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SUMMARY Orange County Public Schools menus succeed in offering red-orange and dark green vegetables regularly as well as daily meatless meals at breakfast and lunch. However, the menus fail to offer warm meals centered around plant proteins, emphasize 100% whole grains, offer all classes of vegetables regularly, offer legumes daily, offer fresh fruit daily, and advertise non-dairy milks. In addition, processed meats should be removed as soon as possible from the menus, and high-cholesterol foods like red meat should be reduced in frequency. All factors considered, the menus at OCPS earn an "F" score. STRENGTHS - Red-orange and dark green vegetables offered regularly - Warm meatless meals offered daily AREAS FOR IMPROVEMENT - Offer fresh fruit daily - Ensure all classes of vegetables are served twice per week - Serve more warm entrees centered around plant proteins and offer legumes daily - Immediately remove processed meat (chicken nuggets, hot dogs, bacon, pepperoni, lunch meat) - Restrict high-cholesterol foods like red meat and eggs - Emphasize 100% whole grains and restrict ultra-processed products heavy in refined grains and sugars - Serve water or plant-based milk options and restrict sugar-added varieties of all milk - Add portion sizes of all meats to the menu BALANCING MENUS Given that a significant and increasing proportion of children today show signs of metabolic syndrome, including high blood cholesterol, and diabetes or pre-diabetes, focusing menu reforms on three dietary components—saturated fat, cholesterol, and fiber—is a particularly high-impact way to improve food environments so that they will promote children’s long-term health. There is a robust causal link between saturated fat intake and elevated LDL cholesterol levels, a well-established marker for risk of heart disease and cardiovascular events. In addition to increasing risk for cardiovascular diseases, higher saturated fat intake is a significant risk factor for systemic inflammation, insulin resistance, and obesity. Furthermore, the oxidation of dietary cholesterol, found only in animal products, poses significant potential health risks. Cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) are likely involved in both initiation and progression of chronic diseases, including atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative disease, kidney failure, and diabetes. Regrettably, less than 3% of American children meet or exceed the minimum adequate intake of fiber per day, which may constitute the most widespread nutrient deficiency in the United States. This profound lack of dietary fiber—found in phytonutrient-rich, whole plant foods but not highly refined foods or animal products—combined with general overconsumption of saturated fats and cholesterol is a clear indicator of the imbalance of our food environments and the need for change. ENHANCING HEALTHFULNESS School districts like OCPS have improved the healthfulness of their menus by balancing their menus to feature more fresh, whole-food plant products and fewer meat and ultra-processed food products. An example of one simple change that accomplishes both is below. The following information assumes the serving size for each entree is 3 ounces. For a custom assessment, please contact us at email@example.com. | Average nutrient values of meat-based dishes | Average nutrient values of plant-based swap | |---------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------| | 7g Saturated Fat | 2g Saturated Fat | | 50mg Cholesterol | 0mg Cholesterol | | 900mg Sodium | 600mg Sodium | | 2g Fiber | 17g Fiber | Replacing one meat-based entree per week with a plant-based entree would: - Reduce Average Saturated Fat 14% - Reduce Average Cholesterol 20% - Reduce Average Sodium 7% - Increase Average Fiber 150% Replacing one chocolate chip cookie dessert with 1/2 cup of strawberries would eliminate: - Saturated Fat (2.3g to 0g) - Cholesterol (11mg to 0mg) - Added Sugar (4g to 0g) - Sodium (55mg to 0mg)
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Iron The run down - Iron is an essential mineral that helps carry oxygen throughout our bodies. - Being deficient in iron can lead to fatigue, paleness of the skin, brittle nails, cracks in the sides of the mouth, and frequent infections. - Getting too much iron can also be harmful, as iron is a pro-oxidant. This means radicals are created, and these can cause considerable cell damage. - There are two types of iron: heme and non-heme iron. Heme iron is derived from animal sources and non-heme iron is mainly in plant-based sources. - Non-heme iron is absorbed based on the body's needs. If the body's needs are higher, more non-heme iron will be absorbed from food. If the body's needs are lower, then less non-heme iron is absorbed from food. - It is generally feasible to meet iron needs on a plant-based diet by following a well-balanced diet and being mindful of absorption enhancers and inhibitors. How much should we aim for?¹ | Age (in years) | Aim for (intake in mg/day)* | Stay below (intake in mg/day)** | |---------------------------------|-----------------------------|---------------------------------| | Men 19 + | 8 | 45 | | Women 19 - 50 | 18 | 45 | | Women 51+ | 8 | 45 | | Pregnant women 19 - 50*** | 27 | 45 | | Breastfeeding women 19 - 50 | 9 | 45 | * It is traditionally recommended to consume 1.8x these numbers if you are following a plant-based lifestyle. However, some sources suggest that this 80% increase is not entirely necessary if individuals are aware of iron enhancers and inhibitors, and modify their diets accordingly to ensure more iron is absorbed. ** These values include iron from both foods and supplement sources. Be mindful, as even multivitamins often contain iron. *** Pregnant women who follow a plant-based lifestyle are recommended to consult with a doctor or dietitian regarding their needs, as prenatal vitamins and other considerations need to be taken into account. ### Fruit & vegetables | Sources | Serving size | Iron (mg) | |------------------|------------------|-----------| | Spinach, cooked | 1/2 cup (95 g) | 2 - 3.4 | | Tomato, pureed | 1/2 cup (125 g) | 2.4 | | Asparagus, raw | 6 spears | 2.1 | | Turnip, cooked | 1/2 cup (80 g) | 1.5 - 1.7 | | Prune juice | 1/2 cup (125 mL) | 1.6 | | Apricots, dried | 1/4 cup (50 g) | 1.6 | | Beets, canned | 1/2 cup (80 g) | 1.6 | | Kale, cooked | 1/2 cup (65 g) | 1.3 | ### Grains | Sources* | Serving size | Iron (mg) | |-----------------|------------------|-----------| | Oatmeal, cooked | 3/4 cup (70 g) | 4.5 - 6.5 | | Cereal | Varies (~30 g) | 4.0 - 4.3 | | Granola bar | 1 bar (32 g) | 1.2 - 2.7 | | Soda crackers | 6 crackers | 1.5 - 2.3 | | Pasta, cooked | Varies | 1.3 | * In some countries, grain products that come from white flour are required to be fortified with iron. It's always best to check the food label to confirm the product is fortified, especially for whole grains! ### Plant-based protein sources | Sources | Serving size | Iron (mg) | |--------------------------------|------------------|-----------| | Tofu, cooked | 3/4 cup (150 g) | 2.4 - 8 | | Soybeans, mature and cooked | 3/4 cup (70 g) | 6.5 | | Lentils, cooked | 3/4 cup (60 g) | 4.1 - 4.9 | | Beans, cooked | 3/4 cup (170 g) | 2.6 - 4.9 | | Pumpkin or squash seeds, roasted | 1/4 cup (35 g) | 1.4 - 4.7 | | Peas, cooked | 3/4 cup (115 g) | 1.9 - 3.5 | | Tempeh, cooked | 3/4 cup (120 g) | 3.2 | | Nuts, including cashews, almonds, hazelnuts, macadamia and pistachio | 1/4 cup (~33 g) | 1.3 - 2.2 | | Sesame seeds, roasted | 1 tbsp (8 g) | 1.4 | | Hummus | 1/4 cup (60 g) | 1.5 | | Almond butter | 2 tbsp (30 g) | 1.1 | ### Dairy alternatives | Sources | Serving size | Iron (mg) | |--------------|------------------|-----------| | Soy yogurt | 3/4 cup (175 g) | 2.1 | - Other dairy alternatives, such as plant-based milks and cheeses may contain iron, but the amounts vary and it's best to check the food label for more accurate values. How to meet needs “Food first” - a well balanced diet can meet our needs. Here’s some tips: - Iron-rich foods can be eaten with vitamin C to help increase absorption. Examples of vitamin C rich foods are citrus fruits, kiwis, strawberries, sweet bell peppers, potatoes, broccoli, and some green leafy vegetables. - Tannin-containing drinks such as tea, coffee, and wine can inhibit iron absorption. Enjoying these beverages between meals as opposed to with meals can help ensure iron absorption is not inhibited. - Foods containing phytates (such as vegetables, legumes, grains, nuts and seeds) can also inhibit iron absorption. Enhance iron absorption in the presence of phytates by soaking and/or sprouting nuts, seeds and legumes. Iron supplementation isn’t necessary for the general population unless we have trouble getting iron from food or if we are experiencing a deficiency, such as iron deficiency anaemia. - See a medical doctor for a prescribed dosage and duration as these cases are individualised, and excess iron-intake can be harmful. However, due to higher iron needs in pregnancy, an iron supplement is recommended for women during this time. - For the general population in pregnancy, Health Canada recommends a supplement containing 16 to 20 mg of iron in each daily dose. - It’s best to consult a doctor to confirm whether this dose is appropriate as it may vary per person. Pro tip When consuming beverages like coffee or tea, enjoying them at least an hour before or after a meal can already help with iron absorption! Resources 1. Amounts from National Institutes of Health 2. Amounts from Dietitian’s of Canada
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Interlocked Series Lesson #14.1 March 26, 2024 Dean Bible Ministries www.deanbibleministries.org © 2024, Dr. Robert L. Dean, Jr. Lesson 13: Mount Sinai—The Law Lesson 13A: Mount Sinai—The Law Lesson 13B: Sabbath Sacrifice The Nature of the Law Lesson 14: God’s Perfect Law Lesson 14A: God’s Laws Divine Institutions 1. Responsible Choice 2. Marriage 3. Family 4. Human government 5. Nations and boundaries 6. Israel The Line of the Promised Seed and the Covenant God chose Abraham — Isaac — Jacob — People of Israel The redemption of Israel from slavery in Egypt is a picture of their national salvation. They are viewed as a saved people. But how should a redeemed people live? Israel, God’s Son Hos. 11:1, “When Israel was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called My son.” | THE LAWYERS | THE WITNESSES | THE PROMISES | |-------------|---------------|--------------| | The Prophets | The Law | The Song | Heavens and Earth | | Blessings | Cursings | Lesson 14A: God’s Perfect Law Yahweh’s Relationship with Israel God’s Laws A. God made man and He knows best how to care for man. Example 1: God taught the people about quarantine. Example 2: God taught the people to clean themselves. Example 3: The timing of circumcision. B. God cares for His creation and gave laws for man to take care of it. C. God wants His people to treat each other with consideration and respect regardless of who they are or what station they have in life. D. God’s Law was for individuals as well as the whole society. E. God’s laws come from His infinite character and knowledge. Only He can make perfect laws. Is mankind good enough to make good laws? Election of a nation for a specific mission and purpose An individual: Abraham A family: Jacob’s A nation: Israel Record God’s Word Be missionaries to pagan culture Rom. 7:12, “Therefore the law is holy, and the commandment holy and just and good.” | Pagan Kingdom of Man | Kingdom of God | |----------------------|---------------| | Based on WORKS | Based on GRACE | | Man would save himself through his own ideas | God would save man | | **God’s Choice** | | | Babel | God chose Abraham | | Egypt | God saved Israel | | | God built Israel: | | | - Law | | | - National anthem | | | - Temple worship | | | - Feasts & festivals | Rules to Live by: Mosaic Law This happened first ... then this happened. ISRAEL’S EXODUS Father-son relationship BIRTH OF A NATION/ Salvation MOUNT SINAI God gave the Law HOW A GODLY NATION LIVES/ How a Believer Lives Ex. 19:6, “‘And you shall be to Me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.’ These are the words which you shall speak to the children of Israel.” Areas Covered by Yahweh’s Law • Relationship to God • Idolatry and related practices • Blasphemy • Torah (first 5 books of the Bible) • Temple and priests • Sacrifices • Vows • Ritual purity • Donations to the temple • Festivals • The Sabbatical year • Nazarites (people specially set apart for service to God) • The monarchy (laws related to the king) • Community • War • Social interactions • Family • Justice/legal system (related to court of law) • Slaves • Torts (wrongful acts that cause injury) • Prohibitions based on historical events • Dietary laws • Agriculture • Loans, business, and the treatment of slaves • Justice • Incest and other forbidden relationships A. God made man and He knows best how to care for man. Example 1: God taught the people about quarantine. Example 1: God taught the people about quarantine. Lev. 13:1, “And the LORD spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying: Lev. 13:2, “‘When a man has on the skin of his body a swelling, a scab, or a bright spot, and it becomes on the skin of his body like a leprous sore, then he shall be brought to Aaron the priest or to one of his sons the priests. Lev. 13:3, “‘The priest shall examine the sore on the skin of the body; and if the hair on the sore has turned white, and the sore appears to be deeper than the skin of his body, it is a leprous sore. Then the priest shall examine him, and pronounce him unclean. Example 1: God taught the people about quarantine. Lev. 13:4, “‘But if the bright spot is white on the skin of his body, and does not appear to be deeper than the skin, and its hair has not turned white, then the priest shall isolate the one who has the sore seven days. Lev. 13:5, “‘And the priest shall examine him on the seventh day; and indeed if the sore appears to be as it was, and the sore has not spread on the skin, then the priest shall isolate him another seven days. Lev. 13:6, “‘Then the priest shall examine him again on the seventh day; and indeed if the sore has faded, and the sore has not spread on the skin, then the priest shall pronounce him clean; it is only a scab, and he shall wash his clothes and be clean.’” Example 2: God taught the people to clean themselves. Num. 19:7, “Then the priest shall wash his clothes, he shall bathe in water, and afterward he shall come into the camp; the priest shall be unclean until evening.” Num. 19:11, “He who touches the dead body of anyone shall be unclean seven days. Num. 19:12, “He shall purify himself with the water on the third day and on the seventh day; then he will be clean. But if he does not purify himself on the third day and on the seventh day, he will not be clean.” Example 3: The timing of circumcision. Gen. 17:12, “He who is eight days old among you shall be circumcised, every male child in your generations, he who is born in your house or bought with money from any foreigner who is not your descendant.” Clotting Protein Peaks on Day Eight Prothrombin (% of Normal) Days After Birth B. God cares for His creation and gave laws for man to take care of it. Ex. 20:8, “Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Ex. 20:9, “Six days you shall labor and do all your work, Ex. 20:10, “but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the LORD your God. In it you shall do no work: you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your male servant, nor your female servant, nor your cattle, nor your stranger who is within your gates.” Deut. 25:4, “You shall not muzzle an ox while it treads out the grain.” Ex. 23:10, “Six years you shall sow your land and gather in its produce, Ex. 23:11, “but the seventh year you shall let it rest and lie fallow, that the poor of your people may eat; and what they leave, the beasts of the field may eat. In like manner you shall do with your vineyard and your olive grove.” Lev. 25:20, “And if you say, ‘What shall we eat in the seventh year, since we shall not sow nor gather in our produce?’ Lev. 25:21, “Then I will command My blessing on you in the sixth year, and it will bring forth produce enough for three years. Lev. 25:22, “And you shall sow in the eighth year, and eat old produce until the ninth year; until its produce comes in, you shall eat of the old harvest.” God provided crop enough for 3 years! Deut. 20:19, “When you besiege a city for a long time, while making war against it to take it, you shall not destroy its trees by wielding an axe against them; if you can eat of them, do not cut them down to use in the siege, for the tree of the field is man’s food. Deut. 20:20, “Only the trees which you know are not trees for food you may destroy and cut down, to build siegeworks against the city that makes war with you, until it is subdued.” C. God wants His people to treat each other with consideration and respect regardless of who they are or what station they have in life. Ex. 22:26, “If you ever take your neighbor’s garment as a pledge, you shall return it to him before the sun goes down.” Ex. 22:27, “For that is his only covering, it is his garment for his skin. What will he sleep in? And it will be that when he cries to Me, I will hear, for I am gracious.” Deut. 15:1, “At the end of every seven years you shall grant a release of debts. Deut. 15:2, “And this is the form of the release: Every creditor who has lent anything to his neighbor shall release it; he shall not require it of his neighbor or his brother, because it is called the LORD’S release.” Deut. 15:4, “except when there may be no poor among you; for the LORD will greatly bless you in the land which the LORD your God is giving you to possess as an inheritance— Deut. 15:5, “only if you carefully obey the voice of the LORD your God, to observe with care all these commandments which I command you today.” Deut. 15:6, “For the LORD your God will bless you just as He promised you; you shall lend to many nations, but you shall not borrow; you shall reign over many nations, but they shall not reign over you. Deut. 15:7, “If there is among you a poor man of your brethren, within any of the gates in your land which the LORD your God is giving you, you shall not harden your heart nor shut your hand from your poor brother, Deut. 15:8, “but you shall open your hand wide to him and willingly lend him sufficient for his need, whatever he needs. Deut. 15:9, “Beware lest there be a wicked thought in your heart, saying, ‘The seventh year, the year of release, is at hand,’ and your eye be evil against your poor brother and you give him nothing, and he cry out to the LORD against you, and it become sin among you.” Deut. 15:10, “You shall surely give to him, and your heart should not be grieved when you give to him, because for this thing the LORD your God will bless you in all your works and in all to which you put your hand. Deut. 15:11, “For the poor will never cease from the land; therefore I command you, saying, ‘You shall open your hand wide to your brother, to your poor and your needy, in your land.’ ” Graciously treat servants: Deut. 12:12, “And you shall rejoice before the LORD your God, you and your sons and your daughters, your male and female servants, and the Levite who is within your gates, since he has no portion nor inheritance with you.” Women Deut. 21:10, “When you go out to war against your enemies, and the LORD your God delivers them into your hand, and you take them captive, Deut. 21:11, “and you see among the captives a beautiful woman, and desire her and would take her for your wife, Deut. 21:12, “then you shall bring her home to your house, and she shall shave her head and trim her nails.” Women Deut. 21:13, “She shall put off the clothes of her captivity, remain in your house, and mourn her father and her mother a full month; after that you may go in to her and be her husband, and she shall be your wife. Deut. 21:14, “And it shall be, if you have no delight in her, then you shall set her free, but you certainly shall not sell her for money; you shall not treat her brutally, because you have humbled her.” Deut. 4:5, “Surely I have taught you statutes and judgments, just as the LORD my God commanded me, that you should act according to them in the land which you go to possess. Deut. 4:6, “Therefore be careful to observe them; for this is your wisdom and your understanding in the sight of the peoples who will hear all these statutes, and say, ‘Surely this great nation is a wise and understanding people.’ Deut. 4:7, “For what great nation is there that has God so near to it, as the LORD our God is to us, for whatever reason we may call upon Him? Deut. 4:8, “And what great nation is there that has such statutes and righteous judgments as are in all this law which I set before you this day?” Other nations Israel’s laws are righteous and fair Israelites must be wise and intelligent Which God do they worship? God’s Law was for individuals as well as the whole society. God’s laws come from His infinite character and knowledge. Only He can make perfect laws. | LEGISLATURE | EXECUTIVE | JUDICIARY | |-------------|-----------|-----------| | Makes the law | Enforces the law | Court system that interprets and applies the law | Isa. 33:22, “(For the LORD is our Judge, The LORD is our Lawgiver, The LORD is our King; He will save us);” God did not give Israel the power to make laws. He gave them their laws. **LEGISLATURE** GOD GAVE THE LAW The Mosaic Law has no instructions on making law **EXECUTIVE** The Mosaic Law taught Israel how to enforce the law **JUDICIARY** The Mosaic Law taught Israel how to run the court system to apply the law Infinite Creator-God All-Righteous, All-Loving, All-Just All-Knowing, All-Wise Perfect Values Perfect Laws God’s laws express His holiness and perfect knowledge and is given with genuine love for His creation. Principles can be universally applied finite man sinful, hateful, unjust limited knowledge, limited intelligence Perverted Values Imperfect Laws Man’s laws try to reconcile different beliefs and self-proclaimed rights so everyone is happy. Principles cannot be universally applied Nazis believed some people are less than human and therefore unworthy to live. Some people are “less evolved” and “less human” (they should be destroyed) So the Nazis believed they were right to kill these people. 4–6 million killed - Physically disabled - Mentally ill - People with impairments - Gypsies - Homosexuals - Others 6 million killed Jews God’s Sinai Laws Addressed These Areas - Personal Values - Society’s Shared Values - Formalized Law Gen. 2:15, “Then the LORD God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to tend and keep it. Gen. 2:16, “And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, ‘Of every tree of the garden you may freely eat; Gen. 2:17, “‘but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die.’”
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Mentee/Parent Training Guide Work of Art LEAD. INSPIRE. CONNECT Lead by Example. Inspire Others. Connect the World. We believe we are all a work of art shaped and modeled by our personal experiences. Through character development, social-emotional empowerment, community service, post-secondary exploration and education each work of art will strive to achieve their full potential. Our Vision: "Each work of art will strive to achieve their own personal success through cultured experiences in collaboration with their school, community, family and the world." Our Mission: Work of Art is designed to empower young ladies ages 13-18 from single parent or low economic households, foster care or other unforeseen circumstances. The mission of the program is built on three beliefs: lead by example, inspire others and develop a deeper connection to their family, community and the world through volunteer opportunities and other cultivating experiences. To learn more, contact us: Work of Art Phone: (804)393-1833 Website: www.workofartrva.org Email: firstname.lastname@example.org # Table of Contents I. What is a Mentor? - The Mentor Role .......................................................... 4 - Characteristics of a Mentor ........................................... 5 II. Mentee Roles and Responsibilities - The Mentee Role ......................................................... 8 - Parental Support ......................................................... 9 III. Building the Relationship - Building the Relationship ............................................. 11 - Working Through Difficult Issues .................................... 12 IV. Communication - Levels of Communication ............................................. 14 - How to Communicate Effectively ..................................... 15 V. Boundaries - Setting Healthy Boundaries .......................................... 17 VI. Resources - Frequently Asked Questions ......................................... 19 - Identifying Interests .................................................... 20 - Planning Activities with My Mentee ............................... 21 Section I: What is a Mentor? What is Work of Art mentoring all about? Our mentors are adults from the community who volunteer their time to work with Work of Art participants, providing guidance and support as the student works toward their goals. Mentors are required to meet with their mentee six hours a month, for a minimum of 10 months. These mentors help participants get the most out of everything Work of Art offers while also building a personal relationship that we hope lasts a lifetime. Who Serves as Work of Art Mentors? Work of Art mentors are volunteers from the community. They agree to spend at least six hours a month meeting with their Work of Art mentee (the pair is known as a “match”). They may have other phone, email, or text message contact throughout the month, but the goal is to have about an hour and a half a week of in-person meeting time. Our program’s mentors come from all walks of life – they are business owners, teachers, college students, mothers and working women. But they are all united in caring for the young people that Work of Art serves. They must be at least 20 years of age, although most of our mentors are a bit older than that. They have all expressed a desire to give back to their communities and have committed to helping the Work of Art participant develop a course to a better future. They give their time, their talent, and their wisdom to our participants. Our mentors are also safe. All of them have been through a criminal background check and other screening measures that ensure that they are safe individuals and a good fit for the philosophy of the mentoring program: that we seek to empower all of our participants through leadership, inspiration and connections. Our mentors receive 2 hours of in-person training before they are matched with a mentee. This training teaches them how to relate to our participants, explains the mentor role, and offers tips on providing appropriate support to the Work of Art participants no matter what goals or needs they have. Once our mentors are prepared for their role, we introduce them to our participants and allow each young person to have input into who they will be matched with. We help all of our participants find a mentor that they will “click” with and who can provide the specific kind of support they need. Mentor Web What are the Characteristics of a Good Mentor? Mentor Role: What a mentor is... and is NOT A mentor is: - A role model - A friend - A “coach” - A partner in learning - A trusted guide - A connection to other resources - An advocate A mentor is NOT: - A substitute parent - A counselor - A therapist - A case worker - A source of money or gifts - A peer - A negative influence What do mentors and mentees do together? Work of Art mentors support their mentee in a variety of ways and the activities they do together reflect this diverse approach. - **Post-Secondary Plan activities** – Over the course of the Work of Art program, each mentee will complete what is known as a “Post-Secondary Plan.” This brief document charts the student’s short- and long-term goals for career, education, finances, personal health, relationships, and more. Mentoring matches use these youth-focused goals as a basis for many of their meetings. For example, a student who wants to attend college after Work of Art might go visit several campuses with their mentor, or have their mentor help with the application process. - **Group activities** – Every so often, all of our matches will come together for group activities and service projects that allow all participants to interact and have fun together. Occasionally, these events involve parents, caregivers, and other supportive adults in the participants’ lives. We hope that you will be able to join us at some of these activities throughout the year! Beyond these life plan and group activities, mentors and mentees also spend time just having fun and getting to know each other. Part of the value of having a mentor is learning about another person and seeing how they live their life and carry themselves in the community. So keep in mind that Work of Art mentoring can be both purposeful and fun at the same time! II. Mentees’ Roles and Responsibilities What are the roles and responsibilities of the mentee? As a mentee, you will play many different roles during the course of your mentoring relationship. The following are some important roles for you to keep in mind: **Driver of Relationship** - Identify the skills, knowledge, and/or goals that you want to achieve and communicate them to your mentor. - Bring up new topics that are important to you at any point and give feedback to your mentor. - Communicate with your mentor. It is more than okay to initiate conversations via text or face-to-face. Also replying to messages is key! **Activity Planner** - You are in control of activities you do with your mentor. Develop a list of things you would like to do for the year and share them with your mentor. Together, you can create amazing moments and goals with each other. **Teacher** - Look for opportunities to give back to your mentor; share any information that you think might be valuable. **Continuous Learner** - Take full advantage of this opportunity to learn. - Work with your mentor to seek resources for learning; identify people and information that might be helpful. How can parents or caregivers support the relationship? - **Express your interest in the relationship** – Show your support by asking how it’s going. If the mentee sees that you care about this new relationship, they are more likely to give it a chance. - **Help support the meeting schedule** – That face-to-face time is critical for mentoring relationships, especially during the initial phases of the match. Be understanding if the young person needs to meet with their mentor or spend time on mentoring activities. Work with the mentor to work around scheduling conflicts and reschedule meetings appropriately. - **Participate in group activities when asked** – Work of Art mentoring is about bringing people together. Join in the fun if the mentee or mentor invites you to participate in a group outing, service project, or other event. - **Communicate openly with the mentor when the opportunity arises** – Mentors can be most effective when other people share information about the student’s strengths, personality, and needs. Give the mentor feedback on how you think the relationship is going and thank the mentor for their efforts. - **Honor the mentoring relationship’s confidentiality and trust** – Their relationship is a personal one; respect those boundaries. - **Communicate with program staff as needed** – You can provide feedback on how the relationship is going and help with program safety by informing staff about rules violations. - **Encourage the student to stick with it when the going gets tough** – This is true of both the mentoring relationship and Work of Art in general. Help the student work through any challenges that come up along the way. Like any meaningful personal relationship, mentoring pairs will have their ups and downs. Help the young person see the “big picture” value in the relationship and the positive nature of all the changes they are trying to make in their lives. Building Relationships: Guidelines for Successful Relationships, your mentor will: - **Be patient**: At the initial stages of the match, your mentee may appear to be hesitant, unresponsive and unappreciative of the mentor relationship. Don’t try to speed up the process by going out of your way to accommodate your mentee, such as seeing your mentee more than the prescribed time period. - **Respect the uniqueness** and honor the integrity of your mentee and influence her through constructive feedback. The mentor empowers the mentee to make the right decisions without actually deciding for the mentee. Be alert of opportunities and teachable moments. - **Set realistic expectations** and goals for with mentor and make achievement for them fun! Remember there is a big difference between encouraging and demanding. - **Be supportive of your parent** even when you may disagree with your parents, your mentor will not take sides or make judgments concerning any family conflict or situation. - **Support your health and safety of** by reporting potential issues and concerns. - **Will not act as the disciplinarian** and recognize that this complicates a mentor’s role and can harm relationship-building and trust. - **Limit exchanges of gifts or money** your presence is enough! - **Develop trust** by consistently showing up, providing a listening ear and acknowledging if you need to report safety concerns. - **Act as a friend, not an all-knowing authority** Be the adult in your mentee’s life who is just there without having to fix her. Hanging out and talking is surprisingly helpful to a young person's healthy development. - **Practice active listening** Effective listening is based on respect and honesty and requires paying attention to the speaker and minimizing distractions. - **Be consistent** Mentors make a commitment to being consistent and dependable to maintaining a steady presence in the youth’s life. - **Be a role model** The best action is to lead by example. Keep your word, be responsive, be attentive and engaged. - **Let you guide the relationship** Involve the youth in deciding how the pair will spend their time together. While youth are often reluctant about expressing what they want to do, successful mentors take time to learn about the youth’s interests and provide them with options for how to spend their time, rather than planning everything without their input. - **Utilize the knowledge, advice and resources of the mentoring program staff** Successful mentors recognize that they don’t have all the answers and they value the support and guidance that program staff can provide. --- 1 Materials from New Mentor Handbook are provided with permission from Virginia Mentoring Partnership Working Through Difficult Issues Sensitive issues that come up between a mentor and mentee require different levels of response and intervention. These issues have been grouped in three categories: *Delicate Topics*, *Issues of Concern*, and *Crisis Intervention*. However, any of these issues can move up or down this continuum depending on the seriousness and the impact on the mentee or others. **Delicate Topics** Examples: - Sex - Peer Pressure - Hygiene - Behavior/Choice - School Performance - Self-image/Personal Insecurities - Identity Issues: class, cultural and sexual **Working through delicate topics with your mentor** Generally speaking, delicate topics should only be discussed when initiated by the mentee. These topics can be touchy and strongly affect the relationship. Confidentiality takes on greater importance with these topics. Although mentors should be adequately trained to deal with these issues on their own, they should be encouraged to seek support and feedback from their program coordinator and other mentors when the mentee has brought issues such as these to their attention. **Issues of Concern** Examples: - Unsafe Sex - Fighting in School - Depression - Delinquent Behavior - Gang Affiliation - Substance Abuse - Verbal Harassment: sexual, racial, bullying, others --- 2 Materials from New Mentor Handbook are provided with permission from Virginia Mentoring Partnership Working through issues of concern with your mentor Issues of concern are those that may have lifelong implications for the mentee and therefore the mentor needs to report them to the mentor program coordinator. Because these issues may be part of ongoing situations and conditions that mentees face, mentors will be trained and supported to accept these aspects of the mentees’ lives without judgment. Issues of concern impact the safety of the mentee. When safety is in jeopardy, these concerns need to be addressed by individuals who have the appropriate training to assist the mentee such as a school social worker or school counselor. It is the mentor’s responsibility to bring these concerns to the mentor program coordinator to ensure the mentee is getting guidance from a trained professional. The mentor will need to let their mentee know that the issues/concerns they are sharing are beyond the scope of their expertise and they would need to share this information with the mentor program coordinator and another adult the mentee identifies. Because these are issues that impact the safety of the mentee, confidentiality between the mentor and mentee would have to be broken. Crisis Requiring Intervention Examples: - Child abuse and neglect - Suicidal behavior or intent to harm others - Bullying; verbal and physical - Abusive relationships; sexual abuse, incest, date violence/rape - Chemical dependency - Serious delinquency/arrest - Mental illness - Physical harassment; sexual, racial Working through crises with your mentor Crises involve issues of grave concern that generally require direct and immediate intervention. Some of the issues listed, like child abuse, neglect and suicide or intent to harm others are mandated by law to report to the county/city. The other listed crises may require the mentor to let the Work of Art