sling; splint; stethoscope; stretcher; syringe; thermometer; tourniquet; wheelchair
1. wheelchair = a chair with wheels in which an invalid can sit and move around
2. = a small, sharp pointed knife used in surgery
3. = an instrument used to explore inside a cavity or wound
4. = an instrument similar to a pair of scissors, used for holding and pulling
5. = a long spoon, used for scraping the inside of an organ
6. = a thin glass tube used for taking and measuring samples of liquids
7. = a device used to constrict an artery and reduce the flow of blood
8. = an instrument with a bent end, used for holding structures apart
9. = a tube used to remove liquid from the body or the site of an operation
10. = an instrument which is placed between a patient's teeth to stop him closing his mouth
11. = a tube with a plunger which slides inside it, forcing the contents out through a needle
12. = a tube which is passed into the body along one of the passages
13. = a piece of cloth which is wrapped wound a wound or injured limb
14. = a triangular piece of cloth attached around the neck, used to support a broken arm
15. = a folding bed, with handles, on which an injured person can be carried by two people
16. = a stiff support attached to a limb to prevent a broken bone from moving
17. = two earpieces connected to a tube and a metal disc, used to listen to sounds inside the body
18. = a device used for measuring temperature
Extension. Work with a partner and test each other. For example What do you call a chair with wheels in which an invalid can sit and move around?
Talking about patients ~ verbs
ALL THESE SENTENCES describe patients and their conditions. Complete the sentences using the past tense verbs in the box.
Past Tense Verbs
adapted aggravated broke burnt controlled developed exacerbated fractured
overcame picked up prolonged rebuilt received recovered required strained
suffered trembled underwent weakened
1. He must have ___________ the disease when he was travelling in Africa.
2. He ___________ a new kidney from his brother.
3. He ___________ his back lifting the table.
4. She ___________ from her concussion in a few days.
5. The doctors decided that her condition ___________ surgery.
6. She ___________ her disabilities and now leads a normal life.
7. She ___________ from poor circulation, which made her feel the cold.
8. After the accident her pelvis was completely ___________.
9. She ___________ several operations.
10. She ___________ well to her new diet.
11. She fell off a wall and ___________ her leg.
12. She ___________ her hand on the hot frying pan.
13. He ___________ his asthma with a bronchodilator.
14. The sore throat ___________ into an attack of meningitis.
15. The cold damp weather ___________ his chest condition.
16. His tibia ___________ in two places.
17. He was ___________ by the disease and could not resist further infection.
18. The treatment ___________ her life by three years.
19. Playing football only ___________ his knee injury.
20. His hands ___________ with the cold.
Extension. Work with a partner, dictate the sentences to each other.
The Passive Voice
CHANGE THE SENTENCES from active to passive. For example:
ACTIVE: Fleming discovered penicillin.
PASSIVE: Penicillin was discovered by Fleming
It is not always necessary to mention the subject (for example, Fleming) in a passive sentence.
ACTIVE: They noticed a reduction in body temperature.
PASSIVE: A reduction in body temperature was noticed.
1. Work carried out in the USA has influenced the development of the serum.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
2. They injected the patient with morphine.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
3. The doctor is using a bronchoscope to inspect the inside of the lungs.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
4. The police arrested him for misuse of drugs.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
5. They are going to refer the patient to a consultant.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
6. The lab had found traces of the drug in the blood sample.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
7. A blood clot blocked the artery.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
8. Refuse from the factories contaminated supplies of drinking water.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
9. They can treat a high proportion of cancers by surgery.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
10. If gangrene sets in they will have to amputate his toes.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
11. His doctor has banned him from drinking alcohol.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
12. Therapists sometimes hypnotize their patients.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
13. That hospital is developing a new procedure for dealing with Parkinson's disease.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
14. You should heat the solution to 25°.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
15. The police rejected him because of his medical record.
PASSIVE: ...............................................................
Parts of the body crossword 2
ALL THE ANSWERS to this crossword are parts of the body.
ACROSS
1 Ligament (5)
4 Basic material of 1 down (4)
5 Organ of hearing (3)
8 Vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste (6)
11 It joins your foot to your leg (5)
12 Thorax (5)
13 Opposite of front (4)
15 Egg producing organ (5)
19 Clavicle (10)
20 One of twenty-four inside 12 across (3)
22 Plural of foot (4)
DOWN
1 Structure which supports the body (8)
2 Joins the hand to the arm (5)
3 Branch of a nerve, artery or vein (5)
6 The layer inside the eye which is sensitive to light (6)
7 In the middle of your face (4)
10 Main muscle in 12 across (8)
13 Air passage from the trachea to the lungs (8)
14 Human tail, at the end of the backbone (6)
16 Geometrical shoulder muscle (8)
17 Soft, fat flesh - fight it! (4)
18 Wall between two parts of an organ (6)
20 Radix, point from which a limb grows (4)
21 One of ten found on 22 across (3)
Adjectives 2
COMPLETE THE SENTENCES using the adjectives in the box. Use each adjective once only.
**Adjectives**
bedridden crippled deaf depressed exhausted forbidden infested inflamed
lame lethal level obsessive painful persistent premature severed subject
tender viable
1. Car exhaust fumes are _______________ if inhaled.
2. He was _______________ in a car crash and cannot walk.
3. She suffered from a _______________ cough.
4. After returning from the tropics he was _______________ to attacks of malaria.
5. The child's hair was _______________ with lice.
6. The skin has become _______________ around the sore.
7. Her temperature has remained _______________ for the last two hours.
8. His foot is so _______________ he can hardly walk.
9. A foetus is _______________ by about the 28th week of the pregnancy.
10. You have to shout when you speak to Mr Jones because he's quite _______________.
11. The baby was born five weeks _______________.
12. The patient was _______________ after the second operation.
13. She is not _______________ of what is happening around her.
14. He is _______________ and has to be looked after by a nurse.
15. He has been _______________ since damaging his leg in the accident.
16. He has an _______________ desire to steal small objects.
17. Her shoulders are still _______________ where she got sunburnt.
18. Surgeons tried to sew the _______________ finger back onto the patient's hand.
19. She was _______________ for weeks after the death of her husband.
20. Smoking is _______________ in the cinema.
**Extension.** Work with a partner, Dictate the sentences to each other.
How it works 2
THESE SENTENCES GIVE information about various systems, but they have been divided into separate halves. Match the half-sentences in column A with the half-sentences in column B to make twenty sentences which are correct, complete and true.
| A | B |
|------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1. The body needs to conserve ... | from the site of the infection. |
| 2. Blood clots occur in ... | is that the patient's hair falls out. |
| 3. Fluid collects in the tissue ... | to the mouth by the trachea. |
| 4. Adrenaline extracted from the animal's adrenal glands ... | milk comes into contact with an acid. |
| 5. The material used in sutures slowly ... | an acute sense of touch. |
| 6. The heart has to beat more strongly ... | dislocates easily. |
| 7. Shingles is caused by ... | the chest muscles relax and the lungs become smaller. |
| 8. After the age of 50 ... | are a running nose and eyes. |
| 9. Embolization is ... | derived from the carotid artery. |
| 10. Bone is ... | calcified connective tissue. |
| 11. Casein is precipitated when ... | dissolves in body fluids. |
| 12. The lungs are connected ... | is used in the treatment of asthma. |
| 13. One of the side-effects of chemotherapy ... | of patients suffering from dropsy. |
| 14. Pain radiates ... | embolism and thrombosis. |
| 15. Blind people develop ... | heat in cold weather. |
| 16. The shoulder joint ... | to compensate for the narrowing of the arteries. |
| 17. The supply of blood to the sublingual region is ... | an effective treatment for severe haemoptysis. |
| 18. The symptoms of hay fever ... | many people's vision begins to fail. |
| 19. Expiration takes place when ... | is 72 beats a minute. |
| 20. The normal adult pulse ... | the same virus as chickenpox. |
Extension. Work with a partner, Dictate the sentences to each other.
A FAST WAY to expand your vocabulary is to make sure you know the different forms of the words you learn.
**Exercise 1.** The words in this list are all verbs. What are the noun forms? Write them in the second column. The first one has been done for you as an example.
1. diagnose
**diagnosis**
2. examine
3. prescribe
4. suffer
5. operate
6. cure
7. recover
8. analyse
9. infect
10. experience
11. replace
12. degenerate
13. refer
14. exceed
15. withdraw
5. We operated immediately.
*The* ..................................................
..................................................
6. This disease cannot be cured.
*There is* ...........................................
..................................................
7. He has recovered fully.
*He has made* ....................................
..................................................
8. The lab analysed the blood sample.
*The lab made* ...................................
..................................................
9. We found that the tissue was infected.
*We found* .......................................
..................................................
10. He has experienced six years of tropical work.
*He has* .........................................
..................................................
11. We replaced the patient's hip.
*The patient* ....................................
..................................................
12. His condition has degenerated.
*There has been* ................................
..................................................
13. The patient was referred to a specialist.
*The patient was given* .......................
..................................................
14. The amount of sugar in the blood sample exceeded the norm.
*There was* ....................................
..................................................
15. This is the time to withdraw the drugs treatment.
*This is the time* ..............................
..................................................
Abbreviations
TEST YOUR MEDICAL abbreviations. What do the following stand for? Check the ones you don't know in the dictionary.
1 A&E
2 AIDS
3 BMR
4 CAT
5 CHD
6 D&V
7 DOA
8 GP
9 HAV
10 HIV
11 MD
12 OTC
13 PM
14 PMA
15 PMT
16 RQ
17 RSI
18 SAD
19 SIDS
20 STD
21 TB
22 TBI
23 UV
24 VDH
25 WHO
Extension. Work with a partner and test each other. One partner closes the book, the other asks questions. For example: *What does A and E stand for?*
Opposites
Exercise 1. Match the words in *italics* with their opposites in the box on the right.
1. The opposite of *back* is ..................................................
2. The opposite of *cure* is ..................................................
3. The opposite of *dead* is ..................................................
4. The opposite of *improve* is ..............................................
5. The opposite of *healthy* is .................................................
6. The opposite of *open* is ....................................................
7. The opposite of *prevent* is .................................................
8. The opposite of *reduce* is .................................................
9. The opposite of *smooth* is .................................................
10. The opposite of *remove* is ................................................
alive
allow
closed
deteriorate
ill
front
increase
kill
replace
rough
Exercise 2. Complete these sentences using the words from exercise 1. Use one word from each pair of opposites.
1. Antibodies are created to _______________ bacteria.
2. He became excited, causing his pulse rate to _______________.
3. He was very ill, but now his condition has begun to _______________.
4. She hurt her _______________ working in the garden.
5. She put cream on her hands, which were _______________ from heavy work.
6. She had an operation to _______________ her appendix.
7. The hospital is _______________ to visitors from noon to five o'clock.
8. The doctor arrived too late: the patient was already _______________.
9. There's nothing wrong with you: you're completely _______________.
10. This treatment is given to _______________ the patient's condition from getting worse.
Extension. Work with a partner and test each other. One partner closes the book the other asks questions, For example: *What's the opposite of back?*.
© Peter Collin Publishing.
Based on the Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd Ed. 1994. ISBN 0-948549-36-X.
Pronunciation ~ present tense
VERBS IN THE present tense add an s in the third person singular: I work, you work, he/she/it works. But the s has three different pronunciations.
Look at these examples:
A: /s/, for example treats
B: /z/, for example heals
C: /iz/, for example changes
Find the third person present tense verbs in these sentences and classify them by their pronunciation. Put them in the correct columns in the table on the right. Be careful: some sentences have more than one example. There are 27 examples in total.
1. The patient breathes with difficulty and coughs and sneezes constantly.
2. This drug helps to alleviate the symptoms and reduces the risk of reinfection.
3. A person whose resistance is low catches diseases more easily.
4. When someone panics his heart beats more rapidly and his temperature rises.
5. After the laboratory analyses the blood sample the doctor examines the results and diagnoses the condition.
6. He then recommends a course of treatment and prescribes any necessary drugs.
7. This drug relaxes the muscles and relieves pain.
8. The gland releases hormones into the bloodstream, causing an immediate reaction.
9. The patient now sleeps well and wakes feeling refreshed.
10. She suffers constant pain and only controls it by using morphine.
11. This treatment counteracts the effects of the infection.
12. It is a procedure which cures the condition or kills the patient.
13. If the surgeon operates now the chance of success increases to about 50%.
14. The sinoatrial node regulates the heart beat.
Extension 1. Work with a partner: dictate the sentences to each other.
Extension 2. The same rule applies to plural nouns: /s/ patients, /z/ doctors, /iz/ nurses. Work with a partner and find five example nouns for each sound.
Word association
ONE WORD CONNECTS each set of four below. All the words have medical connections. What are they?
1. transplant, failure, rate, disease
2. clot, donor, sugar, pressure
3. nagging, throbbing, threshold, labour
4. growth, sex, therapy, replacement
5. compact, spongy, cranial, metacarpal
6. voluntary, involuntary, cramp, relaxant
Extension. Think of two more words for each group.
© Peter Collin Publishing.
Based on the Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd Ed. 1994. ISBN 0-948549-36-X.
SOLVE THE ANAGRAMS by reading the clues and putting the letters in order to form words. Write your answers in the grid to find the mystery word spelled by their initial letters.
1. Main part of the brain .................................................. BCEEMRRU
2. Found by adding quantities and dividing their total by their number ........ AAEGRV
3. Response ............................................................... ACEINORT
4. Way of acting ......................................................... ABEHORUV
5. To notice, to see, to watch, to look ................................ BEEORSV
6. Spasm causing sudden inhalation followed by closure of the glottis .... CCHIPU
7. Reflex action when tired or sleepy ................................ ANWY
8. To become worse .................................................. ADEEEIORRTT
9. Reducing strain or stress ........................................... AAEILNORTX
10. Not asleep ............................................................ AAEKW
11. Operating room ..................................................... AEEHRTT
12. Works well .......................................................... CEEFFIINT
Mystery Word: found in potatoes
MAKE FIFTEEN TWO-WORD expressions connected with medicine by combining words from the two lists: A and B. Match each expression with the appropriate phrase. Use each word once. The first one has been done for you as an example.
| A | B |
|------------|-----------------|
| allergic | anaesthetic |
| balanced | attack |
| bedside | death |
| bone | diet |
| brain | intervention |
| circadian | manner |
| clinical | marrow |
| digestive | practitioner |
| general | reaction |
| general | rhythm |
| heart | surgery |
| malignant | system |
| milk | teeth |
| plastic | trial |
| surgical | tumour |
1. Cardiac arrest
- heart attack
2. No pain.
- ..................
3. Soft substance found inside calcified connective tissue.
- ..................
4. Knife instead of drugs.
- ..................
5. Twenty, to be replaced by thirty-two.
- ..................
6. Operating on appearances.
- ..................
7. Life ends, though the heart beats on.
- ..................
8. The way a doctor behaves to a patient.
- ..................
9. The effect of, for example, pollen.
- ..................
10. Test of a drug on a small group of people.
- ..................
11. Cancer.
- ..................
12. Local doctor.
- ..................
13. Everyday the same old routine.
- ..................
14. Liver, pancreas, gall bladder, stomach, duodenum, etc.
- ..................
15. Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and mineral: all in the correct proportions
- ..................
© Peter Collin Publishing.
Based on the Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd Ed. 1994. ISBN 0-948549-36-X.
Pronunciation ~ word stress 2
ONE OF THE keys to English pronunciation is *stress* - emphasis. There are three normal patterns for four syllable words:
A: \[ \text{vac-ci-na-ted} \]
B: \[ \text{pneu-mo-ni-a} \]
C: \[ \text{in-flu-en-za} \]
Decide which pronunciation is correct for each of the verbs in the table on the right and tick (✓) the appropriate column. Then complete the sentences below using the verbs. The first one has been done for you as an example.
1. She appeared to be improving, but a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ set in and she died a few hours later.
2. Bell's Palsy causes facial \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
3. Come right now: it's an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_!
4. The patient was having difficulties breathing so we put him on a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
5. She had an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to replace the cornea.
6. He was given a general \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ before the surgeons began work.
7. As a precaution against AIDS we use \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ needles.
8. He can't take aspirin: he has an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to it.
9. Rub your hands together to get the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ going.
10. He couldn't \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ the movements of his arms and legs.
11. An \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ was organised to test the drug on a small group of people.
12. Tests confirmed the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the growth.
13. This is the allergen which was \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ for the patient's reaction.
14. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ showed that the food contained bacteria.
15. The surgeons are trying to find a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ donor.
16. A diet high in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ fats increases the risk of heart disease.
17. The surgeon \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ how to make the incision to the students.
18. As many as 60-70% of diarrhoeal deaths are caused by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
19. The nervous system is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the consciousness.
20. Autistic children do not \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - even with their parents.
**Extension.** Work with a partner. Dictate the sentences to each other.
WHAT ARE THE English names for the chemical elements and compounds in the table below? Complete the 'name' column and connect each substance to the notes which refer to it. The first one has been done for you as an example.
| Symbol | Name | Notes |
|--------|------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1. | Na | sodium (e) |
| | | (a) an acid found in the gastric juices |
| 2. | Ca | |
| | | (b) an acid which forms a poisonous salt |
| 3. | Pb | |
| | | (c) an addictive alkaline |
| 4. | Ba | |
| | | (d) used as a contrast when taking X-ray photographs |
| 5. | Ti | |
| | | (e) the basic substance in salt |
| 6. | Zn | |
| | | (f) the basis of a radioactive isotope used to treat cancer |
| 7. | Fe | |
| | | (g) a colourless gas used in anaesthetics |
| 8. | Co | |
| | | (h) a colourless gas which is essential to human life |
| 9. | Cl | |
| | | (i) an essential component in living matter |
| 10. | He | |
| | | (j) an essential part of red blood cells found in liver & eggs |
| 11. | S | |
| | | (k) a gas which combines with oxygen to form water |
| 12. | Au | |
| | | (l) a heavy soft metal, poisonous in compounds |
| 13. | O | |
| | | (m) a light gas used with oxygen to relieve asthma |
| 14. | H | |
| | | (n) a light metal which does not corrode |
| 15. | HCl | |
| | | (o) the main component of air, an essential part of protein |
| 16. | n | |
| | | (p) the major component of bones and teeth |
| 17. | HCN | |
| | | (q) a powerful green gas used to sterilize water |
| 18. | C | |
| | | (r) a soft yellow metal used as a compound in various drugs |
| 19. | N₂O | |
| | | (s) a white metallic trace element |
| 20. | C₁₀H₁₄N₂ | |
| | | (t) a yellow non-metallic element found in amino acids |
**Extension.** Check the pronunciation of the 20 elements and compounds by asking your teacher. Then work with a partner to test each other. One writes the chemical symbols, the other says the names. Use the elements and compounds in the table, and also others that you know.
Gap fill crossword
COMPLETE THE CROSSWORD with the missing words from the sentences.
ACROSS
1. The microscope was _____ in 15th century Holland. (8)
5. Blood _____ were taken from all the staff in the hospital. (7)
7. There is a _____ of names in alphabetical order. (4)
8. He is an ear, _____ and throat specialist. (4)
9. We will _____ the operating theatre with the latest scanning devices. (5)
10. Fear of snakes is a common ______. (6)
13. Sugar is a source of _____. (6)
14. The doctor _____ the patient's broken arm. (3)
16. When she cut her finger it _____ . (4)
17. He breathed in the smoke from the fire and it made him _____ . (5)
18. He went to see an _____ specialist about his deafness. (3)
19. Anorexic patients may become _____ and may need hospitalization. (10)
24. Can I make an _____ to see Dr Jones? (11)
25. The box is so heavy she can't _____ it off the floor. (4)
27. He became hysterical and had to be put under _____ . (8)
DOWN
1. The catheter is _____ into the passage. (8)
2. How can you afford this _____ treatment? (9)
3. She gave _____ to twins. (5)
4. The surgeon was able to move the organ back to its _____ position. (8)
6. The doctor put her to _____ with a powerful narcotic. (5)
11. The patient suffers from an allergic _____ to oranges. (8)
12. Her _____ rate was very irregular. (5)
14. The lining of the uterus is _____ at each menstrual period. (4)
15. When you add the reagent, the solution will _____ blue. (4)
20. We have _____ out the extent of the tumour. (6)
21. The drug begins acting after a very short _____ . (4)
22. There were two hundred _____ of cholera in the recent outbreak. (5)
23. The clinic has a _____ of 100. (5)
25. The _____ is the ratio of a person's mental age to his chronological age. (2)
Odd one out
IN EACH SET of words one is the *odd one out*: different from the others. Find the word that is different, and circle it. For example:
- callosum ............... cerebellum ........... colliculus ........... **coccyx**
Coccyx is the odd one out. It is a bone; the others are all parts of the brain.
1. aching ............... bleeding ........... nagging ........... throbbing
2. hand ............... kidney ........... leg ........... liver
3. ankle ............... elbow ........... knee ........... forearm
4. ear ............... eye ........... face ........... nose
5. nurse ........... orderly ........... surgeon ........... patient
6. bandage ........... forceps ........... probe ........... scalpel
7. hair ........... lip ........... nail ........... tooth
8. accident ........... damage ........... harm ........... injure
9. expiration ........... inspiration ........... respiration ........... supination
10. cataracts ........... eyelids ........... nearsightedness ........... strabismus
11. cure ........... heal ........... mend ........... treat
12. improve ........... get better ........... recover ........... relapse
13. iris ........... lens ........... palm ........... pupil
14. oval window ........... semicircular canals ........... tympanic membrane ........... vertebral column
15. copper ........... iron ........... nickel ........... zinc
16. break ........... crack ........... fracture ........... wound
17. innominate bone ........... nasal bone ........... occipital bone ........... zygomatic bone
18. liver ........... heart ........... pancreas ........... spleen
19. gums ........... tongue ........... palate ........... lips
20. bite ........... chew ........... swallow ........... taste
Body parts ~ categories
IN THIS TABLE there are 41 words for parts of the body and six categories. Decide which category/ies each part belongs to. The first one has been done for you as an example.
| | arm | hand | leg | foot | torso | head |
|------------------|-----|------|-----|------|-------|------|
| abdomen | | | | | | |
| achilles tendon | | | | | | |
| ankle | | | | | | |
| buttock | | | | | | |
| calf | | | | | | |
| cheek | | | | | | |
| chest | | | | | | |
| chin | | | | | | |
| ear | | | | | | |
| elbow | | | | | | |
| eye | | | | | | |
| eyebrow | | | | | | |
| eyelash | | | | | | |
| eyelid | | | | | | |
| finger | | | | | | |
| forearm | | | | | | |
| forehead | | | | | | |
| gum | | | | | | |
| hair | | | | | | |
| hip | | | | | | |
| knee | | | | | | |
| knuckle | | | | | | |
| lip | | | | | | |
| nail | | | | | | |
| navel | | | | | | |
| neck | | | | | | |
| nipple | | | | | | |
| nose | | | | | | |
| palm | | | | | | |
| rib | | | | | | |
| scalp | | | | | | |
| shoulder | | | | | | |
| sole | | | | | | |
| temple | | | | | | |
| thigh | | | | | | |
| throat | | | | | | |
| thumb | | | | | | |
| toe | | | | | | |
| tongue | | | | | | |
| tooth | | | | | | |
| wrist | | | | | | |
Pronunciation ~ past tense
REGULAR VERBS HAVE three different pronunciations in the past tense (or the past participle). The difference is in the sound you use for the ending.
Look at these examples:
A: /t/, for example placed
B: /d/, for example examined
C: /id/, for example injected
Find the past tense verbs in these sentences and classify them by their pronunciation. Put them in the correct columns in the table on the right. Be careful: some sentences have more than one verb.
1. She was vaccinated against smallpox as a child.
2. The doctor diagnosed him as having hepatitis B.
3. Her condition improved, so we reduced the dose.
4. He consulted a specialist, who recommended surgery.
5. The patient coughed and sneezed all through the consultation.
6. The surgeons replaced the diseased hip with a metal one.
7. The doctor prescribed a course of antibiotics.
8. The doctor's speedy action prevented further complications.
9. The pharmacist mixed the chemicals in this bottle.
10. The surgeons operated immediately on the injured child.
11. 'You can go home,' said the doctor, 'you're cured.'
12. The nurse disinfected and dressed the wound.
13. She's being treated by a heart specialist.
14. The heartbeat is regulated by the sinoatrial node.
15. Hormones are released into the body by glands.
16. His pulse rate increased by 10%.
17. The attack was preceded by a rise in body temperature.
18. Surgical instruments must be sterilized before use.
19. Nobody noticed that the patient's blood pressure had dropped.
20. The surgeon probed the wound with a scalpel.
Extension. Work with a partner: dictate the sentences to each other.
More useful verbs
ON THE LEFT there are examples of twelve useful verbs in medicine, on the right there are definitions of the verbs. Read the examples and match the verbs (which are in *italics*) with the definitions. Then write the infinitive forms into the spaces in the definitions on the right. The first one has been done for you as an example.
| EXAMPLES | DEFINITIONS |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1 80% of elderly patients admitted to geriatric units are on medication.| a) **transfer** means to pass from one place to another. |
| 2 The cancer is not responding to drugs. | b) ________________________ means to damage. |
| 3 Their diet lacks essential proteins. | c) ________________________ means to go through or into something. |
| 4 The doctors saved the little boy from dying of cancer. | d) ________________________ means to make a hole through something. |
| 5 The end of the broken bone has penetrated the liver. | e) ________________________ means to investigate the inside of something. |
| 6 The new heart has performed very well. | f) ________________________ means to stop someone from being damaged or killed. |
| 7 The patient was transferred to a special unit. | g) ________________________ means not to have enough of something. |
| 8 She fainted when she saw the blood. | h) ________________________ means to register someone in a hospital. |
| 9 The surgeon probed the wound with a scalpel. | i) ________________________ means to stop something happening. |
| 10 Walking to work every day won't harm you. | j) ________________________ means to react, to begin to get better because of treatment. |
| 11 The treatment is given to prevent the patient's condition from getting worse. | k) ________________________ means to lose consciousness for a short time. |
| 12 The ulcer perforated the duodenum. | l) ________________________ means to do, to work. |
**Extension.** Work with a partner and test each other. One partner closes the book, the other asks questions. For example: *Tell me a word which means: to pass from one place to another.*
Good advice
THESE SENTENCES ALL give very good advice, but they have been divided into separate halves. Match the half-sentences in column A with the half-sentences in column B to make twenty sentences which are correct, complete and true.
| A | B |
|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| 1. If you do a lot of exercise ... | ... burn easily in the sun. |
| 2. A balanced diet should ... | ... cause back pain. |
| 3. Medicines should ... | ... you develop strong muscles. |
| 4. A patient in shock should ... | ... swimming every morning before |
| | breakfast to keep fit. |
| 5. Not taking any exercise is ... | ... be inoculated against diphtheria. |
| 6. Reading in bad light can ... | ... glucose is more easily digestible. |
| 7. The administration of drugs must ...| ... be kept out of the reach of |
| | children. |
| 8. The patient should fast ... | ... be kept warm and lying down. |
| 9. A hard bed is good ... | ... at midday. |
| 10. You should have your main meal ... | ... from midnight of the night before |
| | an operation. |
| 11. AIDS can be transmitted ... | ... to restore strength. |
| 12. Bad posture can ... | ... for someone with back problems. |
| 13. People with fair complexions ... | ... be sterilized before use. |
| 14. Surgical instruments must ... | ... be supervised by a qualified doctor|
| | or nurse. |
| 15. For patients who have problems with| ... make the eyes ache. |
| sugar, ... | ... provide the protein required by |
| | the body. |
| 16. You should get into the habit of | ... an unhealthy way of living. |
| ... | ... be used to try and stop the flow |
| | of blood. |
| 17. Babies should ... | ... by using non-sterile needles. |
| 18. Vitamins help ... | ... from your daily diet. |
| 19. You can obtain most vital amino | ... |
| acids ... | ... |
| 20. A tourniquet should ... | ... |
Extension. Work with a partner, dictate the sentences to each other.
This crossword is not complete: you have only half the words. The other half are on sheet A. Check that you know the words in your crossword. Then work with a partner who has sheet A to complete the two crosswords. Follow these three rules:
1. Speak only in English
2. Don't say the word in the crossword.
3. Don't show your partner the crossword
What's one across?
→ across, ↓ down
| 1 S | L | E | E | 2 P | Y |
|-----|---|---|---|-----|---|
| C | | A | | | |
| H | | T | | | |
| I | | | | | |
| Z | Y | G | O | T | 8 E |
| O | | | | | |
| P | | | | | |
| H | | | | | |
| R | | | | | |
| E | | | | | |
| N | | | | | |
| I | | | | | |
| A | | | | | |
| H | | | | | |
| I | N | S | P | E | C |
| P | | | | | |
| S | H | O | U | L | D | E | R | B | L | A | E |
© Peter Collin Publishing.
Based on the Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd Ed. 1994. ISBN 0-948549-36-X.
This crossword is not complete: you have only half the words. The other half are on sheet B. Check that you know the words in your crossword. Then work with a partner who has sheet B to complete the two crosswords. Follow these three rules:
1. Speak only in English
2. Don’t say the word in the crossword.
3. Don’t show your partner the crossword
What’s one across?
→ across, ↓ down
| 1 R | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 R | | 5 C | | 6 T |
|-----|---|---|---|---|---|-----|---|-----|---|-----|
| E | | | | | | | | | | |
| 8 D | | | | | | | | | | |
| U | | | | | | | | | | |
| C | | | | | | | | | | |
| 10 T | R | 11 A | C | E | | E | | R | | N |
| I | | M | | | | | | | | |
| O | P | | | | | | | | | |
| 15 N | | U | | | | | | | | |
| | | T | | | | | | | | |
| 19 A | | A | H | | | | | | | |
| 20 B | | T | L | | | | | | | |
| N | E | E | | | | | | | | |
| O | | | | | | | | | | |
| R | | | | | | | | | | |
| 27 M | A | L | I | G | N | | O | | S |
| A | I | | | | | | | | | |
| 28 L | | M | | | | | | | | |
© Peter Collin Publishing.
Based on the Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd Ed. 1994. ISBN 0-948549-36-X.
Communicative crossword 2
This crossword is not complete: you have only half the words. The other half are on sheet A. Check that you know the words in your crossword. Then work with a partner who has sheet A to complete the two crosswords. Follow these three rules:
1. Speak only in English
2. Don't say the word in the crossword.
3. Don't show your partner the crossword
What's one across?
→ across, ↓ down
| | R | E | C | O | V | E | R |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | | | | | | | |
| 2 | U | I | | | | | |
| 3 | D | O | R | M | A | N | T |
| 4 | E | B | | | | | |
| 5 | L | A | R | Y | N | X | |
| 6 | | | | | | | |
| 7 | | | | | | | |
| 8 | | | | | | | |
| 9 | | | | | | | |
|10 | | | | | | | |
|11 | | | | | | | |
|12 | C | | | | | | |
|13 | | | | | | | |
|14 | H | | | | | | |
|15 | N | E | U | R | O | | |
|16 | N | | | | | | |
|17 | C | A | T | | | | |
|18 | | | | | | | |
|19 | | | | | | | |
|20 | B | O | T | T | L | E | |
|21 | C | O | U | N | T | | |
|22 | | | | | | | |
|23 | | | | | | | |
|24 | O | E | | | | | |
|25 | | | | | | | |
|26 | L | I | V | E | R | | |
|27 | | | | | | | |
|28 | L | Y | M | P | H | A | D |
© Peter Collin Publishing.
Based on the Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd Ed. 1994. ISBN 0-948549-36-X.
This crossword is not complete: you have only half the words. The other half are on sheet A. Check that you know the words in your crossword. Then work with a partner who has sheet A to complete the two crosswords. Follow these three rules:
1. Speak only in English
2. Don't say the word in the crossword.
3. Don't show your partner the crossword
What's one across?
→ across, ↓ down
| 1 | E | X | 2 | A | M | I | 3 | N | A | 4 | T | I | O | N |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| P | | N | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 6 | I | N | C | U | R | A | B | L | E | | | | |
| L | Y | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| E | L | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 8 | P | R | O | P | R | I | E | T | A | R | Y | | |
| S | S | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Y | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 9 | T | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| O | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 11 | M | A | T | E | R | | | | | | | | |
| W | A | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| R | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| I | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 17 | S | I | T | E | | | | | | | | | |
| T | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 20 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 21 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 24 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
© Peter Collin Publishing.
Based on the Dictionary of Medicine, 2nd Ed. 1994. ISBN 0-948549-36-X.
Answers
Adjectives 1
1. safe 2. poisonous 3. compatible 4. inoperable
5. left-handed 6. inborn 7. inadequate 8.
inactive 9. sedentary 10. confused 11.
motionless 12. hygienic 13. predisposed 14.
bitter 15. delicate 16. insanitary 17. highly
strung 18. recognized 19. intoxicated 20. hoarse
Symptoms & common illnesses - part 1
1. influenza 2. rubella 3. coryza 4. varicella
5. rubeola 6. infectious parotitis 7. pertussis
8. allergic rhinitis
Symptoms & common illnesses - part 2
Exercise 1
1. Chickenpox is the same as varicella
2. A cold is the same as coryza
3. The flu is the same as influenza
4. German measles is the same as rubella
5. Hay fever is the same as allergic rhinitis
6. Measles is the same as rubeola
7. Mumps is the same as infectious parotitis
8. Whooping cough is the same as pertussis
Exercise 2 1. hay fever 2. German measles
3. whooping cough 4. influenza 5. mumps
6. chickenpox
Diagnosis
1. epilepsy 2. gangrene 3. cataracts
4. Parkinson's disease 5. tuberculosis 6. cystic
fibrosis 7. cholera 8. diphtheria 9. cerebral
palsy 10. AIDS 11. gastroenteritis
Talking about patients - nouns
1. intolerance 2. paroxysm 3. overdose 4.
surgery 5. programme 6. recurrence 7. tendency
8. examination 9. injection 10. exercise
11. ambulance 12. intake 13. biopsy 14. consent
15. whisper 16. effort 17. excess 18. accident
19. vaccination 20. rash
Pronunciation - word stress 1
Group A hospital regular exercise alcohol
minimum haemorrhage operate serious
theatre painkillers positive medical history
Group B admitted improvement condition
develop injection equipment allergic reaction
prescription infection opinion
Group C recommend reassure incomplete
Part of the body 1
How it works 1
1. The autonomic nervous system functions
independently of the conscious will.
2. Aspirin inhibits the clotting of blood.
3. Bacteria can mutate suddenly and become
increasingly able to infect.
4. The bones are joined by a cartilage.
5. The blood vessel is a narrow channel which
takes blood to the tissues.
6. The pituitary gland stimulates the secretion
of hormones by the adrenal gland.
7. The tip of the femur fits into a socket in the
pelvis.
8. The arteries provide a continuous supply of
blood to the oxygenated tissues.
9. Bile circulates from the liver to the intestines
via the bile ducts.
10. The colon is divided into four distinct
sections.
11. The chest expands as the person breathes in.
12. In holocrine glands the cells disintegrate as
they secrete.
13. The prostate tends to enlarge as a man
grows older.
14. Impulses are transmitted along the neural
pathways.
15. Ultrasound scanning provides a picture of
the ovary and the eggs inside it.
16. Oxygen is vital to the human system.
17. The common carotid divides into two smaller arteries.
18. The body has a natural instinct to protect itself against danger.
19. Blood groups are classified according to the ABO system.
20. Nasal congestion can be relieved with antihistamines.
**Words with various meanings**
1. patient 2. fit 3. degree 4. notice 5. turn 6. light 7. cold 8. degree 9. turn 10. patient 11. notice
12. fit 13. turn 14. fit 15. light 16. degree 17. fit 18. cold 19. light
**Anagrams 1**
1. Respiration
2. Allergy
3. Daughter
4. Incision
5. Operation
6. Gerontology
7. Relapse
8. Apparatus
9. Prescribe
10. Hospital
11. Exercise
12. Resistance
**Useful verbs**
a) diagnose b) treat c) cure d) endanger e) prescribe f) specialize g) suffer h) operate i) vaccinate j) soothe k) depend l) suppress
**Instruments & equipment**
1. wheelchair 2. scalpel 3. probe 4. forceps 5. curette 6. pipette 7. tourniquet 8. hook 9. drain 10. gag 11. syringe 12. catheter 13. bandage 14. sling 15. stretcher 16. splint 17. stethoscope 18. thermometer
**Talking about patients - verbs**
1. picked up 2. received 3. strained 4. recovered 5. required 6. overcame 7. suffered 8. rebuilt 9. underwent 10. adapted 11. broke 12. burnt 13. controlled 14. developed 15. exacerbated 16. fractured 17. weakened 18. prolonged 19. aggravated 20. trembled
**Passive voice**
1. The development of the serum has been influenced by work carried out in the USA.
2. The patient was injected with morphine.
**The body ~ 2**
| S | I | N | E | W |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| K | R | A | R | N |
| E | A | R | M | O |
| L | E | S | U | O |
| E | T | T | S | E |
| T | I | P | I | E |
| O | N | P | N |
| N | A | K | L | U |
| C | H | E | S | T |
| B | A | K | V | Y |
| R | O | F | R | S |
| O | C | L | A | N |
| N | C | A | L | P |
| C | Y | B | R | T |
| H | X | T | O | U |
| U | O | O | I | M |
| S | F | E | T | D |
**Adjectives 2**
1. lethal 2. crippled 3. persistent 4. subject
5. infested 6. inflamed 7. level 8. painful
9. viable 10. deaf. 11. premature. 12. exhausted 13. aware 14. bedridden 15. lame 16. obsessive 17. tender 18. severed 19. depressed 20. forbidden
How it works 2
1. The body needs to conserve heat in cold weather.
2. Blood clots occur in embolism & thrombosis.
3. Fluid collects in the tissue of patients suffering from dropsy.
4. Adrenaline extracted from the animal's adrenal glands is used in the treatment of asthma.
5. The material used in sutures slowly dissolves in body fluids.
6. The heart has to beat more strongly to compensate for the narrowing of the arteries.
7. Shingles is caused by the same virus as chickenpox.
8. After the age of 50 many people's vision begins to fail.
9. Embolization is an effective treatment for severe haemoptysis.
10. Bone is calcified connective tissue.
11. Casein is precipitated when milk comes into contact with an acid.
12. The lungs are connected to the mouth by the trachea.
13. One of the side-effects of chemotherapy is that the patient's hair falls out.
14. Pain radiates from the site of the infection.
15. Blind people develop an acute sense of touch.
16. The shoulder joint dislocates easily.
17. The supply of blood to the sublingual region is derived from the carotid artery.
18. The symptoms of hay fever are a running nose and eyes.
19. Expiration takes place when the chest muscles relax and the lungs become smaller.
20. The normal adult pulse is 72 beats a minute.
Nouns & Verbs
Exercise 1 1. diagnosis 2. examination 3. prescription 4. suffering 5. operation 6. cure 7. recovery 8. analysis 9. infection 10. experience 11. replacement 12. degeneration 13. referral 14. excess 15. withdrawal
Exercise 2
1. My diagnosis was that the patient had a heart condition.
2. I made a full examination of the patient.
3. I wrote a prescription for a course of antibiotics.
4. He experienced very little suffering.
5. The operation was performed immediately.
6. There is no cure for this disease.
7. He has made a full recovery.
8. The lab made an analysis of the blood sample.
9. We found an infection in the tissue.
10. He has six years tropical work experience.
11. The patient was given a hip replacement.
12. There has been a degeneration in his condition.
13. The patient was given a referral to a specialist.
14. There was an excess of sugar in the blood sample.
15. This is the time for withdrawal of the drugs treatment.
Abbreviations
1. A&E: Accident & Emergency
2. AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
3. BMR: Basal Metabolic Rate
4. CAT: Computerized Axial Tomography
5. CHD: Coronary Heart Disease
6. D&V: Diarrhoea & Vomiting
7. DOA: Dead On Arrival
8. GP: General Practitioner
9. HAV: Hepatitis A Virus
10. HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
11. MD: Doctor of Medicine
12. OTC: Over The Counter
13. PM: Post Mortem
14. PMA: Progressive Muscular Atrophy
15. PMT: Pre-Menstrual Tension
16. RQ: Respiratory Quotient
17. RSI: Repetitive Strain (or Stress) Injury
18. SAD: Seasonal Affective Depression
19. SIDS: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
20. STD: Sexually Transmitted Disease
21. TB: Tuberculosis
22. TBI: Total Body Irradiation
23. UV: UltraViolet
24. VDH: Valvular Disease of the Heart
25. WHO: World Health Organisation
Opposites
Exercise 1 1. front 2. kill 3. alive 4. deteriorate 5. ill 6. closed 7. allow 8. increase 9. rough 10. replace
Exercise 2 1. kill 2. increase 3. improve 4. back 5. rough 6. remove 7. open 8. dead 9. healthy 10. prevent
Pronunciation - present tense
Group A coughs helps panics beats wakes sleeps counteracts operates regulates
Group B breathes examines recommends prescribes relieves suffers controls cures kills
Group C sneezes reduces catches rises analyses diagnoses relaxes releases increases
Word association
1. heart 2. blood 3. pain 4. hormone 5. bone 6. muscle
Anagrams 2
1. Cerebrum
2. Average
3. Reaction
4. Behaviour
5. Observe
6. Hiccup
7. Yawn
8. Deteriorate
9. Relaxation
10. Awake
11. Theatre
12. Efficient
Two-word expressions
1. heart attack 2. general anaesthetic 3. bone marrow 4. surgical intervention 5. milk teeth 6. plastic surgery 7. brain death 8. bedside manner 9. allergic reaction 10. clinical trial 11. malignant tumour 12. general practitioner 13. circadian rhythm 14. digestive system 15. balanced diet
Pronunciation - word stress 2
Exercise 1
anaesthetic 3
analysis 2
circulation 3
communicate 2
compatible 2
complication 3
coordinate 2
dehydration 3
demonstrated 1
disposable 2
emergency 2
experiment 2
independent 3
intolerance 2
malignancy 2
operation 3
paralysis 2
penicillin 3
respirator 1
responsible 2
saturated 1
Exercise 2 1. complication 2. paralysis 3. emergency 4. respirator 5. operation 6. anaesthetic 7. disposable 8. intolerance 9. circulation 10. coordinate 11. experiment 12. malignancy 13. responsible 14. analysis 15. compatible 16. saturated 17. demonstrated 18. penicillin 19. independent 20. communicate
Chemistry
1. Na, sodium, (e) the basic substance in salt
2. Ca, calcium, (p) the major component of bones and teeth
3. Pb, lead, (l) heavy soft metal, poisonous in compounds
4. Ba, barium, (d) used as a contrast when taking X-ray photographs
5. Ti, titanium, (n) a light metal which does not corrode
6. Zn, zinc, (s) a white metallic trace element
7. Fe, iron, (j) an essential part of red blood cells found in liver & eggs
Gap fill crossword
| | I | N | V | E | N | T | E | D | B | O |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| 3 | S | A | M | P | L | E | S | R | I | |
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| 27| | | | | | | | | | |
Odd one out
1. bleeding; the others are words which describe pains
2. kidney; you have two of all the others
3. forearm; the others are all joints
4. face; the others are all specifically sense organs
5. patient; the others are all jobs
6. bandage; the others are all instruments
7. lip; the others are all without feeling
8. accident; the others are all what happens in accidents
9. supination; the others are all connected to breathing
10. eyelids; the others are all eye conditions
11. treat; the others all mean to make better
12. relapse; the others all mean to return to normal after an illness
13. palm; the others are all part of the eye
14. vertebral column; the others are all part of the ear
15. copper; the others are all found in the body
16. wound; the others refer principally to damage to bones
17. innominate bone; the others are all in the head
18. heart; the others are part of the digestive system
19. lips; the other are inside the mouth
20. taste; the others are all physical actions
Body parts - categories
| Body part | Category |
|-----------------|----------|
| abdomen | torso |
| achilles tendon | foot |
| ankle | leg |
| buttock | torso |
| calf | leg |
| cheek | head |
| chest | torso |
| chin | head |
| ear | head |
| elbow | arm |
| eye | head |
| eyebrow | head |
| eyelash | head |
| eyelid | head |
| finger | hand |
| forearm | arm |
| forehead | head |
| gum | head |
| hair | head |
| hip | torso |
| knee | leg |
| knuckle | hand |
| lip | head |
| nail | hand/foot|
| navel | torso |
| neck | torso |
| nipple | torso |
| nose | head |
| palm | hand |
| rib | torso |
| scalp | head |
| shoulder | torso |
| sole | foot |
| temple | head |
| thigh | leg |
| throat | torso |
| thumb | hand |
| toe | foot |
| tongue | head |
| tooth | head |
| wrist | arm |
Pronunciation - past tense
Group A reduced coughed replaced mixed dressed released increased noticed dropped
Group B diagnosed improved prescribed diseased sneezed injured probed sterilized cured
Group C vaccinated recommended consulted prevented disinfected regulated operated treated preceded
More useful verbs
a) transfer b) harm c) penetrate d) perforate e) probe f) save g) lack h) match i) prevent j) respond k) cut l) perform
Good advice
1. If you do a lot of exercise you develop strong muscles.
2. A balanced diet should provide the protein required by the body.
3. Medicines should be kept out of the reach of children.
4. A patient in shock should be kept warm and lying down.
5. Not taking any exercise is an unhealthy way of living.
6. Reading in bad light can make the eyes ache.
7. The administration of drugs must be supervised by a qualified doctor or nurse.
8. The patient should fast from midnight of the night before an operation.
9. A hard bed is good for someone with back problems.
10. You should have your main meal at midday.
11. AIDS can be transmitted by using non-sterile needles.
12. Bad posture can cause back pain.
13. People with fair complexions burn easily in the sun.
14. Surgical instruments must be sterilized before use.
15. For patients who have problems with sugar, glucose is more easily digestible.
16. You should get into the habit of swimming every morning before breakfast to keep fit.
17. Babies should be inoculated against diphtheria.
18. Vitamins help to restore strength.
19. You can obtain most vital amino acids from your daily diet.
20. A tourniquet should be used to try and stop the flow of blood.
TEST YOUR VOCABULARY FOR MEDICINE
a workbook for users
This workbook is the only available product that provides material to learn English with medical vocabulary.
- Unique - the only workbook that tests medical vocabulary
- Self-study exercises and practical speaking activities for classroom use
- Based strictly on a single dictionary, eliminating problems of source
This workbook contains exercises that will help teach English medical vocabulary. The format is clear and easy to use, comes complete with full instructions and combines both self-study and classroom exercises.
PETER COLLIN PUBLISHING
Category: ESP/EFL/ELT | 6ae0db8a-f82c-486f-a08f-67b40627c943 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | http://englishonlineclub.com/pdf/Test%20Your%20Vocabulary%20for%20Medicine%20-%20Workbook%20for%20Users%20%5BEnglishOnlineClub.com%5D.pdf | 2020-10-25T13:34:23+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107889173.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20201025125131-20201025155131-00152.warc.gz | 38,786,782 | 22,576 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.965944 | eng_Latn | 0.998665 | [
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What Do You Call an Alligator That Sneaks Up and Bites You From Behind?
Simplify each expression below. Cross out the box that contains your answer. When you finish, print the letters from the remaining boxes in the squares at the bottom of the page.
| | | | | | | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | \( \frac{2x + 10}{x + 5} \) | 6 | \( \frac{n^2 + 7n + 10}{n^2 + 2n - 15} \) | 11 | \( \frac{2b^2 - 6b}{5b^2 - 15b} \) |
| 2 | \( \frac{x - 3}{7x - 21} \) | 7 | \( \frac{n^2 - 7n + 12}{n^2 - 2n - 3} \) | 12 | \( \frac{b^2 + 4b - 21}{2b^2 - 18} \) |
| 3 | \( \frac{x^2 - 4}{x + 2} \) | 8 | \( \frac{n^2 + 7n - 18}{n^2 - 4} \) | 13 | \( \frac{3b^2 + 15b}{2b^3 - 50b} \) |
| 4 | \( \frac{x^2 - 25}{3x - 15} \) | 9 | \( \frac{4n + 28}{n^2 + 6n - 7} \) | 14 | \( \frac{b^2 + 4b + 4}{2b^2 + 3b - 2} \) |
| 5 | \( \frac{x^2 + 4x}{x^2 - 9x} \) | 10 | \( \frac{n - 6}{n^2 - 6n} \) | 15 | \( \frac{6b^3 - 24b^2}{b^2 + b - 20} \) |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AB | CH | AT | ES | AD | TO | AP | AI | RE | NO |
| 4 | \( \frac{6b^2}{b + 5} \) | \( \frac{3b}{b - 5} \) | \( \frac{n + 2}{n - 3} \) | \( \frac{b + 7}{2(b + 3)} \) | 2 | \( \frac{n + 9}{n + 2} \) | \( \frac{b + 4}{2b + 1} \) | \( \frac{b + 2}{2b - 1} \) | \( \frac{x + 4}{x - 9} \) |
| LG | TE | BR | AT | RY | BI | DO | OR | TE | AT |
| \( \frac{x + 4}{x - 2} \) | \( \frac{1}{7} \) | \( \frac{2}{5} \) | \( \frac{n + 2}{n - 1} \) | \( \frac{1}{n} \) | \( \frac{x + 5}{3} \) | \( \frac{3}{2(b - 5)} \) | \( \frac{3}{2(b + 10)} \) | \( \frac{n - 4}{n + 1} \) | \( \frac{x - 2}{x - 2} \) |
OBJECTIVE 5-a: To simplify algebraic fractions (both numerator and denominator written in descending order of exponents with first coefficient positive). | <urn:uuid:bd0dfc5f-3296-45a8-b1d2-98ed4b1e4132> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | https://mrjoneshelpdesk.files.wordpress.com/2018/03/pun107.pdf | 2019-04-26T08:40:41Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578762045.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20190426073513-20190426095513-00465.warc.gz | 499,877,560 | 891 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997586 | eng_Latn | 0.997586 | [
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Please note:
*Lines* contains many Social Story elements.
However, it does not meet the current definition of a Social Story (10.2 Criteria).
For this reason, while it is an important part of Social Story history, it would not be considered a Social Story today.
- Carol Gray
LINES
I go to Van Raalte School. I am in Mrs. DeWitt's kindergarten class. This is a picture of me in Mrs. DeWitt's class.
We do many things in kindergarten.
Sometimes we go places.
We go to music class.
We go to gym class.
We go outside to play.
We all go together.
When we all go together, we walk in a straight line.
We don't walk in a CROOKED line!
We walk in a STRAIGHT line!
That way, people can walk past us when we come down the hall behind Mrs. DeWitt. It's important to keep the line STRAIGHT!
Here is how we make a line. One person is first.
A second person stands right behind the first person.
The third person stands right behind the second person.
Everyone tries to keep the line STRAIGHT, not CROOKED!
Here is a picture I drew of me standing in a straight line with the other children.
When I stand in line, I can't see very far. I can see the shirt of the person in front of me. It might be blue, or red, or green, or have stripes.
Here is a picture of what the shirt on the boy in front of me might look like.
Here is a picture of my shirt today. If I stood in a line today, the person behind me would see my shirt. It looks like this:
As we stand in line, we can all see Mrs. DeWitt. That's because she is so much taller than the rest of us. I am glad I can see Mrs. DeWitt when I stand in line. She is nice to look at. Here, I drew a picture of Mrs. DeWitt.
There are two kinds of lines.
There are standing lines.
And there are walking lines.
Standing lines can get squishy and smooshy. That's because everyone wants to get going. While we stand in line, we all move a little bit.
Sometimes we fix our shirt.
Sometimes we scratch our head.
Sometimes we just need to wiggle a little.
All that moving makes us a little squishy. It doesn't feel squishy and smooshy for long. Soon, the line starts moving. We start walking.
When we walk, I can still see the shirt of the boy in front of me, but he is a little farther away. Walking lines don't usually squish up the way standing ones do.
Lines are everywhere, but they usually end up somewhere real nice.
Like music class.
Or gym class with Mrs. Miller.
Or the counter at McDonald's!
Or a seat at the movies!
Or...back in my seat in Mrs. DeWitt's room. That's a nice place to be, too. | <urn:uuid:b9ee39e2-b04e-4e91-87f2-c959916e1f46> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://carolgraysocialstories.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Lines.pdf | 2022-09-28T02:51:50+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030335059.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20220928020513-20220928050513-00691.warc.gz | 208,222,184 | 638 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.996034 | eng_Latn | 0.999032 | [
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Due to the current COVID-19 situation, children and young people are spending more time online than ever before whether it is for school work, entertainment or to keep in touch with family and friends.
Here are a few tips on how to keep your children safe when they are online:
- **Be Informed** – It is important to keep up-to-date with online trends and challenges that children and young people face online.
- **Communication is key** – It is important to talk to your children about what they are doing online and the risks they may face. This will in turn encourage your children and adolescents to talk to you about any difficulties they may encounter.
- **Explore the internet** – What better way to obtain an understanding of the apps and websites your children and young people are using than by using them together. This way you will become more aware of the risks they may encounter online.
- **Support your children to create an online/offline balance** – Since children and young people are spending more and more time online, it is even harder for them to create a balance. Encourage more offline activities which include amongst others physical activities, board games and family activities.
- **Encourage your children to stick to a routine** – Drawing up a timetable together with the children and young people will help to manage their time better. Screen breaks should also be factored in.
- **Promote Respect** – Children and young people are to be encouraged to respect themselves and others even when they are online. Make your children aware of the consequences their actions online may have.
- **Make sure that your children have access to age-appropriate content** – Since children and young people have more time on their hands, they may try to play games or download apps which are not age-appropriate. The age rating is there for a reason, talk to them about this and explain why they should stick to games and apps that are appropriate for them. Do not give in to pressure even in these difficult situations.
- **Beat the boredom** – Children and young people may explore new things online due to boredom, including communicating with people they do not know. Talk to your children about the risks they may encounter and encourage them to engage in other activities.
- **Seek advice** – If you are in doubt about any issues related to online safety contact the helpline 179 for guidance and support. For other issues relating to the wellbeing of your children, there are various support services which may be found on https://teleskola.mt/studentsupport/
- **Report abuse** – Should you or your child encounter abuse online such as cyber-bullying, grooming and sexting, report it! You can either report the abuse directly through the website/application itself or through the report abuse button on www.besmartonline.org.mt
@saferinternet.mt
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The program at the high school integrates physical, cognitive, psychological and social aspects into the physical education program. Scientific evidence has concluded that there is a strong correlation between physical fitness and school performance. A “physically educated person values the concept of an active lifestyle and understands the health benefits associated with physical activity.
Students are expected to dress appropriately for physical activity and to follow the guidelines set forth by the physical education department. Students are provided ample opportunity to participate in both individual and team activities and are encouraged to meet their individual potential. The selective program offers students a variety of choices that develop skills and concepts through physical activity experiences.
Students who participate in this program are expected to dress appropriately for the activity following the guidelines set forth by the physical education department.
### Course Overview
#### Course Objectives
Students should:
- demonstrate the skills and knowledge necessary to participate in a variety of physical activities.
- make decisions to establish and maintain a healthy lifestyle to promote individual wellness throughout his or her entire life.
- routinely and efficiently, use online information resources to meet the needs for research, publications and communications.
- recognize and understand the different effects of physical activity on one’s mind and body.
- use content specific tools and software.
- develop interpersonal skills and exhibit positive character traits during physical activity.
#### Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How can I move effectively and efficiently?
- What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
- Why is it important to be physically fit and how can I stay fit?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
#### Assessments
- Common Assessments
- Skill Assessments
| Unit Offerings | Standards | Grade Level Skills |
|----------------|-----------|-------------------|
| I. Aerobics | | |
| II. Archery | | |
| III. Badminton| | |
| IV. Basketball| | |
| V. Cooperative/Team Games | | |
| VI. Fitness | | |
| VII. Flag Football | | |
| VIII. Flag Rugby | | |
| IX. Floor Hockey | | |
| X. Golf | | |
| XI. Lacrosse | | |
| XII. Omnikin Ball “Kinball” | | |
| XIII. Pickleball | | |
| XIV. Pilates | | |
| XV. Power Walking | | |
| XVI. Self Defense and Safety | | |
| XVII. Soccer | | |
| XVIII. Softball | | |
| XIX. Strength/Flexibility | | |
| XX. Team Handball | | |
| XXI. Tennis | | |
| XXII. Ultimate Flying Disc | | |
| XXIII. Volleyball | | |
| XXIV. Yoga | | |
Connecticut State Physical Education Standards are met in the following areas:
- Motor Skill Performance
- Applying Concepts and Strategies
- Engaging in Physical Activity
- Physical Fitness
- Responsible Behavior
- Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will:
- Skills Matrix
Aerobics
This class is designed to help the student become more aware of the benefits of physical activity that require forced breathing, causing the cardio respiratory system to work at sub maximal rates. Participation in the aerobics class will require the student to actively participate in a variety of vigorous activities each period.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Applying Concepts and Strategies
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate an understanding of what the body does, where the body moves, how the body performs the movement and relationships that enable skilled performances.
Physical Fitness
Students will incorporate fitness and wellness concepts to achieve and maintain a health enhancing level of physical fitness.
Students will:
- assess and adjust activities to maintain or improve personal level of health-related fitness.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- use physical activity as a means of creative expression.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- participate in a choreographed aerobic activity necessary to improve cardio respiratory endurance.
- demonstrate knowledge of monitoring HR.
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How can I move effectively and efficiently?
- Why is it important to be physically fit and how can I stay fit?
- How will physical activity help me now and in
Assessment
- Choreographed aerobic routine including a warm-up and cool
Skill Objectives
Students will demonstrate competency in:
- monitor and calculate HR (manually
• acquire an understanding of a variety of aerobic activities and movements.
• develop a choreographed aerobic routine including a warm-up and cool down.
**Focus Question**
- How does participation in a choreographed aerobic activity address my personal fitness needs and contribute to my overall wellness?
Students will demonstrate an understanding of:
- the effect of aerobic activity on HR.
and using HR monitor)
- resting HR
- active HR
- target HR
- recovery HR
• demonstrate a choreographed aerobic routine including a warm-up and cool down.
• application of safety skills and concepts.
Archery
This is an introductory archery course. Emphasis is given to the safety skills necessary for target shooting, to knowledge of archery terminology, and to acquaint students with a lifetime activity. An opportunity to experience archery competition will culminate the unit.
Standards
Applying Concepts and Strategies
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- use self, peer, teacher and technological resources as tools to implement performance improvements in self and others.
- demonstrate understanding of how rules, and safety practices and procedures need to be adjusted for different movement situations.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of appropriate safety rules.
- demonstrate an understanding of scoring.
- demonstrate competency in the seven skills of shooting an arrow.
- successfully participate in archery.
Essential Questions
- How can I move effectively and efficiently?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
Focus Question
- What are the skill and concepts necessary to successfully participate in archery?
Assessments
- Skill assessment – Scoring rubric
- Cognitive Assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following archery skills:
- proper stance
- gripping the bow
- knocking the arrow
- drawing an arrow to an anchor point
- aiming at intended target
- releasing arrow
- follow through
- demonstrate an ability to keep an individual score of multiple ends.
- demonstrate safety practice as related to shooting and retrieving arrows.
• apply safety skills and concepts.
Badminton
This is an introductory course designed to acquaint students with a lifetime sport, with the equipment and terminology of the game and with an opportunity to play. Some of the skills to be taught include grip, service, volley, smash underhand and overhead clear. An all physical education class badminton tournament will culminate the unit.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- develop advanced skills in selected physical activities.
Engaging in Physical Activity
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- apply, evaluate and analyze critical elements of physical activity concepts to increasingly complex game forms.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- demonstrate initiative in using appropriate skills for resolving conflicts peacefully and encouraging others to do the same.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of the rules, scoring and etiquette for a singles and doubles badminton game.
- demonstrate an understanding of the strategies for effective singles and doubles
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
Assessments
- Skill assessment
- Cognitive assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the
play.
- demonstrate competency in badminton skills.
- to participate successfully in a badminton game.
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
**Focus Question**
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in badminton?
following badminton skills:
- serving
- drive (forehand and backhand)
- clear (underhand and overhand)
- demonstrate an understanding of:
- drop shot
- smash
- demonstrate an understanding of appropriate scoring, rules and serving rotation as necessary for game play.
- apply safety skills and concepts.
Basketball
This unit offers the student an opportunity to play a team sport. Shooting, passing and basic offense and defense are taught.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- seek personally challenging experiences through physical activity as a means to personal growth.
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of the rules necessary to play a basketball game.
- demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of a basketball game.
- demonstrate competency in basketball skills.
- to participate successfully in a basketball game.
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
Focus Question
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in a basketball game?
Assessment
- Skill assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following basketball skills:
- shooting
- passing
- dribbling
- develop an understanding of:
- rebounding
- moving to space
- game play strategies
- pivoting
- lay-ups
• apply safety skills and concepts.
Cooperative/Team Games
This unit will allow students to participate in a variety of cooperative and team games. Students will use physical activity as a positive opportunity for social and group interaction. Students will engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities. Students will demonstrate an understanding of rules, strategy and good sportsmanship while participating in cooperative and team games.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- develop advanced skills in selected physical activities.
- participate in a wide variety of activities, including dance, games, sports and lifetime physical activities.
Applying Concepts and Strategies
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate understanding of how rules, and safety practices and procedures need to be adjusted for different movement situations.
Engaging in Physical Activity
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- apply, evaluate and analyze critical elements of physical activity concepts to increasingly complex game forms.
- engage in a variety of appropriate physical activities with individualized goals, during and outside of school, that promote the development and improvement of physical fitness level.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- demonstrate leadership and cooperation in order to accomplish the goals of different physical activities.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
- demonstrate initiative in using appropriate skills for resolving conflicts peacefully and encouraging others to do the same.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will
- use physical activity as a positive opportunity for social and group interaction and development of lifelong skills and relationships.
**Unit Objective**
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate sportsmanship in a team/cooperative game.
**Essential Questions**
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How can I move effectively and efficiently?
- What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
**Focus Question**
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to have positive social interaction while participating in game play?
**Assessment**
- Sportsmanship rubric
**Skill Objectives**
Students will:
- apply safety skills and concepts.
- work cooperatively.
- demonstrate sports related etiquette.
- communicate effectively in group/game situations.
- respect differences of teammates and opponents.
**Fitness**
This unit offers an opportunity for the students to devise an individual exercise program which includes the areas of strength, flexibility, and cardio respiratory endurance. The fitness center is used for this program.
**Standards**
**Motor Skill Performance**
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
**Applying Concepts and Strategies**
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate an understanding of what the body does, where the body moves, how the body performs the movement and relationships that enable skilled performances.
- use self, peer, teacher and technological resources as tools to implement performance improvements in self and others.
**Engaging in Physical Activity**
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- apply characteristics of performance in a variety of activities for purposeful, recreational, skill and fitness outcomes.
- engage in a variety of appropriate physical activities with individualized goals, during and outside of school, that promote the development and improvement of physical fitness level.
**Physical Fitness**
Students will incorporate fitness and wellness concepts to achieve and maintain a health enhancing level of physical fitness.
Students will:
- assess and adjust activities to maintain or improve personal level of health-related fitness.
- use physiological data to adjust levels of exercise and nutrient intake to promote wellness.
- use the results of fitness assessments to guide changes in her or his personal programs of physical activity.
**Responsible Behavior**
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- make decisions and implement plans to participate in different physical activities based on interests and positive feelings of accomplishment in daily living.
- seek personally challenging experiences through physical activity as a means to personal growth.
- experiment with new physical activities as part of a personal improvement plan.
| Unit Objectives | Essential Questions | Assessments |
|-----------------|---------------------|-------------|
| Students will be able to: | • What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
• How can I move effectively and efficiently?
• What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
• Why is it important to be physically fit and how can I stay fit?
• How do I interact with others during physical activity?
• How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | • Development of an individual fitness plan
• Flexibility
• Muscular Strength and Endurance
• Cardio Respiratory Endurance |
| Skill Objectives | Focus Questions |
|-----------------|-----------------|
| Students will: | • How do I develop a personal fitness plan?
• How does participation in a flexibility activity address my personal fitness needs and contribute to my overall wellness?
• How does participation in a cardio respiratory endurance activity address my personal fitness needs and contribute to my overall wellness?
• How does participation in muscular strength endurance activity address my personal fitness needs and contribute to my overall wellness? | • calculate target heart rate.
• use of cardio respiratory equipment such as the recumbent bike, elliptical trainer, Stairmasters, air dyne bikes and rowers.
• apply safety skills and concepts.
• use the weight training equipment such as cybex equipment, hammer strength machine, free weights and medicine ball. |
activities necessary to improve muscular strength and endurance.
- acquire an understanding of the principles and concepts of weight training.
**Flag Football**
This is a team sport in which participants will be introduced to basic terminology and skills. Ball handling, passing/catching, punting, centering, pass patterns and stances are some of the skills that will be taught.
**Standards**
**Motor Skill Performance**
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
**Applying Concepts and Strategies**
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate understanding of how rules, and safety practices and procedures need to be adjusted for different movement situations.
**Responsible Behavior**
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
**Benefits of Physical Activity**
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
| **Unit Objectives** | **Essential Questions** | **Assessment** |
|---------------------|------------------------|----------------|
| Students will be able to: | - What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose? | - Skill Assessment |
| - demonstrate an understanding of the rules necessary to play a flag football game. | - How can I move effectively and efficiently? | |
| - demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of a flag football game. | - How do I interact with others during physical activity? | |
| - demonstrate competency in flag football skills to participate successfully in a flag football game. | - How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | |
**Skill Objectives**
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following basketball skills:
Focus Question
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in a flag football game?
- throwing
- catching
- center snap
- ball carrying
- develop an understanding of:
- passing patterns
- hand-offs
- rules and game play strategies
- punting/kicking
- apply safety skills and concepts.
**Flag Rugby**
In addition to participating in a team sport activity, Rugby offers the student an opportunity to learn and practice dodging and passing skills unique to the sport. The student will become acquainted with the terminology and characteristics of a typical English Rugby game.
**Standards**
**Motor Skill Performance**
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
**Applying Concepts and Strategies**
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate understanding of how rules, and safety practices and procedures need to be adjusted for different movement situations.
**Responsible Behavior**
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
**Benefits of Physical Activity**
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
| **Unit Objectives** | **Essential Questions** | **Assessments** |
|---------------------|------------------------|-----------------|
| Students will be able to: | - What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose? | - Skill assessment |
| - demonstrate an understanding of the rules necessary to play in a Rugby game. | - How can I move effectively and efficiently? | - Cognitive assessment |
| - demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of a Rugby game. | - How do I interact with others during physical activity? | |
| - demonstrate competence in the skills needed to play a Rugby game. | - How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | |
**Skill Objectives**
Students will:
- demonstrate competence in the
- participate successfully in a Rugby game.
**Focus Question**
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in a game of Rugby?
following Rugby skills:
- passing – underhand/lateral
- receiving the pass – two hands
- develop and understanding of
- moving to space
- lateral passing
- offensive and defensive strategies
- positioning on field
- apply safety rules and concepts.
Floor Hockey
This unit offers the opportunity for students to learn proper stick handling and position play. Floor hockey is a vigorous indoor activity that is played without the body contact that is associated with ice hockey. Safety glasses are required.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of the rules and safety precautions necessary to play a floor hockey game.
- demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of a floor hockey game.
- demonstrate competency in floor hockey skills.
- to participate successfully in a floor hockey game.
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
Focus Question
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in floor hockey?
Assessments
- Skill assessment
- Cognitive assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following floor hockey skills:
- passing
- clear pass
- push pass
- trapping
- wrist shot
- demonstrate safety during game play.
- develop an understanding of:
- goal keeping skills
- slap shot
- face-off
- apply safety skills and concepts.
Golf
This is an introductory unit which includes instruction in rules, basic terms, etiquette and golf skill basics such as grip, stance, back swing, downswing, and putting. Students will be taught the golf swing in relation to the woods, #5, #7, and #9 irons. The unit will culminate with a field trip to the driving range.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- develop advanced skills in selected physical activities.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- use physical activity as a positive opportunity for social and group interaction and development of lifelong skills and relationships.
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of the rules, scoring, safety, terminology and etiquette for appropriate participation in golf.
- demonstrate competency in golf skills.
- participate successfully in golf.
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
Focus Question
- What are the skills and golf concepts necessary to participate in golf?
Assessments
- Cognitive assessment
- Skill Assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate commentary in the following golf skills:
- grip
- putting
- basic golf swing
- driver
- irons
- chipping
- participate successfully in all aspects of a modified golf game including
- keeping score
- following proper etiquette
- adhering to safety rules
- demonstrate an understanding of necessary golf terms
- scoring terms
- hole in one
- eagle
- birdie
- par
- bogie
- demonstrate an understanding of appropriate golf club selection and its relationship of the club’s loft to distance.
- apply safety skills and concepts.
Lacrosse
This is an introductory course to acquaint students with the game of lacrosse, the equipment used, terminology of the game and provide an opportunity to play. Some of the skills to be taught include the cradle, scooping, throwing and catching. Modified lacrosse is a vigorous non-contact game. Safety glasses are required.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of the rules necessary to play a modified lacrosse game.
- demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of a modified lacrosse game.
- demonstrate competency in lacrosse skills.
- participate successfully in a modified lacrosse game.
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
Focus Question
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in a modified game of lacrosse?
Assessment
- Skill Assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following ultimate Frisbee skills:
- throwing
- catching
- scooping
- cradling
- develop an understanding of:
- moving to space
- defensive strategies
- passing
- shooting
- apply safety skills and concepts.
OMNIKIN BALL “Kinball”
Kin-Ball is a team game that originated in Canada. It is an activity played between 3 teams consisting of 4 players. The object of the game is for a team to serve the ball to the opponent of their choice in such a way that the receiving team will not be able to receive the ball before it hits the ground. The serving and receiving skills are unique to this game. It is a fast moving and continuous playing game.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Applying Concepts and Strategies
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate understanding of how rules, and safety practices and procedures need to be adjusted for different movement situations.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- demonstrate leadership and cooperation in order to accomplish the goals of different physical activities.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate and understanding of the rules, scoring and etiquette of “Kinball”.
- demonstrate a competency in “Kinball” skills.
- demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of a “Kinball” game.
- to participate successfully in a “Kinball” game.
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How can I move effectively and efficiently?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
Focus Question
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in “Kinball?”
Assessments
- Skill Assessment
- Cognitive Assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following “Kinball” skills:
- serving
- passing
- movement with the ball (individual and with a teammate)
- immobilization of the ball
- develop and understanding of:
- defensive strategies
- offensive strategies
- moving to space
- rules and scoring
- apply safety skills and concepts.
Pickleball
This is an introductory course designed to acquaint students with a new racquet game played on a badminton court with the net at tennis level. The rules of pickle ball are a combination of the games of tennis and badminton. Skills taught include serve, volley, forehand, backhand and drop shot.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- develop advanced skills in selected physical activities.
Engaging in Physical Activity
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- apply, evaluate and analyze critical elements of physical activity concepts to increasingly complex game forms.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- demonstrate initiative in using appropriate skills for resolving conflicts peacefully and encouraging others to do the same.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
| Unit Objectives | Essential Questions | Assessments |
|-----------------|--------------------|-------------|
| Students will be able to: | - What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose? | - Skill Assessment |
| - demonstrate an understanding of the rules, scoring and etiquette for a singles and doubles pickleball game. | - What can I do to be physically active and why is this important? | - Cognitive Assessment |
| - demonstrate an understanding of the strategies for effective singles and doubles play. | - How do I interact with others during physical activity? | |
| | - How will physical activity help me now and in | |
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the
• demonstrate competency in pickleball skills to participate successfully in a pickleball game.
**Focus Question**
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in pickleball?
following Pickleball skills:
- serving
- drive shot (forehand and backhand)
• demonstrate an understanding of:
- drop shot (dink)
- smash
- lob
- volley
• demonstrate an understanding of appropriate scoring, rules and serving rotation as necessary for game play.
• apply safety skills and concepts.
Pilates
Developed in 1920 by Joseph H. Pilates, this form of exercise focuses on strengthening and lengthening the body’s muscles. This class begins with basic exercises performed on mats and progresses to more challenging exercises. Modifications are taught for most of the exercises so students of all fitness levels can experience success. [top]
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Applying Concepts and Strategies
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate an understanding of what the body does, where the body moves, how the body performs the movement and relationships that enable skilled performances.
Engaging in Physical Activity
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- engage in a variety of appropriate physical activities with individualized goals, during and outside of school, that promote the development and improvement of physical fitness level.
Physical Fitness
Students will incorporate fitness and wellness concepts to achieve and maintain a health enhancing level of physical fitness.
Students will:
- assess and adjust activities to maintain or improve personal level of health-related fitness.
- use the results of fitness assessments to guide changes in her or his personal programs of physical activity.
- design and implement a personal wellness program based upon information obtained from the fitness assessment and in accordance with appropriate training and nutritional principles.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- use physical activity as a means of creative expression.
• seek personally challenging experiences through physical activity as a means to personal growth.
• persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
• experiment with new physical activities as part of a personal improvement plan.
| Unit Objectives | Essential Questions | Assessment |
|-----------------|---------------------|------------|
| Students will be able to: | • What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
• How can I move effectively and efficiently?
• What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
• Why is it important to be physically fit and how can I stay fit?
• How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | • Students will teach a Pilates exercises. Included in their instruction will be an explanation of the three degrees of difficulty and proper techniques. |
| Focus Question | Skill Objectives |
|----------------|------------------|
| • What are the techniques and concepts necessary to successfully participate in Pilates? | Students will:
• participate in a variety of Pilates exercises identifying the levels of difficulty listed below:
o modification level
o intermediate level
o challenge level
• feel comfortable adjusting or modifying their level of intensity based on the individual ability.
• apply safety skills and concepts. |
**Power Walking**
This class is designed to help the student become more aware of the benefits of physical activity that require forced breathing, causing the cardio respiratory system to work within a desired heart rate range. Participation in the power walking class will require the student to actively participate in power walking necessary to improve cardio respiratory endurance.
**Standards**
**Applying Concepts and Strategies**
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- use self, peer, teacher and technological resources as tools to implement performance improvements in self and others.
**Engaging in Physical Activity**
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- apply characteristics of performance in a variety of activities for purposeful, recreational, skill and fitness outcomes.
- engage in a variety of appropriate physical activities with individualized goals, during and outside of school, that promote the development and improvement of physical fitness level.
**Physical Fitness**
Students will incorporate fitness and wellness concepts to achieve and maintain a health enhancing level of physical fitness.
Students will:
- assess and adjust activities to maintain or improve personal level of health-related fitness.
- use physiological data to adjust levels of exercise and nutrient intake to promote wellness.
- use the results of fitness assessments to guide changes in her or his personal programs of physical activity.
- design and implement a personal wellness program based upon information obtained from the fitness assessment and in accordance with appropriate training and nutritional principles.
**Benefits of Physical Activity**
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- make decisions and implement plans to participate in different physical activities based on interests and positive feelings of accomplishment in daily living.
- physical activity as a positive opportunity for social and group interaction and development of lifelong skills and relationships.
| Unit Objectives | Essential Questions | Assessment |
|-----------------|---------------------|------------|
| Physical Education HS | BOE Approved 03/27/2007 | 32 |
Students will be able to:
- participate in a power walking activity necessary to improve cardio respiratory endurance.
- demonstrate knowledge of monitoring HR
- acquire an understanding of walking techniques.
- develop a warm-up and cool down routines.
- determine fitness levels at the beginning and end of the power walking unit.
- How can I move effectively and efficiently?
- What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
- Why is it important to be physically fit and how can I stay fit?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
**Focus Question**
- How does participation in power walking address my personal fitness needs and contribute to my overall wellness?
- Rockport Fitness Test
**Skill Objectives**
Students will demonstrate competency in:
- measuring HR
- demonstrating a warm-up and cool down routine.
- applying safety skills and concepts
- using correct power walking techniques
Students will demonstrate an understanding of:
- the effect of power walking on cardiovascular fitness
- pre and post test personal fitness levels
Students will:
- monitor and calculate HR (manually and using HR monitor)
- resting HR
- active HR
- target HR
- recovery HR
- apply safety skills and concepts.
Self Defense and Safety
Participants in this class will become familiar with different aspects of self-defense. Through confidence-building activities and role play, participants will feel less vulnerable and more in control. Strategies are aimed to preventing physical aggression.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Applying Concepts and Strategies
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate an understanding of what the body does, where the body moves, how the body performs the movement and relationships that enable skilled performances.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- demonstrate initiative in using appropriate skills for resolving conflicts peacefully and encouraging others to do the same.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- make decisions and implement plans to participate in different physical activities based on interests and positive feelings of accomplishment in daily living.
- seek personally challenging experiences through physical activity as a means to personal growth.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- become aware of their surroundings.
- assess a potentially unsafe situation.
- decide what appropriate action they will
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How can I move effectively and efficiently?
- How do I interact with others during physical
Assessment
- Students will demonstrate three different physical skills that will allow them to get out of danger from someone approaching them from the front, back, side and the ground.
| take. | activity?
|-------|------------------------------------------------|
| | • How will physical activity help me now and in the future? |
**Focus Question**
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in self-defense?
**Skill Objectives**
Students will:
- apply safety skills and concepts.
- apply self defense skills.
- applies de-escalation skills.
Soccer
Participants will be given instruction in the basic skills and terminology of soccer. Some of the skills will include dribbling, passing, ball control with head and body and goal kicking. Students will participate actively in a game of soccer, using official rules and equipment.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- seek personally challenging experiences through physical activity as a means to personal growth.
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of the rules necessary to play a soccer game.
- demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of a soccer game.
- demonstrate competency in soccer skills.
- to participate successfully in a soccer game.
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
Focus Question
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in a soccer game?
Assessment
- Skill assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following soccer skills:
- shooting
- passing
- dribbling
- develop an understanding of:
- rules and scoring
- strategies of game play
- goalie tending skills
- apply safety skills and concepts.
**Softball**
Participants will review basic skills and rules and concentrate on improving these skills through drills and game situations. Emphasis will be placed on development of skills such as batting, bunting, fielding, ground balls, fly balls, base running and throwing.
**Standards**
**Motor Skill Performance**
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- develop advanced skills in selected physical activities.
**Responsible Behavior**
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
**Benefits of Physical Activity**
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- use physical activity as a positive opportunity for social and group interaction and development of lifelong skills and relationships.
| **Unit Objectives** | **Essential Questions** | **Assessment** |
|---------------------|------------------------|----------------|
| Students will be able to: | - What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose? | - Skill assessment |
| - demonstrate an understanding of the rules necessary to play a softball game. | - How do I interact with others during physical activity? | |
| - demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of a softball game. | - How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | |
| - demonstrate competency in softball skills. | | |
| - to participate successfully in a softball game. | | |
**Focus Question**
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in a softball game?
**Skill Objectives**
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following softball skills:
- throwing
- catching
- hitting
- develop an understanding of:
- fielding (grounder/fly ball)
- running bases
- apply safety skills and concepts.
- pitching
- rules and game play strategies
Strength/Flexibility
This class emphasizes the importance of flexibility as a component of Fitness. Various stretching techniques are introduced to increase the students’ level of flexibility and along with the use of free weights, medicine balls and physio-balls.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
Applying Concepts and Strategies
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate an understanding of what the body does, where the body moves, how the body performs the movement and relationships that enable skilled performances.
- use self, peer, teacher and technological resources as tools to implement performance improvements in self and others.
Engaging in Physical Activity
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- engage in a variety of appropriate physical activities with individualized goals, during and outside of school, that promote the development and improvement of physical fitness level.
Physical Fitness
Students will incorporate fitness and wellness concepts to achieve and maintain a health enhancing level of physical fitness.
Students will:
- assess and adjust activities to maintain or improve personal level of health-related fitness.
- use physiological data to adjust levels of exercise and nutrient intake to promote wellness.
- use the results of fitness assessments to guide changes in her or his personal programs of physical activity.
- design and implement a personal wellness program based upon information obtained from the fitness assessment and in accordance with appropriate training and nutritional principles.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- seek personally challenging experiences through physical activity as a means to personal growth.
| Unit Objectives | Essential Questions | Assessments |
|-----------------|---------------------|-------------|
| Students will be able to: | • What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
• How can I move effectively and efficiently?
• What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
• Why is it important to be physically fit and how can I stay fit?
• How do I interact with others during physical activity?
• How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | Upon request students will demonstrate proper technique and application of a:
• stretch targeting the indicated muscle.
• muscular strength and endurance exercise targeting the indicated muscle. |
| Focus Question | Skill Objectives |
|----------------|------------------|
| • What are the skills and concepts necessary to maintain appropriate levels of flexibility and muscular strength and endurance? | Students will:
• demonstrate a stretch for each of the followings muscles:
o hamstrings
o quadriceps
o lower back
o upper back - lats
o deltoid
o neck – trapezius
o gluts
o upper body
▪ pectorals
▪ biceps
▪ triceps
• apply safety skills and concepts. |
Team Handball
Team handball is a game developed by Germany and Denmark and is played in the Olympic Games. The object of the game is to score a goal by moving the ball toward your opponent’s goal by dribbling and/or using your hands to pass and throw the ball past your opponent’s goalie. The rules are simple and the game is easy to learn.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- use complex movements and patterns within a variety of dynamic environments.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
| Unit Objectives | Essential Questions | Assessment |
|-----------------|---------------------|------------|
| Students will be able to: | - What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | - Skill assessment |
Skill Objectives
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following floor hockey skills:
- throwing
- catching
- shooting
- develop an understanding of:
- goal keeping skills
- defensive strategies
- moving to space
- passing
• apply safety skills and concepts.
Tennis
The fundamental skills of forehand, backhand, serve and volley will be taught. Etiquette, rules, and strategies for doubles play will be emphasized.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- develop advanced skills in selected physical activities.
Engaging in Physical Activity
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- apply, evaluate and analyze critical elements of physical activity concepts to increasingly complex game forms.
- engage in a variety of appropriate physical activities with individualized goals, during and outside of school, that promote the development and improvement of physical fitness level.
Responsible Behavior
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- demonstrate initiative in using appropriate skills for resolving conflicts peacefully and encouraging others to do the same.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
Unit Objectives
Students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of the rules, scoring and etiquette for a singles and doubles tennis match.
- demonstrate an understanding of the strategies for effective singles and doubles
Essential Questions
- What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
Assessment
- Skill assessment
- Cognitive assessment
Skill Objectives
Students will:
play.
- demonstrate competency in tennis skills to participate successfully in a tennis match.
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
**Focus Question**
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in tennis?
- demonstrate competency in the following floor hockey skills:
- throwing
- catching
- shooting
- develop an understanding of:
- goal keeping skills
- defensive strategies
- moving to space
- passing
- apply safety skills and concepts.
**Ultimate Flying Disc**
This unit offers the student an opportunity to develop the skills of Frisbee throwing and catching and use them in team and individual game activities.
**Standards**
**Motor Skill Performance**
*Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.*
Students will:
- maintain and further develop the fundamental movement skills in open environments.
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- develop advanced skills in selected physical activities.
**Engaging in Physical Activity**
*Students will participate regularly in physical activity.*
Students will:
- regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities of their choice on a regular basis.
- apply characteristics of performance in a variety of activities for purposeful, recreational, skill and fitness outcomes.
- engage in a variety of appropriate physical activities with individualized goals, during and outside of school, that promote the development and improvement of physical fitness level.
**Responsible Behavior**
*Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.*
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
- demonstrate initiative in using appropriate skills for resolving conflicts peacefully and encouraging others to do the same.
**Benefits of Physical Activity**
*Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.*
Students will:
- use physical activity as a positive opportunity for social and group interaction and development of lifelong skills and relationships.
| **Unit Objectives** | **Essential Questions** | **Assessment** |
|---------------------|------------------------|----------------|
| Students will be able to: | - What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- What can I do to be physically active and why is this important? | - Skill assessment |
- demonstrate an understanding of the strategies of an ultimate flying disc game.
- demonstrate competency in ultimate flying disc skills.
- to participate successfully in an ultimate flying disc game.
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future?
**Focus Question**
- What are the skills and concepts necessary to successfully participate in a game of ultimate Frisbee?
**Skill Objectives**
Students will:
- demonstrate competency in the following ultimate flying disc skills:
- throwing (backhand)
- catching
- develop an understanding of:
- moving to space
- defensive strategies
- passing
- apply safety skills and concepts.
**Volleyball**
Participants will receive instruction in basic rules and regulations of the game. Skills taught and practiced will include passing, serving, and beginning play sets of bump, set and spike. An all physical education class volleyball tournament will culminate this unit.
**Standards**
**Motor Skill Performance**
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
- develop advanced skills in selected physical activities.
**Applying Concepts and Strategies**
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate understanding of how rules, and safety practices and procedures need to be adjusted for different movement situations.
**Responsible Behavior**
Students will exhibit responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
Students will:
- apply safe practices, rules, procedures etiquette and good sportsmanship in all physical activity settings, and take initiative to encourage others to do the same.
- develop and demonstrate initiative in implementing strategies for including all persons, despite individual differences, in physical activity settings.
**Benefits of Physical Activity**
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- use physical activity as a positive opportunity for social and group interaction and development of lifelong skills and relationships.
| **Unit Objectives** | **Essential Questions** | **Assessment** |
|---------------------|------------------------|----------------|
| Students will be able to: | - What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
- How can I move effectively and efficiently?
- How do I interact with others during physical activity?
- How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | - Skill assessment
- Cognitive assessment |
**Skill Objectives**
Students will:
• participate successfully in a volleyball game.
**Focus Question**
• What are the skill and concept necessary to successfully participate in volleyball?
• demonstrate competency in the following volleyball skills:
- serving
- underhand pass
- overhead pass
• demonstrate an understanding of:
- spike
- overhand serve
• apply safety skills and concepts.
Yoga
The course is designed to promote good physical and mental health through breathing, stretching and relaxation techniques. Discipline, concentration, coordination, and control of one’s mind and body will be emphasized.
Standards
Motor Skill Performance
Students will demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate competence in applying basic locomotor, nonlocomotor and manipulative skills in the execution of more complex skills.
Applying Concepts and Strategies
Students will demonstrate understanding of movement concepts, principles and strategies as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
Students will:
- demonstrate an understanding of what the body does, where the body moves, how the body performs the movement and relationships that enable skilled performances.
Engaging in Physical Activity
Students will participate regularly in physical activity.
Students will:
- engage in a variety of appropriate physical activities with individualized goals, during and outside of school, that promote the development and improvement of physical fitness level.
Physical Fitness
Students will incorporate fitness and wellness concepts to achieve and maintain a health enhancing level of physical fitness.
Students will:
- assess and adjust activities to maintain or improve personal level of health-related fitness.
- use the results of fitness assessments to guide changes in her or his personal programs of physical activity.
Benefits of Physical Activity
Students will choose physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction to sustain a physically active lifestyle.
Students will:
- make decisions and implement plans to participate in different physical activities based on interests and positive feelings of accomplishment in daily living.
- seek personally challenging experiences through physical activity as a means to personal growth.
persist in practicing activities to increase specific skill competence in areas of interest.
experiment with new physical activities as part of a personal improvement plan.
| **Unit Objectives** | **Essential Questions** | **Assessment** |
|---------------------|-------------------------|----------------|
| Students will be able to: | • What different ways can the body move given a specific purpose?
• How can I move effectively and efficiently?
• What can I do to be physically active and why is this important?
• Why is it important to be physically fit and how can I stay fit?
• How will physical activity help me now and in the future? | Students will teach yoga poses. Included in their instruction will be an explanation of correct breath control. |
| **Skill Objectives** | **Focus Question** |
|----------------------|--------------------|
| Students will: | • What are the techniques and concepts necessary to successfully participate in Yoga? |
| • participate in a variety of Yoga poses:
o Standing poses
o Seated poses
o Backward bends
• feel comfortable adjusting or modifying their level of intensity based on the individual ability.
• demonstrate appropriate breath control.
• apply safety skills and concepts. | | <urn:uuid:d3293b70-cb7b-465f-81e6-0f38bd5553f8> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://archive.fairfieldschools.org/downloads/curriculum/High%20School%20Physical%20Education.pdf | 2018-07-17T15:45:19Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00427.warc.gz | 22,951,542 | 13,506 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.993098 | eng_Latn | 0.994961 | [
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Dear Colleague:
The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) is committed to working with States to ensure that school districts provide all children with positive, safe, and nurturing school environments in which they can learn, develop, and participate. OSERS is issuing this letter to provide an overview of a school district’s responsibilities under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) to address bullying of students with disabilities.\(^1\)
As discussed in this letter, and consistent with prior Dear Colleague Letters the Department has published, bullying of a student with a disability that results in the student not receiving meaningful educational benefit constitutes a denial of a free appropriate public education (FAPE) under the IDEA that must be remedied.\(^2\) However, even when situations do not rise to a level that constitutes a denial of FAPE, bullying can undermine a student’s ability to achieve his or her full academic potential. Attached to this letter are specific strategies that school districts and schools\(^3\) can implement to effectively prevent and respond to bullying, and resources for obtaining additional information.
Bullying of any student by another student, for any reason, cannot be tolerated in our schools.\(^4\) Bullying is no longer dismissed as an ordinary part of growing up, and every effort should be made to structure environments and provide supports to students and staff so that bullying does not occur. Teachers and adults should respond quickly and consistently to bullying behavior and
---
\(^1\) This letter is intended to supplement the July 25, 2000, joint Dear Colleague Letter from OSERS and the Department’s Office for Civil Rights (OCR), which addressed disability harassment under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504), Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (Title II of the ADA), and the IDEA (available at: [http://www.ed.gov/ocr/docs/disabharassltr.html](http://www.ed.gov/ocr/docs/disabharassltr.html)).
\(^2\) Some bullying of students with disabilities may also constitute discriminatory harassment and trigger additional responsibilities under the civil rights laws that OCR enforces, including Section 504, Title II of the ADA, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. See OCR’s October 26, 2010, Dear Colleague Letter on Harassment and Bullying (available at: [http://www.ed.gov/ocr/letters/colleague-201010.html](http://www.ed.gov/ocr/letters/colleague-201010.html)).
\(^3\) In the context of this letter “school” includes public preschools; elementary, middle, and high schools; and public agencies, including the State Educational Agency (SEA), Educational Service Agencies (ESA), Local Educational Agencies (LEA), nonprofit public charter schools that are not otherwise included as LEAs or ESAs and are not a school of an LEA or ESA, and any other political subdivisions of the State that are responsible for providing education to children with disabilities. See 34 C.F.R. §300.33.
\(^4\) Although the focus of this letter is peer-to-peer bullying, it is important to acknowledge that it is also intolerable for teachers and school staff to be party to school bullying and disability harassment (\textit{i.e.}, being active participants in bullying), or observers to school bullying without taking action to address the behavior. While teacher-student disability harassment also may constitute a denial of FAPE, those issues are beyond the scope of this letter. We recommend that States and school districts consult with legal counsel regarding their responsibilities and duties in cases of bullying that involve school personnel, including taking the matter seriously, and promptly addressing any problematic behaviors.
send a message that bullying is not acceptable. Intervening immediately to stop bullying on the spot can help ensure a safer school environment.
Bullying is characterized by aggression used within a relationship where the aggressor(s) has more real or perceived power than the target, and the aggression is repeated, or has the potential to be repeated, over time. Bullying can involve overt physical behavior or verbal, emotional, or social behaviors (e.g., excluding someone from social activities, making threats, withdrawing attention, destroying someone’s reputation) and can range from blatant aggression to far more subtle and covert behaviors. Cyberbullying, or bullying through electronic technology (e.g., cell phones, computers, online/social media), can include offensive text messages or e-mails, rumors or embarrassing photos posted on social networking sites, or fake online profiles.
Addressing and reporting bullying is critical. Students who are targets of bullying behavior are more likely to experience lower academic achievement and aspirations, higher truancy rates, feelings of alienation from school, poor relationships with peers, loneliness, or depression.\(^5\) Bystanders, or those who only see or hear about bullying, also may be negatively affected as bullying tends to have harmful effects on overall school climate. Bullying can foster fear and disrespect and negatively affect the school experience, norms, and relationships of all students, families, and school personnel.\(^6\) The consequences may result in students changing their patterns of school participation or schools eliminating school activities (e.g., dances, sporting events) where bullying has occurred. Teachers, school personnel, parents, and students should report bullying when they become aware of it.
Students with disabilities are disproportionately affected by bullying.\(^7\) For example, students with learning disabilities, attention deficit or hyperactivity disorder, and autism are more likely to be bullied than their peers.\(^8\) Any number of factors -- physical characteristics, processing and social skills, or intolerant environments -- may increase the risk that students with disabilities will be bullied. Due to the characteristics of their disabilities, students with intellectual, communication, processing, or emotional disabilities may not understand the extent to which bullying behaviors are harmful, or may be unable to make the situation known to an adult who can help. In circumstances involving a student who has not previously been identified as a child with a disability under the IDEA, bullying may also trigger a school’s child find obligations under the IDEA. 34 C.F.R. §§300.111, 300.201.
Whether or not the bullying is related to the student’s disability, any bullying of a student with a disability that results in the student not receiving meaningful educational benefit constitutes a
\(^5\) Gini G., & Pozzoli T. (2009). Association between bullying and psychosomatic problems: A meta-analysis. *Pediatrics*, 123(3):1059-1065.
\(^6\) O’Brennan, L. M., Bradshaw, C. P., & Sawyer, A. L. (2009). Examining developmental differences in the social-emotional problems among frequent bullies, victim, and bully/victims. *Psychology in the Schools*, 46(2), 100-115.
\(^7\) Swearer, S. M., Wang, C., Maag, J. M., Siebecker, A., B., & Frerichs, L. J. (2012). Understanding the bullying dynamic among students in special and general education. *Journal of School Psychology, 50*, 503-520.
\(^8\) Twyman, K. A., Saylor, C. F., Saia, D., Macias, M. M., Taylor, L. A., & Spratt, E. (2010). Bullying and ostracism experiences in children with special health care needs. *Journal of Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, 31*, 1-8.
denial of FAPE under the IDEA that must be remedied.\(^9\) States and school districts have a responsibility under the IDEA, 20 U.S.C. § 1400, *et seq.*, to ensure that FAPE in the least restrictive environment (LRE) is made available to eligible students with disabilities. In order for a student to receive FAPE, the student’s individualized education program (IEP) must be reasonably calculated to provide meaningful educational benefit.\(^{10}\)
Schools have an obligation to ensure that a student with a disability who is the target of bullying behavior continues to receive FAPE in accordance with his or her IEP. The school should, as part of its appropriate response to the bullying, convene the IEP Team to determine whether, as a result of the effects of the bullying, the student’s needs have changed such that the IEP is no longer designed to provide meaningful educational benefit. If the IEP is no longer designed to provide a meaningful educational benefit to the student, the IEP Team must then determine to what extent additional or different special education or related services are needed to address the student’s individual needs; and revise the IEP accordingly. Additionally, parents have the right to request an IEP Team meeting at any time, and public agencies generally must grant a parental request for an IEP Team meeting where a student’s needs may have changed as a result of bullying. The IDEA placement team (usually the same as the IEP Team) should exercise caution when considering a change in the placement or the location of services provided to the student with a disability who was the target of the bullying behavior and should keep the student in the original placement unless the student can no longer receive FAPE in the current LRE placement. While it may be appropriate to consider whether to change the placement of the child who was the target of the bullying behavior, placement teams should be aware that certain changes to the education program of a student with a disability (*e.g.*, placement in a more restrictive “protected” setting to avoid bullying behavior) may constitute a denial of the IDEA’s requirement that the school provide FAPE in the LRE. Moreover, schools may not attempt to resolve the bullying situation by unilaterally changing the frequency, duration, intensity, placement, or location of the student’s special education and related services. These decisions must be made by the IEP Team and consistent with the IDEA provisions that address parental participation.
If the student who engaged in the bullying behavior is a student with a disability, the IEP Team should review the student’s IEP to determine if additional supports and services are needed to address the inappropriate behavior. In addition, the IEP Team and other school personnel should consider examining the environment in which the bullying occurred to determine if changes to the environment are warranted.
As discussed above, any bullying of a student with a disability that results in the student not receiving meaningful educational benefit from the special education and related services provided by the school is a denial of FAPE. A student must feel safe in school in order to fulfill his or her full academic potential. We encourage States and school districts to alert Boards of Education, school administrators, teachers, and staff that bullying can result in a denial of FAPE.
---
\(^9\) OCR also has authority to investigate complaints alleging denial of FAPE under Section 504 and Title II. See the July 25, 2000, joint Dear Colleague Letter on Disability Harassment; (available at: http://www.ed.gov/ocr/docs/disabharasslr.htm); and OCR’s October 26, 2010, Dear Colleague Letter on Harassment and Bullying (available at: http://www.ed.gov/ocr/letters/colleague-201010.html).
\(^{10}\) See *Hendrick Hudson Central Sch. Dist. Bd. of Educ. v. Rowley*, 458 U.S. 176, 201 (1982).
for students with disabilities. We also encourage States and school districts to reevaluate their policies and practices addressing problematic behaviors, including bullying, in light of the information provided in this letter, as well as in OSERS’ July 25, 2000, joint Dear Colleague Letter and OCR’s October 26, 2010, Dear Colleague Letter. The enclosure to this letter, “Effective Evidence-based Practices for Preventing and Addressing Bullying,” includes practices for use as part of any bullying prevention and intervention program to help ensure that school and classroom settings are positive, safe, and nurturing environments for all children and adults.
We look forward to continuing to work with you to ensure that students with disabilities have access to high-quality services in positive, safe, and respectful school environments.
Sincerely,
Melody Musgrove, Ed. D.
Director
Office of Special Education Programs
Michael K. Yudin
Acting Assistant Secretary
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This issue of *Historic Roots* is published with the assistance of the Middlebury College Bicentennial Commission, in celebration of the College’s 200th Anniversary.
Special thanks to the Henry Sheldon Museum of Vermont History.
Publication of *Historic Roots* is made possible in part by a grant from Vermont–NEA.
When Middlebury College opened its doors, in November 1800, it admitted only male students, and only seven of those. Few men attended college anywhere in those early days. Most of those who did became ministers or doctors or lawyers.
Until the founding of Oberlin College in Ohio, in 1833, there were no colleges in this country that allowed women to attend. Oberlin not only admitted female students, it admitted students of color as well.
This did not mean that most men and women were untaught. At the end of the Revolution, people were proud of their new country. They wanted girls to be educated as well as boys, so they could teach their sons to become good citizens.
In Vermont, small children went to school in the summer. Older children were needed at home to work on the farm. In the winter, they went to the school in their section of town. Boys who wanted to go to college then attended an academy, which was like a prep school. Some towns, like Middlebury, had separate academies for girls. Others, like Ludlow, Vermont, had a coeducational\(^1\) school, the Black River Academy.
For the most part, female academies taught music and art instead of history and math. But there were exceptions. Emma Willard, who became the second principal of Middlebury’s Female Academy in 1807, later founded her own school there. She believed that women’s brains were as good as men’s and that women should study the same subjects. When Middlebury College refused to let her or her students sit in on classes there, she began to teach her students mathematics, history, and philosophy, along with music and sewing.\(^2\)
College education for women came later and began in the west. Oberlin and Antioch Colleges in Ohio, the first two to admit women, were private colleges. But by the 1860s, the Universities of Michigan and Wisconsin, public colleges, admitted women as well. And west of the Mississippi River, all the land-grant colleges, except for the University of Missouri, were coed from the start.\(^3\)
The eastern states followed slowly. The first college for women was founded in the east, in Elmira, New York in 1855. The 1870s and 1880s saw the founding of many others. And in 1872, Cornell University became the first in the east to admit both men and women. The University of Vermont admitted women soon after.
Not everyone approved of higher education for women. Dr. Edward H. Clarke, a professor at Harvard Medical School in the 1870s,
---
\(^1\) Coeducation is the education of boys and girls together.
\(^2\) In 1891, Willard moved to New York State. Two years later, she founded a school for girls in Troy, New York.
\(^3\) Land grant colleges were founded on public land and supported by state money. The University of Vermont is a land grant college.
Three women were admitted in the fall of 1883, along with four others who attended part-time. Women did not live on campus; they took rooms in town and walked back and forth to classes. They were not permitted to eat with men or to study in the same rooms. Until 1887, women were not allowed to speak in public or compete with men for prizes.
After a few years, College trustees decided that the women should have a separate college. The separation never took place. But in 1911, the College opened a dormitory for women on land across the road from the main campus. Social rules were different for men and women, but their education was the same. And since
insisted that study would have a bad effect on a woman’s ability to have babies. Educated women would become masculine. Because their brains would use up all their blood, they would become ugly and would not be able to breed. “Identical education of the two sexes,” he wrote, “is a crime before God and humanity.”
Middlebury College admitted its first female students in 1883. It did so for two reasons. First, because it was in financial trouble and needed more students. Second, because a lot of Vermont families wanted to send their daughters to college.
Female students studying in their own “Brown Study,” in the early days of coeducation at Middlebury College. Note the portrait of Gamaliel Painter on the wall.
about 1909, the number of men and women students at Middlebury College has been about equal.
Today men and women not only study together, they live in the same dormitories and eat in the same dining rooms. Separate colleges for men and women still exist. But students in coeducational colleges and universities, such as Middlebury College and the University of Vermont, receive the same education and the same treatment by professors and members of the staff, regardless of their gender.
Ann E. Cooper
Editor
Rooting Around
What can you find out about early schools in your community? Did boys and girls study together? In many towns old schoolhouses are still standing. Your librarian or town clerk or historical society can help you find them. | <urn:uuid:aa0cedd1-64d4-4d23-99b9-b356388d2c02> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://vermonthistoryexplorer.org/client_media/files/HistoricRoots/boysandgirlstogether.pdf | 2021-09-17T10:43:27+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780055632.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20210917090202-20210917120202-00440.warc.gz | 634,305,843 | 1,131 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998081 | eng_Latn | 0.999437 | [
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Anne Tweed
Monday 26 May
Addressing Student Misconceptions (Preconceptions) in Maths & Science Classrooms (Repeat)
Session 1
ANNE TWEED
As a principal consultant, Dr Anne Tweed supports schools, districts and state departments with professional development activities that develop highly qualified teachers. Anne is a former president of the US National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) and spent 30 years teaching secondary school science, including environmental science, biology, chemistry, Earth science and marine science. She is now a Principal Consultant at McREL International. In addition to writing several books and articles, Anne also worked on the program planning team to revise the 2009 NAEP Framework for Science.
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0514
Addressing Student Misconceptions (Preconceptions)
Designing Effective Science Instruction
Developing Student Understanding
Hawker Brownlow Education Conference
25 May and 26 May, 2014
Anne Tweed
Director of STEM Learning
McREL International
email@example.com
Conceptual Change Model
Stage One: Students become aware of their own preconceptions about a concept by thinking about it and making predictions (committing to an outcome) before any activity, problem-solving or investigation begins.
Stage Two: Students reveal their ideas and beliefs by sharing them, initially in small groups and then with the entire class.
Stage Three: Students confront their ideas and beliefs by making observations, gathering data, by testing their ideas and then discussing them in small groups.
Stage Four: Students work toward resolving conflicts (if any) between their ideas (based on the revealed preconceptions and class discussion) and their observations, thereby accommodating the new concepts and revising their thinking to align with a scientific explanation.
Stage Five: Students extend the concept by trying to make connections between the concept learned in the classroom and other situations, including their daily lives.
Stage Six: Students are encouraged to go beyond, pursuing additional questions and problems related to the concept.
Based on the research of Posner, Strike, Hewson & Gertzog (1982) and Strike and Posner (1985) and revised from the work provided in Targeting Students’ Science Misconceptions: Physical Science Concepts Using the Conceptual Change Model, Joseph Stepans, 2003.
Responsive Phase
Building on the foundation of the predictive phase, the teacher plans for and implements instruction during the responsive phase, one learning target at a time.
Eliciting and Confronting Preconceptions
Teacher orchestrates experiences designed to confront students’ preconceptions
Sense Making
Teacher provides opportunities for students to make sense of learning and explain understanding.*
* If student explanations align with criteria for demonstrating understanding, instruction can proceed to the next learning target and repeat this cycle.
Identifying Preconceptions
Teacher identifies preconceptions and uses information in instructional planning and implementation
Learning Target #1 and Criteria for Demonstrating Understanding
Learning Target #2 and Criteria for Demonstrating Understanding
Learning Target #3 and Criteria for Demonstrating Understanding
Essential Understandings Developed by Students
Drawn from the first chapter of a new NSTA Press book to be released in June 2009 (Hard-to-Teach Biology Concepts: A Framework to Deepen Student Understanding, by Susan Koba with Anne Tweed). For further information contact Judy Cusick at NSTA Press (firstname.lastname@example.org).
Steps for a Misconceptions Literature Review
1. For science misconceptions, review Benchmarks for Science literacy (AAAS, 1993) for misconceptions discussed in each section. Chapter 15 of the book includes research finding organized by benchmark. If you do not have a copy of the book, you can read it online at www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/index.php?txtRef=&txtURIol d=%2Fpublications%2Fonline%2Findex. Another source of information about students ideas is the Probing for Student Understanding books by Page Keeley and available at NSTA Press.
2. For math misconceptions, review the MisMath article provided by G Donald Allen from Texas A & M, TX.
3. Complete a web search for misconceptions on the selected topic. Simply run a search for your topic and misconceptions (e.g., “photosynthesis + misconceptions”). If you run your search at Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com), you will gain access to numerous resources. In some cases you will only access an abstract, but in others you will find entire documents. This process is more time-consuming than step #1 and step #2 but yields additional resources.
4. An excellent source for a summary of students’ misconceptions is *Making Sense of Secondary Science: Research into Children’s Ideas* (Driver et al. 1994). The book is outlined by science topic and provides a rich summary of research on children’s ideas about these topics.
5. For Physical Science misconceptions, there is a book entitled *Targeting Students’ Science Misconceptions: Physical Science Concepts Using the Conceptual Change Model* by Joseph Stephans, 2003. This book is organized by topic and provides background information and guidance for teachers for using a conceptual change model to address student misconceptions.
Based on *Hard-to-Teach Biology Concepts: A Framework to Deepen Student Understanding*, by Susan Koba with Anne Tweed, 2009, NSTA Press.
Common Earth Science Misconceptions
1. The Earth is sitting on something.
2. The Earth is larger than the Sun.
3. The Earth is round like a pancake.
4. We live on the flat middle of a sphere.
5. Astrology is able to predict the future.
6. Gravity increases with height.
7. Gravity cannot exist without air.
8. There is a definite up and down in space.
9. Any crystal that scratches glass is a diamond.
10. Coral reefs exist throughout the Gulf of Mexico and the North Atlantic.
11. Dinosaurs and caveman lived at the same time.
12. Rain comes from holes in clouds.
13. Rains comes from clouds’ sweating.
14. Rain falls from funnels in the clouds.
15. Rain occurs when clouds are shaken.
16. God and angles cause thunder and lightning.
17. Clouds move because we move.
18. Clouds come from somewhere above the sky.
19. Empty clouds are refilled by the sea.
20. Clouds are formed by vapors from kettles.
21. The sun boils the sea to create water vapor.
22. Clouds are made of cotton, wool, or smoke.
23. Clouds are bags of water.
Hapkiewicz, A. (1999). Naïve Ideas in Earth Science. MSTA Journal, 44(2) (Fall’99), pp.26-30. http://www.msta-mich.org
Geosphere
24. Dirt is not the same as soil. Soil comes from rivers, result of volcanic action, or was there since Earth formed.
25. Fossils are actual preserved animals or plant parts.
26. All substances expand when heated.
27. Students are unaware of micro-organisms role as decomposers and recyclers of carbon, nitrogen, water and minerals.
Hydrosphere
28. Water disappears when it evaporates.
29. Clouds are “sponges” that hold water or bags of water than rain when they are shaken by wind or perhaps when they become cold or hot.
30. Ice is smaller than liquid water. There is a loss of mass when water freezes.
31. Groundwater refers to actual lakes and rivers under the surface of the earth.
---
**Common Physical Science Misconceptions**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1999). *Naive Ideas in Earth Science*. MSTA Journal, 44(2) (Fall’99), pp.26-30. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. When things dissolve they “disappear.”
2. Materials can only exhibit properties of one state of matter.
3. Melting and dissolving are confused.
4. Dew formed on the outside of glass comes from the inside of the glass.
5. Expansion of matter is due to the expansion of particles rather than the increased particle spacing.
6. Molecules of a gas “just float” rather than being kept in the gaseous state by their motion.
7. There is not empty space between molecules, rather students believe there is dust, germs or “air” between the particles of air.
8. Particles of solids have no motion.
9. Relative particle spacing among solids, liquids, and gases is incorrectly perceived and not generally related to the densities of the states.
10. Frequent disregard for particle conservation and orderliness when describing physical changes.
11. Gases are not matter because most are invisible.
12. Absence of conservation of particles during a chemical change.
13. Failure to perceive that individual substances and properties correspond to a certain type of particle. Formation of a new substance with new properties is seen as simply happening rather than as a result of particle rearrangement.
14. The temperature of an object drops when it freezes.
15. Mass and volume, which both describe an “amount of matter,” are the same property.
16. “Steam” is the visible cloud of water vapor over boiling water.
17. Energy is a “thing,” and object or something that is tangible.
18. The chemistry of biological systems does not follow all the same rules of thermodynamics as other systems.
19. “Cold” can be transferred.
20. Energy is truly lost in many energy transformations.
---
**Common Misconceptions about Sound**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). Finding a List of Science Misconceptions. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter'92), pp.11-14.
1. Sounds can be produced without using any material objects.
2. Hitting an object harder changes the pitch of the sound produced.
3. Human voice sounds are produced by a large number of vocal cords that all produce different sounds.
4. Loudness and pitch of sounds are the same things.
5. You can see and hear a distinct event at the same moment.
6. Sounds can travel through empty space (a vacuum).
7. Sounds cannot travel through liquids and solids.
8. Sounds made by vehicles (like the whistle of a train) change as the vehicles move past the listener because something (like the train engineer) purposely changes the pitch of the sound.
9. In wind instruments, the instrument itself vibrates (not the internal air column).
10. Music is strictly an art form; it has nothing to do with science.
11. Sound waves are transverse waves (like water and light waves).
12. Matter moves along with water waves as the waves move through a body of water.
13. When waves interact with a solid surface, the waves are destroyed.
14. In actual telephones, sounds (rather than electrical impulses) are carried through the wires.
15. Ultrasounds are extremely loud sounds.
16. Megaphones create sounds.
17. Noise pollution is annoying, but it is essentially harmless.
Common Misconceptions about LIGHT
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). Finding a List of Science Misconceptions. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter'92), pp.11-14.
1. Light is associated only with a source and/or its instantaneous effects. Light is not considered to exist independently in space. Light is not conceived as moving from one point to another with a finite speed.
2. An object is seen whenever light shines on it, with no recognition that light must move between the object and the observer's eye.
3. A shadow is something that exists on its own. Light pushes the shadow away from the object to a wall, the ground, or other surface where the shadow lies. Shadows are "dark reflections" of objects.
4. Light is not necessarily conserved. It may disappear or be intensified.
5. Lines drawn outward from a light bulb in a sketch represent the "glow" surrounding the bulb. Light from a bulb only extends outward a certain distance and then stops. How far it extends depends on the brightness of the bulb.
6. An observer can see more of his or her mirror image by moving further back from the mirror.
7. The mirror image of an object is located on the surface of the mirror. The image is often thought of as a picture on a flat or curved surface. To be seen in a mirror, the object must be directly in front of the mirror or in the line-of-sight from the observer to the mirror.
8. Light is reflected away from shiny surfaces, but light is not reflected from other surfaces.
9. Light always passes straight through transparent material (without changing direction).
10. When an object is viewed through a transparent material, the object is seen exactly where it is located.
11. An object gives off a "potential image," which travels through space. When the "potential image" reaches a mirror, the image is reversed. Also, the image is distorted by a curved mirror. When the "potential image" reaches a lens, the image may be turned upside down by the lens.
12. Blocking part of the lens surface would block the corresponding part of the image.
13. The purpose of the screen is to capture the image so that it can be seen. Without a screen, there is not image.
14. An image can be seen on the screen regardless of where the screen is placed relative to a lens. To see a larger image on the screen, the screen should be moved further back.
15. An image is always formed at the focal point of a lens.
16. The size of an image depends on the size (diameter) of the lens used to formed the image.
17. Gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves are all very different entities.
18. Colors appearing on soap films and oil slicks are reflections of rainbows.
19. Polaroid sunglasses are just dark glass or dark plastic.
20. When waves or pulses interfere (as in a spring, rope, water wave, or light wave) they bounce off each other and go back in the opposite direction from which they came.
21. When a wave moves, particles move along with the wave from the point of transmission to the point of reception.
22. Color is a property of an object, and color is not affected by the eye-brain system or other receiving system.
Hapkiewicz, A. (1999). Naïve Ideas in Earth Science. MSTA Journal, 44(2) (Fall'99), pp.26-30. http://www.msta-mich.org
23. Light fills the room as water fills a bathtub. No mechanisms between the light, the object and the eye produces vision.
24. The primary colors for mixing colored lights are red, blue, and yellow.
Also see misconceptions for Vision and hearing and Color and Vision.
---
**Common Misconceptions about Color and Vision**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). Finding a List of Science Misconceptions. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter’92), pp.11-14.
1. The pupil of the eye is a black spot on the surface of the eye.
2. The eye perceives upright images.
3. The lens is the only part of the eye responsible for focusing light.
4. The lens forms a picture on the retina. The brain then “locks” at this picture.
5. They eye is the only organ necessary for sight.
6. A white incandescent or fluorescent bulb produces light of only one color.
7. Sunlight is different from other sources of light because it is colorless and clear.
8. When light passes through a prism, color is added to the light.
9. When light passes through a filter, color is added to the light.
10. The rules for mixing color paints and crayons are the same as the rules for mixing colored lights.
11. The primary colors for mixing colored lights are red, blue, and yellow.
12. A Colored light striking an object produces a shadow behind it that is the same color as the light.
13. The shades of gray in a printed picture are produced with a gray ink for each shade.
14. The colors in a printed picture are produced with an ink for each color.
15. Colored light is darker than white light.
16. Color is a property of an object, and color is not affected by the illuminating light. The “true” color of an object is seen in white light. When colored light illuminates a colored object, the color of the light mixes with the color of the object.
Also see misconceptions for Vision and hearing
---
**Common Misconceptions about Astronomy**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). Finding a List of Science Misconceptions. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter’92), pp.11-14.
1. Stars and constellations appear in the same place in the sky every night.
2. The sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west every day.
3. The sun is always directly overhead or directly south at twelve o'clock noon.
4. The tip of a shadow always moves along an east-west line.
5. Changing distance between the earth and the sun causes seasonal changes (with the two closer in summer and farther apart in winter).
6. The earth is the center of the solar system and is the largest object in the solar system. All stars are the same distance from the earth.
7. The moon can only be seen during the night, and its shape always appears the same.
8. The moon does not rotate on its axis as it revolves around the earth.
9. The phases of the moon are caused by shadows cast on its surface by other objects in the solar system, particularly the earth or the sun.
10. The solar system and galaxies are very "crowded." (Objects are relatively close together.)
11. The surface of the sun does not have any visible features.
12. Because all stars are the same size, the brightness of a star depends only on its distance from earth.
13. Stars are evenly distributed through a galaxy or throughout the universe.
14. All the stars in a particular constellation are near each other.
15. The constellations form patterns obviously resembling people, animals, or other objects.
Hapkiewicz, A. (1999). Naïve Ideas in Earth Science. MSTA Journal, 44(2) (Fall'99), pp.26-30. http://www.msta-much.org
16. Moon and sun are about the same size. Stars are smaller than sun or moon.
17. The earth is the center of the solar system and is the largest object in the solar system.
18. Night occurs when sun covered by clouds, moon, or atmosphere.
19. Astronomical movements explain day and night: Sun goes around earth. Earth goes around sun. Sun moves up and down.
20. The sun is always directly overhead or directly south at noon.
21. The sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west everyday.
22. The moon can only be seen during the night, and its shape always appears the same.
23. The phases of the moon are caused by shadows cast on its surface by other objects in the solar system, particularly the earth and the sun.
24. All stars are the same size, the brightness of a star depends on its distance from earth.
25. One side of the moon is always dark.
26. Stars and constellations appear in the same place in the sky every night.
27. Seasons are caused by changing distance between the earth and sun (the two are closer in the summer and further apart in the winter).
28. Days are shortest in the winter.
Common Misconceptions about Matter and Its Changes
1. Gases are not matter because most are invisible.
2. Gases do not have mass.
3. A “thick” liquid has a higher density than water.
4. Mass and volume, which both describes an “amount of matter,” are the same property.
5. Air and oxygen are the same gas.
6. Helium and hot air are the same gas.
7. Expansion of matter is due to the expansion of particles, rather than the increased particle spacing.
8. Particles of solids have not motions.
9. Relative particle spacing among solids, liquids, and gasses is incorrectly perceived and not generally related to the densities of the states. (Microscopic model does not represent macroscopic properties.)
10. Materials can only exhibit properties of one state of matter.
11. Particles possess the same properties as the materials they compose. For example, atoms of copper are “orange and shiny,” gas molecules are “transparent,” and solid molecules are “Hard.”
12. Melting/freezing and boiling/condensation are often understood only in terms of water.
13. Particles viewed as mini-versions of the substances they comprise: oxygen molecules are invisible, water molecules are tiny droplets, and diamond molecules are hard.
14. Particles misrepresented in sketches: no differentiation is made between atoms and molecules.
15. Particles misrepresented and undifferentiated in concepts involving elements, compounds, mixtures, solutions, and substances.
16. Frequent disregard for particle conservation and orderliness when describing changes.
17. Absence of conservation of particles during a chemical change.
18. Chemical, rather than interactive. After chemical change, the original substances are perceived as remaining even though they are altered.
19. Failure to perceived that individual substances and properties correspond to a certain type of particle … formation of a new substance with new properties is seen as simply happening, rather than as a result of particle rearrangement.
20. The “smoke” seen with dry ice is carbon dioxide vapors.
21. The temperature of an object drops when it freezes.
22. The chemistry in biological systems does not follow all the same rules of thermodynamics as other systems.
23. Steam is visible water gas molecules.
Common Misconceptions about Energy
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). Finding a List of Science Misconceptions. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter’92), pp.11-14.
1. Energy is truly lost in many energy transformations.
2. There is no relationship between matter and energy.
3. If energy is conserved, why are we running out of it?
4. Energy can be changed completely from one form to another (no energy losses).
5. Things “use up” energy.
6. Energy is confined to some particular origin, such as what we get from food or what the electric company sells.
7. An object at rest has no energy.
8. The only type of potential energy is gravitational.
9. Gravitational potential energy depends only on the height of an object.
10. Doubling the speed of a moving object doubles the kinetic energy.
11. Energy is a “thing.” This is a fuzzy notion, probably because of the way we talk about newton-meters or joules. It is difficult to imagine an “amount” of an abstraction.
12. The terms “energy” and “force” are interchangeable.
13. From the non-scientific point of view, “work” is synonymous with “labor.” It is hard to convince someone that more “work” is probably being done playing football for one hour than studying an hour for a quiz.
Common Misconceptions about Force and Motion and Simple Machines
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). Finding a List of Science Misconceptions. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter’92), pp.11-14.
1. Time can be measured without establishing the beginning of the interval.
2. The location of an object can be described by stating its distance from a given point, ignoring direction.
3. The distance an object travels and its displacement are always the same.
4. An object’s speed is the same as its velocity.
5. If an object is accelerating, then the object is speeding up.
6. An object’s acceleration cannot change direction.
7. Acceleration always occurs in the same direction as an object is moving.
8. If an object has a speed of zero (even instantaneously), it has no acceleration.
9. The only “natural” motion is for an object to be at rest.
10. If an object is at rest, no forces are acting on the object.
11. A rigid solid cannot be compressed or stretched.
12. Only animate objects can exert a force. Thus, if an object is at rest on a table, no forces are acting on it.
13. Force is a property of an object. An object has force, and when it runs out of force it stops moving.
14. The motion of an object is always in the direction of the net force applied to the object.
15. Large objects exert a greater force than small objects.
16. A force is needed to keep an object moving with a constant speed.
17. Friction always hinders motion. Thus, you always want to eliminate friction.
18. Frictional forces are only due to irregularities in surfaces moving past one another.
19. Rocket propulsion is due to exhaust gases pushing on something behind the rocket.
20. When dropped in a vacuum, objects of different masses fall at different speeds.
21. When dropped in a vacuum, objects fall at constant speeds.
22. A simple machine with a mechanical advantage greater than one is easier to use than a simple machine with a mechanical advantage less than one.
23. Any force times any distance is work.
24. Machines put out more work than people put in.
25. Power is the same as force or work.
26. Work is any activity one gets tired doing, gets paid for doing, or doesn’t like doing.
Hapkiewicz, A. (1999). *Naïve Ideas in Earth Science*. MSTA Journal, 44(2) (Fall’99), pp.26-30. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. Forces acting on bodies/objects are associated with living things.
2. Constant motion requires a constant force.
3. If a body is not moving, there is no force acting upon it.
4. Objects in a vacuum fall at a constant speed.
5. If a body is in motion, there is a force acting upon it in the direction of motion.
6. There is no gravity in space.
**Common Misconceptions about Measurement**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). *Finding a List of Science Misconceptions*. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter’92), pp.11-14.
1. Measurement is only linear.
2. Any quantity can be measured as accurately as you want.
3. Children who have used measuring devices at home already know how to measure.
4. The metric system is more accurate than other measurement systems (such as the English system).
5. The English system is easier to use than the metric system.
6. You can only measure to the smallest unit shown on the measuring device.
7. Some objects cannot be measured because of their size or inaccessibility.
8. The five senses are infallible.
9. An object must be “touched” to be measured.
10. A measuring device must be a physical object.
11. Mass and weight are the same and they are equal at all times.
12. Mass and volume are the same.
13. The only way to measure time is with a clock or a watch.
14. Time has an absolute beginning.
15. Heat and temperature are the same.
16. Heat is a substance.
17. Cold is the opposite of heat and is another substance.
18. There is only one way to measure perimeter.
19. Only the area of rectangular shapes can be measured in square units.
20. Surface area can be found only for two-dimensional objects.
21. Surface area is a concept used only for mathematics classes.
22. You cannot measure the volume of some objects because they do not have “regular” lengths, widths, or heights.
23. An object’s volume is greater in water than in air.
24. The density of an object depends only on its volume.
25. Density for a given volume is always the same.
26. The density of two samples of the same substance with different volumes or shapes cannot be the same.
Hapkiewicz, A. (1999). Naive Ideas in Earth Science. MSTA Journal, 44(2) (Fall’99), pp.26-30.
http://www.msta-mich.org
1. The location of an object can be described by stating its distance from a given point, ignoring direction.
Common Misconceptions about Electricity
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). Finding a List of Science Misconceptions. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter’92), pp.11-14.
1. Objects become positively charged because they have gained protons.
2. Objects become positively charged because their electrons have been destroyed.
3. All atoms are charged.
4. Larger magnets are stronger than smaller magnets.
5. Current flows from a battery (or other source of electricity) to a light bulb (or other item that consumes electricity), but not from the light bulb to the battery.
6. Current flows out of both terminals of a dry cell or both connections in an electrical outlet.
7. Current flows around a complete circuit, but it is used up by objects like light bulbs so less current returns than leaves the source of the electricity.
8. All the electrons that make up an electrical current are initially contained in the battery or generator that is the source of the electricity.
9. Electricity is produced in the wall socket.
10. Electrons change into light when a lamp is turned on.
11. Wires are hollow like a water hose, and electrons move inside the hollow space.
12. A larger battery will make a motor run faster or a bulb burn brighter.
13. Pure water is a good conductor of electricity.
14. Electricity from a dry cell will shock or hurt if it is touched.
15. Insulation is used to keep electricity in the wire.
16. All wires are insulated.
17. Birds can perch on bare wires without being hurt because birds have insulated feet.
18. A charge object can only affect other charged objects.
19. The electrostatic force between two charged objects is not affected by the distance between them.
20. Gravitational forces are stronger than electrostatic forces.
**Common Misconceptions about Magnetism**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). *Finding a List of Science Misconceptions*. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter '92), pp.11-14.
1. All metals are attracted to a magnet
2. All silver colored items are attracted to a magnet.
3. All magnets are made of iron.
4. Larger magnets are stronger than smaller magnets.
5. The magnetic and geographic poles of the earth are located at the same place.
6. The magnetic pole of the earth in the northern hemisphere is a north pole, and the pole in the southern hemisphere is a south pole.
7. Only magnets produce magnetic fields.
8. A magnetic field is a pattern of lines (not a field of force) that surrounds a magnet.
9. In a magnet, the magnetic field lines exist only outside the magnet.
**Common Misconceptions about Heat and Temperature**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). *Finding a List of Science Misconceptions*. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter '92), pp.11-14.
1. Ice cannot change temperature
2. When the temperature of a boiling substance remains constant, something is “wrong.”
3. The bubbles in boiling water contain “air,” Oxygen,” or “nothing,” rather than water vapor.
4. All liquids boil at 100°C (212°F) and freeze at 0° C (32°F).
5. Heat is a substance.
6. Heat is not energy.
7. Temperature is a property of a particular material or object (metal is naturally colder than plastic).
8. The temperature of an object depends on its size.
9. Heat and cold are different, rather than being opposite ends of continuum.
10. Boiling is the maximum temperature a substance can reach.
11. Objects of different temperatures which are in constant contact with each other, or in contact with air at a different temperature, do not necessarily move toward the same temperature.
12. Heat only travels upward.
13. Heat rises.
14. The kinetic theory does really explain heat transfer. (It is recited, but not believed.)
15. Objects which readily become ware (conductors of heat) do not readily become cold.
16. All solids expand at the same rate.
**Common Misconceptions about Forces in Fluids**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1992). *Finding a List of Science Misconceptions*. MSTA Newsletter, 38(Winter ’92), pp.11-14.
1. Objects float in water because they’re “lighter” than water.
2. Objects sink in water because they’re “heavier” than water.
3. Mass, volume, weight, heaviness, size, and density may be perceived as equivalent.
4. Wood floats and metal sinks.
5. All objects containing air float.
6. Liquids of high viscosity are also liquids with high density.
7. Adhesion is the same a cohesion.
8. Heating hair only makes it hotter.
9. Pressure and force are synonymous.
10. Pressure arises from moving fluids.
11. Moving fluids contain higher pressure.
12. Liquids rise in a straw because of “suction.”
13. Fluid pressure only acts downward.
**Common Misconceptions about Weather**
Hapkiewicz, A. (1999). Naïve Ideas in Earth Science. MSTA Journal, 44(2) (Fall’99), pp.26-30. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. Air as a substance is not well understood. Air has negative weight or not weight.
2. Days are shortest in winter.
3. Water vapor is held or soaked up by the air.
4. Humid air is “Heavier” than dry air.
5. A vacuum or low pressure area “pulls” object into it.
6. Wind speed is related to temperature of air - high speed means cold air and gentle or slow winds are warm.
7. Acid rain, ozone depletion and greenhouse effect are thought to be caused by same things and produce the same changes in the environment.
8. Air pollution is always caused by human activities.
9. Rain water should be neutral in pH.
Common Misconceptions in the Life Sciences
Berthelsen, B. (1999). Students Naïve Conceptions in Life Science. MSTA Journal, 44(1) (Spring’99), pp. 13-19. http://www.msta-mich.org/
Organization of Living Things:
1. Plants, fungi, eggs and seeds are not living.
2. Young children do not recognize trees as living although they understand that seedlings are alive.
3. Only large land mammals are animals.
4. Penguins and turtles are amphibians because they are both in and out of water.
5. Whales, jellyfish, and starfish are all fish.
6. Behavior and habitat are criteria for classification.
7. Food is anything useful taken into the body including: water, minerals, carbon dioxide (plants), and sunlight.
8. Students concept of digestion is often confused both in the route and the process.
9. Digestion is the process that releases usable energy from food.
10. Respiration is synonymous with breathing.
Common Misconceptions about Plants - Obtaining and Using Energy
Berthelsen, B. (1999). Students Naïve Conceptions in Life Science. MSTA Journal, 44(1) (Spring’99), pp. 13-19. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. Plants obtain their energy directly from the sun.
2. Plants have multiple sources of food (heterotrophic as well as autotrophic).
3. Carbon dioxide, water, and minerals are food.
4. Plants feed by absorbing food through their roots.
5. Plants use heat from the sun as a source of energy for photosynthesis
6. Sunlight is a food.
7. Sunlight is composed of molecules.
8. Sunlight is “consumed” in photosynthesis.
9. Plants absorb water through their leaves.
10. Plants produce oxygen for our benefit.
**Common Misconceptions about Cells**
Berthelsen, B. (1999). *Students Naïve Conceptions in Life Science*. MSTA Journal, 44(1) (Spring’99), pp. 13-19. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. Students are unsure about the hierarchy of atoms, molecules and cells. Cells are described as the components of many things including carbohydrates and proteins.
2. Students have difficulty discriminating between cell division, enlargement and differentiation. They may believe that living things grow because their cells get larger. The role of cell differentiation in growth is poorly understood.
3. Students think in terms of two kinds of cells - plant and animal.
**Common Misconceptions about Ecosystems**
Berthelsen, B. (1999). *Students Naïve Conceptions in Life Science*. MSTA Journal, 44(1) (Spring’99), pp. 13-19. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. Stronger organisms have more energy.
2. There are more herbivores because they have more offspring.
3. A species high on the food web is a predator to everything below it.
4. Energy accumulates in an ecosystem so that a top predator has all the energy from the organisms below it.
5. Carnivores can exist in a plant free world if their prey reproduce enough.
6. The food that is eaten and used as a source of energy is part of the good chain; food that is synthesized into the body of the eater is now food for the next level.
Common Misconceptions about Heredity
Berthelsen, B. (1999). *Students Naïve Conceptions in Life Science*. MSTA Journal, 44(1) (Spring’99), pp. 13-19. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. Daughters inherit most of their characteristics from their mothers. Boys inherit most of their characteristics from their fathers.
2. Variation between species is a result of adaptation to environment instead of inheritance.
3. Sexual reproduction occurs in animals but not in plants.
4. Students do not distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction.
5. Asexual reproduction produces weak offspring. Sexual reproduction produces superior offspring.
6. Students believe that transmitted characteristics are acquired during the life time of the animal.
7. Individuals can adapt to a changing environment. These adaptations are heritable.
8. Students do not understand the relationship between DNA, genes, and chromosomes
9. Students can apply chance and probability to assigned genetics problems, but not to human situations in families.
Common Misconceptions about Evolution
Berthelsen, B. (1999). *Students Naïve Conceptions in Life Science*. MSTA Journal, 44(1) (Spring’99), pp. 13-19. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. Students have difficulty relating an individual’s adaptation to environment with changes in species phenotypes over long period of time due to selection.
2. Students believe that transmitted characteristics are acquired during the life time of the animal.
3. Individuals can adapt to a changing environment. These adaptations are heritable.
Common Misconceptions about Vision and Hearing
Berthelsen, B. (1999). *Students Naïve Conceptions in Life Science*. MSTA Journal, 44(1) (Spring’99), pp. 13-19. http://www.msta-mich.org
1. Objects are seen because they are bathed in light.
2. Light travels from the eyes to the object.
3. We can see because light travels to your eyes and then from the eyes to the object.
4. Light to both our eyes and the object. There is no link between the two.
5. Light is not necessary to see since we can see a little in a dark room.
6. We see because we look, it has nothing to do with light.
7. We can hear because we concentrate on the source of the sound.
8. There is no similarity between light and sound.
Student Thinking
Lesson 1. Misconceptions in mathematics
Objectives
1. What is a misconception?
2. Why study misconceptions?
3. Misconceptions in algebra
4. Miconceptions about math - in general
5. References
6. Student thinking - TEKS connections
7. Discussion Questions
What is a misconception?
1. Student thinking consists of many things. Formulas, relevance, tedium, and enjoyment are part of their attitudes and thinking about mathematics. One problem that leads to very serious learning difficulties in mathematics is those misconceptions student may have from previous inadequate teaching, informal thinking, or poor remembrance. It may be best to begin with a definition. From the Encarta online dictionary, a misconception is “a mistaken idea or view resulting from a misunderstanding of something.” Paraphrasing from the educational literature [Pines, 1985], we offer,
Certain conceptual relations that are acquired may be inappropriate within a certain context. We terms such relations as “misconceptions.” A misconception does not exist independently, but is contingent upon a certain existing conceptual framework. Misconceptions can change or disappear with the framework changes.
Changing the conceptual framework of students is one of the keys goals in repairing mathematics and science misconceptions. That is to say, it is not usually successful to merely inform (e.g. lecture) the student on a misconception. The misconception must be changed internally partly through the student’s belief systems and partly through their own cognition.
In another misconceptions framework, we may say many students do not come to the classroom as “blank slates” (Resnick, 1983). Rather, they come with informal theories constructed from everyday experiences. These theories have been actively constructed. They provide an everyday functionality to make sense of the world but are often incomplete half-truths (Mestre, 1987). They are misconceptions.
In this module, we consider student misconceptions in mathematics, particularly those that impact algebra and algebraic thinking. Yet, misconceptions are but one facet of faulty, inaccurate, or incorrect thinking. These are all intertwined causing students unlimited trouble in grasping with mathematics from the most elementary concepts through calculus. In turn, student misconceptions cause teachers immense frustration about why their teaching isn’t “getting through.”
Why study misconceptions?
Our first thought would be that misconceptions, once rooted in the student’s memory, are hard to erase. The situation is somewhat more complex. Researchers’ interest in student conceptions has been provoked by numerous studies indicating that
1. Before formal study, persons have firmly held, descriptive, and explanatory systems for scientific and logic-mathematical phenomena, that is, systems of belief about mathematics.
2. These systems of belief differ from what is incorporated into the standard curriculum.
3. Certain constellations of these belief systems show remarkable consistency across ages, abilities, and nationalities.
4. Belief systems are resistant to change through traditional instruction.
See (Champagne, Gunstone, & Klopfers, 1983; Osborne & Wittrock, 1983)
See also (Confrey, Jere, 1990).
This research also suggests that repeating a lesson or making it clearer will not help students who base their reasoning on strongly held misconceptions. (Champagne, Klopfers & Gunstone, 1982; McDermott, 1984; Resnick, 1983). Students tend to be emotionally and intellectually attached to their misconceptions, partly because they have actively constructed them and partly because they give ready methodologies for solving various problems. They definitely interfere with learning when students use them to interpret new experiences.
*It is very important to recognize student misconceptions and to re-educate students to correct mathematical thinking.*
Although the results apply more to children younger than high school age, Ginsburg [1977] offers a number of observations about errors:
1. Errors result from organized strategies and rules.
2. Faulty rules underlying errors have sensible origins.
3. Too often children see arithmetic as an activity isolated from their ordinary concerns. (As you will note below, many misconceptions and faulty thinking in algebra are related to misconceptions and faulty thinking with arithmetic (e.g. fractions).
4. Children often demonstrate a gap between formal and informal knowledge.
The last point on formal vs. informal knowledge requires definition. Usually, formal knowledge refers to that which is taught in an organized, structured, educational institution. It refers to a system of interrelated definitions and proofs, experiments and arguments. It usually is linked with written methods. On the other hand, informal knowledge refers to more tentative intuitive conjectures and mental strategies. Informal knowledge is generated or learned through one’s personal actions. That is, informal knowledge refers to routines that are carried out mechanically, or by habit, or by tradition.
A body of research has also developed connections of misconceptions to math anxiety, as well contributions of acceptance of misconceptions about mathematics, mathematical self-concept, and arithmetic skills to mathematics anxiety. In a study of 92 adult students aged 18 to 57 with a median age of 27. (16 males and 76 females) taking a statistics course, results showed that acceptance of misconceptions and mathematical self-concept were significantly related to mathematics anxiety. The combination of misconceptions, mathematical self-concept and arithmetic skills was significantly related to statistics course performance. Older students returning to school after several years’ absence were the ones most debilitated.
by negative attitudes toward mathematics. It was concluded that mathematics anxiety involves a mechanistic, nonconceptual approach to math, a low level of confidence and a tendency to give up easily when answers are not immediately apparent.
**How to re-educate away from misconceptions?**
As mentioned, misconceptions must be deconstructed, and teachers must help students reconstruct correct conceptions. Lochead & Mestre (1988) describe an effective inductive technique for these purposes. There are three steps.
1. Probe for and determine qualitative understanding.
2. Probe for and determine quantitative understanding.
3. Probe for and determine conceptual reasoning.
In addition, it is helpful to confront students with counterexamples to their misconceptions. A self-discovered counterexample will have a far stronger and lasting effect. Incorrect beliefs can be loosened somewhat when so confronted.
**Misconceptions in Algebra**
Many misconceptions apparent in algebra are rooted in misconceptions of arithmetic.
1. Arithmetic.
a. Relations between percentages (%), decimals, and fractions is not well understood. Finding 9.5% or 123% of a number may be a problem for many students. Converting decimal to percent and the inverse are also misunderstood.
b. The pseudo equation $-4 + ? = -10$ causes many students trouble early on. This misconception lies with the improper understanding of negative numbers. Some teachers use expressions as *owing* when the quantity is positive and *owing* if it negative. Is this wise? In algebra, there are numerous problems of solving equations for which this lack of understanding/misconception is the source of the difficulty.
2. Number sense. Students do not understand well the difference between rational and irrational numbers. Some think that $\frac{3\pi}{2}$ is irrational, and many think that repeating decimals such as 23.454545... are irrational.
3. Exact vs. approximate. If we compute on our calculator $\frac{\sqrt{2} + \sqrt{7}}{\sqrt{2}} = 3.09557356478$, many students will assume this answer is exact. Similarly calculating $\frac{1}{7}$ as 0.142857142857 will be interpreted as exact. This misunderstanding may well arise from overreliance of calculators or improper teaching of the meaning of numbers generated by the calculator.
4. Fractions. For most of mathematics through calculus, it happens that misconceptions about fractions provide the root source of many student difficulties. Many of these problems come from fractions not being properly understood.
a. Example. Operations. Incorrect cancelling of $\frac{ab + c}{b}$ to obtain $a + c$
b. Example. Working with large numerators and denominators rather than reducing: when multiplying fractions such as $\frac{13}{7} \cdot \frac{14}{65}$ to get $\frac{13 \cdot 14}{7 \cdot 65} = \frac{182}{455} = \frac{2}{5}$. Instead of cancelling common factors as $\frac{13}{7} \cdot \frac{14}{65} = \frac{1}{1} \cdot \frac{2}{5} = \frac{2}{5}$. This is a bad habit because
working with large numbers increases chances of making a mistake dramatically and, even more importantly, because not seeing numbers as products in arithmetic makes it hard to see the same in working with algebraic expressions. This example is one of faulty procedures leading to algebraic difficulties.
c. Example. Understanding the "invert and multiply" rule for dividing fractions escapes the comprehension of the vast majority of students. Explanation: The misconception here lies at the nature of the notation and exactly what the division means. In fact
\[
\frac{\frac{a}{b}}{\frac{c}{d}} = \left(\frac{a}{d}\right)^{-1} \left(\frac{a}{b}\right) = \frac{d}{c} \cdot \frac{a}{b} = \frac{ad}{bc}
\]
So, the invert and multiply rule is little more than writing the multiplicative inverse in place of division and then noting that \(\left(\frac{a}{d}\right)^{-1} = \frac{d}{a}\) because
\[
1 = \left(\frac{c}{d}\right)^{-1} \left(\frac{c}{d}\right) = \left(\frac{d}{c}\right)\left(\frac{c}{d}\right) = \frac{cd}{cd}
\]
d. Example. Addition of fractions generates a number of errors, most particularly with treating different denominators incorrectly. There is the notational conflict between adding multiplying fractions. In multiplying fractions the numerators and denominators, respectively, are multiplied to achieve the numerator and denominator of the product. It is natural to want to do this for addition. In a sense, the student wants to do something correct and proper, but not understanding the absolute need to determine a common denominator at the first step, uses the default, but incorrect, analog method for multiplying fractions.
e. Example. The very term "cancel" or "cancelling" can cause confusion because both the addition and division operations are involved while the results are respectively, say, zero or one.
5. Magnitudes for negative numbers. For example, which number is larger –8 or –5? The problem here is how the student perceives "large." Some teachers mistakenly use expressions such as the "larger negative value." This causes confusion to many students.
6. Order of operations. This is perhaps the most common misconception.
a. Example. Many students will compute \(4 + 3x^2\) as \(7x^2\), effectively interpreting \(4 + 3x\) as \(7x\).
b. Example. Students often misuse the distributive rule. We may see \(x^2 - 2(x - 3)\) written as \(x^2 - 2x - 6\). The –2 is not correctly distributed.
7. Powers. Students have trouble with precedence of operations.
a. Example. Compute \(-4^2 = 16\). Many will incorrectly compute \((-4)^2 = 16\).
b. Example. Compute \(16^{(-1/4)}\). Any number of answers may be reported including –2 and 2 rather than correctly as \(\frac{1}{2}\).
c. Example. Is \(a \times a \times a\) the same as \(3a\)? Similarly is \(a^3\) the same as \(a \times 3\)? Some students are not secure in correct mathematical meaning of various notations. This is partly a fault of there being multiple representations of the same thing. It is partly the misconceptions of not fully understanding and being functionally fluent in making computations.
8. Square roots - definition. Many students have trouble with the correct definition.
\[
\left(\sqrt{a^2}\right) = |a|
\]
More generally, students have trouble with
Even more generally, students have trouble when the definition of a mathematical object is divided by cases.
a. Example. \((\sqrt[3]{-8})^2 = |-8| = 8\). Many will give \(-8\) as the answer. In more generality many students will want to write \((x - 5)\) as equal to \(\sqrt{(x - 5)^2}\) rather than correctly writing \(|x - 5|\).
9. Square roots – with sums. A typical error many students make is to write
\[
\sqrt{a + b} = \sqrt{a} + \sqrt{b}
\]
\[
\sqrt{a - b} = \sqrt{a} - \sqrt{b}
\]
This persists well into college.
10. Simplification/factorization of algebraic expressions. Students typically abandon the rules or misinterpret them in many types of simplification problems.
a. Example. Simplifying a rational expression like \(\frac{x+2}{x+2}\) ...students often think this expression simplifies to 2.
b. Example. Expanding perfect square binomials. Many students compute \((x + 3)^2\) as \(x^2 + 9\) or even worse \(x^2 + 6\).
c. Example. More generally, we often see \((a + b)^n = a^n + b^n\).
d. Factorization. Many students do not see a common factor in an expression such as \(2 \cdot 3 \cdot 4 \cdot 25 + 5\). This could be why they have difficulty seeing the common factor in \(2x^2y^3 + 3xy\).
11. Using the definition of the absolute value function, particularly for negative numbers. The definition
\[
|x| = \begin{cases}
x & \text{if } x \geq 0 \\
-x & \text{if } x < 0
\end{cases}
\]
just causes many students to pause. They understand the idea of the absolute value. However, it is here the actual mathematics notation that causes trouble. It is important for students to use this definition for several problem examples. It is particularly important in many algebra problems, particularly those with solving inequalities.
12. Inequalities. Students have trouble solving various types of inequalities. The worst offenders are inequalities involving quadratic terms and inequalities with an absolute value.
a. Example. Solve \(x^2 - 8 > 0\).
b. Example. Solve \(|x - 7| > 6\).
students need to skilled at fundamental facts about factoring and what the terms actually mean. In the first example, the one procedure is factoring \((x - \sqrt{8})(x + \sqrt{8})\). Then, noting the product of two values is positive only if the multiplicands are either both positive or both negative, we solve \(x - \sqrt{8} > 0\) and \(x + \sqrt{8} > 0\). This also gives the solutions for the terms being negative. We could also write \(x^2 > 8\) and take square roots. In this situation, the student must take both roots. This procedure also involves the expression \(\sqrt{x^2}\) discussed above. The second example, Solve \(|x - 7| > 6\), requires the
student to have a working knowledge of the definition of absolute value.
13. Expansion of algebraic expressions. In some views, the only things the students seem to be able to do correctly are FOIL and add/subtract a constant from both sides of an equation.
14. Exponentials - Properties.. Students are not firm with negative and fractional exponents. Students have trouble with correctly simplifying
\[
\frac{a^m}{a^{-n}}, \quad a^m a^{-n}, \quad a^{-m} a^{-n}
\]
15. Exponential functions. Students do not work well with exponents. Once misconceptions take root, they become hard to eliminate.
a. Example. Students will often linearize exponential rules such as writing \(e^{a+b}\) as \(e^a + e^b\).
b. Similarly, we often see \(e^{ab}\) written as \(e^a e^b\).
16. Logarithm - properties.
a. Often students will write \(\log x - \log y = \frac{\log x}{\log y}\) instead of the correct expression \(\ln \frac{x}{y}\).
b. Students will also linearize rules and produce such as log \(a + b = \ln a + \ln b\), and \(\ln(2x) = 2 \ln x\)
17. Logarithms - solving equations. When solving a logarithmic equation, students forget to check if the answer is in the domain, or if they get two answers and the first one checks, they tend to automatically eliminate the second choice.
a. Example. Solve \(\log_2(x-4) = 3 - \log_2(x+3)\).
Solution.
\[
\log_2(x-4) = 3 - \log_2(x+3)
\]
\[
\log_2(x-4) + \log_2(x+3) = 3
\]
\[
\log_2((x-4)(x+3)) = 3
\]
\[
(x-4)(x+3) = 2^3 = 8
\]
\[
x^2 - x - 12 = 8
\]
\[
x^2 - x - 20 = 0
\]
\[
(x-5)(x+4) = 0
\]
\[
x = 5, \quad -4
\]
The solution \(x = 5\) is valid, but the solution \(x = -4\) is not. Students often do not check this. This serves as the type of misconception or misbelief that if an algorithm is followed correctly, only correct answers will result.
b. Example. Solve \(\log(x^2 - 7) = \log(x - 5)\).
Solution.
\[
\log(x^2 - 7) = \log(x - 6)
\]
\[
\log(x^2 - 7) - \log(x - 6) = 0
\]
\[
\log \left( \frac{x^2 - 7}{x - 6} \right) = 0
\]
\[
\frac{(x^2 - 7)}{(x - 6)} = 1
\]
\[
(x^2 - 7) - (x - 6) = 1
\]
\[
x^2 - x - 2 = 0
\]
\[
x = 2, \quad -1
\]
Note when substituted into the original equation, both left and right side are undefined.
18. Functions. Finding the domain of a rational function when a common factor is present in the numerator and denominator.
a. Example. What is the domain of
\[
\frac{x - 3}{x^2 - 4x + 3}
\]
Clearly, the domain is \( \{x \mid x \neq 3 \text{ and } x \neq 1\} \). Students tend to cancel the common factor and work with what remains. (Cancellation only works when the factor cancelled is nonzero.)
19. Functions - asymptotes. Vertical and horizontal asymptotes are often confused because students poorly understand the reasons making which one vertical and which one horizontal. Also, when asked to count how many asymptotes a function has, the student will frequently count only the vertical ones.
a. Example. The rational function \( f(x) = \frac{\sqrt{x-3}}{x^2-1} \) has how many asymptotes.
20. Translational errors. Consider the problem given to freshmen college engineering majors. (Clement, 1982).
Example. Write an equation using the variables \( C \) and \( S \) to represent the following statement: “At Mindy’s restaurant, for every four people who ordered cheesecake, there are five people who ordered strudel.” Let \( C \) represent the number of cheesecakes and \( S \) represent the number of strudels ordered. The correct answer is \( 5C = 4S \). This question was missed answered correctly by only 27% of the students. The typical wrong answer was \( 4C = 5S \). Students were also given the hint: “Be careful. Some students put a number in the wrong place in the equation.” This hint improved correctness of this answer by only 6%.
The translational error here is the incorrect conversion of the words to symbols. Clearly this problem is rather nonstandard in appearance. One way to solve it is to consider the equation \( \frac{S}{C} = \frac{5}{4} \), which equates groups of five strudel orders with groups of four cheesecake orders. The correct equation follows from this.
For students, the misconception arises from two factors. First, students translate the words of the problem from left to right. Second, they confuse the idea of variables and labels. Using a left-to-right strategy, students interpret the \( C \) and the \( S \) in the equation as labels.
for the terms "cheesecake" and "strudel." They apparently fail to apply the idea that variables stand for numerical expressions.
21. Algebra word problems are interpreted through misconceptions.
a. Example. Original and sale prices. Students often mistake the way in which an original price and a sale price relate to one another. They may incorrectly calculate the original price from a sale price by applying the discount to the known sale price, rather than to an unknown original price.
Online resources:
1. http://www.mathsyear2000.co.uk/resources/misconceptions/index.shtml
2. http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9213/hispanic.htm
**Misconceptions about math — in general**
Society has many misconceptions about mathematics and its role in our world.
1. Mathematics is incorrectly viewed as a collection of rigid rules and mysterious procedures that seem to be unrelated to each other and require total mastery with little or no understanding.
2. Mathematics is perceived by many to be difficult and demanding and is considered to be a subject in which it is socially acceptable to do poorly.
3. Mathematical thinking is regarded as essentially unimportant to people that do not actually "do" mathematics in their employment capacity.
4. The pervasive role of mathematics is underestimated in the world of everyday living.
**References**
1. Gourgey, Annette F. (not published), *The relationship of misconceptions about math and mathematical self-concept to math anxiety and statistics performance*. General information on misconceptions.
2. Champagne, A. B., Gunstone, R. E. & Klopfer, L. E. (1983). Naive knowledge and science learning. *Research in Science and Technological Education*, 1(2), 173–183.
3. Clement, John. (1982) Algebra Word Problem Solutions: Thought Processes underlying a common misconception, *Journal for Research in Mathematics Education*, 13, 16-30.
4. Confrey, Jere. (1982). A Review of the Research on Student Conceptions in Mathematics, Science, and Programming. *Review of Research in Education*, Vol. 16, pp. 3-56.
5. Ginsberg, H. (1977). *Children's arithmetic: How they learn it and how you teach it*. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
6. McDermott, L. (1984). Research on conceptual understanding of physics. *Physics Today*, 37, 24-32.
7. Mestre, J. (1987, Summer). Why should mathematics and science teachers be interested in cognitive research findings? *Academic Connections*, pp. 3-5, 8-11. New York: The College Board.
8. Osborne, R. J., & Wittrock, M. C. (1983). Learning science: A generative process. *Science Education*, 67(4), 498-508.
9. Pines (Eds.), A. L. (1985). Towards a taxonomy of conceptual relations. In L. West and A. L. Pines (Eds.) *Cognitive structure and conceptual change* (pp.101-116). New York,
10. Resnick, L. (1983). Mathematics and science learning: A new conception. Science, 220, 477-478.
Contributors to the misconceptions include: Greg Klein, Jenn Whitfield, Sherry Scarborough, Marcia Drost, Mila Mogilevsky, Janice Epstein, Sandra Nite
**Student Thinking and Misconceptions — TEKS Connections**
**In Algebra I,**
1. Multiple Representation is a(3).
The students are going to represent and model problem situations through analyzing and interpreting relationships between two quantities in the function.
2. Student Thinking (misconceptions) is a(4): students are supposed to use a variety of methods to solve equations. Different approaches in solving the problem is the way to look for any misconception that the students might have. The teacher should conquer this misconception for the students through exposing them to many methods in solving the same problem. Students work in many situations to set up equations and inequalities and use different methods to solve them.
3. Problem-solving is a(6): the students use the problem solving at the end to apply what have been learned in the class in the real life (Meaningful mathematics).
4. Algebraic thinking is a(5) & a(2): the students are solving the meaningful problems in algebra after their experience with different algebraic tools they have learned. Symbolic reasoning is powerful in expressing an algebraic thinking.
**In Algebra II,**
1. Multiple Representation is a(4).
The students perceive the connection between Algebra and Geometry and try to use the tools of one to solve problems in the other. Also, the relationship between the function and equation is powerful tool in expressing generalization.
2. Student Thinking (misconceptions) is a(3):
The students are supplied with more mathematical experiences to overcome any misconception in their algebraic thinking. Understanding and analyzing a broad variety of relationships between functions and equations is to express generalizations.
3. Problem-solving is a(6): the students use the problem solving at the end to apply what have been learned in the class in the real life.
4. Algebraic thinking is a(5) & a(2): students model mathematical situations to solve meaningful problems in Algebra.
**In pre-calculus,**
1. In the introduction section b(1) & b(2), we can see all the items achieved in them.
2. Multiple representations are used to solve different real life problems in order to overcome
all students’ misconceptions at that particular level of algebraic thinking.
**Misconceptions in Math — Discussion Questions and Activities**
1. Develop strategies to re-educate students for misconceptions about the solution of inequalities described in #13 above.
2. Determine counterexamples that can help students resolve misconceptions about cancellation of variables in algebraic quotients.
3. Discuss any misconceptions you may have discovered in your own algebraic thinking. What mistakes have you commonly made? Are they misconceptions or perhaps poorly understood ideas?
4. Develop a brief diagnostic test to determine common misconceptions.
5. How can you determine whether students are using formal or informal knowledge in making algebraic calculations? How can reliance on informal knowledge lead to continued misconceptions? Make an argument for students having a solid formal knowledge for continued correct calculations.
6. Rank the algebra misconceptions in order of importance. Give reasons for your ranking.
Misconceptions in Math - Survey
Directions. For problems 1-4, please circle the answer that is best reflected by the Misconceptions in Math readings. For 5-7, give your impressions about the topic.
Use the back of this paper if you need more room.
1. Misconceptions are linked to
A. The belief system. B. Incorrect thinking.
C. Algebraic Thinking. D. Blank slates.
2. The best thing to do when you discover your students have a misconception is
A. Re-teach the lesson. B. Re-teach the lesson in a clearer way.
C. Inform the students of their misconception.
D. Re-educate the belief causing the misconception.
3. Student misconceptions can cause
A. Sleepless nights. B. Math anxiety.
C. A stronger desire to learn correctly. D. Hostility toward mathematics.
4. Which of the following is not an observation about student errors in mathematics?
A. Errors result from organized strategies and rules.
B. Faulty rules underlying errors have sensible origins.
C. Children often demonstrate a gap between formal and informal knowledge.
D. Inaccurate concept maps for mathematical thinking.
5. When I teach mathematics and notice students have a misconception about some topic, my best strategy will be to
6. The most surprising aspects about student misconceptions I learned from this reading was
7. I found the reading very useful and plan to use this knowledge in my teaching.
□ Strongly Agree □ Agree □ Neutral □ Disagree □ Strongly Disagree
Prepared by:
G. Donald Allen
Department of Mathematics
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3368
©2007 G. Donald Allen
CHAPTER 4: Flow of Energy and Matter: Photosynthesis
Table 4.2
Teacher Work Template: Responsive Phase
| Lesson Topic—Flow of Energy and Matter: Photosynthesis |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
| **Identifying Student Preconceptions** |
| Two major activities are used to determine students’ preconceptions in this lesson. The first targets the “big ideas” for the lesson and the second is used with Learning Target #1, which addresses a major misconception related to photosynthesis and plant growth. |
| 1. Use a concept cartoon to probe students’ understandings about carbon as the source of plant biomass. |
| 2. Use student-developed, annotated drawings to determine students’ ideas about the processes and resources a plant uses to grow from seed to mature plant. The intent is to determine students’ current understandings about flow of matter and cycling of energy in a plant system. |
Learning Sequence Targets
| Learning Target #1 | The vast majority of plants are able to convert inorganic carbon in CO$_2$ into organic carbon through photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide and water are used in the process to create biomass. The surrounding environment is the source of raw materials for photosynthesis. |
Research-Identified Misconceptions Addressed
- When asked to describe a plant’s needs, some students attribute anthropomorphic characteristics to plants, such as breathing, drinking, and eating (Barman et al. 2006; Ebert-May 2006).
- Some students of all ages are unaware that plants make their food internally, thinking instead that they take it in through their roots or leaves. Many students think that plants make their food from water and air, and that this is their only source of food (AAAS 1992).
- Students think photosynthesis provides energy for uptake of nutrients through roots and building biomass and that no biomass is built through photosynthesis alone [Ebert-May 2006].
- Some students at all ages think plants get most of their food from the soil, through their roots. This is why some students will say that plants need fertilizer (Barker 1995; Barman et al. 2006; Driver et al. 1994; Köse 2008; Russell, Netherwood, and Robinson 2004).
- Many students know that water is absorbed through a plant’s roots, but they assume that water is the primary growth material for the plant. Other studies show that students often think minerals are food for plants or that they directly contribute to photosynthesis (Driver et al. 1994).
- There is disbelief that weight increase in plants is due to a gas (CO$_2$), even if students know that the gas is absorbed by plants (Driver et al. 1994; Ebert-May 2006).
- Only a third of 15-year-olds understand gas exchange in plants or that green plants take in carbon dioxide. Forty-six percent of 15-year-olds do not understand that increased photosynthesis decreases the level of carbon dioxide in a closed system (Driver et al. 1994).