Program Coordinator know about what the mentee is experiencing. Mentors are never expected to handle issues such as these alone. In addition, many of these issues require collaboration with the mentee’s parent/guardian, school/community organization personnel and intervention needed who should be involved. In general, mentors are not considered mandated reporters as they are not trained in this procedure. Mentors ARE required reporters, meaning they need to take crisis issues to the Work of Art Program Coordinator who is either trained as a mandated reporter or will take it to their designee. Section III. Communication Levels of Communication A. Superficial Interaction - We offer information that could be easily revealed to a stranger. B. Small Talk - We talk about general areas of interest such as school, jobs, one’s leisure interests and activities. C. Intellectual Disclosure - We discuss issues that reveal some of our thoughts, beliefs and values. D. Personal Disclosure - We share information about personal needs, weaknesses, worries and feelings with the person with whom we are interacting. E. Uncensored Self-Disclosure - We feel freedom to reveal ourselves honestly and openly without risking loss of the relationship. Effective Communication Active Listening Active Listening is a fundamental communication skill which involves listening carefully to the words and feelings expressed by the speaker and then feeding these facts back to the speaker in such a way that he or she knows they have been understood. **Active Listening requires:** - “Listening to” rather than just hearing which takes concentration. - The listener to **reflect back the feelings he or she has heard**, focusing on the feeling underlying the message. **Active Listening includes the following techniques:** **Paraphrasing** The listener, in their own words, stated their understanding of what has been heard and asks the speaker to verify or correct this interpretation. - “Do I hear you saying…..?” - “Let me see if I understand correctly…..” - “Sounds like…” **Open Ended Questions** The listener invited the speaker to elaborate. The listener must show interest and must allow their own viewpoint or judgments to contaminate the invitation. - “Intersteting…..Give me an example.” - “What did you do in school today?” (versus “How was school today?”) **Probing** The listener raises a topic that is related to the speaker’s statement and asks the speaker to elaborate on the topic. - Mentee: “I like math. The only reason I got a D is that I can hardly hear the teacher.” - Mentor: “Have you noticed having trouble catching what other teachers are saying?” **Perception Checking** The listener also pays attention to what is not being said to reach new insights and hunches, then checks the accuracy of these with\(^3\) the speaker. - “Every time you’ve mentioned your sister today, you’ve clinched your fists and gritted your teeth. I sense a lot of anger. Are you mad at her?” **Open Body Language** The listener faces towards the speaker, arms uncrossed and displays physical signs of listening, such as head nodding, facial expressions, etc. --- \(^3\) Materials from New Mentor Handbook are provided with permission from Virginia Mentoring Partnership Practice Active Listening To Practice Active Listening: - Listen without interrupting the speaker - Concentrate on what is being said - Avoid being distracted from words or mannerisms, clothing or voice quality - Avoid letting expectations interfere with hearing what is being said - Pay attention to non-verbal cues and body language - Listen to feelings, attitudes, perceptions and values as well as facts - Be attentive to inarticulate, repetitious or slow speakers - Restate the other person’s statements to be sure they are understood - Ask the other person to repeat or clarify if needed for understanding - Wait for the other person to finish before framing a response Active Listening Responses: - Uh huh - I hear what you are saying - That makes sense - I know - I’ve felt that way too - It would be hard not to feel that way - It’s normal to think those feelings - It’s OK to feel that way - If I were you I might feel ____________ too Feelings to Reflect glad angry cheated relieved excited bored unhappy tired happy mad worried scared nervous depressed embarrassed stupid humiliated silly unsure left out Section III. Boundaries Setting Healthy Boundaries When interacting with children, there may be certain topics, questions, language or actions that make mentors feel unsure or uncomfortable. While building off of a mentor’s communication skills, it is critical to articulate boundaries in a clear way. Personal Boundaries Relate to mentor’s own level of comfort. These may vary for each individual. - Vulgar language - Discussion of personal information - Relationship status, family life, background Program Boundaries Relate to Work of Art’s program policies and rules. Even if an action does not cross a mentor’s personal boundaries, it is still necessary to follow our program policy. - Exchange of phone numbers - Exchange of social media - Contact outside of our program’s structure - Physical contact such as hugs etc. - Transportation - Photographs How to respond if boundaries are tested: - Know your personal boundaries to better recognize when they are crossed - Calmly share that the behavior, action or language makes you feel uncomfortable or disrespected. If the mentee’s behavior is overly emotional, agitated, or angry, it may be necessary to speak to them when they are calm. - In the case of sharing personal information (relationship status, family life, background) state that you would prefer to keep some information private and focus attention back on the mentee’s experiences. If a suggested activity or question violates your personal or program boundaries (such as sharing phone numbers or social media information) share that it is not allowed within the program. --- 4 Materials from New Mentor Handbook are provided with permission from Virginia Mentoring Partnership Section IV. Resources Frequently Asked Questions: Q. What is the structure of our program? We meet bi-weekly on Wednesday from 6:00 pm- 7:30 pm. Workshops are engaging and focused on character development, social-emotional growth, academic or career exploration. We also meet one Saturday a month as a program to participate in a scheduled activity. Q. What are Work of Art’s Program Goals? - Cultivate positive and healthy relationships; - Exposure to cultured experiences and enrichment field trips; - Increase social/emotional awareness; - Promote active community service; - Provide tutoring and remediation in areas of weakness; - Referral to community agencies based on areas where additional support is necessary; - Build self-esteem and reduce relational aggression among peers; - Cultivate a love for lifelong learning; - Provide quality mentor to mentee compatibility to support the individual needs of each Work of Art; - Encourage on-time graduation with post-secondary plans. Q. What is the time commitment? Outside of the planned activities, mentors are asked to meet at least 6 hours a month for a full school year (10 months). Q. What is a mentor meet up? Feedback is key to the success of our program; therefore, quarterly we will hold quarterly mentee meet-ups in which we discuss program highlights and concerns. Q. How does Work of Art evaluate programming? After each activity, mentors and mentees will receive a QR code to complete a brief survey to provide feedback on each workshop or activity. Identify Interests GOAL: To help you and your mentee get to know each other by identifying interests and activities. MATERIAL: Pen or pencil and paper. WHAT TO DO: - List about 20 different types of activities that you and your mentee enjoy doing or would like to participate in. Activities may range from watching movies, playing in a band, reading at the library, shopping, or talking on the phone with friends. Discuss with your mentee why she enjoys these activities. Share with her your own list and see if there are any in common. - Take turns answering the following questions. Identifying similar interests and hobbies the two of you share. - Favorite music - Favorite TV show or movie - Favorite sport, exercise or game - Favorite book or magazine - Subject in school you like the most - Subject in school you like the least - Favorite food, restaurants - Heroes, real life or television/movie - Place you work full/part-time - Club or groups you belong to - What you do in your free time - What you and your friends do together - What you want to do after graduating from high school - Ask your mentee to describe three good things about her. FOLLOW-UP: - Engage in one activity of common interest during the next month. - Keep a list of favorite activities in a journal and add new ones as they develop. Plan Activities GOAL: To generate ideas for activities to do with your mentor. MATERIAL: Pen or pencil, paper WHAT TO DO: With your mentor, think of activities you could do together throughout the school year. Consider the age/stage of your mentee and time spent together each month. | Month | Mentoring Activity | |---------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | September | | | October | Middle School: Make a collage of words that describe you. | | | High School: Talk about the college acceptance process. | | November | | | December | | | January is National Mentoring Month! | | | February | | | March | | | April | | | May | | | June | |
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“I took FARM STEW lessons seriously, so I no longer spend money on vegetables because I grow my own. I no longer fight with my husband for not buying certain things for our home because I can sell my eggplants at the neighborhood and buy what I don’t have. Because of FARM STEW, my children are happy and healthy. Thank you for loving us so much.” These were the words of Mrs. Irene Nassuna of Muguluka village after harvesting from her abundant garden. As reported by Joanita, FARM STEW Uganda Trainer shown above with Irene and her children. You Are Sharing the “Recipe” to Save Babies Like Jovia Like so many African babies, Jovia looks so content and secure on her mother Jennifer’s back! But all was not well. Jovia’s plump body hid the silent killer inside her, nutrient deficiencies. (Jovia’s story continues on page 2.) Jennifer, Jovia’s mom, embraced the message of FARM STEW. Our trainer, Dan Bautama (in the green) started working in her rural community in Eastern Uganda a few months ago. He first focused heavily on “Sanitation” when he realized that there were very few latrines and no handwashing stations. Kids with runny noses proved the point. Thanks to your support, when I (Joy) arrived in May, tippy-taps were everywhere and the community had made much progress. They were proud to share all that they had learned! Jennifer loved her tippy-tap so much that I featured this shot of her washing her hands on our new E-learning home page. (See page 3.) I looked at this picture so many times this summer as we diligently prepared lessons that would someday bless millions (we hope) with FARM STEW’s recipe of abundant life. YOU, dear donor, are the reason why! Jovia’s Heart Breaking Story by Joy Kauffman, FARM STEW International Founder and President I wept when I received this news from Dan last month: “Hello Madam Joy, with deep sorrow I announce the death of our beloved child from Buwambiidhi FARM STEW group. I hope you remember that child when we visited that village in the sugarcane plantation. We had come for the training today. Unfortunately, we found sad news—we are now attending the burial.” Why am I tearing up even now? Statistically, Jovia is one of the millions, yet her death was personal to our FARM STEW family and to me. After a few months of FARM STEW training in the Buwambiidhi community in Eastern Uganda, many small kitchen gardens had started to produce food. Villagers diligently cultivated the area around their homes. Sadly, much of what we taught regarding Farming, couldn’t be implemented though because the land surrounding the village was dedicated to growing sugarcane instead of growing nutrient-dense foods. Multi-year contracts from multinational companies are tempting to impoverished people but they end up losing more than they gain. That’s why our Enterprise training is so important! When I met Jennifer I was immediately concerned with her baby Jovia’s hair. The red patch spots of fuzz revealed a child that was severely malnourished. I asked Dan to help us talk about it. After learning that Jennifer was feeding Jovia mostly corn porridge, I could assume Jovia was lacking protein, iron, Vitamin C, which would help with iron absorption, and B-vitamins as well. Jennifer resisted, in part because she could not imagine that her plump little Jovia could be malnourished. “Isn’t her size indicative of my good mothering?” she seemed to wonder. We recommended that Jovia needed to go for a medical check-up, advised that Jennifer breastfeed on demand and start feeding Jovia a variety of cooked and mashed locally available foods. Dan returned shortly after and they transplanted vegetable seedlings. He focused intensely on nutrition, our Meals training. But it was too late for Jovia. Jovia got malaria and died of anemia, iron deficiency. The Bible says that “The Life of the Flesh Is In the Blood” (Leviticus 17:13) and it’s true. Without iron, your red blood cells can’t deliver oxygen to your body and your cells literally suffocate. That is what happened to Jovia. FARM STEW is designed to address the heartbreaking fact that in sub-Saharan Africa 5 children under the age of 5 die every minute. Most are nameless and their deaths will never touch our lives. But Jovia, is different. We know her story and her name. That is why we’re dedicating our E-Learning FARM STEW Basic Course to her memory. “The Life of the Flesh Is In the Blood” Anemia causes muscle weakness, extreme tiredness with no energy to work, and pale fingernails, lips, skin, and gums. The pulse is fast and breathing is difficult. The brain is very sensitive to the lack of oxygen. Anemic children often have learning difficulties and behavior problems, and anemic adults have trouble concentrating and remembering. The World Health Organization estimates that 67.6% of preschool-age children in Sub-Saharan Africa are anemic. Anyone can have anemia, but females having monthly blood loss, and children are at the highest risk. Anemia can be caused by: - malaria destroying the red blood cells - inadequate intake of iron from food - chronic diarrhea - hookworms from the soil To have healthy blood, a person must treat the worms, malaria or other diseases so the body can heal. You must get rid of the cause to cure the anemia. Then iron supplements and iron-rich foods, like high iron beans FARM STEW promotes, can restore and repair the blood. Excerpt from the FARM STEW Basic FREE E-Learning Course Your Gifts Are Taking FARM STEW Global! Because of your commitment to, and investment in, the growing FARM STEW Crew, we want you to be among the first to know that we are launching FARM STEW’s E-Learning Courses! FARM STEW® has as its mission improving the health and well-being of poor families and vulnerable people around the world. That’s a HUGE mission! How can we ever imagine accomplishing it? By training YOU and many others around the world! Asking you to share FARM STEW’s recipe of abundant life is only fair if you get the cookbook! That’s why we’ve launched two online courses, FARM STEW Mini and FARM STEW Basic. In these courses you can expect to learn the “What” and “Why” of FARM STEW. Meet Wyatt Johnston, a newly graduated botanist who was the first to complete FARM STEW Basic online. He said, “Howdy! My name is Wyatt, I am from the United States of America. I recently finished the FARM STEW Basic course which covered health, dietary needs, agriculture practices and a Christ-centered foundation. The lessons taught in the FARM STEW Basic course are simple, inexpensive and have the potential to make huge life changes! Not to mention, the lessons are easy to pass on. This empowers our brothers and sisters in impoverished situations to help themselves, rather than be recipients of constant health/agriculture aid. I plan to use and teach FARM STEW’s methods later this year in Rwanda. I am excited to put FARM STEW’s message into action and care for the least.” A silent GREEN witness! by Daniel Ibanda, Iganga Team Leader Thanks to your generosity, our mission is expanding. We’ve been able to reach more vulnerable people this year because of your gifts! Please meet 30-year-old Asuman who was born deaf and crippled. Having been abandoned by his parents at a young age, a woman named Madinah adopted him. They have shared a home in the Nasuuti village in Eastern Uganda ever since. Madinah found it difficult to meet the basic needs of the home, but that has changed due to your gifts to FARM STEW. When FARM STEW conducted training in the Nasuuti community, Asuman attended faithfully and valued each session. After a few sessions, when the FARM STEW team arrived, Asuman would always put on his own distinguishing, green shirt, showing he is part of the FARM STEW team. Even without the use of words, Asuman was able to express the impact of FARM STEW and spread the word about it through his silent witness, which often says much more than words ever could. Asuman’s quiet commitment inspired Madinah to engage more in the FARM STEW classes. Now Madinah is so glad she did. “I used to have hardship in taking care of the family – especially Asuman who is handicapped. After getting training from FARM STEW, which trains and encourages us to use locally available materials, life is now much easier for me and my family!” Casting the Vision of a FARM STEW Future There are millions of children in the world who don’t have what they need to thrive. They are not well nourished and get diseases like dysentery, pellagra, and pneumonia which prevent them from learning and growing. There are villages where people can not grow their own food. They don’t know how to be profitable farmers so they don’t cultivate their own land, now lying idle or rented out for sugar cane. There are girls that can’t go to school because they don’t have what they need to manage their monthly cycle. As a result, they do not excel in school and can not end the vicious cycle of ignorance and generational poverty. There are no “Blue Zones,” hotspots of health and longevity, in Africa because people do not know the FARM STEW recipe of abundant life and the Creator Who loves them!! Your Harvest Time in South Sudan Village women excitedly sort and dry their first-ever soybean crop! They can’t wait to make milk from their own harvest! The soybeans YOU helped to bring to South Sudan were harvested and threshed with joy by using a stick to beat the dried pods. Akop, the FARM STEW South Sudan field leader (center), enjoys a rainbow of harvest with a village family in Obbo. Thanks to YOU this family will ‘eat a rainbow’! Thank you for allowing FARM STEW steward your eternal investments!” I wrote a donor/friend recently. She replied: “Our pleasure! Thank YOU for allowing the Lord to use you in FARM STEW. It’s easy to feel helpless regarding the poverty in the world, especially in Africa, but it’s nice to be able to help support an organization that helps our brothers and sisters become more independent and healthy!” She is right. Alone, it is so easy to feel helpless. But together, with God’s help, nothing is impossible. That has been our theme this year! But God is not only using me! He is using YOU, beloved donor, and all our volunteers and staff! FARM STEW is all about the kids and communities we serve, but like God, we chose to work through people! Our greatest asset is the FARM STEW trainers who bring the recipe of abundant life to the poor families and vulnerable people our mission compels us to reach. The full-time African FARM STEW staff, 25 in total now, are some of the most amazing, dedicated and creative people I’ve ever known. Selfie with Margaret, refugee trainer, Joy and Juliet, a deaf trainer. It is YOU, precious donor, who allows them to pursue their passion. Together we can pursue our common dream to establish “Blue Zones” in Africa and serve the least of these. Thank you for making this MISSION IMPOSSIBLE! FARM STEW International trains native Africans to educate their communities through gardening, healthful cooking, improving sanitation, inspiring enterprise, obtaining clean water, and more. They conduct hands-on classes, freely sharing practical skills so that, without creating dependency, people can help themselves. Over 71,000 participants in Uganda, South Sudan, and Zimbabwe have benefited in the last four years. Learn more at www.farmstew.org **Our Priorities and Needs:** 1. **Current Program Sustainability and Impact:** Each team costs $5,000/month. 