CHAPTER 4: Flow of Energy and Matter: Photosynthesis
Table 4.2 (continued)
Initial Instructional Plan
Eliciting Preconceptions: Notice that each of the research-identified misconceptions revolves around the source of biomass in the plant or around what causes the plant to grow. Students attribute mass in the growing plant to almost anything but the carbon in CO₂, and the concept cartoon elicits our own students’ preconceptions by choosing each student’s individual “best answer” to the cartoon.
Confronting Preconceptions: Groups of students now determine the group’s “best answer” to the cartoon, confronting their individual conceptions as well as those of their peers. At the same time, teachers should support the metacognitive focus by using a strategy Claim/Support/Question, found at the Visible Thinking website (www.pz.harvard.edu/vt). It requires students to clarify claims of truth by making claims, identifying supporting evidence, and further questioning their own claims. Have student groups consider the stance taken for each claim and ask them, “How would you test your claim?” There are many resources we can use to help students test their claims. We suggest these two options:
Option #1: Students mass out three batches of radish seeds, each batch weighing 1.5g. Apply various experimental treatments to the seeds (e.g., seeds on moist paper towels in the light, seeds on moist paper towels in the dark, and seeds not moistened in the light). Grow the seeds for one week. Then dry them overnight in an oven and measure biomass in grams. Prior to revealing results, have students predict the biomass of the various treatments (Ebert-May 2003).
Option #2: Students design experiments using Wisconsin Fast Plants (floating leaf discs) to test their claims. Information about use of Fast Plants as well as developed activities can be found at www.fastplants.org.
Sense Making: Students write an explanation about the results once results are revealed. If there is not enough time to conduct the Option #1 experiment, the author’s (Ebert-May 2003) results can be used (light no water 1.46g; light, water 1.63g; and no light, water 1.20g). Conclude with a discussion comparing student results to the Van Helmont experiment and his conclusions. Have students discuss in small groups and then record their explanations in their science notebooks.
Additional discussion can help students explore common research-identified misconceptions, including why no soil is required in hydroponics and why soil does not disappear from pots in which plants are growing.
Formative Assessment Plan (Demonstrating Understanding)
1. Student discussions and explanations in their science notebooks serve as formative assessments.
2. Revisit the concept cartoon and ask students to record their current responses in their science notebooks and justify their explanations.
3. Finally, ask students to propose equations for photosynthesis based on their current understanding, record these equations in their science notebooks, and write explanations of their thinking.
Table 4.2 (continued)
| Learning Target #2 | Photosynthesis captures the energy of sunlight that is used to create chemical bonds in the creation of carbohydrates. Chloroplasts in the cells of plant leaves contain compounds able to capture light energy. Photosynthesis uses CO$_2$ and the hydrogen from water to form carbohydrates, releasing oxygen. |
**Research-Identified Misconceptions Addressed**
- Some students of all ages confuse energy with other concepts—including food, force and temperature—making it difficult to understand the importance of energy conversions in photosynthesis [AAAS 1993].
- There is confusion about what chlorophyll is and what its role is in plants. Few students understand its role in converting light to chemical energy [Driver et al. 1994].
- Many students believe that plants are green because they absorb green light [Russell, Netherwood, and Robinson 2004].
- Chlorophyll alone is insufficient for plant photosynthesis. Many other enzymes and organic compounds are required. “Chloroplasts” is a better requirement [Hershey 2004].
**Initial Instructional Plan**
*Eliciting and Confronting Preconceptions:* Students continue experiments begun in Learning Target #1 and compare the results with other activities that address this target. Provide students with secondary sources that show oxygen concentration around leaves over a 24-hour period. Ask them to find patterns in the data and make a claim, using the data as evidence.
*Sense Making:* Establish that the evidence supports photosynthesis occurring in the presence of daylight, and ask students to propose investigations that would further test their claims. Students then devise a way to measure photosynthesis under varying conditions, stressing light intensity. Have them make predictions, time the collection of fixed amount of oxygen or use an oxygen probe, graph results, and identify/explain anomalous results. One approach is to use floating leaf discs, an example of which is “Exploring Photosynthesis with Fast Plants,” an activity in which students measure rates of photosynthesis by measuring oxygen produced [www.fastplants.org/pdf/activities/exploring_photosynthesis.pdf]. An optional activity is to read and discuss historical experiments with radioactively tagged water to identify water as the source of oxygen. Note: There are difficulties with approaches using the freshwater plant Elodea that tend to produce erroneous data. Photosynthesis does not always cause the bubbles formed on submerged leaves. If you use cold water, bubbles form as the water warms and gases become less soluble. The gas is not always pure oxygen since, as photosynthetic oxygen dissolves, some nitrogen comes out of solution [Hershey 2004]. Close with an activity that requires students to compare their results with those of Joseph Priestley.
**Formative Assessment Plan (Demonstrating Understanding)**
Students expand or modify their equations for photosynthesis. Require that they explain their reasoning for changes they make to their equations.
Table 4.2 (continued)
| Learning Target #3 | Carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis in leaves can be used immediately for energy in the plant, stored for future use, or converted to other macromolecules that help the plant grow and function. |
**Research-Identified Misconceptions Addressed**
- Students have little understanding of energy transfers in plant metabolism, thinking that food accumulates in a plant as it grows and having little understanding that food provides energy for a plant’s life processes (Driver et al. 1994).
- Glucose is not the major photosynthetic product. There is virtually no free glucose produced in photosynthesis. The most common product is starch or sucrose, and students often test leaves for starch (Hershey 2004).
**Initial Instructional Plan**
**Eliciting Preconceptions:** Have student groups brainstorm what they know about plant parts and their use as food sources, using one of the brainstorming webs (Instructional Tool 2.10, on page 72). Encourage them to think of all plant parts that might eventually lead them to plant products that include molecules other than glucose.
**Confronting Preconceptions:** Show students some variegated plants. Ask them to consider why only some parts of the leaves are green and what that might mean about photosynthesis. You can use traditional activities—with green leaves that have parts covered or with variegated leaves—to demonstrate that only green parts of plants make glucose and store it as starch. Have student groups conduct experiments and make sketches of their results. Compare the results of all groups and discuss consistencies and inconsistencies. Revisit the idea that chlorophyll is necessary to absorb light.
Present students with a wide range of plant products (e.g., cellulose, fats, proteins, starches, sugars) and have them test some for a variety of roles (e.g., fats, proteins, starches, sugars).
**Sense Making:** Have students research the composition and role of the various plant products in the plant. Establish that these determine the plant’s biomass, together with the glucose. A possible extension is to have students find out about the molecular structures of glucose, sucrose, and starch and the relationship among them. At this point, they have not been exposed to respiration in the plant, but this sense-making activity serves as a transition to Learning Target #4.
**Formative Assessment Plan (Demonstrating Understanding)**
Again have student revisit their equations for photosynthesis, having them modify their equations and write explanations for any modifications.
Table 4.2 (continued)
| Learning Target #4 | A variety of gases move into and out of plant leaves. Leaves use CO$_2$ and release O$_2$ during photosynthesis. When they respire, leaves use O$_2$ and release CO$_2$. Other gases enter the leaf as well, but are excreted. |
**Research-Identified Misconceptions Addressed**
- Photosynthesis is often seen as something that plants do for the benefit of animals and people (especially with gas exchange) and that it is not as important to the plant itself (Driver et al. 2004).
- Some students at various ages think that the main job of leaves is to give off carbon dioxide or give off oxygen (Käse 2008).
- Students often think that air is used in opposite ways in plants and animals or they think that plants don’t use air (Driver et al. 1994).
- Plants carry on photosynthesis; animals respire (Cottell 2004; Käse 2008).
- Photosynthesis and respiration function in an opposite and contrasting manner (Käse 2008).
- Plants carry on photosynthesis during the day and respiration during the night (Hershey 2008; Russell, Netherwood, and Robinson 2004). While photosynthesis in plants takes in CO$_2$ and gives off O$_2$ during the day, it takes in O$_2$ and gives off CO$_2$ at night (Käse 2008).
- Many students think plants require light to grow, including for the germination of seeds (Driver et al. 2004).
**Initial Instructional Plan**
**Eliciting Preconceptions:** Raise the question, “If plants produce oxygen, why don’t oxygen levels continually rise in the atmosphere?” Students’ likely response will be that respiration occurs in animals [since that topic has already been studied].
**Confronting Preconceptions:**
- Provide students with secondary data sources that indicate O$_2$ and CO$_2$ levels around leaves during daytime and nighttime. Ask students what happens at night and how this might be tested. You can again use floating leaf discs (Wisconsin Fast Plants) to have students design and conduct experiments that test their thinking. A wonderful resource explaining use of leaf discs is found at www.eibiology.com/labtools/leafdisk.html (Williamson, n.d.). It will be helpful with Learning Targets #1 and #4 because it not only explains use of the leaf discs to test oxygen generation in the light, but also includes an extension with discs in the dark.
- You can also consider germinating pea seedlings in the dark over a period of about four weeks. Indeed, you might initiate germination at the beginning of this lesson/unit. O’Connell (2008) provides the steps of her experiment: (1) obtain uniform lots of peas and begin germination; (2) remove some seedlings from each lot on days 8, 15, and 22, leaving them to air dry; and (3) on days 25 and 26, when the seedlings should be completely dry (the author provides details on how to ensure this), mass all peas and examine and explain data. Refer to O’Connell (2008) for more detailed information.
**Sense Making:** Student groups share experimental results. Consistencies and inconsistencies are discussed. Individual students record findings and explanations in their science notebooks.
**Formative Assessment Plan (Demonstrating Understanding)**
Students finalize their photosynthesis equations, once again justifying any changes.
© 2014 Hawker Brownlow Education. All rights reserved. 11AT0401
Proceedings of the Hawker Brownlow 11th Thinking and Learning Conference, 23–26 May 2014
© 2014 Hawker Brownlow Education. All rights reserved. 11AT0401
Proceedings of the Hawker Brownlow 11th Thinking and Learning Conference, 23–26 May 2014
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| Date | Event Description |
|------------|-------------------|
| 1980-03-25 | The event occurred on March 25, 1980. |
| 1980-04-01 | The event occurred on April 1, 1980. |
| 1980-04-15 | The event occurred on April 15, 1980. |
| 1980-05-01 | The event occurred on May 1, 1980. |
| 1980-05-15 | The event occurred on May 15, 1980. |
| 1980-06-01 | The event occurred on June 1, 1980. |
| 1980-06-15 | The event occurred on June 15, 1980. |
| 1980-07-01 | The event occurred on July 1, 1980. |
| 1980-07-15 | The event occurred on July 15, 1980. |
| 1980-08-01 | The event occurred on August 1, 1980. |
| 1980-08-15 | The event occurred on August 15, 1980. |
| 1980-09-01 | The event occurred on September 1, 1980. |
| 1980-09-15 | The event occurred on September 15, 1980. |
| 1980-10-01 | The event occurred on October 1, 1980. |
| 1980-10-15 | The event occurred on October 15, 1980. |
| 1980-11-01 | The event occurred on November 1, 1980. |
| 1980-11-15 | The event occurred on November 15, 1980. |
| 1980-12-01 | The event occurred on December 1, 1980. |
| 1980-12-15 | The event occurred on December 15, 1980. |
Note: The events listed above are hypothetical and do not represent any real-world occurrences.
The following is a list of the most common types of data that can be collected and analyzed using the methods described in this paper:
- **Demographic Data**: Information about the age, gender, race, ethnicity, education level, income, employment status, and other demographic characteristics of individuals or groups.
- **Behavioral Data**: Information about the behaviors and actions of individuals or groups, such as their online activities, purchasing habits, and social interactions.
- **Geospatial Data**: Information about the location and movement of individuals or groups, such as their travel patterns, residential addresses, and work locations.
- **Health Data**: Information about the health and well-being of individuals or groups, such as their medical records, health outcomes, and disease prevalence.
- **Financial Data**: Information about the financial transactions and assets of individuals or groups, such as their bank accounts, investments, and credit scores.
- **Environmental Data**: Information about the natural environment and its impact on individuals or groups, such as air quality, water quality, and climate change.
- **Educational Data**: Information about the educational experiences and achievements of individuals or groups, such as their academic records, test scores, and graduation rates.
- **Legal Data**: Information about the legal status and history of individuals or groups, such as their criminal records, court cases, and legal proceedings.
- **Political Data**: Information about the political affiliations and activities of individuals or groups, such as their voting records, campaign contributions, and political activism.
- **Social Media Data**: Information about the online activities and interactions of individuals or groups, such as their social media profiles, posts, and comments.
- **Sports Data**: Information about the performance and achievements of individuals or groups in sports, such as their game statistics, team rankings, and tournament results.
- **Technology Data**: Information about the use and development of technology by individuals or groups, such as their smartphone usage, app downloads, and software development.
- **Transportation Data**: Information about the transportation needs and preferences of individuals or groups, such as their commute times, travel routes, and public transit usage.
- **Weather Data**: Information about the weather conditions and forecasts for individuals or groups, such as their temperature, humidity, precipitation, and wind speed.
- **Workplace Data**: Information about the workplace experiences and outcomes of individuals or groups, such as their job satisfaction, productivity, and career progression.
These are just a few examples of the many types of data that can be collected and analyzed using the methods described in this paper. The specific data that is relevant to a particular research question will depend on the context and goals of the study.
The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science:
1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task.
2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation.
3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system.
4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them.
5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it.
6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks.
7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other.
8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate.
9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs.
10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer.
11. Query: A request for information from a database.
12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction.
13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do.
14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal.
15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback.
16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system.
17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser.
18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices.
19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable.
20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files.
Presented to
The following pages contain the text of the book "The Book of the Law" by Aleister Crowley, published in 1904. The text is presented in its entirety without any alterations or omissions.
"An Artist thus our Nation paints, before whose day
Chariots, abashed & chariots crush did stare,
Then when the Orange flew their shores did overtake,
Nor Turk nor savage, Nor did ever its courage break.
Silent his arms, Now silent saw his army,
The Dutch in Gods silk reared midst war's alarm,
Now how he from the lap of Dagon at length repair
From fire & Harrow preserved of Arms to have the care."
VOYAGES
FROM
HOLLAND TO AMERICA,
A. D. 1632 to 1644.
BY
DAVID PETERSON DE VRIES.
Translated from the Dutch,
by
HENRY C. MURPHY.
NEW YORK:
1853.
ONLY 250 COPIES PRINTED.
TO
JAMES LENOX, ESQ.,
THIS TRANSLATION, UNDERTAKEN AT HIS SUGGESTION, IS
RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED AS A
MARK OF ESTEEM.
INTRODUCTION.
It is remarkable that, after Hudson, only one of the numerous Dutch navigators and travellers has, as far as is known, published a journal, or narrative, of voyages to New Netherland, during the period of the possession of the country by their nation.
Without stopping to speculate upon the cause, we deem the fact a sufficient warrant to authorize an attempt to render the account which stands thus prominently alone, accessible to the English reader; particularly as the work has merits of its own, which make it a valuable and necessary aid to those who would correctly understand the ante-Anglican portion of our history. It bears the following title: Korte historiael ende journael s aenteyckeninge van verscheijden voyagien in de vier deelen des Wereldts—Ronde, als Europa, Africa, Asia, ende America gedaeen, door D. David Pietersz. de Vries, Artillerij-Meester vande Ed.: M: Heeren Gecommitteerde Raden van Staten van West-Vrieslandt ende 't Noorder-quartier waerin verhaelt werd wat Batailljes by te water gedaeen heeft: yder Landtschap zijn Gediertse, Gevogelt, wat sooerte van Vissen ende wat wilde menschen naer 't leven geconterfaeet, ende van de Bosschen ende Ravieren mit haer Vruchten. t' Hoorn, voor David Pietersz. de Vries, Artillerij-Meester van 't Noorder-quartier. Tot Aleknaer, by Symon Cornelisz. Brokgeest. Anno 1655. It is a small quarto volume of 192 pages, printed in black-letter, and is illustrated with a
portrait of De Vries, and eighteen plates; two of them representing his encounters with the pirates in the Mediterranean, four relating to scenes in the East Indies, and twelve to the Indians and natural history of America. We cannot say any thing in favour of the plates connected with his voyages to America. They are for the most part copied from Champlain, and look indeed very much like the identical plates used to illustrate an edition of his voyages to Canada.
The book is one of the rarest to be found,—no printed copy being known to have been extant in this country before the one from which the following translation has been made, and which was obtained by James Lenox, Esq. A copy in manuscript is among the Du Simitière papers, in the Philadelphia Library; and from that manuscript extracts were translated by Dr. Troost, and published in the first volume of the second series of the collections of the New York Historical Society. We now give the journals of the voyages to America entire; and though there be much in them relating to mere navigating, and sailing directions, and to his voyage to Guiana, of no importance to this portion of the country, yet we deem it due to De Vries, that his relations should be unmutilated; and to the historical reader, that he should know all that the author has written, in connection with his voyages to America. The style is plain and homely, and we have studied to render it faithfully rather than ornately, exhibiting the same characteristic. We have also, as a general rule, given the proper names in the same orthography as that of the original, although the same name is often differently spelt; because this very variation often affords the best means of determining the orthoepy of the word.
The history of De Vries is, in the absence of any known biography, to be gathered by us from his book. He was born at Rochelle in 1598, whither his father went from Hoorn, after the murder of William of Orange in 1584. His mother was an Amsterdam woman. When he was four years old his parents returned with him to Holland. He appears to
have been married before 1620. He made six voyages; the first of which was undertaken in 1618, when he sailed to the Mediterranean for a cargo of grain, returning in about a year's time. During that voyage he was attacked by several Turkish galleys near Cephalonia, but succeeded in repulsing them. In June, 1620, he sailed from the Texel, bound to Newfoundland, for fish—thence to the Mediterranean. He arrived at Newfoundland the last of July. We give here that portion of his journal of this voyage relating to his stay on the American coast, as illustrative in some degree of the nature of the Newfoundland fishery at that time, and as really an American voyage, though not so classed by the author.
"On the 10th of July, a small vessel of Plymouth, England, met us of about sixty lasts, coming from New England, having been there a-fishing.
"The 18th saw a high iceberg; at first it looked like a ship, but on approaching nearer, we found it an iceberg of wonderful height. It seemed impossible that we should encounter ice in July, in latitude 37.
"The 25th we sounded in twenty-seven fathoms on the bank of Newfoundland, and soon discovered it covered with ships fishing for cod. We bore down to them in order to hail them, but observing that I was not a fishing craft, they would not wait for me to come up, and went away. One among the whole remained. As I came close to him, he made sail, but he had lain still too long, and I overtook him. I desired him to strike his topsail, but he would not listen to it, when I let fire at him my bow gun, and put a shot through his mainsail. He immediately struck, and we hailed him as to what latitude he was in, and for some fish. He answered that they had observed no latitude in eight days, as it is always foggy upon the bank. He let slip, on a line from his stern, ten or twelve codfish, which we hauled in, and tied in their place two or three pieces of pork and beef, so that we paid him well for his fish, and let him go.
"The 29th, at night, we came upon the coast of Newfoundland, and as I went up on the watch to walk where one of the
two mates was on the look-out, I heard a penguin,* and the cry of one of the look-outs on board of an English vessel, 'Shore! shore!' at which I was frightened, and asked him where the land was. He said on the ice. I told the man at the helm to put his helm a-lee, in order to stand about, which he did, and the ship luckily turned. I went aft to brace the topsail, and stood upon the pilot's house, and as the ship turned we felt the spray of the breakers, so that we could not have gone nearer and saved the ship, cargo and crew. We stood out in the opposite direction from that on which we had run in, and tacked back again at break of day, in order to see where we had been in the night. We found three high rocks, and if we had gone against them, eat nor cur of us would have escaped. We saw here great numbers of Basques' boats, who fled before us, supposing we were freebooters. We at length spoke one, who told us we were in the Bay of Plaisance, where the Basques fish. He was shy of us, and did not want to come on board, but rowing over to us in front we supposed that he intended to come aboard; but he raised his foresail on the mast, and being a quarter on the weather-guage of us, forgot to come back, and went off. It was very foggy all day. We set our course for Cape Race, in order to get among the English.
"The 2d of August, with calm, fine, pleasant weather, we saw Cape Race.
"The 4th we ran along the shore and came to a bay called Cuppelinge, where a Veerelander† was lying, and seven or eight fishermen, from whom we intended to buy fish, but they had sold out. I took one of their fishing-boats, which was made similar to the Basques' boats, and well adapted for rowing, and rowed along the coast, which has many bays and harbours, in which the fishermen keep with their ships. Having visited many of these harbours, I returned again to
* The cry of the penguin long served the mariner as a warning on that foggy coast, and the bird was, in consequence, protected by law from destruction.
† From Veere, in Zealand.
my ship, which I reached on the 10th. Besides my vessel there was a small boat of fifty or sixty lasts,* with six guns, which had come out of the Virginias with tobacco, in order to exchange the tobacco for fish.
"The 12th, weighed anchor, and came to a harbour called St. John's, where sixteen fishing-ships were lying, with whom I traded and left my money. This harbour is narrow at its entrance, where there are two rocks, but above water, so that they can be avoided. It is so roomy and broad within that an hundred ships may lie in it; and it runs so far inland that the sea cannot be seen. These fishing-ships lie without any men in them while the latter are fishing. They cover their boats with their sails, and, placing them on the land, build from them what they call 'stages,' fourteen or fifteen feet over the water, in order, when their ships are full of fish, they may unload upon them. Whilst we were lying here a bear was caught in a trap, having been jerked up with a swipe, and so left hanging while the fishermen pierced him with their guns and pikes until he was dead; they then salted him and eat him, and I eat some myself. There was one caught, or rather caught and shot himself, in this way. They placed a loaded gun where this bear was in the habit of coming every night to lick up the train oil, and tied a small cord to the cock of the gun, and a piece of fish at the end of the cord, as a bait to attract him, which the bear pulling at, the gun went off, and the ball entered his breast and came out behind. I saw this myself. This island is about as large as England, and is full of woods of birch, pine, and fir trees. The fruits which I saw were nothing but strawberries and blueberries. The island is, as before stated, full of harbours and bays, where there are annually five hundred fishermen, English and French, as well as Basques. The English fish on the middle coast, the French and Basques are on the south, the other on the north side of the island. This coast is full of fish, altogether cod, which they dry in order to take to Italy, Spain, and France. Even
* A last is about two tons.
in England many are consumed instead of the stockfish eaten in the Netherlands. There are many salmon in the fresh rivers. Whilst we were lying here, there came into the harbour a sloop from the north, who told us that at the north, at a place called Parkbon, fifteen hundred salmon were taken at one haul, and that the net was so heavy in consequence of the great number of them, they could scarcely get it on land. This is what I know of the country.
"The 10th of September we weighed anchor, and set sail, five of us in company, among us a caravel from Avez, in Portugal. Going out, two ships came up to us, one of eight guns, commanded by Mr. Geerner van Zenden, the other mounting ten guns, by Mr. Fox.
"The 30th Cape St. Vincent hove in sight."
As the little fleet approached Carthagena, in Spain, they encountered eight Turkish ships, commanded by a Dutch renegade of the name of Veenboer. It was the 10th of October, at sunrise, that they prepared for battle. De Vries ran up the Vice Admiral's flag, summoned together his men, thirty in number, sang with them the 140th Psalm, distributed brandy among them, and on some of them showing signs of cowardice, pricked them to duty with his sword. Two of the piratical craft disposed themselves to engage with De Vries, one of them mounting twenty-eight and the other thirty-three guns, while De Vries' ship had only fourteen. These vessels were strongly manned, one with 250 and the other with 300 men. It seems strange at the present day that a naval fight with such disparity of force could have been long kept up, yet these ships were engaged the whole day. Towards night, however, the Turkish admiral, Veenboer, was killed. The pirates then hauled off, and the next day De Vries entered the bay of Carthagena. Here he remained till the 10th of January, 1621, having in the mean time disposed of his cargo of fish. He then sailed for Tabarcka for a load of grain; thence to Genoa, and thence to Toulon, on the 12th of July. Here he entered into a contract with the Duke of Guise, admiral of the King of France, to serve with his ship by the month, and continued in
this service until December. The Duke then desired him to engage in his service against Rochelle, but he declined, on the ground that he could not fight against his religion. The Duke respected his scruples, and gave him a diamond ring on parting. After freighting for some time in the Mediterranean, De Vries heard of the death of two of his partners in Holland, whereupon he sold his ship and set out for Marseilles by land, for Dieppe, where he took ship, and arrived at Rotterdam in August, 1623. He prepared, in the following spring, to make a voyage to Canada, which led to a controversy with the West India Company, thus related by him:—"The 24th of March, (1624,) being at home, and my own means not permitting me to buy a ship, I bought a small vessel for the purpose of going from the fishery to the coast of Canada for peltries, and to that end entered into partnership with Jan Mackyn, because every one had not liberty to go there, and no one except those of the West India Company. The ship being ready, two of the Be-winthebers (managers) of the Nineteen of the West India Company of Amsterdam, came and said that they had authority to cause the vessels to be seized for their service, which they did. I showed them several more suitable ships than mine, but they were not satisfied with them, and desired mine. It seemed as if they were curious* because I wanted to go to the West Indies. I protested against their proceedings, and sought redress in the Commercial Court, whereby they were adjudged to release my vessel from the seizure and let her go. Upon this they appealed, in order that my time would slip by, so that I could not prosecute my voyage. Understanding this, I started for the Hague to my father-in-law, who had been four or five weeks in attendance upon the Assembly of the States of Holland.
"The 25th of the same month I came to the Hague, and presented besides my commission† from the King of France, under the Admiral Montmorency, a petition (as I desired to go
* This is the original—it is used in the sense of troubled.
† Obtained through his partner at Rochelle, Jan Mackyn.
far beyond their limits, and to Canada,) that I might be released from my arrest; whereupon I obtained an open letter to the nineteen Bewinthebbers, wherein it was set forth as follows: That as they were a newly organized company, they should be careful not to get into any difference with any neighbouring princes, their friendly allies. With this letter I returned to Amsterdam, and handed it to the Nineteen; and as those who are inclined to go to the fishery in Canada must sail in March, or at the latest in the beginning of April, they, well knowing this, sought to detain me from time to time; and seeing at last that they could no longer prevent me, ordered me not to go within their limits. Whereupon I said that I had not forged my commission, and that they had no right to prescribe laws to the King of France where he should go to traffic. Finally, the time having passed by, I was compelled to discharge the crew at a great loss, and sold the ship to the West India Company at Dort. Those at Amsterdam had caused some of my cargo at Amsterdam to be seized, whereupon I sought by law to have it released, and succeeded so far that the lords caused it to be released without cost or loss. Having already sustained great damage, partly on the goods and partly from the lost time of the ship and crew, instead of going off it was necessary to stay at home; so I presented to the Bewinthebbers a petition in which I sought that they would be pleased to pay me according to justice the damage which I had sustained, but they were not willing to pay me, and said they would allow me nothing. I answered them that the business little concerned me, but my partners at Rochelle having learnt of the unjustifiable seizure of their goods, would not, without doubt, remain still, but would speedily demand of them full compensation for their unreasonable damage; and I told them it was contrary to all reason that such a voyage should be frustrated in so unheard-of a way, the more so because I had no other design than what was consistent with our business on the sea, to make our people of the Netherlands acquainted with those places; and I told them for a leave-taking, that they might take down
what had transpired that very morning, that they then paid no regard to the States-General.
"The 8th of May I received a letter from Lieut. John Mackyn, who was one of the company, to fit me out for Canada, dated the 12th of April, in which he wondered greatly, that as the time was already passed, I had not come over, and that he had hired twenty-five Basques to go on the fishery. I had written to him the first moment of my arrest, but it appeared he had not received the letter, and for that reason being uninformed of what had happened to me, it well enough caused him to wonder. The 12th of May he wrote another letter, which I received the 6th of June, in which he directed me to come to Rochelle as speedily as possible to prosecute my voyage.
"The 25th of July I left the Maese with Captain Liefhebber for Havre de Grace, where we arrived on the 28th, and I immediately set out for Paris, which I reached on the 4th of August, and on the 7th I went with the post to Rochelle, where I arrived on the 15th. After being there three weeks, I set out for French Bayonne, and on the way passed Bordeaux, and arrived at Bayonne on the 8th of September, where I hired some Bascons to go with me on the fishery, and bought a ship here, which I sent with the Bascons to Rochelle, in order to fit it out there."
De Vries proceeded to Rochelle, and remained there till April, 1625, when, being ready to sail, a tumult arose in that city, and his ship was taken into the service of the king of France. In March, 1627, he went, as captain, with a fleet of seven ships to the East Indies, and returned in June, 1630. The events of this voyage are of no interest. After being home about two months, his attention was directed to New Netherland, as detailed in the following pages, to which we must refer for the further incidents of his life. As his book was published under his own direction in 1655, he was then living, at the age of sixty-two years, holding an office under his government. Beyond this we know nothing of his history. He was certainly a bold and skilful seaman. He
was a religious man, and held the strongest Calvinistic doctrines. His narratives, where he speaks from personal knowledge, are entitled to the highest credit, for not only do they bear internal evidence of truth, but they have been corroborated in many instances by other evidence, and by the records which we have; and being his daily observations, taken down at the time, they have from this circumstance a value which no narrative formed from memory could possess.
His account of the Indians appears to have been compiled partly from his own observation, and partly from Champlain, Megapolensis, and others, and is, therefore, not of the same original merit as the rest of his work. His relation of the disgraceful and disastrous Indian war, in which he was an actor and friend of the Indians, is the only authentic one extant, of any completeness, except that of the government, and is, therefore, of great interest and value.
SHORT HISTORICAL
AND
Journal notes
Of several Voyages made in the four parts of the World, namely, Europe, Africa, Asia, and America,
By D.
DAVID PIETERSZ.
de VRIES, Ordnance-Master of the Most Noble Lords, the Committed Council of the States of West Friesland and the North Quarter
Wherein are described what Battles he has had by Water; Each Country its Animals, Birds, kind of Fishes and Savage Men,—counterfeited to the Life,—and the Woods and Rivers with their Products.
HOORN.
For David Pietersz. de Vries, Ordnance-Master of the North Quarter. At Alcknaer, by Symon Cornelisz. Brekgesertt. Anno 1655.
The white, around the globe's four quarters, I did steer,
I, on the open helmet, bore a silver sphere.
To the Noble, Mighty Lords, the Committed Council of the States of West Friesland and the North Quarter,
Together with the Noble, Very-learned Dirck Van Foreest, Doctor in both laws, and Secretary of the Noble, Mighty Lords, the Committed Council of the States of West Friesland and the North Quarter.
The Noble, Mighty Lords, the Roman Senate, have always had as a maxim and rule of conduct, les loix ne sont faites que pour le salut du peuple; that is, laws are made only for the welfare of the people, to wit, that the community not only suffer no loss, but flourish and prosper more and more. This lesson and good counsel the excellent and illustrious kings of France, Henry of Valois, the Third of that name, and Henry the Great of Bourbon, the Fourth of that name, of France and Navarre, have followed and observed in great dignity, according to the testimony of the celebrated historian, Pierre Mathieu, who bears witness of this to the praise of their Majesties, and declares, moreover, that all the potentates and republics of Christendom should practise and follow this precept in order to advance and promote the interests of their
people in all business and trade by sea and land. Our own old and faithful forefathers, the Lords Regents of our beloved Fatherland, especially, have always had it at heart, and in every way encouraged it to that end, principally in navigation and voyages by sea, as being the means in and by which the welfare and prosperity of the whole country not a little consist. Now, my most Noble Lords, you Mighty Lords, having no less care therefore at this time than had the old Lords Regents, your predecessors: So is it that I, David Pietersz. de Vries, having from my youth up been trained in that business, and having under the regulation of the Noble, High, and Mighty Lords States-General, and the privileges granted by the same, and by the Council of Nineteen of the West India Company, been the first possessor and patroon of the South River at Swanendael, and at Staten Island in Mauritius, or the North River of New Netherland, and also the first patroon who went there for the purpose of cultivating the same, and to trade and traffic there by special privilege of my Lords, have published my labours in navigation and around the world, as shipmaster, as captain and supercargo in the East Indies, as vice-commander of seven ships, and as a patroon who has planted colonies in America,—the first, indeed, who had ever sailed out of Holland or Zeeland,—and every thing which I had found by my own experience; in order to make known to trading and seafaring persons what trade and profit (accidents excepted) are to be had there, and to point out to them the good
havens and roadsteads for securing their ships and goods, and to warn seamen of the rocks, shoals, and dangerous bars, in order that they may avoid them; showing them also what course they must take at sea, and how they must govern themselves by the wind, sun, moon, and stars. These, my humble labours and writings, though not embellished with ornaments of words,—as is not to be expected of a person who has passed the most of his life upon the wild ocean waste,—but containing every thing which has appeared to me in my voyages worth relating, I offer this day to you, Noble Lords, and pray you to accept the same, trusting that, being made accessible to the trader and seamen by printing, they will be of service to them. May Almighty God prosper your administration to his praise and glory, and to the best interests of yourselves and of the people. Anno 1655.
Noble Lords,
Your dutiful Ordnance-master,
David Pietersz. de Vries.
VOYAGE
TO
NEW NETHERLAND.
After I had been home from the Indies two months, I met, at Amsterdam, Samuel Godyn, a merchant, who bid me welcome, as an old acquaintance, and asked me where I came from? I said from the East Indies. In what capacity? I told him as supercargo. He inquired whether it was my intention to remain home. I said, yes. He said he wished me to go as a commander to New Netherland; he wanted to plant a colony there and to employ me as sub-patroon, as may be seen in the privileges granted by the Lords States, and allowed by the Council of Nineteen of the West India Company to all patroons. I gave him for answer that the business suited me well, but I must be a patroon, equal with the rest. He said that he was content that it should be so. So we five first began this patroonship; namely, Samuel Godyn, Gillianne Van Rensselaer, Bloemmaert, Jan de Laet, and myself, David Pietersz. de Vries. But more were afterwards admitted into the company; namely, Mathys Van Ceulen, Nicolaes Van Sittorigh, Harinck
Koeck, and Heyndrick Hamel, who made a contract with the others, whereby we were all placed on the same footing. We at the same time equipped a ship with a yacht for the purpose of prosecuting the voyage, as well to carry on the whale fishery in that region, as to plant a colony for the cultivation of all sorts of grain, for which the country is very well adapted, and of tobacco. This ship with the yacht sailed from the Texel the twelfth of December, with a number of people and a large stock of cattle, to settle our colony upon the South River, which lies in the thirty-eighth and a-half degree, and to conduct the whale fishery there, as Godyn represented that there were many whales which kept before the bay, and the oil, at sixty guilders a hogshead, he thought would realize a good profit, and consequently that fine country be cultivated.
The 20th of same month, we understood that our yacht was taken the day but one before as it was running out the Texel, by the Dunkirkers, through the carelessness of the large ship, which had sailed after the yacht, in which there was a large cargo, intended for the coast of New France. The large ship proceeded on the voyage, having on board some people to land at the island of Tortugas in the West Indies, which island we had made a contract with sixty Frenchmen to hold for us as a colony under their High Mightinesses the Lords States and the West India Company.
In September our ship returned from New Netherland and the West Indies. They should have disembarked a lot of people on Tortugas, but they found
that France had been killed by Spain. The ship conveyed the rest to the South River in New Netherland, and brought a sample of oil from a dead whale found on the shore. The captain said that he arrived there too late in the year. This was a losing voyage to us; because this captain, Pieter Heyes, of Edam, whom we had put in command, durst not sail by the way of the West Indies with only one ship of eighteen guns, where he must have made good the expense of this voyage. He was a person who was only accustomed to sail to Greenland, where he made the voyage in three or four months, and then came home.
The twelfth of February we again entered into an agreement to equip a ship and yacht for the whale fishery, in which much profit had not been realized; because we had had such a losing voyage, and no returns from the whale fishery, and saw no prospect of any. But Samuel Godyn encouraged us to make another attempt. He said the Greenland Company had two bad voyages with Willem Van Muyen, and afterwards became a thrifty company. It was therefore again resolved to undertake a voyage for the whale fishery, and that I myself should go as patroon, and as commander of the ship and yacht, and should endeavour to be there in December in order to conduct the whale fishing during the winter, as the whales come in the winter and remain till March.
Before sailing out the Texel, we understood that our little fort* had been destroyed by the Indians, the
* On the South River.
people killed,—two and thirty men,—who were outside the fort working the land.
The 24th May, sailed out of the Texel with the ship and yacht, with a north-east wind.
The 26th of the same month, at night, we ran aground through the carelessness of the pilots, to whom I gave particular directions, before I went to bed, to throw the lead frequently, and keep the Vierman, which was a large ship, and drew full three feet more water than we did, upon our lee; but they, not following their orders, we grounded upon the large shoal before Dunkirk. We fired a shot, so that our companion came to anchor. My yacht came under my lee; but we could not bear the expense of its returning. Our crew took the boat, and in that, and two wood sloops, left the ship. But I was not willing, and kept both of the pilots by me, who dared not leave me for shame, seeing that I remained aboard with eight or nine raw hands, whom I then learned to be the best of the crew. Those men who had appeared fierce as lions, were the first to escape in the boat. All of us pushing and pulling we got into four-fathom water, where I let the anchor fall, and set to pumping. At the same time, the day broke, when we saw the boat and two sloops tossing about; but when they saw the ship, they came on board again, and told us that had the night continued two hours longer, they would have rowed into Dunkirk.——We weighed anchor again and sailed for the coast of England, and, on the 28th, ran into Portsmouth, and hauled the ship into the king's dock, where we repaired her.
The 10th of July, we sailed from Portsmouth to Cowes in the Isle of Wight.
The 12th of the same month, the ship New Netherland, of the West India Company, arrived here,—a large ship which was built in New Netherland, and which was bound to the West Indies, to which I had good company.
The 1st of August, with a good north-east wind, weighed anchor, and made sail with my ship and yacht, and the ship New Netherland.
The 2d, passed Land's End, and laid our course for the Canary Islands.
The 13th, we saw Madeira on our larboard, and at the same time a Turk came towards us, but as soon as he observed that we were stout ships, he hauled off from us, and we sailed for him. The evening growing dark, I fired a shot for my yacht to come by me. When night came on, we pursued our course, but the New Netherland followed the Turk by night, which seemed to us folly, because we had not got near him by day. We then separated from the New Netherland.
The 14th, towards evening, we saw the Isle of Palms on our lee, and set our course from thence to Barbadoes.
The 4th of September, we came in sight of Barbadoes, and the next day, towards evening, arrived at the Island of St. Vincent. The Indians put out with their canoes and came on board of us. I observed the great astonishment of this people. Their canoes or boats getting full of water, they sprang overboard, and with great dexterity lifted up both ends with their shoulders in the water, emptied out the water, and then clambered in again; when many of our people, in such circumstances, would have drowned, as the boat was full of water, and they had no other aid than their bodies and the sea. While here, we had fifteen good supplies of yams, pine-apples, and various other West India fruits. We anchored in the Great Channel in 23 fathoms.
On the 5th, arrived here also the ship New Netherland, which was separated from us at Madeira.
On the 8th, we weighed anchor, and passed by the islands of Martinique, Dominica, Guadaloupe, Montserrat, Redonde, and Nevis, arrived the 20th* before St. Christopher, where we found some English ships, and obtained a supply of water.
The 11th, weighed anchor, in order to sail to St. Martin. Half-way between St. Martin and St. Christopher, we met a French ship with a large sloop in company; he screamed at us, as if he sought to commit some hostility towards us, but I kept my course, heeding him not. I let the prince's flag fly aloft, and the red flag behind. When he saw this, he turned about and ran a good distance on my lee. Towards evening, we arrived at the roadstead of St. Martin, and let our anchor fall. We found before the fort, three fly-boats under Dirck Femmesz of Hoorn, two from Waterland, and the third an Englishman.
The 11th of September, as I lay before the fort with my yacht, the above-named master of the fly-boats came on board, and inquired if I had not met a French ship. I said, "Yes, sir." And whether he had not attacked me? I said, "No." Had we been a small
* Evidently a misprint for the 10th.
ship, he perhaps would have done so: for he had sworn to pay off the first Hollander whom he should meet, because they had shot and killed two men out of his vessel, which was not creditable to them. He told me that this French ship had come into the harbour some days ago, and that the captain was a Knight of Malta, and the vessel a royal yacht of the King of France, in search of Spaniards. When he was taken ashore by the commander of the fort, he inquired whether there was any one who could speak French. The captain of the soldiers understanding French, he requested that the captain might go with him to interpret what should be said. So the captain went from the fort with this Knight in his skiff to the fly-boats. Having reached them, the Knight desired that they should sell him a barrel of tar, and used good language. He had long sailed in the West Indies; but they gave him a rude answer,—that they did not wish to have him in their ships—if the captain of the fort wished to come on board their ships he might, but he must depart with the boat. The Knight stood perplexed at such an answer, when he had met them with every courtesy. At length he said to the captain, his interpreter, that they would return to the fort, as he wished to make his complaints to the commander-in-chief. Coming to the commander, he exhibited his royal commission, and inquired of the commander whether he had not as much right to go in the roadstead where these fly-boats were, as they!—that they were friends;—that all the ports and harbours in France were open to us. The commander said, "Yes." Then the Frenchman weighed anchor, and wished to come to anchor by them in
order to careen his ship a little, as the water was shallow there. When they saw the Frenchman had weighed his anchor, they hauled one behind the other, and began to fire upon him, and shot two of his men; when the Frenchman again let his anchor fall, went to the fort and complained of the hostilities which these brutes had committed against him, and desired that the commander, with his officers, should take note thereof; and made his protest. But he was lost on his return voyage, with his ship, people and all, which has caused great comfort to these shipmasters, as he would otherwise have made sport enough for them; but the quarrel was thereby terminated. This we learned afterwards.
The 12th of September, I let the ship have room, but the capture of a whale brought me to anchor. In New Netherland and in Patria, this would have been a valuable prize. This day the ship New Netherland arrived here, which I had left lying at St. Vincent to refresh. With her, also, arrived the ship Gelderia, together with a ship of the Company, and also two vessels from Hoorn, Cornelis Jansz Niels, master. The master of the Company's ship, the Falcon, was Gerrit Jansz.
The 27th of this month, we had our cargo of salt, as much as we wanted, and made ourselves again ready to sail to Nevis, to take in wood and water, because they are both better there than at St. Christopher, and there is also a fine sandy bay for the boats to land. The captains of the vessels, who had committed the hostilities against the Frenchman, inquired of me whether they might sail with me to Nevis, in order to
provide themselves with wood and water, so as to sail directly for Holland, as they were afraid of the Frenchman, who had called out to them that he wished to meet them when they went to take in water; and they did not mount more than six or eight guns. I gave them for answer, that I was willing that they should sail with me, because they were our citizens, though I would not prevent any hostility of the Frenchman happening to them, and that my ship was to be defended as well as theirs. If they wished, however, to sail with me, they could.
The 29th, weighed anchor with my yacht to get under sail, but they remained. By evening, I arrived before the Island of Nevis. I went ashore to the governor, an Englishman, named Littleton. He requested me to take aboard some captive Portuguese, and to put them, on my way to St. Christophers, on board an English ship called Captain Stone's; which I could not refuse him, if I had them only three or four hours in the ship. Martin Thysz from Zealand, had put these Portuguese ashore here.
The 1st of November, took my leave of the governor of Nevis, and weighed anchor. At noon, came to the great roadstead where the English were. There was a governor, named Sir Warner. Here I immediately got rid of the Portuguese prisoners, gave them over to the Englishman, who wished to sail in company with me to St. Martin.
The 2d, weighed anchor, with my yacht and the Englishman, of London, who had the Portuguese prisoners, whom he was to carry to Porto Rico. He left his barge behind, to follow him with some goods to
St. Martin. We arrived in the evening at the anchorage before St. Martin, where we found the whole fleet there still which we had left there. I asked the captains of the fly-boats why they had not followed me when I weighed anchor. They answered that they thanked me for the offer which I had made them, but they had determined to remain by each other, and expected that they would be ready together, and the Gelderland would go with them.
The 4th, the Englishman expecting his boat from St. Christophers, knew not what it meant that it staid so long, as it should have followed us at noon. This Englishman wished much to sail with me to the latitude of Porto Rico, which I must pass.
The 5th of this month, took my leave at the fort of our governor and the captains, and weighed anchor with my yacht also; having a fair sail set, I could not wait longer for the Englishman's boat. We understood afterwards that this boat was placed in great distress; that it was driven to the leeward by a strong wind, and being in want of provisions and water, the men cast lots whom they should first kill for the others to eat for food; having at length felled one, they fed themselves therewith, till they finally reached the island of Saba, where they subsisted on what they found there, and were afterwards recovered in great distress, but he who was killed was eaten up for their subsistence.
The 14th, in the thirty-second degree of latitude, the Bermudas to the east of us, encountered a severe storm from the north-west; the water turned round as if it were an hurricane; it blew so, that standing on
either side we could not understand each other. I feared when I saw the yacht, that it would be stranded, so dreadful was it to see so small a yacht, of ten lasts, save itself from such a storm. This storm continued until the 18th, but towards the last, the wind veered entirely west.
The 1st of December, threw the lead, in the thirty-ninth degree of latitude, in fifty-seven fathoms, sandy bottom; found out afterwards that we were then fourteen or fifteen miles* from the shore. This is a flat coast. Wind westerly.
The 2d, threw the lead in fourteen fathoms, sandy bottom, and smelt the land, which gave a sweet perfume;† as the wind came from the north-west, which blew off land, and caused these sweet odours. This comes from the Indians setting fire, at this time of year, to the woods and thickets, in order to hunt; and the land is full of sweet-smelling herbs, as sassafras, which has a sweet smell. When the wind blows out of the north-west, and the smoke too is driven to sea, it happens that the land is smelt before it is seen. The land can be seen when in from thirteen to fourteen fathoms. Sand-hills are seen from the thirty-fourth to the fortieth degree, and the hills rise up full of pine-trees, which would serve as masts for ships.
The 3d of the same month, saw the mouth of the South bay, or South river, and anchored on sandy ground at fourteen fathoms; because it blew hard from the north-west, which is from the shore, and as we
* Forty-two or forty-five English miles. In this translation the miles are according to the Dutch standard; one Dutch being equal to three English miles.
† Kuhn speaks of the same smell at about the same place.
could not, in consequence of the hard wind, sail in the bay, we remained at anchor.
The 5th, the wind south-west, we weighed anchor, and sailed into the South bay, and lay, with our yacht, in four-fathom water, and saw immediately a whale near the ship. Thought this would be royal work—the whales so numerous—and the land so fine for cultivation.
The 6th, we went with the boat into the river, well manned, in order to see if we could speak with any Indians, but coming by our house,* which was destroyed, found it well beset with palisades in place of breastworks, but it was almost burnt up. Found lying here and there the skulls and bones of our people, and the heads of the horses and cows which they had brought with them, but perceiving no Indians, the business being undone, came on board the boat, and let the gunner fire a shot in order to see if we could find any trace of them the next day.
The 7th, in the morning, we thought we saw some smoke near our destroyed house;—we landed on the opposite side. On this side the river, before the beach, there is something of a sand-hill. Coming to the beach, looked over the river near the house where we had been the day before, and where we thought in the morning we had seen signs of smoke, but saw nothing. As I had a cousin of mine with me from Rotterdam, named Heyndrick de Liefde, and as a large gull was flying over our heads, I told him to shoot at it once, as he had a fowling-piece with him, and he being a
* The fort before spoken of.
good shot on the wing, brought it down. With it came a shout from two or three Indians, who were lying in the weeds on the other side of the river by the destroyed house. We called to them to come over to us. They answered that we must come into the river with our boat. We promised to do so in the morning, as the water was then low, and that we would then talk with them, and we went back to the boat. Going aboard, we resolved to sail in the river with the yacht, as otherwise in an open boat we might be in danger of their annoyance.
The 8th of December, we sailed into the river before our destroyed fort, well on our guard. The Indians came to the edge of the shore, near the yacht, but dared not come in. At length, one ventured to come aboard the yacht, whom we presented with a cloth dress, and told him we desired to make peace. Then immediately more came running aboard, expecting to obtain a dress also, whom we presented with some toys, and told the one to whom we had given the cloth garment that we had given it to him because he had most confidence in us—that he was the first one who came in the yacht, and should they come the next day with their chief called Sakimas, we would then make a firm peace, which they call rancontyn mawenit. An Indian remained on board of the yacht at night, whom we asked why they had slain our people, and how it happened. He then showed us the place where our people had set up a column, to which was fastened a piece of tin, whereon the arms of Holland were painted. One of their chiefs took this off for the purpose of making tobacco-pipes, not knowing
that he was doing amiss. Those in command at the house made such an ado about it, that the Indians, not knowing how it was, went away and slew the chief who had done it, and brought a token of the dead to the house to those in command, who told them that they wished they had not done it, that they should have brought him to them, as they wished to have forbidden him not to do the like again. They then went away, and the friends of the murdered chief incited their friends—as they are a people like the Italians, who are very revengeful—to set about the work of vengeance. Observing our people out of the house, each one at his work, that there was not more than one inside, who was lying sick, and a large mastiff, who was chained—had he been loose they would not have dared to approach the house—and the man who had command, standing near the house, three of the stoutest Indians, who were to do the deed, bringing a lot of beaver-skins with them to exchange, sought to enter the house. The man in charge went in with them to make the barter; which being done, he went to the loft where the stores lay, and in descending the stairs, one of the Indians seized an axe, and cleft his head so that he fell down dead. They also relieved the sick man of life; and shot into the dog, who was chained fast, and whom they most feared, twenty-five arrows before they could despatch him. They then proceeded towards the rest of the men, who were at their work, and going among them with pretensions of friendship, struck them down. Thus was our young colony destroyed, causing us serious loss.
The 9th, the Indians came to us with their chiefs,
and sitting in a ring, made peace. Gave them some presents of duffels, bullets, hatchets, and various Nuremberg trinkets. They promised to make a present to us, as they had been out a-hunting. They then departed again with great joy of us, that we had not remembered what they had done to us, which we suffered to pass, because we saw no chance of revenging it, as they dwelt in no fixed place. We began to make preparations to send our sloop to sea, and to set up a kettle for whale-oil, and to erect a lodging-hut of boards.
The 1st of January, I went in the morning, with the yacht, the Squirrel, about eight hours' sail up the South river, to see whether I could obtain any beans from the Indians, as our stock-fish was consumed, and the porridge, now doubled, began to grow short. Towards evening we were stopped, as it was calm, and the ice, which the tide brought down, opposed us, and we cast anchor in eight fathoms. Saw a whale at the mouth of the South river.
The 2d, in the morning, fine and pleasant, saw two large whales near the yacht. Wished much that we could have had the sloop, with the harpooners, which was lying at Swanendael. We weighed anchor with the tide, and by evening came a good mile before Reed Island, where we cast anchor, and saw fires on the land. Supposed that they were made by Indians out a-hunting; but an hour afterwards a canoe came alongside. They said that they were a-hunting, but would not come aboard, from which we drew unfavourable conclusions; but they answered they would come aboard early in the morning.
The 4th, after we had chopped some wood, as it began to freeze, weighed anchor with the tide, made sail, and came within cannon-shot of Red Hook, where we anchored before a kill, because it began to freeze; so that in case the ice should stop us, we could haul in there to secure the yacht.
The 5th, we weighed anchor in the morning, and sailed before the little fort named Fort Nassau, where formerly some families of the West India Company had dwelt. Some Indians had assembled there to barter furs, but I desired to trade for their Turkish beans, because we had no goods to exchange for peltries, and our stores had been given away at Swanendael for the purpose of making the peace, so that there were not more than two pieces of cloth left of our goods, and two kettles, for which we wanted corn. We observed that the Indians were very scrupulous after that. They told us that we ought to haul into the Timmer-kill. There was an Indian of the Sankitans, who cautioned us not to go entirely into the kill, as she knew that they intended to make an attack upon us. When we told her that if she would relate to us everything in regard to the attack, we would give her a cloth garment, as we did. She confessed to us that they had killed some Englishmen, who had gone into Count Ernest's river in a sloop.
The 6th, we weighed anchor, and came to again before the Timmer-kill, in order to see fully what the Indians would do. While lying there, a crowd of Indians came to trade, bringing beaver-skins with them, and be-
* Shy.
ing forty-two or forty-three strong. A portion of them began to play tunes with reeds, in order that they might not cause in us any suspicion, but we kept ourselves strictly upon our guard, as there were only seven of us in the yacht, and there were forty-two or forty-three of the Indians. When we found the traffic at its height, we ordered them to go ashore immediately, or we would shoot them all. Their Sacheem took an armful of beaver-skins which he wanted to present to us in order to tempt us, but we desired them not, and gave him for answer that they must make their way to the shore, as we knew that they had evil designs in their heads, that Manetoe (that is, the Devil, whom they call Manetoe) had told us so. They went ashore again, and their villainy was frustrated, God be praised and thanked! When a few are on their guard against this people, there is, with God's help, no difficulty with the Indians. Moreover, I may observe, that those in the Company's sloops, who give the Indians too much liberty, get into trouble thereby, which they might otherwise prevent with friendship. These Indians were from Red Hook, otherwise called Mantes, and had a parcel of English jackets on, which gave me more cause of suspicion, as those were not clothing for them, or trading goods. Whilst they were on the land, there came three or four others, who desired that we would trade for their goods; but we answered them that we did not want any beaver-skins, but wished corn for food.
The 7th, the chief, whom they call Sacheema, of the Armewaniinge, came to us, who were then their neighbours. His name was Zeepentor, and to him we interpreted our adventure. He said he had heard that they had been on board of our boat strong. He requested us to return soon to the Timmer-kill with the yacht, whereat I was suspicious. I told my interpreter to ask him why he was not willing to bring the corn here. He answered that where we were lying, it was too miry and muddy to get on board, and it was too cold to go round the mud. So we said to him that we would go to the fort again, where it was hard and dry to come aboard, with which he was well content, and was again conveyed to the shore, saying that when we arrived at the fort, he would come aboard again.
The 8th, weighed anchor early in the morning, and came to again before the fort, which we saw was full of Indians, and more and more constantly coming. This gave us no favourable impression, because of the great numbers of the Indians. When they had all assembled in the fort, a canoe—which is a boat hollowed out of a tree—came from the fort to board us, in which were nine Sachems from nine different places about there. I saw among them those who had intended to destroy us; they had thrown off the English clothes, and put on those made of skins, which I immediately mentioned to my interpreter. The nine seated themselves in a circle and called us to them, saying they saw that we were afraid of them, but that they came to make a lasting peace with us, whereupon they made us a present of ten beaver-skins, which one of them gave us, with a ceremony with each skin, saying in whose name he presented it; that it was for a perpetual peace with us, and that we must banish all evil
thoughts from us, for they had now thrown away all evil. I wanted to make presents to them through the interpreter, to each one an axe, adze, and pair of knives, but they refused them, declaring that they had not made us presents in order to receive others in return, but for the purpose of a firm peace, which we took for truth.
The 8th of January, we wished to give them something for their wives, but they said we must give it to them on shore. As it was late, they went ashore again, and said they would come the next day with corn, and send aboard that evening seven or eight youth, which showed a good peace with them.
The 9th, they came aboard again in the morning, and brought Indian corn of different colours, for which we exchanged duffels, kettles, and axes. We also obtained some beaver-skins, all in good feeling. There came this day fifty of them into the yacht, but we kept ourselves constantly on our guard.
The 10th, in the morning, traded for some beaver and corn; and at noon drifted off with the ebb tide, and by noon came to anchor on the bar at Jaques Island, where we remained one tide.
The 11th, weighed anchor in the morning, and by evening arrived about a half-a-mile above Mingua's kill, where we anchored, and saw a whale there that evening six or seven times. We were surprised to see a whale seven or eight miles up into fresh water.
The 12th, weighed anchor again, and arrived at the mouth of the river, where the thicket is.
The 13th, weighed anchor with the ebb, and at noon came to the ship at Swanendael, where our friends
were rejoiced to see us. We found that they had shot two whales, but they furnished little oil.
The 18th, the goods were placed in our yacht, and we sailed again up the South river. By evening arrived between Minequa's kill and Reed Island, where we came to anchor. It began to freeze. We anchored here because the tide was running down.
The 19th, weighed anchor with the tide, and came within a mile of Jaques Island. As it began to freeze, and it was difficult to go on, it became necessary to haul into a kill which was near us. Found it a fine creek, where the water was two fathoms deep at high tide; but the current was strong, and not above thirty feet wide. The ice began to trouble us some by the rubbing of the current. We quickly cut a parcel of trees, and fastened them in the ground, before and behind, in order to lie clear of the ice. This is a fine country, in which many vines grow wild, so that we gave it the name of Wynaert's kill. Went out daily, while here, to shoot. Shot many wild turkeys, weighing from thirty to thirty-six pounds. Their great size and very fine flavour are surprising. We were frozen up in this kill from the 19th to the 3d of February. During this time, perceived no Indians, though we saw here and there, at times, great fires on the land, but we saw neither men nor canoes, because the river was closed by the ice.
The 3d of February, we hauled out of the kill, as the river was open again, and sailed to Fort Nassau, where we had left the Indians before, but found no one there now, and saw no Indians. It began to freeze again, and we hauled into a kill over against the
fort, as we were apprehensive, if we should be frozen in there, we might be in danger. When we had lain in this kill, eight days before the ice broke, there came a canoe, in which sat an old Indian with a squaw, who brought with them some maize and beans, of which we bought a parcel. We could not understand from the Indian how it was that we saw no Indians. It seemed as if he were unwilling to tell us; he appeared astonished that he had escaped, ran frequently ashore, looked to and fro, so that we could perceive there must be something. We hauled the next day out of the kill, and were carried between the cakes of ice and the shore, which we could not prevent with our yacht.
The 11th, full fifty Indians came over the river from the fort upon the ice, with canoes, directly to our yacht, so that they could step in it from the shore, and spoke to us. They were Minquas, who dwell among the English of Virginia. They came on a war-like expedition, and were six hundred strong. They were friendly to us, but it would not do to trust them too far. I determined, as the flood-tide began to make, that we must haul into the mouth of the kill, so that they could not come upon us on foot and master us. Hauling out of the kill about five-and-twenty paces, we could not get any further, because there was not water enough. I told the master of the yacht, that he must direct the crew to throw some ballast overboard; but he could not induce them to do it. I then went to them, and asked them whether they would rather trust to the mercy of these barbarians, or throw away the ballast. They answered that while we were
in the river, our lives were at the mercy of the ice. I replied that God, who had so long aided us, would help us. Finally, I said that I had three flasks of brandy in my locker, and would give them one of them, if they would throw the ballast overboard, and we would all help to do it. The yacht was now driven by the current and with the ice and the ebb tide, which was most spent. We were a thousand paces below the kill, between two high pieces of ice, which had fallen on the shore; this happened at night-fall. They all raised a great shout, when they saw that we were driven nearer to the river. In the morning, at daybreak, they saw that we were lying between the two pieces of ice, with the bowsprit over the shore, and came running to the yacht. We stood, eight of us, on our arms.
The 12th, we kept them off, as they sought to come into the yacht by the bowsprit, while we were lying, bow on land, between the two pieces of ice. At length the water rose, so that the yacht and the ice floated, and we were to be driven at God's mercy with the ice, which was our great enemy, while the land was our enemy on account of the Indians. We were finally driven up the river, where there was a dry sand-bar, running most to the middle of the river. We were afraid we would be driven upon it by the ice, when God provided two canoes to float by us, which we immediately held before the bow, one on each side, and broke the ice with them. Then, setting the foresail, as there was a good wind, in order to sail up the river with the tide, we passed, by the aid of God, the Vogelsant, which was our great peril at this place, and
arrived at the beautiful island when the tide began to turn, and we managed to get to the shore, with the side to the shore lengthwise with the bow. At length, the water began to fall rapidly, and we found that the bank was bold. We immediately set about making the mast fast to a good stout tree on land, by means of a rope, and to intrench ourselves behind stakes. The next day, the 13th, three Indians of the Armewamen came, who were at the yacht before. They told us that they were fugitives—that the Minquas had killed some of their people, and they had escaped. They had been plundered of all their corn, their houses had been burnt, and they had escaped in great want, compelled to be content with what they could find in the woods, and came to spy out in what way the Minquas had gone away—the main body of their people lying about five or six hours' journey distant, with their wives and children. They told us, also, that the Minquas had killed ninety men of the Sankieckens; that they would come to us the next day, when the sun was in the south-east, as they were suffering great hunger, and that the Minquas had all left and gone from us, back to their country.
The 14th, at night, it began to rain hard, and the wind was from the south-west, which made it warm. In the morning we had high water, which caused the yacht to float finely. We loosened the rope from the tree, to which it had been made fast, in order to get from the yacht, because the shore was so bold there, and let her drift into the river. As the ice was already very soft, like snow, we resolved not to wait for
the Indians, as they had been driven away, and could not assist us in those things for which we had come, so that it was a hopeless voyage for us. Going down the river, we arrived below the Minqua's kill, where we took in some stone for ballast, which we could not obtain elsewhere in the morning. This is a very fine river, and the land all beautifully level, full of groves of oak, hickory, ash, and chestnut trees, and also vines which grow upon the trees. The river has a great plenty of fish, the same as those in our fatherland, perch, roach, pike, sturgeon, and similar fish. Along the sea-coast are codfish, the different kinds of fish which are in our fatherland, and others. After we had taken in some ballast, we went further down the river, and came to its mouth. We fished once with our seines, and caught in one draught as many as thirty men could eat of perch, roach, and pike.
The 20th, we weighed our anchor, and with a north-west wind sailed out of the bay, which is ten miles long, and so wide, that in the middle of it you can hardly see from one shore to the other. It is full of shoals on both sides, being from six to seven fathoms deep, but is deepest on the west side. In order to run up by soundings, as you come from sea to Cape Hinloopen, which lies in thirty-eight degrees and twenty minutes, the shoal of the bank, which stretches from Cape Hinloopen over the bay, reaches Cape May, and when you have passed this a mile and a half, and come into the river, so that Cape Hinloopen is south of you, run in then north-west along the west shore, and you will be out of danger of the banks, and keep the west side, where you should keep sounding. If it be less
than two fathoms, and if the ship be a large one, you must go direct to the South river. When you come to the mouth of the river, where it is full two miles wide, there is a shoal before it, on which, at low tide, there is not more than six or seven feet of water. You must then put the helm a-starboard, and you will see a rough point ahead on the west side, along which you must hold your course; and there it is deep enough, the water being three and a half fathoms at low tide, but inside, in the river, it is six or seven fathoms. The tide rises and falls here from five to six feet. By evening, we arrived again at the ship, in which there was great rejoicing to see us, as we had been gone over a month. They did not imagine that we had been frozen up in the river, as no pilot or astrologer could conceive, that in the latitude from the thirty-eighth and a half' to the thirty-ninth, such rapid running rivers could freeze. Some maintain that it is because it lies so far west; others adduce other reasons; but I will tell how it can be, from experience and what I have seen, and that is thus: inland, stretching towards the north, there are high mountains, covered with snow, and the north and north-west winds blow over the land from these cold mountains, with a pure, clear air, which causes extreme cold and frost, such as is felt in Provence and Italy, which I have often experienced when I was at Geneva, when the wind blew over the land from the high mountains, making it as cold as it was in Holland. I have found, by experience, in all countries, during winter, that when the wind blows from the land, the hardest frost makes. It is so in New Netherland also, for as soon as the wind is south-west, it is so
warm that they may go almost naked in the woods, with only a shirt on them.
The 5th of March, determined to make a voyage to the English in Virginia, as we had failed to obtain corn in the South river, in consequence of the war among the Indians, as before related, by which we were placed in such danger, and the grain of the Indians was destroyed; and as we thought that we would not be able to find a sufficient store of it at Fort Amsterdam, on the East river, to serve us on our return voyage to Holland, we therefore deemed it advisable to sail to the English in Virginia. Although there had never been any one there from this quarter, I said, as I had escaped the danger in the South river, I would be the first one of our nation to venture to the English in Virginia, from these parts, as the distance is not more than thirty miles from the South river or Cape Hinoopen.
The 6th, we weighed anchor, and laid our course along the shore, south-southwest. In the evening it became calm, and we anchored in six fathoms, sandy bottom, the wind north-west off the shore.
The 7th, in the morning, at daylight, we weighed anchor, and sailed along the weather-shore. Found that the coast ran from Cape Hinoopen, about eight miles south-southwest, and north-northeast, then changed again two points south-west and north-east. We coasted along in six fathoms, till we found it began to be shoally, and I saw that the water began to change. I told the captain of the yacht he should throw the lead once, in order to see how deep it was. He said that he had just sounded in six fathoms. I replied that I could not believe it was so deep, for the water changed too much, when he, with a frown, threw out the lead, and there was a fathom and a half of water. I was startled, though we had gone with the yacht where it was only six feet deep. We were now about a mile and a half from the shore, and immediately turned to it, as I saw that it changed less there than towards the sea. Immediately found again two, three, and four fathoms of water; ran then from the bank to the sea, and obtained seven and eight fathoms, and saw a high point before us, which I guessed to be about seven or eight miles from Smith's Island or Cape Charles, but from this point across the sea, almost to Cape Charles, it is full of shoals, so that it will not do for a large ship to come nearer than nine fathoms, on account of the bank, which lies three or four miles in the sea, and runs along the whole coast to the North river, and on which sometimes there will not be more than five fathoms, or four fathoms and a half of water. Inside of this again, towards the land, you will get ten, eleven, and nine fathoms, for this is a flat coast, and the land is seen first in thirteen or fourteen fathoms. As it was dark at evening, we came to anchor in nine-fathom water, in order that we might not pass by the Bay of Virginia in the night. After we had been laying there about an hour, a storm began to blow from the south-east straight on shore—a lee-shore for us. We put the stout boat's nose to the wind, and took down the topmast at the same time, and she lay there and rode as if she had been a fish.
The 8th, when we looked out in the morning, we found that it had been snowing all night, for the snow
was more than a couple of feet thick. The captain came and inquired whether we should weigh anchor. I answered, he must use seamanship; as he saw that it still blew hard, with a heavy sea, and no sight of land, it was best to remain, as we were well secured, and wait for good, clear weather. At noon, it began to clear, the wind coming from the south-west with a clear, pure air; and we saw that we were lying right before the bay, Smith's Island north of us. Sailed over to Cape Henry in order to run in by it. Found that from this Cape the land trended north and south. Ran into the north of it with a light breeze. Found at Cape Henry, a fine wide and broad bay. We ran in until we had three fathoms water. Ran out again, and laid our course to the north, and at evening came to a bank, where, in consequence of the darkness, we anchored in fifteen-feet water. This shoal reaches to Elizabeth river.
The 9th, sounded the depth, and found only nine feet water, so that it had fallen six where we were lying. The wind blew from the east, so that we were on a lee-shore, and were ignorant, as none of us had ever been here. We weighed anchor and sailed from the shore. The bank stretches from the west side more than two parts over to the east shore. It is deep along the east shore. There was a fort newly-made at that time. The land is called by the English, Point Comfort. We ran in here—it being ten, eight, and seven fathoms deep—and saw before us a point stretching out about three miles, which the English call Newport Swale. As you come to the east side from the sea, you must see that you bring this point of
Newport-Snaw within the point where the fort is situated, otherwise you will be in danger of being shipwrecked, but keep the before-named hook, which you can see afar off, a good piece outside. As you pass by the fort to Newport-Snaw, you will see on the side of the fort a large bay. Let your anchor fall, so that you may not be driven within six fathoms. This bay is the Bay of Kicketan, and has a river running into it, which you may enter with a ship of fifty lasts. On the west side, opposite, is Elizabeth's river, into which you can sail five or six miles with a large ship. After we had lain a day in this Bay of Kicketan, a pilot was sent on board to pilot us to Jamestown, where the governor holds his court on behalf of the King of England, and where we took an English merchant with us.
The 10th, we sailed up the river. When we came to the before-mentioned point of Newport-Snaw, we landed and took in water. A fine spring lies inside the shore of the river, convenient for taking water from. All the ships come here to take in water on their way home. After we had procured some water, we sailed on, and came at evening to a kill, in which a large ship might lay, called Blank Point. We went ashore there, where one of the most distinguished citizens lived, named Captain Matthews. We were compelled to stay all night, and were well treated.
The 11th, took our leave of this Captain, and went aboard of the yacht again, and proceeded on. Here, the river is full three miles wide, but shoally, so that it is only by sounding the passage that you can get along. It is only a pilot's channel. At noon, we came to
Littleton, where we landed, and where there resided a great merchant, named Mr. Menijit, who kept us to dinner, and treated us very well. The river is half as wide as before. Here was a garden of one morgen,* full of Provence roses, apple, pear, and cherry trees, the various fruits of Holland, with different kinds of sweet-smelling herbs, such as rosemary, sage, marjoram, and thyme. Around the house were plenty of peach-trees, which were hardly in blossom. I was astonished to see this kind of tree, which I had never seen before on this coast. An express order came to us here, from the governor, who desired to see us, when we took our leave of the merchant, went aboard, and having weighed anchor, in two hours came to anchor before Jamestown, where the governor holds his court.
The 11th, went ashore, where the governor stood upon the beach, with some halberdeers and musketeers, to welcome us. On my setting foot upon the land, he came up to me, and bid me heartily welcome. He inquired of me where I came from. I answered him, from the South Bay of New Netherland. He asked how far it was from their bay. I said thirty miles. He then proceeded with me to his house, where he bid me welcome with a Venice glass of sack, and then brought out his chart, and showed me that the South Bay was called by them, My Lord Delaware’s Bay, who had encountered foul weather there some years ago, and, finding the place full of shoals, thought it was not navigable. They had, therefore,
* Two acres.
never looked after it since, but it was their King's land, and not New Netherland. I answered him that there was a fine river there, that for ten years no Englishman had been there, and that we for many years had had a fort there, called Fort Nassau. It was strange to him, that he should have such neighbours, and have never heard of them. He had, indeed, heard that we had a fort in the fortieth degree of latitude, at Hudson's river as they called it, and that a sloop was sent there last September, with seven or eight men, to see whether there was a river there, who had not returned, and whether they perished at sea or not, he did not know. I told him that we had seen Indians in the South river, who had English jackets on, and had also understood from an Indian, who gave us warning, that the Indians had run down an English sloop there, in which were seven or eight Englishmen. He then remarked they must have been his people: otherwise, they who had been sent to discover the South river, would have returned home long ago. Finally, he said there was land enough,—we should be good neighbours with each other, and that we were in no danger from them, if the people of New England did not come too near us, and dwelt at a distance from us. I remained to sup with the governor, and he insisted on my staying the night at his house.
The 12th, arrived here Captain Stone, whom I had left at St. Martin, in the West Indies. He told me that he had waited fourteen days for his boat, which suffered such distress, as I have mentioned before, that they had cast lots whom they should kill for food. He also said that the Portuguese prisoners, whom I
had brought from Nevis, and had delivered to him at St. Christopher's, as before related, he had brought to Porto Rico, and that he was very well treated by the Spanish governor. He had hastened his voyage here to Virginia, and was very glad to meet me. He was very well received by the governor. He was from London, from the Great House. I remained at dinner with the governor, and as we sat at the meal, Captain Stone asked why the governor had an interpreter for me, as I could speak English; at least, I had spoken English to them in the West Indies. The governor said he did not know that, and inquired whether I could also speak French. I said, "Yes." Whether I understood Italian. I answered in the affirmative. Whether I had been in Italy, and in Africa, and in the East Indies. I said I had. He was astonished that I had begun so early to command. Finally, there sat at the table an Englishman, who had been in the East Indies at the same time that I was there, and who asked me who commanded the English in the East Indies when I was there. I gave him the name; and when I could see him, I looked at him well, and he at me. Then this commander said that mountains could not, but men who go and see the world can, meet each other. Besides, the commander had assisted me with provisions while I was there. This commander was named Sir John Harvey.
The 18th, took leave of the governor, who sent half-a-dozen goats on board, to take with us, which he made a present to our governor, with a ram. He had understood that there were no goats at Fort Amsterdam, in New Netherland. We set sail at once, and
arrived at evening at Blank Point, at the Councillor's, to whose place we had before sailed in ascending the river. Here we bought some swine, which we killed and salted.
The 20th, we took our leave of this Councillor, whose name was Captain Matthews, and proceeded to Kicketan, and anchored at evening before the point of Newport-Snow, where we took in water. Here lived a gentleman of the name of Goegen. I was astonished to observe of the English people, that they lose their servants in gambling with each other. I told them that I had never seen such work in Turk or Barbarian, and that it was not becoming Christians.
The 21st, we arrived again before Kicketan. There, also, we bought some provisions, while we were waiting for a good wind. These English Virginias are a fine country; altogether a beautiful flat land, full of all kinds of fine large trees—oak, hickory, chestnut, ash, cypress, and cedar, and other kinds. There come here yearly, between thirty and forty ships of various sizes, from two hundred lasts and upwards, mounting twenty-eight, twenty-four, and nineteen guns, which come here to load tobacco, and carry it to England. The entrance of this bay is five miles wide, from Cape Henry to Cape Charles. Many fine rivers run out, like those on the east side. It turns to the north, and a large ship can sail up it full eighty miles. Thirty miles up the river, lies a large island, two miles long, which the English call the Isle of Kent, upon which many of them reside, under one Captain Klaver's*.
* Chayberne.
government, who carries on there a great trade in peltries. Here is another river. The first after the East river, running to the west, is called York river, which is, navigable with a large ship full twenty miles. Then comes the Pette-womeque (Potomac) river, navigable thirty miles with a large ship. The river where Jamestown—in Dutch, called Jacob Stadt—is situated, runs mostly west, and is navigable about forty miles, with a large ship, to an island called Henrico. This island is inhabited on every side by the English, and there run into it all around, small kills, from five miles long and less, into which a good-sized ship may enter. There are great numbers of fish of all kinds, the same as in the rivers of Holland; also, birds of various kinds: swans, geese, ducks, wild geese, partridges, and wild turkeys, the same as in New Netherland. There is an objection which the English make. They say that during the months of June, July, and August, it is very unhealthy; that their people, who have then lately arrived from England, die during these months, like cats and dogs, whence they call it the (sickly) season. When they have this sickness, they want to sleep all the time, but they must be prevented from sleeping by force, as they die if they get asleep. This sickness, they think, arises from the extreme heat that exists there. Then, again, when it has been a half-an-hour very hot, if the wind shifts and blow from the northwest, it immediately becomes so cold, that an overcoat may be worn. Thus, this country appears to lie in the dividing line between the heat and the cold, while New Netherland is beautifully tempered.
The 28th, weighed anchor, and set sail with a good south-west wind, along the coast north-easterly.
The 29th, we arrived again in the South Bay at Swanendael, at our ship, where we were very welcome. Found that our people had caught seven whales, but there were only thirty-two cartels of oil obtained, so that the whale-fishery is very expensive, when such meagre fish are caught. We could have done more if we had had good harpooners, for they had struck seventeen fish, and only secured seven, which was astonishing. They had always struck the whales in the tail. I afterwards understood from some Basques, who were old whale-fishers, that they always struck the harpoon in the fore-part of the back. This voyage was an expensive one to us, but not so much, since I had laden a good cargo of salt in the West Indies, which brought a good price. Having put our oil in the ship, taken down our kettle, and hauled in wood and water, we got ready to sail. This bay is, generally, fine flat land, full of the various kinds of pine-trees, which I have described. In winter time, from Virginia to Swanendael, there are hundreds of thousands of geese, both gray and white. The country is also full of wild turkeys, and has a great many deer.
The 14th of April, as we were now entirely clear of everything, so as to set sail, we weighed anchor both with the ship and yacht. Whilst we were lying here, there came in during this month of April, hundreds of thousands of wild pigeons, flying from the land over the bay. Indeed, the light could hardly be discerned where they were. Sometimes they flew upon the ship, pressed down by numbers as they came over the bay.
Having got under sail, I went again on board the yacht, and the pilots took command of the large ship, for I wished to explore the coast distinctly. Sailed over to Cape May, where the coast began to trend east-northeast, and west-southwest. Came, at evening, to the mouth of Egg harbour. Found between Cape May and Egg harbour, a slight sand-beach, full of small, low sand-hills. Egg harbour is a little river or kill, and inside the land is broken, and within the bay are several small islands. Somewhat further up in the same direction, on a slight headland, is a beautiful high wood. In the evening it became very still.
The 15th, in the morning, it was so foggy that we could not see the large ship. We heard the ground swell and surf; threw the lead, and found it eight fathoms deep. Let the anchor fall. It was shelly ground. Fished with a drop-line, and caught in a couple of hours, eighty-four codfish, which are a very good-flavoured sweet fish, better than those in Newfoundland. It began to blow from the south-west, and to be bright and clear again. So we weighed anchor and made sail. Found ourselves before Barende-gat, where the coast began to stretch to the north-east by north, and south-west by south. At evening we saw the high mountains, which make a high point running along the sea, for the most part east-southeast, and west-southwest. This was the first mountainous land which I met since I came from the south. We sailed that evening to the Sandy Hook, which forms a large bay close by the point, and is also called Godyn's Point, where we anchored that evening in seven-fathom water.
The 16th, weighed anchor, and ran over to Staten Island, all along the shore of which runs a great sandbank, entirely flat. It is necessary to sound the southeast side, and it will not do to come nearer than from three to four and a half fathoms with a large ship. Arrived at noon before Fort Amsterdam, and found a Company's ship there, called the Soutbergh, with a prize taken on the way, laden with sugar. She had brought a new governor, Wouter Van Twiller of Newkirk. He had been a clerk in the West India Department at Amsterdam. They had left Holland after us. I went ashore to the fort, out of which he came to welcome me, and inquired of me also, how the whale-fishery succeeded. I answered him that I had a sample; but that they were foolish who undertook the whale-fishery here at such great expense, when they could have readily ascertained with one, two, or three sloops in New Netherland, whether it was good fishing or not. Godyn had been a manager of the Company as long as the Company had been in existence, and also of the Greenland Company at Amsterdam, and ought to have known how that at first might have been undertaken with little expense. While we stood thus discoursing, our sloop came from the large ship to the shore, from which we learned that they had come to anchor at Sandy Hook, and would remain there until I gave other orders. In the mean time, I intended to despatch my yacht to New England and New France, to explore the bay.
The 18th, arrived here an Englishman, who came from New England to trade in the river, where there was a merchant named Jacob Eelkes, who had, during
the time of the private association, navigated and commanded on the river, but whom the Company would not employ, seeking out an unfit person like this governor, whom they had transferred from a clerkship to a governorship, to perform a comedy. This Englishman invited the governor to come and see him. I went with him, in company with a number of the officers, who became intoxicated, and got into such high words, that the Englishman could not understand how it was that there should be such unruliness among the officers of the Company, and that a governor should have no more control over them; he was not accustomed to it among his countrymen. The Englishman remained six or seven days lying before the fort, and then said he wished to go up the river, and that the land was theirs. That we denied, declaring that they had never made any settlement there. He said that David Hudson first discovered this river, and he was an Englishman. We answered that he discovered the river in the year nine, but he was fitted out at the expense of the East India Company at Amsterdam; and that the river was now called Mauritius river, after our Prince of Orange.
The 24th, the Englishman weighed anchor and sailed up the river to Fort Orange, where this Jacob Eelkes had formerly resided as commander for the private Company; when governor Wouter Van Twiller assembled all his forces before his door, had a cask of wine brought out, filled a bumper, and cried out
---
* This refers to the company authorized by the *octroy* of the States General of 11th October, 1614.
for those who loved the Prince of Orange and him, to do the same as he did, and protect him from the outrage of the Englishman, who was already out of sight sailing up the river. The people all began to laugh at him; for they understood well how to drink dry the cask of wine, as it was just the thing they wanted, even if there had been six casks, and did not wish to trouble the Englishman, saying they were friends. As I sat at the table with him at noon, I told him that he had committed great folly, as the Englishman had no commission to navigate there, but a paper of the custom-house that he had paid so much duty, and might sail with so many passengers to New England, and not to New Netherland. I said, if it were my matter, I would have helped him away from the fort with beans from the eight-pounders, and not permitted him to sail up the river,—would rather have held him back by the tail, as he said he was a man from England. I told him as the English committed some excesses against us in the East Indies, we should take hold of them; that I had no good opinion of that nation, for they were so proud a nature, that they thought everything belonged to them; were it an affair of mine, I would send the ship Soutberg after him, and make him haul down the river, and drive him from it until he brought another commission than a custom-house license; that he was only making sport of him.
The 20th May, I wished to send my yacht to the north by the way of Hell-gate. I also began to make preparations to return with the large ship to Holland, when this governor commenced his pranks of the head,
and began again to juggle as if he were drunk. He did not want the yacht to go to the north, and sent alongside of it a *schapen*,—a flat lighter-boat, in which the whole yacht could easily have been contained,—and wanted to take out five or six lasts of store-ballast, when I protested to him, explaining the privileges granted by the College of Nineteen, and approved by the States General, and that I did not wish him to unload the yacht. He then desired to search the yacht, the same as was customary by all princes and potentates, in order that he might see whether there was anything in it that concerned the Company. He then ordered the guns at the angles of the fort to shoot at the yacht, when I ran to where he stood at the angle with the Secretary and one or two of his Council, and told them the land was full of fools; if they wished to shoot anything, they should have shot at the Englishman, who was violating their river in spite of them. Upon this expostulation they desisted from shooting, and set about preparing a yacht to sail along with our yacht. So they both sailed to the north after I had despatched my yacht.
When we had made everything ready, and were about to take our leave of the governor, he then came to annoy me anew. He did not want me to go with my boat to embark, until his boat had first boarded our ship, in order to search her. I opposed it, and told him that she was not to be searched. I was bound home, and if he wished to write any letters, he could do so, and send them after I had gone to my boat. He immediately sent twelve musketeers after me, in order that we should not depart. My boat's crew
asked whether they should row away in the boat. I said I would let them do so, and had they my courage they would. They immediately did so, and the musketeers were ridiculed with shouts and jeers by all the bystanders, who cried out that they should have stopped the Englishman with shot and muskets, from sailing past the fort, and not our own patrons of the country, who sought to promote its interests. In a little while I reached Long Island, where, behind Nut Island,* I had commanded my boat to row. Before I crossed over, I went once more to the fort, to take my leave of the governor. I told him I wished that he should have omitted the folly of attempting to prevent my departure by his soldiers, as he had only made himself a subject of sport among his people;—if he desired to write any letters to his masters, the managers, he might send them after me in the bay. I went out and crossed over the bay to my boat at Long Island. Night coming on, and the flood-tide making, I thought it most prudent to let my people row over to Pavonia, and there wait the ebb. Reaching Pavonia, we were well entertained by Michael Poulusz; the officer in charge, who prepared letters to send to his master, whilst we waited for the tide. Our people overslept a little their time, as I had ordered them to be on hand as soon as the ebb began to run. We passed the fort early in the morning by break of day, before the reveille was beaten in the fort.
We arrived at noon again at our ship at Sandy Hook. Saw our ship's boat lying on the point, where
* Now Governor's Island.
our people were catching fish with a seine, and went there to tell them to come aboard as soon as they had made a haul or two. The sail-boat from the fort was also alongside, having sailed before us in order to bring their letters to us. They tacked away, and were crossing to see what we were doing on the point with our boat. I went towards them immediately, and, coming by them, they inquired of me what I did with my boat when I passed by the ship. I answered that it did not concern them, so they returned again alongside. In this boat were the Schout, Notelman, and the Secretary, Remunt. Coming aboard, I bid them welcome to the ship; and I had my goods taken from my boat into the ship, among which were a dozen beaver-skins. These, the Secretary said, were confiscated, because they had not been entered at the fort. I told him to take them then; but the Schout said I might let them lie, we were not now at the fort, and let him try our wine, as he was a good bibber, as all of them were. I answered that water was good enough for them, as they might otherwise fall overboard. At length, the Schout asked why we were quarrelling here; he was very thirsty, and would go to the cabin; if there was anything wrong, the Patroon might answer for it in Holland. Because the Schout spoke so well, I told him he might enter the cabin, and I would let him fill a glass from the best cask; if the other one wished to play the fool, he might leave; I was now in my own ship, not under their jurisdiction. The Secretary then said they could send the ship Southerg after us to board us. I told him they might do so, for the Southerg had sugar
in her, and our crew would be right glad to eat sugar in their groats, as we would have a chance to do. I said to the Secretary, that we were surprised that the West India Company would send such fools into this country, who knew nothing, except to drink; that they could not come to be assistants in the East Indies; and that the Company, by such management, must come to naught. In the East Indies, no one was appointed governor, unless he had first had long service, and was found to be fit for it; first, by serving as an assistant, under-koopman, then as koopman, and afterwards as chief-koopman, and promoted further, according to their merits; but the West India Company sent, in the first instance, as superior officers, persons who never had any command in their lives, for which reason it must come to naught. Upon this, they again returned, with their boat, to the fort, which is five miles from Sandy Hook. The bay inside of Sandy Hook is a large one, where fifty to sixty ships can lie, well protected from the winds of the sea. Sandy Hook stretches a full half-mile from the hills, forming a flat sandy beach, about eight or nine paces wide, and is covered with small blue-plum trees, which there grow wild.
The 15th June, we weighed anchor, and made sail for patria. While we were getting under sail, an Englishman came sailing towards us, who would have run straight upon the bar, and lost his ship. When I perceived him, I fired a shot to warn him, and sent my boat to him, and he immediately sailed towards me, and perceived that he was not in the right channel. Coming by us, he proved to be an acquaintance,—
Captain Stone, of whom I have before spoken,—whose boat had suffered such distress in the West Indies, and whom I had also met in English Virginia. His ship was laden with corn and young cattle, bound to New England. As he was in want of water, he wished to put in here to take in some. He sought of me, for the sake of our acquaintance, whether I would furnish him a man to pilot him in. I asked our crew whether there was any one of them who wished to make a longer voyage, and who would be transferred to this Englishman; when one offered to make a long voyage, whom I gave over to him, and I laid my course southeasterly to sea, as Long Island lies east and west. The coast here falls off seventeen degrees, or more than a point and a half.
The 17th, changed our course to east by south, at the fortieth degree of latitude, and then ran east, so as to pass in sight of Cowes.
The 29th, at break of day, we saw a strange sail, which came upon us before the wind, and hailed him to keep behind. He called to me to send off my boat. I replied I would not. He then put off his boat, and came on board, and I bid him welcome. He was a privateer from Flushing, Captain Frankfort. He asked me how far we were from land. I told him I had yesterday evening examined the reckoning with my pilots, but we disagreed a great deal, as I supposed that we were not fifty miles from Cowes, and they both thought we were over a hundred and twenty miles from land; that he could not understand my reckoning; and that I had seen small sea-news which do not go further than thirty or forty miles from land.
He said my reckoning was right, and we would by evening see Cowes.
The 29th, the captain requested that I would let my pilots come into the cabin, which I did. He inquired of them, when there, how far they reckoned themselves to be from Cowes and Flores. They answered an hundred miles. He said they had made a bad guess, they would soon see the land at Cowes; that he had been cruising six weeks about here, where he was yesterday evening. After a long discourse, he took his leave of us; he wished us a safe voyage, and we him much booty; gave each other a parting shot, and thus separated.
The 1st of July, in latitude thirty-three, discovered a sail running by the wind in order to come over to us, when the crew began to cry out that it was a Portuguese pirate, and wished to repel him by force. The wind was light. He ran about half a cannon-shot ahead of us, but we could discern no flag. I then asked the crew what they had a mind to do; it was a large ship, and if they had the courage to attack him, to keep away after him, and endeavour to approach him. When we began to come close to him, my crew said that he was a Turk, that the ship was Jan de Begyn's, of Rotterdam, which the Dunkirkers had taken and sold to the Portuguese, and which was afterwards captured by the Turks. I said, with a ship of eighteen guns and fifty men, I was not afraid of one Turk, for I had in my youth been engaged in a fight with two of them, the smallest of which had twenty-
* Misprint for 30th.
eight guns, and the other thirty-three, and three hundred men, while I had only one ship of fourteen guns, and thirty men, and by the help of God, came off with honour. My crew replied, that was a case where it was necessary to defend myself, but here we could get away, and there was no booty for us to take. We then pursued our course again, but when we had got to the leeward of him, he set his sprit-sail as if he were a-going to chase us, when I immediately struck my topsail, in order to wait for him. When he saw this, he tacked about again. Thus we separated from him, and pursued our course.
The 9th, sounded the channel, and found sandy ground. It was the bank which lies south of Ireland.
The 10th, in the morning, we bore away to the north of the Scilly islands; and, according to my reckoning, I sailed fifteen miles over to the land. My under pilot said that it was the coast of France. We had had no latitude (observation) in four or five days. Nevertheless, he maintained firmly that it was the coast of France, and made the point of Land's End, a French Cape. According to my chart, we could not have gone so far east on our last course. I let the ship tack, and run to the north, when we immediately obtained the increasing ground of the channel. These knowers of the land were then ashamed of themselves.
The 10th, (?) I told these knowers of the land, if they wished to be good pilots, they must observe their course and altitude better another time. I depend upon mine to the last—until some one comes and says he knows the land, then the course and altitude may be set aside.
The 11th, we came near the Lizard. There came also towards us three ships, and we made everything ready, in case we were compelled to have a fight, but kept close to the shore. As they were very large ships, we would rather have run into Falmouth, if we could have reached there, for the chance was a bad one, for one ship to fight three *walves*. It was our intention, nevertheless, to do the best—to show that our ancient courage was not gone—although the chances were bad for one merchantman to fight three ships of war, for it is said that many dogs are the death of the hare. At length, as they began to get near us, it became calm, and we careened close to the shore. The admiral, who carried the flag, took a boat ashore, in order to obtain some refreshments at Falmouth, and came on board of us, and told us that they came from the Vice-Admiral of Holland, Liefhebber, of Rotterdam; and that we need not now have any fear of the Dunkirkers; it was now in the midst of the summer, and our ships of war, under Admiral Dorp, were lying before Dunkirk. They then went from aboard us to get their refreshments in Falmouth, and we separated, as we supposed. Along the coast of England, it is necessary, sometimes, to sail slowly, though we had a good south-west wind.
The 15th, in the morning, saw two ships before us. One looked like a privateer with a prize. We kept close to the prize. Then he went to the leeward, as if to wait for the prize, but as we approached him he dared not wait for us, and started forward again. We thought he was afraid that we were a Dunkirkers. He then sailed away with the other vessel.
The 16th, in the morning early, we were opposite Dover. The privateer was nearer the French coast, with his prize. There came bearing down towards us, from the English coast, thirteen or fourteen ships of war. They were the Lord Admiral Dorp and his squadron. They did not hail us. Near the Downs, the wind north-east, there came three large ships sailing after us, they came along, two after the privateer, and the other to hail us. They told us to send off our boat. I said that I could not, as I was fearful the ship had evil designs, inasmuch as we had, four hours before, seen our whole squadron, and thought that this must be a Dunkirker. We were all ready (to fight), and resolved not to send the boat. At length, he sent his boat off, with a lieutenant, who came on board of us, and who, when he saw what kind of a ship we had, wondered that everything was so prepared, and that we intended to oppose so large a ship as theirs was. He informed us that their captain was Captain Danckeras, and that the other two ships which had sailed after the privateer, were commanded, one by Admiral Jan Evertsz, of Flushing, and the other by Captain Block. With a head-wind, ran, with the other ships, into the harbour of Dover, where I understood that this privateer was Captain Backer, from Zealand, and the ship was called the Burning Oven, and had, as a prize, a small Holland vessel, with five hundred boxes of sugar, which came from Brazil. He told me he was afraid, when I came sailing behind him, that I would deprive him of his prize, supposing that I was a Dunkirker. We went ashore here at Dover, and learnt that they had suffered great loss last antumn from the French rovers, as well as from the Dunkirkers.
The 18th, the wind from the south-west, weighed our anchor, and took our leave of the ships of war. They followed, and conveyed the privateer to Wieling.
The 20th, saw in the morning, the towers of Egmont, and was becalmed. Saw also there, some sail before us. In the afternoon the wind began again to blow a little.
The 21st, in the morning, with the day, we saw Kyckduyn. A pilot boarded us, and in six hours we reached Landts Diep, where we run by the Helder, so as to touch the shore. Then, God aiding, we came by evening at the Merchantman's Harbour.
The 22d, in the morning I hired a boat, which took me to Medenblick, and proceeded by a wagon to Hoorn, and gave thanks to God for my safe voyage.
The 24th, I returned to Amsterdam, where I found my partners at variance with their associates, the other managers, because I had traded from two to four beaver-skins. That was not a handsome thing, and it was not worth mentioning; especially as the fifteenth article provides that the Patroons might trade where the Company had no clerk or commissary. On this account, our business of making colonies must be suspended in places still uninhabited; so that these managers at Amsterdam have done nothing else than to fight their own shadow, and to drink Rhenish wine in the Kloveniers-Doelen,* and the other managers to
* A famous inn at Amsterdam, so called from the "doelen" or target at which the "Kloveniers" or archers used to shoot.
look after powder and lead in Brazil, and the managers' magazine, and the yearly meetings of the Nineteen. As we could not agree with the Company, and my partners at Amsterdam were all directors, and were continually at variance with their associates, on account of trifles, I separated from them, seeing there was nothing but roguery. The rest I will leave unwritten.
MY SECOND VOYAGE
TO THE
COAST OF AMERICA.
OR THE
WILD COAST IN THE WEST INDIES.
Having, with some friends, formed a Company, for the purpose of planting a colony upon the coast of Guiana, otherwise called the Wild Coast; of which Company, Mr. Jan Bicker was one of the chief Patroons, with others, I resolved to go myself as Patroon, to conduct the settlement; and I was the first who went there as such, from this country.
On the 10th of July, 1634, in the ship called the King David, mounting fourteen guns, and having a crew of five-and-twenty men, with thirty planters, in order to make a beginning of the colony, left the Texel, four ships in company,—to wit, two Genoese vessels, and one French ship,—at four o'clock in the afternoon, with a north by west wind, on a course south-west by south. At night the wind blew from the north-west, so that we laid our course with a strong wind and rain, and parted from our company. Took in our topsail.
The 11th, a strong wind as before; our course west-southwest. At noon, saw two strange sails to the leeward. At night it became entirely calm, so that we could not make a steady course.
The 12th, in the morning, it began to blow a little. At noon fell in with three ships which came out of the Maes. Course southerly, with the wind west-southwest. In the first quarter, lay to the north-northeast; in the second, tacked again, and ran south-west by west, with a stiff breeze.
The 13th, the wind sharpened up so that we could not sail to the south. At noon, tacked again, and ran north-west, with the wind west-southwest. To-day, dealt out the ration; to wit, two cheeses for the voyage, and other things in the ration-list in proportion. At evening, spoke a vessel which came by us.
The 14th, in the morning, we saw the coast of England, lying west by south, from us about five miles, and at noon sailed through the Straits of Dover, with rough weather and rain. The wind north-northwest, and course west by south, and so passed the Singels, and in the evening the Foreland, when the wind began to sharpen west-southwest. It changed back and forth during the night, with a stiff breeze.
The 15th, the wind west-southwest, as before; it changed, blowing sometimes from the shore, and then from the sea. Steady rain and wind, so that it seemed as if Neptune were wholly against us; also, had a small storm from west-northwest. Course south-west, with steady rain.
The 16th, the weather began early to moderate a little, and became entirely calm, so that we took in
our sails, and let the ship drift. Being out of sight of land, we threw out our bow-anchor, and let it be as long as the tide was running. In about three hours, we were again under sail. Wind south-west; course north-west by west, with fine weather. At night it was entirely calm. Course west by south; the wind north-west.
The 17th, in the morning, it began to blow a little. Set our course west, and west by south, to the Isle of Wight. At noon, it again became calm, so that we threw out our bow-anchor, in order to stem the tide. In three hours, weighed anchor, and set our course for Wight, for the purpose of obtaining some more ballast, as we were lightly ballasted. We arrived before Portsmouth at five o'clock, where we came to anchor, and where I went ashore, and ordered a lighter to go with ballast.
The 18th, took in the ballast, and made everything ready in order to sail again with the next fair wind.
The 20th, in the morning, weighed anchor, and sailed from the Isle of Wight by the Needle, with good weather, and a clear sky. The wind north by west: going west by south.
The 21st, early, there was fine weather with a good breeze, and by evening we came to Land's End, lying north of us about five miles. Wind north by west: course west-southwest.
The 1st of August, in the morning, we saw land. It was the Island of Madeira, and was five miles west of us. At noon, saw to the leeward, two sails, and held for them; came up to them about noon. They appeared to be English pirates, and we hailed them.
when it was very evident that they had intended to attempt something. Wind north-east; course south by west, with a clear sky.
The 2d, a stiff breeze from the east. Saw in the afternoon the Island of Palms, one of the Canaries. Course south.
The 9th was good weather. At noon, observed the latitude, seventeen degrees and forty minutes, and going west-southwest. Towards evening, saw land rising in three hills, and lying south-west by west, distant about five or six miles. Thought it was the Island of Zel, but found it was St. Anthony, so that we were much further west than we supposed. Laid our course west; the wind north-west by west.
The 27th, the weather became fine and calm. At noon, got a small breeze west-southwest. Course south, and south by west, with a clear sky. Had here a strong current, which ran to the west. Began to see land birds.
The 3d September, in the morning, sounded in seventy fathoms, with white and black sand. The water appeared entirely green. Sounded again at noon, and found fifty-five fathoms. Wind east; course west, and west by south. Found the stream ran here strong to the north-east, as well as we could judge. Sounded at evening, and found forty-three fathoms, sandy bottom, as before. Latitude, three degrees and fifty-six minutes.
The 4th, weather fine and calm. Sounded in thirty-seven to thirty-five, and thirty-four fathoms. Latitude at night, five degrees and a half, so that we found that the current had carried us to the north-east, since yesterday evening, twenty-three miles. Seeing that we could not reach Wiapoeke,—as those who wish to touch at Wiapoeke must run to the latitude of three degrees and a half, and then west-southwest, and find black bottom, when they will be about twenty-five miles from Wiapoeke, and have seventy fathoms of water,—we cast anchor at evening in twenty-eight fathoms, in a clayey bottom. At night, had a hard blow from the south, with rain, but it did not last long.
The 5th, saw land at daylight, between Maruin and Cayana, and found ourselves about six miles below Cayana and the land of Maruin, rising in four high mountains, the middlemost one of which was the highest, and about four miles south-west of us, with a mountain to the west of Maruin. The extreme part of the land of Cayana, was from us about seven miles south-southeast. We sounded in twenty-four, twenty-two, twenty, and seventeen fathoms, on hard ground; and at noon, cast anchor in fourteen fathoms, clay bottom, the Devil's Islands lying west of us about two miles, and appearing, though it was afterwards disproved, a handsome level land. At noon, ten of us went ashore, and by nine o'clock in the evening, came into the river of Korro, which some call Cuerru-Nauw. At its mouth it is deep, for at low water it has two fathoms and a half to three fathoms, with a fine clayey bottom. About twelve o'clock at night, reached a short mile up the river. It was wide within, and from one and a half to two fathoms deep; and here and there were some rocks. At three o'clock in the morning, six of us went ashore in order to find inhabitants. We first passed a large wood, and after that came on a level
field, which was under good cultivation, and where the grass came up to the waist. About nine o'clock, came to an Indian village, where they received us with all friendship. We informed them that we were Hollanders, and they caused us immediately to sit down, and gave us to eat and drink. Their chief then came to us, and led us into his house, where he treated us well with their liquor, which they make of Cusori; it is thick like hogs-draff, but is whitish, and stronger to drink than Harlem beer. About two o'clock, we set out to return to our boat, and the chief, with two of his sons, went with us. Their village consisted of six or seven houses, and might contain about fifty souls. It stood in a beautiful grove, and was about two miles and a half from our boat. About one mile from this village is another smaller one, which yields cotton and orlian, but not very much, because they do not plant them; speckled wood also grows here. Arrived at our boat at evening, and left again with the ebb. Remained at night before the mouth of the river. At daybreak, went to the ship, and about noon got aboard. Having a sea-wind, we weighed anchor and left, but towards evening cast anchor again in seven fathoms of water, clayey ground. At night, took our boats to Cayana, in order to ascertain the situation of the country, and get water.
The 8th, we were lying becalmed.
The 9th, in the morning, had a land-wind, so that we made sail, but it became calm again, and we again cast anchor. At noon, started again, and at night anchored in seven fathoms, having run a fine piece.
The 10th, made sail, the wind off land. About nine
o'clock, our boat came with water, bringing an Englishman on board, who would take us to Cayana. At noon, cast anchor in eleven fathoms, but about three o'clock were under sail again with a stiff breeze. At night, came to anchor a half a mile from Cayana and the cliff. The Lost Child* was about a half a mile from us, lying in five fathoms, and at night in two fathoms and a half, so that the tide falls two fathoms and a half along the coast of Cayana, and an east and west moon makes a full tide or high water.
The 11th, weighed anchor; the wind along the shore; tacked, but gained nothing, so we ran out a piece to sea again, and let our anchor fall in seven-fathom water, hard bottom, a short mile from the Lost Child, which was south-southeast from us. The wind south-east, with a stiff breeze.
The 12th, the wind and weather same as before.
The 13th, got a land breeze, so that we ran out to sea a piece, and at noon came to anchor in seven fathoms. About three o'clock, weighed anchor, with a sea breeze, and sailed south by east, and south-southeast, in seven, six, and five fathom water, along by the Lost Child, and in the evening, anchored under the west shore of the Island of Mecoria, where the river of Cayana empties into the sea. This island lies between the river of Cayana, and the river Mia. It was half a mile from Cayana where we were lying at anchor, with four fathoms at low water. As you sail in, there is five, four, and three and a half fathoms of water, between the Lost Child and Cayana. We were
* A rock.
no sooner at anchor, than there came a canoe to us with Indians on board, having bananas, and many other refreshments; among them, the pineapple, which is a delightful fruit for eating.
The 14th, landed thirty men to make a beginning of a new colony, to raise the dye orlau, called by the Indians *Anoty* and cotton and tobacco, all of which grow here well. Took the men to a hillock, adjoining where the ship was lying, where were the ruins of an old fort, and having still two angles of stone entire, made as well as they could be, to prevent the entrance of foreign ships. Found this fort wild and waste, where good sugar-cane grew wild, of which we eat. It was almost as thick as one's arm, so that it was natural that we desired to plant sugar there. This ruined fort appeared to have been built in former times by the French, and lies upon a handsome hill, of tolerable size, by which there is a fine valley for raising fruit, cotton, beans, and tobacco. Two miles from this place, we found seven or eight Zealanders and Englishmen, on account of Jan de Moer, of Zeeland, who cultivated tobacco, and had been here eight months. This is an island full of people, all Caribs, as I have mentioned before. They are a warlike people, continually at war with a nation called Arricoens. The chief of Cayana was named Arrawicary, who dwelt two miles from us upon the island, which is sixteen miles round. This chief died while we were here. He was faithful and true to Christians, except the Spaniards, whom he would not hear named. They
* The Arnotto.*
informed us, afterwards, that he was full a hundred and fifty years old. It is to be remarked of this people, that when one of their chiefs die, they immediately kill all his slaves, saying that they shall serve him in the other world. Among the rest, they also kill his physician, because he had not preserved his life longer; he might be to him a better physician in the other world, as they told me. These priests they call Pocoyas; we call them sorcerers. Whilst we were here, I observed the nature of the climate, and the condition of the people.
The seasons of the year on this coast are diverse: for in the eastern part of Guiana, towards the South Sea, the dry season, which we call summer, begins in August, and the violent winds and rain, which we consider their winter, begin in February; but in the western parts, towards the Oronoco, the dry season commences in October, and the rainy season and winter in April. There is little variation of heat and cold, this country lying so under the Equinoctial, and the days and nights being, for the most part, of equal length, like as I observed at Batavia, in the East Indies; but these seasons sometimes vary much, and it rains also one year more than another. The people have division, or reckoning of time and numbers. They reckon only by the moon; as, one, two, three, &c., moons, as we count the days, up to ten, and then, one and ten, &c. In order to better express their meaning, they put up their fingers, and when they wish to say twenty, they bring their fingers to their feet. When they promise to do anything by a certain time, they deliver a bundle of sticks, and keep one of a like number. In
order to keep the appointed time, they take a stick out every day, until they have taken all away, when they know that the time which they had fixed has come, and will then keep their promise.
Of the Genius and Condition of the Natives of this Country: how they are clothed, and what Pride they have.
The Indians, who dwell upon this whole coast, run almost naked. Their hair is black, but sometimes painted red; eyes black; holes in the tips of the ears, and generally holes in the nose and lips; and the whole body painted with the paint which the Caribs call couscoue, and the Jaos, anoly. It seems that they prick it, and burn it in with the sun, in youth. Some of the women paint their daughters differently—particularly with certain strange figures—with a black gum. Some of the men wear a cotton covering in front, but very few, and those more from a love of being odd, because they see us covered, than from modesty. The unmarried men generally have a small string tied round their prepuition, and that is fastened to a string which is tied round the neck. The women bear children very easy, and are naturally strong. They carry their children, for the most part, upon their hips, sitting, and also in a cotton-band, when they have far to go. They are of middling size, tolerably handsome, and painted like the men. They go naked, and they bind their hair in a bunch.
These people have no religion, as far as I could learn, except that they pay some respect to the sun and moon, like the heathens upon the coast of Coromandel, believing that they are endowed with life; and they worship them, as those of the coast of Coromandel do,—who, in the morning, when the sun rises, go and stand in the water, with hands uplifted to the sun,—these people, at that time, prostrating themselves. They make no offerings, except they observe certain superstitions, in their drunken festivals. They hold a solemn feast upon the death of their cassique chiefs, or other great friends, making the best provision of their strongest liquor, which they call Perrowe, for three or four days, or as long as their liquor lasts; and spending the time in dancing, singing, and drinking,—in which they exceed all other heathen nations that I have ever seen,—esteeming him the bravest fellow who first gets drunk. While they are drinking, the wives of the next friends of the deceased stand crying and howling. Whether they observe any superstition in this, I do not know, but this is certain, that their priests and soothsayers, whom they call peayos, as previously mentioned, have at times communication with the Devil, whom they name Wattipa, and are by him deceived. Yet, they hate and fear him very much, and say that he is wicked, and not without great reason, for they are frequently beaten by him black and blue. I have since learned that they worship Tamouco; who, according to their sayings, lives above, and reigns over all. The Jaoes, especially, worship this Tamouco, every morning and evening. They believe that the good Indians, after
death, go upwards, pointing to Heaven, which they call *Coupo*; and that the bad go down, pointing to the earth, which they call *Soy*.
When one of their cassiques, or chiefs, die, if he have any slaves, or other prisoners, they kill them,—but not any of his other servants,—in order that he may be served in the other world.
The quality of the land is various in this region. On the sea-coast, the land is low, and the heat would be very vehement there, were it not moderated by the fresh and cool breezes, or easterly winds; which, at the hottest time of the day, blow very strong. In many places, this low land is very unhealthy, and little inhabited, on account of the overflowing of the water; but it has, for the most part, very fine rivers, fertile soil, and many inhabitants, and is healthy for habitation. Upon the mountains, the climate is cold, and the land, in some places, fertile, and in others not; but it is generally full of minerals, and mines of different metals, yielding as much as any places in the East or West Indies, both of the better and inferior kinds, and in most of the mountains. Upon the mountains, are found very healthy dwelling places. There is, also, a middle kind of land, which is of a medium height, very temperate, healthy, and fertile, and almost all peopled. It is full of lakes and pleasant streams of water, fine groves, and pleasant plains, for profit, pleasure, and recreation, and not unprovided with minerals.
They are very much troubled here with mosquitoes, which they call *mapiry*, whose sting is very venomous. The building of many fires is a good remedy. They have there, also, fleas, which they call *sico*.
We will now speak of the productions of the country, and other things which serve to sustain the life of man.
The provision of this land, for supporting life, is manifold. First, the root of cassava, of which they make bread, in the following manner: they break the root upon a stone, and express the juice, which, in its raw state, is poisonous, for I threw a bit of it to a hen, which died therefrom immediately; but, boiled with Cayenne pepper,—of which they have a great abundance,—it affords an excellent and wholesome sauce. They then dry the bruised root, and bake it upon a stone in the same manner as oatcakes are baked. This bread is then fit to be used; they bake it as thick as one's finger. There is a species of large wheat, called maize or Turkey wheat, like that of Virginia, which grain is a peculiar provision for this country, and is very productive, yielding a thousand or fifteen hundred for one, and frequently more. It makes very good flour for bread, and good malt for beer or ale, and serves various necessary purposes for the support of man. Of the before-mentioned cassava bread, and of this Indian corn, they make a liquor, which they call passiaw, which must be used in four or five days. They make also another beverage of cassava, which they call pernoue, or perroue; which they prepare in large pots, and boil it, as they do beer in Holland. It foams, and is as good and strong as the beer of Breme, but it is somewhat hot: it has, also, as high a colour as Breme beer, and can be kept good ten days. There are several kinds, some strong, others weak,
some thick, others thin, but it was all good, and well prepared, when we were among the Caribs and Arwackes, who are the neatest of all those nations.
There is a great abundance of honey, and although it is found wild in trees and holes in the earth, it is as good as any in the world. Good mead can be made of it. There are no vines, but as the land is fertile and rich, and the climate warm, they would grow there, if they were planted, and furnish fine wines; which, for this region, would be very wholesome; though I would be afraid of their becoming sour from the heat.
Of the Wild Beasts and Cattle.
Many other necessaries for the support of man are to be found here, wild, of all kinds. Swine, in great numbers, of two species; one, small, called by the Indians, peckiero, which has the navel on the back; the other, named panigo, as large and fine as any swine, and weighing from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and eighty pounds. There are also multitudes of hares and rabbits, but different from ours; they are like young deer, twenty-four hours old. There are leopards, tigers,—one of which, an Indian, while I was here, took and played with, while lying in his hammock,—armadillos, maiquiries,*—whose meat tastes like beef,—baremoes, which tastes like mutton,—and other small animals of various flavour and colour: as apes, innumerable monkeys of different kinds, good to eat—though I was not willing to taste them—besides many
* The tapir.
strange animals; as the Caribs, who had been with one of our men up the river of Cuparwaca, and in other places, told us. There are deer, which the Indians call osary; wild hogs, white, which they call abihera; lions, wawicory,—having red hair, the fore legs like the hind ones, three toes on each foot, head like an ape, and a short tail; it is sluggish, and a small eater, wonderfully slow in moving and climbing. There is also an animal, to which we gave the name sujewynatjes, of the size of a rat three weeks old, with copperish marks above the eyes, and four small feet, like those of a water-dog: it is very tender, and cannot be kept alive in confinement. Baboons, also, are very numerous.
Of the Birds of the Country.
Here are wild ducks, teal, geese, herons of various colours, cranes, storks, pheasants, partridges, pigeons, thrushes, blackbirds, snipe, parrots of different kinds, and many other species of birds of which I have no knowledge, both large and small, of exquisite colour, besides large birds of prey, and hawks of all sorts, and beautiful ravens.
Of the Kinds of Fish which are caught.
There are many kinds of fish; first, of sea-fish, beam, club, sole, perch, roach, black-fish, sturgeon, like salmon, as it is red, like that at Batavia, in the East Indies. It is of the same species, and is on the shell like the salmon, except the colour. There are shrimps, lobsters, and oysters, which grow on the branches of trees, which appears very wonderful; also,
a rare fish called Cassoorwa, which has two organs of sight in each eye; one of which, in swimming, it holds above, and the other, under water; its back and ribs are like the back and ribs of men, the one being round and the other flat, and it has a backbone; it is somewhat larger than a smelt, which it very much resembles in swimming; it keeps always along the shore, in large schools. There are many other very good fish; the accare, which are not unlike the crocodile, but thinner and longer, and shorter heads; they come upon the land, but feed upon fish; they are good to eat, but difficult to catch, having an acute smell, by which they become aware of danger. The owanna, very similar to, but smaller than the ayamare,—a large species of shad, which keeps in deep water, and is very choice eating.
Moreover, of fresh fish, there are many, but for the most part, they are unknown to us, though they are all very good and delicate; so that it may be conscientiously said, that this country, according to its climate, may be compared, for variety and excellence of the fish, with any country in the world. There is also a sea-fish which generally comes into fresh water, especially during the winter and rainy season, called by the Indians, cojumero, and by the Spaniards, manatee, and by us, the sea-cow. It is an even chance, if a person, who had never seen one before, should catch one, he would not know but that he had a young bull or heifer, for it has ribs, and is lined with fat, and the hide is like a cow’s hide, is suitable to make buff-leather, and, dried in the sun, and dressed with oil, is good for shields against the arrows of the Indians. There
is a fish here, called *cakop* in the East Indies, very fine for eating, as large as a cod, with scales the size of a copper; and also another, called in the East Indies, *sambitan*, which keeps in the fresh water. The *coa*, which are crabs, are to be found in great numbers in the low swampy grounds, and all along the coast.
The fruits are of various kinds: pineapples, plantains, potatoes, medlars, plums of different sorts, nuts of curious shape. The pineapple, or ananas, is as excellent and as large as that of the East Indies; no better fruit can be found; the flavour is like that of a strawberry and a ripe pippin; the potato is well known; the medlars are very large; the plums are not to be praised, because, when plentifully eaten, they cause a diarrhoea,—which, in this country, is very dangerous, according to my observation; and so of the common greens of the country, *napi*, which are not unlike the eastern *verven*. There is a tree, which grows here, as large as a pomegranate tree, with pale-green downy leaves, and white flowers, but of more leaves, and of no scent; from the blossom, first comes only a large bean, like the kidney of a rabbit, from which grows a fruit in the shape of a pear, and the bean remains hanging below it; there is a pit in it, which tastes like a hazel-nut, and under the skin is an oil, which is good for inflammation in the face.
*Of the Commodities of the Country.*
The most important production of this country is the sugar-cane, of which there are immense quantities. The land is as well adapted to it as any in the world,
It grows very large in a little time; and by cultivating, and the erection of proper buildings for extracting the sugar, which would cost a good deal at first, great wealth would be realized, as we can see has been done by the Portuguese, in Brazil and elsewhere.
Cotton is a general article of merchandize, and is very useful for merchants and for us, to make fustians and bombazines and other goods, and also to make hammocks—which are the beds of the Indians, and very necessary in this region—and calceos. There is, besides, a kind of hemp or flax, of great value, almost as fine as silk, and can be used like it; it makes very excellent linen.
They have here peculiar dyes, one of which is called Aumoto, which grows on trees as large as cherry-trees. These trees bear large nuts, which burst open when they are ripe, and within the kernels of which are small berries of a red colour. These, well prepared by the Indians—which they do with palm-oil—produce a perfect dye of a fast orange colour; but the Indians cheat much by mixing cassava with it. There is another berry, which dyes a blue colour; and a certain gum of a tree, which makes a perfectly fast yellow colour in cloths; and leaves of trees, which, properly prepared, give a deep red colour. There is also a wood which dyes purple, and is of great value; and another, which yields a yellow dye; besides many others, undoubtedly, which are as yet unknown; but which, by careful search, will some time or other, be discovered.
Many aromatic gums are found here; but as I have no experience in the science, I know not what virtues
they possess. Cassia fistula and senna-leaves grow here, and the earth yields Armenian-bole.
There is a tree, with which they catch their fish, worthy of special consideration. It grows generally near their dwellings; and when they wish to go a-fishing, they carry some branches of it to the creeks,—which at high water are for the most part full of good fish. They take the sticks and beat them upon the stones until they become as soft as flax; and running up the creek, which they had previously stopped up at high water with the branches of other trees, they throw this wood, which they had by beating made like flax, into the water when it is half run out. When the fish come swimming to the surface of the water, they become intoxicated; and, finding the creek stopped up at its mouth, they leap upon the land. Some come floating belly upwards, and are scooped up out of the water; or, if they still swim, they are shot with arrows through the body, so that any one can catch as many as he wishes.*
While I was walking by the seaside, I saw a whale fighting with a swordfish, and the water was as red as blood; as often as the whale jumped out of the water, and in terror of the swordfish, he spouted the water frightfully. The swordfish stuck him as he came down under the belly, which made him spring out of the water again. - It was wonderful to see.
There is a tree of red-speckled wood, called by the inhabitants piratimnere, and in the Netherlands, letter-
* Bancroft describes this mode of intoxicating the fish by the natives of Guiana, by throwing into the water the bruised root of Hiarra. (pp. 322-3.)
wood. It is excellent for all kinds of cabinet-work. The tree grows up straight, and has a smooth white bark; the letterwood is the heart of the tree, in which it grows; there are no leaves on the tree, except at the top. Good tobacco can be grown here; and there are rich mines, but they have not been well explored.
We will now resume our Voyage.
After I had lain here four weeks, and put my colonists whom I had settled here in order, they set about planting thirty thousand dye-trees, a hundred thousand cotton-trees, and a hundred thousand tobacco-plants, each of which yields a half-a-pound of tobacco, which commands a good price.
The 14th of October, about nine in the morning, we weighed anchor for Cayana, and took with us the grandson of Arrawycary, the principal chief, who was deceased, as before related. This youth was desirous of visiting the Netherlands, and I was the more willing to take him, because it would make my colonists more contented. Set our course northerly towards the Lost Child, in three and a half, four, four and a half, five, six, seven and eight fathoms of water, and at evening came to, a little below the Devil's Islands, in ten fathoms, the wind from the east.
The 15th of the same month, we weighed anchor, and sailed along the coast in nine, eight, seven and six fathoms, clay bottom. The coast trends almost north-west by west; the land is low, and here and there a mountain. At noon, lay to below the river called Senamaria, in three fathoms at low water, a mile from land. The coast is flat, so that the river is difficult to
be found, except by two rocks which lie a little below the river, and another white rock, which lies half a mile further in the sea. You can see there a small opening into the river, very narrow, and having only two feet of water at low tide, but at high tide about nine. It lies between the rivers Suraco and Sinanari. The coast stretches west-northwest, and north-west. I went three miles up this small river, as there was living there a French captain called Captain Schanbou, who had dwelt there three years, and had twelve Frenchmen with him. He had a ship loading there with caggie, or long pepper, and he expected daily the arrival of another for the same purpose. He compelled me to stay all night with him, which I did, going to him with the yacht. We caught a hog which had its navel on the back, and his gunner shot thirty-three teal at one shot, at which I was astonished. In the morning, took my leave of the captain, thanking him for his hospitality. I observed that these Indians are not as thievish as in other countries, for we had let our boat lie at night without a guard, and found that they had been by it and had moved the goods about, but that they had not taken anything. The French captain said that he had oftentimes gone inland with all his people, but had never missed anything.
The 17th, we got under sail, the wind along the shore, and set our course north-west, and north-west by west, and west-northwest, and anchored at evening about three miles from land, which is very flat. It is three, four, and four and a half fathoms deep, about three miles from land.
The 18th, we were under sail again, and laid our
course west-northwest, the wind along the shore, and at noon came to anchor between the rivers *Amana* and *Marriwyn* in thirteen feet at high water, soft clay bottom, so that we had not at low tide more than five feet, and were then fast, though it was difficult to lie here, as we could not hold the ship fast because the current changed each time with the tide. So we had a great deal of trouble with our anchors, and had every afternoon a stiff breeze from the sea. I went at noon, with eight men, to the river Amana, to see if there was any trade.
In the morning of the 19th, went two miles up the river, where we found some houses of the Arwackes, but no men. We fired off a musket, when two Indians immediately came to us, and conducted us to their houses. They were Arwackes, and gave us to eat and drink. A distance further inland, dwell some Arwackes, but at this time there was not much to trade, because it was too early. The dye-plants were still standing in the fields, and the letterwood and redwood could not be procured, because they must be got in the rainy season, which begins in November. Those who want to trade here, must manage to be on the coast in January, for at that time the traffic is best. About ten o'clock, we went up the river with the tide, leaving our sloop with a Frenchman, and at evening reached a village where the Caribs lived, who received us in friendship, and where there were ten or twelve houses. It is about eight miles up the river. We remained here at night, very much tormented by the mosquitoes, and in the morning went with the son of the Cassique about three miles into the country, where
we found another Carib village of seven or eight houses. They entertained us well with their liquor, and we then went a mile further, to another large village of Caribs, consisting of eighteen or twenty houses. We found here mostly women, as the men had gone after fish and crabs, which are their chief food. We found nothing here to trade for, it being too early, as before stated. At evening, returned to our sloop, and spent the evening in a frolic with the Indians, for it was a festival-time with them. In the morning, went with the ebb-tide down the river, and on the evening of the 20th, reached the ship. This river, at high-water, is ten feet deep at the mouth, and is deep within, and is therefore a fine river to navigate with a yacht. The land is all low, and has nothing else but trees, and is without hills; it is extremely flat, the trees standing and growing in the water, with their branches hanging in water, covered with oysters, of which I ate.
On the 21st October, went with our sloop to the river of Mariwyne, and saw at once how deep it was. Found, for the most part, eleven to twelve feet at high-water, till we came at the mouth of the river. We found in the middle of the river a sand-bank, entirely dry at low-water. There was an opening on the east side, very narrow, and about ten feet deep; and also one on the west side, but how deep it was, I do not know. The river stretches to the south-west, and about two miles up are some islands. It is hardly a mile wide. Such is its situation, as far as I have been able to discover. About a mile up lies a village where Arwackes live, but they had all gone to Sernama, except one woman, who watched the houses. Many different nations live here; to wit, Caribs, Jaios, Arwackes, Percoren, and many others besides. They promised to furnish us in another year, a full shipload of letterwood. Whilst we were ashore here, a Netherlander came to us, who had left the ship in which he had come, on account of the Indian-pox, and as he was now better, he requested that he might go to Holland with me, and came aboard our ship. Any one who has this disease must be cured here; even though he may have it in Holland, he must return here to be cured; for it is like the Amboyn-pox in the East Indies. Young children of a month old can here be afflicted with it. There came with him to us two Frenchmen, who had run away from Captain Schanbou; they resided at Cunama, and all three lived in an Indian village.
The 23d, weighed anchor and got under sail, the wind from the shore, and the course north-west, and afterwards west. The land trends to the west, and is all low. The water three to four fathoms deep, fine bottom. In the evening, let anchor fall in five fathoms, about two miles and a half' from land.
At break of day, in the morning of the 24th, weighed anchor,—wind east, course west, and west by south,—five, and four fathoms, firm bottom,—and about noon, came before the river of Sormane, and ran in southeast by south. It was first three fathoms and a half deep, then four, and four and a half, firm ground, and in some places hard. We cast anchor in four fathoms and a half, and lay behind the sandy-point, close into the shore. We could see both rivers; to wit, the
river of Sername, the more westerly, and Comawin, the more easterly. To sail into the Comawin, you must keep to the larboard-side, for it is deep there, and then the river runs as far as you wish. There had been here, five or six days before, a ship from Flushing, whose master was named Packemack. He had lain here in Comawin full four months, and obtained from fifteen to sixteen lasts of letterwood. Towards evening, went with our sloop to the river of Sername, and in the morning of the following day, came to one or two houses which were made with palisades round them like a fort. An Englishman, named Captain Marshall, lived there with sixty English, and wanted to plant a colony. It was about sixteen miles up the river. We remained a day and a night with the captain. The land along the shore is very low. In ascending it, when the tide fell, we went into the bushes on the shore with our sloop,—for the trees stand there three feet in the water,—and we made our hammocks fast to the trees, and then got in them to sleep until the tide began to run up again. We had to draw our hammocks over our heads, as the mosquitoes were very numerous.
The 26th, took our leave of Captain Marshall, and went down the river again. It is a fine deep river, and can be navigated by a large ship. In descending it, we found, about six miles from our ship, an English house, where there were fourteen or fifteen Englishmen, who planted tobacco. Got aboard by evening.
The 27th, sailed from Sername, and ran north-west by north, along the point east of the sandy-point, and came to another point; then have the two in range,
or the last a little further out, and take care that you go, if you can, west-northwest, for you are then free from the bank that runs out from the west point. Ran west-northwest, and then west by west, in from four to five fathoms, firm bottom. Cast anchor at night, about two miles and a half' from land, in five fathoms.
The 28th, set sail, the wind from the shore. Came to anchor at noon before Sername, well known by the point which you see by the land. You must keep off somewhat from the east point, because there is a reef running before it, and there is not more than ten to eleven and twelve feet water, so that our ship would have been held fast unless we had made our way far enough off, and set our course that Sername lay about east-southeast, two miles and a half' from us. Could there see it all open, lying south-east by south, about three miles. Laid here in four fathoms at high-water. It is very flat, and whoever wishes to sail into Sername, must run close to the starboard-shore, where it is thirteen feet deep at high-water. We found here Packemack, of Flushing, with his ship.
The 30th, weighed anchor, and took aboard full a hundred and fifty Indians, men and women, who prayed us to take them to Timenare. They were of a nation called Suyaye, and were apprehensive that the Caribs would kill them. We went west-northwest, in five, six, seven, eight, nine and ten fathoms water, muddy bottom, and sailed about four miles from the shore, and anchored in the evening.
The 31st, got under sail in the morning, and set our course west-northwest. It began to be calm at noon.
The water was twelve to fourteen fathoms, and we anchored in the evening in eight fathoms at high-tide. The bottom was hard, the shoals were gravelly and were distant about three miles from the shore.
The 1st of November, weighed anchor, the wind being along shore; course west, with a fine breeze. At noon, sailed past Berbysie. The water four, five, and six fathoms deep, muddy bottom. Anchored at night in five fathoms.
The 2d, we weighed anchor. Course the same as before, and by noon came into the river of Timmerarie. The channel stretches south-west by south, and is two fathoms and a half and three fathoms deep in the shallowest part at flood-tide. It runs about three-quarters of a mile from the east shore, where it is the deepest. Here we disembarked the Indian men and women,—who immediately prepared their habitations with pieces of wood,—as they were near their friends. Whilst we were lying here, Jan Vander Goes came with a canoe from the river of Ischebie, where he was commander for the West India Company.
The 7th, set sail from Timmerare; the wind east-northeast, the course north, with a fine breeze.
The 8th, it was again unsettled, with rain and wind, so that we took in our topsails.
The 11th, in the morning, saw the island of Barbadoes lying about four miles east of us. It was cloudy; the wind east. Laid our course west, and west by south, and set our topsails. At evening, saw the island of Bequia, and some islands of the Granades; but we were a little too far south, and so that we ran by the wind. Sailed north by east, with a strong wind.
The 12th, in the morning, were on the east side of St. Vincent, lying about west from us. On the north side, it has high steep mountains, and further towards the south side, it is also high, and the land doubles. We ran to the north point of the island to anchor. In the first bay, which lies close by, is a rock like a haystack, a short distance from the land,—you must run as close to the west side of it as you can,—we ran close under the shore and came to in twenty-three fathoms. A multitude of canoes came to us here with refreshments.
The 13th, at nine o'clock in the morning, our cooper died, after having lain sick seven weeks.
The 14th, weighed anchor and made sail; the wind easterly; but after we were a little distance from the land it became calm. At night, had occasionally a slight breeze. Our course north by east.
The 15th, in the morning, St. Lucia lay across us. It is low on the south side. A little distance from the point are two mountains like sugar-loaves, and then, further along, are high mountains. Had the wind east-northeast, the course north-east. At evening, tacked about, because the wind was so sharp, and ran south-east and south-east by east. The wind was at times a little stronger, and then a little weaker, after that it became violent.
The 16th, the wind variable, so that we lost more than we gained, and at evening were again under the south point of St. Vincent.
To the 24th of this month, we had much variable weather and wind; but, by our reckoning, we saw the Island of Trinidad before us.
The 25th, we had fine weather, and ran at noon in sight of high land, in the middle of which was a low valley, and off the east point of which were two small islands. The wind east-northeast, and our course north, and at night sailed off and on.
The 26th, in the morning, got out our boat, which I sent ashore with seven men, to see whether there were any Indians, and if there were a good harbour there. My boat returned late in the evening, and reported that there was no anchorage, and nothing on the land but high steep cliffs, and that they found no signs of men. We had here variable weather continually.
The 1st of December, the weather became fine; wind east-southeast, course north-east by north, in latitude fifteen degrees and eighteen minutes. At evening, saw the Island of Dominica lying about east of us. Ran over four glasses* into the first watch, because the wind was so sharp, but the wind dying away, we turned to the north by east, and north-northeast.
At break of day on the 3d, saw the Island of Nevis and St. Christophers, and on the third day came to anchor under Nevis, where a small English ship was lying at anchor, bound for Ireland.
The 6th, a Hoorn's man came in from St. Christophers, to wait for a packet which was at St. Christophers, and sailed with her for Guadaloupe.
On the 13th, five Holland ships arrived from Pernambuco, and anchored by us, bound for Cape de Velle for salt, and for Curaçoa for wood.
The 25th, we weighed anchor and sailed for St.
* Two hours.
Christophers, and came to under the French fort in the afternoon. I went ashore there, and found a Frenchman, named Monsieur de Nanbuck, in command. I traded for some tobacco, and was well treated by him.
The 1st of January, weighed anchor, and put for a harbour before the fort of the English, where a person named Captain Warnas commanded, and we took in a parcel of tobacco.
The 15th, we ran to the sand-point, where I found four French ships at anchor, two of which came from Cape de Verde, the other two were taking in tobacco here.
The 17th, Schellinger, of Mendenblick, arrived here with a prize which he had taken at Margarita, having lost his sailmaker, who was shot in boarding.
The 4th of February, learned that the Spanish fleet had arrived at Guadaloupe, and wanted the ships to run to the leeward, and I said that I would not lose my passage on account of the Spanish ships, and must see whether I could pass by them at night.
The 10th, we weighed anchor and got under weigh, and at evening came about Redonde, and stood towards Montserat, but as the dusk of the evening began to come on, two ships followed after us, which it appeared had kept through the day behind the Island of Redonde, in order to observe the ships which might pass there, lying there in wait, it seemed, for the Spanish fleet. One of them sailed towards us, and began to shoot at a distance, and exchanged signals constantly with the other. We cleared for action, and I let the rigging hang. He sailed close behind us, and asked whence
our ship. He was evidently an Easterling who hailed us. He told us to wait for his admiral. I said if they wished anything, they should come by day, and at the same time told him to keep behind us, or I would shoot into him, which he scarcely desired. He called to us again to strike, and wait for his admiral, and laid his bowsprit across us. We said we would shoot. He then immediately held off, when we heard a great noise of people, all speaking Spanish. He hauled short off from us when he saw that we mistrusted him, and we left him well assured that these ships were those who were lying in wait for the Spanish fleet, and in the morning saw no more of them.
The 11th, at evening, came in sight of Martinique.
The 12th, in the morning, had Bequia east of us. Ran along the coast of the Island of Granades, and fell in with a canoe of Caribs (who live on this island) with provisions; but they are a thievish set, and one must be on his guard with them. Anchored at evening on the south end of a fine sandy bay, where there was a salt pond. We went ashore with the boat, but found no salt there.
The 14th, weighed anchor early in the morning, with a brave east wind, and laid our course south by west, and by evening carried little sail.
The 15th, in the morning, discovered a number of small islands in a round group. They were the Tortugas. We kept near them, and sailed through them, and found the most westerly islet an excellent sandy bay, where we anchored in eighteen fathoms, and sent our boat ashore. There was nothing here but bare naked cliffs and rocks, where there were many hares
and coney, such as we have in the sand-hills in Holland, and shot about thirty-one hares, which were not unlike the coney in taste.
The 16th, weighed anchor, and at night saw the Tortuga, whence they take salt, but did not venture to stop there for salt, because we were alone. Carried a little sail at night.
The 17th, saw the island of Orchilla in the morning, and coming to it, sent my boat to wood, which came back immediately, bringing nothing, as it was wild, and we did not wish to lose any time. Sailed, at noon, by the Island of Rocca, and at evening came to the Island of Aves, and made little sail, so as not to pass by Bonnapere.
The 18th, reached Bonnapere in the morning, but saw no salt in the pond. Ran under little Bonnapere, and laid our course for Curacao, and coming before Curacao, had so much wind that we hauled in both the mainsails. Presently, there came out two ships, one of which was the Otter, commanded by Houttebeen, and the other was the Cat, and were bound for the mainland for a prize, and they told me that I could not reach Curacao, as the wind and current ran too strong to the west. We resolved, as it blew hard, to lay our course north by west, with reefed sails.
The 20th, at evening, saw the Island of Spaniola Copo Colongia, and stood along the shore, with little sail. The wind and our course west-northwest.
The 21st, found ourselves in the morning close by the Island of Vache. Observed that the eastern shore of the island was full of rocks and rushes, and about noon passed this island, and ran to Cape Tiburon. About three hours after noon, we met a small yacht of the West India Company's fleet, which hailed us, and inquired where we wanted to go. Answered him to the Tortugas, behind Spaniola. He told us we must sail cautiously, as on the 9th of January, he had run away from the Spaniards, who had killed between five and six hundred Englishmen.
The 22d, Cape Tiburon was east of us, and a Zealand privateer, named Maertman, whose commander was named Pieter Jansz, who came aboard of us, and inquired where we wished to go. Answered him, to the Tortugas. He told us that we should be careful, as he had come from thence, and had careened his ship there. Whilst he was doing that, the Spaniards came and ravaged the island, where they killed and made prisoners many English. He was lying under the English fort, upon which nine pieces of ordnance were mounted, which the Spaniards immediately spiked, as it was night. Maertman, whilst his boat was under the fort, had brought two cannon upon the land. When it was day, he hauled his cannon from the shore, and defended his boat with the two pieces which he had in the ship, as he lay close to the shore. When he had his boat again on board, none of the Spaniards dare come to the fort. They then ran over the plantations to drive away the English. At night, there came a sloop with Spaniards, who ignorantly rowed or sailed upon the reef; but Maertman was aware of this (as it was close by his ship), and sent his boat armed to them, and took them aboard. Thus the governor of the English saved himself by the assistance of this privateer, who presented him the captured Spaniards,
with whom he did not hold much parley, but immediately killed them; for which Martman did not have much respect, as he had handed over these prisoners in order that some of them might be ransomed. All this was told us by Pieter Jansz Martman, who gave himself out as commander of Martman's ship. We also learned from him that he had taken a prize with fifteen cannon, and laden full of Cunnaric wines, but had sailed the same prize on the weather-shore, to the Island of Jamaica. He directed us to look well before us, as the Spaniards, with their four vessels, were full of people, with whom they had made this attack. They had one ship and three barks, with a small boat. He then took his leave, exchanging a salute with us; we separated from each other, and we wished him a good prize and a prosperous voyage.
The 23d, early in the morning, met at the Cuimites, on the west end of Spantiola, a fishing-boat, with a wood sloop, which was full of the English refugees, who had fled from the Island of Tortuga. They requested that I would take the people from the wood sloop (who were twenty-five strong) with five-and-twenty from the fishing-boat, which was so full that they could not move. But my crew were afraid to take so many people on board, but I answered them that these were not English seamen, that they were planters, that there was no danger of their running the ship away, that I knew well how to converse with those people, and understood their language, and also that I could not let them perish in the sea, for they were Christians. After a long discourse with my folk, as we were only five-and-twenty men strong, they thought it was very
absurd to take on board fifty strangers, not thinking in what misery these people were, who had no food, and who durst not go ashore to hunt for any, because they had no ship to convey them. I at length took the fifty men on board, and sailed that day with them behind the Cumites, an island, where we anchored in ten-fathom water, and upon a coral bar. Immediately took some English ashore, with one who could manage the harpoon, and caught a sea-cow, which they brought on board in the evening, with three large turtles. As it was not entirely safe to lie here in foul bottom, and as water could not be got, we resolved to go to the Bay of Goava, in the Island of Guanabo, about ten or twelve miles deeper in the Gulf.
The 25th, weighed anchor in the morning, and arrived in the afternoon in the Bay of Goava, where was fine fresh water running down from the mountain to the sea-shore, and where we had only to lie with the boat, and scoop the water in the casks at the bows. We went ashore here, with eighteen or twenty English in our boat, who were well acquainted with it, and who took their dogs to hunt. This is a fine bay, and has about ten feet water, fine bottom. The boat returned in the evening, bringing three wild hogs, which the English had taken with their dogs, and about six thousand oranges and lemons; so that this is a very fine place for provisions. Besides, we caught some fine fish with the drop-line.
The 26th, went ashore again in our boat, with a party of English, and returned at evening with fifteen or sixteen thousand oranges and lemons, and with seven wild hogs, which they had hunted.
The 27th, saw a Holland boat, with a sloop's sail and foresail, lying on the shore, a cannon's shot from us, and I discovered by my spy-glass that the boat was full of people. Immediately sent my sloop and boat, well manned, and boarded it. There were five-and-twenty Spaniards. The captain of the vessel showed me a letter that he had been captured by Roebergen, having a fine ship laden with hides. They had given him back this boat, and thereupon I let him go again.
The 4th April, after having well provided ourselves in this bay with provisions and water, we resolved to sail in the morning to a salt pond, which was situated by Cape Saint Nicholas.
The 5th, we weighed anchor, and at noon came to anchorage at a high mountain. There was a plain around it, and a small salt pond by the mountain. This salt pond lies between Guanires and Cape Saint Nicholas. We laid here in fifteen-fathom water, on a sandy bottom. I went ashore to examine the pond, and found that there was salt in it. We immediately prepared to make a scaffold, to take in salt for ballast.
The 6th, finished our scaffold, and began to take the salt from the pan, and after we had collected three or four boat-loads of salt it began to rain, and the salt was immediately dissolved by the fresh water. We hauled the salt on board which we had collected, and if it had not been in the rainy season we might have laden three or four ships with salt. It was convenient to haul, not being more than thirty paces from the sea. We shot here many birds,—flamingoes, and
others,—and it was also full of wild horses, which we saw running by hundreds in the morning.
The 10th, weighed anchor at break of day, and set sail, and reached Cape St. Nicholas in the evening, and arrived on the 12th, before the island of Tortugas, which the Spaniards had left, and found there Roebergen, from Zealand, who had with him the prize which he had taken from the Spaniards, as before related, with two other ships, one of which was from Schiedam, and the other from Middleburgh. We also found here a vessel, in which the governor of the English was bound for Virginia. We trafficked some Brazil wood while we were lying here, and as it blew a storm daily, so that we could not go out, our English went daily to the island of Spaniola to hunt, to catch hogs and horned beasts, and we lay here safe, through the bad weather, till the 20th of April. I asked the English whether they did not wish to inhabit the island again; they answered that they were afraid of the Spaniards, if they should undertake to inhabit it; so they could not be persuaded to it. This island is at the north end of Spaniola, and at the distance of a mile. Beautiful rills run down from the fresh streams and plenty of fresh water can be had there. There are also upon the island of Spaniola fine savannah or pasture-lands, where many cattle run wild, and also horses and swine. There are no Spaniards on the north side. There are many oranges and lemons growing wild.
The 3d of May, we weighed anchor on the east end of Tortugas, and got under sail.
The 7th, in the morning, saw the Caicos, the shoal
with the small islands, which you have in sight from the Tortugas. On the north side there is a clump of trees, which looks like a fort or wooden wall. We had rain daily, and between the 7th and 8th, we passed by the island of Mayagna. There came upon me a stiffness at night (as I had been lying asleep in the rain) that confined me to the cabin, such as I had never known.
The 11th, had a hard storm from the north-east, so that we ran with the foresail.
The 16th, came in sight of the mainland, and sounded fourteen fathoms on sandy bottom. Saw the sand-hills of Virginia, and were near Cape Engano, in latitude thirty-four and thirty-five degrees.
The 17th, came before the harbour of English Virginia, and as there was no one in the ship, except myself, who had been there, the helmsman and boatswain came in the cabin, and had me carried on deck, in order to sail the ship. We arrived at four o'clock in the afternoon before the fort called Point Comfort, where we found a ship from London, in which was Sir John Harvey, governor on behalf of the King of England. He was sent to England by his council and the people, who had made a new governor, which turned out bad for them. I landed here all the English whom I had brought with me, and endeavoured to obtain some provisions, in order to sail to New Netherland, to make my ship tight, as it was extremely leaky, which I could not do in the English Virginias. As it was out of season to obtain tobacco, I let all of my cargo lie here, and gave directions to trade when the crop of tobacco should be ripe, and I would return again
when the unhealthy season should be over, that is by September,—for June, July, and half of August are very unhealthy there for those who have not lived there a year. The English die there at this season very fast, unless one has been there over a year, by which they say he is seasoned: that is, he is accustomed to the land. They attribute the cause of the unhealthiness of this land, which lies in latitude thirty-six to thirty-seven degrees, to the variableness of the climate; one hour it is so hot, at this season, that a man cannot endure the heat, the next hour the wind shifts to the north-west with such freshness, that he has to put on an overcoat, and that causes the great unhealthiness.
The 28th, after I had provided myself again with everything, we weighed anchor, and sailed for New Netherland, where we arrived safe behind the point in the evening of the 30th.
The 1st of June I went ashore at Fort Amsterdam, where I found Wouter Van Twiller, governor, as before. Asked him if he would hire me some carpenters, in order to repair my ship, which was very leaky; if not, I would sail to New England. He promised me assistance. I then sent my boat back, in order to let my ship come in, which was five miles from there, and a young man, who might pilot her in, who had formerly, when I went to the East Indies, been in my service. When my boat was about half an hour from the ship, there arose a thunder-storm, which they could not weather, and the boat got full of water, and drove for two nights and three days at sea. I wondered very much why my ship delayed so, with a good wind, with which she could sail in in three hours. I sent one of the Counpany's yachts on board, which, the next day but one, came sailing in with the ship; and there came an Indian from the island* to the fort, bringing news that my boat had gone ashore, and that the young man, Flips Janz, of Haerlem, was in it, and that they had found him lying one fathom or two from the breakers, and had brought him to their wild houses, as he was entirely exhausted, and that the other five men from the ship were lost. The boat the Indians had hauled up on the land.
The 5th, the young man, who had been wonderfully saved, came to the fort; and he told us, that when he encountered the travado, there were two Frenchmen in the boat, who betook themselves to the sea, when it was full of water, intending to swim aboard (of the ship), but they were never seen again. The first night, as they were all seated in the water in the boat, two more of them betook themselves to the water, intending to swim to the land, but they were not seen again. Flips Janz and my boatswain, who was with him, remained in the boat. The second night, and the third day in the afternoon, the boatswain told Flips Janz, who was to pilot the ship in, that he also would abandon the boat; but Flips Janz answered that he would remain in the boat, and wait the providence of God. In about a quarter of an hour after the boatswain was out of the boat, and had taken his leave of him, he was thrown with the boat on land by the sea and breakers, and he ran five or six paces from the water, and was so weak and hungry that he could not go further, and
* Long Island.
there the Indian found him. He said, that while they were seated in the boat, and driven about with it full of water, such spirits were about them, as appear when one has eaten and drunk; and, at length, one appeared like a fine lady; so I suppose that these apparitions were only their light-headedness from the hunger and hardship which they suffered. We prepared to clean the ship, in order to get at the leak, and unloaded her, and had her hauled upon the strand,—as the water rises and falls here seven feet, with every daily tide, and at spring-tides, nine to ten feet, according to the force of the wind. We spent here the unhealthy season of the English Virginias,—June, July, and August.
The 1st of September, we were lying ready to go to the English Virginias, to see whether we could obtain our dues from the resented English, whom I had brought from the Tortugas, and for the goods left there. While I was taking my leave of the governor, the bark of the Company arrived, bringing fourteen or fifteen English with them, who had taken Fort Nassau from our people. As our people had no one in it, they intended to guard it with the boat, but they found that they must take possession of it again, or else it would be destroyed by the English. This arrival of the Englishmen delayed me six days longer, as Governor Wouter Van Twiller desired that I should take them to the English Virginias, from whence they expected assistance. They therefore took their leave of Wouter Van Twiller, who was governor, and came, bag and baggage, on board my vessel.
The 8th, we again got under sail with the Englishmen. Their commander was named Mr. Joris Hooms (George Holmes). We sailed, with a strong northwest wind, along the weather-shore.
The 10th, we arrived at Point Comfort, before the English fort, landed the Englishmen whom we had brought with us at Cicketan, where we found a bark lying with twenty men, bound for the South river to aid them, but our arrival with their people prostrated their design. We sailed up the river eight miles, to Blank Point, and found there thirty-six large ships,—all of them English ships of twenty, to twenty-four guns,—for the purpose of loading with tobacco. Fifteen of the captains were dead, in consequence of their coming too early in the unhealthy season, and not having been before in the country.
The 1st of October, I began to sail up and down the river, according to my license, in order to collect my debts; but found that little tobacco had been made, and that there had been this year great mortality among the people, and large quantities of goods brought into the country by the English; and that there were great frauds among the English, who had not paid each other the tobacco, and that half the ships of their own nation were not laden; so that I consider, in regard to this trade, that those who wish to trade here, must keep a house here, and continue all the year, that he may be prepared, when the tobacco comes from the field, to seize it, if he would obtain his debts. It is thus the English do among themselves; so that there is no trade for us, unless there be an overplus of tobacco, or few English ships.
After I had spent the winter here, I was compelled
to return, as did most all the ships, without tobacco, and to let my debts stand. I determined to go off, and traffic for beaver with the English.
The 28th April, I came with my ship again to the fort before Cicketan, where I learnt that my colony, which I had established on the wild coast, was broken up by the disorders of some English and seamen who were among them. Those who want to plant a colony, must not let any sailors among them, unless the place be so situated that they carry on the trade with a vessel. The cause of abandoning the place was: there came a Spaniard with slaves to seek for water, when our people induced the Indians to show them the water. In the mean time our people ran off the bark and killed the Spaniards. And then the English, who were under our people, went to them and told them that if they would go to the Islands with the bark, they (the English) must be the captains; for they would be going to their own nation, and would there share the booty, but our people must acknowledge that they were their servants; and thus our fine colony was lost, which, if they had remained there for two months, would have had an hundred and fifty thousand guilders' worth of cotton, orlian, and tobacco. But these scoundrels got their reward for abandoning this colony so well begun. When they reached the Islands, the English, who had the title of captains, sold the prize, and the sailors as servants. The English are a villainous people, and would sell their own fathers for servants in the Islands.
The 6th of May, weighed anchor to sail to New Netherland. The English Virginias are an unfit place
for our nation to trade, unless they continue the trade through all the year.
The 7th, we saw the South river north by west of us, about three miles. Sounded upon the bar which runs along the coast in four fathoms, and were surprised at its being so shallow.
The 8th, arrived at evening at Sandy Hook, and stood in immediately, so that at two o'clock at night we anchored under the fort, without their being aware of our arrival. At break of day I fired three guns, which caused the people to spring out of their beds all at once, for they were not accustomed for any one to come upon them by such surprise. I went ashore immediately to speak to the commander, Wouter Van Twiller, as my ship was very leaky. When I came to the said commander, I was welcomed by him, and I requested assistance to repair my ship.
The 6th,* hauled the ship into the Smith's vly;† where we unloaded all our goods and careened the ship.
The 25th, we hauled into the stream again, and found her still leaky, and then resolved that we would let the ship lie, and put the goods aboard the West India Company's ship; but as that was not large, and would not be able to carry our goods, we determined to consult the carpenters whether there was any means of making our own ship answer, and for that purpose they sought after the leak, and found, what we had
* This is evidently a misprint for 16th.
† This is a Dutch word still in common use. It is a contraction of the word vallege—a valley.
not supposed, that it was in the keel, which was entirely eaten by the worms. We then resolved to go into the woods, and cut a good oak tree; where we procured a new keel, sixty feet long, and made the ship tight again, and hauled her up the stream.
The 25th of June, I went with the commander and minister to Pavonia, opposite the fort, in the colony of Michael Pauw, where the person who was in command there for Michael Pauw, was named Cornelis Van Vorst. He had arrived, with a small English bark, from the Northern English, bringing with him from thence good Bordeaux wines; and as the commander was fond of tasting good wines, he was treated therewith. Whilst we were there, it so happened that there were some words between the commander and minister and Cornelis Van Vorst, in relation to a murder that had been committed there; but they separated afterwards good friends, when Cornelis Van Vorst, wishing to give the commander a parting salute, fired a piece of cannon which stood upon a palisade before his house, when a spark flew upon the house, which was thatched with rushes, and in half an hour it was entirely consumed. We returned to the fort, and I went to the ship and set to work to haul everything aboard again. Whilst we were engaged in shipping our goods, two prizes, taken by the English, arrived. They had first, with a sloop and eighteen men of them, taken, near Carthagena, a fine new and fast sailing 'frigate' of about thirty lasts, laden with tobacco and hides, and then with it took a small bark, having hides aboard. They brought them to New Netherland, and ran into the South river, where they
found one of our trading sloops, which brought them to Fort Amsterdam. These fellows were fitted out by my Lord Warwick, in order to begin a settlement at the Island of Nombre de Dios; but through want of assistance and provisions, were compelled to abandon it, and had obtained a copy of a commission from one of our privateers, with which they had performed this feat. They sold their prizes here at our fort, and shipped their goods in the West India Company's ship, and put ten of the Englishmen in mine. As to which the captain maintained that it was forced upon him, as he wished to have his men with his goods; and wanted to have his goods in my ship, as I would have taken all his men with me also; but the commander, Wouter Van Twiller, compelled him to ship all his goods in the Company's ship, and compelled me to carry over ten of the Englishmen, all which trading by force was very unreasonable.
The 5th of August, the gunner of the fort gave a parting feast, and had a tent erected on the top of the fort, where a table and benches were set for many guests. When the banquet was at its highest, the trumpeter began to blow, as to which some words were passed; when the keeper of the store, Hendrick Hudden, and keeper of the freight, railed at Corlaer, the trumpeter, who gave each of them santer quarter, whereupon they ran home, and brought out a sword, and wished to have revenge upon the trumpeter. They went to the house of the commander and used much foolish language, one calling out, "I am the same man who took the life of Count Floris." But when they had slept upon it, their soldiership was all over, and
were more afraid of the trumpeter than when they sought him; and thus the matter passed over.
The 9th, let my ship sail up the river to the Great Fall, which is a mile beyond *Manates* (Manhattan) Island, in order to take in water and wood.
The 13th, I requested Wouter Van Twilliger to register Staten Island for me, as I wished to return and plant a colony upon it, which he consented to do. I took my leave of him and went aboard. Weighed anchor, and by evening came to anchor at Sandy Hook, in company with the Company's ship, *The Seven Stars*.
The 15th, weighed anchor, as did also the Company's ship, and set sail for Patria, to which may Almighty God conduct us.
The 25th September, overtook a fleet of English ships, which came from St. Lucia, and were by contrary winds driven to the westward. There was among them a smuggler from Hoorn. I hailed the Englishman, what latitude they had, and how far he calculated Scilly was from them; as I had hailed the Company's ship the evening before, and he told me that he was an hundred and seventy miles from land, the Scilly Islands east-northeast from him; which differed much from me, as I calculated I was eighty miles from them east by north. The Englishman told me that they were ninety leagues east by north of the Scilly Islands, which agreed well with me, as our miles are a little more than their leagues. These mistakes happen frequently, partly because many pilots do not understand the variation of the compass, and partly because they do not understand the shortening of the way by the rotundity of the earth.
The 1st of October, we have in sight of the land of Wemborough right before Arundel, in a storm, so that we came into the channel with a pair of mainsails, and saw at evening the light of the Singels, and in the second watch the light of Dover. The helmsman then came to me and inquired whether we should not go north-east. I showed him that we were too close to the shore, and that a north-east course would soon make us cold feet, and I told him to go east-northeast on the last watch, and that it would then be day, and that we must drift along till then in a straight course, and when the day broke then go north-east, and north-east by north.
The 2d, at evening, it appeared as if the wind would come out of the north-west; veered a little seaward.
The 3d, laid our course towards the shore, and found we were north of the Haecken; then stood over to the Vlie. There came sailing behind us a large ship, which we hailed. The captain said it was the Hen, of Hoorn. We came in the evening of this day with the ship before the Castle in the Vlie.
The 4th, made great effort to reach Hoorn in a boat, and arriving there, learned from my partners that the red-dye wood was worth only a rix dollar and three guilders a hundred, which made us a bad voyage; for our expectation, when we left, was to obtain eighteen or twenty guilders a hundred, as for sixteen or seventeen years it had been worth that; so that instead of having, as we intended, fifteen or sixteen thousand guilders' worth of wood, we had only fifteen or sixteen hundred, which made it a losing voyage for us: but this, nevertheless, had not been so if our
colony in Cayenne had remained, which would have yielded us a hundred thousand guilders a year in commodities, had they not abandoned the place, as I have before related. The work was done, and could be repaired again with little trouble, whenever the partners at Amsterdam should wish it; but they abandoned it on account of the loss of this colony which I had begun, and by my experience started; which would have returned to us great profits, in cotton, orange-dye, and sugar,—which they would have raised there,—and tobacco and letter-wood,—which grows upon that coast only,—five good articles of trade, which would have increased more and more. I have seen this done in Barbadoes, which in my day was not above a hundred men strong; making at first a little tobacco, which was not much thought of; but since then, they have commenced planting cotton and making sugar. And there can be seen full a thousand men in the Caribby Islands, and much shipping, both of the English and of our own nation. The French, also, have planted many colonies. But nothing has been done by us in consequence of the bungling of the West India Company, which covets the profits of all the trade before they are grown. This is my view, and he who has understanding and experience can perceive whether it is right or not.
MY THIRD VOYAGE
TO
AMERICA AND NEW NETHERLAND,
IN ORDER TO PLANT A COLONY UPON STATEN ISLAND FOR MYSELF AND
FREDERICK DE VRIES, SECRETARY OF THE CITY OF AMSTERDAM,
AND A MANAGER OF THE WEST INDIA COMPANY,
UNDERTAKEN AT HIS REQUEST.
The 25th of September I am in a Company's ship, freighted by them, and in which are some persons in my service. On the same day, weighed anchor and set sail in company with some ships bound to the Straits, and two to Spain.
The 28th, near the *Kiesassen*, a Dunkirk frigate came into our fleet, and began to shoot at our ships, but received so prompt an answer, that, thanks to God, he made off from us.
The 9th of October, we saw the Island of Madeira east of us; the wind north-west, and so remained with us to the sixteenth degree of latitude, before we obtained the trade wind from the north-east.
The 28th, we had a west wind with a gust. We were about two hundred miles from the Caribby Islands,—the Island of *Scada* west of us,—and were much surprised to have, in the track of the trade, such a contrary wind, which continued with us five days with such violence.
The 8th November, came in sight of Laudeada, the first island which Francis Columbus saw when he discovered the West Indies.
The 10th, we arrived at the Island of Nevis, and anchored in a fine sandy bay, and went ashore to the governor, who treated me well, and would have me spend the evening with him; but imprisoned the master of the ship for refusing the anchorage duty, who was a clownish boor, and was not accustomed to this navigation; so I settled with the governor what was to be paid, and he was set at liberty again.
The 13th, weighed anchor, and went to St. Christophers, where we laid at the sandy point for three days, and then left.
The 16th, having weighed anchor in order to proceed on our voyage to New Netherland, sailed at noon along by St. Martin and Anguilla, and by evening saw Sombareren. When we sailed by Anguilla, the helmsman tried to make me believe it was Sombareren; so well do pilots sometimes remember where they do not daily go, that they do not know whether they see one island or another.
The 18th December, sounded in thirty fathoms in thirty-seventh degree of latitude, and ran into twenty-three fathoms, and tacked again from the shore, as evening approached. Thus they converted a good wind into a bad one. I told the pilot, who was ignorant of this navigation, that he must run into fourteen fathoms, to approach the land, for if we turned at night towards the sea from twenty-three fathoms, we could not during the day get into fourteen fathoms, as in this latitude a strong current set out from the
bay of the English Virginias. I could not make him understand what I told him, till finally, in consequence of the time that was lost, he was compelled to give heed to me. Early in the morning of the 24th, we came opposite Barnde-gat, the wind north-east, blowing so hard that we ran out to sea; afterwards it blew a storm straight on the shore from the south-east, so that we sailed the whole night and also all the day of the 25th under one mainsail. It seemed as if we felt the same tempest here, as that in which so many ships and men were lost in the Texel.
The 26th, moderate weather again, the wind southwest. Saw land again from on board, and at noon came in sight of the highlands of Sandy Hook, and at four o'clock reached the point, where the pilots wanted to cast anchor and fire a gun, in order that some one might come off and pilot the ship in. I told him that his cannon were not heavy enough for them to hear the report at the fort, which was five miles distant. Then the skipper said he would return to the West Indies, as he saw the island covered with snow, and wait there till summer. I answered him, that if we could not get in here, I would take him to the South river. But I could not make him understand that there was any South river, insomuch as he had old false charts by which he wanted to sail. As there were some passengers, who had dwelt several years in New Netherland, they urged him to ask me to take him in, as I had been there with my own ship at night, as before related. The skipper then came to me, and asked me if I would sail the ship in, as I was well acquainted here. I answered him that I would do so for the sake
of the passengers who were on board; and that he, at another time, if he took freight, should employ pilots who were acquainted with the places. So I brought the ship that same evening before Staten Island, which belonged to me, where I intended to settle my people, and at dark let our anchor fall in eight fathoms.