2. **Provide Freedom from Shame:** $15 per girl! We need $13,290 more this year. 3. **Improve Water Access:** Repaired Well=$2,000, New Well=$5,000/$10,000 4. **“Share the Recipe” Curriculum (E-learning)** Technology, translation, printing and skilled people cost money! You can help us take it global! 5. **Develop Organizational Partnerships** to scale up the impact of FARM STEW. We’ve been invited into new countries like Rwanda, Kenya, and even Cuba. In October 2019, we celebrate that FARM STEW trainers have been mobilized for 4 years!! As of Sept 30th, thanks to your generous giving, FARM STEW has impacted: | | Uganda | South Sudan | Zimbabwe | TOTAL | |------------------|----------|-------------|----------|----------| | Total Villages | 740 | 10 | 44 | 794 | | Total Trainings | 1,616 | 201 | 172 | 1,989 | | Total Participants| 58,819 | 9,225 | 3,391 | 71,435 | *These lives are impacted with both temporal and eternal blessings* **South Sudan Ketty Update** This year YOU have saved countless lives in South Sudan, one of the world’s most challenging places. In June, I shared with you about Baby Ketty, a 1-year-old. In our lead FARM STEW trainer Doreen’s words, “when we started visiting the villages we found Ketty in a miserable state. People had given up on her. She was at the health center waiting for her death.” But something changed when YOUR gifts made it possible for Ketty’s mom to attend a FARM STEW training. Ketty’s mom told her husband it was the “most important gift she had ever received because it was based on the Bible.” Together, Ketty’s parents decided to practice what they learned and save their baby! In September, Doreen sent the picture of Baby Ketty saying, “Our current observation is that this FARM STEW recipe makes a great difference… she improved dramatically. Now, Ketty is able to walk and is well on her way to recovery.” Ketty is one of thousands of babies whose parents’ lives have changed due to your gifts to FARM STEW! Thank you for your generosity! Refugee team in Northern Uganda Report From Culture Shock to Culture Changer Margaret Dipio, 43, fled South Sudan in 2014 and was placed in the Boroli refugee settlement in Adjumani District, Northern Uganda. It was shocking for Margaret! She was living among a multitude of people with different cultural backgrounds, as more than 42 tribes were together in the camps. Soon, Margaret recognized many different tribal perceptions regarding menstruation. One of the perceptions she encountered was that the menstruation period is a biological anomaly; hence a girl gets isolated throughout her monthly cycle. The girl is not expected to touch any utensil, let alone greet anybody. In Boroli settlement, some cultures believe that a girl in her period should have a pit in the ground equivalent to the size of her backside, over which she is expected to sit for days without bathing until her monthly cycle ends. In totality, she is regarded as dirty and worst of all if her period comes with pain, it is associated with an ancestral curse. When Margaret heard about FARM STEW, she embraced the message, knowing that it could be a great blessing. As a participant in the training, she applied all she learned with enthusiasm. She participated as a volunteer in the intensive Training of Trainers program that Joy and the FARM STEW team held in the camps in February 2019. Joy was impressed. A few months later, thanks to your generous gifts, we were able to hire Margaret full-time. “As we come together to grow vegetables, we also talk about the plight of women in our community,” Margaret said. She’s so pleased to be able to share with them the washable pads, panties, and HOPE that YOU provide through your generous gifts. Already this year 2,114 girls have benefited as part of the Sanitation effort of FARM STEW. Please help us reach our goal of 886 more. As a result, Margaret was featured in the national newspaper New Vision as a spokesperson for the new “My period, My voice” partnership between AFRIpads, Luna Pads, and FARM STEW. Giving Gives Back You can share the FARM STEW recipe of abundant life in many ways! Live your values and set an example for others by remembering FARM STEW in your will, trust or other planned gift. No other gift has a more lasting impact! A planned gift also offers you many potential advantages, including federal estate tax savings, the elimination or reduction of capital gains taxes, and the opportunity to increase spendable income. You can self-direct your legacy and avoid significant “hidden taxes” on tax deferred savings by exploring your options for planned giving today! You don’t have to feel wealthy to be a blessing to FARM STEW! Here’s how one member in our Legacy Society managed to be a blessing! “I believe in furthering God’s work through FARM STEW. However, I needed a dependable source of retirement income. A Charitable Gift Annuity provides the solution for both. Furthermore, I receive a federal income tax charitable deduction when I itemize. Finally, after my death, the remaining amount will be used to support the FARM STEW mission.” Mike Petri, Minonk, IL If you are interested, please call Cherri at 815-878-4897.
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English Language Education Key Learning Area Literature in English Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 - 6) Jointly prepared by the Curriculum Development Council and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority Published for use in schools by the Education Bureau HKSARG 2023 Effective from Secondary 4 in the 2023/24 school year # Contents **Preamble** i **Acronym** ii **Chapter 1 Introduction** 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Rationale 2 1.3 Curriculum Aims 2 1.4 Interface with the Junior Secondary Curriculum and Post-secondary Pathways 3 1.5 Cross-curricular Links 3 **Chapter 2 Curriculum Framework** 4 2.1 Design Principles 4 2.2 Curriculum Structure and Organisation 4 2.3 Strands and Learning Targets 6 *Knowledge of Literary Forms and Conventions* 6 *Appreciation and Response* 6 *Language Enhancement* 7 2.4 Learning Objectives 7 2.5 Broad Learning Outcomes 10 **Chapter 3 Curriculum Planning** 12 3.1 Guiding Principles 12 3.2 Central Curriculum and School Curriculum Development 13 3.3 Curriculum Planning Strategies 14 3.3.1 Integrating Classroom Learning and Independent Learning 14 3.3.2 Maximising Learning Opportunities 14 3.3.3 Catering for Learner Diversity 15 3.3.4 Cross-curricular Planning 15 3.3.5 Building a Learning Community 15 3.3.6 Flexible Class Organisation 15 3.3.7 Flexible Use of Learning Time 16 3.4 Collaboration within the English Language Education KLA and Cross KLA Links 16 3.4.1 Collaboration within the English Language Education KLA 16 3.4.2 Collaboration with Other KLAs 17 3.5 Progression 17 | Chapter | Title | Page | |---------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | 3 | Managing the Curriculum | 18 | | 4 | Learning and Teaching | 21 | | | 4.1 Knowledge and Learning | 21 | | | 4.2 Guiding Principles | 22 | | | 4.3 Approaches and Strategies | 23 | | | 4.3.1 Prose Fiction (the short story and novel) | 25 | | | 4.3.2 Poetry | 34 | | | 4.3.3 Drama | 42 | | | 4.3.4 Film | 45 | | | 4.3.5 Literary Appreciation | 52 | | | 4.3.6 Schools of Literary Criticism | 70 | | | 4.3.7 Assessment for Learning | 72 | | | 4.4 Quality Interaction | 72 | | | 4.5 A Learning Community | 73 | | | 4.6 Catering for Learner Diversity | 74 | | | 4.6.1 General Considerations | 74 | | | 4.6.2 Working with Students of Different Levels | 75 | | | 4.7 Meaningful Assignments | 76 | | 5 | Assessment | 77 | | | 5.1 The Roles of Assessment | 77 | | | 5.2 Formative and Summative Assessment | 77 | | | 5.3 Assessment Objectives | 79 | | | 5.4 Internal Assessment | 79 | | | 5.4.1 Guiding Principles | 79 | | | 5.4.2 Internal Assessment Practices | 81 | | | 5.5 Public Assessment | 82 | | | 5.5.1 Guiding Principles | 82 | | | 5.5.2 Assessment Design | 83 | | | 5.5.3 Public Examinations | 84 | | | 5.5.4 School-based Assessment (SBA) | 84 | | | 5.5.5 Standards and Reporting of Results | 86 | | 6 | Effective Use of Learning and Teaching Resources | 88 | | | 6.1 Purpose and Function of Learning and Teaching Resources | 88 | | | 6.2 Guiding Principles | 88 | | | 6.3 Types of Resources | 88 | | | 6.3.1 Set Texts | 88 | | | 6.3.2 Other Resource Materials | 89 | | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | 6.3.3 EDB Resource Materials in Support of the Curriculum Development | 89 | | 6.3.4 The Internet and Other Technologies | 90 | | 6.3.5 Community Resources | 90 | | 6.4 Flexible Use of Learning and Teaching Resources | 91 | | 6.5 Resource Management | 92 | | Appendices | 93 | | A Sample List of Set Texts | 93 | | Examples of Poetry Analysis | 94 | | Examples of Analysis of Prose Texts | 100 | | Preparing for the Public Examination | 108 | | Choosing Works to Encourage Wider Reading and Viewing | 136 | | Glossary | 140 | | Membership of the CDC-HKEAA Committee on Literature in English | 147 | Preamble This Curriculum and Assessment (C&A) Guide, jointly prepared by the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) in 2023, is based on the goals of senior secondary education and on other official curriculum and assessment documents, including the *English Language Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 6)* and the *Secondary Education Curriculum Guide* (2017) and its supplementary notes (2021). It is published for use in secondary schools and should be read in conjunction with all related documents. The CDC is an advisory body that gives recommendations to the Government of the HKSAR on all matters relating to curriculum development for the school system from the kindergarten level to the senior secondary level. Its membership includes heads of schools, practising teachers, parents, employers, academics from tertiary institutions, professionals from related fields/bodies, representatives from the HKEAA and the Vocational Training Council, as well as officers from the Education Bureau. The HKEAA is an independent statutory body responsible for the conduct of public assessment, including the assessment for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE). Its governing council includes members drawn from the school sector, tertiary institutions and government bodies, as well as professionals and members of the business community. The subject curriculum forms the basis of the assessment designed and administered by the HKEAA. In this connection, the HKEAA will issue a handbook to provide information on the rules and regulations of the HKDSE Examination as well as the structure and format of public assessment for each subject. The CDC and HKEAA will keep the subject curriculum under constant review and evaluation in the light of classroom experiences, students’ performance in the public assessment, and the changing needs of students and society. All comments and suggestions on this C&A Guide may be sent to: English Language Education Section Curriculum Development Institute Education Bureau Room 1206, Wu Chung House 213 Queen’s Road East Wanchai, Hong Kong Fax: 2834 7810 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org | Acronym | Description | |---------|-------------| | AI | Artificial Intelligence | | C&A | Curriculum and Assessment | | CDC | Curriculum Development Council | | EDB | Education Bureau | | HKDSE | Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education | | HKEAA | Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority | | HKSAR | Hong Kong Special Administrative Region | | IL | Information Literacy | | IT | Information Technology | | KLA | Key Learning Area | | S1/2/3/4/5/6 | Secondary 1/2/3/4/5/6 | | SBA | School-based Assessment | | VTC | Vocational Training Council | Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter provides the background, rationale and aims of Literature in English, as part of the English Language Education curriculum and an elective subject in the three-year senior secondary curriculum, and highlights how it articulates with the junior secondary curriculum, post-secondary education, and future career pathways. 1.1 Background The *Literature in English Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 – 6)* was first published in 2007. It was then updated in January 2014 and November 2015 in response to the recommendations made in the Short-term Review and the Medium-term Review in 2012 and 2014 respectively to fine-tune the senior secondary Literature in English curriculum and assessment. In 2017, the *English Language Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 6)* and *Secondary Education Curriculum Guide* were released to provide further information and updates on the direction for the development of the English Language Education curriculum. In the same year, the Task Force on Review of School Curriculum (Task Force) was set up to holistically review the primary and secondary curricula. Upon completion of the review, recommendations were set out in the report entitled “Optimise the curriculum for the future, Foster whole-person development and diverse talents” for the relevant committees under the Curriculum Development Council and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority to formulate measures to create space for students and cater for learner diversity. With the optimisation of the four senior secondary core subjects announced in Education Bureau Circular Memorandum No.39/2021 “Measures to Optimise the Four Senior Secondary Core Subjects”, the curriculum and assessment of the elective subjects, including Literature in English, were also reviewed along the same directions to formulate measures to create space for students and cater for learner diversity. This Guide was updated to incorporate the directions set out in the aforesaid curriculum guides, the review report and the optimising measures for Literature in English. The *Literature in English Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 – 6)* (2023) delineates the aims, learning targets and objectives of the subject. It also provides guidelines, suggestions and examples to promote effective learning, teaching and assessment practices, and to help schools and teachers plan, develop and implement their school Literature in English curriculum. For a more comprehensive understanding of the English Language Education curriculum, this Guide could be read in conjunction with the *English Language Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 6)* (2017). 1.2 Rationale The rationale for studying Literature in English as an elective subject at the senior secondary level is presented below: - It helps students develop a humanistic outlook on life. Through a close interaction with literary or creative works which portray a diverse range of human thought, emotion and experience, students gain knowledge and understanding of the nature of human existence and of the world and the society in which they live. - Representing the human situation through a creative use of language, literary or creative texts can offer students much aesthetic, intellectual and emotional pleasure. - The study of Literature in English has many practical aspects. - It provides ample opportunities for students to develop their creativity, sharpen their critical and analytical skills, and enhance their language proficiency. - It broadens their awareness of the culture of different places where English is used, and enhances their appreciation and understanding of Hong Kong as a culturally diverse society. - The intellectual, aesthetic and emotional qualities, which students develop through studying Literature in English, prepare them for further study or work, particularly in areas such as publishing and the media, where creativity, critical thinking and intercultural understanding are highly valued. 1.3 Curriculum Aims The aims of the Literature in English curriculum are to enable students to: - appreciate and enjoy a wide range of literary or creative texts and other related cultural forms; - develop their capacity for critical thinking, creativity, self-expression, personal growth, empathy and cultural understanding; - enhance their awareness of the relationship between literature and society; - develop a greater sensitivity to the nuances of the English language; and - be adequately prepared for areas of further study or work, where qualities promoted in the study of literature, such as creativity, critical thinking and inter-cultural understanding, are highly valued. 1.4 Interface with the Junior Secondary Curriculum and Post-secondary Pathways The senior secondary Literature in English curriculum aims to capitalise on students’ learning of English at the junior secondary level to further enhance their language proficiency and develop their critical abilities, aesthetic sensitivity and cultural awareness. To enable students to effectively meet the challenges of the senior secondary Literature in English curriculum, a solid foundation of knowledge and skills in English Language has to be laid at the junior secondary level. Schools are encouraged to: - promote a culture of reading among students, by exposing them to a wide spectrum of language arts materials, including imaginative or literary texts (e.g. poems, songs, plays, short stories, films); and - enhance the learning of English in the Experience Strand through the use of language arts materials to help students develop a range of knowledge, skills and qualities critical for the study of Literature in English, including: - an enjoyment of reading; - increased awareness and appreciation of literature as a subject; - knowledge of the features of various literary genres such as prose, poetry and drama; - reasoning, analytical and critical skills; - sensitivity to the use of the English language; and - creativity and the power to express informed and imaginative views and responses. By broadening and enriching students’ knowledge, skills and experience, the senior secondary Literature in English curriculum also provides a firm foundation for further study, vocational training or work. It opens up a variety of post-secondary education and career pathways, particularly in the areas of media production, performing arts, teaching, law and social sciences. Literature in English teachers are encouraged to work with the career guidance team to help students explore further education and career pathways to inform their life planning. 1.5 Cross-curricular Links Teachers need to foster coherence between Literature in English and English Language, as well as other subjects, through cross-curricular collaboration. Such a vision is rooted in the belief that students should explore knowledge and gain experience in a more integrated manner. When they are able to make connections among ideas and concepts, their motivation will be raised. Likewise, the knowledge they acquire, and the skills and positive attitudes they develop in each key learning area (KLA), will also be enhanced. For details about how cross-curricular collaboration can be achieved through curriculum planning and development in Literature in English, please refer to Sections 3.3.4 and 3.4.2. Chapter 2 Curriculum Framework The curriculum framework for Literature in English embodies the key knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that students should develop at the senior secondary level. It forms the basis on which schools and teachers can plan their school curriculum, and design appropriate learning, teaching and assessment activities. 2.1 Design Principles The design of the senior secondary Literature in English curriculum is founded on the following principles, which are in line with those recommended in the Secondary Education Curriculum Guide (2017): - Aligning with the Seven Learning Goals of Secondary Education, which covers “National and Global Identity”, “Breadth of Knowledge”, “Language Proficiency”, “Generic Skills”, Information Literacy”, “Life Planning” and “Healthy Lifestyle” [For details, please refer to Booklet 2 of the Secondary Education Curriculum Guide (2017)]; - Building on the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that students have developed through the English Language curriculum for basic education from P1 to S3; - Achieving a balance between breadth and depth in the study of the subject to facilitate articulation to further study/vocational training, or entry into the workforce; - Achieving a balance between theoretical and applied learning, by giving emphasis to students’ ability to demonstrate knowledge of literary texts and apply critical and analytical skills and creativity in literary appreciation and personal responses; - Providing a balanced and flexible curriculum to cater for students’ diverse needs, interests and abilities; - Promoting independent and lifelong learning through developing students’ learning how to learn skills and encouraging student-centred pedagogical approaches involving inquiry and problem-solving; - Setting out a framework for progression to facilitate school curriculum planning; - Fostering greater coherence between Literature in English and the other subjects through encouraging cross-curricular collaboration; and - Ensuring close alignment between curriculum and assessment. 2.2 Curriculum Structure and Organisation The curriculum framework for Literature in English provides the overall structure for organising learning and teaching for the subject. It comprises a set of interlocking components including: • subject knowledge and skills, which are expressed in the form of learning targets in the Strands of Knowledge of Literary Forms and Conventions, Appreciation and Response, and Language Enhancement, as well as learning objectives; • generic skills; and • positive values and attitudes. The framework sets out what students should know, value and be able to do in the study of Literature in English at the senior secondary level. It gives schools and teachers flexibility and ownership to plan and develop alternative curriculum modes to meet their varied needs. Figure 2.1 on the following page is a diagrammatic representation highlighting the major components of the Literature in English curriculum framework. **Figure 2.1 Diagrammatic Representation of the Literature in English Curriculum Framework** **The Literature in English Curriculum** provides students with learning experiences to appreciate and enjoy literature, encourage self-expression and creativity, enhance their critical and analytical skills, improve their competence in the use of English, develop their cultural understanding as well as positive values and attitudes conducive to lifelong learning, and prepare them for further study or work. **Strands** Strands highlight the major purposes for which Literature in English is learned in Hong Kong and are used to organise learning content and activities for developing students’ knowledge (general and linguistic), skills (language, communication and learning how to learn), values and attitudes as a holistic process Flexible and diversified modes of curriculum planning + Effective learning, teaching and assessment Overall Aims and Learning Targets of Literature in English and the Seven Learning Goals of Secondary Education Literature in English, as an elective subject, accounts for about 10% of the total lesson time* in the senior secondary curriculum. Lesson time should be allocated according to students’ needs with due consideration of their strengths and weaknesses. Equal emphasis should be placed on the various genres of prose, poetry, drama and film that students are required to study in the subject, and sufficient time should be allocated for initiating desired responses from students and providing advice and support on portfolio work and other related learning activities. The following is a suggested time allocation for the Literature in English curriculum: | | Percentage of lesson time | |--------------------------------|---------------------------| | Study of Set Texts | 55% | | Literary Appreciation | 25% | | Portfolio (Group work/Individual tutorials) | 20% | ### 2.3 Strands and Learning Targets Strands are categories for organising the curriculum. In Literature in English, three interrelated Strands – Knowledge of Literary Forms and Conventions, Appreciation and Response and Language Enhancement – are employed as content organisers. They define the major targets or purposes of studying literature, as listed below: **Knowledge of Literary Forms and Conventions** - To recognise the major features of literary or creative forms such as prose, poetry, drama and film - To understand literary terms and concepts and to apply them appropriately in appreciating, discussing and evaluating literary or creative texts **Appreciation and Response** - To develop one’s critical and interpretative abilities through understanding and appreciating literary or creative texts --- * Starting from Secondary 4 in the 2021/22 school year, the four senior secondary core subjects are optimised to release lesson time for flexible arrangements to cater for learner diversity. Under the optimising arrangements, it is recommended that the four senior secondary core subjects take up no more than half of the total lesson time, while the elective subjects (including Applied Learning and Other Languages) should take up no less than 20% of the total lesson time and Other Learning Experiences (OLE) no less than 10%. For more information, please refer to the Supplementary Notes to the Secondary Education Curriculum Guide (2017). As always, the amount of time spent in learning and teaching is governed by a variety of factors, including whole-school curriculum planning, students’ abilities and needs, students’ prior knowledge, teaching and assessment strategies, teaching styles and the number of subjects offered. Schools should exercise professional judgement and flexibility over time allocation to achieve specific curriculum aims and objectives as well as to suit students’ specific needs and the school context. • To develop informed, personal response and judgement through interacting closely with literary or creative texts and relating them to one’s own experience • To enhance one’s cultural understanding through appreciating the interconnections within and between texts and developing an increased awareness of the relationship between literature and society • To develop creativity and powers of self-expression through producing works of different literary genres including prose, poetry and drama **Language Enhancement** • To enhance one’s language skills as well as vocabulary through studying and viewing a wide range of literary or creative texts • To develop awareness of subtleties of language and of register and appropriateness through close interaction with a variety of literary or creative texts • To gain greater awareness of the phonological system of English through appreciation and use of literary sound devices ### 2.4 Learning Objectives The Literature in English curriculum comprises learning objectives or focuses, which embody the essential content of learning for the subject. They include: **Subject Knowledge and Skills** **Knowledge of Literary or Creative Works** The key learning objective or focus of the curriculum is to examine literary or creative works in the genres of prose, poetry, drama and film. Examples of the sort of texts that students of literature will engage with are provided in Appendix 1. Through exploring these texts, students are encouraged to achieve a range of other objectives, including the skills of literary comprehension and appreciation, and literary competence development strategies, as listed below. **Skills of Literary Comprehension and Appreciation** These include skills in: • examining and discussing form and content, showing: – comprehension of the thoughts and feelings conveyed in the texts; – analytical and critical appreciation of the language, technique and style through which these thoughts and feelings are expressed (such as the use of tone and irony); • comparing and contrasting literary or creative texts in terms of themes, characterisation, language, technique and style; • expressing feelings and ideas in response to literary and creative texts freely and imaginatively; • making connections between literary or creative texts and other cultural media (such as paintings, sculpture and photography) and/or issues of importance in society; • applying some of the techniques learned to one’s own creative work; • developing an interest in following up references and allusions; and • understanding that text interpretation is influenced by the dynamic interplay between text, context and the reader’s background knowledge. **Literary Competence Development Strategies** To facilitate literary comprehension and appreciation, students are encouraged to develop the following sub-skills: - **Information skills** - planning and using different sources, including electronic sources, to search for and select required information (e.g. on writers, contexts, and the cultural or social background of literary or creative texts) - exploring, developing and exchanging information to derive new ideas - presenting ideas or information, making use of different computer software and incorporating visuals/images to enhance effectiveness - **Working with others** - communicating ideas about literary or creative texts clearly and precisely - negotiating the possible meanings of literary or creative texts - discussing and debating literary or creative works, expressing one’s critical analyses, personal views or responses - planning and producing a group presentation/performance/creative work, agreeing on tasks, responsibilities and working arrangements - reviewing group or individual presentation/performance/creative work and reflecting on ways to enhance collaborative work or make improvements - **Developing reflective thinking and self-motivation** - planning, managing and evaluating one’s own learning - planning one’s personal reading of texts, possibly beyond the set texts, prioritising actions and managing time effectively - seeking or creating opportunities to broaden and deepen one’s own learning by soliciting feedback and support from various sources - reviewing progress and identifying actions for improving performance **Generic Skills** Generic skills enable students to learn how to learn. They include: | Basic Skills | Thinking Skills | Personal and Social Skills | |--------------------|--------------------------|----------------------------| | Communication Skills | Critical Thinking Skills | Self-management Skills | | Mathematical Skills | Creativity | Self-learning Skills | | IT Skills | Problem Solving Skills | Collaboration Skills | These skills are to be developed through learning and teaching in all the KLAs. To a large extent, they are embedded in the curriculum content of Literature in English. Collaboration, communication, creativity, critical thinking, problem solving and self-learning skills are in particular nurtured through its delivery. **Values and Attitudes** Values underpin our conduct and decisions. Attitudes are personal dispositions, which may affect our behaviour positively or negatively. Students need to develop positive attitudes such as responsibility, open-mindedness and co-operativeness for healthy development. Among all values and attitudes, perseverance, respect for others, responsibility, national identity, commitment, integrity, care for others, law-abidingness, empathy and diligence have been identified as the ten priority values and attitudes. Literature in English, in particular, aims to help students: - gain pleasure and enjoyment from reading and viewing literary or creative works; - develop a keen interest in reading and viewing literary or creative works and in responding to them through oral, written and performative means; - appreciate the beauty, flexibility and play of language at its best; - empathise with others; - gain increased awareness of human relationships and the interaction between the individual and society; - appreciate different cultures, attitudes and belief systems; - develop respect for intellectual property through ethical and lawful use of copyright materials (e.g. films, books, music); and - understand the value of academic integrity and honesty. Information Literacy As an important competency, information literacy (IL) helps students identify the need for information; locate, evaluate, extract, organise and present information; create new ideas; cope with the dynamics in our information world; use information ethically as well as refrain from immoral practices such as cyber bullying and infringing intellectual property rights. IL can be developed through the application of the generic skills in the context of handling information in different media in our information world. This also involves various knowledge contexts and has close linkage with Literature in English. Schools can make reference to the “Information Literacy for Hong Kong Students” learning framework for suggestions on how to develop students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes to use information and information technology effectively, ethically and legally as responsible citizens and lifelong learners. Incorporation of IL in the Literature in English curriculum will provide an authentic context for students to apply the skills and benefit the learning of the subject. The framework can be accessed at https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/edu-system/primary-secondary/applicable-to-primary-secondary/it-in-edu/Information-Literacy/IL20180516E.pdf. 2.5 Broad Learning Outcomes The following broad learning outcomes provide an overall picture of what students should be able to do in their study of Literature in English by the end of S6. They form the basis on which the assessment objectives for Literature in English at the senior secondary level presented in Chapter 5 – Assessment are built. Knowledge of Literary Forms and Conventions - demonstrate understanding of literary terms, techniques and concepts by using them appropriately in critical discussions or analyses - demonstrate an awareness of the conventions of different genres in critical discussions and analyses Appreciation and Response - demonstrate a greater knowledge of the rich variety of literature in English through discussing the works they have read or viewed - demonstrate understanding of the different aspects of literary and creative texts through critical analyses and projects done individually or in groups - demonstrate an understanding that text interpretation is influenced by the interplay between text, context and the reader • express personal responses to texts by articulating and elaborating feelings and emotions, or by other means such as producing imaginative expansions of texts • express with confidence ideas and feelings through the production of short creative texts and participation in performance **Language Enhancement** • show a greater sensitivity to language by being able to comment on it in detail in critical discussions or analyses • show a greater command of the phonology of English by being able to discuss how sound patterns are used to enhance literary effect, and to apply this knowledge in their own creative work • gain an expanded vocabulary and deepened understanding of grammar by means of wide-ranging reading and viewing, and apply some of the literary language they have learned appropriately in critical and creative writing Chapter 3 Curriculum Planning This chapter provides guidelines to help schools and teachers develop a flexible and balanced curriculum that suits the needs, interests and abilities of their students and the context of their school, in accordance with the central framework provided in Chapter 2. 