The 27th, in the morning, the weather became very foggy, so that one could hardly see from the stem to the stern of the ship. The skipper then asked me whether we should lie there, as there was nothing in sight. I told him to weigh anchor, and although it was growing darker, I would, with that breeze, bring him before the fort in an hour. The anchor being raised, we quickly sailed to the fort, where there was great rejoicing, insomuch as they were not expecting any ship at that time of year. Found there a commander, named William Kieft, who was sent to the station from France, and had come in the spring, having wintered in the Bermudas, because they did not dare to venture upon the coast of New Netherland, in consequence of the ignorance of their pilots. Going ashore, I was made welcome by the commander, who invited me to his house.
The 5th January, I sent my people to Staten Island to begin to plant a colony there, with assistance to build.
The 4th of June, I started north in a yacht to the Fresh river, where the West India Company have a small fort called the House of Hope, and at night came to anchor in Oyster Bay, which is a large bay which lies on the north side of the Great Island, which
is about thirty miles long. This bay put up into the island, and is about two miles wide from the mainland. There are fine oysters here, whence our nation has given it the name of Oyster Bay.
The 6th, had good weather at break of day, and got under sail, and at evening arrived at the Rodenberghs* (Red Hills) which is a fine haven. Found that the English had begun to build a town on the mainland, where there were already three hundred houses and a fine church built.
The 7th, having weighed anchor, arrived at the Fresh river about two o'clock in the afternoon, where at the mouth of the river the English have made a strong fort. There was a governor, Lion Gardiner, who had had a Netherland wife from Worden, and he himself had formerly been an engineer and working-baas in Holland. They cannot sail with large ships into this river, and vessels must not draw more than six feet water to navigate up to our little fort, which lies fifteen miles from the mouth of the river. Besides, there are many bare places or stone reefs, over which the Indians go with canoes. Remained at night at this English fort, where we were well treated by the governor.
The 8th, took our leave and went up the river, and having proceeded about a mile up the river, we met, between two high steep points, some Indians in canoes, who had on English garments, and among them was one who had on a red scarlet mantle. I inquired how he came by the mantle. He had some time ago killed one Captain Stone, with his people, in a bark, from
* New Haven.
whom they had obtained these clothes. This was the captain of whom I have before spoken in my first voyage to America, who had the misfortune of his boatmen eating each other; and he had now lost his own life by the Indians.
The 9th, arrived with the yacht at the House of Hope, where one Gysbert Van Dyck commanded with fourteen or fifteen soldiers. This redoubt stands upon a plain on the margin of the river, and alongside it runs a creek to a high woodland, out of which comes a valley, which makes this kill, and where the English, in spite of us, have begun to build up a small town, and had built a fine church, and over a hundred houses. The commander gave me orders to make a protest against them, as they were using our own land, which we had bought of the Indians. Some of our soldiers had forbidden them to put the plough into it, but they had disregarded them, and had cudgelled some of the Company's soldiers. Going there, I was invited by the English governor to dine; when sitting at the table, I told him that it was wrong to take by force the Company's land, which it had bought and paid for. He answered that the lands were lying idle; that though we had been there many years, we had done scarcely anything; that it was a sin to let such rich land, which produced such fine corn, lie uncultivated; and that they had already built three towns upon this river, in a fine country. There are many salmon up this river. These English live soberly, drink only three times at a meal, and whoever drinks himself drunk, they tie to a post and whip him, as they do thieves in Holland.
The 12th, among the incidents which happened
while I was here, was that of an English ketch arriving here from the north, with thirty pipes of Canary wine. There was a merchant with it, who was from the same city, in England, as the servant of the minister of this town, and was well acquainted with him. Now, this merchant invited the minister's servant on board the vessel to drink with him; and it seems that the man became fuddled with wine, or drank pretty freely, which was observed by the minister. So they brought the servant to the church, where the post stood, in order to whip him. The merchant then came to me, and requested me to speak to the minister, as it was my fault that he had given wine to his countryman. I accordingly went to the commander of our little fort or redoubt, and invited the minister and the mayor, and other leading men, with their wives, who were very fond of eating cherries; as there were from forty to fifty cherry-trees standing about the redoubt, full of cherries. We feasted the minister and the governor and their wives, who came to us; and, as we were seated at the meal in the redoubt, I, together with the merchant, requested the minister to pardon his servant, saying that he probably had not partaken of any wine for a year, and that such sweet Canary wine would intoxicate any man. We were a long while before we could persuade him, but their wives spoke favourably, whereby the servant got free. Whilst I happened here, another farce was played. There was a young man, who had been married two months, who was complained of before the consistory, by his brother, that he had slept with his wife before they were married; whereupon they were both taken and whipped,
and separated from each other for six weeks. These people give out that they are Israelites, and that we at our colony are Egyptians, and that the English in the Virginias are also Egyptians. I frequently told the governor that it would be impossible for them to keep the people so strict, as they had come from so luxurious a country as England.
The 14th, took my leave of the House of Hope. This river is a fine pleasant stream, where many thousand Christians could obtain farms.
The 15th, early in the morning, we arrived again at the mouth of the river, and ran out of it. Sailed this day four miles past Roode-bergh, and came into a river, where the English had begun to make a village, and where over fifty houses were in process of erection, and a portion finished.
The 16th, weighed anchor, and sailed by two places which the English had built up, and at noon arrived where two Englishmen had built houses. One of the Englishmen was named Captain Patrick, whose wife was a Dutch woman from the Hague. After we had been there two or three hours, proceeded on our voyage, and at evening reached the Minutes, before Fort Amsterdam, where we found two ships had arrived from our Patria, one of which was a ship of the Company, the Herring, the other was a private ship, the Fire of Troy, from Hoorn, laden with cattle on account of Jochem Pietersz, who had formerly been a commander in the East Indies, for the King of Denmark. It was to be wished that one hundred to three hundred such families, with labourers, had come, as this would very soon become a good country.
The 10th February, I have begun to make a plantation, a mile and a half, or two miles above the fort, as there was there a fine location, and full thirty-one morgens of maize-land, where there were no trees to remove; and hay-land lying all together, sufficient for two hundred cattle, which is a great article there. I went there to live, half on account of the pleasure of it, as it was all situated along the river. I leased out the plantation of Staten Island, as no people had been sent me from Holland, as was stipulated in the contract which I made with Frederick de Vries, a manager of the West India Company.
The 15th of April, I went with my sloop to Fort Orange, where I wanted to examine the land, which is on the river. Arrived at Tappaen in the evening, where a large valley, of about two or three hundred morgens of clay-soil, lies under the mountain, three or four feet above the water. A creek, which comes from the highland, runs through it, on which fine water-mills could be erected. I bought this valley from the Indians, as it was only three miles above my plantation, and five miles from the fort. There was also much maize-land, but too stony to be ploughed.
The 25th, opposite Tapaen, lies a place called Wiekquas-geck, where there is much maize-land, but stony or sandy, and where many fir-trees grow. We generally haul fine masts from there. The land is also mountainous.
The 16th, went further up the river. Passed the Averstro, where a kill runs out, formed from a large fall, the noise of which can be heard in the river. The land is also very high. At noon, passed the highlands,
which are prodigiously high stony mountains, and it is about a mile going through them. Here the river, at its narrowest, is about five or six hundred paces wide, as well as I could guess. At night, came by the Dance-chamber, where there was a party of Indians, who were very riotous, seeking only mischief, so that we were on our guard.
The 27th, we came to Esopes, where a creek runs in, and there the Indians had some maize-land, but it was stony. Arrived at evening, as it blew hard, before the Cats-kill. Found the river up to this point, stony and mountainous, unfit for habitations. But there was some lowland here, and the Indians sowed maize along the Cats-kill.
The 28th, arrived at Beeren (Bears') Island, where were many Indians fishing. Here the land begins to be low along the margin of the river, and at the foot of the mountains it was good for cultivation. At evening, we reached Brand-pylen's Island, which lies a little below Fort Orange, and belongs to the patroons, Godyn, Ronselaer, Jan de Laet, and Bloemart, who had also there more farms, which they had made in good condition at the Company's cost, as the Company had sent the cattle from Fatherland at great expense; and these individuals, being the commissioners of New Netherland, had made a good distribution among themselves, and while the Company had nothing but an empty fort, they had the farms and trade around it, and every boor was a merchant.
The 30th of April. The land here is, in general, like it is in France. It is good, and very productive of everything necessary for the life of man, except clothes,
linens, woollens, shoes and stockings; but these they could have if the country were well populated; and there could be made good leather of the hides of animals, which multiply in great quantities. Good tan could be made of the bark of oak-trees. The land all along this river is very mountainous; some cliffs of stone are exceedingly high, upon which grow fine fir-trees, which may be discerned with the eye. There are, besides, in this country, oaks, alders, beeches, elms, and willows, both in the woods and along the water. The islands are covered with chestnut, plum, and hazel-nut trees, and large walnuts of different kinds, of as good flavour as they are in Fatherland, but hard of shell. The ground on the mountains is bedecked with shrubs of bilberries or blueberries, such as in Holland come from Vechtwees. The level land, or old maize-land, is covered with strawberries, which grow here so plentifully that they answer for food. There are also in the woods, as well as along the river, vines very abundant of two kinds, one bearing good blue grapes, which are pleasant when the vines are pruned, and of which good wine could be made. The other kind is like the grapes which grow in France on trellises,—the large white ones which they make verjuice of in France;—they are as large as the joints of the fingers, but require great labour, for these vines grow in this country on the trees, and the grapes are like the wild grapes which grow along the roads in France, on vines which are not pruned, and which are thick with wood, with little sap in it, for want of being attended to. There was this year, as they told me, a large quantity of deer at harvest and through the winter, very fat, having upon their ribs upwards of two fingers of tallow, so that they were nothing else than clear fat. They also had this year, great numbers of turkeys. They could buy a deer for a loaf of bread, or for a knife, or even for a tobacco-pipe; at other times they give cloth, worth six or seven guilders. There are many partridges, heath-hens, and pigeons which fly together in thousands, and our people sometimes shoot thirty, forty, and fifty of them at a shot. Plenty of fowl, such as belong to the river, and all along the river are great numbers of them of different kinds; such as swans, geese, ducks, pigeons, teal, and wild geese, which go up the river in the spring by thousands, from the sea-coast, and fly back again in the fall.
Whilst I was at Fort Orange, the 30th of April, there was such a high flood at the island on which Brand-pylen lived,—who was my host at this time,—that we were compelled to leave the island, and go with boats into the house, where there were four feet of water. This flood continued three days, before we could use the dwelling again. The water ran into the fort, and we were compelled to repair to the woods, where we erected tents and kindled large fires. These woods are full of animals, bears, wolves, foxes, and especially of snakes, black snakes and rattlesnakes, which are very poisonous, and which have a rattle at the end of the tail, with many rattles, according to their age. As to what the land produces, the soil, which on the mountains is a red sand or cliffs of stone, but in the low plains, often clay-ground, is very fertile, as Brand-pylen told me that he had produced wheat on
this island for twelve years successively without its lying fallow. He also told me that here the Indians put their enemies to death, as horribly as this plate shows, and had for some time past done justice to their enemies in this place. They place their foe against a tree or stake, and first tear all the nails from his fingers, and run them on a string, which they wear the same as we do gold chains. It is considered to the honour of any chief who has vanquished or overcome his enemies, if he bite off or cut off some of their members, as whole fingers. Afterwards, the prisoner is compelled to sing and dance, entirely naked, before them; and finally, when they burn the captive, they kill him with a slow fire, and then eat him up; the commoners eating the arms and buttocks, and the chiefs eating the head. When these Indians fasten their enemy to the stake, he is compelled to sing, and accordingly begins to sing of his friends, who will avenge his death. They inflict a cruel death upon him, pricking his body with hot burning wood in different parts, till he is tormented to death. They then tear his heart out of his body, which every one eats a piece of, in order to embitter themselves against their enemies. Along this land runs an excellent river, which comes out of the Maquas county, about four miles to the north of Fort Orange. I went there with some Indians, and passed by a farm upon which a boor lived, whom they called Brother Cornelis. This river runs between two high rocky banks, and falls over a rock as high as a church, with such a noise that it is frequently heard at the farm, and when I was there it made such a loud noise that we could hardly hear each other speak.
The water flowed by with such force, that it was all the time as if it were raining, and the trees upon the hills, as high as the dunes at home, have their boughs constantly wet as if with rain. The water is as clear as crystal, and fresh as milk, and appears all the time as if a rainbow stood in it, but that arises from its clearness. There are a great many Indians here, whom they call Maquas, who catch many lampreys, otherwise called prieks. The river is about six hundred to seven hundred paces wide at this place, and contains large quantities of fine fish, such as pike, perch, eels, suckers, thickheads, sunfish, shad, striped bass, which is a fish which comes from the sea in the spring, and swims up the river into the fresh water as the salmon does. There are sturgeon, but our people will not eat them; also trout, slightly yellow inside, which I myself have caught, and which are considered in France the finest of fish. There are several islands in this river, of thirty, fifty, and seventy morgens of land in size. The soil is very good. The temperature is in extremes, in the summer excessively hot, and in winter exceedingly cold, so that in one night the ice will freeze hard enough to bear one. The summer continues to All Saints' day, and in December it will freeze so hard, that if there be a strong current, which loosens it, it will freeze in a night what has run over it in the day. The ice continues generally for three months, and although the latitude is forty-three, it is nevertheless always frozen for that period; for though sometimes it thaws in pleasant days, it does not continue to do so, but it freezes again until March, when the river first begins to open, sometimes in February, though
seldom. The severest cold comes from the north-west, as in Holland from the north-east. The reason of this cold is that the mountains to the north of it are covered with snow, and the north-west wind comes blowing over them, and drives all the cold down. This tribe of Indians was formerly a powerful nation, but they are brought into subjection, and made tributaries by the Maquas. They are stout men, well favoured of countenance, body and limb, but all of them have black hair and yellow skin. They go naked in the summer, except they cover their privy parts with a patch; but the children, and youth of ten, twelve, or fourteen years of age, run entirely mother-naked. In winter they throw over them an unprepared deer-skin or bear's-hide, or a covering of turkey's feathers, which they know how to make; or they buy duffels of us, two ells and a half long, and unsewed, go off with it, surveying themselves, and think that they appear fine. They make themselves shoes and stockings of deerskins, or they take the leaves of maize and braid them together, and use them for shoes. Men and women go with their heads bare. The women let their hair grow very long, tie it together a little, and let it hang down the back; some of the men have it on one side of the head, others have a lock hanging on both sides; on the top of the head, they have a strip of hair from the forehead to the neck, about three fingers broad, and cut two or three fingers long; it then stands straight up like a cock's-comb; on both sides of this cock's-comb they cut it off close, except the locks, as may be seen in the plate. They paint their faces red, blue, and brown, and look like the devil himself. They
smear their foreheads with bear-grease, which they carry along with them in little baskets. It would be much better for them to wash themselves, if they only thought so, and they would not be troubled with lice. Whenever they go journeying, they take with them some maize and a kettle, with a wooden bowl and spoon, which they pack up together and hang on their backs. When they become hungry, they immediately make a fire and cook it; they make the fire by rubbing sticks together, and that very rapidly.
They live generally without marriage, promiscuously; for though there are some who have wives, they continue together no longer than it suits both, and separating, each one takes another. I have seen them leave each other, and live a long time with another, leave the second, and return to the first, and be a couple again. When they have wives, they do not let them sleep with another, and the wives the like.
The women, after they are delivered, go immediately away, and if it be not cold, they wash themselves and the young child in the river, or in the snow. They will not lie down, for then they say they would starve, but they keep a-going. They cut wood, they walk, they stand, and work as if they had not been delivered, and we do not see that it injures them. The men have their concubines in great subjection. If they do anything which displeases them, they seize a stick and beat them on the head, and so finish them. After I had observed the manners of these Indians, who carry on a fierce war with the French Indians, Corlaer told me that he had been at their fort, where they had brought some Indians they had captured on
the river St. Lawrence, where the French live. They had taken three Frenchmen, one of whom was a Jesuit,—whose release our people hoped to obtain,—and had killed one.* All the children, of ten or twelve years of age, and the women whom they had taken in the war, they spared, except the very old women, whom they killed. Though they are so revengeful towards their enemies, they are very friendly to us. We have no fear of them; we go with them into the woods; we meet each other sometimes at an hour or two's distance from any house, and we think nothing more of it than if a Christian met us. They also sleep in the chambers before our beds; but lying down upon the bare ground, with a stone or piece of wood under the head. They are very slovenly and dirty. They do not wash their faces or their hands, but let all remain upon their yellow skin, just as the savages do at the Cape of Good Hope, and look like hogs. Their bread is maize, beaten between two stones, when they are travelling; but pounded sometimes, when they are in their houses, in a large block, hollowed out, as may be seen in the plate. They make cakes of it, and bake them in the ashes. Their other food is deer, turkeys, hares, bears, wild cats, and their own dogs, &c. They cook their fish as they take them from the water, without cleaning them. They cook the deer with the entrails and all their contents, and very little, and if the entrails are then too tough, they take one end in the mouth and the other in the hands, and between
* The Jesuit Father here referred to was Father Jogues. The person killed was René Goupil.
the hand and mouth, they cut or separate them. They do the same thing generally with the flesh, for they carve little. They lay it in the fire as long as it takes to count an hundred, as in France a steak is laid upon a gridiron; it is then done enough, and when they bite into it, the blood runs down the sides of the mouth. They will also eat up a piece of bear's fat as large as two fists, without bread, or anything else. It is natural for them to have no beards, and not one among a hundred has any hair around his mouth. They also have a great conceit of themselves, and in praising themselves, they say, "I am the devil," meaning that they are superior men. When they praise their tribe, they say they are great hunters of deer, or do this or that. So they say of all the Mahakuyosers,—"they are great wise devils." They make their dwellings of the bark of trees, very close and warm, and kindle the fire in the middle. Their canoes or boats are made of the bark of trees, and will carry five or six persons. They also hollow out trees and use them for boats and skiffs, some of which are very large, and I have frequently seen eighteen or twenty seated in a hollow log, going along the river; and I have myself had a wooden canoe, in which I could carry two hundred and twenty-five bushels of maize. The weapons in war were bows and arrows, stone-axes and clap-hammers, but they have now obtained guns from our people. He was a villain who first sold them to them, and showed them how to use them. They say it was the devil, and that they durst not touch them; till an Indian came there with a gun, which they called Kallebacker. They also buy swords and iron axes
from us. Their money is small beads made on the seaside, of shells or cockles, which are found on the shore; and these cockles they grind upon a stone as thin as they wish them, and then drill a small hole through them, and string them on threads, or make bands of them the breadth of a hand or more, which they hang on the shoulders and round the body. They have also divers holes in their ears, from which they hang them; and make caps of them for the head. There are two kinds; the white are the least, and the brown-blue are the most valuable; and they give two white beads for one brown. They call them Zeewan, and have as great a fancy for them as many Christians have for gold, silver, and pearls. For our gold they have hardly any desire, and consider it no better than iron, and say that we are silly to esteem a piece of iron so highly, which if they had they would throw into the water. Though they bury their dead, they place them in a hole in a sitting posture, and not lying, and then throw trees and wood upon the grave, or enclose it with palisades. They have their set times when they go to fish; in the spring they catch immense numbers of shad and lampreys, which are very large; these they lay in the sun, upon the bark of trees, and dry thoroughly hard, and then put them in notessen or bags, which they plait of hemp, which grows wild, and keep the fish in them till winter, when their maize is ripe, from which they take the ears, and pile them up in caves, and keep them there the whole winter. They also knit bow-nets and seines in their style. From religion, and all worship of God, they are entirely estranged; they have indeed
one whom they call by a strange name, who is a genius, whom they regard instead of God, but they do not serve him or make offerings to him. They serve, revere, and make offerings to the devil, whom they call Ostkon, or Ayreskunni; for when they have any misfortune in war, they catch a bear, which they cut into pieces and burn, and offer it to their Ayreskunni, saying the following words in their language, "Oh great and powerful Ayreskunni, we know that we have sinned against thee, because we have not killed and eaten up the enemies we took captive. Forgive us this. We promise that we will kill and eat up all those whom we shall hereafter take prisoners as heartily as we have killed and eaten up this bear." So when it is hot weather, and there comes a cooling wind, they immediately cry out, "Asoromusi," that is, "I thank you, devil, I thank you, Oomke;" and when they are sick, or have any sore or pain in the limbs, and I ask them what ails them, they say that the devil is in the body, or is sitting in the sore places and bites them there. They attribute to the devil whatever happens to them; otherwise they know of no worship of God. They ridicule us when we pray; some of these, when it was told them what we prayed, stood in wonder and asked me whether I had seen in our country Him whom I worshipped. They will not enter any houses where there are women who have their terms upon them, nor eat with them; and who must not touch any snare in which they catch deer, saying that the deer can scent them. These Maecqynase Indians are divided into three tribes, one of which takes its designation from the bear, another from the wild tortoise,
the third from the wolf; and of these that of the tortoise is the greatest and most celebrated, and claims to be the oldest. These Indians each have upon their banners the animal after which they are named; and when they go to war, carry it as a sign of terror to their enemies, as they suppose, and of courage to themselves.
Their government rests with the oldest, wisest, best-spoken, and bravest men, who generally resolve, and the young men and the bravest execute, but if the commonality do not approve of the resolution, it is then submitted to the decision of the whole populace. The chiefs are generally the poorest among them, for instead of their receiving anything, as amongst Christians, from the commonality, or of those in office enriching themselves by unrighteous means or otherwise, these Indian chiefs are made to give to the populace, especially whenever there is any one left dead in war, as they then give large presents to the next of blood kin to the deceased; and if they then take a prisoner, they give him to the family to which the dead man belonged, and the prisoner is then adopted by that family in place of the deceased. There is hardly any punishment for murder and other crimes, but each one is his own judge, and the bereaved friends revenge themselves upon the murderer until he buys his peace by presents to the relatives. Although they are cruel, and live without any punishment of evil doers, there is not one-fourth part as much roguery and murder among them as there is among Christians; so that I have frequently wondered what murders happened in Fatherland, notwithstanding such severe laws and
penalties, while these Indians, living without laws or fear of punishment, kill very few, and then only in anger and personal combat. We are, therefore, entirely without fear in going with the Indians, and walk an hour with them in the woods without harm. After I had observed the above written circumstances and manners of the Indians, I set out again for the river.
The 14th May, took my leave of the Commander at Fort Orange, and the same day reached Esopers, where a creek runs in, and where there is some maize-land upon which some Indians live.
The 15th, got under sail at break of day, with the ebb-tide, and at noon came to the Dance-chamber, where there were many Indians fishing; passed the Highlands, and at evening anchored at Tupaeu, and remained there all night, near the Indians, who were fishing.
The 16th, weighed anchor, and sailed, with the ebb and a strong breeze from the north-west, in three hours to the Fort. The above-named river has nothing but mountains on both sides, little capable of sustaining a population, as there are only cliffs and stones along the river, as I have related before. There is here and there some maize-land, from which the Indians remove the stones and cultivate it. The tide flows up to Fort Orange by the pressure of the sea.
The 16th July, Cornelis Van Thienhoven, Secretary of New Netherland, departed with a commission from the head men and council of New Netherland, with a hundred armed men, to the Raritanghe, a nation of Indians who live where a little stream runs up about
five miles behind Staten Island, for the purpose of obtaining satisfaction from the Indians for the hostilities committed by them upon Staten Island, in killing my swine and those of the Company, which a negro watched,—whom I had been solicited to place there,—in robbing the watch-house, and in attempting to run off with the yacht Vrede, of which Cornelis Pietersz was master, and which met with an accident, and for other acts of insolence. Van Thienhoven having arrived there with the said troop, demanded satisfaction according to his orders. The troop wished to kill and plunder, which could not be permitted, as Van Thienhoven said he had no orders to do so. Finally, on account of the pertinacity of the troop, the said Van Thienhoven went away, protesting against any injury which should happen by reason of their disobedience and violation of orders; and having gone a quarter of a mile, the troop killed several of the Indians, and brought the brother of the chief a prisoner, for whom Van Thienhoven had been surety before in eighty fathoms of Zeewan, otherwise he too must have been put to death. Whereupon the Indians, as will hereafter be related, killed four of my men, burned my house, and the house of David Pietersz De Vries.* I learned also from Thienhoven that one Loockmans, standing on the mast, had misused the chief’s brother in his private parts with a piece of wood, and that such acts of tyranny were perpetrated by the officers of the Company as were far from making friends with the inhabitants.
* This is probably a mistake for Frederick de Vries.
The 20th of October I went with my sloop to Ta-
paen in order to trade for maize or Indian corn. I
found the Company's sloop there for the purpose of
levying a contribution from the Indian Christians, of
a quantity of corn. The Indians called to me and in-
quired what I wanted. I answered that I desired to
exchange cloth for corn. They said they could not
help me, I must go up the river, and should the Com-
pany's sloop in the mean time get away, they would
then trade with me; that they were very much sur-
prised that the Sachem, who was now at the Fort,
dare exact it; and he must be a very mean fellow
to come to this country without being invited by
them, and now wish to compel them to give him
their corn for nothing; that they had not raised it in
great abundance, as one chief had generally but
two women who planted corn, and that they had
calculated only for their own necessities, and to bar-
ter some for cloth. So this affair began to cause
much dissatisfaction among the Indians.
The 1st of December. I have begun to take hold of
Vriessendale, as it was a fine place, situated along the
river, under the mountains, and at an hour and a half's
journey there is a valley where hay can be raised for
two hundred head of cattle, and where there is thirty
morgens of corn-land, and where I have sown wheat
which grew higher than the tallest man in the country.
Here were also two fine falls from the mountains,
where two good mills could be erected for grinding
corn and sawing plank. It was a beautiful and plea-
sant place for hunting deer, wild turkeys, and pigeons;
but the evil of it was, that though I earnestly took
hold of the place, I was not seconded by my partner, according to our agreement, who was Frederick de Vries, a manager of the Company, and who thought that colonies could be built up without men or means, as his idea was that Godyn, Gilliam* Van Rensselaer, Bloemart, and Jan de Laet, had established their colonies with the means of the Company, which had brought there all the cattle and farmers, and then the work began to progress. These persons were managers of the Company and commissioners of New Netherland, and helped themselves by the cunning tricks of merchants; and the Company having about that time come into possession of Peter Heyn's booty, bestowed not a thought upon their best trading-post at Fort Orange, or whether they would make farms there or not; but these fellows, through Rensselaer, who was accustomed to refine pearls and diamonds, succeeded in taking it from the other managers—partners. Michael Pauw, discovering that they had appropriated the land at Fort Orange to themselves, immediately had the land lying opposite Fort Amsterdam, where the Indians are compelled to cross to the fort with their beavers, registered for himself, and called it Pavonia. The Company, seeing afterwards that they were affected, much contention and jealousy was caused among them, because they who undertook to plant colonies with their own money, should have taken the property of the Company. Thus was the country kept by these disputes, so that it was not settled; for there were friends enough who would have
* Killian.
peopled the country by patroon-ships, but they were always prevented by the contention of the managers, who were not willing to do anything themselves, for they would rather see booty arrive, than to speak of their colonies; but had the land been peopled, the fruit thereof would have been long continued, while their booty has vanished like smoke. There may be some managers and book-keepers who are well off by it, but it does no good to the community, as the cultivation of the soil where every one is well off, and there is a steady income, is better than all the booty which we see consumed in bawdy-houses; for where is now all the booty of which the Dunkirkers have robbed us, and also all the booty of Flushing, which was taken from the Portuguese? It has also vanished like smoke, and those privateers who have taken it have gone to naught; they have drunk to no purpose, and p—— against the wall.
The 20th August, the ship Eyckenboom (Oak-tree) arrived here, in which came a person named Malyn, who said that Staten Island belonged to him, that it was given by the managers to him and to Heer Vander Horst, which I could not believe, as I had sailed in the year thirty-eight to take possession of said Island, and my men were now upon it. I thought better things of the managers than this, as the sixth article of privileges mentions that the first occupants shall not be prejudiced in their right of possession.
The 1st of September, my men on Staten Island were killed by the Indians; and the Raritans told an Indian, who worked for my people, that we might now come to fight them on account of our men; that
we had before come and treated them badly on account of the swine; that there had been laid to their charge what they were not guilty of, and what had been done by the Company's men when they were on their way to the South River, who came ashore on Staten Island to cut wood and haul water, and then at the same time stole the hogs, and charged the act upon the innocent Indians; who, although they are bad enough, will do you no harm if you do them none. Thus I lost the beginning of my colony on Staten Island, by the orders of Commander Kieft, who wished to charge upon the Indians, what his own people had done.
The 2d of November, there came a chief of the Indians of Taunketkes, named Pacham, who was great with the governor in the fort. He came in great triumph, bringing a dead hand hanging on a stick, and saying that it was the hand of the chief who had killed or shot with arrows our men on Staten Island, and that he had taken revenge for our sake, because he loved the Swannakens (as they call the Dutch), who were his best friends.
The same day Commander Kieft asked me whether I would permit Malyn to go upon the point of Staten Island, where the maize-land lay, saying that he wished to let him plant it, and that he would place soldiers there, who would make a signal by raising a flag, to make known at the fort whenever ships were in the bay, to which I have consented,—but am not to be prejudiced thereby,—and to let him have twelve to fourteen or fifteen morgens of land, without abridging my right, as he intended to distil brandy and make goat's leather.
As I was daily with Commander Kieft, generally dining with him when I went to the fort, he told me that he had now had a fine inn, built of stone, in order to accommodate the English who daily passed with their vessels from New England to Virginia, from whom he suffered great annoyance, and who might now lodge in the tavern. I replied that it happened well for the travellers, but there was great want of a church, and that it was a scandal to us when the English passed there, and saw only a mean barn in which we preached; that the first thing which the English built, after their dwellings, was a fine church, and we ought to do so too, as the West India Company was deemed to be a principal means of upholding the Reformed Religion against the tyranny of Spain, and had excellent materials therefor, namely, fine oak-wood, good mountain-stone, and lime burnt of oyster-shells, much better than our lime in Holland. He then inquired who would superintend the work. I answered the lovers of the Reformed Religion who were truly so. He then said that I must be one of them, as I proposed it, and must give an hundred guilders. I told him that I was satisfied, and that he must be the first to give, as he was commander, and then elect Jochem Pietersz Kuyter, a devout person of the Reformed Religion, who had good workmen who would quickly prepare the timber, and also elect Damen, because he lived close by the fort; that we four, as churchwardens, should undertake the work of building the church; that the commander should give several thousand guilders on behalf of the Company, and then it would immediately be seen whether the rest would
be subscribed by the community; that the church should be built in the fort, to guard against any surprise by the Indians. Thus were the walls of the church speedily begun to be laid up with quarry-stone, and to be covered by the English carpenters with slate, or rather with oak-shingles; which, by exposure to the wind and rain, turn blue, and look as if they were slate.
About the same time, a harmless Dutchman, named Claes Rademaker, (wheelwright,) was murdered by an Indian. He lived a short mile from the fort by the Densel-bay, where he had built a small house, and had set up the trade of a wheelwright. It was on the road, over which the Indians from Wickquasgeek passed daily. It happened that an Indian came to this Claes Rademaker, for the purpose of trading beavers with him for duffel-cloth, which goods were in a chest. This chest he had locked up, and stooped down in order to take his goods out, when this murderer, the Indian, seeing that the man had his head bent over into the chest, and observing an axe standing behind him, seized the axe, and struck Claes Rademaker on the neck therewith, who fell down dead by the chest. The murderer then stole all the goods and ran off. The commander sent to Wickquasgeek to inquire why this Dutchman had been so shamefully murdered. The murderer answered that while the fort was being built, he came with his uncle and another Indian to the freshwater, bringing beavers, in order to trade with the Dutchmen, that some Swannekes (as they call the Netherlanders) came there, took away from his uncle his beavers, and then killed him. He was
then a small boy, and resolved when he should grow up, he would revenge that deed upon the Dutch, and since then he had seen no better chance to do so than with Claes Rademaker. Thus these Indians resemble the Italians, being very revengeful. Commander Kieft afterwards made an attempt to send some soldiers there, of whom Van Dyck, the ensign-bearer, had the command, but in consequence of the darkness of the night, the guides missed the way, and arrived there too late in the day, so that the attempt failed, and they returned again without effecting anything. Another expedition against these Indians was subsequently sent, which also miscarried. When Commander Kieft saw that these expeditions against the Indians miscarried, and that trouble would follow, and found that the people began to reproach him with being himself safely protected in the fort, out of which he had not slept a single night, during all the years he had been there, and with seeking the war in order to make a bad reckoning with the Company, and began to feel that the war would be laid to his charge, he called the people together to choose twelve men to aid him in the direction of the affairs of the country, of which number I was, as a patroon, chosen one. Commander Kieft then submitted the proposition, whether we should avenge the murder of Claes Rademaker by declaring war upon the Indians, or not. We answered that time and opportunity must be taken, as our cattle were running at pasture in the woods, and we were living far and wide, east, west, south and north of each other; that we were not prepared to carry on a war with the Indians until we had
more people, like the English, who make towns and villages. I told Commander Kieft that no profit was to be derived from a war with the Indians; that he was the means of my people being murdered at the colony which I had commanded on Staten Island in the year forty; and that I well knew that the managers did not desire a war waged against the Indians, for when we made our colony in the year 1630, in the South river at Swanendael, otherwise called Hoereekil, our people were all murdered through some trifling acts of the commander whom we had stationed there, named Gilles Oset, as I have already mentioned in the beginning of my journal; that it was then proposed to the Company to make war upon the Indians, but the Company would not permit it, and replied that we must keep at peace with the Indians. This I related to Commander Kieft, but he would not listen to it. It becomes the managers to take care what persons they appoint as Directors, for thereon depends the welfare of the country. Were it the case that the East India Company had gone to work in the East Indies, as the West India Company here, they would soon have been there like the West India Company; but in the East Indies they make no person commander of a fort, if he be not well acquainted with the country, and have knowledge of the people sufficiently. But commanders are sent here whether they be fit or not.
About this time also I walked to Ackingh-sack, taking a gun with me, in order to see how far the colony of Heer Vander Horst had advanced, as it was only a short hour's journey behind my house. On approaching Ackinghsack, about five or six hundred paces from where the colony was started, an Indian met me who was entirely drunk. He came up to me and struck me on the arm, which is a token of friendship among them, and said that I was a good chief; that when he came to my house, I let him have milk and everything for nothing; that he had just come from this house, where they had sold him brandy, into which they had put half water; that he could scoop up the water himself from the river, and had no need of buying it; that they had also stolen his beaver-coat, and he wanted to go home and get his bow and arrows, and would kill some one of the villainous Swannekens who had stolen his goods. I told him he must not do so. I then proceeded on to the house of Heer Vander Horst, and I told some soldiers and others who were there that they must not treat the Indians in that manner, as they were a very revengeful people, and resembled the Italians in that particular. I then returned home, and on my way, shot a wild turkey weighing thirty pounds, and brought it along with me. I was not long home, when there came some chiefs from Ackinghsack, and from Reckawanuck, which was close by me, and informed me that one of their Indians, who was drunk, had shot a Dutchman dead, who was sitting on a barn thatching it. They asked me what they should do; they said they durst not go to the fort; that they would give one or two hundred fathom of Zeewan to the widow and then they would be at peace. I told them that they must go with me to the fort, and speak to the commander; but they were afraid that, on going to the fort, he would not permit them to return home. I
made them of good heart, by telling them that I would deliver them safe home. They went with me, at length, to the fort; and, going to Commander Kieft, told him the misfortune which had happened to them. He answered the chief of the Indians that he wanted the Indian who had done the act to be brought to him. They said that they could not do so, as he had run away a two day's journey to Tanditekes; but they wished the commander to listen to them, as they desired in a friendly way to make the widow contented, and to pay for the man's death with Zeewan, which is their money; it being a custom with them, if any misfortune befel them, to reconcile the parties with money. They laid the blame upon our people, saying that it was because we sold the young Indians brandy or wine, making them crazy, as they were unaccustomed to drink; that they had even seen our people, who were habituated to strong drink, frequently intoxicated, and fight with knives. They therefore desired that no liquor should be sold to the Indians, in order to prevent all accident for the future. It seemed as if they had some fear that the governor would detain them, so they answered him, that they would do their best to get the Indian, and bring him to the fort. They then took their departure; but on the way they told me that they could not deliver up the Indian to him, as he was a Sackemaker's son,—that is to say, as above, a chief's son. And thus the matter passed off.
Of what Genius and Condition this Nation of Men are, how they are clothed, and what Magistrates they have.
As I have related the manner of living, and the appearance, of the Indians at Fort Orange, I will state something of the nations about Fort Amsterdam; as the Hackinsack, Tapaenuse, and Wiequas-geckse Indians; and these are embraced within one, two, three, or four miles of the entrance of the river. Their manner of living is for the most part like that of those at Fort Orange; who, however, are a braver, and a more martial nation of Indians,—by name, the Maquas, as before mentioned, and who hold most of the others along the river to Fort Amsterdam under tribute. The Indians about here are tolerably stout, have black hair, with a long lock, which they let hang on one side of the head. The hair is shorn on the top of the head like a cock's-comb, as is shown in the plate. Their condition is bad. They are very revengeful; resembling the Italians. Their clothing is a coat of beaverskins over the body, with the fur inside in winter, and outside in summer; they have, also, sometimes a bear's-hide, or a coat of the skins of wild cats, or hefspanen, which is an animal most as hairy as a wild cat, and is also very good to eat. I have frequently eaten it, and found it very tender. They also wear coats of turkey's feathers, which they know how to put together; but since our Netherland nation has traded here, they trade their beavers for duffels-cloth, which we give for them, and which they find more suitable than the beavers, as they consider it better for the rain; and
take two and a half in length of duffels, which is nine and a half quarters wide. Their pride is to paint their faces strangely with red or black lead, so that they look like fiends. They are then valiant; yea, they say they are mannette, the devil himself. Some of the women are very well-featured, having long countenances. Their hair hangs loose from their head: they are very foul and dirty; they sometimes paint their faces, and draw a black ring around their eyes. When they wish to cleanse themselves of their foulness, they go in the autumn, when it begins to grow cold, and make, away off, near a running brook, a small oven, large enough for three or four men to lie in it. In making it they first take twigs of trees, and then cover them tight with clay, so that smoke cannot escape. This being done, they take a parcel of stones, which they heat in a fire, and then put in the oven, and when they think that it is sufficiently hot, they take the stones out again, and go and lie in it, men and women, boys and girls, and come out so perspiring, that every hair has a drop of sweat on it. In this state they spring into the cold water; saying that it is healthy, but I let its healthfulness pass: they then become entirely clean, and are more attractive than before. The girls consider themselves to have arrived at womanhood when they begin to have their monthly terms, and as soon as they have them, they go and disguise themselves with a garment, which they throw over their body, drawing it over the head so that they can hardly see with their eyes, and run off for two or three months, lamenting that they must lose their virginity; and they therefore do not
engage in any diversion by night, or other unseasonable time. This period being over, they throw away their disguise, and deck themselves with a quantity of Zeewan upon the body, head, and neck; they then go and sit in some place, in company with some squaws, showing that they are up for a bargain. Whoever gives the most Zeewan is the successful suitor. They go home with him, and remain sometimes one, three, or four months with him, and then go with another; sometimes remaining with him, according as they are inclined to each other. The men are not jealous, and even lend their wives to a friend. They are fond of meetings to frolic and dance; but the women are compelled to work like asses, and when they travel, to carry the baggage on their backs, together with their infants, if they have any, bound to a board.
We will now speak of the Productions of the Country, and other things which serve for the support of the life of Man.
The productions are various. The principal one is maize, which is their corn, and which is called by us Turkish wheat. They pound it in a hollow tree, as may be seen in the plate. When they travel, they take a flat stone, and press it with another stone placed upon the first, and when it is pressed, they have little baskets, which they call notassen, and which are made of a kind of hemp, the same as fig-frails,—which they make to serve them as sieves,—and thus make their meal. They make flat cakes of the meal mixed with water, as large as a farthing cake in this country,
and bake them in the ashes, first wrapping a vine-leaf or maize-leaf around them. When they are sufficiently baked in the ashes, they make good palatable bread. The Indians make use of French beans of different colours, which they plant among their maize. When the maize (which is sown three or four feet apart, in order to have room to weed it thoroughly) is grown one, two, or three feet high, they stick the beans in the ground alongside of the maize-stalks, which serve instead of the poles which we use in our Fatherland, for beans to grow on. In New Netherland, the beans are raised on the maize-stalks, which grow as high as a man can reach, and higher, according to the fertility of the soil. There are also pumpkins, water-melons, and melons. They (the Indians) dry the nuts of trees, and use them for food. There are also ground-nuts and white ground-nuts, which are poisonous to eat—a mason of the Company having died in consequence of eating one of them. There also grow here hazel-nuts, large nuts in great quantities, chestnuts, which they dry to eat, and wild grapes in great abundance. Our Netherlanders raise good wheat, rye, barley, oats, and peas, and can brew as good beer here as in our Fatherland, for good hops grow in the woods; and they can produce enough of those things which depend on labour, as everything can be grown which grows in Holland, England, or France, and they are in want of nothing but men to do the work. It is a pleasant and charming country, which should be well peopled by our nation only. Medlars grow wild and reversely from what they do in our country, as they grow in Holland open and
broad above, but here they grow up sharp, the reverse of those in Holland. Mulberry trees there are too, so that silkworms could be raised, and good silk made; and good hemp and flax, but the Indians use a kind of hemp, which they understand making up, much stronger than ours is, and for every necessary purpose, such as notassen, (which are their sacks, and in which they carry everything); they also make linen of it. They gather their maize and French beans the last of September and October, and when they have shelled the corn, they bury it in holes, which they have previously covered with mats, and so keep as much as they want for the winter and while hunting. They sow the maize in April and May.
Of the Animals and Cattle, and how they hunt and catch them.
There are great quantities of deer, which the Indians shoot with their bows and arrows, or make a general hunt of, a hundred more or less joining in the hunt. They stand a hundred paces more or less from each other, and holding flat thigh-bones in the hand, beat them with a stick, and so drive the creatures before them to the river. As they approach the river, they close nearer to each other, and whatever is between any two of them, is at the mercy of their bows and arrows, or must take to the river. When the animals swim into the river, the Indians lie in their canoes with snares, which they throw around their necks and drag them to them, and force the deer down with the rump upwards, by which they cannot draw
breath. At the north, they drive them into a *fuyk*,* which they make of palisades split out of trees, and eight or nine feet high, and set close to each other, for a distance of fourteen or fifteen hundred paces on both sides, coming together like a fuyk, as is shown in the plates; the opening is one to two thousand paces wide. When the animal is within the palisades, the Indians begin to come nearer to each other, and pursue it with great ardour, as they regard deer-hunting the noblest hunting. At the end of the fuyk it is so narrow that it is only five feet wide, like a large door, and it is there covered with the boughs of trees, into which the deer or animal runs, closely pursued by the Indians, who make a noise as if they were wolves, by which many deer are devoured, and of which they are in great fear. This causes them to run into the mouth of the fuyk with great force, whither the Indians pursue them furiously with bows and arrows, and from whence they cannot escape; they are then easily caught with snares, as may be seen in the plate. There are elks, chiefly in the mountains; also hares, but they are not larger than the rabbits in Holland; foxes in abundance, multitudes of wolves, wild cats, squirrels,—black as pitch, and gray, also flying squirrels,—beavers in great numbers, minks, otters, pole-cats, bears, and many kinds of fur-bearing animals, which I cannot name or think of. The Indians understand the preparing of deer-skins, of which they make shoes and stockings, after their fashion, for the winter.
* A peculiar form of net, large at the entrance, and terminating in a snare.
Of the Fowl which come in the River, and the Achter Col.*
There are great numbers of two kinds of geese, which stay here through the winter, by thousands, and which afford fine sport with the gun. One kind is the grey geese, which weigh fifteen or sixteen pounds each; the other they call whiteheads, weighing six or seven pounds, very numerous, flying by thousands, and of good flavour. There are large quantities of ducks, which keep along the saltwater shore, and gulls, small star-birds,† snipes, curlews, and many other shore-birds, which I cannot give the names of. The geese and ducks come here in September and leave in April. Many of the Indians say that they go to the river of Canada, where they breed their young; for the fishermen who sail to Newfoundland, find them there in great numbers in the summer time, when they are fishing there. On the fresh water are many swans. Land birds are also very numerous, such as wild turkeys, which weigh from thirty to thirty-six and fifty pounds, and which fly wild, for they can fly one or two thousand paces, and then fall down, tired with flying, when they are taken by the Indians with their hands, who also shoot them with bows and arrows. Partridges are numerous, but they are small. There are meadow-hens, as large as a year-old hen, and with feathers like those of a partridge; and white and grey herons in great numbers. Nothing is wanted but good marksmen with powder and shot. Pigeons, at the time of
* Newark Bay.
† Star vogeljies.
year when they migrate, are so numerous, that the light can hardly be discerned where they fly. There are white and gray cranes, and a species of blackbird, as large as what is called in our country the starling or thrush, and which makes its appearance at harvest, when the corn named maize is ripe. These birds are called maize-thieves, because they fall upon the corn by thousands, and do great damage. I have seen one of our Netherlanders kill, in the commander's orchard at Fort Amsterdam, eighty-four of these birds at one shot. They are good-tasted, and similar to the thrushes in Fatherland. I have also seen, at different times, thirty to thirty-four pigeons killed at one shot, but they are not larger than turtle-doves, and their bodies are exactly like those of the turtle-doves in Fatherland, except they have longer tails.
Of the kinds of Fish which frequent the Sea and River as far up as the brackish and fresh water.
There are different kinds of fine fish on the seacoast for the wants of man, similar to those in Holland, as the codfish (in winter), haddock, plaice, flounders, herring, sole, and many more kinds of which I cannot give the names. There is a species of fish which by our people is called the twelve,* and which has scales like a salmon, and on each side six black streaks, which I suppose is the reason they call it twelve. It is the size of a codfish, very delicate, and good-tasted for eating; the head is the best, as it is full of brains like
* Striped bass.
a lamb's head. The fish comes from the sea into the river in the spring, about the last of March and April, and continues until the last of May. It is caught in large quantities and dried by the Indians,—for at this time the squaws are engaged in sowing their maize, and cultivating the land, and the men go a-fishing in order to assist their wives a little by their draughts of fish. Sometimes they catch them with seines from seventy to eighty fathoms in length, which they braid themselves, and on which, in place of lead, they hang stones, and instead of the corks which we put on them to float them, they fasten small sticks of an ell in length, round and sharp at the end. Over the purse, they have a figure made of wood, resembling the devil, and when the fish swim into the net and come to the purse, so that the figure begins to move, they then begin to cry out and call upon the mannetoe, that is, the devil, to give them many fish. They catch great quantities of this fish; which they also catch in little set-nets, six or seven fathoms long, braided like a herring-net. They set them on sticks into the river, one, and one and a half fathoms deep. There is also another kind of fish on the seacoast, which is called thirteen* by us, because it is larger than the twelve. The scales of the thirteen are yellow like those of the carp, to which it is not unlike in shape. It is of the size of a codfish. Herring also come into the river. There is a species of fish caught on the shore, called by us stone-bream, and by the English schip-sheet, that is to say, sheep's-head, for the reason that its mouth is
* Drum-fish.
full of teeth, above and below, like a sheep's head. Sturgeon are numerous in the brackish water, and as high up in the fresh water as Fort Orange. There are many kinds of fish which we have not in our Fatherland, so that I cannot name them all. In the fresh waters, are pike, perch, roach, and trout. There are fine oysters, large and small, in great abundance. In the summertime crabs come on the flat shores, very good tasted. Their claws are of the colour of the flag of our Prince of Orange, white and blue, so that the crabs show sufficiently that we ought, and that it belongs to us, to people the country.
In what manner the Indians bury their Dead.
They make a large grave, and line it inside with boughs of trees, in which they lay the corpse, so that no earth can touch it. They then cover this with clay, and form the grave, seven or eight feet, in the shape of a sugar-loaf, and place palisades around it. I have frequently seen the wife of the deceased come daily to the grave, weeping and crying, creeping over it with extended body, and grieving for the death of her husband. The oldest wife by whom he has had children does this; the young wife does not make much ado about it, but looks out for another husband. They keep a portion of the dead in the house. I have seen at the North, great multitudes of Indians assembled, who had collected together the bones of their ancestors, cleaned them, and bound them up in small bundles. They dig a square grave, the size and length of a person, and over it erect
four pillars, which they cover with the bark of trees, as may be seen in the plate;* they set a time when they will bury them, when all the friends will have a great gathering, and bring ample supplies of provisions. It is accordingly announced in their village, that a great festival is to be held, with frolic and dancing. This festival continues ten days, during which time their friends come from other nations on all sides, in order to see it held, and the accompanying ceremonies, which are attended with great expense. Under cover of these ceremonies, dances, feasts, and meetings, they contract new alliances of friendship with their neighbours; saying, that as the bones of their ancestors and friends are together in the little bundles (which appear in the plate), so may their bones be together in the same place, and that as long as their lives shall last, they should be united in friendship and concord, as were their ancestors and friends, without being able to be separated from each other, like as the bones of the ancestors and friends of each other were mingled together. One of them—their chief, a magician—delivers a speech over the bones (saying), "that if they remain thus united, their enemies can have no power over them." They then bury the bones in the grave, with a parcel of Zeewan, and with arrows, kettles, knives, paper, and other knick-knacks, which are held in great esteem by them, and cover them with earth, and place palisades around them as before related. Such is the custom on the
* The reference to figures in different portions of the narrative, is made to plates in the original work. See Introduction.
coast in regard to the dead. The chief doctrine held among them is the belief in the immortality of the soul by some. Others are sceptical on this point, but not far from it, saying, when they die they go to a place where they sing like the ravens; but this singing is entirely different from the singing of the angels.
How the Indians at the North arm themselves when they go to War.
When I was at the North, I saw Indians who were going to war. They were armed as the figures show: their weapons were bows and arrows in the manner shown, which they carry daily, and each one had in his hand a shield of leather as thick as buffalo-skin. I took it to be elk's-hide, as these animals are numerous there. If they wish to take a journey in winter, when there is snow on the ground, they bind two things under their feet, like the racket with which we strike the balls at tennis, in order to prevent them from sinking in the snow, as may be seen on the figure (of the man), who is accompanied by his wife.
This* is a Representation of them when they dance and have a Feast.
When they dance they stand two and two beside each other, which I have seen at the north. They dance in two, three, and four pairs. The first pair carry a tortoise in their hands, as this nation say that
* Referring to the plate.
they have descended from a tortoise-father, at which I laughed. They then asked me where our first father came from. I said he was called Adam, and was made of earth. They said I was a fool to say that he was made of a thing that had no life. I replied that it was full of life, for it produced all the fruit upon which they lived. They answered that the sun, which they looked upon as God, produced it, for in summer he drew the leaves from the trees, and all the fruits from the ground.
The 22d February, there broke out a war among the Indians. The Mayckanders, who came from Fort Orange, wanted to levy a contribution upon the Indians of Wickqua-geek and Tapaen, and of the adjacent villages. There were eighty to ninety of them, each with a gun on his shoulder. There came flying to my house, four to five hundred Indians, desiring that I would protect them. I answered them that I could not do it, as the Indians at Fort Orange were our friends, and that we could not interfere in their wars; that I now saw that they were children, that they were flying on all sides from eighty or ninety men, when they were themselves so many hundred strong; that it was displeasing to me that they should be such soldiers, as it was to manetoe himself,—that is to say, the devil; but that I saw now that they were only children. As my house was full of Indians, and I had only five men with me, I made ready to go to the fort to obtain some soldiers for the purpose of having more force in my house. So I took a canoe, as my
boat was frozen up in the kil, and went in the canoe, or hollow tree, which is their boat, as before related, between the cakes of ice, over the river to Fort Amsterdam, where I requested Governor Kieft to assist me with some soldiers, as I was not master of my own house, because it was so full of Indians, although I was not afraid that they would do any harm; but it was proper that I should be master of my own house. The Governor said he had no soldiers; that I must see how it would be in the morning, and stop at night with him, which I did. The next day the Indians came in troops on foot from my house to Pavonia, by the Oysterbank, where the great body of them encamped. Some of them came over the river from Pavonia to the fort. I spoke to some of them, and they said that they had all left my house. These Indians went to Correlaer's bouwery, where there were some Indians from Reckeweek, opposite the fort, on Long Island, who were under a chief, named Nummerus, whom I well knew.
The 24th of February, sitting at the table with the governor, he began to state his intentions, that he had a mind to wipe the mouths of the Indians; that he had been dining at the house of Jan Claesz. Damen, where Maryn Adriaensz and Jan Claesz. Damen, together with Jacob Planck, had presented a petition to him to begin this work. I answered him that there was no sufficient reason to undertake it; that such work could not be done without the approbation of the twelve men; that it could not take place without my assent, who was one of the twelve men; that moreover I was the first patroon, and no one else hitherto had
risked there so many thousands, and besides being pat-
roon, I was the first to come from Holland or Zeeland
to plant a colony; and that he should consider what
profit he could derive from this business, as he well
knew that on account of trifling with the Indians, we
had lost our colony in the South river at Swanendael,
in the Hoere-kil, with thirty-two men, who were mur-
dered in the year 1630; and that in the year 1640, the
cause of my people being murdered on Staten Island
was a difficulty which he had with the Raritaense
Indians, where his soldiers had for some trifling thing
killed some Indians, and brought the brother of the
chief a prisoner to the Mannates, who was ransomed
there, as I have before more particularly related. But
it appeared that my speaking was of no avail. He
had, with his co-murderers, determined to commit the
murder, deeming it a Roman deed, and to do it with-
out warning the inhabitants in the open lands, that
each one might take care of himself against the retalia-
tion of the Indians, for he could not kill all the In-
dians. When I had expressed all these things in full,
sitting at the table, and the meal was over, he told me
he wished me to go to the large hall, which he had
been lately adding to his house. Coming to it, there
stood all his soldiers ready to cross the river to
Pavonia to commit the murder. Then spoke I again
to Governor William Kieft: "Stop this work; you
wish to break the mouths of the Indians, but you will
also murder our own nation, for there are none of the
farmers who are aware of it. My own dwelling, my
people, cattle, corn, and tobacco will be lost." He
answered me, assuring me that there would be no danger; that some soldiers should go to my house to protect it. But that was not done. So was this business begun between the 25th and 26th of February in the year 1643. I remained that night at the governor's, sitting up. I went and sat in the kitchen, when, about midnight, I heard a great shrieking, and I ran to the ramparts of the fort, and looked over to Pavonia. Saw nothing but firing, and heard the shrieks of the Indians murdered in their sleep. I returned again to the house by the fire. Having sat there awhile, there came an Indian with his squaw, whom I knew well, and who lived about an hour's walk from my house, and told me that they two had fled in a small skiff; that they had betaken themselves to Pavonia; that the Indians from Fort Orange had surprised them; and that they had come to conceal themselves in the fort. I told them that they must go away immediately; that there was no occasion for them to come to the fort to conceal themselves; that they who had killed their people at Pavonia were not Indians, but the Swannekes, as they call the Dutch, had done it. They then asked me how they should get out of the fort. I took them to the door, and there was no sentry there, and so they betook themselves to the woods. When it was day, the soldiers returned to the fort, having massacred or murdered eighty Indians, and considering they had done a deed of Roman valour, in murdering so many in their sleep; where infants were torn from their mother's breasts, and hacked to pieces in the presence of the parents, and the pieces thrown into the fire and in the water, and other sucklings were bound to small boards, and then cut, stuck,
and pierced, and miserably massacred in a manner to move a heart of stone. Some were thrown into the river, and when the fathers and mothers endeavoured to save them, the soldiers would not let them come on land, but made both parents and children drown,—children from five to six years of age, and also some old and decrepit persons. Many fled from this scene, and concealed themselves in the neighbouring sedge, and when it was morning, came out to beg a piece of bread, and to be permitted to warm themselves; but they were murdered in cold blood and tossed into the water. Some came by our lands in the country with their hands, some with their legs cut off, and some holding their entrails in their arms, and others had such horrible cuts and gashes, that worse than they were could never happen. And these poor simple creatures, as also many of our own people, did not know any better than that they had been attacked by a party of other Indians,—the Maquas. After this exploit, the soldiers were rewarded for their services, and Director Kieft thanked them by taking them by the hand and congratulating them. At another place, on the same night, at Corler's Hook on Corler's plantation, forty Indians were in the same manner attacked in their sleep, and massacred there in the same manner as the Duke of Alva did in the Netherlands, but more cruelly. This is indeed a disgrace to our nation, who have so generous a governor in our Fatherland as the Prince of Orange, who has always endeavoured in his wars to spill as little blood as possible. As soon as the Indians understood that the Swannekens had so treated them, all the men whom they could surprise on
the farm-lands, they killed; but we have never heard that they have ever permitted women or children to be killed. They burned all the houses, farms, barns, grain, haystacks, and destroyed everything they could get hold of. So there was an open destructive war begun. They also burnt my farm, cattle, corn, barn, tobacco-house, and all the tobacco. My people saved themselves in the house where I lived, which was made with embrasures, through which they defended themselves. Whilst my people were in this state of alarm, the Indian whom I had aided to escape from the fort came there, and told the other Indians that I was a good chief, that I had helped him out of the fort, and that the killing of the Indians took place contrary to my wish. Then they all cried out together to my people that they would not shoot them; that if they had not destroyed my cattle they would not do it; that they would not burn my house; that they would let my little brewery stand, though they had melted the copper-kettle, in order to make darts for their arrows; but hearing now that it (the massacre) had been done contrary to my wish, they all went away, and left my house unbesieged. When now the Indians had destroyed so many farms and men in revenge for their people, I went to Governor William Kieft, and asked him if it was not as I had said it would be, that he would only effect the spilling of Christian blood. Who would now compensate us for our losses? But he gave me no answer. He said he wondered that no Indians came to the fort. I told him that I did not wonder at it; "why should the Indians come here where you have so treated them?"
The 4th of March, there came three Indians upon Long Island, with a small white flag, and called out to the fort. Then Governor William Kieft asked who would go over to them. There was no one who was willing to do so, among all of them, except Jacob Olfersz and I, David Pietersz. de Vries. We went to the three Indians. They told us that they came from their chief, who had sent them to know the cause why some of his Indians had been killed, who had never laid a straw in our way, and who had done us nothing but favours? We answered them that we did not know that any of their Indians were among them. They then said we must go and speak with their chief, who had fled seven miles from there on the seacoast. We resolved to go with the Indians, for we believed that they were well disposed towards us two.
At evening we arrived at Rechqua Akie, where we found the chief, who had only one eye, with two or three hundred Indians, and about thirty houses. They led us into his house, and treated us to what they had, as oysters, and fish, which they catch there; told us we were tired, and must rest a little; they would early in the morning speak to us about the business upon which we had come there. During the night, I went out of the house, when there came an Indian to me, as the moon was shining, and told me I must come into his hut. I then went into his hut, and by the light saw he was an Indian, who lived half a mile from my house at Vriessendael, with his squaws, who lived there with him, at which I was alarmed. Then he assured me, saying, that I was a good chief, and that I came to make Rancontyn
that is, in their language, to make a peace. I asked them how they came so far from their dwelling. They answered that they were out a-hunting with these Indians, and had friends among them. I then returned to my comrade in the house of the chief. When the day began to dawn, we were awakened, and taken by an Indian, who led us into the woods about four hundred paces from the houses, and when we came there, sixteen chiefs were there of this Long Island, which is thirty miles long. They placed us two by ourselves, and seated themselves around us, so that we sat within a ring. There was one among them who had a small bundle of sticks, and was the best speaker, who began his oration in Indian. He told how we first came upon their coast; that we sometimes had no victuals; they gave us their Turkish beans and Turkish wheat, they helped us with oysters and fish to eat, and now for a reward we had killed their people. Then he laid down one of the sticks, which was one point. He related also that at the beginning of our voyaging there, we left our people behind with the goods to trade, until the ships should come back;* they had preserved these people like the apple of their eye; yea, they had given them their daughters to sleep with, by whom they had begotten children, and there ran many an Indian who was begotten by a Swanneken, but now our people had become so villainous as to kill their own blood. He then laid down another stick. This laying down of sticks began to be tedious to me, as I saw that he had
* See Note A.
many still in his hand. I told him that I knew all these things which he had told; that as to what happened to the Indians of Long Island, we were ignorant of any of them being with the other Indians; they should go with us to the fort, where the governor would give them presents for a peace. The speaking now ceased and they gave to each of us ten fathoms of Zeewan,—which is their money,—each fathom being worth four guilders. Then they all rose up and said that they would go with us to the fort, and speak with our governor William Kieft. We went to the canoes for the purpose of going, and to make the journey shorter than when we came, for it took full three hours to go. When we reached the canoes, we found that the tide had not yet begun to make, and that we must wait some time before it would be flood. In the mean time, an Indian came running up with a bow and arrow, who had come on a run six miles on behalf of a chief who had not been with us, and asked the chiefs who were going with us to the fort if they were so foolish as to go to the fort where there was such a villain, who had caused their friends to be so foully murdered; and who, when so many of the chiefs were together at the fort, would keep them there, and thus all the Indians would be in distress, being without heads or chiefs, and the chief from whom he came would be entirely without advisers. They then asked us two if we understood what he said. We answered that this was a silly Indian, that they would find it otherwise, and would return home with good presents. Then one of the chiefs who knew me said we will go on the faith of your word, for the Indians have never
found you to lie as they have the other Swannekens. Finally, twenty of us went sitting in a canoe or hollow tree, which is their boat, and the edge was not more than a hand's-breadth above the water. Arrived at the fort about three o'clock in the afternoon. William Kieft came and made peace with the Indians, and gave them some presents. He requested them to bring those chiefs to the fort who had lost so many Indians, as he wished also to make a peace with them, and to give them presents. Then some of them went and brought the Indians of Ackin-sack and Tapaen and the vicinity, and the chiefs came forward, to whom he made presents; but they were not well content with them. They told me that he could have made it, by his presents, that those days would never again be spoken of; but now it might fall out that the infants upon the small boards would be remembered. They then went away grumbling with their presents.
The 20th of July, a chief of the Indians came to me, and told me that he was very sad. I asked him wherefor. He said that there were many of the Indian youths, who were constantly wishing for a war against us, as one had lost his father, another his mother, a third his uncle, and also their friends, and that the presents or recompense were not worth taking up; and that he would much rather have made presents out of his own purse to quiet them; but he could no longer keep them still, and that I must be careful in going alone in the woods; that those who knew me would do me no harm, but I might meet Indians who did not know me, who would shoot me. I told him that he ought to go to Commander Kieft at the fort,
and tell the same things to him. We went to the fort, and coming to the commander, the chief of these Indians told the same things to him. Commander Kieft told this Indian he was a chief of the Indians, and must kill these young madcaps who wished to engage in a war with the Swannekeens, and he would give him two hundred fathoms of Zeewan. I then laughed within myself, that the Indian should kill his friends for two hundred fathoms of Zeewan,—that is eight hundred guilders,—to gratify us. It is true that they do so towards each other, when they are at enmity with each other, but not at the will of foreigners. Then the Indian said this could not be done by him; that there were many malcontents. Had he (the governor) paid richly for the murder, it would have been entirely forgotten. He himself would do his best to keep them quiet, but he was afraid he could not, for they were continually calling for vengeance.
The 28th of September, arrived a herring buss from Rotterdam; the master was named Jacob Blenck. He was laden with a hundred pipes of Madeira wine, and had come by the way of the West Indies, wishing to go to the Virginias, but could not find them, and had sailed quite to New England. He could not sell his wine there, because the English there live soberly. He was compelled to return, and came along the coast inside of Long Island, through Hellgate to Fort Amsterdam; and coming here he could not expose his wines for sale, because here was a tax upon wines which the Company had established. He sold his wines to an Englishman to be taken to the Virginias. As he could find no one who could pilot him to the Virginias,
he asked me if I would take him there, as he understood that I wished to go there in order to take a well-mounted ship for Patria, because my farms, where I had begun my colonies, were lying in ashes; and the Indians were discontented and desired to go to war again, or to have satisfaction. I promised the skipper that I would take him there, and told him that he must provide himself with provisions here, for it was difficult to obtain them in the Virginias, because every one there only produced for himself.
The 1st of October, nine Indians came to the fort at Pavonia, where there were three or four soldiers stationed to protect a farmer who lived there, named Jacob Stoffelsz, towards whom they were so well disposed, that they did not wish to kill him. So they made a pretended errand, and persuaded him to go over to the fort (Amsterdam), and he came over accordingly; then they went under the guise of friendship, when the soldiers had no arms in their hands, and killed them all, except the son of his wife by a former marriage, whom they took with them captive to Tapaen. They set fire to the farm-house and all the other houses at Pavonia; and thus began a new war. The next day the governor came to me with the stepfather of the boy that was made prisoner by the Indians. He was the son of Cornelis Van Vorst. The governor asked me if I would go to the Indians to obtain the release of the boy, as nobody dare go to the Indians except me. I said I would speak to one or two Indians; but if I brought them to the fort, they must not be misused, for they would come with me upon my word. So I went over to Long Island
and brought with me two Indians to go to Tapaen to obtain the release of the boy. When I brought the Indians over, every one wanted to kill them, and I had enough to do to save them. I took them to a privateer which was lying there, which carried them away, and they released the boy.
The 8th of the same month I took my leave of Commander Kieft, and left in the Rotterdammer buss for the English Virginias; and, in taking leave of William Kieft, I told him that this murder which he had committed was so much innocent blood; that it would yet be avenged upon him, and thus I left him. Sailed past Staten Island to the headland at Sandy Hook, where we were detained two days by contrary winds. Picked each day some blue-plums, which are abundant there, and grow there naturally wild.*
The 11th, weighed anchor to sail from Sandy Hook to the Virginias, with a north-west wind and a weather shore.
The 12th, at daylight, the wind from the south-east straight on a leeshore, and it began to blow hard. We were in twelve fathoms water. When it was day, the skipper asked me if I knew where I was. I told him we must run into eight or nine fathoms, when we would be able to distinguish the land; but he was afraid of the shore, as he had never been here. Finally ran into shallower water, when he asked me if I knew the country. I said, Yes; and I saw that we were by Cape May, before the South river. He then inquired of me whether we could not sail straight in. I said,
* These plums are still found there.
No; that it was all over full of shoals, that we must enter at the south-west side. He then threw the lead, and had four fathoms, at which he was startled. I told him he must lay down the lead; that of my own knowledge it was all a shoal there. We then came by Cape Huiloopen in deep water, when I told him he might throw the lead, and he would find eight to nine fathoms, as he ran into the South Bay, close by the shore. We sailed in by the shore, and he said: "I was in this same place over seven weeks, and there were Indians here on land, and a-fishing, and I went ashore with my skiff, and spoke Spanish to them, but they could not understand me. It was so full of shoals, I ran again out to sea and proceeded to New England." Then I said to the skipper: "Had you known the Indian language as I know it, you would not have sailed to New England. This land is called Swanendael, and these Indians destroyed a colony in the year 1630, which I began. Had you been able to speak to them, they would have taken you up the river to the Swedes, or to our people, who would have informed you that you had passed by the Virginias." I sailed up the Bay west by north along the west shore; at evening came before the river by the Ruige-Bosjen, where we anchored in four fathoms, hard bottom, and in the morning weighed anchor.
The 13th, sailed by Reed Island, and came to the Verdena-skil, where there was a fort constructed by the Swedes, with three angles, from which they fired for us to strike our flag. The skipper asked me if he should strike it. I answered him, "If I were in a ship belonging to myself, I would not strike it, because I had
been a patroon of New Netherland, and the Swedes were a people who came into our river; but you come here by contrary winds and for the purposes of trade, and it is therefore proper that you should strike." Then the skipper struck his flag, and there came a small skiff from the Swedish fort, with some Swedes in it, who inquired of the skipper with what he was laden. He told them with Madeira wine. We asked them whether the governor was in the fort. They answered, No; that he was at the third fort up the river, to which we sailed, and arrived at about four o'clock in the afternoon, and went to the governor, who welcomed us. He was named Captain Prins, and a man of brave size, who weighed over four hundred pounds. He asked the skipper if he had ever been in this river before, who said he had not. How then had he come in where it was so full of shoals? He pointed to me, that I had brought him in. Then the governor's koopman, who knew me, and who had been at Fort Amsterdam, said that I was a patroon of Swanendael at the entrance of the Bay, destroyed by the Indians in the year 1630, when no Swedes were known upon this river. He (the governor) then had a silver mug brought, with which he treated the skipper with beer, and a large glass of Rhenish wine, which was given to me. The skipper traded some wines and sweetmeats with him for peltries, beaver-skins, and staid here five days from contrary winds. I went once to Fort Nassau, which lies a mile higher up, in which the people of the West India Company were. I remained there a half a day, and took my leave of them, and returned at evening to the Governor of the Swedes.
The 19th, I went with the governor to the Minekquas-kil, where their first fort was, and where there were some houses. In this little fort there were some iron guns. I staid here at night with the governor, who treated me well. In the morning, the ship was lying before the Minekquas-kil. I took my leave of the governor, who accompanied me on board. We fired a salute for him, and thus parted from him; weighed anchor, and got under sail, and came to the first fort. Let the anchor fall again, and went on land to the fort, which was not entirely finished; it was made after the English plan, with three angles close by the river. There were lying there six or eight brass pieces, twelve-pounders. The skipper exchanged here some of his wines for beaver-skins.
The 20th of October, took our departure from the last fort, or first in sailing up the river, called Elsenburg. The second fort of the Swedes is named Fort Christian; the third, New Gottenburg. We weighed anchor and sailed from the river; arrived at noon at Cape Hinloopen, and put to sea. Set our course along the coast south-west, quite southerly at first.
The 21st, we arrived in the Virginias, and passed by the fort into the Bay of Kicketaan, where the skipper inquired for his factor, to whom he had letters, who immediately came aboard, and directed that he should sail up the river with his wines to Jamestown, where the governor has his residence.
The 22d, we arrived before Jamestown, in our language called Jacob-Stadt—so named after the old king. I went with the skipper to the governor, who inquired whence he came, and what lading he brought. He said
that he was consigned to a factor, and had sold his wines. Some Englishmen stood there who knew me, and that I had been in the Virginias before, in the time of other governors, and that I was the captain who, in the year 1635, when the Tortugas behind the Island of Spaniola were overrun, had saved the lives of fifty Englishmen who were wandering on the sea, almost without provisions, and would have perished if I had not saved them and brought them to the Virginias, where many of them still lived. This they told to the governor, although they said I had not spoken of it. There was a person interpreting the skipper, and they told the governor that I could speak good English, although I had been silent. Then the governor asked me why I came there, as he understood I had been there with my ships in the times of other governors. I answered him that I had begun to make a colony at the Dutch plantation upon Staten Island, but it was destroyed through the acts of the governor, who had provoked a war with the Indians, so that I came here to seek a passage to London, and thence to my Patria. He said I must remain the winter here, until the ships should leave with tobacco in the spring; and he would provide me a good ship, in which I would be well treated; but I must remain with him till then, and I should have as good as he had himself, for I was a man who had seen the world, and had sailed as a commander over all of it; that he had heard many speak of me before I came into the country now; that I had treated their nation well, and on that account he should use me well, and would have my society during the winter, as he was fond of,
and in need of society. This governor was named Sir William Berkeley Knight. I thanked him for his kind offer, and said that I had promised the skipper to aid him, as he had never been here; but I would try to come occasionally for four or five days; which I did do. We proceeded with the ship one hundred and seven miles further up the river to Florida, where we discharged a portion of the wine; and I went daily from one plantation to another, until the ships were ready, and had their cargoes of tobacco. I saw here the old practice of the English of losing their servants by gambling. I also saw here an Indian and a squaw of this country, whom they call Saske Anneecks, habited as shown in this plate. I occasionally examined their plantations, and found that the lands which had been exhausted by tobacco-planting, were now sown with fine wheat, and some of them with flax. This should be done in New Netherland. Here were now lying full thirty ships to be laden with tobacco, altogether fine English ships of twenty-four to twenty-eight, and eighteen guns, and also four Holland ships, which make a great trade here every year. This should be done in New Netherland, for it is all one kind of tobacco that grows here and in New Netherland, and also in the South river, where it is not different, and in process of time twenty ships could be used in New Netherland; and ships with grain also go from thence with hemp and flax. Nothing is wanting but to carry men there, for the land upon this coast is very fertile. And to this end a law should be enacted, forbidding leaf-tobacco, which the English bring here; as the English have done in their country, forbidding
foreign ships to take tobacco from there. Then would New Netherland quickly flourish; for now all that is carried from New Netherland, amount yearly in pelttries to a hundred thousand guilders, or hardly so much, and the members of the Company are so jealous of each other, that it is not worth the while to have a company, for they are at a great expense there; but the land being free, as in the English Virginias, every one working for his own nation, and everything produced by labour out of the ground, millions would be returned, and the land populated at once; there would be no want of cargoes of the productions of the earth, as there is of pelttries. Such would be the result of labour, as everything in the Eastern countries, and in other lands, is produced by it, corn, hemp, and flax. In course of time the country would become populous; and if we should again engage in a war with our old enemy, the King of Spain, we would be able to do him great damage in the West Indies, for we could sail from this country to the West Indies in from fourteen days to three weeks; but it takes sometimes three or four months from the Texel. We could proceed from here, and have every opportunity to make and equip our ships, and furnish them with provisions in New Netherland.
The 10th of April, as I had now passed most of my time, during the winter, in going up and down the river, I went down to Jamestown to the governor, to thank him for the friendship which had been shown me by him through the winter. There was lying there a brave ship of twenty-eight guns, to the captain of which he recommended me to go over with
him, who answered that the best in the cabin was at my service, and that I must have my goods carried on board. In going down to Jamestown on board of a sloop, a sturgeon sprang out of the river into the sloop. We killed it, and it was eight feet long. This river is full of sturgeon, as also are the two rivers of New Netherland. When the English first began to plant their colony here, there came an English ship from England for the purpose of fishing for sturgeon; but they found that this fishery would not answer, because it is so hot in summer, which is the best time for fishing, that the salt or pickle would not keep them as in Muscovy, whence the English obtain many sturgeon, and where the climate is colder than in the Virginias.
The 13th of the same month, took my leave of the governor, with my thanks, and drifted down the river to Blank Point, where there was a large fly-boat lying, mounting twelve guns, from Brustock, and there came two Londoners sailing down the river, intending to capture this fly-boat from Brustock (Bristol), because the Brustock people adhered to the King, and the Londoners to the Parliament. So there was a sharp engagement with the fly-boat, which sailed into the creek at Blank Point, and the Londoners could not get nearer to it than a couple of musket shots, because their ships drew too much water. They did what damage they could to each other with cannon shot, and some people were killed. At evening they ceased firing. We went on board of one of the London ships at evening, which did not now come to the land, because the governor and all the people of the country
were in favour of the King. These two ships were compelled to go to London without tobacco. They went in company with us. I was on board of one of these Londoners the night, and in the morning I went into the creek at Blank Point, and went on board of the fly-boat from Brust, which was damaged some by the two ships, and had lost a man who was a planter of the country, who had come on board to buy some goods. After we had examined her, we went ashore at Blank Point, where a captain lives who is one of the council of the country, and holds a court every week. He has three or four persons of his council sitting with him. There all suits are tried, and those who are not satisfied with the judgment which is given, appeal to Jamestown, where a monthly court is held by the governor, who presides, and all the captains of the country, who are the judges. Every two or three miles has a captain, according as the places are populated. I passed the night here with this captain, whose name was Captain Matthews, and who was the first who began to populate this part of the Virginias. Although the Virginias are so unhealthy, they contain ten or eleven thousand men and women.
The 25th († 15th) of April I took my leave of this captain, who was a good friend to me, and with whom I had formerly good correspondence. The English there are very hospitable, but they are not proper persons to trade with. You must look out when you trade with them, Peter is always by Paul, or you will be struck in the tail; for if they can deceive any one, they account it among themselves a Roman action. They say in their language, "He played him an
English tricks;" and then they have themselves well-
esteemed. After I had taken my departure, I went
leisurely walking to Newport, where the English ship
was lying, taking in water, a ship of twenty-eight
guns. Whilst I was on my way, it became very foggy
in the woods where I was walking, and I could not
see the sun. I came to two roads, and did not know
which to take. I at length took the largest road,
which led me to a pond of fresh water, which was four
or five hundred paces in circumference, and about five
or six feet deep, and there ran across it a dyke, over
fifty paces long, and about six feet broad, which was
made by the animal they call the beaver. It was set
with stakes in the ground as thick as my arm, and
boughs and earth had been brought in, as if done by
men's hands. The trees stood there, from which this
animal had sawed off the boughs with his teeth. It
was wonderful to see that such an animal could make
a dyke to hold the water so that it could not run out
in the summer; and it was also wonderful to see that
this animal had built a little house on the side of this
pool, in shape like a hive, about one and a half fathoms
high, with three stories. When the water of this
pool rises in the winter, he retires to the highest
story. The house has eight or ten holes; if they are
beset when they are in their houses, they have holes
through which they can take to the water. On what-
ever side they may be attacked, they have a way of
escape. These animals are good to eat, and taste like
lamb's flesh; I have eaten of it several times. I pro-
ceeded on my journey, and went wandering in the
woods, and was afraid that I had, in consequence of
the fog, missed my way, and that this beaver's path had misled me, and the evening was coming on apace. At last I saw at a distance an old burnt tree, to which I came. It appeared to have been burnt by the Indians, as the Indians in New Netherland do, where by every spring an old tree is to be found burnt. I went by this spring to rest myself, and put my ear to the ground to listen if I could hear the voices or noise of men. I could hear nothing. I took a pipe of tobacco, and drank of the water, which tasted the best I had ever drank. I found water-cresses growing wild at this spring, and I eat of them, and was refreshed. I then heard a great noise, which startled me, as the night was approaching. I looked in the direction the noise came from, and I saw from thirty to forty deer coming on a full run towards me. They came to drink at this spring, and almost ran upon me before they discovered me. It began to clear away, so that I saw the sun, when I found that I had been going away from the habitations. I took my course by the sun, and having run about a half an hour, the sun went down, and I was distressed. At length I heard a dog barking, and I ran towards the noise, and came to a creek where an English house stood, and where they built boats; there was a carpenter there who carried me over the creek, and bid me welcome, and was glad that he had me in his house, as I had, some years ago, on board of my ship, well treated him, and he hoped to treat me well now. He immediately killed a turkey and some chickens. I considered this a better supper than to be lying in the woods all night at the mercy of the wolves and bears, and that without arms.