3.1 Guiding Principles The Literature in English curriculum allows for flexibility and innovation in curriculum planning. The choice as to which skills and areas of the curriculum to highlight, and the freedom to choose very different types of text, allow for considerable diversity in the planning and development of school curricula tailored to different situations and groups of students. When planning and developing their own Literature in English curricula, schools and teachers are encouraged to: - aim for a balanced and comprehensive coverage of the learning targets and objectives, ensuring that the learning activities offered to students help them develop equally in terms of Knowledge of Literary Forms and Conventions, Appreciation and Response, and Language Enhancement, rather than focus on any one of these strands at the expense of the others; - address the Seven Learning Goals of Secondary Education and incorporate other curriculum initiatives (e.g. values education, Language across the curriculum), where appropriate, in the curriculum; - plan and devise appropriate and stimulating learning materials, activities, tasks and projects to develop students’ literary skills, creativity, language proficiency, critical thinking skills, strategies for learning how to learn, and positive values and attitudes conducive to lifelong learning; - set and work on clear and manageable goals or focuses (e.g. aesthetic enjoyment, enhanced reading skills and improved communication skills) for those taking the subject at different levels over a specific period; - work closely together as a team to plan the literature curriculum, to develop suitable learning materials and activities, and collaborate with teachers of other KLAs on cross-curricular projects; - find literary texts of interest and value to students; - make flexible use of time released from the optimisation to facilitate more focused learning and teaching, in-depth discussion of literary texts and self-expression through engaging students in creative writing; - provide opportunities for students to extend learning beyond the classroom (e.g. students research and project work, participating in literary events and competitions) to make effective use of learning time and develop students’ self-directed learning skills; - collect and reflect on evidence of effective learning and teaching to inform curriculum development; • make extensive use of formative assessment (drafts, projects, creative work and portfolios) • to inform learning and teaching, and avoid over-reliance on formal tests; and • review and plan the curriculum flexibly and make appropriate re-adjustments where necessary, taking into account the School-based Assessment (SBA) implementation arrangements as specified in Chapter 5 – Assessment. 3.2 Central Curriculum and School Curriculum Development This C&A Guide sets the general direction for the learning and teaching of Literature in English from S4 to S6. It provides a flexible framework, supportive of the following key learning elements that schools are encouraged to include in their curriculum to help students achieve the Seven Learning Goals of Secondary Education and the subject goal of lifelong aesthetic enjoyment of literary texts and lifelong enhancement of language skills: • subject knowledge and skills, as embodied in the learning targets in the Strands of Knowledge of Literary Forms and Conventions, Appreciation and Response, and Language Enhancement; • generic skills; and • positive values and attitudes. Schools are encouraged to promote the study of Literature in English and do so in such a way as to stimulate creativity, and to make use of formative assessment to provide timely feedback which can be used to assist students and improve teaching strategies and text choices. Given the wide scope of the subject, the number of different possible focuses (e.g. thematic or stylistic) and the huge range of texts, covering centuries and continents, schools have plenty of scope for choice, including trying out innovative curriculum practices and experimenting with different approaches to the teaching of literature. The Literature in English curriculum can be flexibly adapted to support the promotion of the Seven Learning Goals of Secondary Education. While the subject readily lends itself to the achievement of some of the goals, such as “Breadth of Knowledge”, “Language Proficiency” and “Generic Skills”, it can also be used to achieve the other Learning Goals, for example: • For the goals of “National and Global Identity” and “Life Planning”, appropriate literary texts on themes such as “cultural identity”, “home and homeland”, “personal goals and aspirations” can be selected for discussion. Opportunities for creative writing on these themes can also be provided to deepen students’ understanding of and encourage reflections on them. • For the goal of “Information Literacy”, students can be guided to use information and information technology ethically and effectively through portfolio work. • For “Healthy Lifestyle”, aesthetic activities, such as visits to theatre productions, can be organised to provide opportunities for appreciation of the arts. In fact, Literature in English can be used to promote different whole-school initiatives and enliven the school curriculum with its unique features. It is hoped that Literature in English will not be seen as a difficult body of knowledge, or an arcane skill, but as a means of providing direct engagement with language, symbol and story in order to explore the world and humanity with their infinite possibilities, and as a way of enriching our lives. 3.3 Curriculum Planning Strategies 3.3.1 Integrating Classroom Learning and Independent Learning Learning is most effective when students play an active role in the learning process and take charge of their own learning. To encourage learner autonomy, teachers should: - give students choices about what to read, watch and write as part of the course; - encourage students to bring texts to the classroom to share; - respect students’ wishes in relation to project work; - guide students to use IT legally, sensibly and responsibly; - provide opportunities for students to critically review the accuracy and reliability of the information collected; - allow students to express their likes and dislikes, teaching them how to articulate views sensibly; - encourage self-assessment and peer feedback; and - encourage self-expression. 3.3.2 Maximising Learning Opportunities Learning should not be confined to the classroom. With the optimisation of the curriculum and assessment of this subject, schools should make the best use of the space created to maximise opportunities for pleasurable and meaningful learning and cater for learner diversity: - encourage wide reading and organise reading clubs; - provide opportunities for creative writing; - arrange visits to libraries; - invite writers to give talks; - take students to the cinema; - arrange visits to the theatre; - stage plays; - subscribe to film magazines and literary journals; - participate in Speech Festivals and writing competitions; - provide individual or small group consultation to better cater for individual needs; and - join workshops on poetry, drama, etc. conducted by relevant organisations. 3.3.3 Catering for Learner Diversity All students have ever-improving capabilities to learn and perform to the best of their abilities. In planning for the Literature in English curriculum, schools should be sensitive to different students’ needs and make use of strategies that will enable them to learn better and fulfil their potential. Schools may consider using a variety of learning materials, activities and instructional/grouping arrangements, and appropriately adapting the curriculum to suit their students’ needs, interests and abilities. For more details about catering for learner diversity, please refer to Section 4.6. 3.3.4 Cross-curricular Planning The senior secondary Literature in English curriculum recognises the value and importance of encouraging a cross-curricular approach to the study of the subject, as detailed in Section 1.5 “Cross-curricular Links”. To develop cross-curricular learning modules, teachers can: - collaborate with teachers of other KLAs to set realistic goals and draw up a plan or schedule of work, and to develop and evaluate the learning, teaching and assessment materials and activities; - provide students with opportunities to develop a broad range of generic skills that they can apply in other KLAs, such as study skills and critical thinking skills; and - reinforce students’ learning experiences by encouraging them to read about and discuss topics they are working on in other KLAs as part of their Literature in English programme. See also Section 3.4.2 “Collaboration with Other KLAs”. 3.3.5 Building a Learning Community Teachers should help establish a learning community where teachers and students work and learn together. Through maintaining a close and informal relationship with the students, displaying a personal interest and a caring attitude, teachers foster a trusting environment conducive to the free exchange of ideas – one in which students actively engage in learning, participation, collaboration, knowledge-building, problem-solving and shared decision-making. 3.3.6 Flexible Class Organisation Teachers should exercise flexibility in organising the class for different learning activities. Depending on their nature and purpose, learning and teaching activities can be carried out in groups of varying sizes. It is preferable to have a flexible space for students to discuss points and share texts in small groups, research from books and the Internet, hold individual or group conferences with the teacher on their latest projects, work on designs for plays, etc. Some students might work outside the classroom space, rehearsing scenes, practising recitations or filming. Where possible, literature lessons should be timetabled in special rooms using the range of resources and staff available to facilitate collaborative learning and the sharing of ideas among more people. 3.3.7 Flexible Use of Learning Time As mentioned in Chapter 2, schools can allocate about 10% of the total lesson time to Literature in English at the senior secondary level. However, learning time include not only lesson time (teacher-student contact hours in classroom settings), but also time outside class at school (such as recess, lunch breaks, after-school time, open days, examination days) and time spent outside school including holidays. Schools should, therefore, holistically plan and arrange students’ learning time so as to develop their self-directed learning skills. In addition to the time allocated for instructional lectures, discussions, group work, etc. to be conducted with the teacher and students together, a significant amount of studying and learning should also take place outside the classroom, e.g. reading texts, viewing films, and undertaking course work and other activities. Schools are strongly encouraged to make flexible use of the learning time during and outside school hours to facilitate learning and teaching. Schools can: - arrange for double periods per week or cycle to allow continuous stretches of time for learning and assessment tasks, including those for SBA, discussions, projects, etc.; - in addition to the regular Literature in English lessons, set aside a short, regular period of time per day for reading to help students develop lifelong reading skills; and - plan their timetables and school calendars flexibly (e.g. adjust the number and arrangement of lessons in each term to cater for the special requirements of the learning programmes, and explore the use of after-school hours or holidays to encourage life-wide learning, such as watching a stage performance). 3.4 Collaboration within the English Language Education KLA and Cross KLA Links 3.4.1 Collaboration within the English Language Education KLA It is desirable that the teachers of English Language and Literature in English are kept fully aware of what each other is doing to avoid duplication of effort and enable students to make use of what they have learned in one class to support their learning in another. For example, work on rhyme might occur at the same time as work on the language of advertising in the English lessons. Ideas and materials from literature classes can also be used in the English curriculum for those who are not studying Literature in English. The boundaries between the two subjects are porous. 3.4.2 Collaboration with Other KLAs There are ample opportunities for co-operation with other subjects, which teachers are encouraged to explore. For instance, many of the literary techniques in Literature in English are transferable to the study of Chinese Language and Literature, and knowledge gained from the study of drama and film will facilitate the learning of filming and theatre arts in Applied Learning, as well as the discussion and critique of artworks in Visual Arts. Also, works of literature that relate to the topics being covered in the History classroom can easily be selected. Literature may not mesh well with the technical side of the sciences, but there is a great body of work on the lives of scientists, achievement in science and the moral dilemmas presented by scientific work that can be exploited for critical analysis and interpretation (e.g. the films *Good Will Hunting*, directed by G. van Sant, 1997; *Gattaca*, directed by A. Niccol, 1997; *October Sky*, directed by J. Johnston, 1999; *A Beautiful Mind*, directed by R. Howard, 2001; *Proof*, directed by J. Madden, 2005). Literature in English can work in collaboration with other subjects to support whole-school initiatives such as values education. Appropriate literary texts could be chosen to highlight selected and values (e.g. empathy, care, respect), thereby deepening students’ understanding and reflections on them. Literature in English can play a role in supporting cross-curricular learning, capitalising on the unique features of the subject (e.g. extensive reading and viewing, interaction with literary works and cultural texts). 3.5 Progression Generally speaking, equal emphasis should be placed on the genres of prose, poetry, drama and film, and sufficient time should be allocated for developing skills in critical appreciation and for initiating personal responses from students. In accordance with the recommendations in the *Secondary Education Curriculum Guide* (2017) that the curriculum should be designed to help students progress smoothly through the three years of senior secondary education, a teaching schedule is proposed below. In S4, students are introduced to the literary forms of short story, poetry and drama through examining selected set texts from each of these genres. In S5, while students may continue to explore some of these forms, they will also start reading the set novel and working on the portfolio, as well as doing literary appreciation of both seen and unseen passages of prose, poetry and drama. In S6, students will continue examining the set texts they have not yet completed in S5. In addition to literary appreciation, they will also work extensively on the film genre for the development of their portfolio work for the SBA. For details of the SBA, please refer to Section 5.5.4. The following table provides suggestions on how the teaching of the subject could be done: | Year | Contents | |------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------| | S4 | Set texts from short stories, poetry and drama | | S5 | Set poems, short stories and novel, literary appreciation and portfolio work on film | | S6 | Set novel, literary appreciation and portfolio work on film | The suggested schedule is developed on the basis that students are first introduced to the literary genres they are more familiar with (i.e. those which they have been exposed to at the junior secondary level, such as the short story, poetry and drama). Progressively they examine the “relatively less familiar” genres (such as film) and take on more challenging learning tasks of literary appreciation and developing an academic paper as part of the portfolio work. However, the suggested schedule is not a hard-and-fast rule to be rigidly followed. Important factors such as students’ interests and abilities, and teachers’ preferences and priorities, should be taken into consideration in working out the most appropriate arrangement for individual schools. ### 3.6 Managing the Curriculum To manage the Literature in English curriculum effectively, the school head, the panel chairperson and the teachers of Literature in English need to collaborate. When doing so, they are encouraged to remember the importance of: - keeping abreast of the latest developments and innovations in the secondary school curriculum and Literature in English curriculum, and aligning learning in Literature in English with the school vision and culture, the school curriculum and the central curriculum framework; - developing a school policy for Literature in English in response to the Seven Learning Goals of Secondary Education as well as students’ needs and interests; - encouraging team-building and collaboration between teachers of Literature in English, and between teachers of Literature in English and teachers of English Language and other KLAs; - creating time for professional development; - promoting flexible deployment and use of resources; and - encouraging assessment for learning and using evidence to make informed changes to the curriculum. School heads, panel chairpersons and teachers all share the responsibility of initiating appropriate curriculum changes, and their roles as curriculum leaders may vary depending on the school context. Below are some of the key roles they may play. School Heads School heads take the leading role in encouraging and supporting school Literature in English curriculum development. They need to: - appreciate the need for adopting the subject and recognise its potential for broadening and improving the educational experience of students; - help teachers involved get suitable professional development; - deploy school resources appropriately (such as allowing use of special rooms) and encourage a flexible style of teaching; and - create a school atmosphere in which creative self-expression is valued highly. Panel Chairpersons Sometimes Literature in English has a small independent panel, in which case the panel chairperson needs to: - choose suitable set texts; - make curriculum decisions to ensure students benefit from the subject; - ensure that the school has a good selection of texts and reference materials; - consider how the subject should best be timetabled; - encourage literary activities in the school at large; and - collaborate with the chairpersons of other panels. If Literature in English is part of the English Panel, the chairperson needs to do all of the above and also ensure that the foundations are laid at the junior secondary level to pave the way for the study of the subject at the senior secondary level. Teachers Literature teachers need to: - attend professional development programmes on the subject; - adapt materials and teaching style to the ability of the students; - show students the aspects of texts which literary critics look at, and the terms they use to describe and discuss them; - lead/facilitate discussions on texts; - be a sensitive recipient of creative work and ideas, praising achievement and pointing to ways to improve areas of weakness; - be enthusiastic about writing and film and disseminate that enthusiasm; - introduce students to a wide variety of texts and set guided questions on them; • ensure that the students know and understand the set texts well; • see students individually to discuss project work in detail and suggest how drafts can be improved; and • listen as much as question and instruct. Depending on the school context, the roles different key players assume may vary from school to school. For more information on the key roles they may play, please refer to Section 3.2.6 of the *English Language Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 6)* (2017). Chapter 4 Learning and Teaching This chapter provides guidelines for effective learning and teaching of the Literature in English curriculum. It is to be read in conjunction with Chapter 4 of the *English Language Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 6) (2017)*. 4.1 Knowledge and Learning Widely different views are held on the teaching of literature. For example, while some espouse the “structural” approach focussing on close analysis of literary texts, others argue that the “reader response” approach aimed at contributing to the students’ personal development should be encouraged. Over the years, these and other approaches have brought together a wealth of insights into the study of literature. However, different though these approaches may be, they need not be incompatible or mutually exclusive. They can in fact be complementary. For example, structural analysis provides the terms and concepts that help students interpret and discuss literature, while a reader response approach emphasises the integrated experience an individual has with a text, with his or her response given primacy over formal analysis. No one single approach to the study of literature is fully capable of developing students’ capacity to understand, appreciate and enjoy literary works. The teaching of literature should therefore involve not only the transmission of knowledge about literary texts but, more importantly, the development of students’ faculties for enjoying and appreciating literature critically. Reading and viewing literature becomes a genuine part of their learning experience when students ask themselves questions about texts and attempt to come up with answers themselves. It is only when students develop the ability to read critically and independently that they select and appreciate literature outside the classroom, and are able to develop a lifelong interest in reading. The emphasis in teaching literature should therefore be on providing students with opportunities that will help them develop the ability to both respond sensitively to texts with enjoyment and analyse them critically. Based on this integrative view of literature study, the detailed learning and teaching suggestions provided in this chapter seek to help students develop the skills of critical understanding and appreciation, and approach literary texts in the following genres: - Prose fiction (the short story and novel); - Poetry; - Drama; and - Film. Highlighted below are the important roles that the teacher and the students play in contributing to the effective study of literature: **Roles of teachers** Apart from being transmitters of knowledge, teachers play the key role of facilitating students’ study of Literature in English and enhancing their independent learning capabilities. To enable students to enjoy and appreciate literary texts and develop their capacity for critical thinking, creativity and self-expression, teachers are encouraged to: - negotiate learning goals and content with students; - maintain a positive and harmonious learning atmosphere which supports students’ active participation and expression of views and ideas; - act as a role model as a learner of literature; - adapt teaching to learner responses; - enhance quality interaction in the classroom; - provide appropriate scaffolding and quality feedback; and - promote self-directed learning. **Roles of students** Literary criticism is more an ability to be developed than a body of knowledge to be taken in. The teacher is there to demonstrate this ability and to provide support and feedback, while students need to read and view texts themselves and ensure that they learn how to discuss them critically. They should then exercise their imagination, respond with emotion and produce their own texts. For clear explanations of opinions and ideas in group work, a critical vocabulary has to be developed and, while criticising texts, students need to be truthful and respectful and be ready to share their own original writing as well as that written by others. ### 4.2 Guiding Principles The guiding principles for the learning and teaching of Literature in English are set out below: - **An interactive process of literary knowledge building and development**: The study of Literature in English is a dynamic process in which the learner plays a key role in understanding and internalising the literary knowledge they have learned, and in critically applying it together with their world knowledge in interpreting texts. Any learning and teaching approaches or strategies that teachers are planning to adopt or develop should be rooted in this understanding, providing students with a diversity of learning contexts and activities to enable them to explore, develop and apply their literary knowledge and skills. • **An open and flexible curriculum framework**: Schools should make use of the open and flexible central Literature in English curriculum framework to develop appropriate learning, teaching and assessment tasks and activities. • **Building on strengths**: Schools should build on the strengths of their existing practices (e.g. the teaching of language arts in the subject of English Language at the junior secondary level) to allow for a smooth transition to the senior secondary Literature in English curriculum. • **Understanding learning targets**: To ensure that students learn effectively and meaningfully, there must be a plan for them to work towards specific learning targets in and across the three Strands – Knowledge of Literary Forms and Conventions, Appreciation and Response, and Language Enhancement. The design and implementation of the school Literature in English curriculum should be geared towards helping students achieve the learning targets. • **Using a wide range of learning and teaching approaches and strategies**: Helping students achieve the learning targets calls for the effective and flexible use of a wide range of approaches and strategies. Depending on the learning context, teachers should design, choose and use approaches and strategies that motivate students, and enhance their personal and intellectual development. • **Catering for learner diversity**: Plenty of opportunities should be provided to enable students to enjoy literature, and to develop their capacity for critical thinking, creativity and sensitivity to language through a variety of texts and activities which cater for their diverse needs and interests, as well as preparing them for further academic study, vocational training or work. • **Flexible and judicious use of resources**: Schools are encouraged to enhance learning in Literature in English, sustain students’ interest and broaden their learning experiences through flexible use of a variety of resources, both print and non-print. Also, relevant community resources should be tapped to provide students with opportunities for life-wide learning. However, students should be made aware of the risks of using the information on the Internet, which may be incomplete, inaccurate or biased. Searching information on the Internet or using artificial intelligence (AI) generative tools is not a substitute for reading the original literary works, reference books and journal articles, which are more reliable sources of information. ### 4.3 Approaches and Strategies As suggested in the *Secondary Education Curriculum Guide* (2017), an extensive range of learning and teaching approaches should be employed to suit the content and focuses of learning and students’ diverse needs. Building on strengths in learning and teaching The following section highlights some of the major strengths in learning and teaching in Hong Kong classrooms. Teachers are encouraged to further develop them to students’ advantage: • **Repetitive learning to consolidate knowledge**: Repetitive learning should be distinguished from rote-learning, the latter of which often involves memorising without understanding. Repetitive learning implies continuous learning with increasing variation, which ensures retention and leads to enhanced understanding. Hong Kong students are accustomed to this mode of learning, and teachers should capitalise on its strength, by encouraging reading and re-reading to gain new insights and to increase familiarity with key lines, important scenes and essential plot details, so that students can readily cite them to support their arguments where appropriate. • **Motivated students**: Most Hong Kong students are motivated, co-operative, diligent and committed to the study of the subject. Appropriate learning materials and activities should be provided to maintain their interest and drive. However, teachers should also make effective use of these traits to develop students’ potential by devising challenging tasks or projects which promote independent critical judgement and a lifelong interest in reading and viewing. • **Conscientious teachers**: Teachers of literature in Hong Kong are keen, resourceful and conscientious professionals, with a firm knowledge of both the subject and their students’ interests and abilities. While they should certainly continue to be proficient managers of class activities and disseminators of literary knowledge, they should also enhance their role as facilitators by promoting critical debate and discussion, encouraging free expression of personal responses, and offering guidance, support and timely feedback for the benefit of the students. In choosing suitable learning and teaching approaches, teachers should be mindful that students may benefit from different ways of teaching, such as: • **Teaching as direct instruction**: This is relevant to contexts where explanation, demonstration or modelling is required to enable students to gain knowledge and understanding of specific aspects of the subject, e.g. literary terms and concepts, and particular writing styles. • **Teaching as inquiry**: This engages students in activities where they are required to exercise their critical abilities and creativity to examine and discuss matters such as themes, characters, events and technique and style, and to communicate ideas, views and feelings appropriately and convincingly. • **Teaching as co-construction**: This view focuses on the class as a community of learners. The teacher facilitates the setting up of class networks in which students contribute collectively to the creation of knowledge and build up criteria for judging it. This is most obvious in activities (e.g. projects) in which members of the class negotiate areas of literary study with the teacher and then work collaboratively to conduct research and make presentations on topics of interest to them. In the process, the students are encouraged to contribute, apply their literary knowledge and skills, and tap the rich sources of literature in the world. The suggested learning and teaching approaches or strategies set out in Sections 4.3.1 – 4.3.4 below seek to cater for these various modes of learning, and teachers are encouraged to use them, where appropriate. Each section focuses on a literary genre, and a list of commonly used literary terms or concepts which teachers are likely to employ in teaching the genre is also included. However, it is not possible to list all the terms teachers and students may want to use when discussing literary works and films, nor are the terms given here meant to be compulsory. Different texts have different salient features, and terms that are appropriate in one context may be unhelpful in another. The guidelines are therefore to be used flexibly. They seek to assist, not to prescribe. **4.3.1 Prose Fiction (the short story and novel)** **Features of prose fiction** Underlying most of the literary works that students will study is the “story”, and teachers may wish to begin the course by asking students to think about what makes a “story” – whether it is something we tell a friend hurriedly in the morning or a multi-volume work such as J.R.R. Tolkien’s *The Lord of the Rings*, or even the history of the world. We are a story-telling species. From early on in our lives we are eager for stories, and it is almost regarded as the natural duty of a child’s care-giver to supply stories. Later on in life, almost everyone retains a desire to hear stories; they are the basis of conversation, the selling point of magazines and newspapers and the content of popular soap operas. What, then, are the basics of a story? We need a place where the story happens, some people or animals who do something and some idea as to why the story matters. Extra details such as time or description are helpful, but not essential. “A stone lay on the ground for a century” is not, on its own, a story: there is no action and stones do not normally interest us very much. “A man ate his breakfast this morning” on its own is not a story. It seems pointless. “A girl smiled at me on the bus this morning” reaches the level of the story and will gain meaning from its context. It might mean “So you see people are pleasant”, or “So you see I am attractive”, or “The worst is over now – people have started smiling again…” Once the students have the basic concepts, they can be introduced to literary terms and told that a story has action/plot, characters, settings and themes. These are ideas they will keep on meeting during the course as they see how different storytellers tell different stories for different purposes. A further point of entry to literary studies is the fact that we are also a symbol-using species. Colours represent things for us, we have flags, we wear school uniforms and badges, logos are all around us – and, of course, above all else we use the symbolic system of language. It is natural for us to use symbols to express our thoughts, e.g. Life is like a journey; God is a king, a shepherd, our Father; you can feel as hungry as a wolf; an angry man might roar at you; if we are truly enjoying ourselves, time flies by. We hardly notice all the symbols we use. In literature we are more conscious of the medium we are using (words or pictures on the screen) – so we have developed a special vocabulary to talk about symbols, images, metaphors and other figures of speech. Stories and symbols lie behind much of what follows, where they are considered more technically, in more detail and in relation to slightly different types of texts. The categories below can be overlapping, but will help teachers and students focus on the main features of prose fiction in the English tradition. **AUTHOR** The Literature in English course is not intended to be a historical one, and not every text chosen is regarded to be a masterpiece. Frequently it is perfectly possible to study a story without detailed information about its writer. The relationship between a writer’s experience and his/her work can also be controversial. Sometimes, however, biographical information can be useful, for example, George Orwell’s life in relation to *Animal Farm* and *Nineteen Eighty-Four*. **CHARACTER** The bulk of fiction tells stories about people, and students will want to study the characters in the texts they read. It is usual to discuss their motivation and development (if any). Some stories (e.g. the “coming of age” story about a young person growing up) are very much character-centred, others less so. Also, there are “stock characters” in some stories (e.g. the foil to a major character: Doctor Watson in relation to Sherlock Holmes). Stories may have heroes/heroinies (e.g. Ralph in *Lord of the Flies* and Jane Eyre in *Jane Eyre*) and villains (e.g. Quilp in *The Old Curiosity Shop*), but flawed and conflicted central figures are even more common in more sophisticated texts (e.g. Winston in *Nineteen Eighty-Four*, Okonkwo in *Things Fall Apart* and Mr. Rochester in *Jane Eyre*). Readers may like or dislike characters, and judge them to be good or bad – emotional engagement with characters is one of the pleasures of reading. Characters are created by means of the techniques of characterisation, which typically include description of the characters, their speech, their actions and the imagery associated with them (e.g. the rather unattractive, middle-aged Winston Smith of *Nineteen Eighty-Four* with his diffident speech, visits to working-class areas and varicose leg ulcer). Names can also be important clues to character (e.g. heroic Winston allied with the ordinary Smith). **CLOSING** Any piece of fictional prose has to end somewhere, and for many readers this is one of the most crucial features of a work of fiction. Some short stories exist primarily for the twist, the surprise reversal of expectations at the end, that can give so much pleasure (e.g. the destruction of the valuable piece of furniture at the end of Roald Dahl’s “Parson’s Pleasure”). Many readers enjoy a sense of poetic justice when the good are rewarded and the bad punished (e.g. “Parson’s Pleasure”). Sometimes readers are not at all sure what is going to happen and the ending is suspenseful (e.g. will Ralph be killed in *Lord of the Flies*?). However, sometimes endings are neat and we know very clearly what happens (e.g. the detective story in which the crime is solved and the criminal caught). In opposition to these closed endings are more open ones where the writer leaves questions unanswered and judgements unsure (e.g. many Katherine Mansfield short stories). **CONFLICT and CONTRAST** These are two of the basic ingredients of stories. An initial situation suddenly turns into conflict and the story ends when it is resolved. Good fights evil, black fights white, police fight gangsters, young fight old, and so on (e.g. J.R.R. Tolkien’s *The Lord of the Rings*). Often the heroes and villains are mirror-images of one another (Robert Stevenson’s *Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde* is an extreme example). Contrast operates at many levels in a text. For example, town contrasts with country, love with hate, appearance with reality, sophistication with naivety, and wealth with poverty. **CULTURAL BACKGROUND** The curriculum does not expect students to spend a lot of time on this, though some research into the history of the Belgian Congo would, for example, help illuminate Joseph Conrad’s *Heart of Darkness*. **DIALOGUE** Some writers place great emphasis on dialogue to move the plot forward and to assist with characterisation. Styles of speech are used as clues to personality. One character might swear, another be euphemistic and so on (e.g. Archibald’s style of speech shows his class and mentality in P.G. Wodehouse’s “The Reverent Wooing of Archibald”). **GENRE** This word is used in a number of ways: to cover major categories like prose itself, to describe styles, or to denote types of fiction, e.g. the detective story (itself analysable into the classical style and the hardboiled), the romance, science-fiction, fantasy, the utopian novel, the dystopian novel, the historical novel and so on. Such genres create expectations in readers. Some authors abide by the rules, but others enjoy breaking the conventions. A parody mocks a genre. **IMAGERY** Metaphors, similes and symbols create a pattern of allusion around a character or place (e.g. Charlotte Bronte’s *Jane Eyre* is rich in references to water, damp, fire and redness) which helps build atmosphere. Sometimes such imagery has become formalised as in the Gothic style with its castles, darkness, storms, black birds, etc. (e.g. Mary Shelley’s *Frankenstein*). Where an object maintains its meaning over the course of the story, it becomes symbolic. In William Golding’s *Lord of the Flies*, for example, Piggy’s glasses represent civilisation, scientific thought and rationality, and in the course of the story they become broken as these qualities are lost. Also, the conch shell in the same book symbolises joint decision-making and orderly discussion (possibly even democracy), and it is smashed as Jack becomes a dictator. A similar fate is met by the glass paperweight that comes to symbolise for Winston an earlier way of life (George Orwell’s *Nineteen Eighty-Four*). A symbol can also be created when a detail suddenly springs to life as having a deeper potential meaning; for instance, in Joseph Conrad’s *Heart of Darkness*, a native in the “grove of death” has a piece of white string round his neck – maybe mere decoration, or possibly the noose of the white man taking away his life. **IRONY** This means that something is going on beneath the surface level. Maybe the narrator does not mean what he/she is saying, or the reader feels he/she knows better. Unexpected consequences which are fitting are also ironic. Entire stories can be ironic in the sense that the truth is the reverse of the expected (e.g. in Joseph Conrad’s *Heart of Darkness*, the greatest darkness lies not in the Inner Station itself, but in the heart of the supposedly civilised Kurtz). **MOOD** It is important to gauge the mood of a story. There is no need to be moralistic and heavy-handed about humour (e.g. Saki’s sarcasm and Wodehouse’s farce). Some short stories exist mainly to evoke a mood or recall a feeling (e.g. many stories by Virginia Woolf and Katherine Mansfield). Mood is created mainly by means of description, style and imagery. **MESSAGE* and THEME** It was pointed out in the introduction to this section that we normally expect to be able to understand why a story has been told: one does not simply say to someone out of the blue, “My sister’s new shoes are green”. Outside some absurdist works of literature, or works of “art for art’s sake”, we similarly expect a story to have a message. A fable tries to *Sometimes also referred to as the moral of the story.