So I related to him my adventure. I said, in consequence of there being no sun, I had followed the largest path, and had taken the beaver's path. He said that he would in the morning give me a guide who would take me to the great river, and if I went along the stream of the river, I could not go astray. I took my leave of this Englishman in the morning, who had treated me so well, and thanked him for his hospitality. I went thence along the river to Newport, where the ships, eleven in number, were all lying ready for sea, the least of them mounting from eighteen to twenty-eight guns. Went the same evening to Kicketan by the fort.
The 18th, the whole fleet weighed anchor and got under sail. The 1st of May, we sounded in eighty fathoms, sandy bottom, upon the bank which stretches across on the west of Ireland. It began to grow calm. The 2d of May, we obtained sight of England and fourteen English Parliament ships met us. Our eleven prepared to fight them, supposing them to be the King's ships; but coming up to them, found them to be friends; and all sailed on quietly together. Ran along the English coast, and arrived the last of May in the Downs, where I tarried eight or ten days, and heard the shots which were fired before Groening, which the king of France had besieged. The 15th of June, I left the Downs for the Mase, and reached Goree on the morning of the 16th, where I hired a wagon to take me to Bried, and on the morning of the 17th, I arrived at Rotterdam, where I stopped a day or two, and on the 21st of June, in the year 1644, by the mercy of Almighty God, arrived here within
my paternal city of Hoorn, where I have an ancestry of two hundred years on the father's side, and at Amsterdam on my mother's side, and came to my house at three o'clock, for which our God must be eternally praised, that he should have brought me again to my Fatherland, after such long and tedious voyages, and through so many perils of savage heathens.
The Long Island Sachem, in reproaching the Dutch, at Rockaway, for their ingratitude towards his nation, who had given them provisions when they first came upon the coast, and had permitted them to pass the winter among them, with their goods to trade, while their ships returned to Holland, indirectly throws light upon the point which we have been considering, that relation being the first European settlement in the territory of New York. These transactions had happened within the life-time of the speaker, and under his own eyes. The statement was not contradicted by those to whom it was addressed, and who must, in defence of their national character, have repelled it, if false; and it therefore may be taken as strictly true.
Historians of our state, both in and out of it, have sought to give an earlier date to the building of houses on Manhattan Island than any authentic evidence which we have seen will justify, fixing it as early as 1613. The author of this pretension, flattering now perhaps to local pride,—ever anxious to establish an early origin for the state,—but then intended for a fraudulent purpose, was the writer of "The Description of the Province of New Albion." He asserts that Sir Samuel Argall, on his return from his expedition to Nova Scotia, landed at that time on Manhattan Island, where he found some houses. But this assertion is a part only of a gross fabrication, made by the same author, in order to aid a title under the British Crown, as will presently be shown. Contemporaneous authorities enable us to date almost with certainty, when and under what circumstances the settlement took place, and to them we will first direct attention.
Hudson made his discovery in 1609, but remained only a month in the river. The first voyage after his was made by Hendrick Christiaensen (who had passed along the coast in a previous voyage for the West Indies, but did not venture in the river) and Adrian Block, whose character is already noticed, and he sailed up the river on their joint voyage in 1614, and visited Hudson's river, returning to Holland with two Indian youths. The period of their visit is not stated by Wassenaar, who is the principal authority for this voyage; but he expressly states that this was the first voyage, and places it before Christiaensen's connection with the Company, organized under the general authority or grant of the States General of the 27th March, 1614; for he says, that Christiaensen, after he discovered his connection with Block, made ten voyages, the first of these being that of the present voyage in 1614. Of October 1st, 1614, in pursuance of the general one, sets forth that Block and Christiaensen had been on discovery to New Netherland, in command of separate ships, owned by certain private merchants of Amsterdam and Hoorn, therein named,
* Printed in London in 1618, and reprinted by Mr. Force, Washington, 1837.
† Historisch Verhael. Sub anno 1624.
in that year, under the encouragements of the General Oeetrov. So that the partnership of Block and Christiaensen must have been dissolved before then, and allowing time for their return on their own joint voyage previous to the 27th March, 1614, when the General Oeetrov was passed, we may fix the time of that voyage in 1613, or one of the other three years succeeding Hudson's discovery; but in which year in particular, we have no further means of determining, than that De Laet, and after him Stuyvesant (probably on the authority of De Laet), in his letter of the 20th of April, 1650, to the General Court of Massachusetts, say it was 1614. In which event, if it was, there is no further proof of that fact than is here given, which my readers will consequently suppose that they built any habitation. It is true that the West India Company, in a memorial to the States General, in 1654, state that one or two forts were built in New Netherland before 1614, but where they do not say; and it is to be observed that they speak loosely of a fort or forts, which were built by another Company than their own, and are contradicted by earlier authorities.
The second voyage after Hudson's, was that of an expedition sent out by the Association formed under the Oeetrov of March, 1614, by the merchants of Amsterdam and Hoorn, before referred to. It is expressly stated that this voyage was undertaken under the pledges of this Oeetrov; consequently, it was after the 27th March, 1614. There were five ships, among which were the Tiger and the Fortune, under the command, respectively, of Block and Christiaensen, as before stated. It returned, as fairly may be assumed, within fourteen days previous to the granting of the special Oeetrov of the 11th of October, 1614, which, according to the Oeetrov of March, required them to be home within that period after the return from a voyage, to entitle the discoverers to exclusive privileges; and the Resolution of the States General granting those privileges, states the fact that a deputation of these merchants was present to make their report on that day, the 11th of October. It occupied them, therefore, a term of about six months, to sail to and get returns from New Netherland.
The first buildings in New Netherland, of which the Dutch writers make mention, were constructed for defence, and occupied as trading posts and habitations. The first one was built in 1614-15 at Castle Island in the North river near Albany. De Laet says in one place it was 1614, and in another 1615. It was probably constructed as soon after the grant of the exclusive privileges was made to the Private Company as they could send back and have it done, and therefore after October 11th, 1614; or if not then, at all events after the first Oeetrov of March in that year. No mention is made by him, however, of any fort thus early on Manhattan Island.
De Laet also informs us that Block's ship (the Tiger) was accidentally burnt in 1614, and that he constructed here a yacht, with which he explored Long Island Sound, and that while near Cape Cod, he fell in with Christiaensen, and leaving the yacht, returned with him to Holland. The Company, in a memorial to the States General on the 18th of August, 1616, as recited in their resolution of that
* See the Resolution of the States General in Hall, Doc. I. 39.
date, state that the yacht was built on its account; confirming the statement of De Laet that the yacht was built as late as the summer of 1614. This yacht, which was called the Ouyrst, or Restless, was left here in command of Cornelis Hendricksen, who afterwards returned to Holhuland, and made a report of his discoveries in what is called the second voyage of the Company. Hendricksen's report was delivered to the States General on the 18th August, 1615, doubtless immediately on his return home. He was thus two years in New Netherland, those of 1614-15 and 1615-16. The Company continued to have vessels made hither until the expiration of their privilege on the first of January, 1618, when the trade was thrown open, and continued so until the establishment of the West India Company and settlement by it in 1621-3. De Vries, in the passage now under consideration, reports the Indians as stating that the Dutch wintered here for the purpose of disposing of their goods. It is quite certain that Hendricksen was left in charge of them, and made no discovery but the discovery of some of theirs; for he informs us that the yacht built by Blaeck, was kept here for the purpose of trading farther, "mae liet de jacht daar op de eiste om vriete te handelen." It does not appear, if they erected temporary huts to live in, while building the yacht, or in which to store their goods, where they were put up, and from the claim being set forth by a Long Island chief, of aid by his people during the period, it is quite as probable that they were erected on Long Island, or elsewhere than on Manhattan Island, as on that Island.
After the expiration of the three years of exclusive privilege to the company of merchants, voyages continued to be made to the Hudson river on private account, until the establishment of the West India Company, for the purposes of trade, to the post at Castle Island. The first vessels sent out by that Company went up the river with some colonists, who built Fort Orange above the fort of Castle Island, in 1623. In one of these ships, called the New Netherland, were number of families of Walloons, some of whom, according to Beverwijck, settled on Long Island at the bay, from thence called the Winkelbeek, but whether at that time or at a later period, we know not. Wassenaar states that the colony on Manhattan Island was planted, and Fort Amsterdam commenced to be built on it in 1625-6, which is the earliest period which we have seen mentioned of any settlement on that island, by any reliable authority; and it is to be remarked that the same annalist, in speaking of the supplies sent out by the West India Company in the year 1625, says that they were sent to the colony near the Muykane (Mohicans) on the river Manhatta, or in other words to Fort Orange; and is entirely silent as to any other colony already established on this river.
Such succinctly is the history of the progress of the Dutch, as given by themselves, in the territory of the State of New York, until the first settlement on
---
* Holl. Doc. I. 53, & seq.
† De Laet, in Novus Orbis, Book III. c. 7, also speaks of their wintering here. The statement in the Breukin Ruhl, that it took them two winters to build the yacht, is preposterous, as well as the statement of the date of the yacht by De Laet.
‡ Holl. Doc. I. 91. Deringer, in vorige Brief Narration, II and 30, 31. De Laet, in Nieuwe Wereldt, 93. Wassenaar, sub anno 1626. Letter of Sir Dudley Carleton in Lond. Doc. I. 9.
Manhattan Island. There is however, a circumstance derived from another source, corroborative of the view here presented of the point under examination. It is the visit of Captain Thomas Dermer in New York Bay in 1649. This person had been despatched by the Plymouth Company in England, with a ship, to the coast of New England. Leaving his ship at Monhegan, on the coast of Maine, he set out on the 19th of May in that year, in a small pinnace, to explore the coast to the south, for the purpose of discovering a passage to the South Sea; and, "in my way," says he, "I discovered about thirty leagues in length, heretofore taken for nothing." I found I had been embayed, but by the helpe of an Indian, I got to sea again, through many crooked and straight passages. * Once the savages had great advantage of us in a straight not above a horse-shot, and where a multitude of Indians let fly at us from the banke; but it pleased God to make us victors; neere unto this we found a most dangerous catwark amongst small rockie islands, occasioned by two unequal tides, the one ebbing and flowing two houres before the other: here we lost an anchor by the strength of the current, but found it deep enough, floundering there, wee passed in a short space by the same swiftness into a great bay (to us so apparent), but found it both a land, which gave us light of the sea; here, as I said, the land trendeth southerly. In this place I talked with many salvages, who told me of two sundry passages to the great sea on the west; offered me pilots, and one of them drew mee a plot with chalke upon a chest, whereby I found it a great island parted the two seas; they report the one seare passable for shalbs, perillous currents, the other of quetious water, but of no use. Having passed these passages, I came to the sound of greatest hope, where I attempted to make trial of Gods goodness towards us, and use my best endeavour to bring the truth to light, but wee were only sheered the entrance wherein seeking to passe, wee were forced backe with contrary and overbowing windes, hardly escaping both our lives. Being thus overcharged with weather, I stood alonst the coast, &c."* Here we have his passage through Long Island Sound, Hellgate, and the East river, to New York Bay, broken with islands, and through the Bay and Narrows to the ocean. The two passages, which he supposed the Indians meant, were the entrances to the Hudson and Raritan rivers, and the one of those of greatest hope, which he attempted to avoid, was the Hudson. The savages were of the tribes who held the conference with De Vries, and knew whether there were any Dutch on Manhattan Island; yet Dermer saw no buildings, or other indications of a settlement on the island, though he coasted along it on both rivers, and heard of none from the Indians. This we may conclusively infer from his silence, because in an account of his return voyage from Virginia to England, he has occasion to mention his meeting with certain Hollanders who had a trade in Hudson's river, circumstances of far less importance than the fact of an actual settlement there. The Hollanders whom he met were undoubtedly those in the ship commanded by Cornelis Jacobsen May, which was in the Chesapeake
* Purchas, IV. 1778-9. This letter of Dermer was dated at Captain Martyn's plantation in Virginia, 25th Dec., 1649, and was published by Purchas in 1696. In the above extract, he furnishes a remarkably accurate description of our rivers and bays.
in 1624.* May was one of the five shipmasters sent out by the Private Company in 1614, and appears to have continued making voyages to New Netherland until 1624, when he was appointed the first Governor of New Netherland under the West India Company, resident at Fort Orange. Dermer does not state where he met the Hollanders, but probably in the Chesapeake.† It was the information communicated by him to the Plymouth Company of the Dutch trading on Hudson's river, thus accidentally learnt from May, that led to his having been the subject of the British government's rough remonstrance at the Hague. Sir Dudley Carleton, hereafter referred to, Dermer, therefore, would not have omitted to state the important fact of their being houses on Manhattan Island, if there had been any when he sailed by it.
Independently of the statement of the author of the description of New Albion, it is clear not only that no evidence exists to show a settlement as early as 1613, but that we have most satisfactory proof of the contrary. As before intimated, however, his statement on this point is part and parcel of a story intended to show that all the English lost the territory by right of early conquest. We propose, therefore, to examine this pretence particularly, and to demonstrate its utter falsity. His account is in these words:—
"The Virginia being granted settled, and all that part now called Maryland, New Albion, and New Scotland, being part of Virginia, Sir Thomas Dale and Sir Samuel Argall, captains and counsellors of Virginia, hearing of divers aliens and intruders, and traders without commission, with a vessel and men, sailing towards a place called Mount Desart in New Scotland, near St. John's river or Tucelo, possessed by the French, there killed some French, took away their guns, and dismantled the fort, and in their return, landed at Manhattas' Isle in Hudson's river, where they found four houses built, and a pretended Dutch government, under the West India Company of Amsterdam share or part; who kept trading-beats, and trucking with the Indians; but the said knights told him their commission was to expel all such and all alien intruders on his Majestie's dominions; and therefore, being in sight of Virginia, and the rival and English discovery of Hudson an Englishman, the Dutchman confessed them for enemies and vassals; and by his letters sent to Virginia and recorded, submitted himself company and plantation to his Majesty and to the governor and government of Virginia; but the next pretended Dutch governor, in maps and printed cards, calling this part New Netherland, failing in paying of customs at his return to Plymouth in England, was there with his goods, goods and person attached to his damages of 1500l., whereupon the lords of the Government and Councils of Virginia, his majesty's lieutenants-general in Holland, complained of those said Dutch intruders on such territories and dominions the said Lords, the States of Holland, by their publique instrument declared, That they did not avow nor would protect them, being a private party of the Amsterdam West India Company, but left them to his Majestie's will and mercy."‡
There are some circumstances which, at the outset, are calculated to throw dis-
---
* De Lact in Nieuwe Werckelt, 59.
† Gorges Brief Narration, 11.
‡ Force's reprint, 18.
credit upon this statement. I. It does not purport to be founded on any personal knowledge or documentary or other evidence; but it is a naked assertion, not contemporaneous made thirty-four years after the transactions are alleged to have taken place. II. The author, who styles himself Beauchamp Pliniguet, and who is otherwise an unknown person in the colonization of America, if not a fictitious one, put forth the story for the purpose of establishing title in himself. As, therefore, he states no facts, matters which were not notorious or established already in the known history of the case, we may reasonably refuse to admit their truth. III. It is not mentioned or alluded to by these contemporaries, who were not only possessed every means of knowledge on the subject, but were the historians of Argall's expedition. Thus, Ralph Hamor, who was in Virginia when Argall returned, and who gives a distinct account of Virginian affairs, and mentions the expedition.⁴ Purchas, who discusses the rights of the English in this country, and furnishes an account of Argall's attack upon Fort Royal.⁵ De Laet, who also relates the expedition against the French at Gorges, who sustains the right of the English, and his own report of a party of New Englanders, and others, most compliant to the Dutch government, made by the English through Sir Dudley Carleton, in 1621; are all silent as to any visit by Argall to Manhattan. Governor Bradford, of Plymouth colony, offers that negative testimony in a peculiarly striking and satisfactory manner. In reply to a letter from the Dutch authorities in New Netherland, proposing to send a deputy to confer with the Plymouth colonists, he cautions them of the danger which might befall the messenger on his passage, adding this remarkable sentence: "Plymouth August 10, 1639. 'If they might either in the hands of those in Virginia, or the friendship which came to New England, persuade they will make prize of you, if they can, if they find you trading within those limits, as they surprised a colony of the French not many years since which was seated within those bounds.'"⁶ The governor, writing as he was to the Dutch, would have illustrated the danger of their falling into the hands of pirates, not only by Argall's attack upon the French, but most appropriately by that upon the identical colony he was addressing, if any such had taken place: of which he must have been informed by the same persons who furnished him with the other reliable authorities—contemporaries of Argall—writing of the events in the country of Virginia, under different circumstances, for different objects, and without concert or reliance on each other,—one present with Argall himself in Virginia, another in England, collecting everything, whether documentary or oral, in reference to this country.—Third, a director of the Dutch West India Company, writing in Holland, of a history which is acknowledged to be the most authentic and full, as regards facts relating to North America, three years and fourth months after it grew out of the Crown of England of a part of New Netherland, in producing every fact bearing upon the right of the English, who disputes the right of the Dutch, and therefore would not omit so strong a circumstance against it as their subjection by
---
⁴ True Discourse of the present Estate of Virginia, 35–37.
⁵ Pilgrims IV, 187, and margin.
⁶ Nieuwe Wereldt, 71–9.
⁷ 8 Mass. Hist. Coll. 53.
Argall,—and the fifth, in the adjoining colony in New England, who speaks of the
jerked out of the Dutch on the coast of his own country, and suddenly died, when each
and all of them, who would have mentioned the affair if it had ever happened.
Against this extraordinary omission of authentic writers, we have the unsupported
assertion of a pamphleteer many years after the event, writing for the purpose of
aiding a land speculation, founded on a title which was sought to be upheld by
another fraud,—that of a pretended grant from the King of England.*
It is true that Samuel Smith, Chalmers, Ebeling, Bellamy, Holmes and Bancroft,
credit the story; but they rely upon Plancius, and not Stith as their authorities.
Holin and De Bryeux, writing subsequently to Plancius, in the same century,
give no credit to him, evidently borrow from him. The accurate Prince, it may
be remarked, does not give it any credit. Stith says that Capt. Argall, in his
return from Port Royal, visited the Dutch settlement on Hudson's river, demanded
possession, and the Dutch governor submitted both himself and colony to the King
of England, and to the Governor of Virginia under him. He gives no authority
for this statement, but it is certain, from the report of the voyage, as the Dutch
captain says, that he referred to it that it was taken from Plancius. He does,
indeed, say in the next paragraph, that we are indebted to Ralph Hamor for this
part of the history of Virginia; but if he intended to give Hamor as authority for
this statement, it is untrue. Hamor says nothing of a visit to Manhattan: though,
as before observed, he speaks of Argall's voyage to Port Royal, and of his sup-
planting the French there. Hamor, it may also be observed, in addition to what is
said above, appears, in his book, as the agent of the Dutch, whom he represented
on his return to Virginia, in 1624. He would have known the last one
had he so signed and expost with his patron, as this was claimed to be, if it had ever
happened. But be this as it may, he affords no testimony on the subject for the
statement of Stith. There is, therefore, no authority for the statement, except
Plancius.
But, passing by these circumstances of discredit, let us look at the story as it is
told. The writer asserts that Argall found at Manhattan four houses built and a
Dutch flag planted by the West India Company. Now, the time of Argall's return
to Virginia, from his expedition, can be fixed precisely. Champlain says that he
left Port Royal on the 9th of November, 1613,† so that he must have reached Vir-
ginia before the termination of that year. He found then, according to this story,
four houses and a Dutch governor in command at Manhattan, several months be-
fore the first grant of the States General to their subjects, which was passed, as we
have seen, on the 27th of March, 1614, and nearly two before the charter of
Special Privileges, by which alone the West India Company acquired its right to make
any transactions in Virginia. It is, of course idle to controvert the statement that
the governor was under the West India Company, established, as it was, eight years
after the pretended event; but, supposing the writer to have meant a governor
* See Note to the translation of the Verreesch Van Nieu Nederland, in N. Y. Hist. Coll. 2d series, vol. ii. 283.
† Champlain's Voyages, Book III. c. i. Ed. of 1640.
under the Private Company, it is quite as evident that there could have been none at the time assigned for the submission of that functionary; nay, only, on the return of Argall from Nova Scotia, the writer says further, that the Dutch were defeated in sending to the English, in a letter received in Virginia. No such letter has ever been found or mentioned by any chronicler of the events in the history of Virginia, or other writer, as it would have been if it had been made a record. Stith, who had the means of knowing of its existence, and who was indefatigable in the details of the history of Virginia, rejects it as untrue, inasmuch as he does not repeat this part of the account, while he admits the rest of it. Thus material portions of the relation are shown to be utterly false, discrediting by every rule of argument the whole of it. Another ridiculous point, set at naught, but that the general statement of Phantagenet is, that Sir Thomas Dale accompanied Argall to Nova Scotia. This was not so; but as Purchas has it, in the margin before cited, "Sir Thomas Dale was governor, and sent him," (Argall.)
We must, moreover, summon Argall himself to bear testimony against this claim. In 1621, eight years after the alleged transaction, Argall who was one of the associates in the Company with Gorges, Mason and others, writes with them on a remonstrance to King James, complaining that, the Dutch had settled the posts they possessed themselves of the country and were about sending ships there again; but he says nothing of the former possession of the Dutch, and their submission to himself, which, as affording the strongest argument for the interference of the government, he would have done, if it had been true. An order of Council relating this remonstrance was made, directing Sir Dudley Carleton, the minister at the Hague, to present the matter to the States General, and to inform the planters Argall's orders made inquiries of the Governor, under date of 10th Feb. 1621, as follows:—
"I would inquire more in this matter, but that about four or five years since, two particular companies of Amsterdam merchants began a trade into these parts between forty and forty-five degrees, to which, after their manner, they gave their own name of New Netherland, South and North Sea, a Texel, a Vleland, and the like, where they have ever since continued to send ships of thirty and forty last at the most, to fetch furs, which is all their trade; for the providing of which they have certain factors there, commonly resident, trading with savages, but I cannot learn if any company either already planted there, or those people so called intended." This must be taken as a part of Argall's own testimony—that is, furnished by him. It corroborates the facts before stated, from other sources, in relation to the date of the first Company's trading to New Netherland, and negatives the alleged conquest of Argall.
In conclusion, we have the evidence of Captain John Mason, who was one of Argall's associates, and who gives a history of the Dutch encroachments in a letter addressed to Sir John Coke. That letter is also important, as it was undoubtedly the source from which Phantagenet derived the facts from which he
---
* See the Despatch of the Lords Privy Council in O'Callaghan, i. 96.
† Lord. Doc. i. 8. The original letter of Carleton is in the possession of the writer of this note.
fabricated the story in question. It is too long to be given here entire, but an extract will explain the points under consideration. It is dated April 2, 1632, and states: "In the year of our Lord God, 1621, or thereabouts, certain Hollanders were upon the coast of New England, trading with the Indians between Cape Cod and the Bay de la Ware."* The said Hollander, in inventing the fact in the middle, became the first planterer (Virginia and New England), and at their return published a map in the Low Countries of the said seascape, under the title of New Netherland, giving the name of the Prince of Orange to the country and river of Manahata, and giving other Dutch names to other places as far as Cape Cod. And Sir Samuel Argall, Kent, with many English planters, were preparing to go and sit down in his lot of land upon the said Manahata river, at the same time when the Dutch intruders, which were a division of the army of the said King James, upon command of my Lord Arundell, with Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Kent, and the said Sir Samuel Argall (formerly Governor of Virginia), and Captain John Mason, of the said Dutch intruders, Anno 1621, had by his Majesty's order, a letter to the Lord of Dorchester, their Ambassador at the Hague, questioned the States of the Low Countries for that matter, which the Lords the States by answer of their ambassador, Sir Noel Carvon, did disclaim, disowning any such act." Sir Samuel Argall's lot was a grant by the Plymouth Company, within which bounds Manhattan was situated. Taking Argall's attack upon New England and his subsequent intercourse with Massachusetts together with the disclaimer of the Dutch government, it is easy to perceive the materials out of which the statement of his subjugation of the Dutch was manufactured; while we have irrefragable proof in the acts of Argall and his associates, and of the British government in not claiming the right which the conquest by Argall would have conferred, at the time when its assertion was important, and the evidence of it was within themselves, of the entire falsehood of the story.
*Lond. Doe. I. 20. O'Callaghan, I. 415.
AUCTOR QUETIONUM FACIT
The following is a list of the most common types of data that can be collected and analyzed using the methods described in this paper.
1. **Demographic Data**: This includes information such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, education level, income, employment status, and marital status. Demographic data can be used to identify trends and patterns in consumer behavior, which can help businesses make informed decisions about their marketing strategies.
2. **Behavioral Data**: This type of data includes information about how consumers interact with products or services, such as purchase history, browsing behavior, and search queries. Behavioral data can be used to understand customer preferences and needs, which can help businesses improve their products and services.
3. **Geospatial Data**: This type of data includes information about the location of consumers, such as their physical address, zip code, and city. Geospatial data can be used to identify areas where there is a high concentration of potential customers, which can help businesses target their marketing efforts more effectively.
4. **Social Media Data**: This type of data includes information about what consumers are saying online, such as their tweets, posts, and comments. Social media data can be used to understand consumer sentiment and opinions, which can help businesses make informed decisions about their marketing strategies.
5. **Transactional Data**: This type of data includes information about transactions made by consumers, such as purchase amounts, payment methods, and delivery addresses. Transactional data can be used to understand consumer spending habits, which can help businesses improve their pricing strategies and product offerings.
6. **Customer Feedback Data**: This type of data includes information about feedback provided by consumers, such as reviews, ratings, and complaints. Customer feedback data can be used to understand consumer satisfaction and loyalty, which can help businesses improve their products and services.
7. **Predictive Analytics Data**: This type of data includes information about future trends and patterns, such as sales forecasts, market projections, and customer churn rates. Predictive analytics data can be used to make informed decisions about business strategy, such as when to launch new products or services, and how to allocate resources.
8. **Big Data**: This type of data includes large volumes of data from multiple sources, such as social media, transactional data, and customer feedback data. Big data can be used to identify complex relationships and patterns that may not be apparent from smaller datasets, which can help businesses make more accurate predictions and decisions.
9. **Internet of Things (IoT) Data**: This type of data includes information from connected devices, such as smart home appliances, wearables, and sensors. IoT data can be used to understand consumer behavior and preferences, which can help businesses improve their products and services.
10. **Artificial Intelligence (AI) Data**: This type of data includes information generated by AI algorithms, such as machine learning models and neural networks. AI data can be used to automate tasks, improve decision-making, and enhance customer experiences. | 4f32b13c-5c77-464b-8882-8ae0d3c5626e | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | http://searchengine.org.uk/dailyebook/Voyages%20from%20Holland%20to%20America,%20A.D.%201632%20to%201644%20(1853).pdf | 2021-12-03T19:43:36+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964362918.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20211203182358-20211203212358-00005.warc.gz | 75,529,322 | 78,713 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.98549 | eng_Latn | 0.99845 | [
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Maggie pulled her red hat over her head as she stepped into the cold. Her brother, Jamie, had taken Maggie to her favorite diner after school to get a cup of hot chocolate. As they sipped their warm treats, Maggie told Jamie about her homework. Her teacher had asked Maggie’s class to brainstorm community service projects the class could do together. When it started to get dark outside, they headed back home.
Yuck, she thought as her rain boot landed in a big puddle of slush. January was not her favorite month in New York City. It was cold and wet, and she could hardly play outside! She dreamt of her warm bed as a cold wind whipped past her. The block was empty—the two were the only pair walking down the snowy sidewalk. Well, at least that’s what Maggie thought. All of a sudden, out of the corner of her eye, she saw something move. Maggie stopped in her tracks. She looked toward the source of the movement in curiosity. A bundle of blankets was piled on top of several cardboard pieces that had been placed over the sidewalk. Maggie stepped closer. She didn’t see any movement anymore. But then, out of the blankets emerged a man. He wore an old, ragged jacket—it looked like one Maggie had seen in movies, the kind that soldiers wear. There were holes in the elbows. On his hands he wore dirty black gloves, and the fabric for the thumb on the right hand had been torn off.
“Hello!” Maggie said, wishing she had more blankets for him.
“Well hello, could you help a fellow out?” he replied in a deep voice.
“Oh, I don’t have anything…” Maggie said, as she felt around her pockets. Jamie pulled out a dollar bill from his wallet and placed it in the man’s hands.
“Thank you so much,” he said.
Maggie and Jamie smiled at him and kept on walking.
Once they arrived home, Maggie told her dad about the man on the street. He was busy preparing dinner.
“It’s really hard for them out there, especially during the winter months. The homeless shelters in the city don’t have enough room for everyone,” he told her.
Her dad went back to cooking, but Maggie couldn’t stop thinking about the man. During dinner, she remained quiet and thought about what she could do to help those without a home. She figured it would be perfect for her class’s community service project.
Once she finished eating, she rushed to the computer to do some research. She found the Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress that had been published by the U.S. government in January 2013. It said that 610,042 Americans were homeless on any given night. That meant one in 514 people. Maggie could hardly wrap her head around that number. She tried to look up different homeless shelters around New York City.
She clicked on a link. “The Bowery Mission, Rebuilding Lives Since 1879,” Maggie read aloud. The Bowery Mission is an organization that provides meals, shelter, and services to the underserved population.
“Jamie!” she called out. “I found something that we can do!”
As he started to walk toward her, she excitedly told him about the volunteer opportunities at the Bowery Mission. They could sign up to serve meals to the homeless.
“Last year, the volunteers were able to provide more than 382,400 meals to the homeless in New York City!” Maggie said, pointing to the computer screen.
She looked up information on how to volunteer to tell her teacher the next day. They could help prepare meals, serve them, and clean up afterward. And the next time Maggie walked down the block, she packed a granola bar and a banana to give to the man she’d seen on the street.
1. What does Maggie’s teacher ask her class to brainstorm?
A) community service projects
B) ways to help homeless people
C) projects to help animal shelters
D) ways to raise money for a field trip
2. At the end of the story, Maggie packs a granola bar and a banana to give to the homeless man. What motivates Maggie’s actions?
A) Maggie wants to get extra credit on her class project.
B) Maggie wants to impress her brother with her charity.
C) Maggie wants to help the homeless man.
D) Maggie does not want to eat the granola bar herself.
3. Maggie is interested in learning about the problem of homelessness. What evidence from the passage best supports this conclusion?
A) “It said that 610,042 Americans were homeless on any given night. That meant one in 514 people.”
B) “The Bowery Mission is an organization that provides meals, shelter, and services to the underserved population.”
C) “As he started to walk toward her, she excitedly told him about the volunteer opportunities at the Bowery Mission.”
D) “Once she finished eating, she rushed to the computer to do some research.”
4. Read the following sentences: “Her dad went back to cooking, but Maggie couldn’t stop thinking about the man. During dinner, she remained quiet and thought about what she could do to help those without a home.” Based on this information, what conclusion can you make about Maggie?
A) She knows a lot about the problem of homelessness.
B) She is thoughtful and wants to help people.
C) She has lots of money that she can spend freely.
D) She does not take action on the issues that matter to her.
5. What is this story mostly about?
A) Maggie and her brother meet a homeless man on the street.
B) Maggie is assigned to brainstorm community service projects.
C) Maggie learns about homelessness and wants to help.
D) Maggie looks up facts about homelessness on the internet.
6. Read the following sentences: “A bundle of blankets was piled on top of several cardboard pieces that had been placed over the sidewalk. Maggie stepped closer. She didn’t see any movement anymore. But then, out of the blankets emerged a man. He wore an old, ragged jacket—it looked like one Maggie had seen in movies, the kind that soldiers wear.”
As used in this sentence, what does the word “emerge” most nearly mean?
A) appear from a hidden place
B) go into hiding or out of sight
C) shiver because of the cold
D) move out of someone’s way
7. Choose the answer that best completes the sentence below.
_____ Maggie meets a homeless man on the street, she becomes very interested in the problem of homelessness and helping people without homes.
A) However
B) In conclusion
C) Specifically
D) After
8. What is the Bowery Mission?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
9. How does Maggie think her class can help the homeless at the Bowery Mission?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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SECTION - A
1. On a building plan, a line 20cm long represents a distance of 10m. Devise a diagonal scale for the plan to read up to 12m, showing meters, decimeters and centimeters. Show on scale the lengths of 0.97m and 11.14m.
2. A 60° Set square of 125 mm longest side is so kept that the longest side is in H.P. making an angle of 30° with V.P. and Set square itself is inclined at 45° to H.P. Draw the projections of Set square.
SECTION - B
3. A thin lamp shade in the form of a frustum of a cone has its larger end 200 mm diameter, smaller end 75 mm diameter and height 150 mm. Draw its three views when it is lying on its side on the ground and the axis parallel to the V.P.
4. A cube of 65 mm long edges has its vertical faces equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to the V.P., so that the true shape of the section is a regular hexagon. Determine the inclination of the cutting plane with the H.P. and draw the sectional top view and true shape of the section.
SECTION - C
5. A cone of diameter 50 mm, height 70 mm has been cut by a plane inclined at 45° to H.P. Plane intersects axis at height of 45 mm above the base. Draw development of lateral surface of lower portion of cone.
6. A cylindrical pipe of 30mm diameter has a similar branch of the same size. The axis of the main pipe is vertical and is intersected by that of the branch at right angles. Draw the projections of the pipes, assuming suitable lengths, when the two axes lie in a plane parallel to the V.P. Develop the surfaces of the two pipes.
SECTION - D
7. A cylinder of base, 60 mm diameter and height 90 mm, is standing on the H.P with its axis perpendicular to the H.P. Draw its isometric view.
8. Using first angle projection method, draw scale full size, orthographic view of the object given in the figure below. The front view should be drawn as seen in the direction of the arrow X.
9. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences using appropriate words.
(i) Lettering is usually done in ____________ letters.
(ii) When the drawing is drawn of the same size as that of the object, the scale used is _______________.
(iii) State the quadrant when the projections of point Q coincide with each other 40 mm below xy. _______________
(iv) When adding dimensions to an auxiliary view it will be necessary to use the _____________ too.
(v) Line composed of closely and evenly spaced short dashes in a drawing represent ____________ edges.
(vi) Comparative scale is a pair of scale having a common ______________.
(vii) If a plane is parallel to the plane of projection, it appears of ____________ size.
(viii) A fillet is a rounded surface on the ____________ corner of a part.
(ix) The ____________ plane upon which the top view is projected.
(x) In an isometric drawing, lines that are not parallel to the isometric axes are called ____________ lines.
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The History of the Peanut
The peanut plant probably originated in Brazil or Peru, although no fossil records exist to prove this. Peanuts were grown as far north as Mexico by the time the Spanish began their exploration of the New World. The explorers took peanuts back to Spain, where they are still grown today. From Spain, traders and explorers took peanuts to Africa and Asia. Africans were the first people to introduce peanuts to North America. Eventually, peanuts were planted throughout the Southern United States. Today, peanuts are one of America’s favorite foods.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
Discussion Questions:
Yes or No
- The peanut plant probably originated in Brazil or Peru.
- Spanish explorers took peanuts to Spain.
- From Spain, traders and explorers took peanuts to China.
- Peanuts are one of America’s favorite foods.
- Peanuts arrived in North America with the Pilgrims.
Teacher/Student Activities:
- Starting with Brazil and Peru and ending with America, highlight the order of the peanut’s journey.
- Assist students in finding Brazil, Peru, Mexico, Spain, Africa, Asia, and the United States on a world map.
- Plot the journey of the peanut from Brazil and Peru to America in order on a world map.
Parent/Child Activity:
- Using an encyclopedia, have students work with parents to find one of the countries on the peanut’s journey and find a distinctive characteristic about the country and illustrate it.
Where in the U.S. Do Peanuts Grow?
In the United States today, ten states grow most of the peanut crop. Georgia grows nearly half of all the peanuts grown in the United States, followed by Texas, Alabama, North Carolina, South Carolina, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Virginia and Mississippi. The peanut producing states are grouped into three regions. The first region is Alabama-Georgia-Florida-Mississippi or the Southeast region. The second is the Texas-Oklahoma-New Mexico or the Southwest region. And the third is the North Carolina-South Carolina-Virginia or the Virginia-Carolina region. About 68 percent of all the peanuts grown in the United States are grown in the Southeast region, about 18 percent are grown in the Southwest region and the remaining 13 percent are grown in the Virginia-Carolina region.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
Discussion Questions
- Do we live in a peanut-growing state?
- Which state grows the most peanuts?
- How many major peanut-growing states are there?
- What are the three peanut-growing regions?
- Which region grows the most peanuts?
Teacher/Student Activities:
- Locate the ten peanut-producing states on a map.
- Identify the three peanut-growing regions on a map.
- Have students find the capital of each peanut-growing state.
Parent/Child Activity:
- Using the U.S. map, have students work with parents to find ten other states not already mentioned above and list a food that might grow in each of them.
The History of Peanut Butter
There is evidence that ancient South American Inca Indians were the first to grind peanuts to make peanut butter and that Dr. John Harvey Kellogg (of cereal fame) invented a version of peanut butter in 1895. A St. Louis physician may have developed a version of peanut butter as a protein substitute for his older patients who had poor teeth and could not chew meat. Peanut butter was first introduced at the Universal Exposition (World’s Fair of 1904) in St. Louis, Missouri.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
Discussion Questions:
Yes or No
• North American Indians were the first to grind peanuts to make peanut butter.
• Dr. John Harvey Kellogg was a candy maker.
• Peanut butter was first sold at a baseball game.
• Peanut butter is a type of cereal.
• Peanut butter does not contain protein.
Teacher/Student Activities:
• Ask students what they can do to avoid developing poor teeth.
• Have students name at least three things they might see at a fair.
• Use activity sheet #8 provided to make peanut butter.
Parent/Child Activity:
• Have students work with parents to locate St. Louis on a map.
The No-Nut Peanut
Many are surprised to discover that the peanut is actually not a nut at all. In fact, it is a legume and belongs to the pea family. The peanut probably has been given more names throughout history than any other food. Some nutty names given to the peanut include: goober, groundnut, monkey nut, earthnut and ground pea, just to name a few. Today in Spain, the peanut is called Mani, pronounced my-knee. In Greece the peanut is called Fystiki, pronounced fee-stee-kee. In France, the peanut is called Cacahuete, pronounced ka-ka-wet. In Germany, the peanut is called Erdnuss, pronounced aird-noose. And in Russia, the peanut is called Zemlyanoy Grek, pronounced zem-ya-noy arek.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
Discussion Questions:
• Is the peanut really a nut or is it a legume?
• Name at least two other names for the peanut.
• How do you say peanut in Spanish?
• How do you say peanut in Greek?
• How do you say peanut in French?
Teacher/Student Activities:
• Teach students to say peanut in all five languages. Turn the peanut names into a simple song or chant to help them remember.
• Have the class work together to develop their own name for the peanut.
• Have students locate Spain, Greece, France, Germany, and Russia on a world map.
Parent/Child Activity:
• Have students work with parents to find three other types of legumes.
The Four Basic Types of Peanuts
Although peanuts come in many varieties, there are four basic types grown in the United States today. They are: Runner, Spanish, Valencia and Virginia. Each type is unique in size, shape and flavor. Runner peanuts are known for their uniform kernel size. Over half of the Runner peanuts grown in the United States today are used to make peanut butter. Runner peanuts are mainly grown in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Oklahoma and Texas. Spanish peanuts have the smallest kernels of the four types and are covered by a distinctive reddish-brown skin. They are primarily used to make peanut candies. Spanish peanuts also have higher oil content than the other three types, making them a good choice for making peanut oil. Spanish peanuts are mostly grown in Oklahoma, Texas and New Mexico. Valencia peanuts are known for having three or more kernels to a pod and for their bright red skin. They are the sweetest of the four types. Valencia peanuts are mainly roasted and sold in-shell or boiled. They are grown mainly in New Mexico. Virginia peanuts have the largest kernels of the four types. They are mainly roasted and sold both in-the-shell and out-of-the-shell. Virginia peanuts are grown mainly in North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia.
Teacher/Student Activities:
- Bring in one or two types of peanuts for students to see and taste.
- Show students several products containing peanuts and ask them to guess what type of peanuts are used to make it.
- Have students shell a peanut to see the inside.
Parent/Child Activity:
- Have students work with parents to find a food item at home that contains peanut oil.
Math Lesson
Approximating: Weights & Measures
It takes approximately 20 candy-coated peanuts to fill a small bag of candy. That same amount weighs approximately 50 grams. It also equals approximately 3 tablespoons as well as ¼ cup.
It takes approximately how many in-shell peanuts laid end-to-end to equal one foot? That same amount equals approximately 12 inches. Have students guess how many and then measure.
It takes approximately how many shelled peanuts laid end-to-end to equal one foot? That same amount equals approximately 12 inches. Have students guess how many and then measure.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
SCIENCE
Science Lesson
Teacher's Guide/Activity Sheets 7 & 8
How the Peanut Plant Grows
Unlike other nuts, peanuts do not grow on trees. The peanut is unusual because it grows on a plant which flowers above the soil but fruits below it. A farmer usually plants his peanuts in April or May. Once planted, peanut seeds grow into a green, oval-shaped-leaf plant which reaches about 18 inches in height when fully mature. Small yellow flowers appear in the lower part of the plant as it begins to grow. These flowers pollinate themselves and then lose their petals as the fertilized ovary begins to enlarge. The enlarged ovary, called the peg, grows down and away from the plant forming a small stem which extends to the soil. The peanut embryo is the tip of the peg, which penetrates the soil. The embryo begins to develop once underground, growing into a peanut. From planting to harvesting, the growing cycle of a peanut takes four to five months.
Sandy or sandy loam soil
• Soak peanuts overnight.
• Fill pot with soil to one inch below the rim.
• Plant three peanuts 1 to 1 1/2 inches deep and cover firmly with soil but do not pack.
• Keep soil moist, but not wet.
• Maintain a temperature of 65 degrees or above.
• Peanuts should sprout in about five to eight days. Continue to keep the plant in a warm room and exposed to direct sunlight as much as possible.
• The peanut plant will begin to flower within 45-50 days after sprouting.
• The plant will actually produce peanuts between 125-150 days.
Parent/Child Activity:
• Have students work with parents to find their exact height and weight in four and five months.
SCIENCE
Science Lesson
Teacher's Guide/Activity Sheets 7 & 8
The Father of the Peanut
George Washington Carver began his research into peanuts in 1903 at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. The talented botanist recognized the value of peanuts as a cash crop and proposed that peanuts be planted as a rotation crop in farmers' fields. This procedure was especially valuable in the Southeastern cotton growing areas when boll weevils threatened cotton crops. Farmers across the region listened to the great scientist and peanut production flourished. Additional research into the peanut helped Carver to discover over 300 uses for the peanut, including shaving cream, leather dye, coffee, ink, shoe polish and more. For his work in promoting the peanut and its cultivation, George Washington Carver is today respectfully known as the father of the peanut industry.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
All About Peanuts & Peanut Butter!
Discussion Questions:
• Where did Carver study the peanut?
• What is the name of the insect that threatened the cotton crop?
• About how many uses for the peanut did Carver find?
• Name something Carver made from peanuts.
• Why is Carver considered the father of the peanut industry?
Teacher/Student Activities:
• Have students research Carver in an encyclopedia and find a picture of him.
• Have students make a picture using cotton as an element in it.
• Have students look up a boll weevil in the encyclopedia and draw a picture of it.
Parent/Child Activity:
• Have students work with parents to research what a botanist is and learn three things that they do.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
Discussion Questions:
• Peanuts contain what percent protein?
• What are vitamins necessary for?
• What are minerals necessary for?
• Do peanuts have cholesterol?
• Are peanuts high in saturated fat?
Teacher/Student Activities:
• Have students find protein on a peanut butter nutrition label.
• Have students find a vitamin on a nutrition label.
• Have students find a mineral on a nutrition label.
Parent/Child Activity:
• Have students work with parents to locate and clip the nutrition label from one of their favorite foods and see if it contains protein.
HEALTH & NUTRITION
Health & Nutrition Lesson
Teacher’s Guide/Activity Sheets 9, 10 & 11
Protein Lesson
Peanuts contain an incredible 26 percent protein. They fulfill approximately 30 percent of a 4-6 year old’s and 26 percent of a 7-10 year old’s Recommended Daily Allowance per serving. A peanut butter sandwich, an orange and glass of milk provide approximately 75% of a 4-6 year old’s and 87% of a 7-10 year old’s daily protein requirement. Protein is a valuable source of energy. Peanuts contain 6 essential vitamins including Vitamin E, folate, riboflavin, thiamin, niacin, and Vitamin B6. Vitamins are necessary to maintain good health and a strong immune system. Peanuts also contain 7 essential minerals including phosphorus, iron, magnesium, potassium, zinc, copper, and calcium. Minerals are necessary for cell growth within the body. Peanuts are cholesterol free and low in saturated fat. For all these good reasons, peanuts are often referred to as nutrition in a nutshell.
HEALTH & NUTRITION
Health & Nutrition Lesson
Teacher’s Guide/Activity Sheets 9, 10 & 11
Peanuts & The Food Guide Pyramid
The United States Department of Agriculture developed The Food Guide Pyramid to assist Americans of all ages in making healthful food choices. There are six food groups in The Pyramid including the Fats, Oils & Sweets Group; the Milk, Yogurt & Cheese Group; the Vegetable Group; the Bread, Cereal, Rice & Pasta Group; the Fruit Group; and the Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs & Nuts Group. Peanuts and peanut butter fit into the Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs & Nuts Group. According to the Pyramid, Americans young and old should consume two to three servings from this group each day. Serving sizes for each group vary on The Food Guide Pyramid, but the serving size for peanuts is one ounce and the serving size for peanut butter is two tablespoons.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
Discussion Questions:
Yes or No
• The Food Guide Pyramid helps us make healthy food choices.
• There are nine food groups on The Food Guide Pyramid.
• Peanuts and peanut butter belong to the Fruit Group.
• Americans young and old should eat eight servings from the Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs & Nuts Group.
• Two tablespoons is the correct serving size for peanut butter.
Teacher/Student Activities:
• Have students draw a picture of their favorite food and help them find the food group where it belongs.
• Work with students to help them measure the recommended serving size of both peanuts and peanut butter.
• Have students locate each of the food groups on The Food Guide Pyramid sheet.
Parent/Child Activity:
• Assign each student a food group and have students and parents work together to find a food that fits into that group.
Peanut Plant: Picture Perfect
A dimension as defined by Webster is “measurements in length, width and depth.” The word itself is Latin in origin.
• Have students draw a picture of a peanut plant and have them paste in-shell peanuts on the plant to create another dimension.
Peanut Crafts
• Have students draw, color and cut out an elephant. Have them glue peanuts in the elephant’s tummy to show what food elephants love.
• Have students paint and then string in-shell peanuts to make a necklace.
• Have students glue peanuts to thumb tacks to make unique bulletin board pins.
• Have students write their initials using in-shell peanuts and glue them to a paper and decorate it.
• Have students trace their hand and glue peanuts on it to create a “handful” of peanuts.
• Have students use in-shell peanuts and scraps of ribbon, paper and glue to make peanut animals.
• Have students colorfully paint a rock and glue in-shell peanuts to the top to make a nutty paper weight for someone that they love.
• Have students draw, color and cut out peanut characters and glue them to a stick to make puppets.
• Have students paint and glue an in-shell peanut to a pencil to make a nutty writing tool.
ART
Art Lesson
Teacher’s Guide
Our Peanut Product Collage
A collage as defined by Webster is “an art form in which bits of objects are pasted on a surface.” The word itself is French in origin.
• Have students bring in the labels from their favorite products containing peanuts and/or peanut butter and use them to make a collage on your classroom bulletin board.
Presentation Techniques:
Review the lesson above and develop your lesson plan based on appropriate material for your age group or grade level.
Peanuts
Peanuts, peanuts are a healthy treat
and they're lots of fun to eat.
There's a secret I must tell
They grow inside a little shell.
Sing to the tune of Baa, Baa, Black Sheep above.
All About Peanuts & Peanut Butter!
MUSIC
Oh Dear! What Can the Matter Be?
Mother Goose
Moderately bright
P-E-A-N-U-T-S: The Signing Song
Peanuts
P-E-A-N-U-T
Peanuts
They're good for you and me
Peanuts
They're really crunchy too
I can spell Peanut, can you?
Sing to the tune of Oh Dear! What Can the Matter Be? above.
PEANUT RESOURCE READING LIST
• *From Peanuts to Peanut Butter*
by Melvin Berger
• *Make Me a Peanut Butter Sandwich and a Glass of Milk*
by Ken Robbins
• *Peanuts*
by Franklin Watts
• *Peanuts*
by Millicent Selsam
• *A Pocketful of Goobers, A Story About George Washington Carver*
by Barbara Mitchell
• *George Washington Carver*
by Suzanne Coil
• *George Washington Carver*
by Gene Adair
• *The Plants We Eat*
by Millicent Selsam
• *Vegetables in Patches and Pots*
by Lorelie Miller Mintz
• *American Heart Association Kids’ Cookbook*
editor: Mary Winston
• *The Picture Life of Jimmy Carter*
by Barbara Walker
• *George Washington Carver-The Peanut Scientist*
by Patricia & Frederick McKissak
• *How Do They Grow It?*
by George Sullivan | <urn:uuid:1b4fd03e-1e0b-4472-87e7-bc0d7840252f> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://aboutpeanuts.com/wp-content/uploads/eytchgdeb_4.pdf | 2018-07-17T15:37:03Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589752.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180717144908-20180717164908-00439.warc.gz | 8,469,351 | 3,899 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.974224 | eng_Latn | 0.998243 | [
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1. AMBIDEXTROUS
(ADJECTIVE): (उभयहस्त) able to use both hands well; very skillful
Synonyms: versatile, facile
Antonyms: clumsy, maladroit
Example Sentence:
A teacher comes across a student who displays ambidextrous abilities when the student is taught to write.
2. AUGMENT (VERB): (बढ़ाना) expand
Synonyms: enlarge, amplify
Antonyms: diminish, decrease
Example Sentence:
We need to augment the capacity of the employees.
3. AGONY (NOUN): (व्यथा) suffering
Synonyms: anguish, torment
Antonyms: contentment, comfort
Example Sentence:
A lot of agony was faced by the victim’s family.
4. SUBDUED (ADJECTIVE): (वशीभूत) quiet/controlled
Synonyms: hushed, muted
Antonyms: boisterous, communicative
Example Sentence:
Anil was subdued by his boss.
5. UPRISING (NOUN): (विद्रोह) mutiny
Synonyms: rebellion, revolt
Antonyms: harmony, obedience
Example Sentence:
We have witnessed many uprisings in the past.
6. AMBIGUOUS
(ADJECTIVE): (अस्पष्ट) unclear
Synonyms: enigmatic, puzzling
Antonyms: determined, unambiguous
Example Sentence:
They spoke many ambiguous statements.
7. COERCION (NOUN): (दबाव) compulsion
Synonyms: intimidation, duress
Antonyms: freedom, liberty
Example Sentence:
They surrendered due to the coercion faced by them.
8. EXPLICIT (ADJECTIVE): (स्पष्ट) specific
Synonyms: unambiguous, precise
Antonyms: unreliable, vague
Example Sentence:
We need to define explicit objectives first in order to achieve them.
9. WINSOME (ADJECTIVE): (मनोहर) charming
Synonyms: appealing, delightful
Antonyms: repulsive, unattractive
Example Sentence:
She gave him her most winsome smile.
10. DEPLOY (VERB): (तैनात करना) to position/arrange/utilize
Synonyms: station, organize
Antonyms: remove, reposition
Example Sentence:
We have to deploy anti-missile shield over the whole country.
Write us- firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:f4b9ba46-8e24-4c27-b7c9-2ae6f7e0402c> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | http://quiz.mahendraguru.com/mahendraguru/content/the-hindu-vocab-06-05-18.pdf | 2019-02-22T20:57:12Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247526282.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20190222200334-20190222222334-00522.warc.gz | 226,931,984 | 556 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.965423 | eng_Latn | 0.965423 | [
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## Wisconsin governors since 1848
| Name | Party | Service | Residence |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------|--------------------------|-------------|
| Nelson Dewey | Democrat | 6/7/1848–1/5/1852 | Lancaster |
| Leonard James Farwell | Whig | 1/5/1852–1/2/1854 | Madison |
| William Augustus Barstow | Democrat | 1/2/1854–3/21/1856 | Waukesha |
| Arthur McArthur | Democrat | 3/21/1856–3/25/1856 | Milwaukee |
| Coles Bashford | Republican | 3/25/1856–1/4/1858 | Oshkosh |
| Alexander William Randall | Republican | 1/4/1858–1/6/1862 | Waukesha |
| Louis Powell Harvey | Republican | 1/6/1862–4/19/1862 | Shopiere |
| Edward Salomon | Republican | 4/19/1862–1/4/1864 | Milwaukee |
| James Taylor Lewis | Republican | 1/4/1864–1/1/1866 | Columbus |
| Lucius Fairchild | Republican | 1/1/1866–1/1/1872 | Madison |
| Cadwallader Colden Washburn | Republican | 1/1/1872–1/5/1874 | La Crosse |
| William Robert Taylor | Democrat | 1/5/1874–1/3/1876 | Cottage Grove|
| Harrison Ludington | Republican | 1/3/1876–1/7/1878 | Milwaukee |
| William E. Smith | Republican | 1/7/1878–1/2/1882 | Milwaukee |
| Jeremiah McLain Rusk | Republican | 1/2/1882–1/7/1889 | Viroqua |
| William Dempster Hoard | Republican | 1/7/1889–1/5/1891 | Fort Atkinson|
| George Wilbur Peck | Democrat | 1/5/1891–1/7/1895 | Milwaukee |
| William Henry Upham | Republican | 1/7/1895–1/4/1897 | Marshfield |
| Edward Scofield | Republican | 1/4/1897–1/7/1901 | Oconto |
| Robert Marion La Follette, Sr. | Republican | 1/7/1901–1/1/1906 | Madison |
| James O. Davidson | Republican | 1/1/1906–1/2/1911 | Soldiers Grove|
| Francis Edward McGovern | Republican | 1/2/1911–1/4/1915 | Milwaukee |
| Emanuel Lorenz Philipp | Republican | 1/4/1915–1/3/1921 | Milwaukee |
| John James Blaine | Republican | 1/3/1921–1/3/1927 | Boscobel |
| Fred R. Zimmerman | Republican | 1/3/1927–1/7/1929 | Milwaukee |
| Walter Jodok Kohler, Sr. | Republican | 1/7/1929–1/5/1931 | Kohler |
| Philip Fox La Follette | Republican | 1/5/1931–1/2/1933 | Madison |
| Albert George Schmedeman | Democrat | 1/2/1933–1/7/1935 | Madison |
| Philip Fox La Follette | Progressive | 1/7/1935–1/2/1939 | Madison |
| Julius Peter Heil | Republican | 1/2/1939–1/4/1943 | Milwaukee |
| Walter Samuel Goodland | Republican | 1/4/1943–3/12/1947 | Racine |
| Oscar Rennebohm | Republican | 3/12/1947–1/1/1951 | Madison |
| Walter Jodok Kohler, Jr. | Republican | 1/1/1951–1/7/1957 | Kohler |
| Vernon Wallace Thomson | Republican | 1/7/1957–1/5/1959 | Richland Center|
| Gaylord Anton Nelson | Democrat | 1/5/1959–1/7/1963 | Madison |
| John W. Reynolds | Democrat | 1/7/1963–1/4/1965 | Green Bay |
| Warren Perley Knowles | Republican | 1/4/1965–1/4/1971 | New Richmond|
| Patrick Joseph Lucey | Democrat | 1/4/1971–7/6/1977 | Madison |
| Martin James Schreiber | Democrat | 7/6/1977–1/1/1979 | Milwaukee |
| Lee Sherman Dreyfus | Republican | 1/1/1979–1/3/1983 | Stevens Point|
| Anthony Scully Earl | Democrat | 1/3/1983–1/5/1987 | Madison |
| Tommy George Thompson | Republican | 1/5/1987–2/1/2001 | Elroy |
| Scott McCallum | Republican | 2/1/2001–1/6/2003 | Fond du Lac |
| James Edward Doyle, Jr. | Democrat | 1/6/2003–1/3/2011 | Madison |
| Scott Kevin Walker | Republican | 1/3/2011–1/7/2019 | Wauwatosa |
| Tony Evers | Democrat | 1/7/2019– | Madison |
Note: Prior to 1971, the term of office was two years rather than four. Prior to 1885, the term of office began in January of an even-numbered rather than an odd-numbered year.
1. Residence at the time of election. 2. Served as acting governor during dispute over outcome of gubernatorial election. 3. Died in office. 4. Resigned. 5. Served as acting governor for the 1943–44 term following the death of Governor-elect Orland Loomis.
Sources: "Wisconsin's Former Governors," 1960 *Wisconsin Blue Book*, pp. 69–206; *Blue Book* biographies.
## Vote for governor in general elections since 1848
| Year | Candidates and Party Affiliation | Votes |
|------|----------------------------------|-------|
| 1848 | Nelson Dewey—D | 19,875|
| | John H. Tweedy—W | 14,621|
| | Charles Durkee—I | 1,134 |
| | **Total** | **35,309** |
| 1849 | Nelson Dewey—D | 16,649|
| | Alexander L. Collins—W | 11,317|
| | Warren Chase—I | 3,761 |
| | **Total** | **31,759** |
| 1851 | Leonard J. Farwell—W | 22,319|
| | Don A. J. Upham—D | 21,812|
| | **Total** | **44,190** |
| 1853 | William A. Barstow—D | 30,405|
| | Edward D. Holton—R | 21,886|
| | Henry S. Baird—W | 3,304 |
| | **Total** | **55,683** |
| 1855 | William A. Barstow²—D | 36,355|
| | Coles Bashford—R | 36,198|
| | **Total** | **72,598** |
| 1857 | Alexander W. Randall—R | 44,693|
| | James B. Cross—D | 44,239|
| | **Total** | **90,058** |
| 1859 | Alexander W. Randall—R | 59,999|
| | Harrison C. Hobart—D | 52,539|
| | **Total** | **112,755** |
| 1861 | Louis P. Harvey—R | 53,777|
| | Benjamin Ferguson—D | 45,456|
| | **Total** | **99,258** |
| 1863 | James T. Lewis—R | 72,717|
| | Henry L. Palmer—D | 49,053|
| | **Total** | **122,029** |
| 1865 | Lucius Fairchild—R | 58,332|
| | Harrison C. Hobart—D | 48,330|
| | **Total** | **106,674** |
| 1867 | Lucius Fairchild—R | 73,637|
| | John J. Tallmadge—D | 68,873|
| | **Total** | **142,522** |
| 1869 | Lucius Fairchild—R | 69,502|
| | Charles D. Robinson—D | 61,239|
| | **Total** | **130,781** |
| 1871 | Cadwallader C. Washburn—R | 78,301|
| | James R. Doolittle—D | 68,910|
| | **Total** | **147,274** |
| 1873 | William R. Taylor—D | 81,599|
| | Cadwallader C. Washburn—R | 66,224|
| | **Total** | **147,856** |
| 1875 | Harrison Ludington—R | 85,155|
| | William R. Taylor—D | 84,314|
| | **Total** | **170,070** |
| 1877 | William E. Smith—R | 78,759|
| | James A. Mallory—D | 70,486|
| | Edward P. Allis—G | 26,216|
| | Collin M. Campbell—S | 2,176 |
| | **Total** | **178,122** |
| 1879 | William E. Smith—R | 100,535|
| | James G. Jenkins—D | 75,030|
| | Reuben May—G | 12,996|
| | **Total** | **189,005** |
| 1881 | Jeremiah M. Rusk—R | 81,754|
| | N.D. Fratt—D | 69,797|
| | T.D. Kanouse—Pro | 13,225|
| | Edward P. Allis—G | 7,002 |
| | **Total** | **171,856** |
| 1884 | Jeremiah M. Rusk—R | 163,214|
| | N.D. Fratt—D | 143,945|
| | Samuel D. Hastings—Pro | 8,545 |
| | William L. Utley—G | 4,274 |
| | **Total** | **319,997** |
| 1886 | Jeremiah M. Rusk—R | 133,247|
| | Gilbert M. Woodward—D | 114,529|
| | John Cochrane—PPop | 21,467|
| | John Myers Olin—Pro | 17,089|
| | **Total** | **286,368** |
| 1888 | William D. Hoard—R | 175,696|
| | James Morgan—D | 155,423|
| | E.G. Durant—Pro | 14,373|
| | D. Frank Powell—L | 9,196 |
| | **Total** | **354,714** |
| 1890 | George W. Peck—D | 160,388|
| | William D. Hoard—R | 132,068|
| | Charles Alexander—Pro | 11,246|
| | Reuben May—UL | 5,447 |
| | **Total** | **309,254** |
| 1892 | George W. Peck—D | 178,095|
| | John C. Spooner—R | 170,497|
| | Thomas C. Richmond—Pro | 13,185|
| | C.M. Butt—PPop | 9,638 |
| | **Total** | **371,559** |
| 1894 | William H. Upham—R | 196,150|
| | George W. Peck—D | 142,250|
| | D. Frank Powell—PPop | 25,604|
| | John F. Cleghorn—Pro | 11,240|
| | **Total** | **375,449** |
| 1896 | Edward Scofield—R | 264,981|
| | Willis C. Silverthorn—D | 169,257|
| | Joshua H. Berkey—Pro | 8,140 |
| | Christ Tuttrop—SL | 1,306 |
| | Robert Henderson—Nat | 407 |
| | **Total** | **444,110** |
| 1898 | Edward Scofield—R | 173,137|
| | Hiram W. Sawyer—D | 135,353|
| | Albinus A. Worsley—PPop | 8,518 |
| | Eugene W. Chafin—Pro | 8,078 |
| | Howard Tuttle—SD | 2,544 |
| | Henry Riese—SL | 1,473 |
| | **Total** | **329,430** |
| 1900 | Robert M. La Follette—R | 264,419|
| | Louis G. Bomrich—D | 160,674|
| | J. Burritt Smith—Pro | 9,707 |
| | Howard Tuttle—SD | 6,590 |
| | Frank R. Wilke—SL | 509 |
| | **Total** | **441,900** |
| 1902 | Robert M. La Follette—R | 193,417|
| | David S. Rose—D | 145,818|
| | Emil Seidel—SD | 15,970|
| | Edwin W. Drake—Pro | 9,647 |
| | Henry E.D. Puck—SL | 791 |
| | **Total** | **365,676** |
### Vote for governor in general elections since 1848, continued
| Year | Candidates and Party Affiliation | Votes |
|------|----------------------------------|-------|
| 1944 | Walter S. Goodland—R | 697,740 |
| | Daniel W. Hoan—D | 536,357 |
| | Alexander O. Benz—P | 76,028 |
| | George A. Nelson—S | 9,183 |
| | Georgia Cozzini—I (ISL) | 1,122 |
| | **Total** | 1,320,483 |
| 1946 | Walter S. Goodland—R | 621,970 |
| | Daniel W. Hoan—D | 406,499 |
| | Walter H. Uphoff—S | 8,996 |
| | Sigmund G. Eisenscher—IC | 1,857 |
| | Jerry R. Kenyon—ISL | 959 |
| | **Total** | 1,040,444 |
| 1948 | Oscar Rennebohm—R | 684,839 |
| | Carl W. Thompson—D | 558,497 |
| | Henry J. Berquist—PP | 12,928 |
| | Walter H. Uphoff—S | 9,149 |
| | James E. Boulton—ISW | 356 |
| | Georgia Cozzini—I (SL) | 328 |
| | **Total** | 1,266,139 |
| 1950 | Walter J. Kohler, Jr—R | 605,649 |
| | Carl W. Thompson—D | 525,319 |
| | M. Michael Essin—PP | 3,735 |
| | William O. Hart—S | 3,384 |
| | **Total** | 1,138,148 |
| 1952 | Walter J. Kohler, Jr—R | 1,009,171 |
| | William Proxmire—D | 601,844 |
| | M. Michael Essin—I | 3,706 |
| | **Total** | 1,615,214 |
| 1954 | Walter J. Kohler, Jr—R | 596,158 |
| | William Proxmire—D | 560,747 |
| | Arthur Wepfner—I | 1,722 |
| | **Total** | 1,158,666 |
| 1956 | Vernon W. Thomson—R | 808,273 |
| | William Proxmire—D | 749,421 |
| | **Total** | 1,557,788 |
| 1958 | Gaylord A. Nelson—D | 644,296 |
| | Vernon W. Thomson—R | 556,391 |
| | Wayne Leverenz—I | 1,485 |
| | **Total** | 1,202,219 |
| 1960 | Gaylord A. Nelson—D | 890,868 |
| | Philip G. Kuehn—R | 837,123 |
| | **Total** | 1,728,009 |
| 1962 | John W. Reynolds—D | 637,491 |
| | Philip G. Kuehn—R | 625,536 |
| | Adolf Wiggert—I | 2,477 |
| | **Total** | 1,265,900 |
| 1964 | Warren P. Knowles—R | 856,779 |
| | John W. Reynolds—D | 837,901 |
| | **Total** | 1,694,887 |
| 1966 | Warren P. Knowles—R | 626,041 |
| | Patrick J. Lucey—D | 539,258 |
| | Adolf Wiggert—I | 4,745 |
| | **Total** | 1,170,173 |
| 1968 | Warren P. Knowles—R | 893,463 |
| | Bronson C. La Follette—D | 791,100 |
| | Adolf Wiggert—I | 3,225 |
| | Robert Wilkinson—I | 1,813 |
| | **Total** | 1,689,738 |
| 1970 | Patrick J. Lucey—D | 728,403 |
| | Jack B. Olson—R | 602,617 |
| | Leo J. McDonald—A | 9,035 |
| | Georgia Cozzini—I (SL) | 1,287 |
| | Samuel K. Hunt—I (SW) | 888 |
| | Myrtle Kastner—I (PLS) | 628 |
| | **Total** | 1,343,160 |
| 1974 | Patrick J. Lucey—D | 628,639 |
| | William D. Dyke—R | 497,189 |
| | William H. Upham—A | 33,528 |
| | Crazy Jim—I | 12,107 |
| | William Hart—I (DS) | 5,113 |
| | Fred Blair—I (C) | 3,617 |
| | Georgia Cozzini—I (SL) | 1,492 |
| | **Total** | 1,181,685 |
| 1978 | Lee S. Dreyfus—R | 816,056 |
| | Martin J. Schreiber—D | 673,813 |
| | Eugene R. Zimmerman—C | 6,355 |
| | John C. Doherty—I | 2,183 |
| | Adrienne Kaplan—I (SW) | 1,548 |
| | Henry A. Ochsner—I (SL) | 849 |
| | **Total** | 1,500,996 |
| 1982 | Anthony S. Earlv—D | 896,872 |
| | Terry J. Kohler—R | 662,738 |
| | Larry Smiley—Lib | 9,734 |
| | James P. Wickstrom—Con | 7,721 |
| | Peter Seidman—I (SW) | 3,025 |
| | **Total** | 1,580,344 |
| 1986 | Tommy G. Thompson—R | 805,090 |
| | Anthony S. Earl—D | 705,578 |
| | Kathryn A. Christensen—LF | 10,323 |
| | Darold E. Wall—I | 3,913 |
| | Sanford Knapp—I | 1,668 |
| | **Total** | 1,526,573 |
| 1990 | Tommy G. Thompson—R | 802,321 |
| | Thomas A. Loftus—D | 576,280 |
| | **Total** | 1,379,727 |
| 1994 | Tommy G. Thompson—R | 1,051,326 |
| | Charles J. Chvala—D | 482,850 |
| | David S. Harmon—Lib | 11,639 |
| | Edward J. Frami—Tax | 9,188 |
| | Michael J. Mangan—I | 8,150 |
| | **Total** | 1,563,835 |
| 1998 | Tommy G. Thompson—R | 1,047,716 |
| | Ed Garvey—D | 679,553 |
| | Jim Mueller—Lib | 11,071 |
| | Edward J. Frami—Tax | 10,269 |
| | Mike Mangan—I | 4,985 |
| | A-Ja-mu Muhammad—I | 1,604 |
| | Jeffrey L. Smith—WG | 14 |
| | **Total** | 1,756,014 |
| 2002 | Jim Doyle—D | 800,515 |
| | Scott McCallum—R | 734,779 |
| | Ed Thompson—Lib | 185,455 |
| | Jim Young—WG | 44,111 |
| | Alan D. Eisenberg—I | 2,847 |
| | Ty A. Bollerud—I | 2,637 |
| | Mike Mangan—I | 1,710 |
| | Aneb Jah Rasta Sensas-Utcha | 929 |
| | Nefer—I | 929 |
| | **Total** | 1,775,349 |
| 2006 | Jim Doyle—D | 1,139,115 |
| | Mark Green—R | 979,427 |
| | Nelson Eisman—WG | 40,709 |
| | **Total** | 2,161,700 |
| 2010 | Scott Walker—R | 1,128,941 |
| | Tom Barrett—D | 1,004,303 |
| | Jim Langer—I | 10,608 |
| | James James—I | 8,273 |
| | **Total** | 2,160,832 |
### Vote for governor in general elections since 1848, continued
| Year | Candidate | Party | Votes |
|------|----------------------------------|-------|-----------|
| 2014 | Scott Walker—R | | 1,259,706 |
| | Mary Burke—D | | 1,122,913 |
| | Robert Burke—I (Lib) | | 18,720 |
| | Dennis Fehr—I (Peo) | | 7,530 |
| Total| | | 2,410,314 |
| 2018 | Tony Evers—D | | 1,324,307 |
| | Scott Walker—R | | 1,295,080 |
| | Phillip Anderson—Lib | | 20,225 |
| | Maggie Turnbull—I | | 18,884 |
| | Michael J. White—WG | | 11,087 |
| | Arnie Enz—I (Wis) | | 2,745 |
| Total| | | 2,673,308 |
Note: A candidate whose party did not receive 1% of the vote for a statewide office in the previous election or who failed to meet the alternative requirement of section 5.62, Wis. Stats., is listed on the Wisconsin ballot as "independent." When a candidate's party affiliation is listed as "I," followed by a party designation in parentheses, "independent" was the official ballot listing, but a party designation was found by the Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau in newspaper reports.
Totals include scattered votes for other candidates.
A—American
C—Conservative
Com—Communist
Con—Constitution
D—Democrat
DS—Democratic Socialist
G—Greenback
I—Independent
IC—Independent Communist
ID—Independent Democrat
IL—Independent Labor
IPR—Independent Prohibition
Republic
IPro—Independent Prohibition
ISL—Independent Socialist Labor
ISW—Independent Socialist Worker
IW—Independent Worker
L—Labor
LF—Labor-Farm/Laborista-Agrario
Lib—Libertarian
Nat—National
NR—National Republic
P—Progressive
Peo—People's
PLS—Progressive Labor Socialist
PP—People's Progressive
PPop—People's (Populist)
Pro—Prohibition
R—Republican
S—Socialist
SD—Social Democrat
SDA—Social Democrat of America
SL—Socialist Labor
SW—Socialist Worker
Tax—U.S. Taxpayers
U—Union
UL—Union Labor
W—Whig
WG—Wisconsin Green
Wis—Wisconsin Party
1. Votes for Dewey and Tweedy are from 1874 *Blue Book*; Durkee vote is based on county returns, as filed in the Office of the Secretary of State, but returns from Manitowoc and Winnebago Counties were missing. Without these 2 counties, Dewey had 19,605 votes and Tweedy had 14,514 votes. 2. Barstow's plurality was set aside in *Atty. Gen. ex rel. Bashford v. Barstow*, 4 Wis. 567 (1855) because of irregularities in the election returns. 3. Legal name. 4. Total includes 6,780 votes for the Libertarian ticket, which had a candidate for lieutenant governor, but no candidate for governor.
Source: Canvass reports and Wisconsin Elections Commission records.
### Wisconsin lieutenant governors since 1848
| Name | Party | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------|---------|------------------|------------|
| John E. Holmes | Democrat| 1848–1850 | Jefferson |
| Samuel W. Beall | Democrat| 1850–1852 | Taycheedah |
| Timothy Burns | Democrat| 1852–1854 | La Crosse |
| James T. Lewis | Republican| 1854–1856 | Columbus |
| Arthur McArthur | Democrat| 1856–1858 | Milwaukee |
| Erasmus D. Campbell | Democrat| 1858–1860 | La Crosse |
| Butler G. Noble | Republican| 1860–1862 | Whitewater |
| Edward Salomon | Republican| 1862–1864 | Milwaukee |
| Wyman Spooner | Republican| 1864–1870 | Elkhorn |
| Thaddeus C. Pound | Republican| 1870–1872 | Chippewa Falls |
| Milton H. Pettit | Republican| 1872–3/23/73 | Kenosha |
| Charles D. Parker | Democrat| 1874–1878 | Pleasant Valley |
| James M. Bingham | Republican| 1878–1882 | Chippewa Falls |
| Sam S. Fifield | Republican| 1882–1887 | Ashland |
| George W. Ryland | Republican| 1887–1891 | Lancaster |
| Charles Jonas | Democrat| 1891–1895 | Racine |
| Emil Baensch | Republican| 1895–1899 | Manitowoc |
| Jesse Stone | Republican| 1899–1903 | Watertown |
| James O. Davidson | Republican| 1903–1907 | Soldiers Grove |
| William D. Connor | Republican| 1907–1909 | Marshfield |
| John Strange | Republican| 1909–1911 | Oshkosh |
## Wisconsin lieutenant governors since 1848, continued
| Name | Party | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------------|-------------|------------------|-------------|
| Thomas Morris | Republican | 1911–1915 | La Crosse |
| Edward F. Dithmar | Republican | 1915–1921 | Baraboo |
| George F. Comings | Republican | 1921–1925 | Eau Claire |
| Henry A. Huber | Republican | 1925–1933 | Stoughton |
| Thomas J. O’Malley | Democrat | 1933–1937 | Milwaukee |
| Henry A. Gunderson | Progressive | 1937–10/16/37 | Portage |
| Herman L. Ekern | Progressive | 5/16/38–1939 | Madison |
| Walter S. Goodland | Republican | 1939–1945 | Racine |
| Oscar Rennebohm | Republican | 1945–1949 | Madison |
| George M. Smith | Republican | 1949–1955 | Milwaukee |
| Warren P. Knowles | Republican | 1955–1959 | New Richmond|
| Philleo Nash | Democrat | 1959–1961 | Wisconsin Rapids |
| Warren P. Knowles | Republican | 1961–1963 | New Richmond|
| Jack Olson | Republican | 1963–1965 | Wisconsin Dells |
| Patrick J. Lucey | Democrat | 1965–1967 | Madison |
| Jack Olson | Republican | 1967–1971 | Wisconsin Dells |
| Martin J. Schreiber | Democrat | 1971–1979 | Milwaukee |
| Russell A. Olson | Republican | 1979–1983 | Randall |
| James T. Flynn | Democrat | 1983–1987 | West Allis |
| Scott McCallum | Republican | 1987–2/1/01 | Fond du Lac |
| Margaret A. Farrow | Republican | 5/9/01–2003 | Pewaukee |
| Barbara Lawton | Democrat | 2003–2011 | Green Bay |
| Rebecca Kleefisch | Republican | 2011–2019 | Oconomowoc |
| Mandela Barnes | Democrat | 2019– | Milwaukee |
**Note:** Prior to 1971, the term of office was two years rather than four. Prior to 1885, the term of office began in January of an even-numbered rather than an odd-numbered year. Prior to 1979, lieutenant governors did not cease to hold the office of lieutenant governor while acting in place of a governor who had died or resigned.
1. Residence at the time of election.
2. Served as acting governor 3/21/1856 to 3/25/1856 during dispute over outcome of gubernatorial election.
3. Became acting governor on the death of Governor Harvey, 4/19/1862.
4. Died in office.
5. Became acting governor when Governor La Follette resigned, 1/1/1906.
6. Resigned.
7. Appointed to serve the rest of Gunderson’s term.
8. Became acting governor on the death of Governor-elect Orland Loomis, 1/1/1943.
9. Became acting governor on the death of Governor Goodland, 3/12/1947.
10. Became acting governor when Governor Lucey resigned, 7/6/1977.
11. Became governor when Governor Thompson resigned, 2/1/2001.
12. Appointed to serve the rest of McCallum’s term.
Source: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions, and bureau records.
## Wisconsin attorneys general since 1848
| Name | Party | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------------|-------------|------------------|-------------|
| James S. Brown | Democrat | 1848–1850 | Milwaukee |
| S. Park Coon | Democrat | 1850–1852 | Milwaukee |
| Experience Estabrook | Democrat | 1852–1854 | Geneva |
| George B. Smith | Democrat | 1854–1856 | Madison |
| William R. Smith | Democrat | 1856–1858 | Mineral Point |
| Gabriel Bouck | Democrat | 1858–1860 | Oshkosh |
| James H. Howe | Republican | 1860–1862 | Green Bay |
| Winifred Smith | Republican | 1862–1866 | Milwaukee |
| Charles R. Gill | Republican | 1866–1870 | Watertown |
| Stephen Steele Barlow | Republican | 1870–1874 | Dellona |
| Andrew Scott Sloan | Republican | 1874–1878 | Beaver Dam |
| Alexander Wilson | Republican | 1878–1882 | Mineral Point |
| Leander F. Frisby | Republican | 1882–1887 | West Bend |
| Charles E. Estabrook | Republican | 1887–1891 | Manitowoc |
| James L. O’Connor | Democrat | 1891–1895 | Madison |
| William H. Mylrea | Republican | 1895–1899 | Wausau |
| Emmett R. Hicks | Republican | 1899–1903 | Oshkosh |
1. Residence at the time of election.
### Wisconsin attorneys general since 1848, continued
| Name | Party | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------------|-----------|------------------|-------------|
| Lafayette M. Sturdevant | Republican| 1903–1907 | Neillsville |
| Frank L. Gilbert | Republican| 1907–1911 | Madison |
| Levi H. Bancroft | Republican| 1911–1913 | Richland Center |
| Walter C. Owen | Republican| 1913–1918 | Maiden Rock |
| Spencer Haven | Republican| 1918–1919 | Hudson |
| John J. Blaine | Republican| 1919–1921 | Boscobel |
| William J. Morgan | Republican| 1921–1923 | Milwaukee |
| Herman L. Ekern | Republican| 1923–1927 | Madison |
| John W. Reynolds | Republican| 1927–1933 | Green Bay |
| James E. Finnegan | Democrat | 1933–1937 | Milwaukee |
| Orlando S. Loomis | Progressive| 1937–1939 | Mauston |
| John E. Martin | Republican| 1939–6/1/48 | Madison |
| Grover L. Broadfoot | Republican| 6/5/48–11/12/48 | Mondovi |
| Thomas E. Fairchild | Democrat | 11/12/48–1951 | Verona |
| Vernon W. Thomson | Republican| 1951–1957 | Richland Center |
| Stewart G. Honeck | Republican| 1957–1959 | Madison |
| John W. Reynolds | Democrat | 1959–1963 | Green Bay |
| George Thompson | Republican| 1963–1965 | Madison |
| Bronson C. La Follette | Democrat | 1965–1969 | Madison |
| Robert W. Warren | Republican| 1969–10/8/74 | Green Bay |
| Victor A. Miller | Democrat | 10/8/74–11/25/74 | St. Nazianz |
| Bronson C. La Follette | Democrat | 11/25/74–1987 | Madison |
| Donald J. Hanaway | Republican| 1987–1991 | Green Bay |
| James E. Doyle | Democrat | 1991–2003 | Madison |
| Peggy A. Lautenschlager | Democrat | 2003–2007 | Fond du Lac |
| J.B. Van Hollen | Republican| 2007–2015 | Waunakee |
| Brad D. Schimel | Republican| 2015–2019 | Waukesha |
| Josh Kaul | Democrat | 2019– | Madison |
Note: Prior to 1971, the term of office was two years rather than four. Prior to 1885, the term of office began in January of an even-numbered rather than an odd-numbered year.
1. Residence at the time of election. 2. Resigned. 3. Appointed 10/7/1862 to serve the rest of Howe’s term. 4. Resigned 7/7/1918. 5. Appointed to serve the rest of Owen’s term. 6. Appointed to serve the rest of Martin’s term. Resigned. 7. Attorney General-elect Fairchild appointed to serve the rest of Martin’s term. 8. Appointed to serve the rest of Warren’s term. Resigned. 9. Attorney General-elect La Follette appointed to serve the rest of Warren’s term.
Source: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions, and bureau records.
### Wisconsin superintendents of public instruction since 1849
| Name | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------------|------------------|-------------|
| Eleazer Root | 1849–1852 | Waukesha |
| Azel P. Ladd | 1852–1854 | Shullsburg |
| Hiram A. Wright | 1854–1855 | Prairie du Chien |
| A. Constantine Barry | 1855–1858 | Racine |
| Lyman C. Draper | 1858–1860 | Madison |
| Josiah L. Pickard | 1860–1864 | Platteville |
| John G. McMynn | 1864–1868 | Racine |
| Alexander J. Craig | 1868–1870 | Madison |
| Samuel Fallows | 1870–1874 | Milwaukee |
| Edward Searing | 1874–1878 | Milton |
| William Clarke Whitford | 1878–1882 | Milton |
| Robert Graham | 1882–1887 | Oshkosh |
| Jesse B. Thayer | 1887–1891 | River Falls |
| Oliver Elwin Wells | 1891–1895 | Appleton |
| John Q. Emery | 1895–1899 | Albion |
### Wisconsin superintendents of public instruction since 1849, continued
| Name | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------------|---------------|-----------|
| Lorenzo D. Harvey | 1899–1903 | Milwaukee |
| Charles P. Cary | 1903–1921 | Delavan |
| John Callahan | 1921–1949 | Madison |
| George Earl Watson | 1949–1961 | Wauwatosa |
| Angus B. Rothwell\(^2\) | 1961–7/1/66 | Manitowoc |
| William C. Kahl\(^3\) | 7/1/66–1973 | Madison |
| Barbara Thompson | 1973–1981 | Madison |
| Herbert J. Grover\(^4\) | 1981–4/9/93 | Cottage Grove |
| John T. Benson | 1993–2001 | Marshall |
| Elizabeth Burmaster | 2001–2009 | Madison |
| Tony Evers | 2009–2019 | Madison |
| Carolyn Stanford Taylor\(^5\) | 2019– | Madison |
**Note:** Prior to 1971, the term of office was two years rather than four. Prior to 1885, the term of office began in January of an even-numbered rather than an odd-numbered year. From 1905 onward, the term of office began in July rather than in January and the office was filled at the nonpartisan spring election rather than at the November general election.
1. Residence at the time of election.
2. Resigned.
3. Appointed to serve the rest of Rothwell’s term.
4. Resigned. Lee Sherman Dreyfus was appointed to serve as “interim superintendent” for the rest of Grover’s term but did not officially become superintendent.
5. After taking office as governor in January 2019, Tony Evers appointed Carolyn Stanford Taylor as Superintendent to complete the term ending in 2021.
Source: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions, and bureau records.
### Wisconsin secretaries of state since 1848
| Name | Party | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------------|-------------|---------------|-----------|
| Thomas McHugh | Democrat | 1848–1850 | Delavan |
| William A. Barstow | Democrat | 1850–1852 | Waukesha |
| Charles D. Robinson | Democrat | 1852–1854 | Green Bay |
| Alexander T. Gray | Democrat | 1854–1856 | Janesville |
| David W. Jones | Democrat | 1856–1860 | Belmont |
| Lewis P. Harvey | Republican | 1860–1862 | Shopiere |
| James T. Lewis | Republican | 1862–1864 | Columbus |
| Lucius Fairchild | Republican | 1864–1866 | Madison |
| Thomas S. Allen | Republican | 1866–1870 | Mineral Point |
| Llywelyn Breese | Republican | 1870–1874 | Portage |
| Peter Doyle | Democrat | 1874–1878 | Prairie du Chien |
| Hans B. Warner | Republican | 1878–1882 | Ellsworth |
| Ernst G. Timme | Republican | 1882–1891 | Kenosha |
| Thomas J. Cunningham | Democrat | 1891–1895 | Chippewa Falls |
| Henry Casson | Republican | 1895–1899 | Viroqua |
| William H. Froehlich | Republican | 1899–1903 | Jackson |
| Walter L. Houser | Republican | 1903–1907 | Mondovi |
| James A. Frear | Republican | 1907–1913 | Hudson |
| John S. Donald | Republican | 1913–1917 | Mt. Horeb |
| Merlin Hull | Republican | 1917–1921 | Black River Falls |
| Elmer S. Hall | Republican | 1921–1923 | Green Bay |
| Fred R. Zimmerman\(^2\) | Republican | 1923–1927 | Milwaukee |
| Theodore Dammann | Republican | 1927–1935 | Milwaukee |
| Theodore Dammann | Progressive | 1935–1939 | Milwaukee |
| Fred R. Zimmerman\(^2\) | Republican | 1939–12/14/54 | Milwaukee |
| Louis Allis\(^3\) | Republican | 12/16/54–1/3/55 | Milwaukee |
| Mrs. Glenn M. Wise\(^4\) | Republican | 1/3/55–1957 | Madison |
| Robert C. Zimmerman | Republican | 1957–1975 | Madison |
| Douglas J. La Follette | Democrat | 1975–1979 | Kenosha |
### Wisconsin secretaries of state since 1848, continued
| Name | Party | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------------|---------|-------------|-----------|
| Mrs. Vel R. Phillips | Democrat| 1979–1983 | Milwaukee |
| Douglas J. La Follette | Democrat| 1983– | Madison |
Note: Prior to 1971, the term of office was two years rather than four. Prior to 1885, the term of office began in January of an even-numbered rather than an odd-numbered year.
1. Residence at the time of election. 2. Died after being reelected for a new term but before the new term began. 3. Appointed to serve the rest of Zimmerman's unfinished term. 4. Appointed to serve Zimmerman's new term.
Source: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions, and bureau records.
### Wisconsin state treasurers since 1848
| Name | Party | Service | Residence |
|-----------------------------|---------|-------------|-----------|
| Jarius C. Fairchild | Democrat| 1848–1852 | Madison |
| Edward H. Janssen | Democrat| 1852–1856 | Cedarburg |
| Charles Kuehn | Democrat| 1856–1858 | Manitowoc |
| Samuel D. Hastings | Republican| 1858–1866 | Trempealeau|
| William E. Smith | Republican| 1866–1870 | Fox Lake |
| Henry Baetz | Republican| 1870–1874 | Manitowoc |
| Ferdinand Kuehn | Democrat| 1874–1878 | Milwaukee |
| Richard Guenther | Republican| 1878–1882 | Oshkosh |
| Edward C. McFetridge | Republican| 1882–1887 | Beaver Dam|
| Henry B. Harshaw | Republican| 1887–1891 | Oshkosh |
| John Hunner | Democrat| 1891–1895 | Eau Claire|
| Sewell A. Peterson | Republican| 1895–1899 | Rice Lake |
| James O. Davidson | Republican| 1899–1903 | Soldiers Grove|
| John J. Kempf² | Republican| 1903–7/30/04| Milwaukee|
| Thomas M. Purtell³ | Republican| 7/30/04–1905| Cumberland|
| John J. Kempf | Republican| 1905–1907 | Milwaukee |
| Andrew H. Dahl | Republican| 1907–1913 | Westby |
| Henry Johnson | Republican| 1913–1923 | Suring |
| Solomon Levitan | Republican| 1923–1933 | Madison |
| Robert K. Henry | Democrat| 1933–1937 | Jefferson |
| Solomon Levitan | Progressive| 1937–1939 | Madison |
| John M. Smith⁴ | Republican| 1939–8/17/47| Shell Lake|
| John L. Sonderegger⁵ | Republican| 8/19/47–9/30/48| Madison|
| Clyde M. Johnston (appointed from staff)⁵ | Republican| 10/1/48–1949 | Madison |
| Warren R. Smith⁶ | Republican| 1949–12/4/57| Milwaukee|
| Mrs. Dena A. Smith⁷ | Republican| 12/5/57–1959| Milwaukee|
| Eugene M. Lamb | Democrat| 1959–1961 | Milwaukee |
| Mrs. Dena A. Smith⁴ | Republican| 1961–2/20/68| Milwaukee|
| Harold W. Clemens⁵ | Republican| 2/21/68–1971| Oconomowoc|
| Charles P. Smith | Democrat| 1971–1991 | Madison |
| Cathy S. Zeuske | Republican| 1991–1995 | Shawano |
| Jack C. Voight | Republican| 1995–2007 | Appleton |
| Dawn Marie Sass | Democrat| 2007–2011 | Milwaukee |
| Kurt W. Schuller | Republican| 2011–2015 | Eden |
| Matt Adamczyk | Republican| 2015–2019 | Wauwatosa |
| Sarah Godlewski | Democratic| 2019– | Madison |
Note: Prior to 1971, the term of office was two years rather than four. Prior to 1885, the term of office began in January of an even-numbered rather than an odd-numbered year.
1. Residence at the time of election. 2. Vacated office by failure to give the required bond. 3. Appointed to serve the rest of Kempf’s term. 4. Died in office. 5. Appointed.
Source: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions, and bureau records.
## Justices of the Wisconsin Supreme Court since 1836
| Judges during the territorial period | Service | Residence¹ |
|-------------------------------------|---------|------------|
| Charles Dunn (Chief Justice)² | 1836–1848 | |
| William C. Frazier | 1836–1838 | |
| David Irvin | 1836–1838 | |
| Andrew G. Miller | 1836–1848 | |
| Circuit judges who served as justices 1848–1853³ | Service | Residence¹ |
|--------------------------------------------------|---------|------------|
| Alexander W. Stow | 1848–1851 (C.J.) | Fond du Lac |
| Levi Hubbell | 1848–1853 (C.J. 1851) | Milwaukee |
| Edward V. Whiton | 1848–1853 (C.J. 1852–53) | Janesville |
| Charles H. Larrabee | 1848–1853 | Horicon |
| Mortimer M. Jackson | 1848–1853 | Mineral Point |
| Wiram Knowlton | 1850–1853 | Prairie du Chien |
| Timothy O. Howe | 1851–1853 | Green Bay |
| Justices since 1853 | Service | Residence¹ |
|---------------------|---------|------------|
| Edward V. Whiton | 1853–1859 (C.J.) | Janesville |
| Samuel Crawford | 1853–1855 | New Diggings |
| Abram D. Smith | 1853–1859 | Milwaukee |
| Orsamus Cole | 1855–1892 (C.J. 1880–92) | Potosi |
| Luther S. Dixon⁴ | 1859–1874 (C.J.) | Portage |
| Byron Paine⁴ | 1859–1864, 1867–71 | Milwaukee |
| Jason Downer⁴ | 1864–1867 | Milwaukee |
| William P. Lyon⁴ | 1871–1894 (C.J. 1892–94) | Racine |
| Edward G. Ryan⁴ | 1874–1880 (C.J.) | Racine |
| David Taylor | 1878–1891 | Sheboygan |
| Harlow S. Orton | 1878–1895 (C.J. 1894–95) | Madison |
| John B. Cassoday⁴ | 1880–1907 (C.J. 1895–07) | Janesville |
| John B. Winslow⁴ | 1891–1920 (C.J. 1907–20) | Racine |
| Silas U. Pinney | 1892–1898 | Madison |
| Alfred W. Newman | 1894–1898 | Trempealeau |
| Roujet D. Marshall⁴ | 1895–1918 | Chippewa Falls |
| Charles V. Bardeen⁴ | 1898–1903 | Wausau |
| Joshua Eric Dodge⁴ | 1898–1910 | Milwaukee |
| Robert G. Siebecker⁵ | 1903–1922 (C.J. 1920–22) | Madison |
| James C. Kerwin | 1905–1921 | Neenah |
| William H. Timlin | 1907–1916 | Milwaukee |
| Robert M. Bashford⁴ | Jan.–June 1908 | Madison |
| John Barnes | 1908–1916 | Rhinelander |
| Aad J. Vinje⁴ | 1910–1929 (C.J. 1922–29) | Superior |
| Marvin B. Rosenberry⁴| 1916–1950 (C.J. 1929–50) | Wausau |
| Franz C. Eschweiler⁴ | 1916–1929 | Milwaukee |
| Walter C. Owen | 1918–1934 | Maiden Rock |
| Burr W. Jones⁴ | 1920–1926 | Madison |
| Christian Doerfler⁴ | 1921–1929 | Milwaukee |
| Charles H. Crownhart⁴| 1922–1930 | Madison |
| E. Ray Stevens | 1926–1930 | Madison |
| Chester A. Fowler⁴ | 1929–1948 | Fond du Lac |
| Oscar M. Fritz⁴ | 1929–1954 (C.J. 1950–54) | Milwaukee |
| Edward T. Fairchild⁴ | 1929–1957 (C.J. 1954–57) | Milwaukee |
| John D. Wickhem⁴ | 1930–1949 | Madison |
| George B. Nelson⁴ | 1930–1942 | Stevens Point |
| Theodore G. Lewis⁴ | Nov. 15–Dec. 5, 1934 | Madison |
| Joseph Martin⁴ | 1934–1946 | Green Bay |
| Elmer E. Barlow⁴ | 1942–1948 | Arcadia |
| James Ward Rector⁴ | 1946–1947 | Madison |
| Henry P. Hughes | 1948–1951 | Oshkosh |
| John E. Martin⁴ | 1948–1962 (C.J. 1957–62) | Green Bay |
## Justices of the Wisconsin Supreme Court since 1836, continued
| Name | Service | Residence¹ |
|-----------------------------|----------------------------------------------|------------|
| Grover L. Broadfoot⁴ | 1948–1962 (C.J. Jan.–May 1962) | Mondovi |
| Timothy Brown⁴ | 1949–1964 (C.J. 1962–64) | Madison |
| Edward J. Gehl | 1950–1956 | Hartford |
| George R. Currie⁴ | 1951–1968 (C.J. 1964–68) | Sheboygan |
| Roland J. Steine⁴ | 1954–1958 | Milwaukee |
| Emmert L. Wingerd⁴ | 1956–1959 | Madison |
| Thomas E. Fairchild | 1957–1966 | Verona |
| E. Harold Hallows⁴ | 1958–1974 (C.J. 1968–74) | Milwaukee |
| William H. Dieterich | 1959–1964 | Milwaukee |
| Myron L. Gordon | 1962–1967 | Milwaukee |
| Horace W. Wilkie⁴ | 1962–1976 (C.J. 1974–76) | Madison |
| Bruce F. Beilfuss | 1964–1983 (C.J. 1976–83) | Neillsville|
| Nathan S. Heffernan⁴ | 1964–1995 (C.J. 1983–95) | Sheboygan |
| Leo B. Hanley⁴ | 1966–1978 | Milwaukee |
| Connor T. Hansen⁴ | 1967–1980 | Eau Claire |
| Robert W. Hansen | 1968–1978 | Milwaukee |
| Roland B. Day⁴ | 1974–1996 (C.J. 1995–96) | Madison |
| Shirley S. Abrahamson⁴ | 1976–2019 (C.J. 1996–2015) | Madison |
| William G. Callow | 1978–1992 | Waukesha |
| John L. Coffey | 1978–1982 | Milwaukee |
| Donald W. Steinmetz | 1980–1999 | Milwaukee |
| Louis J. Ceci⁴ | 1982–1993 | Milwaukee |
| William A. Babitch | 1983–2003 | Stevens Point|
| Jon P. Wilcox⁴ | 1992–2007 | Wautoma |
| Janine P. Geske⁴ | 1993–1998 | Milwaukee |
| Ann Walsh Bradley | 1995– | Wausau |
| N. Patrick Crooks | 1996–2015 | Green Bay |
| David T. Prosser, Jr.⁴ | 1998–2016 | Appleton |
| Diane S. Sykes⁴ | 1999–2004 | Milwaukee |
| Patience D. Roggensack | 2003– (C.J. 2015–) | Madison |
| Louis B. Butler, Jr.⁴ | 2004–2008 | Milwaukee |
| Annette K. Ziegler | 2007– | West Bend |
| Michael J. Gableman | 2008–2018 | Webster |
| Rebecca Grassl Bradley⁴ | 2015– | Milwaukee |
| Daniel Kelly⁴ | 2016– | North Prairie|
| Rebecca Frank Dallet | 2018– | Whitefish Bay|
| Brian Hagedorn | 2019– | Oconomowoc |
**Note:** The structure of the Wisconsin Supreme Court has varied. There were three justices during the territorial period. From 1848 to 1853, circuit judges acted as supreme court judges—five from 1848 to 1850 and six from 1850 to 1853. From 1853 to 1877, there were three elected justices. The number was increased to five in 1877, and to seven in 1903.
C.J.—chief justice.
¹. Residence at the time of election or appointment. ². Before 1889, the chief justice was elected or appointed to the position. From 1889 to 2015, the most senior justice served as chief justice. From 2015 onward, the justices have elected one of themselves to be chief justice for a two-year term. ³. Circuit judges acted as Supreme Court justices from 1848 to 1853. ⁴. Initially appointed to the court. ⁵. Siebecker was elected April 7, 1903, but prior to inauguration for his elected term was appointed April 9, 1903, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Justice Bardeen.
Sources: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, *Wisconsin Blue Book*, 1935, 1944, 1977; Wisconsin Elections Commission; Wisconsin Supreme Court, *Wisconsin Reports*, various volumes.
## Senate presidents, or presidents pro tempore, and assembly speakers since 1848
| Session | Senate presidents or presidents pro tempore¹ | Residence² | Assembly speakers | Residence² |
|---------|---------------------------------------------|------------|-------------------|------------|
| 1848 | — | — | Ninian E. Whiteside—D | Lafayette County |
| 1849 | — | — | Harrison C. Hobart—D | Sheboygan |
| 1850 | — | — | Moses M. Strong—D | Mineral Point |
| 1851 | — | — | Frederick W. Horn—D | Cedarburg |
| 1852 | E.B. Dean, Jr.—D | Madison | James M. Shafter—W | Sheboygan |
| 1853 | Duncan C. Reed—D | Milwaukee | Henry L. Palmer—D | Milwaukee |
| 1854 | Benjamin Allen—D | Hudson | Frederick W. Horn—D | Cedarburg |
| 1855 | Eleazor Wakeley—D | Whitewater | Charles C. Sholes—R | Kenosha |
| 1856 | Louis Powell Harvey—R | Shopiere | William Hull—D | Grant County |
| 1857 | — | — | Wyman Spooner—R | Elkhorn |
| 1858 | Hiram H. Giles—R | Stoughton | Frederick S. Lovell—R | Kenosha County |
| 1859 | Dennison Worthington—R | Summit | William P. Lyon—R | Racine |
| 1860 | Moses M. Davis—R | Portage | William P. Lyon—R | Racine |
| 1861 | Alden I. Bennett—R | Beloit | Amasa Cobb—R | Mineral Point |
| 1862 | Frederick O. Thorp—D | West Bend | James W. Beardsley—UD | Prescott |
| 1863 | Wyman Spooner—R | Elkhorn | J. Allen Barber—R | Lancaster |
| 1864 | Smith S. Wilkinson—R | Prairie du Sac | William W. Field—U | Fennimore |
| 1865 | Willard H. Chandler—U | Windsor | William W. Field—U | Fennimore |
| 1866 | Willard H. Chandler—U | Windsor | Henry D. Barron—U | St. Croix Falls |
| 1867 | George F. Wheeler—U | Nanuapa | Angus Cameron—U | La Crosse |
| 1868 | Newton M. Littlejohn—R | Whitewater | Alexander M. Thomson—R | Janesville |
| 1869 | George C. Hazelton—R | Boscobel | Alexander M. Thomson—R | Janesville |
| 1870 | David Taylor—R | Sheboygan | James M. Bingham—R | Palmyra |
| 1871 | Charles G. Williams—R | Janesville | William E. Smith—R | Fox Lake |
| 1872 | Charles G. Williams—R | Janesville | Daniel Hall—R | Watertown |
| 1873 | Henry L. Eaton—R | Lone Rock | Henry D. Barron—R | St. Croix Falls |
| 1874 | John C. Holloway—R | Lancaster | Gabriel Bouck—D | Oshkosh |
| 1875 | Henry D. Barron—R | St. Croix Falls | Frederick W. Horn—R | Cedarburg |
| 1876 | Robert L.D. Potter—R | Wautoma | Sam S. Fifield—R | Ashland |
| 1877 | William H. Hiner—R | Fond du Lac | John B. Cassoday—R | Janesville |
| 1878 | Levi W. Barden—R | Portage | Augustus R. Barrows—GB | Chippewa Falls |
| 1879 | William T. Price—R | Black River Falls | David M. Kelly—R | Green Bay |
| 1880 | Thomas B. Scott—R | Grand Rapids | Alexander A. Arnold—R | Galesville |
| 1881 | Thomas B. Scott—R | Grand Rapids | Ira B. Bradford—R | Augusta |
| 1882 | George B. Burrows—R | Madison | Franklin L. Gilson—R | Ellsworth |
| 1883 | George W. Ryland—R | Lancaster | Earl P. Finch—D | Oshkosh |
| 1885 | Edward S. Minor—R | Sturgeon Bay | Hiram O. Fairchild—R | Marinette |
| 1887 | Charles K. Erwin—R | Tomah | Thomas B. Mills—R | Millston |
| 1889 | Thomas A. Dyson—R | La Crosse | Thomas B. Mills—R | Millston |
| 1891 | Frederick W. Horn—D | Cedarburg | James J. Hogan—D | La Crosse |
| 1893 | Robert J. MacBride—D | Neillsville | Edward Keogh—D | Milwaukee |
| 1895 | Thompson D. Weeks—R | Whitewater | George B. Burrows—R | Madison |
| 1897 | Lyman W. Thayer—R | Ripon | George A. Buckstaff—R | Oshkosh |
| 1899 | Lyman W. Thayer—R | Ripon | George H. Ray—R | La Crosse |
| 1901 | James J. McGillivray—R | Black River Falls | George H. Ray—R | La Crosse |
| 1903–05 | James J. McGillivray—R | Black River Falls | Irvine L. Lenroot—R | West Superior |
| 1907 | James H. Stout—R | Menomonie | Herman L. Ekern—R | Whitehall |
| 1909 | James H. Stout—R | Menomonie | Levi H. Bancroft—R | Richland Center |
| 1911 | Harry C. Martin—R | Darlington | C.A. Ingram—R | Durand |
| 1913 | Harry C. Martin—R | Darlington | Merlin Hull—R | Black River Falls |
| 1915 | Edward T. Fairchild—R | Milwaukee | Lawrence C. Whittet—R | Edgerton |
| 1917 | Timothy Burke—R | Green Bay | Lawrence C. Whittet—R | Edgerton |
| 1919 | Willard T. Stevens—R | Rhinelander | Riley S. Young—R | Darien |
| 1921 | Timothy Burke—R | Green Bay | Riley S. Young—R | Darien |
| 1923 | Henry A. Huber—R | Stoughton | John L. Dahl—R | Rice Lake |
| 1925 | Howard Teasdale—R | Sparta | Herman Sachtjen³—R | Madison |
| | | | George A. Nelson³—R | Milltown |
¹ The president pro tempore is the presiding officer when the president is absent from the chamber.
² The residence is the county in which the person resides at the time of his election to office.
## Senate presidents, or presidents pro tempore, and assembly speakers since 1848, continued
| Session | Senate presidents or presidents pro tempore<sup>1</sup> | Residence<sup>2</sup> | Assembly speakers | Residence<sup>2</sup> |
|---------|--------------------------------------------------------|----------------------|--------------------|----------------------|
| 1927 | William L. Smith—R | Neillsville | John W. Eber—R | Milwaukee |
| 1929 | Oscar H. Morris—R | Milwaukee | Charles B. Perry—R| Wauwatosa |
| 1931 | Herman J. Severson—P | Iola | Charles B. Perry—R| Wauwatosa |
| 1933 | Orland S. Loomis—R | Mauston | Cornelius T. Young—D| Milwaukee |
| 1935 | Harry W. Bolens—D | Port Washington | Jorge W. Carow—P | Ladysmith |
| 1937 | Walter J. Rush—P | Neillsville | Paul R. Alfonsi—P | Pence |
| 1939 | Edward J. Roethe—R | Fennimore | Vernon W. Thomson—R| Richland Center |
| 1941–43 | Conrad Shearer—R | Kenosha | Vernon W. Thomson—R| Richland Center |
| 1945 | Conrad Shearer—R | Kenosha | Donald C. McDowell—R| Soldiers Grove |
| 1947 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | Donald C. McDowell—R| Soldiers Grove |
| 1949 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | Alex L. Nicol—R | Sparta |
| 1951–53 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | Ora R. Rice—R | Delavan |
| 1955 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | Mark Catlin, Jr.—R| Appleton |
| 1957 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | Robert G. Marotz—R | Shawano |
| 1959 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | George Molinaro—D | Kenosha |
| 1961 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | David J. Blanchard—R| Edgerton |
| 1963 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | Robert D. Haase—R | Marinette |
| 1965 | Frank E. Panzer—R | Brownsville | Robert T. Huber—D | West Allis |
| 1967–69 | Robert P. Knowles—R | New Richmond | Harold V. Froehlich—R| Appleton |
| 1971 | Robert P. Knowles—R | New Richmond | Robert T. Huber<sup>4</sup>—D| West Allis |
| | | | Norman C. Anderson<sup>4</sup>—D| Madison |
| 1973 | Robert P. Knowles—R | New Richmond | Norman C. Anderson—D| Madison |
| 1975 | Fred A. Risser—D | Madison | Norman C. Anderson—D| Madison |
| 1977–81 | Fred A. Risser—D | Madison | Edward G. Jackamonis—D| Waukesha |
| 1983–89 | Fred A. Risser—D | Madison | Thomas A. Loftus—D | Sun Prairie |
| 1991 | Fred A. Risser—D | Madison | Walter J. Kunicki—D| Milwaukee |
| 1993 | Fred A. Risser<sup>5</sup>—D | Madison | Walter J. Kunicki—D| Milwaukee |
| | Brian D. Rude<sup>5</sup>—R | Coon Valley | | |
| 1995 | Brian D. Rude<sup>6</sup>—R | Coon Valley | David T. Prosser, Jr.—R| Appleton |
| | Fred A. Risser<sup>6</sup>—D | Madison | | |
| 1997 | Fred A. Risser<sup>7</sup>—D | Madison | Ben Brancel<sup>8</sup>—R| Endeavor |
| | Brian D. Rude<sup>7</sup>—R | Coon Valley | Scott R. Jensen<sup>8</sup>—R| Waukesha |
| 1999 | Fred A. Risser—D | Madison | Scott R. Jensen—R | Waukesha |
| 2001 | Fred A. Risser—D | Madison | Scott R. Jensen—R | Waukesha |
| 2003–05 | Alan J. Lassee—R | De Pere | John Gard—R | Peshtigo |
| 2007 | Fred A. Risser—D | Madison | Michael D. Huebsch—R| West Salem |
| 2009 | Fred A. Risser—D | Madison | Michael J. Sheridan—D| Janesville |
| 2011 | Michael G. Ellis<sup>9</sup>—R | Neenah | Jeff Fitzgerald—R | Horicon |
| | Fred A. Risser<sup>9</sup>—D | Madison | | |
| 2013 | Michael G. Ellis—R | Neenah | Robin J. Vos—R | Burlington |
| 2015 | Mary A. Lazich—R | New Berlin | Robin J. Vos—R | Burlington |
| 2017–19 | Roger Roth—R | Appleton | Robin J. Vos—R | Burlington |
Note: Political party indicated is for session elected and is obtained from newspaper accounts for some early legislators.
D—Democrat; GB—Greenback; P—Progressive; R—Republican; U—Union; UD—Union Democrat; W—Whig.
1. Prior to May 1, 1979, the president pro tempore is listed because the lieutenant governor, rather than a legislator, was the president of the senate under the constitution until that time.
2. Residence at the time of election.
3. Nelson was elected to serve at special session, 4/15/26 to 4/16/26, as Sacchien had resigned.
4. Anderson was elected speaker 1/18/72 after Huber resigned.
5. A new president was elected on 4/20/93 after a change in party control following two special elections.
6. A new president was elected on 7/9/96 after a change in party control following a recall election.
7. A new president was elected on 4/21/98 after a change in party control following a special election.
8. Jensen was elected speaker 11/4/97 after Brancel resigned.
9. A new president was elected on 7/17/12 after a change in party control following a recall election.
Sources: Senate and Assembly Journals; Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau records.
## Majority and minority leaders of the Wisconsin Legislature since 1937
| Session | Senate majority | Senate minority | Assembly majority | Assembly minority |
|---------|-----------------|-----------------|------------------|------------------|
| 1937 | Maurice Coakley—R | NA | NA | NA |
| 1939 | Maurice Coakley—R | Philip Nelson—P | NA | Paul Alfonsi—P |
| 1941 | Maurice Coakley—R | Cornelius Young—D | Mark Catlin, Jr.—R | Andrew Biemiller—P |
| | | | | Robert Tehan—D |
| 1943 | Warren Knowles¹—R | NA | Mark Catlin, Jr.—R | Elmer Genzmer—D |
| | John Byrnes¹—R | | | Lyall Beggs—P |
| 1945 | Warren Knowles—R | Anthony Gawronski—D | Vernon Thomson—R | Lyall Beggs—P |
| | | | | Leland McParland—D |
| 1947 | Warren Knowles—R | Robert Tehan—D | Vernon Thomson—R | Leland McParland—D |
| 1949 | Warren Knowles—R | NA | Vernon Thomson—R | Leland McParland—D |
| 1951 | Warren Knowles—R | Gaylord Nelson—D | Arthur Mockrud—R | George Molinaro—D |
| 1953 | Warren Knowles—R | Henry Maier—D | Mark Catlin, Jr.—R | George Molinaro—D |
| 1955 | Paul Rogan²—R | Henry Maier—D | Robert Marotz—R | Robert Huber—D |
| 1957 | Robert Travis—R | Henry Maier—D | Warren Grady—R | Robert Huber—D |
| 1959 | Robert Travis—R | Henry Maier—D | Keith Hardie—D | David Blanchard—R |
| 1961 | Robert Travis—R | William Moser³—D | Robert Haase—R | Robert Huber—D |
| 1963 | Robert Knowles—R | Richard Zaborski—D | Paul Alfonsi—R | Robert Huber—D |
| 1965 | Robert Knowles—R | Richard Zaborski—D | Frank Nikolay—D | Robert Haase⁴—R |
| | | | | Paul Alfonsi⁴—R |
| 1967 | Jerris Leonard—R | Fred Risser—D | J. Curtis McKay—R | Robert Huber—D |
| 1969 | Ernest Keppler—R | Fred Risser—D | Paul Alfonsi—R | Robert Huber—D |
| 1971 | Ernest Keppler—R | Fred Risser—D | Norman Anderson⁵—D | Harold Froehlich—R |
| 1973 | Raymond Johnson—R | Fred Risser—D | Anthony Earl—D | John Shabaz—R |
| 1975 | Wayne Whitlow⁶—D | Clifford Krueger—R | Terry Willkom—D | John Shabaz—R |
| | William Bablitch⁶—D | | | |
| 1977 | William Bablitch—D | Clifford Krueger—R | James Wahner—D | John Shabaz—R |
| 1979 | William Bablitch—D | Clifford Krueger—R | James Wahner⁷—D | John Shabaz—R |
| | | | Gary Johnson⁷—D | |
| 1981 | William Bablitch⁹—D | Walter Chilsen—R | Thomas Loftus—D | John Shabaz⁸—R |
| | Timothy Cullen⁹—D | | | Tommy Thompson⁸—R |
| 1983 | Timothy Cullen—D | James Harsdorf—R | Gary Johnson—D | Tommy Thompson—R |
| 1985 | Timothy Cullen—D | Susan Engleiter—R | Dismas Becker—D | Tommy Thompson—R |
| 1987 | Joseph Strohl—D | Susan Engleiter—R | Thomas Hauke—D | Betty Jo Nelsen—R |
| 1989 | Joseph Strohl—D | Michael Ellis—R | Thomas Hauke—D | David Prosser—R |
| 1991 | David Helbach—D | Michael Ellis—R | David Travis—D | David Prosser—R |
| 1993 | David Helbach¹⁰—D | Michael Ellis¹⁰—R | David Travis—D | David Prosser—R |
| | | David Helbach¹⁰,¹¹—D | | |
| | | Robert Jauch¹¹—D | | |
| 1995 | Michael Ellis¹³—R | Robert Jauch¹²—D | Scott Jensen—R | Walter Kunicki—D |
| | Charles Chvala¹³—D | Charles Chvala¹²,¹³—D | | |
| 1997 | Charles Chvala¹⁴—D | Michael Ellis¹³—R | Steven Foti—R | Walter Kunicki¹⁵—D |
| | Michael Ellis¹⁴—R | Charles Chvala¹⁴—D | | Shirley Krug¹⁵—D |
| 1999 | Charles Chvala—D | Michael Ellis¹⁶—R | Steven Foti—R | Shirley Krug—D |
| 2001 | Charles Chvala—D | Mary Panzer¹⁶—R | Steven Foti—R | Shirley Krug—D |
| | Russell Decker¹⁷—D | | | Spencer Black¹⁸—D |
| | Fred Risser¹⁷—D | | | |
| | Jon Erpenbach¹⁷—D | | | |
| 2003 | Mary Panzer¹⁹—R | Jon Erpenbach—D | Steven Foti—R | James Kreuser—D |
| | Scott Fitzgerald¹⁹—R | | | |
| | Dale Schultz²⁰—R | | | |
| 2005 | Dale Schultz—R | Judith Robson²⁰—D | Michael Huebsch—R | James Kreuser—D |
| 2007 | Judith Robson—D | Scott Fitzgerald—R | Jeff Fitzgerald—R | James Kreuser—D |
| | Russell Decker²¹—D | | | |
| 2009 | Russell Decker²²—D | Scott Fitzgerald—R | Thomas Nelson—D | Jeff Fitzgerald—R |
| | Dave Hansen²²—D | | | |
### Majority and minority leaders of the Wisconsin Legislature since 1937, continued
| Session | Senate majority | Senate minority | Assembly majority | Assembly minority |
|---------|-----------------|-----------------|-------------------|------------------|
| 2011 | Scott Fitzgerald—R
Mark Miller\(^{23}\)—D | Mark Miller—D
Scott Fitzgerald\(^{23}\)—R | Scott Suder—R | Peter Barca—D |
| 2013 | Scott Fitzgerald—R | Chris Larson—D | Scott Suder\(^{24}\)—R
Bill Kramer\(^{25}\)—R
Pat Strachota—R | Peter Barca—D |
| 2015 | Scott Fitzgerald—R | Jennifer Shilling—D | Jim Steineke—R | Peter Barca—D |
| 2017 | Scott Fitzgerald—R | Jennifer Shilling—D | Jim Steineke—R | Peter Barca\(^{26}\)—D
Gordon Hintz\(^{26}\)—D |
| 2019 | Scott Fitzgerald—R | Jennifer Shilling—D | Jim Steineke—R | Gordon Hintz—D |
Note: Majority and minority leaders, who are chosen by the party caucuses in each house, were first recognized officially in the senate and assembly rules in 1963. Prior to the 1977 session, these positions were also referred to as “floor leader.”
D—Democrat; P—Progressive; R—Republican. NA—Not available.
1. Knowles granted leave of absence to return to active duty in U.S. Navy; Byrnes chosen to succeed him on 4/30/1943.
2. Resigned after sine die adjournment. 3. Resigned 1/30/1962. 4. Haase resigned 9/15/1965; Alfonsi elected 10/4/1965.
5. Earl elected 1/18/1972 to succeed Anderson who became assembly speaker. 6. Whitton resigned 4/30/1976; Bablitch elected 5/17/1976. 7. Wahner resigned 1/28/1980; Johnson elected 1/28/1980. 8. Shabaz resigned 12/18/1981; Thompson elected 12/21/1981. 9. Bablitch resigned 5/26/1982; Cullen elected 5/26/1982. 10. Democrats controlled senate from 1/4/1993 to 4/20/1993 when Republicans assumed control after a special election. 11. Helbach resigned 5/12/1993; Jauch elected 5/12/1993. 12. Jauch resigned 10/17/1995; Chvala elected 10/24/1995. 13. Republicans controlled senate from 1/5/1995 to 6/13/1996 when Democrats assumed control after a recall election. 14. Democrats controlled the senate from 1/6/1997 to 4/21/1998 when Republicans assumed control after a special election. 15. Kunicki resigned 6/3/1998; Krug elected 6/3/1998. 16. Ellis resigned 1/25/2000; Panzer elected 1/25/2000. 17. Decker and Risser elected co-leaders 10/22/2002; Erpenbach elected leader 12/4/2002. 18. Black elected 5/1/2001. 19. Panzer resigned 9/17/2004; Fitzgerald elected 9/17/2004. 20. Schultz elected 11/9/2004; Robson elected 11/9/2004. 21. Decker elected 10/24/2007. 22. Hansen replaced Decker as leader, 12/15/2010. 23. After a resignation on 3/16/12 resulted in a 16–16 split, Fitzgerald and Miller served as co-leaders. A recall election gave Democrats control of the senate as of 7/17/12. 24. Suder resigned 9/3/13; Kramer elected 9/4/13. 25. Kramer removed 3/4/14; Strachota elected 3/4/14. 26. Barca resigned 9/19/17; Hintz elected 9/19/17.
Sources: *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions; Senate and Assembly Journals; newspaper accounts.
### Chief clerks and sergeants at arms of the legislature since 1848
| Session | Senate | Assembly |
|---------|--------|----------|
| | Chief clerk | Sergeant at arms | Chief clerk | Sergeant at arms |
| 1848 | Henry G. Abbey | Lyman H. Seaver | Daniel N. Johnson | John Mullanphy |
| 1849 | William R. Smith | F. W. Shollner | Robert L. Ream | Felix McLinden |
| 1850 | William R. Smith | James Hanrahan | Alex T. Gray | E. R. Hugunin |
| 1851 | William Hull | E. D. Masters | Alex T. Gray | C. M. Kingsbury |
| 1852 | John K. Williams | Patrick Cosgrove | Alex T. Gray | Elisha Starr |
| 1853 | John K. Williams | Thomas Hood | Thomas McHugh | Richard F. Wilson |
| 1854 | Samuel G. Bugh | J. M. Sherwood | Thomas McHugh | William H. Gleason |
| 1855 | Samuel G. Bugh | William H. Gleason | David Atwood | William Blake |
| 1856 | Byron Paine | Joseph Baker | James Armstrong | Egbert Mosely |
| 1857 | William H. Brisbane | Alanson Filer | William C. Webb | William C. Rogers |
| 1858 | John L. V. Thomas | Nathaniel L. Stout | L. H. D. Crane | Francis Massing |
| 1859 | Hiram Bowen | Asa Kinney | L. H. D. Crane | Emmanuel Munk |
| 1860 | J. H. Warren | Asa Kinney | L. H. D. Crane | Joseph Gates |
| 1861 | J. H. Warren | J. A. Hadley | L. H. D. Crane | Craig B. Peebe |
| 1862 | J. H. Warren | B. U. Caswell | John S. Dean | A. A. Huntington |
| 1863 | Frank M. Stewart | Luther Bashford | John S. Dean | A. M. Thompson |
| 1864 | Frank M. Stewart | Nelson Williams | John S. Dean | A. M. Thompson |
| 1865 | Frank M. Stewart | Nelson Williams | John S. Dean | Alonzo Wilcox |
| 1866 | Frank M. Stewart | Nelson Williams | E. W. Young | L. M. Hammond |
| 1867 | Leander B. Hills | Asa Kinney | E. W. Young | Daniel Webster |
| Session | Senate Chief clerk | Senate Sergeant at arms | Assembly Chief clerk | Assembly Sergeant at arms |
|---------|-------------------|------------------------|----------------------|--------------------------|
| 1868 | Leander B. Hills | W. H. Hamilton | E. W. Young | C. L. Harris |
| 1869 | Leander B. Hills | W. H. Hamilton | E. W. Young | Rolin C. Kelly |
| 1870 | Leander B. Hills | E. M. Rogers | E. W. Young | Ole C. Johnson |
| 1871 | O. R. Smith | W. W. Baker | E. W. Young | Sam S. Fifield |
| 1872 | J. H. Waggoner | W. D. Hoard | E. W. Young | Sam S. Fifield |
| 1873 | J. H. Waggoner | Albert Emsonon | E. W. Young | O. C. Bissel |
| 1874 | J. H. Waggoner | O. U. Aiken | George W. Peck | Joseph Deuster |
| 1875 | Fred A. Dennett | O. U. Aiken | R. M. Strong | J. W. Brackett |
| 1876 | A. J. Turner | E. T. Gardner | R. M. Strong | Elisha Starr |
| 1877 | A. J. Turner | C. E. Bullard | W. A. Nowell | Thomas B. Reid |
| 1878 | A. J. Turner¹ | L. J. Brayton | Jabez R. Hunter | Anton Klaus |
| 1879 | Charles E. Bross¹ | Chalmers Ingersoll | John E. Eldred | Miletus Knight |
| 1880 | Charles E. Bross | Chalmers Ingersoll | John E. Eldred | D. H. Pulcifer |
| 1881 | Charles E. Bross | W. W. Baker | John E. Eldred | G. W. Church |
| 1882 | Charles E. Bross | A. T. Glaze | E. D. Coe | D. E. Welch |
| 1883 | Charles E. Bross | A. D. Thorp | I. T. Carr | Thomas Kennedy |
| 1885 | Charles E. Bross | Hubert Wolcott | E. D. Coe | John M. Ewing |
| 1887 | Charles E. Bross | T. J. George | E. D. Coe | William A. Adamson |
| 1889 | Charles E. Bross | T. J. George | E. D. Coe | F. E. Parsons |
| 1891 | J. P. Hume | John A. Barney | George W. Porth | Patrick Whelan |
| 1893 | Sam J. Shafer | John B. Becker | George W. Porth | Theodore Knapstein |
| 1895 | Walter L. Houser | Charles Pettibone | W. A. Nowell | B. F. Millard |
| 1897 | Walter L. Houser | Charles Pettibone | W. A. Nowell | C. M. Hambright |
| 1899 | Walter L. Houser | Charles Pettibone | W. A. Nowell | James H. Agen |
| 1901 | Walter L. Houser | Charles Pettibone | W. A. Nowell | A. M. Anderson |
| 1903 | Theodore W. Goldin | Sanfield McDonald | C. O. Marsh | A. M. Anderson |
| 1905 | L. K. Eaton | R. C. Falconer | C. O. Marsh | Nicholas Streveler |
| 1907 | A. R. Emerson | R. C. Falconer | C. E. Shaffer | W. S. Irvine |
| 1909 | F. E. Andrews | R. C. Falconer | C. E. Shaffer | W. S. Irvine |
| 1911–13 | F. M. Wylie | C. A. Leicht | C. E. Shaffer | W. S. Irvine |
| 1915 | O. G. Munson | F. E. Andrews | C. E. Shaffer | W. S. Irvine |
| 1917 | O. G. Munson | F. E. Andrews | C. E. Shaffer | T. G. Cretney |
| 1919 | O. G. Munson | John Turner | C. E. Shaffer | T. G. Cretney |
| 1921 | O. G. Munson | Vincent Kielpinski | C. E. Shaffer | T. G. Cretney |
| 1923 | F. W. Schoenfeld | C. A. Leicht | C. E. Shaffer | T. W. Bartingale |
| 1925 | F. W. Schoenfeld | C. A. Leicht | C. E. Shaffer | C. E. Hanson |
| 1927–29 | O. G. Munson | George W. Rickeman | C. E. Shaffer | C. F. Moulton |
| 1931 | R. A. Cobban | Emil A. Hartman | C. E. Shaffer | Gustave Rheingans |
| 1933 | R. A. Cobban | Emil A. Hartman | John J. Slocum | George C. Faust |
| 1935–37 | Lawrence R. Larsen | Emil A. Hartman | Lester R. Johnson | Gustave Rheingans |
| 1939 | Lawrence R. Larsen | Emil A. Hartman | John J. Slocum | Robert A. Merrill |
| 1941–43 | Lawrence R. Larsen | Emil A. Hartman | Arthur L. May | Norris J. Kellman |
| 1945 | Lawrence R. Larsen | Harold E. Damon | Arthur L. May | Norris J. Kellman |
| 1947–53 | Thomas M. Donahue | Harold E. Damon | Arthur L. May | Norris J. Kellman |
| 1955–57 | Lawrence R. Larsen | Harold E. Damon | Arthur L. May | Norris J. Kellman |
| 1959 | Lawrence R. Larsen | Harold E. Damon | Norman C. Anderson | Thomas H. Browne |
| 1961 | Lawrence R. Larsen | Harold E. Damon | Robert G. Marotz | Norris J. Kellman |
| 1963 | Lawrence R. Larsen | Harold E. Damon | Kenneth E. Priebe | Norris J. Kellman |
| 1965 | Lawrence R. Larsen²| Harold E. Damon | James P. Buckley | Thomas H. Browne |
| 1967 | William P. Nugent | Harry O. Levander | Arnold W. F. Langner³| Louis C. Romell |
| | | | Wilmer H. Struebing³ | Louis C. Romell |
| 1969 | William P. Nugent | Kenneth Nicholson | Thomas P. Fox | William F. Quick |
| 1971 | William P. Nugent | Kenneth Nicholson | Thomas S. Hanson | William F. Quick |
| 1973 | William P. Nugent | Kenneth Nicholson | Everett E. Bolle | Raymond J. Tobiasz |
| 1975 | Glenn E. Bultman | Robert M. Thompson | | |
¹ Retired from service in 1878, but continued to serve as sergeant at arms until 1880.
² Retired from service in 1965, but continued to serve as sergeant at arms until 1967.
³ Retired from service in 1967, but continued to serve as sergeant at arms until 1969.
### Chief clerks and sergeants at arms of the legislature since 1848, continued
| Session | Senate | Assembly |
|---------|--------|----------|
| | Chief clerk | Sergeant at arms | Chief clerk | Sergeant at arms |
| 1977 | Donald J. Schneider | Robert M. Thompson | Everett E. Bolle | Joseph E. Jones |
| 1979 | Donald J. Schneider | Daniel B. Fields | Marcel Dandeneau | Joseph E. Jones |
| 1981 | Donald J. Schneider | Daniel B. Fields | David R. Kedrowski | Lewis T. Mittness |
| 1983 | Donald J. Schneider | Daniel B. Fields | Joanne M. Duren | Lewis T. Mittness |
| 1985 | Donald J. Schneider | Daniel B. Fields | Joanne M. Duren | Patrick Essie |
| 1987 | Donald J. Schneider | Daniel B. Fields | Thomas T. Melvin | Patrick Essie |
| 1989–91 | Donald J. Schneider | Daniel B. Fields | Thomas T. Melvin | Robert G. Johnston |
| 1993 | Donald J. Schneider | Daniel B. Fields | Thomas T. Melvin | Robert G. Johnston |
| 1995 | Donald J. Schneider | Jon H. Hochkammer | Thomas T. Melvin | John A. Scocos |
| 1997 | Donald J. Schneider | Jon H. Hochkammer | Charles R. Sanders | John A. Scocos |
| 1999 | Donald J. Schneider | Jon H. Hochkammer | Charles R. Sanders | Denise L. Solie |
| 2001 | Donald J. Schneider | Jon H. Hochkammer | John A. Scocos | Denise L. Solie |
| 2003 | Donald J. Schneider | Edward A. Blazel | Patrick E. Fuller | Richard A. Skindrud |
| 2005–07 | Robert J. Marchant | Edward A. Blazel | Patrick E. Fuller | Richard A. Skindrud |
| 2009 | Robert J. Marchant | Edward A. Blazel | Patrick E. Fuller | William M. Nagy |
| 2011 | Robert J. Marchant | Edward A. Blazel | Patrick E. Fuller | Anne Tonnon Byers |
| 2013–19 | Jeffrey Renk | Edward A. Blazel | Patrick E. Fuller | Anne Tonnon Byers |
1. Bross elected 2/6/78; Turner resigned 2/7/78. 2. Larsen died 3/2/65; Nugent elected 3/31/65. 3. Langnor resigned 5/2/67; Struebing elected 5/16/67. 4. Fields served until 8/2/93. Randall Radtke served as acting sergeant from 8/3/93 to 11/3/93. Hochkammer elected 1/25/94. 5. Melvin retired 1/31/95; Sanders elected 5/24/95. 6. Scocos resigned 9/25/97; Solie elected 1/15/98. 7. Scocos resigned 2/25/02. Hochkammer resigned 9/2/02. No replacement was elected for either. 8. Schneider resigned 7/4/03; Marchant elected 1/20/04. 9. Marchant resigned 1/2/12.
Sources: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions; journals and organizing resolutions of each house.
### Political composition of the Wisconsin Legislature since 1885
| Session | Senate | Assembly |
|---------|--------|----------|
| | D | R | P | S | SD | D | R | P | S | SD |
| 1885 | 13 | 20 | — | — | — | 39 | 61 | — | — | — |
| 1887 | 6 | 25 | — | — | — | 30 | 57 | — | — | — |
| 1889 | 6 | 24 | — | — | — | 29 | 71 | — | — | — |
| 1891 | 19 | 14 | — | — | — | 66 | 33 | — | — | — |
| 1893 | 26 | 7 | — | — | — | 56 | 44 | — | — | — |
| 1895 | 13 | 20 | — | — | — | 19 | 81 | — | — | — |
| 1897 | 4 | 29 | — | — | — | 8 | 91 | — | — | — |
| 1899 | 2 | 31 | — | — | — | 19 | 81 | — | — | — |
| 1901 | 2 | 31 | — | — | — | 18 | 82 | — | — | — |
| 1903 | 3 | 30 | — | — | — | 25 | 75 | — | — | — |
| 1905 | 4 | 28 | — | — | 1 | 11 | 85 | — | — | 4 |
| 1907 | 5 | 27 | — | — | 1 | 19 | 76 | — | — | 5 |
| 1909 | 4 | 28 | — | — | 1 | 17 | 80 | — | — | 3 |
| 1911 | 4 | 27 | — | — | 2 | 29 | 59 | — | — | 12 |
| 1913 | 9 | 23 | — | — | 1 | 37 | 57 | — | — | 6 |
| 1915 | 11 | 21 | — | — | 1 | 29 | 63 | — | — | 8 |
| 1917 | 6 | 24 | — | 3 | — | 14 | 79 | — | 7 | — |
| 1919 | 2 | 27 | — | 4 | — | 5 | 79 | — | 16 | — |
## Political composition of the Wisconsin Legislature since 1885, continued
| Session¹ | Senate² | Assembly³ |
|----------|---------|-----------|
| | D | R | P | S | SD | D | R | P | S | SD |
| 1921 | 2 | 27 | — | 4 | — | 2 | 92 | — | 6 | — |
| 1923 | — | 30 | — | 3 | — | 1 | 89 | — | 10 | — |
| 1925 | — | 30 | — | 3 | — | 1 | 92 | — | 7 | — |
| 1927 | — | 31 | — | 2 | — | 3 | 89 | — | 8 | — |
| 1929 | — | 31 | — | 2 | — | 6 | 90 | — | 3 | — |
| 1931 | 1 | 30 | — | 2 | — | 2 | 89 | — | 9 | — |
| 1933 | 9 | 23 | — | 1 | — | 59 | 13 | 24 | 3 | — |
| 1935 | 13 | 6 | 14 | — | — | 35 | 17 | 45 | 3 | — |
| 1937 | 9 | 8 | 16 | — | — | 31 | 21 | 46 | 2 | — |
| 1939 | 6 | 16 | 11 | — | — | 15 | 53 | 32 | — | — |
| 1941 | 3 | 24 | 6 | — | — | 15 | 60 | 25 | — | — |
| 1943 | 4 | 23 | 6 | — | — | 14 | 73 | 13 | — | — |
| 1945 | 6 | 22 | 5 | — | — | 19 | 75 | 6 | — | — |
| 1947 | 5 | 27 | 1 | — | — | 11 | 88 | — | — | — |
| 1949 | 3 | 27 | — | — | — | 26 | 74 | — | — | — |
| 1951 | 7 | 26 | — | — | — | 24 | 75 | — | — | — |
| 1953 | 7 | 26 | — | — | — | 25 | 75 | — | — | — |
| 1955 | 8 | 24 | — | — | — | 36 | 64 | — | — | — |
| 1957 | 10 | 23 | — | — | — | 33 | 67 | — | — | — |
| 1959 | 12 | 20 | — | — | — | 55 | 45 | — | — | — |
| 1961 | 13 | 20 | — | — | — | 45 | 55 | — | — | — |
| 1963 | 11 | 22 | — | — | — | 46 | 53 | — | — | — |
| 1965 | 12 | 20 | — | — | — | 52 | 48 | — | — | — |
| 1967 | 12 | 21 | — | — | — | 47 | 53 | — | — | — |
| 1969 | 10 | 23 | — | — | — | 48 | 52 | — | — | — |
| 1971 | 12 | 20 | — | — | — | 67 | 33 | — | — | — |
| 1973 | 15 | 18 | — | — | — | 62 | 37 | — | — | — |
| 1975 | 18 | 13 | — | — | — | 63 | 36 | — | — | — |
| 1977 | 23 | 10 | — | — | — | 66 | 33 | — | — | — |
| 1979 | 21 | 10 | — | — | — | 60 | 39 | — | — | — |
| 1981 | 19 | 14 | — | — | — | 59 | 39 | — | — | — |
| 1983 | 17 | 14 | — | — | — | 59 | 40 | — | — | — |
| 1985 | 19 | 14 | — | — | — | 52 | 47 | — | — | — |
| 1987 | 19 | 11 | — | — | — | 54 | 45 | — | — | — |
| 1989 | 20 | 13 | — | — | — | 56 | 43 | — | — | — |
| 1991 | 19 | 14 | — | — | — | 58 | 41 | — | — | — |
| 1993⁴ | 15 | 15 | — | — | — | 52 | 47 | — | — | — |
| 1995⁴ | 16 | 17 | — | — | — | 48 | 51 | — | — | — |
| 1997⁴ | 17 | 16 | — | — | — | 47 | 52 | — | — | — |
| 1999 | 17 | 16 | — | — | — | 44 | 55 | — | — | — |
| 2001 | 18 | 15 | — | — | — | 43 | 56 | — | — | — |
| 2003 | 15 | 18 | — | — | — | 41 | 58 | — | — | — |
| 2005 | 14 | 19 | — | — | — | 39 | 60 | — | — | — |
| 2007 | 18 | 15 | — | — | — | 47 | 52 | — | — | — |
| 2009 | 18 | 15 | — | — | — | 52 | 46 | — | — | — |
| 2011⁴ | 14 | 19 | — | — | — | 38 | 60 | — | — | — |
| 2013 | 15 | 18 | — | — | — | 39 | 59 | — | — | — |
| 2015 | 14 | 18 | — | — | — | 36 | 63 | — | — | — |
| 2017 | 13 | 20 | — | — | — | 35 | 64 | — | — | — |
| 2019 | 14 | 19 | — | — | — | 36 | 63 | — | — | — |
**Note:** The number of assembly districts was reduced from 100 to 99 beginning in 1973. There have been 33 senate districts since 1862. Any deviation of a session's total from these numbers indicates vacant seats.
— Represents zero; D—Democrat; P—Progressive; R—Republican; S—Socialist; SD—Social Democrat.
1. Political composition at inauguration.
2. Miscellaneous affiliations for senate seats not shown in the table are: one Independent and one People’s (1887); one Independent and 2 Union Labor (1889).
3. Miscellaneous affiliations for assembly seats not shown: 3 Independent, 4 Independent Democrat, and 6 People’s (1887); one Union Labor (1891); one Fusion (1897);
one Independent (1929, 2009, 2011); one Independent Republican (1933). 4. In the 1993, 1995, and 1997 Legislatures, majority control of the senate shifted during the session. On 4/20/93, vacancies were filled resulting in a total of 16 Democrats and 17 Republicans; on 6/16/96, there were 17 Democrats and 16 Republicans; on 4/19/98, there were 16 Democrats and 17 Republicans. 5. A series of recall elections during the session resulted in a switch in majority control of the senate, with 17 Democrats and 16 Republicans as of 7/16/12.
Sources: Pre-1943 data compiled from the Secretary of State, *Officers of Wisconsin: U.S., State, Judicial, Congressional, Legislative and County Officers*, 1943 and earlier editions, and the *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions. Later data compiled from Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau sources.
### Wisconsin legislative sessions since 1848
| Year | Opening/final adjournment | Days | Bills | Joint res. | Res. | Bills vetoed¹ (overridden) | Laws enacted |
|------|---------------------------|------|-------|------------|------|----------------------------|--------------|
| 1848 | 6/5–8/21 | 78 | 217 | — | — | — | 155 |
| 1849 | 1/10–4/2 | 83 | 428 | — | — | 2(1) | 220 |
| 1850 | 1/9–2/11 | 34 | 438 | — | — | 1 | 284 |
| 1851 | 1/8–3/17 | 69 | 707 | — | — | 9 | 407 |
| 1852 | 1/14–4/19 | 97 | 813 | — | — | 3(1) | 504 |
| 1853 | 1/12–7/13 | 183 | 1,145 | — | — | 6 | 521 |
| 1854 | 1/11–4/3 | 83 | 880 | — | — | 2 | 437 |
| 1855 | 1/10–4/2 | 83 | 955 | — | — | 6 | 500 |
| 1856 | 1/9–10/14 | 288 | 1,242 | — | — | 1 | 688 |
| 1857 | 1/14–3/9 | 55 | 895 | — | — | — | 517 |
| 1858 | 1/13–5/17 | 125 | 1,364 | 157 | 342 | 28 | 436 |
| 1859 | 1/12–3/21 | 69 | 986 | 113 | 143 | 9 | 680 |
| 1860 | 1/11–4/2 | 83 | 1,024 | 69 | 246 | 2 | 489 |
| 1861 | 1/9–4/17 | 99 | 857 | 100 | 235 | 2 | 387 |
| 1861 SS | 5/15–5/27 | 13 | 28 | 24 | 34 | — | 15 |
| 1862 | 1/8–6/17 | 161 | 1,008 | 125 | 207 | 36²(8) | 514 |
| 1862 SS | 9/10–9/26 | 17 | 43 | 25 | 37 | — | 17 |
| 1863 | 1/14–4/2 | 79 | 895 | 101 | 157 | 10(1) | 383 |
| 1864 | 1/13–4/4 | 83 | 835 | 66 | 141 | — | 509 |
| 1865 | 1/11–4/10 | 90 | 1,132 | 82 | 190 | 2 | 565 |
| 1866 | 1/10–4/12 | 93 | 1,107 | 64 | 208 | 5 | 733 |
| 1867 | 1/9–4/11 | 93 | 1,161 | 97 | 161 | 2 | 790 |
| 1868 | 1/8–3/6 | 59 | 987 | 73 | 119 | 2(2) | 692 |
| 1869 | 1/13–3/11 | 58 | 887 | 52 | 81 | 14(1) | 657 |
| 1870 | 1/12–3/17 | 65 | 1,043 | 54 | 89 | 2 | 666 |
| 1871 | 1/11–3/25 | 74 | 1,066 | 55 | 82 | 4 | 671 |
| 1872 | 1/10–3/26 | 77 | 709 | 79 | 124 | 2 | 322 |
| 1873 | 1/8–3/20 | 72 | 611 | 62 | 122 | 4 | 308 |
| 1874 | 1/14–3/12 | 58 | 688 | 91 | 111 | 2 | 349 |
| 1875 | 1/13–3/6 | 53 | 637 | 39 | 93 | 2 | 344 |
| 1876 | 1/12–3/14 | 63 | 715 | 57 | 115 | 2 | 415 |
| 1877 | 1/10–3/8 | 58 | 720 | 59 | 95 | 4 | 384 |
| 1878 | 1/9–3/21 | 72 | 735 | 79 | 134 | 2 | 342 |
| 1878 SS | 6/4–6/7 | 4 | 6 | 14 | 10 | — | 5 |
| 1879 | 1/8–3/5 | 57 | 610 | 49 | 105 | — | 256 |
| 1880 | 1/14–3/17 | 64 | 669 | 58 | 93 | 3 | 323 |
| 1881 | 1/12–4/4 | 83 | 780 | 104 | 100 | 6 | 334 |
| 1882 | 1/11–3/31 | 80 | 728 | 57 | 90 | 6 | 330 |
| 1883 | 1/10–4/4 | 85 | 705 | 75 | 100 | 2 | 360 |
| 1885 | 1/14–4/13 | 90 | 963 | 97 | 108 | 8 | 471 |
| 1887 | 1/12–4/15 | 94 | 1,293 | 114 | 60 | 10 | 553 |
| 1889 | 1/9–4/19 | 101 | 1,355 | 136 | 82 | 6(1) | 529 |
| 1891 | 1/14–4/25 | 102 | 1,216 | 137 | 91 | 10(1) | 483 |
| 1892 SS | 6/28–7/1 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 16 | — | 1 |
| 1892 SS | 10/17–10/27 | 11 | 8 | 6 | 14 | — | 2 |
| 1893 | 1/11–4/21 | 101 | 1,124 | 135 | 86 | 6 | 312 |
## Wisconsin legislative sessions since 1848, continued
| Year | Opening/final adjournment | Days | Bills | Joint res. | Res. | Bills vetoed¹ (overridden) | Laws enacted |
|------|---------------------------|------|-------|------------|------|----------------------------|--------------|
| 1895 | 1/9–4/20 | 102 | 1,154 | 139 | 88 | — | 387 |
| 1896 SS | 2/18–2/28 | 11 | 3 | 11 | 15 | — | 1 |
| 1897 | 1/13–8/20 | 220 | 1,077 | 155 | 39 | 19(1) | 381 |
| 1899 | 1/11–5/4 | 114 | 910 | 113 | 40 | 3 | 357 |
| 1901 | 1/9–5/15 | 127 | 1,091 | 81 | 39 | 24 | 470 |
| 1903 | 1/14–5/23 | 130 | 1,115 | 65 | 81 | 23 | 451 |
| 1905 | 1/11–6/21 | 162 | 1,357 | 134 | 101 | 22 | 523 |
| 1905 SS | 12/4–12/19 | 16 | 24 | 15 | 26 | — | 17 |
| 1907 | 1/9–7/16 | 189 | 1,685 | 205 | 84 | 28(1) | 677 |
| 1909 | 1/13–6/18 | 157 | 1,567 | 213 | 49 | 22 | 550 |
| 1911 | 1/11–7/15 | 186 | 1,710 | 267 | 37 | 15 | 665 |
| 1912 SS | 4/30–5/6 | 7 | 41 | 7 | 6 | — | 22 |
| 1913 | 1/8–8/9 | 214 | 1,847 | 175 | 79 | 24 | 778 |
| 1915 | 1/13–8/24 | 224 | 1,560 | 220 | 79 | 15 | 637 |
| 1916 SS | 10/10–10/11 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 4 | — | 2 |
| 1917 | 1/10–7/16 | 188 | 1,439 | 229 | 115 | 18 | 679 |
| 1918 SS | 2/19–3/9 | 19 | 27 | 22 | 28 | 2 | 16 |
| 1918 SS | 9/24–9/25 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 9 | — | 2 |
| 1919 | 1/8–7/30 | 204 | 1,350 | 268 | 100 | 39 | 703 |
| 1919 SS | 9/4–9/8 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 6 | — | 7 |
| 1920 SS | 5/25–6/4 | 11 | .46 | 10 | 22 | 2 | 32 |
| 1921 | 1/12–7/14 | 184 | 1,199 | 207 | 93 | 41(1) | 591 |
| 1922 SS | 3/22–3/28 | 7 | 10 | 7 | 12 | 1 | 4 |
| 1923 | 1/10–7/14 | 186 | 1,247 | 215 | 93 | 52 | 449 |
| 1925 | 1/14–6/29 | 167 | 1,144 | 200 | 115 | 73 | 454 |
| 1926 SS | 4/15–4/16 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 12 | — | 1 |
| 1927 | 1/12–8/13 | 214 | 1,341 | 235 | 167 | 90(2) | 542 |
| 1928 SS | 1/24–2/4 | 12 | 20 | 35 | 23 | — | 5 |
| 1928 SS | 3/6–3/13 | 8 | 13 | 9 | 17 | — | 2 |
| 1929 | 1/9–9/20 | 255 | 1,366 | 278 | 185 | 44 | 530 |
| 1931 | 1/14–6/27 | 165 | 1,429 | 291 | 160 | 56 | 487 |
| 1931 SS | 11/24/31–2/5/32 | 74 | 99 | 93 | 83 | 2 | 31 |
| 1933 | 1/11–7/25 | 196 | 1,411 | 324 | 157 | 15 | 496 |
| 1933 SS | 12/11/33–2/3/34 | 55 | .45 | 160 | 53 | — | 20 |
| 1935 | 1/9–9/27 | 262 | 1,662 | 346 | 190 | 27 | 556 |
| 1937 | 1/13–7/2 | 171 | 1,404 | 228 | 127 | 10 | 432 |
| 1937 SS | 9/15–10/16 | 32 | 28 | 18 | 23 | — | 15 |
| 1939 | 1/11–10/6 | 269 | 1,559 | 268 | 133 | 22 | 535 |
| 1941 | 1/8–6/6 | 150 | 1,368 | 160 | 109 | 17 | 333 |
| 1943 | 1/13/43–1/22/44 | 375 | 1,153 | 202 | 136 | 39(20) | 577 |
| 1945 | 1/10–9/6 | 240 | 1,156 | 208 | 109 | 30(5) | 590 |
| 1946 SS | 7/29–7/30 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 14 | — | 2 |
| 1947 | 1/8–9/11 | 247 | 1,220 | 195 | 97 | 10(1) | 615 |
| 1948 SS | 7/19–7/20 | 2 | — | 5 | 11 | — | — |
| 1949 | 1/12–9/13 | 245 | 1,432 | 188 | 86 | 17(2) | 643 |
| 1951 | 1/10–6/14 | 156 | 1,559 | 157 | 73 | 18 | 735 |
| 1953 | 1/14–11/6 | 297 | 1,593 | 175 | 70 | 31(3) | 687 |
| 1955 | 1/12–10/21 | 283 | 1,503 | 256 | 74 | 38 | 696 |
| 1957 | 1/9–9/27 | 262 | 1,512 | 246 | 71 | 35(1) | 706 |
| 1958 SS | 6/11–6/13 | 3 | 3 | 7 | 13 | — | 3 |
| 1959 | 1/14/59–5/27/60 | 500 | 1,769 | 272 | 84 | 36(4) | 696 |
| 1961 | 1/11/61–1/9/63 | 729 | 1,592 | 295 | 68 | 70(2) | 689 |
| 1963 | 1/9/63–1/13/65 | 736 | 1,619 | 241 | 110 | 72(4) | 580 |
| 1963 SS | 12/10–12/12 | 3 | 8 | 10 | 10 | — | 3 |
| 1965 ³ | 1/13/65–1/2/67 | 720 | 1,818 | 293 | 86 | 24(1) | 666 |
| 1967 | 1/11/67–1/6/69 | 727 | 1,700 | 215 | 61 | 18 | 355 |
| 1969 | 1/6/69–1/4/71 | 729 | 2,014 | 232 | 101 | 34(1) | 501 |
## Wisconsin legislative sessions since 1848, continued
| Year | Opening/final adjournment | Days | Bills | Joint res. | Res. | Bills vetoed (overridden) | Laws enacted |
|------|---------------------------|------|-------|------------|------|--------------------------|--------------|
| 1969 SS<sup>4</sup> | 9/29/69–1/17/70 | 111 | 5 | 5 | 8 | — | 1 |
| 1970 SS | 12/22 | 1 | — | 1 | 5 | — | — |
| 1971 | 1/4/71–1/1/73 | 729 | 2,568 | 291 | 121 | 32(3) | 336 |
| 1972 SS | 4/19–4/28 | 10 | 9 | 4 | 4 | — | 6 |
| 1973 | 1/1/73–1/6/75 | 736 | 2,501 | 277 | 126 | 13 | 332 |
| 1973 SS | 12/17–12/21 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 6 | — | 2 |
| 1974 SS | 4/29–6/13 | 46 | 12 | 1 | 4 | — | 6 |
| 1974 SS<sup>5</sup> | 11/19–11/20 | 2 | 2 | — | — | — | 1 |
| 1975 | 1/6/75–1/3/77 | 729 | 2,325 | 169 | 88 | 36(6) | 414 |
| 1975 SS | 12/9–12/11 | 3 | 13 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 6 |
| 1976 SS | 5/18 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | — | 1 |
| 1976 SS<sup>5</sup> | 6/15–6/17 | 3 | 13 | 4 | 3 | — | 9 |
| 1976 SS | 9/8 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 4 | — | 2 |
| 1977 | 1/3/77–1/3/79 | 730 | 2,053 | 182 | 48 | 21(4) | 442 |
| 1977 SS | 6/30 | 1 | — | 1 | 2 | — | — |
| 1977 SS | 11/7–11/11 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 2 | — | 5 |
| 1978 SS<sup>5</sup> | 6/13–6/15 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 2 | — | 2 |
| 1978 SS | 12/20 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 2 | — | 2 |
| 1979 | 1/3/79–1/5/81 | 734 | 1,920 | 203 | 40 | 19(3) | 350 |
| 1979 SS | 9/5 | 1 | 10 | 3 | 2 | — | 5 |
| 1980 SS<sup>6</sup> | 1/22–1/25 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 2 | — | — |
| 1980 SS | 6/3–7/3 | 31 | 20 | 14 | 2 | — | 7 |
| 1981 | 1/5/81–1/3/83 | 729 | 1,987 | 176 | 70 | 10(2) | 381 |
| 1981 SS<sup>7</sup> | 11/4–11/17 | 14 | 6 | 3 | 2 | — | 3 |
| 1982 SS<sup>7</sup> | 4/6–5/20 | 45 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| 1982 SS<sup>7</sup> | 5/26–5/28 | 3 | 13 | 7 | 2 | — | 9 |
| 1983 | 1/3/83–1/7/85 | 736 | 1,902 | 173 | 50 | 3 | 521 |
| 1983 SS | 1/4–1/6 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | — | 2 |
| 1983 SS | 4/12–4/14 | 3 | 1 | 1 | — | — | 1 |
| 1983 SS | 7/11–7/14 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 1 | — | 4 |
| 1983 SS | 10/18–10/28 | 11 | 12 | 1 | — | — | 11 |
| 1984 SS | 2/2–4/4 | 63 | 2 | 1 | — | — | — |
| 1984 SS | 5/22–5/24 | 3 | 12 | 5 | 1 | — | 11 |
| 1985 | 1/7/85–1/5/87 | 729 | 1,624 | 171 | 41 | 7 | 293 |
| 1985 SS | 3/19–3/21 | 3 | 6 | 1 | — | — | 3 |
| 1985 SS | 9/24–10/19 | 26 | 22 | 1 | — | — | 17 |
| 1985 SS | 10/31 | 1 | 1 | 3 | — | — | 1 |
| 1985 SS | 11/20 | 1 | 24 | 2 | — | — | 12 |
| 1986 SS | 1/27–5/30 | 124 | 1 | 4 | — | — | 1 |
| 1986 SS | 3/24–3/26 | 3 | 1 | 1 | — | — | 1 |
| 1986 SS | 5/20–5/29 | 10 | 44 | 3 | — | — | 12 |
| 1986 SS | 7/15 | 1 | 3 | 1 | — | — | 2 |
| 1987<sup>8</sup> | 1/5/87–1/3/89 | 730 | 1,631 | 196 | 21 | 35 | 413 |
| 1987 SS | 9/15–9/16 | 2 | 2 | 1 | — | — | 2 |
| 1987 SS | 11/18/87–6/7/88 | 203 | 19 | 3 | — | 3 | 5 |
| 1988 SS | 6/30 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 3 | — | 2 |
| 1989 | 1/3/89–1/7/91 | 735 | 1,557 | 244 | 45 | 35 | 361 |
| 1989 SS | 10/10/89–3/22/90 | 164 | 52 | 6 | — | — | 7 |
| 1990 SS | 5/15/90 | 1 | 7 | 1 | — | — | — |
| 1991 | 1/7/91–1/4/93 | 729 | 1,676 | 244 | 32 | 33 | 318 |
| 1991 SS | 1/29–7/4 | 157 | 16 | 1 | — | — | 2 |
| 1991 SS | 10/15/91–5/21/92 | 220 | 9 | 2 | — | — | 1 |
| 1992 SS<sup>6</sup> | 4/14–6/4 | 52 | 7 | 1 | 2 | — | 2 |
| 1992 SS | 6/1 | 1 | — | 2 | — | — | — |
| 1992 SS | 8/25–9/15 | 22 | 1 | 1 | 2 | — | 1 |
| 1993 | 1/4/93–1/3/95 | 730 | 2,147 | 207 | 47 | 8 | 491 |
| 1994 SS | 5/18–5/19 | 2 | 6 | 1 | — | — | 3 |
## Wisconsin legislative sessions since 1848, continued
| Year | Opening/final adjournment | Days | Bills | Joint res. | Res. | Bills vetoed (overridden) | Laws enacted |
|------|---------------------------|------|-------|------------|------|--------------------------|--------------|
| 1994 SS<sup>9</sup> | 6/7–6/23 | 17 | 3 | 4 | — | — | 3 |
| 1995 | 1/3/95–1/6/97 | 735 | 1,780 | 163 | 38 | 4 | 467 |
| 1995 SS | 1/4 | 1 | 1 | 1 | — | — | 1 |
| 1995 SS | 9/5–10/12 | 36 | 1 | 1 | — | — | 1 |
| 1997 | 1/6/97–1/4/99 | 729 | 1,508 | 183 | 30 | 3 | 333 |
| 1998 SS<sup>10</sup> | 4/21–5/21 | 31 | 13 | 2 | 2 | — | 5 |
| 1999<sup>11</sup> | 1/4/99–1/3/01 | 731 | 1,498 | 168 | 52 | 5 | 196 |
| 1999 SS<sup>5</sup> | 10/27–11/11 | 16 | 3 | 1 | — | — | 1 |
| 2000 SS | 5/4–5/9 | 8 | 2 | 2 | 1 | — | 1 |
| 2001 | 1/3/01–1/6/03 | 734 | 1,436 | 174 | 75 | — | 106 |
| 2001 SS<sup>5</sup> | 5/1–5/3 | 3 | 1 | — | — | — | 1 |
| 2002 SS<sup>5</sup> | 1/22–7/8 | 168 | 1 | 2 | 7 | — | 1 |
| 2002 SS<sup>5</sup> | 5/13–5/15 | 3 | 2 | — | — | — | 1 |
| 2003<sup>12</sup> | 1/6/03–1/3/05 | 729 | 1,567 | 164 | 78 | 54 | 326 |
| 2003 SS | 1/30–2/20 | 22 | 1 | — | — | — | 1 |
| 2005<sup>13</sup> | 1/3/05–1/3/07 | 731 | 1,967 | 196 | 76 | 47 | 489 |
| 2005 SS | 1/12–1/20 | 9 | 2 | — | — | — | 1 |
| 2006 SS | 2/14–3/7 | 22 | 2 | — | — | — | 1 |
| 2007 | 1/3/07–1/5/09 | 733 | 1,574 | 230 | 50 | 1 | 239 |
| 2007 SS | 1/11–2/1 | 22 | 2 | 1 | — | — | 1 |
| 2007 SS | 10/15–10/23 | 9 | 2 | — | — | — | — |
| 2007 SS | 12/11/07–5/14/08 | 156 | 1 | 1 | — | — | — |
| 2008 SS | 3/12–5/14 | 65 | 1 | 4 | 2 | — | 1 |
| 2008 SS | 4/17–5/15 | 29 | 1 | 4 | 2 | — | 1 |
| 2009<sup>14</sup> | 1/5/09–1/3/11 | 729 | 1,720 | 221 | 44 | 6 | 406 |
| 2009 SS | 6/24–6/27 | 4 | 1 | — | — | — | — |
| 2009 SS | 12/16–3/4/10 | 79 | 2 | — | — | — | — |
| 2011<sup>15</sup> | 1/3/11–1/7/13 | 735 | 1,325 | 211 | 48 | — | 267 |
| 2011 SS | 1/4–9/27 | 267 | 27 | 1 | 3 | — | 12 |
| 2011 SS | 9/29–12/8 | 71 | 48 | — | — | — | 7 |
| 2013 | 1/7/13–1/5/15 | 730 | 1,627 | 214 | 37 | 1 | 373 |
| 2013 SS | 10/10–11/12 | 34 | 8 | — | — | — | 4 |
| 2013 SS | 12/2–12/19 | 18 | 2 | — | — | — | 1 |
| 2014 SS | 1/23–3/20 | 57 | 4 | — | — | — | 2 |
| 2015<sup>16</sup> | 1/5/15–1/3/17 | 730 | 1,830 | 236 | 45 | 2 | 392 |
| 2017<sup>17</sup> | 1/3/17–1/7/19 | 735 | 1960 | 237 | 39 | — | 349 |
| 2017 SS | 1/5–6/14 | 161 | 22 | — | — | — | 11 |
| 2017 SS | 8/1–9/15 | 46 | 2 | — | 1 | — | 1 |
| 2018 SS | 1/18–2/27 | 41 | 20 | — | — | — | 9 |
| 2018 SS | 3/15–3/29 | 15 | 6 | — | — | — | — |
— Represents zero; Res.—Resolution; SS—Special session.
1. Partial vetoes not included. See executive vetoes table. 2. Does not include 18 bills that the lieutenant governor asserted had been vetoed by pocket veto when the governor, to whom they had been sent, died without signing them. 3. Although 1965 Legislature adjourned to 1/11/67, terms automatically expired on 1/2/67. 4. Senate adjourned the special session 11/15/69; assembly, 1/17/70. 5. Special session met concurrently with regular session. 6. Legislature met concurrently in extraordinary and special session. 7. Legislature met concurrently in special session and extended floorperiod. 8. Extraordinary sessions held in February, September, and November 1987 and April, May, and June 1988. May 1988 extraordinary session ran concurrently with May 1988 veto review period and with June 1988 extraordinary session. 9. Extraordinary session held in June 1994. 10. Extraordinary session held in April 1998. 11. Extraordinary session held in April and May 2000. 12. Extraordinary sessions held in February, July, and August 2003; December 2003–February 2004; March 2004; May 2004; and July 2004. 13. Extraordinary sessions held in July 2005 and April 2006. 14. Extraordinary sessions held in February, May, June, and December 2009 and December 2010. 15. Extraordinary sessions held in June and July 2011. 16. Extraordinary sessions held in February, July, and November 2015. 17. Extraordinary sessions held in March, April, November, and December 2018.
Sources: *Bulletin of the Proceedings of the Wisconsin Legislature*, various editions; and Senate and Assembly Journals.
## Executive vetoes since 1931
| Session | Bills vetoed (overridden) | Partial vetoes (overridden) | Budget bill partial vetoes¹ (overridden) |
|---------|---------------------------|-----------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| 1931 | 58 | 2 | 12 |
| 1933 | 15 | 1 | 12 |
| 1935 | 27 | 4 | — |
| 1937 | 10 | 1 | — |
| 1939² | 22 | 4 | 1 |
| 1941 | 17 | 1 | 1 |
| 1943 | 39 (20) | 1 (1) | — |
| 1945 | 30 (5) | 2 (1) | 1 |
| 1947 | 10 (1) | 1 | 1 |
| 1949 | 17 (2) | 2 (1) | — |
| 1951 | 18 | — | — |
| 1953³ | 31 (3) | 4 | 2 |
| 1955 | 38 | — | — |
| 1957 | 35 (1) | 3 | 2 |
| 1959 | 36 (4) | 1 | — |
| 1961 | 70 (2) | 3 | 2 |
| 1963 | 72 (4) | 1 | — |
| 1965 | 24 (1) | 4 | 1 |
| 1967 | 18 | 5 | — |
| 1969 | 34 (1) | 11 | 27 |
| 1971 | 32 (3) | 8 | 12 |
| 1973 | 13 | 18 (3) | 38 (2) |
| 1975 | 37 (6) | 22 (4) | 42 (5) |
| 1977 | 21 (4) | 16 (3) | 67 (21) |
| 1979 | 19 (3) | 9 (2) | 45 (1) |
| 1981⁴ | 11 (2) | 11 (1) | 121 |
| 1983 | 3 | 11 (1) | 70 (6) |
| 1985 | 7 | 7 (1) | 78 (2) |
| 1987 | 38 | 20 | 290 |
| 1989 | 35 | 28 | 208 |
| 1991 | 33 | 13 | 457 |
| 1993 | 8 | 24 | 78 |
| 1995 | 4 | 21 | 112 |
| 1997 | 3 | 8 | 152 |
| 1999 | 5 | 10 | 255 |
| 2001 | — | 3 | 315 |
| 2003 | 54 | 10 | 131 |
| 2005 | 47 | 2 | 139 |
| 2007 | 1 | 4 | 33 |
| 2009 | 6 | 5 | 81 |
| 2011 | — | 3 | 50 |
| 2013 | 1 | 4 | 57 |
| 2015 | 2 | 5 | 104 |
| 2017 | — | 4 | 98 |
— Represents zero.
1. The number of individual veto statements in the governor’s veto message.
2. Attorney general ruled veto of 1939 SB-43 was void and it became law (see Vol. 28, *Opinions of the Attorney General*, p. 423).
3. 1953 AB-141, partially vetoed in two separate sections by separate veto messages, is counted as one.
4. Attorney general ruled several vetoes “ineffective” because the governor failed to express his objections (see Vol. 70, *Opinions of the Attorney General*, p. 189).
Source: Compiled by Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau from the *Bulletin of the Proceedings of the Wisconsin Legislature* and the Assembly and Senate Journals.
| Article | Section | Subject | Election result | Vote totals | Date | Proposed amendment |
|---------|---------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|-------------------|----------|--------------------|
| IV | 4 | Assemblymen, 2-year terms | rejected | 6,549–11,580 | Nov. 1854| 1854 Ch. 89 |
| IV | 5 | Senators, 4-year terms | rejected | 6,348–11,885 | Nov. 1854| 1854 Ch. 89 |
| IV | 11 | Biennial legislative sessions | rejected | 6,752–11,589 | Nov. 1854| 1854 Ch. 89 |
| V | 5 | Governor’s salary, changed from $1,250 to $2,500 a year | rejected | 14,519–32,612 | Nov. 1862| 1862 JR 6 |
| IV | 21 | Change legislators’ pay to $350 a year | ratified | 58,363–24,418 | Nov. 1867| 1866 JR 3 |
| V | 5 | Change governor’s salary from $1,250 to $5,000 a year | ratified | 47,353–41,764 | Nov. 1869| 1869 JR 2 |
| V | 9 | Change lieutenant governor’s salary to $1,000 a year | ratified | 47,353–41,764 | Nov. 1869| 1869 JR 2 |
| I | 8 | Grand jury system modified | ratified | 48,894–18,606 | Nov. 1870| 1870 JR 3 |
| IV | 31, 32 | Private and local laws, prohibited on 9 subjects | ratified | 54,087–3,675 | Nov. 1871| 1871 JR 1 |
| VII | 4 | Supreme court, 1 chief and 4 associate justices | rejected | 16,272–29,755 | Nov. 1872| 1872 JR 8 |
| XI | 3 | Indebtedness of municipalities limited to 5% | ratified | 66,061–1,509 | Nov. 1874| 1873 JR 4 |
| VII | 4 | Supreme court, 1 chief and 4 associate justices | ratified | 79,140–16,763 | Nov. 1877| 1877 JR 1 |
| VIII | 2 | Claims against state, 6-year limit | ratified | 33,046–3,371 | Nov. 1877| 1877 JR 4 |
| IV | 4, 5, 11| Biennial sessions; assemblymen 2-year, senators 4-year terms | ratified | 53,532–13,936 | Nov. 1881| 1881 AJR 7¹ |
| IV | 21 | Change legislators’ pay to $500 a year | ratified | 53,532–13,936 | Nov. 1881| 1881 AJR 7¹ |
| III | 1 | Voting residence 30 days; in municipalities voter registration | ratified | 36,223–5,347 | Nov. 1882| 1882 JR 5 |
| VI | 4 | County officers except judicial, vacancies filled by appointment | ratified | 60,091–8,089 | Nov. 1882| 1882 JR 3 |
| VII | 12 | Clerk of court, full term election | ratified | 60,091–8,089 | Nov. 1882| 1882 JR 3 |
| XIII | 1 | Political year; biennial elections | ratified | 60,091–8,089 | Nov. 1882| 1882 JR 3 |
| X | 1 | State superintendent, qualifications and pay fixed by legislature | rejected | 12,967–18,342 | Nov. 1888| 1887 JR 4 |
| VII | 4 | Supreme court, composed of 5 justices of supreme court | ratified | 125,759–14,712 | Apr. 1889| 1889 JR 3 |
| IV | 31 | Cities incorporated by general law | ratified | 15,718–9,015 | Nov. 1892| 1891 JR 4 |
| X | 1 | State superintendent, pay fixed by law | rejected | 38,752–56,506 | Nov. 1896| 1895 JR 2 |
| VIII | 7 | Circuit judges, additional in populous counties | ratified | 45,823–41,513 | Apr. 1897| 1897 JR 9 |
| X | 1 | State superintendent, nonpartisan 4-year term, pay fixed by law | ratified | 71,550–57,411 | Nov. 1902| 1901 JR 3 |
| XI | 4 | General banking law authorized | ratified | 64,836–44,620 | Nov. 1902| 1901 JR 2 |
| XI | 5 | Banking law referenda requirement repealed | ratified | 64,836–44,620 | Nov. 1902| 1901 JR 2 |
| XIII | 11 | Free passes prohibited | ratified | 67,781–40,697 | Nov. 1902| 1901 JR 9 |
| VII | 4 | Supreme court, 7 justices, 10-year terms | ratified | 51,377–39,857 | Apr. 1903| 1903 JR 7 |
| III | 1 | Suffrage for full citizens only | ratified | 85,838–36,733 | Nov. 1908| 1907 JR 25 |
| V | 10 | Governor’s approval of bills in 6 days | ratified | 85,958–27,270 | Nov. 1908| 1907 JR 13 |
| VIII | 1 | Income tax | ratified | 85,696–37,729 | Nov. 1908| 1907 JR 29 |
| VIII | 10 | Highways, appropriations for | ratified | 116,421–46,739 | Nov. 1908| 1907 JR 18 |
| | | Description | Result | Votes | Date | Reference |
|---|---|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------|-------|------------|-----------|
| IV| 3 | Apportionment after each federal census | ratified | 54,932–52,634 | Nov. 1910 | 1909 JR 55 |
| IV| 21| Change legislators’ pay to $1,000 a year | rejected | 44,153–76,278 | Nov. 1910 | 1909 JR 7 |
| VIII| 10| Water power and forests, appropriations for | rejected | 62,468–45,924 | Nov. 1910 | 1909 Ch. 514 |
| VII| 10| Judges’ salaries, time of payment | ratified | 44,855–34,865 | Nov. 1912 | 1911 JR 24 |
| XI| 3 | City or county debt for lands, discharge within 50 years | ratified | 46,369–34,975 | Nov. 1912 | 1911 JR 42 |
| XI| 3a| Public parks, playgrounds, etc | ratified | 48,424–33,931 | Nov. 1912 | 1911 JR 48 |
| IV| 1 | Initiative and referendum | rejected | 84,934–148,536 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 22 |
| IV| 21| Change legislators’ pay to $600 a year, 2 cents a mile for additional round trips | rejected | 68,907–157,202 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 24 |
| VII| 6, 7| Judicial circuits, decreased number, additional judges | rejected | 63,311–154,827 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 26 |
| VIII| — | State annuity insurance | rejected | 59,909–170,338 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 35 |
| VIII| — | State insurance | rejected | 58,490–165,966 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 12 |
| XI| — | Home rule of cities and villages | rejected | 86,020–141,472 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 21 |
| XI| — | Municipal power of condemnation | rejected | 61,122–154,945 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 25 |
| XII| 1| Constitutional amendments, submission after 3/5 approval by one legislature | rejected | 71,734–160,761 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 17 |
| XII| — | Constitution amended upon petition | rejected | 68,435–150,215 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 22 |
| XIII| — | Recall of civil officers | rejected | 81,628–144,386 | Nov. 1914 | 1913 JR 15 |
| IV| 21| Legislators’ pay fixed by law | rejected | 126,243–132,258 | Apr. 1920 | 1919 JR 37 |
| VII| 6, 7| Judicial circuits, decreased number, additional judges | rejected | 113,786–116,436 | Apr. 1920 | 1919 JR 92 |
| I| 5 | Jury verdict, 5/6 in civil cases | ratified | 171,433–156,820 | Nov. 1922 | 1921 JR 17 |
| VI| 4 | Sheriffs, no limit on successive terms | rejected | 161,832–207,594 | Nov. 1922 | 1921 JR 36 |
| XI| — | Municipal indebtedness for public utilities | rejected | 105,234–219,639 | Nov. 1922 | 1921 JR 37 |
| IV| 21| Change legislators’ pay to $750 a year | rejected | 189,635–250,236 | Apr. 1924 | 1923 JR 18 |
| VII| 7 | Circuit judges, additional in populous counties | ratified | 240,207–226,562 | Nov. 1924 | 1923 JR 64 |
| VIII| 10| Forestry, appropriations for | ratified | 336,360–173,563 | Nov. 1924 | 1923 JR 57 |
| XI| 3 | Home rule for cities and villages | ratified | 299,792–190,165 | Nov. 1924 | 1923 JR 34 |
| V| 5 | Governor’s salary fixed by law | ratified | 202,156–188,302 | Nov. 1926 | 1925 JR 52 |
| XIII| 12| Recall of elective officials | ratified | 205,868–201,125 | Nov. 1926 | 1925 JR 16 |
| IV| 21| Change legislators’ pay to $1,000 for session | rejected | 151,786–199,260 | Apr. 1927 | 1927 JR 12 |
| VIII| 1| Severance tax: forests, minerals | ratified | 179,217–141,888 | Apr. 1927 | 1927 JR 13 |
| IV| 21| Legislators’ salary repealed; to be fixed by law | ratified | 237,250–212,846 | Apr. 1929 | 1929 JR 6 |
| VI| 4 | Sheriffs succeeding themselves for 2 terms | ratified | 259,881–210,964 | Apr. 1929 | 1929 JR 13 |
| V| 10| Item veto on appropriation bills | ratified | 252,655–153,703 | Nov. 1930 | 1929 JR 43 |
| V| 5 | Governor’s salary provision repealed; fixed by law | ratified | 452,605–275,175 | Nov. 1932 | 1931 JR 52 |
| V| 9 | Lieutenant governor’s salary repealed; fixed by law | ratified | 427,768–267,120 | Nov. 1932 | 1931 JR 53 |
| VII| 1| Wording of section corrected | ratified | 436,113–221,563 | Nov. 1932 | 1931 JR 58 |
| XI| 3 | Municipal indebtedness for public utilities | ratified | 401,194–279,631 | Nov. 1932 | 1931 JR 71 |
| III| 1| Women’s suffrage | ratified | 411,088–166,745 | Nov. 1934 | 1933 JR 76 |
| XIII| 11| Free passes, permitted as specified | ratified | 365,971–361,799 | Nov. 1936 | 1935 JR 98 |
| VIII| 1| Installment payment of real estate taxes | ratified | 330,971–134,808 | Apr. 1941 | 1941 JR 18 |
| Article | Section | Subject | Election result | Vote totals | Date | Proposed amendment |
|---------|---------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|----------------------|----------|--------------------|
| VII | 15 | Justice of peace, abolish office in first class cities | ratified | 160,965–113,408 | Apr. 1945| 1945 JR 2 |
| VIII | 10 | Aeronautical program | ratified | 187,111–101,169 | Apr. 1945| 1945 JR 3 |
| VI | 4 | Sheriffs, no limit on successive terms | rejected | 121,144–170,131 | Apr. 1946| 1945 JR 47 |
| IV | 33 | Auditing of state accounts | ratified | 480,938–308,072 | Nov. 1946| 1945 JR 73 |
| VI | 2 | Auditing (part of same proposal) | ratified | 480,938–308,072 | Nov. 1946| 1945 JR 73 |
| X | 3 | Public transportation of school children to any school | rejected | 437,817–545,475 | Nov. 1946| 1945 JR 78 |
| XI | 2 | Repeal; relating to exercise of eminent domain by municipalities. | rejected | 210,086–807,318 | Nov. 1948| 1947 JR 48 |
| II | 2 | Prohibition on taxing federal lands repealed | rejected | 245,412–297,237 | Apr. 1949| 1949 JR 2 |
| VIII | 10 | Allow internal improvement debt for veterans’ housing | ratified | 311,576–290,736 | Apr. 1949| 1949 JR 1 |
| II | 2 | Prohibition on taxing federal lands repealed | ratified | 305,612–186,284 | Apr. 1951| 1951 JR 7 |
| XI | 3 | City debt limit 8% for combined city and school purposes | ratified | 313,739–191,897 | Apr. 1951| 1951 JR 6 |
| IV | 3, 4, 5 | Apportionment based on area and population | rejected | 433,043–406,133 | Apr. 1953| 1953 JR 9 |
| VII | 9 | Judicial elections to full terms | ratified | 386,972–345,094 | Apr. 1953| 1953 JR 12 |
| VII | 24 | Judges: qualifications, retirement | ratified | 380,214–177,929 | Apr. 1955| 1955 JR 14 |
| XI | 3 | School debt limit, equalized value | ratified | 320,376–228,641 | Apr. 1955| 1955 JR 12 |
| IV | 26 | Teachers’ retirement benefits | ratified | 365,560–255,284 | Apr. 1956| 1955 JR 17 |
| VI | 4 | Sheriffs, no limit on successive terms | rejected | 269,722–328,603 | Apr. 1956| 1955 JR 53 |
| XI | 3a | Municipal acquisition of land for public purposes | ratified | 376,692–193,544 | Apr. 1956| 1955 JR 36 |
| XIII | 11 | Free passes, not for public use | rejected | 188,715–380,207 | Apr. 1956| 1955 JR 54 |
| VIII | 10 | Port development | ratified | 472,177–451,045 | Apr. 1960| 1959 JR 15 |
| XI | 3 | Debt limit in populous counties, 5% of equalized valuation | ratified | 686,104–529,467 | Nov. 1960| 1959 JR 32 |
| IV | 26 | Salary increases during term for various public officers | rejected | 297,066–307,575 | Apr. 1961| 1961 JR 11 |
| IV | 34 | Continuity of civil government | ratified | 498,869–132,728 | Apr. 1961| 1961 JR 10 |
| VI | 4 | Sheriffs, no limit on successive terms | rejected | 283,495–388,238 | Apr. 1961| 1961 JR 9 |
| VIII | 1 | Personal property classified for tax purposes | ratified | 381,881–220,434 | Apr. 1961| 1961 JR 13 |
| XI | 2 | Municipal eminent domain, abolished jury verdict of necessity | ratified | 348,406–259,566 | Apr. 1961| 1961 JR 12 |
| XI | 3 | Debt limit 10% of equalized valuation for integrated aid school district| ratified | 409,963–224,783 | Apr. 1961| 1961 JR 8 |
| IV | 3 | “Indians not taxed” exclusion removed from apportionment formula | ratified | 631,296–259,577 | Nov. 1962| 1961 JR 32 |
| IV | 23 | County executive: 4-year term | ratified | 527,075–331,393 | Nov. 1962| 1961 JR 64 |
| VI | 4 | County executive: 2-year terms | ratified | 527,075–331,393 | Nov. 1962| 1961 JR 64 |
| IV | 23a | County executive veto power | ratified | 524,240–319,378 | Nov. 1962| 1961 JR 64 |
| IV | 3 | Time for apportionment of seats in the state legislature | rejected | 232,851–277,014 | Apr. 1963| 1963 JR 9 |
| IV | 26 | Salary increases during term for justices and judges | rejected | 216,205–335,774 | Apr. 1963| 1963 JR 7 |
| Section | Number | Description | Status | Amounts | Date | Reference |
|---------|--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------|--------------------------|------------|-----------|
| XI | 3 | Equalized value debt limit | ratified | 285,296–231,702 | Apr. 1963 | 1963 JR 8 |
| VIII | 10 | Maximum state appropriation for forestry increased | rejected | 440,978–536,724 | Apr. 1964 | 1963 JR 32|
| XI | 3 | Property valuation for debt limit adjusted | rejected | 336,994–572,276 | Apr. 1964 | 1963 JR 33|
| XII | 1 | Constitutional amendments, submission of related items in a single proposition | rejected | 317,676–582,045 | Apr. 1964 | SS 1963 JR 1^4 |
| VI | 4 | Coroner and surveyor abolished in counties of 500,000 | ratified | 380,059–215,169 | Apr. 1965 | 1965 JR 5 |
| IV | 24 | Lotteries, definition revised | ratified | 454,390–194,327 | Apr. 1965 | 1965 JR 2 |
| IV | 13 | Legislators on active duty in armed forces | ratified | 362,935–189,641 | Apr. 1966 | 1965 JR 14|
| VII | 2 | Establishment of inferior courts | ratified | 321,434–216,341 | Apr. 1966 | 1965 JR 50|
| VII | 15 | Justices of the peace abolished | ratified | 321,434–216,341 | Apr. 1966 | 1965 JR 50|
| XI | 3 | Special district public utility debt limit | ratified | 307,502–199,919 | Apr. 1966 | 1965 JR 51|
| I | 23 | Transportation of children to private schools | ratified | 494,236–377,107 | Apr. 1967 | 1967 JR 13|
| IV | 26 | Judicial salary increased during term | ratified | 489,989–328,292 | Apr. 1967 | 1967 JR 17|
| V | 1m, 1n | 4-year term for governor and lieutenant governor | ratified | 534,368–310,478 | Apr. 1967 | 1967 JR 10|
| V | 3 | Joint election of governor and lieutenant governor | ratified | 507,339–312,267 | Apr. 1967 | 1967 JR 11|
| VI | 1m | 4-year term for secretary of state | ratified | 520,326–311,974 | Apr. 1967 | 1967 JR 10|
| VI | 1n | 4-year term for state treasurer | ratified | 514,280–314,873 | Apr. 1967 | 1967 JR 10|
| VI | 1p | 4-year term for attorney general | ratified | 515,962–311,603 | Apr. 1967 | 1967 JR 10|
| VI | 4 | Sheriffs, no limit on successive terms | ratified | 508,242–324,544 | Apr. 1967 | 1967 JR 12|
| IV | 11 | Legislative sessions, more than one permitted in biennium | ratified | 670,757–267,997 | Apr. 1968 | 1967 JR 48|
| VII | 24 | Uniform retirement date for justices and circuit judges | ratified | 734,046–215,455 | Apr. 1968 | 1967 JR 56|
| VII | 24 | Temporary appointment of justices and circuit judges | ratified | 678,249–245,807 | Apr. 1968 | 1967 JR 56|
| VIII | 10 | Forestry appropriation from sources other than property tax | ratified | 652,705–286,512 | Apr. 1968 | 1967 JR 25|
| IV | 23 | Uniform county government modified | ratified | 326,445–321,851 | Apr. 1969 | 1969 JR 2 |
| IV | 23a | County executive to have veto power | ratified | 326,445–321,851 | Apr. 1969 | 1969 JR 2 |
| VIII | 7 | State public debt for specified purposes allowed | ratified | 411,062–258,366 | Apr. 1969 | 1969 JR 3 |
| I | 24 | Private use of school buildings | ratified | 871,707–298,016 | Apr. 1972 | 1971 JR 27|
| IV | 23 | County government systems authorized | ratified | 571,285–515,255 | Apr. 1972 | 1971 JR 13|
| VI | 4 | Coroner/medical examiner option | ratified | 795,497–323,930 | Apr. 1972 | 1971 JR 21|
| X | 3 | Released time for religious instruction | ratified | 595,075–585,511 | Apr. 1972 | 1971 JR 28|
| I | 25 | Equality of the sexes | rejected | 447,240–520,936 | Apr. 1973 | 1973 JR 5 |
| IV | 24 | Charitable bingo authorized | ratified | 645,544–391,499 | Apr. 1973 | 1973 JR 3 |
| IV | 26 | Increased benefits for retired public employees | ratified | 396,051–315,545 | Apr. 1974 | 1973 JR 15|
| VII | 13 | Removal of judges by 2/3 vote of legislature for cause | ratified | 493,496–193,867 | Apr. 1974 | 1973 JR 25|
| VIII | 1 | Taxation of agricultural lands | ratified | 353,377–340,518 | Apr. 1974 | 1973 JR 29|
| VIII | 3, 7 | Public debt for veterans’ housing | ratified | 385,915–300,232 | Apr. 1975 | 1975 JR 3 |
| VIII | 7, 10 | Internal improvements for transportation facilities^5 | rejected | 342,396–341,291^5 | Apr. 1975 | 1975 JR 2 |
| XI | 3 | Exclusion of certain debt from municipal debt limit | rejected | 310,434–337,925 | Apr. 1975 | 1973 JR 133|
| Article | Section | Subject | Election result | Vote totals | Date | Proposed amendment |
|---------|---------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|----------------------|----------|--------------------|
| XIII | 2 | Dueling: repeal of disenfranchisement | ratified | 395,616–282,726 | Apr. 1975| 1975 JR 4 |
| XI | 3 | Municipal indebtedness increased up to 10% of equalized valuation | rejected | 328,097–715,420 | Apr. 1976| 1975 JR 6 |
| VIII | 7(2)(a), 10 | Internal improvements for transportation facilities<sup>5</sup> | rejected | 722,658–935,152 | Nov. 1976<sup>5</sup> | 1975 JR 2 |
| IV | 24 | Charitable raffle games authorized | ratified | 483,518–300,473 | Apr. 1977| 1977 JR 6 |
| VII | 2 | Unified court system [also affected I 21; IV 17, 26; VII 3–11, 14, 16–23; XIV 16(1)–(4)] | ratified | 490,437–215,939 | Apr. 1977| 1977 JR 7 |
| VII | 5 | Court of appeals created [also affected I 21(1); VII 2, 3(3); XIV 16(5)] | ratified | 455,350–229,316 | Apr. 1977| 1977 JR 7 |
| VII | 11, 13 | Court system disciplinary proceedings | ratified | 565,087–151,418 | Apr. 1977| 1977 JR 7 |
| VII | 24 | Retirement age for justices and judges set by law | ratified | 506,207–244,170 | Apr. 1977| 1977 JR 7 |
| IV | 23 | Town government uniformity | rejected | 179,011–383,395 | Apr. 1978| 1977 JR 18 |
| V | 7, 8 | Gubernatorial succession | ratified | 538,959–187,440 | Apr. 1979| 1979 JR 3 |
| XIII | 10 | Lieutenant governor vacancy | ratified | 540,186–181,497 | Apr. 1979| 1979 JR 3 |
| IV | 9 | Senate presiding officer | ratified | 372,734–327,008 | Apr. 1979| 1979 JR 3 |
| V | 1 | 4-year constitutional officer terms (improved wording) [also affected V 1m, 1n; VI 1, 1m, 1n, 1p] | ratified | 533,620–164,768 | Apr. 1979| 1979 JR 3 |
| I | 8 | Right to bail<sup>6</sup> | ratified | 505,092–185,405<sup>6</sup> | Apr. 1981| 1981 JR 8 |
| XI | 1, 4 | Obsolete corporation and banking provisions | ratified | 418,997–186,898 | Apr. 1981| 1981 JR 9 |
| XI | 3 | Indebtedness period for sewage collection or treatment systems | ratified | 386,792–250,866 | Apr. 1981| 1981 JR 7 |
| XIII | 12 | Primaries in recall elections | ratified | 366,635–259,820 | Apr. 1981| 1981 JR 6 |
| VI | 4 | Counties responsible for acts of sheriff | ratified | 316,156–219,752 | Apr. 1982| 1981 JR 15 |
| I | 1, 18 | Gender-neutral wording [also affected X 1, 2] | ratified | 771,267–479,053 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| IV | 3 | Military personnel treatment in redistricting | ratified | 834,188–321,331 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| IV | 4, 5 | Obsolete 1881 amendment reference | ratified | 919,349–238,884 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| IV | 30 | Elections by legislature | ratified | 977,438–193,679 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| X | 1 | Obsolete reference to election and term of superintendent of public instruction | ratified | 934,236–215,961 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| X | 2 | Obsolete reference to military draft exemption purchase; school fund | ratified | 887,488–295,693 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| XIV | 3 | Obsolete transition from territory to statehood [also affected XIV 4–12; XIV 14, 15]. | ratified | 926,875–223,213 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| XIV | 16(1) | Obsolete transitional provisions of 1977 court reorganization [also affected XIV 16(2), (3), (5)]. | ratified | 882,091–237,698 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| XIV | 16(4) | Terms on supreme court effective date provision | ratified | 960,540–190,366 | Nov. 1982| 1981 JR 29 |
| I | 1 | Rewording to parallel Declaration of Independence | ratified | 419,699–65,418 | Apr. 1986| 1985 JR 21 |
| III | 1–6 | Revision of suffrage defined by general law | ratified | 401,911–83,183 | Apr. 1986| 1985 JR 14 |
| XIII | 1 | Modernizing constitutional text | ratified | 404,273–82,512 | Apr. 1986| 1985 JR 14 |
| XIII | 5 | Obsolete suffrage right on Indian land | ratified | 381,339–102,090 | Apr. 1986| 1985 JR 14 |
| IV | 24(5) | Permitting pari-mutuel on-track betting | ratified | 580,089–529,729 | Apr. 1987| 1987 JR 3 |
| IV | 24(6) | Authorizing the creation of a state lottery | ratified | 739,181–391,942 | Apr. 1987| 1987 JR 4 |
| | | Description | Result | Votes | Date | Year |
|---|---|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|-------|------------|--------|
| VIII | 1 | Authorizing income tax credits or refunds for property or sales taxes | Rejected | 405,765–406,863 | Apr. 1989 | 1989 JR 2 |
| V | 10 | Redefining the partial veto power of the governor | Ratified | 387,068–252,481 | Apr. 1990 | 1989 JR 39 |
| VIII | 10 | Providing housing for persons of low or moderate income | Rejected | 295,823–402,921 | Apr. 1991 | 1991 JR 2 |
| VIII | 7(2)(a)1 | Railways and other railroad facilities [also created VIII 10] | Ratified | 650,592–457,690 | Apr. 1992 | 1991 JR 9 |
| IV | 26 | Legislative and judiciary compensation, effective date | Ratified | 736,832–348,645 | Apr. 1992 | 1991 JR 13 |
| VIII | 1 | Residential property tax reduction | Rejected | 675,876–1,536,975 | Nov. 1992 | 1991 JR 14 |
| I | 9m | Crime victims | Ratified | 861,405–163,087 | Apr. 1993 | 1993 JR 2 |
| IV | 24 | Gambling, limiting “lottery”; divorce under general law [also affected IV 31, 32] | Ratified | 623,987–435,180 | Apr. 1993 | 1993 JR 3 |
| I | 3 | Removal of unnecessary references to masculine gender | Rejected | 412,032–498,801 | Apr. 1995 | 1995 JR 3 |
| IV | 24(6)(a) | Authorizing sports lottery dedicated to athletic facilities | Rejected | 348,818–618,377 | Apr. 1995 | 1995 JR 2 |
| VII | 10(1) | Removal of restriction on judges holding nonjudicial public office after resignation during the judicial term. | Rejected | 390,744–503,239 | Apr. 1995 | 1995 JR 4 |
| XIII | 3 | Eligibility to seek or hold public office if convicted of a felony or a misdemeanor involving violation of a public trust | Ratified | 1,292,934–543,516 | Nov. 1996 | 1995 JR 28 |
| I | 25 | Guaranteeing the right to keep and bear arms | Ratified | 1,205,873–425,052 | Nov. 1998 | 1997 JR 21 |
| VI | 4(1), (3), (5), (6) | 4-year term for sheriff; sheriffs permitted to hold nonpartisan office; allowed legislature to provide for election to fill vacancy during term. | Ratified | 1,161,942–412,508 | Nov. 1998 | 1997 JR 18 |
| IV | 24(3), (5), (6) | Distributing state lottery, bingo and pari-mutuel proceeds for property tax | Ratified | 648,903–105,976 | Apr. 1999 | 1999 JR 2 |
| I | 26 | Right to fish, hunt, trap, and take game | Ratified | 668,459–146,182 | Apr. 2003 | 2003 JR 8 |
| VI | 4(1), (3), (4) | 4-year term for county clerks, treasurers, clerks of circuit court, district attorneys, coroners, elected surveyors, and registers of deeds [also affected VII 12] | Ratified | 534,742–177,037 | Apr. 2005 | 2005 JR 2 |
| XIII | 13 | Marriage between one man and one woman | Ratified | 1,264,310–862,924 | Nov. 2006 | 2005 JR 30 |
| V | 10(1)(c) | Gubernatorial partial veto power | Ratified | 575,582–239,613 | Apr. 2008 | 2007 JR 26 |
| IV | 9(2) | Department of transportation and transportation fund [also created VIII 11] | Ratified | 1,733,101–434,806 | Nov. 2014 | 2013 JR 1 |
| VIII | 1 | Election of chief justice of the supreme court | Ratified | 433,533–384,503 | Apr. 2015 | 2015 JR 2 |
| VI | 1, 3 | Elimination of state treasurer [also affected X 7, 8 and XIV 17] | Rejected | 363,562–586,134 | Apr. 2018 | 2017 JR7 |
Note: To amend the Wisconsin Constitution, it is necessary for two consecutive legislatures to adopt an identical amendment (known as "first consideration" and "second consideration") and for a majority of the electorate to ratify the amendment at a subsequent election. See Art. XII, Sec. 1. JR 41 of 1925, which became Joint Rule 16 of the Wisconsin Legislature, established a new procedure to incorporate the "submission to the people" clause into the proposal at second approval.
Since the adoption of the Wisconsin Constitution in 1848, the electorate has voted 145 out of 196 times to amend a total of 128 sections of the constitution (excluding the same vote for more than one item but including a vote that was later resubmitted by the legislature and two votes that were declared invalid by the courts). The Wisconsin Legislature adopted 158 acts or joint resolutions to submit these changes to the electorate.
Ch.=Chapter; JR=Joint resolution; SS=Special session.
1. No other number was assigned to this joint resolution. 2. Ratified but declared invalid by Supreme Court in *State ex rel. Owen v. Donald*, 160 Wis. 21 (1915). 3. Ratified but declared invalid by Supreme Court in *State ex rel. Thomson v. Zimmerman*, 264 Wis. 644 (1953). 4. Special session December 1964. 5. Recount resulted in rejection (342,132 to 342,309). However, the Dane County Circuit Court ruled the recount invalid due to election irregularities and required that the referendum be resubmitted to the electorate. Resubmitted to the electorate November 1976 by the 1975 Wisconsin Legislature through Ch. 224, s.145r, Laws of 1975. 6. As a result of a Dane County Circuit Court injunction, vote totals were certified April 7, 1982, by the Board of State Canvassers.
Sources: Official records of the Wisconsin Elections Commission; *Laws of Wisconsin*, 2017 and previous volumes.
| Subject | Election result | Vote totals | Date | Submitting law |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|----------------------|----------|----------------|
| Extend suffrage to colored persons \(^1\) | Approved | 5,265–4,075 | Nov. 1849| 1849 Ch. 137 |
| State banks; advisory | Approved | 31,289–9,126 | Nov. 1851| 1851 Ch. 143 |
| General banking law | Approved | 32,826–8,711 | Nov. 1852| 1852 Ch. 479 |
| Liquor prohibition; advisory | Approved | 27,519–24,109 | Nov. 1853| 1853 Ch. 101 |
| Extend suffrage to colored persons | Rejected | 28,235–41,345 | Nov. 1857| 1857 Ch. 44 |
| Amend general banking law; redemption of bank notes | Approved | 27,267–2,837 | Nov. 1858| 1858 Ch. 98 |
| Amend general banking law; circulation of bank notes | Approved | 57,646–2,515 | Nov. 1861| 1861 Ch. 242 |
| Amend general banking law; interest rate 7% per year | Approved | 46,269–7,794 | Nov. 1862| 1862 Ch. 203 |
| Extend suffrage to colored persons \(^1\) | Rejected | 46,588–55,591 | Nov. 1865| 1865 Ch. 414 |
| Amend general banking law; taxing shareholders | Approved | 49,714–19,151 | Nov. 1866| 1866 Ch. 102 |
| Amend general banking law; winding up circulation | Approved | 45,796–11,842 | Nov. 1867| 1866 Ch. 143; 1867 JR 12 |
| Abolish office of bank comptroller | Approved | 15,499–1,948 | Nov. 1868| 1868 Ch. 28 |
| Incorporation of savings banks and savings societies | Approved | 4,029–3,069 | Nov. 1876| 1876 Ch. 384 |
| Women's suffrage upon school matters | Approved | 43,581–38,998 | Nov. 1886| 1885 Ch. 211 |
| Revise 1897 banking law; banking department under commission | Rejected | 86,872–92,607 | Nov. 1898| 1897 Ch. 303 |
| Primary election law | Approved | 130,366–80,102 | Nov. 1904| 1903 Ch. 451 |
| Pocket ballots and coupon voting systems | Rejected | 45,958–111,139 | Apr. 1906| 1905 Ch. 522 |
| Women's suffrage | Rejected | 135,545–227,024 | Nov. 1912| 1911 Ch. 227 |
| Soldiers' bonus financed by 3-mill property tax and income tax | Approved | 165,762–57,324 | Sept. 1919| 1919 Ch. 667 |
| Wisconsin prohibition enforcement act | Approved | 419,309–199,876 | Nov. 1920| 1919 Ch. 556 |
| U.S. prohibition act (Volstead Act); memorializing Congress to amend | Approved | 349,443–177,603 | Nov. 1926| 1925 JR 47 |
| Repeal of Wisconsin prohibition enforcement act; advisory | Approved | 350,337–196,402 | Nov. 1926| 1925 JR 47 |
| Modification of Wisconsin prohibition enforcement act; advisory | Approved | 321,688–200,545 | Apr. 1929| 1929 JR 16 |
| County distribution of auto licenses; advisory | Rejected | 183,716–368,674 | Apr. 1931| 1931 JR 11 |
| Sunday blue law repeal; advisory | Approved | 396,436–271,786 | Apr. 1932| 1931 JR 114 |
| Old-age pensions; advisory | Approved | 531,915–154,729 | Apr. 1934| SS 1933 JR 64 |
| Teacher tenure law repeal; advisory | Approved | 403,782–372,524 | Apr. 1940| 1939 JR 100 |
| Property tax levy for high school aid; 2 mills of assessed valuation | Rejected | 131,004–410,315 | Apr. 1944| 1943 Ch. 525 |
| Daylight saving time; advisory | Rejected | 313,091–379,740 | Apr. 1947| 1947 JR 4 |
| 3% retail sales tax for veterans bonus; advisory | Rejected | 258,497–825,990 | Nov. 1948| 1947 JR 62 |
| 4-year term for constitutional officers; advisory | Rejected | 210,821–328,613 | Apr. 1951| 1951 JR 13 |
| Apportionment of legislature by area and population; advisory | Rejected | 689,615–753,092 | Nov. 1952| 1951 Ch. 728 |
| Subject | Election result | Vote totals | Date | Submitting law |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|----------------------|----------|----------------|
| New residents entitled to vote for president and vice president | Approved | 550,056–414,680 | Nov. 1954| 1953 Ch. 76 |
| Statewide educational television tax-supported; advisory | Rejected | 308,385–697,262 | Nov. 1954| 1953 JR 66 |
| Daylight saving time | Approved | 578,661–480,656 | Apr. 1957| 1957 Ch. 6 |
| Ex-residents entitled to vote for president and vice president | Approved | 627,279–229,375 | Nov. 1962| 1961 Ch. 512 |
| Gasoline tax increase for highway construction; advisory | Rejected | 150,769–889,364 | Apr. 1964| SS 1963 JR 3 |
| New residents entitled to vote after 6 months | Approved | 582,389–256,246 | Nov. 1966| 1965 Chs. 88,89|
| State control and funding of vocational education; advisory | Rejected | 292,560–409,789 | Apr. 1969| 1969 JR 4 |
| Recreational lands bonding; advisory | Approved | 361,630–322,882 | Apr. 1969| 1969 JR 5 |
| Water pollution abatement bonding; advisory | Approved | 446,763–246,968 | Apr. 1969| 1969 JR 5 |
| New residents entitled to vote after 10 days | Approved | 1,017,887–660,875 | Nov. 1976| 1975 Ch. 85 |
| Presidential voting revised | Approved | 782,181–424,386 | Nov. 1978| 1977 Ch. 394 |
| Overseas voting revised | Approved | 658,289–524,029 | Nov. 1978| 1977 Ch. 394 |
| Public inland lake protection and rehabilitation districts | Approved | 1,210,452–355,024 | Nov. 1980| 1979 Ch. 299 |
| Nuclear weapons moratorium and reduction; advisory | Approved | 641,514–205,018 | Sept. 1982| 1981 JR 38 |
| Nuclear waste site locating; advisory | Rejected | 78,327–628,414 | Apr. 1983| 1983 JR 5 |
| Gambling casinos on excursion vessels; advisory | Rejected | 465,432–604,289 | Apr. 1993| 1991 WisAct 321|
| Gambling casino restrictions; advisory | Approved | 646,827–416,722 | Apr. 1993| 1991 WisAct 321|
| Video poker and other forms of video gambling allowed; advisory | Rejected | 358,045–702,864 | Apr. 1993| 1991 WisAct 321|
| Pari-mutuel on-track betting continuation; advisory | Approved | 548,580–507,403 | Apr. 1993| 1991 WisAct 321|
| State-operated lottery continuation; advisory | Approved | 773,306–287,585 | Apr. 1993| 1991 WisAct 321|
| Extended suffrage in federal elections to adult children of U.S. citizens living abroad | Approved | 1,293,458–792,975 | Nov. 2000| 1999 WisAct 182|
| Death penalty; advisory | Approved | 1,166,571–934,508 | Nov. 2006| 2005 JR 58 |
Note: Statewide referendum questions are submitted to the electorate by the Wisconsin Legislature: 1) to ratify a law extending the right of suffrage (as required by the state constitution); 2) to ratify a law that has been passed contingent on voter approval; or 3) to seek voter opinion through an advisory referendum. Since 1848, the Wisconsin Legislature has presented 53 referendum questions to the Wisconsin electorate through the passage of acts or joint resolutions; 39 were ratified. Prior to statehood, the territorial legislature sent four questions to the electorate, as follows: Formation of a state government, submitted by Territorial Laws 1846, page 5 (Jan.31), approved April 1846, 12,334 votes for, 2,487 against; Ratification of first constitution, submitted by Art. XIX, Sec. 9 of 1846 Constitution, rejected April 1847, 14,119 votes for, 20,231 against; Extend suffrage to colored persons, submitted by supplemental resolution to 1846 Constitution, rejected April 1847, 7,664 votes for, 14,615 against; Ratification of second constitution, submitted by Art. XIV, Sec. 9 of 1848 Constitution, approved March 1848, 16,799 votes for, 6,384 against.
Ch.–Chapter; JR–Joint resolution; SS–Special session.
1. In *Gillespie v. Palmer*, 20 Wis. 544 (1866), the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that Chapter 137, Laws of 1849, extending suffrage to colored persons, was ratified November 6, 1849.
Sources: Official records of the Wisconsin Elections Commission; *Laws of Wisconsin*, 2015 and previous volumes.
## Wisconsin vote in presidential elections since 1848
| Year | Number of Electoral Votes | Candidates and Party | Votes |
|------|--------------------------|----------------------|-------|
| 1848 | 4 | Lewis Cass—D | 15,001|
| | | Zachary Taylor—W | 13,747|
| | | Martin Van Buren—FS | 10,418|
| | | **Total** | **39,166** |
| 1852 | 5 | Franklin Pierce—D | 33,658|
| | | Winfield Scott—W | 22,210|
| | | John P. Hale—FS | 8,814 |
| | | **Total** | **64,682** |
| 1856 | 5 | John C. Fremont—R | 66,090|
| | | James Buchanan—D | 52,843|
| | | Millard Fillmore—A | 579 |
| | | **Total** | **119,512** |
| 1860 | 5 | Abraham Lincoln—R | 86,113|
| | | Stephen A. Douglas—D | 65,021|
| | | John C. Breckinridge—SoD | 888 |
| | | John Bell—CU | 161 |
| | | **Total** | **152,183** |
| 1864 | 8 | Abraham Lincoln—R | 83,458|
| | | George B. McClellan—D | 65,884|
| | | **Total** | **149,342** |
| 1868 | 8 | Ulysses S. Grant—R | 108,857|
| | | Horatio Seymour—D | 84,707|
| | | **Total** | **193,564** |
| 1872 | 10 | Ulysses S. Grant—R | 104,994|
| | | Horace Greeley—D & LR| 86,477|
| | | Charles O’Conor—D | 834 |
| | | **Total** | **192,305** |
| 1876 | 10 | Rutherford B. Hayes—R| 130,668|
| | | Samuel J. Tilden—D | 123,927|
| | | Peter Cooper—G | 1,509 |
| | | Green Clay Smith—Pro | 27 |
| | | **Total** | **256,131** |
| 1880 | 10 | James A. Garfield—R | 144,398|
| | | Winfield S. Hancock—D| 114,644|
| | | James B. Weaver—G | 7,986 |
| | | John W. Phelps—A | .91 |
| | | Neal Dow—Pro | .68 |
| | | **Total** | **267,187** |
| 1884 | 11 | James G. Blaine—R | 161,157|
| | | Grover Cleveland—D | 146,477|
| | | John P. St. John—Pro | 7,656 |
| | | Benjamin F. Butler—G | 4,598 |
| | | **Total** | **319,888** |
| 1888 | 11 | Benjamin Harrison—R | 176,553|
| | | Grover Cleveland—D | 155,232|
| | | Clinton B. Fisk—Pro | 14,277|
| | | Alson J. Streeter—UL | 8,552 |
| | | **Total** | **354,614** |
| 1892 | 12 | Grover Cleveland—D | 177,325|
| | | Benjamin Harrison—R | 171,101|
| | | John Bidwell—Pro | 13,136|
| | | James B. Weaver—PPop | 10,019|
| | | **Total** | **371,581** |
| 1896 | 12 | William McKinley—R | 268,135|
| | | William J. Bryan—D | 165,523|
| | | Joshua Levering—Pro | 7,507 |
| | | John M. Palmer—ND | 4,584 |
| | | Charles H. Matchett—SL| 1,314|
| | | Charles E. Bentley—Nat| 346 |
| | | **Total** | **447,409** |
| 1900 | 12 | William McKinley—R | 265,760|
| | | William J. Bryan—D | 159,163|
| | | John G. Wooley—Pro | 10,027|
| | | Eugene V. Debs—SD | 7,048 |
| | | Joseph F. Malloney—SL| 503 |
| | | **Total** | **442,501** |
| 1904 | 13 | Theodore Roosevelt—R | 280,164|
| | | Alton B. Parker—D | 124,107|
| | | Eugene V. Debs—SD | 28,220|
| | | Silas C. Swallow—Pro | 9,770 |
| | | Thomas E. Watson—PPop| 530 |
| | | Charles H. Corregan—SL| 223 |
| | | **Total** | **443,014** |
| 1908 | 13 | William H. Taft—R | 247,747|
| | | William J. Bryan—D | 166,632|
| | | Eugene V. Debs—SD | 28,164|
| | | Eugene W. Chafin—Pro | 11,564|
| | | August Gillhaus—SL | 314 |
| | | **Total** | **454,421** |
| 1912 | 13 | Woodrow Wilson—D | 164,230|
| | | William H. Taft—R | 130,596|
| | | Theodore Roosevelt—P | 62,448 |
| | | Eugene V. Debs—SD | 33,476|
| | | Eugene W. Chafin—Pro | 8,584 |
| | | Arthur E. Reimer—SL | 632 |
| | | **Total** | **399,966** |
| 1916 | 13 | Charles E. Hughes—R | 220,822|
| | | Woodrow Wilson—D | 191,363|
| | | Allan Benson—S | 27,631|
| | | J. Frank Hanly—Pro | 7,318 |
| | | **Total** | **447,134** |
| 1920 | 13 | Warren G. Harding—R | 498,576|
| | | James M. Cox—D | 113,422|
| | | Eugene V. Debs—S | 80,635 |
| | | Aaron S. Watkins—Pro | 8,647 |
| | | **Total** | **701,280** |
| 1924 | 13 | Robert M. La Follette—P | 453,678|
| | | Calvin Coolidge—R | 311,614|
| | | John W. Davis—D | 68,096 |
| | | William Z. Foster—Wrk| 3,834 |
| | | Herman P. Faris—Pro | 2,918 |
| | | **Total** | **840,140** |
| 1928 | 13 | Herbert Hoover—R | 544,205|
| | | Alfred E. Smith—D | 450,259|
| | | Norman Thomas—S | 18,213 |
| | | William F. Varney—Pro| 2,245 |
| | | William Z. Foster—Wrk| 1,528 |
| | | Verne L. Reynolds—SL | 381 |
| | | **Total** | **1,016,831** |
| 1932 | 12 | Franklin D. Roosevelt—D | 707,410|
| | | Herbert Hoover—R | 347,741|
| | | Norman Thomas—S | 53,379 |
| | | William Z. Foster—Com| 3,112 |
| | | William D. Upshaw—Pro| 2,672 |
| | | Verne L. Reynolds—SL | 494 |
| | | **Total** | **1,114,808** |
| 1936 | 12 | Franklin D. Roosevelt—D | 802,984|
| | | Alfred M. Landon—R | 380,828|
| | | William Lemke—U | 60,297 |
| | | Norman Thomas—S | 10,626 |
| | | Earl Browder—Com | 2,197 |
| | | David L. Calvin—Pro | 1,071 |
| | | John W. Aiken—SL | 557 |
| | | **Total** | **1,258,560** |
## Wisconsin members of the U.S. Senate since 1848
| Class 1 | Term |
|---------|-----------------------|
| Henry Dodge—D | 1848–1857 |
| James R. Doolittle—R | 1857–1869 |
| Matthew H. Carpenter—R | 1869–1875 |
| Angus Cameron¹—R | 1875–1881 |
| Philetus Sawyer—R | 1881–1893 |
| John Lendrum Mitchell—D | 1893–1899 |
| Joseph Very Quarles—R | 1899–1905 |
| Robert M. La Follette, Sr²—R | 1906–1925 |
| Robert M. La Follette, Jr.³—R | 1925–1935 |
| Robert M. La Follette, Jr.—P | 1935–1947 |
| Joseph R. McCarthy—R | 1947–1957 |
| William Proxmire⁴—D | 1957–1989 |
| Herbert H. Kohl—D | 1989–2013 |
| Tammy Baldwin—D | 2013– |
| Class 3 | Term |
|---------|-----------------------|
| Isaac P. Walker—D | 1848–1855 |
| Charles Durkee—UR | 1855–1861 |
| Timothy O. Howe—UR | 1861–1879 |
| Matthew H. Carpenter—R | 1879–1881 |
| Angus Cameron¹—R | 1881–1885 |
| John C. Spooner—R | 1885–1891 |
| William F. Vilas—D | 1891–1897 |
| John C. Spooner—R | 1897–1907 |
| Isaac Stephenson⁵—R | 1907–1915 |
| Paul O. Husting—D | 1915–1917 |
| Irvine L. Lenroot⁶—R | 1918–1927 |
| John J. Blaine—R | 1927–1933 |
| F. Ryan Duffy—D | 1933–1939 |
| Alexander Wiley—R | 1939–1963 |
| Gaylord A. Nelson—D | 1963–1981 |
| Robert W. Kasten, Jr.—R | 1981–1993 |
| Russell D. Feingold—D | 1993–2011 |
| Ron Johnson—R | 2011– |
Note: Each state has two U.S. Senators, and each serves a six-year term. They were elected by their respective state legislatures until passage of the 17th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution on April 8, 1913, which provided for popular election. Article I, Section 3, Clause 2, of the U.S. Constitution divides senators into three classes so that one-third of the senate is elected every two years. Wisconsin's seats were assigned to Class 1 and Class 3 at statehood.
D—Democrat; P—Progressive; R—Republican; UR—Union Republican.
¹ Not a candidate for reelection to Class 1 seat, but elected 3/10/1881 to fill vacancy caused by death of Class 3 Senator Carpenter on 2/24/1881. ² Elected 1/25/1905 but continued to serve as governor until 1/1/1906. ³ Elected 9/29/1925 to fill vacancy caused by death of Robert La Follette, Sr., on 6/18/1925. ⁴ Elected 8/27/1957 to fill vacancy caused by death of McCarthy on 5/2/1957. ⁵ Elected 5/17/1907 to fill vacancy caused by resignation of Spooner on 4/30/1907. ⁶ Elected 5/2/1918 to fill vacancy caused by death of Husting on 10/21/1917.
Source: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau records.
## Wisconsin members of the U.S. House of Representatives since 1848
| Name | Party | District | Term | Residence |
|--------------------|---------|----------|-----------------------|---------------|
| Adams, Henry C. | Rep. | 2 | 1903–1906 | Madison |
| Amlie, Thomas R. | Rep., Prog. | 1 | 1931–1933; 1935–1939 | Elkhorn |
| Aspin, Les | Dem. | 1 | 1971–1993 | East Troy |
| Atwood, David | Rep. | 2 | 1870–1871 | Madison |
| Babbitt, Clinton | Dem. | 1 | 1891–1893 | Beloit |
| Babcock, Joseph W. | Rep. | 3 | 1893–1907 | Necedah |
| Baldus, Alvin | Dem. | 3 | 1975–1981 | Menomonie |
| Baldwin, Tammy | Dem. | 2 | 1999–2013 | Madison |
| Barber, J. Allen | Rep. | 3 | 1871–1875 | Lancaster |
| Barca, Peter W. | Dem. | 1 | 1993–1995 | Kenosha |
| Barnes, Lyman E. | Dem. | 8 | 1893–1895 | Appleton |
| Barney, Samuel S. | Rep. | 5 | 1895–1903 | West Bend |
| Barrett, Thomas M. | Dem. | 5 | 1993–2003 | Milwaukee |
| Barwig, Charles | Dem. | 2 | 1889–1895 | Mayville |
| Beck, Joseph D. | Rep. | 7 | 1921–1929 | Viroqua |
| Berger, Victor L. | Soc. | 5 | 1911–1913; 1919; 1923–1929 | Milwaukee |
| Biemiller, Andrew J.| Dem. | 5 | 1945–1947; 1949–1951 | Milwaukee |
| Billinghamurst, Charles | Rep. | 3 | 1855–1859 | Juneau |
| Blanchard, George W.| Rep. | 1 | 1933–1935 | Edgerton |
| Name | Party | District | Term | Residence |
|-----------------------------|-------------|----------|-----------------------|---------------|
| Boileau, Gerald J | Rep., Prog. | 8, 7 | 1931–1939 | Wausau |
| Bolles, Stephen | Rep. | 1 | 1939–1941 | Janesville |
| Bouck, Gabriel | Dem. | 6 | 1877–1881 | Oshkosh |
| Bragg, Edward S | Dem. | 5, 2 | 1877–1883; 1885–1887 | Fond du Lac |
| Brickner, George H | Dem. | 5 | 1889–1895 | Sheboygan Falls|
| Brophy, John C | Rep. | 4 | 1947–1949 | Milwaukee |
| Brown, James S | Dem. | 1 | 1863–1865 | Milwaukee |
| Brown, Webster E | Rep. | 9, 10 | 1901–1907 | Rhinelander |
| Browne, Edward E | Rep. | 8 | 1913–1931 | Waupaca |
| Burchard, Samuel D | Dem. | 5 | 1875–1877 | Beaver Dam |
| Burke, Michael E | Dem. | 6, 2 | 1911–1917 | Beaver Dam |
| Bushnell, Allen R | Dem. | 3 | 1891–1893 | Madison |
| Byrnes, John W | Rep. | 8 | 1945–1973 | Green Bay |
| Cannon, Raymond J | Dem. | 4 | 1933–1939 | Milwaukee |
| Cary, William J | Rep. | 4 | 1907–1919 | Milwaukee |
| Caswell, Lucien B | Rep. | 2, 1 | 1875–1883; 1885–1891 | Fort Atkinson |
| Cate, George W | Reform | 8 | 1875–1877 | Stevens Point |
| Clark, Charles B | Rep. | 6 | 1887–1891 | Neenah |
| Classon, David G | Rep. | 9 | 1917–1923 | Oconto |
| Cobb, Amasa | Rep. | 3 | 1863–1871 | Mineral Point |
| Coburn, Frank P | Dem. | 7 | 1891–1893 | West Salem |
| Cole, Orasmus | Whig | 2 | 1849–1851 | Potosi |
| Cook, Samuel A | Rep. | 6 | 1895–1897 | Neenah |
| Cooper, Henry Allen | Rep. | 1 | 1893–1919; 1921–1931 | Racine |
| Cornell, Robert J | Dem. | 8 | 1975–1979 | De Pere |
| Dahle, Herman B | Rep. | 2 | 1899–1903 | Mount Horeb |
| Darling, Mason C | Dem. | 2 | 1848–1849 | Fond du Lac |
| Davidson, James H | Rep. | 6, 8 | 1897–1913; 1917–1918 | Oshkosh |
| Davis, Glenn R | Rep. | 2, 9 | 1947–1957; 1965–1975 | Waukesha |
| Deuster, Peter V | Dem. | 4 | 1879–1885 | Milwaukee |
| Dilweg, La Vern R | Dem. | 8 | 1943–1945 | Green Bay |
| Doty, James D | Dem. | 3 | 1849–1853 | Neenah |
| Duffy, Sean P | Rep. | 7 | 2011– | Wausau |
| Durkee, Charles | Free Soil | 1 | 1849–1853 | Kenosha |
| Eastman, Ben C | Dem. | 2 | 1851–1855 | Platteville |
| Eldredge, Charles A | Dem. | 4, 5 | 1863–1875 | Fond du Lac |
| Esch, John Jacob | Rep. | 7 | 1899–1921 | La Crosse |
| Flynn, Gerald T | Dem. | 1 | 1959–1961 | Racine |
| Frear, James A | Rep. | 10, 9 | 1913–1935 | Hudson |
| Froehlich, Harold V | Rep. | 8 | 1973–1975 | Appleton |
| Gallagher, Mike | Rep. | 8 | 2017– | Green Bay |
| Gehrmann, Bernard J | Prog. | 10 | 1935–1943 | Mellen |
| Green, Mark A | Rep. | 8 | 1999–2007 | Green Bay |
| Griffin, Michael | Rep. | 7 | 1894–1899 | Eau Claire |
| Griswold, Harry W | Rep. | 3 | 1939–1941 | West Salem |
| Grothman, Glenn | Rep. | 6 | 2015– | Glenbeulah |
| Guenther, Richard W | Rep. | 6, 2 | 1881–1889 | Oshkosh |
| Gunderson, Steven | Rep. | 3 | 1981–1997 | Osseo |
| Hanchett, Luther | Rep. | 2 | 1861–1862 | Plover |
| Haugen, Nils P | Rep. | 8, 10 | 1887–1895 | Black River Falls|
| Hawkes, Charles, Jr. | Rep. | 2 | 1939–1941 | Horicon |
| Hazelton, George C | Rep. | 3 | 1877–1883 | Boscobel |
| Hazelton, Gerry W | Rep. | 2 | 1871–1875 | Columbus |
| Henney, Charles W | Dem. | 2 | 1933–1935 | Portage |
| Henry, Robert K | Rep. | 2 | 1945–1947 | Jefferson |
| Hopkins, Benjamin F | Rep. | 2 | 1867–1870 | Madison |
| Hudd, Thomas R | Dem. | 5 | 1886–1889 | Green Bay |
| Hughes, James | Dem. | 8 | 1933–1935 | De Pere |
| Name | Party | District | Term | Residence |
|-----------------------------|--------|----------|-----------------------------|-----------------|
| Hull, Merlin | Prog. | 7, 9 | 1929–1931; 1935–1953 | Black River Falls|
| Humphrey, Herman L | Rep. | 7 | 1877–1883 | Hudson |
| Jenkins, John J | Rep. | 10, 11 | 1895–1909 | Chippewa Falls |
| Johns, Joshua L | Rep. | 8 | 1939–1943 | Appleton |
| Johnson, Jay | Dem. | 8 | 1997–1999 | New Franken |
| Johnson, Lester R | Dem. | 9 | 1953–1965 | Black River Falls|
| Jones, Burr W | Dem. | 3 | 1883–1885 | Madison |
| Kading, Charles A | Rep. | 2 | 1927–1933 | Watertown |
| Kagen, Steve. | Dem. | 8 | 2007–2011 | Appleton |
| Kasten, Robert W., Jr. | Rep. | 9 | 1975–1979 | Waukesha |
| Kastenmeier, Robert W | Dem. | 2 | 1959–1991 | Sun Prairie |
| Keefe, Frank B | Rep. | 6 | 1939–1951 | Oshkosh |
| Kersten, Charles J | Rep. | 5 | 1947–1949; 1951–1955 | Whitefish Bay |
| Kimball, Alanson M | Rep. | 6 | 1875–1877 | Waushara |
| Kind, Ron | Dem. | 3 | 1997– | La Crosse |
| Kleczka, Gerald D. | Dem. | 4 | 1984–2005 | Milwaukee |
| Kleczka, John C. | Rep. | 4 | 1919–1923 | Milwaukee |
| Klug, Scott L. | Rep. | 2 | 1991–1999 | Madison |
| Konop, Thomas F. | Dem. | 9 | 1911–1917 | Kewaunee |
| Kopp, Arthur W. | Rep. | 3 | 1909–1913 | Platteville |
| Kustermann, Gustav | Rep. | 9 | 1907–1911 | Green Bay |
| La Follette, Robert M., Sr. | Rep. | 3 | 1885–1891 | Madison |
| Laird, Melvin R | Rep. | 7 | 1953–1969 | Marshfield |
| Lampert, Florian | Rep. | 6 | 1918–1930 | Oshkosh |
| Larrabee, Charles H. | Dem. | 3 | 1859–1861 | Horicon |
| Lenroot, Irvine L | Rep. | 11 | 1909–1918 | Superior |
| Lynch, Thomas | Dem. | 9 | 1891–1895 | Antigo |
| Lynde, William Pitt | Dem. | 1, 4 | 1848–1849; 1875–1879 | Milwaukee |
| Macy, John B. | Dem. | 3 | 1853–1855 | Fond du Lac |
| Magoon, Henry S. | Rep. | 3 | 1875–1877 | Darlington |
| McCord, Myron H. | Rep. | 9 | 1889–1891 | Merrill |
| McDill, Alexander S. | Rep. | 8 | 1873–1875 | Plover |
| McIndoe, Walter D. | Rep. | 6 | 1863–1867 | Wausau |
| McMurray, Howard J. | Dem. | 5 | 1943–1945 | Milwaukee |
| Miller, Lucas M. | Dem. | 6 | 1891–1893 | Oshkosh |
| Minor, Edward S. | Rep. | 8, 9 | 1895–1907 | Sturgeon Bay |
| Mitchell, Alexander | Dem. | 1, 4 | 1871–1875 | Milwaukee |
| Mitchell, John L. | Dem. | 4 | 1891–1893 | Milwaukee |
| Monahan, James G. | Rep. | 3 | 1919–1921 | Darlington |
| Moody, James P. | Dem. | 5 | 1983–1993 | Milwaukee |
| Moore, Gwen | Dem. | 4 | 2005– | Milwaukee |
| Morse, Elmer A. | Rep. | 10 | 1907–1913 | Antigo |
| Murphy, James W. | Dem. | 3 | 1907–1909 | Platteville |
| Murray, Reid F. | Rep. | 7 | 1939–1953 | Ogdensburg |
| Nelson, Adolphus P. | Rep. | 11 | 1918–1923 | Grantsburg |
| Nelson, John Mandt | Rep. | 2, 3 | 1906–1919; 1921–1933 | Madison |
| Neumann, Mark W. | Rep. | 1 | 1995–1999 | Janesville |
| Obey, David R. | Dem. | 7 | 1969–2011 | Wausau |
| O’Konski, Alvin E. | Rep. | 10 | 1943–1973 | Mercer |
| O’Malley, Thomas D. P. | Dem. | 5 | 1933–1939 | Milwaukee |
| Otjen, Theobald. | Rep. | 4 | 1895–1907 | Milwaukee |
| Paine, Halbert E. | Rep. | 1 | 1865–1871 | Milwaukee |
| Peavey, Hubert H. | Rep. | 11, 10 | 1923–1935 | Washburn |
| Petri, Thomas E. | Rep. | 6 | 1979–2015 | Fond du Lac |
| Pocan, Mark | Dem. | 2 | 2013– | Black Earth |
| Potter, John F. | Rep. | 1 | 1857–1863 | East Troy |
| Pound, Thaddeus C. | Rep. | 8 | 1877–1883 | Chippewa Falls |
| Price, Hugh H. | Rep. | 8 | 1887 | Black River Falls|
| Name | Party | District | Term | Residence |
|-----------------------------|-------------|----------|-------------------------------------------|--------------------|
| Price, William T | Rep. | 8 | 1883–1886 | Black River Falls |
| Race, John A | Dem. | 6 | 1965–1967 | Fond du Lac |
| Randall, Clifford E. | Rep. | 1 | 1919–1921 | Kenosha |
| Rankin, Joseph | Dem. | 5 | 1883–1886 | Manitowoc |
| Reilly, Michael K. | Dem. | 6 | 1913–1917; 1930–1939 | Fond du Lac |
| Reuss, Henry S. | Dem. | 5 | 1955–1983 | Milwaukee |
| Ribble, Reid J. | Rep. | 8 | 2011–2017 | Appleton |
| Roth, Toby | Rep. | 8 | 1979–1997 | Appleton |
| Rusk, Jeremiah M. | Rep. | 6, 7 | 1871–1877 | Viroqua |
| Ryan, Paul | Rep. | 1 | 1999–2019 | Janesville |
| Sauerhering, Edward | Rep. | 2 | 1895–1899 | Mayville |
| Sauthoff, Harry | Prog. | 2 | 1935–1939; 1941–1945 | Madison |
| Sawyer, Philetus | Rep. | 5, 6 | 1865–1875 | Oshkosh |
| Schadeberg, Henry C. | Rep. | 1 | 1961–1965; 1967–1971 | Burlington |
| Schafer, John C. | Rep. | 4 | 1923–1933; 1939–1941 | Milwaukee |
| Schneider, George J. | Rep., Prog. | 9, 8 | 1923–1933; 1935–1939 | Appleton |
| Sensenbrenner, F. James, Jr.| Rep. | 9, 5 | 1979– | Menomonee Falls |
| Shaw, George B. | Rep. | 7 | 1893–1894 | Eau Claire |
| Sloan, A. Scott. | Rep. | 3 | 1861–1863 | Beaver Dam |
| Sloan, Ithamar C. | Rep. | 2 | 1863–1867 | Janesville |
| Smith, Henry. | Union Labor | 4 | 1887–1889 | Milwaukee |
| Smith, Lawrence H. | Rep. | 1 | 1941–1959 | Racine |
| Somers, Peter J. | Dem. | 4 | 1893–1895 | Milwaukee |
| Stafford, William H. | Rep. | 5 | 1903–1911; 1913–1919; 1921–1923; 1929–1933 | Milwaukee |
| Stalbaum, Lynn E. | Dem. | 1 | 1965–1967 | Racine |
| Steiger, William A. | Rep. | 6 | 1967–1978 | Oshkosh |
| Steil, Bryan. | Rep. | 1 | 2019– | Janesville |
| Stephenson, Isaac | Rep. | 9 | 1883–1889 | Marinette |
| Stevenson, William H. | Rep. | 3 | 1941–1949 | La Crosse |
| Stewart, Alexander | Rep. | 9 | 1895–1901 | Wausau |
| Sumner, Daniel H. | Dem. | 2 | 1883–1885 | Waukesha |
| Tewes, Donald E. | Rep. | 2 | 1957–1959 | Waukesha |
| Thill, Lewis D. | Rep. | 5 | 1939–1943 | Milwaukee |
| Thomas, Ormsby B. | Rep. | 7 | 1885–1891 | Prairie du Chien |
| Thomson, Vernon W. | Rep. | 3 | 1961–1975 | Richland Center |
| Van Pelt, William K. | Rep. | 6 | 1951–1963 | Fond du Lac |
| Van Schaick, Isaac W. | Rep. | 4 | 1885–1887; 1889–1891 | Milwaukee |
| Voigt, Edward | Rep. | 2 | 1917–1927 | Sheboygan |
| Washburn, Cadwallader C. | Rep. | 2 | 1855–1861; 1867–1871 | Mineral Point, La Crosse |
| Wasielewski, Thaddeus F. | Dem. | 4 | 1941–1947 | Milwaukee |
| Weisse, Charles H. | Dem. | 6 | 1903–1911 | Sheboygan Falls |
| Wells, Daniel, Jr. | Dem. | 1 | 1853–1857 | Milwaukee |
| Wells, Owen A. | Dem. | 6 | 1893–1895 | Fond du Lac |
| Wheeler, Ezra | Dem. | 5 | 1863–1865 | Berlin |
| Williams, Charles G. | Rep. | 1 | 1873–1883 | Janesville |
| Winans, John | Dem. | 1 | 1883–1885 | Janesville |
| Withrow, Gardner R. | Rep., Prog. | 7, 3 | 1931–1939; 1949–1961 | La Crosse |
| Woodward, Gilbert M. | Dem. | 7 | 1883–1885 | La Crosse |
| Zablocki, Clement J. | Dem. | 4 | 1949–1983 | Milwaukee |
Dem.–Democrat; Prog.–Progressive; Rep.–Republican; Soc.–Socialist.
Sources: Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, *Wisconsin Blue Book*, various editions; Congressional Quarterly, *Guide to U.S. Elections*, 1985; and official election records.
## Wisconsin members of the U.S. House of Representatives since 1943, by district
| District | Name | Party | Term | Residence |
|----------|-----------------------------|---------|--------------------|---------------|
| 1 | Lawrence H. Smith | Rep. | 1941–1959 | Racine |
| | Gerald T. Flynn | Dem. | 1959–1961 | Racine |
| | Henry C. Schadeberg | Rep. | 1961–1965; 1967–1971| Burlington |
| | Lynn E. Stalbaum | Dem. | 1965–1967 | Racine |
| | Les Aspin¹ | Dem. | 1971–1993 | East Troy |
| | Peter W. Barca¹ | Dem. | 1993–1995 | Kenosha |
| | Mark W. Neumann | Rep. | 1995–1999 | Janesville |
| | Paul Ryan | Rep. | 1999–2019 | Janesville |
| | Bryan Steil | Rep. | 2019– | Janesville |
| 2 | Harry Sauthoff | Prog. | 1941–1945 | Madison |
| | Robert K. Henry | Rep. | 1945–1947 | Jefferson |
| | Glenn R. Davis | Rep. | 1947–1957 | Waukesha |
| | Donald E. Tewes | Rep. | 1957–1959 | Waukesha |
| | Robert W. Kastenmeier | Dem. | 1959–1991 | Sun Prairie |
| | Scott L. Klug | Rep. | 1991–1999 | Madison |
| | Tammy Baldwin | Dem. | 1999–2013 | Madison |
| | Mark Pocan | Dem. | 2013– | Black Earth |
| 3 | William H. Stevenson | Rep. | 1941–1949 | La Crosse |
| | Gardner R. Withrow | Rep. | 1949–1961 | La Crosse |
| | Vernon W. Thomson | Rep. | 1961–1975 | Richland Center|
| | Alvin Baldus | Dem. | 1975–1981 | Menomonie |
| | Steven Gunderson | Rep. | 1981–1997 | Osseo |
| | Ron Kind | Dem. | 1997– | La Crosse |
| 4³ | Thaddeus F. Wasielewski | Dem. | 1941–1947 | Milwaukee |
| | John C. Brophy | Rep. | 1947–1949 | Milwaukee |
| | Clement J. Zablocki² | Dem. | 1949–1983 | Milwaukee |
| | Gerald D. Kleczka² | Dem. | 1984–2005 | Milwaukee |
| | Gwen Moore | Dem. | 2005– | Milwaukee |
| 5³ | Howard J. McMurray | Dem. | 1943–1945 | Milwaukee |
| | Andrew J. Biemiller | Dem. | 1945–1947; 1949–1951| Milwaukee |
| | Charles J. Kersten | Rep. | 1947–1949; 1951–1955| Whitefish Bay |
| | Henry S. Reuss | Dem. | 1955–1983 | Milwaukee |
| | James P. Moody | Dem. | 1983–1993 | Milwaukee |
| | Thomas M. Barrett | Dem. | 1993–2003 | Milwaukee |
| | F. James Sensenbrenner, Jr. | Rep. | 2003– | Menomonee Falls|
| 6 | Frank B. Keefe | Rep. | 1939–1951 | Oshkosh |
| | William K. Van Pelt | Rep. | 1951–1965 | Fond du Lac |
| | John A. Race | Dem. | 1965–1967 | Fond du Lac |
| | William A. Steiger⁴ | Rep. | 1967–1978 | Oshkosh |
| | Thomas E. Petri⁴ | Rep. | 1979–2015 | Fond du Lac |
| | Glenn Grothman | Rep. | 2015– | Glenbeulah |
| 7 | Reid F. Murray | Rep. | 1939–1953 | Ogdensburg |
| | Melvin R. Laird⁵ | Rep. | 1953–1969 | Marshfield |
| | David R. Obey⁵ | Dem. | 1969–2011 | Wausau |
| | Sean P. Duffy | Rep. | 2011– | Wausau |
| 8 | La Vern R. Dilweg | Dem. | 1943–1945 | Green Bay |
| | John R. Byrnes | Rep. | 1945–1973 | Green Bay |
| | Harold V. Froehlich | Rep. | 1973–1975 | Appleton |
| | Robert J. Cornell | Dem. | 1975–1979 | De Pere |
| | Toby Roth | Rep. | 1979–1997 | Appleton |
| | Jay Johnson | Dem. | 1997–1999 | New Franken |
| | Mark A. Green | Rep. | 1999–2007 | Green Bay |
| | Steve Kagen | Dem. | 2007–2011 | Appleton |
| | Reid J. Ribble | Rep. | 2011–2017 | Appleton |
## Wisconsin members of the U.S. House of Representatives since 1943, by district, continued
| District | Name | Party | Term | Residence |
|----------|-----------------------------|-------|---------------|---------------|
| 9 | Mike Gallagher | Rep. | 2017– | Green Bay |
| 9 | Merlin Hull | Prog. | 1935–1953 | Black River Falls |
| 9 | Lester R. Johnson | Dem. | 1953–1965 | Black River Falls |
| 9 | Glenn R. Davis | Rep. | 1965–1975 | Waukesha |
| 9 | Robert W. Kasten | Rep. | 1975–1979 | Thiensville |
| 9 | F. James Sensenbrenner, Jr.| Rep. | 1979–2003 | Menomonee Falls |
| 10 | Alvin E. O’Konski | Rep. | 1943–1973 | Rhinelander |
Dem.–Democrat; Prog.–Progressive; Rep.–Republican.
1. Aspin resigned 1/20/1993, to become U.S. Secretary of Defense. Barca was elected in a special election, 5/4/1993.
2. Zablocki died 12/3/1983. Kleczka was elected in a special election, 4/3/1984. 3. In the congressional reapportionment following the 2000 census, Wisconsin’s delegation was reduced from nine to eight members. The previous 4th, 5th, and 9th districts were reconfigured into the new 4th and 5th districts. 4. Steiger died 12/4/1978, following his November 1978 election. Petri was elected in a special election, 4/3/1979. 5. Laird resigned 1/21/1969, to become U.S. Secretary of Defense. Obey was elected in a special election, 4/1/1969. 6. In the congressional redistricting following the 1960 census, the previous 9th District in western Wisconsin ceased to exist and a new 9th District was created in the Waukesha-Milwaukee metropolitan area. 7. In the congressional reapportionment following the 1970 census, Wisconsin’s delegation was reduced from ten members to nine members.
Sources: 1944 *Wisconsin Blue Book* and Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau data. | <urn:uuid:0a887bb1-e350-48cd-ad8a-f150a11a4681> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/misc/lrb/blue_book/2019_2020/180_historical_lists.pdf | 2021-04-20T07:40:50+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618039379601.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20210420060507-20210420090507-00218.warc.gz | 298,254,141 | 59,245 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.989862 | eng_Latn | 0.995729 | [
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ITHACA CITY SCHOOL DISTRICT
SCHOOL BUS SAFETY RULES
Ithaca school bus drivers and attendants care about your safety! Your mature and responsible bus behavior helps us protect all students on your bus.
1. RESPECT YOUR DRIVER AND ATTENDANT
- Always follow their instructions - their job is to protect everyone on the bus.
- Observe general classroom behavior on the bus - distracting your driver could cause an accident.
2. RESPECT OTHER STUDENTS
- Treat others as you want to be treated - absolutely no name-calling, put-downs, threats, or bullying. Please show courtesy and respect to all your fellow riders at all times.
- No vulgar or inappropriate language.
- Keep your hands to yourself.
- Be at your bus stop at least five minutes early - it’s dangerous to arrive late at the stop, and it’s unfair to make other students late for school.
3. RESPECT YOUR OWN SAFETY
- Go directly to your assigned seat and stay seated. Seatbelts must be worn at all times. Make sure your seatbelt is properly adjusted - snug and across your hips. Belts cannot be twisted. School bus seats are designed to protect you if you are seated correctly, facing forward.
- Place backpacks or other items on your lap or on the floor in front of you. Do not place items in the aisle - it is against the law to block the aisle or an exit. In an emergency, you may need to get out of the bus quickly!
- No eating, drinking, or chewing gum - you could choke, and food mess creates an unhealthy environment on the bus. No use of perfume or fragrance products at any time - allergic reactions can be life-threatening.
- Check for traffic before exiting the bus and move directly away from the Danger Zones around the bus as soon as you’re off. If you must cross the street, wait for your driver’s signal, and check carefully for traffic. Please do not use a cell phone or wear headphones while boarding or exiting your bus.
- Avoid clothing or backpacks with long, dangling straps or drawstrings. They’re dangerous - they can get tangled in the handrail or door as you exit the bus.
- If you drop anything near or under the bus, leave it there - step back away from the bus, and ask an adult to help.
- No smoking, tobacco products, lighters, or matches - fire on a school bus is extremely dangerous.
- Keep your hands, feet, and head inside the bus at all times.
- Never throw anything on the bus. You could injure another student, or distract the driver and cause an accident.
4. RESPECT SCHOOL PROPERTY
- Do not litter, mark up or damage seats, or play with emergency equipment - you and your parent(s)/guardian(s) are financially responsible for any damage to the bus.
IMPORTANT!
If anyone makes you feel threatened, bullied, or unsafe on the bus or at the bus stop, or if you know another student is being threatened or harassed, always tell your driver, attendant, parent/guardian, or another adult as soon as possible. | <urn:uuid:9991d84a-0644-4a2e-af72-7c354078c710> | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://www.ithacacityschools.org/tfiles/folder278/2013-14%20ICSD%20Bus%20Rules.pdf | 2020-10-22T03:35:28+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107878879.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20201022024236-20201022054236-00027.warc.gz | 767,007,974 | 653 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998685 | eng_Latn | 0.998685 | [
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