* illustrate a clear point; it is a sort of lesson. Examples of works with clear messages are William Golding’s *Lord of the Flies* about human nature, George Eliot’s *Silas Marner* about the nature of true wealth and George Orwell’s *Nineteen Eighty-Four* about totalitarianism. As a work of literature becomes more complex, we start talking about its themes. Authors do not always want to tell us what to think, and we are free, anyway, to disagree, but the work can still stimulate us to think about a topic. Examples of the themes in some works (and the lists are not intended to be exhaustive) are as follows: - John Steinbeck’s *Of Mice and Men*: friendship, prejudice, duty, justice, fantasy, racism, mental disability; - J.R.R. Tolkien’s *The Lord of the Rings*: loyalty, friendship, good versus evil, nostalgia, respect for nature, magic, greed, temptation, pride, bravery; and - Ray Bradbury’s *The Veldt*: child-parent relationships, the Oedipus Complex, technology, fantasy, anger. It will be observed that some themes are more general (e.g. friendship), and others more closely tied to social and political contexts (e.g. marriage customs in the novels of Jane Austen, and colonialism and imperialism in much of the work of Rudyard Kipling). Messages are fairly explicit, and themes rather more implicit. Assumptions can take more time to unearth. Feminist critics will want to explore what attitudes towards women are hidden in a text. Some assumptions will no longer be in accordance with modern thought. For example, Mark Twain’s *Huckleberry Finn* offers many narrative pleasures, has a message about not living in a state of self-delusion, and has plenty to say on themes such as friendship and civilisation, but it is hard to avoid the judgement that it makes a lot of racist assumptions, obviously related to its socio-political background. At this stage in their learning, students still striving to fashion their own identities and belief systems will be especially interested in exploring the messages and themes of literary works. They will need assistance not to simplify these, and encouragement to see that most works cover a variety of themes. **NARRATION** A story can be told in many ways, e.g. as a series of letters or a diary. Usually there is a narrator, possibly more than one in longer texts. One common choice is third-person omniscient narration. The narrator knows what is in everyone’s heart and mind and addresses the reader directly on occasions (e.g. the narrator in George Eliot’s *Silas Marner*). Ordinarily, third-person narration involves someone with a limited view, possibly a minor character in the story, narrating events (e.g. the Sherlock Holmes stories or F. Scott Fitzgerald’s *The Great Gatsby*). The third common choice is first-person narration (e.g. Daphne du Maurier’s *Rebecca*). Readers must naturally ask themselves how much they trust the narrator, who may be lying or simply imperceptive. Interior monologues represent the thoughts of a character in a stream of consciousness (e.g. James Thurber’s “The Secret Life of Walter Mitty”). The question of narrative voice is very important, as is that of narrative order. Stories are not always told in chronological order, but by means of flashbacks and even flash forwards (e.g. classical detective stories are often a series of non-chronological flashbacks until the truth is found). **OPENING** The first words of a work of fiction are of great importance in attracting the reader’s attention and arousing his/her expectations. Many stories begin in medias res, i.e. in the middle of the action. Some are framed (for example, many of P.G. Wodehouse’s stories are told by old gentlemen in London clubs). The writer must choose what to concentrate on first, perhaps mood, perhaps characterisation, or perhaps some other feature of the storyteller’s craft. **PLOT** Many novels and short stories are plot-centred. What happens is the main focus. Plots are sometimes described as having arcs. A novelist may seek to create a wave pattern of moments of calm interspersed with climaxes. Complex plots, as in the works of Charles Dickens, build slowly until the denouement (or unwinding) when readers start understanding past events and observing their final resolution. There may be sub-plots in addition to the main storyline. The plot may be full of suspense or the outcome may be known from the start and the enjoyment lies in seeing how events unfold. Some plots have become conventional (e.g. boy meets girl, a misunderstanding pulls them apart, clarification takes place, they are united; a young hero sets out on a quest, gains a special gift/weapon, meets adversity, is tempted, almost fails and finally triumphs). **SETTING** The place where the story happens is the setting. It can be chosen as a plot convenience (e.g. the isolated country house of so many ghost and crime stories), as part of the style (e.g. the Gothic and the Pastoral), to set the mood (e.g. the bleak moors of Emily Bronte’s *Wuthering Heights*, and the devastated London of George Orwell’s *Nineteen Eighty-Four*), establish historical period (e.g. George Eliot’s *Silas Marner*) or social class (Jane Austen’s novels). In art, according to the pathetic fallacy, nature mirrors our moods (e.g. frequent instances in Charlotte Bronte’s *Jane Eyre*) or can be symbolic (e.g. H.E. Bates’ “The Waterfall” and Doris Lessing’s “Through the Tunnel”). Some writers (e.g. Charles Dickens and George Orwell) contrast the good countryside with the evil city. Opening scenes can establish the mood through setting (e.g. the fog in Charles Dickens, *Bleak House*, and the graveyard in his *Great Expectations*). Setting can function at both the realist and symbolic level (e.g. the unpredictable river snaking through the mist and dense dark vegetation in Joseph Conrad’s *Heart of Darkness*). **STYLE** Works of fiction can be sorted under general categories (sometimes called genres), such as a realist (trying to recreate life as we live it), magical realist (with sudden moments of the impossible inserted into the story, e.g. Toni Morrison’s *Song of Solomon*), fantasy (e.g. J.R.R. Tolkien’s *The Lord of the Rings*), the fairy story, the fable, the Gothic romance, the pastoral and so on. Each has its own typical style. Some awareness of such categories would be helpful. Style in the sense of language and register needs also to be considered. A writer can use colloquial English (e.g. J.D. Salinger’s *The Catcher in the Rye*), dialect (e.g. parts of Thomas Hardy), formal English (e.g. Joseph Conrad), and archaic English (e.g. quite a lot of fantasy literature). Sentences can be rich and complex (e.g. Charles Dickens), simple and straightforward (e.g. George Orwell) or positively terse (e.g. Ernest Hemingway). **TONE** This relates closely to mood and style. The narrator can be ironic, cool and detached, kindly, mocking, puzzled, deeply engaged and so forth. The work itself also has a tone that may be different (e.g. Marlow is perhaps mainly saddened by what he has experienced and relates, but *Heart of Darkness* itself can be seen as an angry book). At times the tone is misjudged and perhaps exaggerated. What is intended as serious and moving becomes unintentionally humorous. This can be observed particularly in genres such as romance and horror. The exaggeration can also be produced deliberately, and then constitutes parody. When discussing the tone of a work, an effort is usually made to assess how optimistic or pessimistic it is. For example, P.G. Wodehouse’s world is usually a sunny place of decent, if rather confused, people; R.S. Ballantyne’s *Coral Island* is full of optimism about what young people left on a desert island could achieve; and William Golding retells the story in his *Lord of the Flies* in a much darker way. In J.R.R. Tolkien’s *The Lord of the Rings* good prevails, but magic and glamour go out of the world, leaving a gentle melancholy at the end. **Teaching suggestions for prose** Teaching prose fiction commences perhaps best with the reading of short stories. With the help of worksheets and teacher-led discussion, students can be introduced to the concepts and approaches listed under *Features of prose fiction*. They need to learn to look at a story in terms of both content, arguing about the story and its characters, and form. Creative writing is a natural part of a literature course. Having read some short stories, students should be encouraged to produce their own. At first many are too ambitious and try to make use of elaborate plots that are not suitable for a few hundred words. A short story of such a length should probably aim only at creating a mood, introducing a character or developing a symbol. Students should be guided to reflect on the decisions they take in their writing with respect to, e.g. - narrative voice; - opening and closing; - style; - techniques of characterisation; and - inclusion of imagery and other narrative techniques. In these ways, students will gradually become conscious of the writer’s craft, and learn to appreciate good writing. They will also be able to share their writing and critique the work of their classmates sensitively. The advantages of drafting, editing and polishing will become obvious, and students will be able to build up a collection of creative work over time. As the students become familiar with the conventions of literary study and the terminology employed, they can be given a checklist like the one that follows to go through when they read a new story. **Reading a short story: questions to consider** 1. Who are the main characters? 2. How are they characterised? 3. How does the story open? 4. How does the story end? 5. Is the ending open or closed? 6. What is the tone of the story? 7. What style of narration is used? 8. What are the themes? 9. Why did the writer write the story? 10. Are any of the names significant? 11. Is there anything noteworthy about the style? 12. Is the setting important? 13. Are there any symbols? 14. Is there anything I need to research? 15. Did I enjoy the story? It may be fruitful for students to do this on their own, and then compare, discuss and refine their answers in class. One way in which students can develop imaginative engagement with a text is to elaborate it in a variety of ways. Students should be asked to create alternative endings, rewrite from the point of view of a different narrator, role-play a character justifying his/her behaviour, supply missing documents mentioned in passing or implied in the story, and so forth. Some stories may be turned into plays or film-scripts. One form/style/genre can be transformed into another. To encourage students to see literary texts as relevant to their lives they can also be asked to re-imagine them in contemporary Hong Kong. Novels obviously need more preparation and are more daunting to students. Prior exposure to short stories and films will provide some of the skills and awareness necessary to appreciate a longer text. The concepts of plot, characterisation, style and so on will already be familiar. When watching films, students can be made aware of the organisation of complex stories, possibly by means of diagrams which help them note the progress of the main plot and sub-plots, with their climaxes, romantic episodes, conversations, bursts of action and moments of grandeur. Such a diagram would be rather like the storyboard of a film, but need not be so detailed. For example, in drawing up a plan of the film of *The Return of the King* (Jackson, 2003), one would show how the film follows Frodo for a while and then switches to what is happening to other members of the original fellowship. The various plots can be numbered for convenience, and comments made on their status at any given time. ![Diagram showing three plots: Plot A, Plot B, and Plot C] The purpose is to think about how to organise a long story in such a way as to gain maximum impact. This knowledge can then be transferred to the study of a novel. Background information of a cultural or historical nature may be needed in the preparatory stage. Students need to have read the novel before it is taught in class. If it is divided into chapters, the teacher might give an analysis of, for example, the first two, supplying a model of how the alert reader should note salient features and enter into the world of the novel. Students can then take it in turn to present chapters in the same way, so that all the major issues have in the end been covered. Some classes will need to be given more help and guidance. Worksheets with cloze summaries of the storyline and guided questions will be necessary. For more famous works, study guides are usually available and may prove helpful. Some film versions of novels are extensively adapted and may not be good introductions to them, and so are best viewed at a later stage. Once a novel has been read and discussed, students can, as mentioned earlier, play creatively with the text, producing a variety of by-texts. The morale of the literature class is of importance when studying a novel as many students have not developed good reading habits and may find the vocabulary challenging. Teachers will need to take steps to counteract potential problems, by dividing up the text into manageable chunks and offering help in the form of chapter summaries and glossaries of any predictably difficult words. Filmed versions of novels, where available, are an invaluable support. Very long works are best avoided at this stage. For suggestions on teaching appreciation of prose fiction, please refer to Section 4.3.5 “Literary Appreciation”. 4.3.2 Poetry Features of poetry Poetry has given enormous pleasure to men and women over the centuries. When producing verse, the poet is often more concerned than writers usually are with the language that he/she uses to express the ideas of the poem. Poetry makes use of patterned language, and students of literature need to be sensitive to these patterns. Students also need to be very aware of the sounds of language in poetry, and should note from the beginning that English orthography, particularly in relation to vowels, is not a reliable guide to pronunciation: for example, “so”, “sew” and “sow” all have the same sound, while the vowel of “few” is different. Thinking phonetically is essential to the enjoyment of poetry in English. The following terms may be of use in the teaching and appreciation of poetry at the senior secondary level. Some of them may be only suited to taught set poems, and too difficult for students to use confidently when writing about unseen poems. DICTION Diction refers to the poet’s choice of words. Words do not simply have meaning; they have connotation, an atmosphere around them. Some words are simple, everyday ones; others are much rarer or bring to mind special feelings. “I went up the big hill” means the same as “I ascended the mighty peak”, but the style is quite different with respect to connotation. “Blue” is the more common word; “azure” sounds much richer and stranger; and “lapis lazuli” seems positively exotic. When a critic assesses the diction of a poem he/she produces statements such as: “The diction is simple, almost childlike”, “The poet uses the diction associated with accountancy to express his love”, or “The poet considers the rabbit in different ways from verse to verse switching from everyday diction to scientific diction, the diction of cookery and strongly poetic diction. The effect is to make the reader reflect on our contradictory attitudes towards animals”. To take an actual example, Owen in “Anthem for Doomed Youth” uses religious/church-going diction (and imagery) to bring out the horror of battle. The content of the poem and the connotations of the words are in stark contrast to each other and cause the reader discomfort, hence making the poem such a powerful one. **FORM/TYPE/GENRE** These are common terms used to designate the categories into which literary works are grouped. There are numerous ways of categorising poetry. Students should be familiar with the differences between rhyming verse, blank verse and free verse. Some familiarity with shape/concrete poetry, and various experimental forms may prove stimulating. The common types of poems students can be exposed to are short lyrics, sonnets, ballads and possibly haikus. **IMAGERY** This refers to the use of figurative language in a poem (e.g. metaphors, similes, symbols, etc.). For instance, a poem about an old person might involve leaves falling from trees. The imagery of autumn helps express the theme. Love poetry is typically full of spring, flowers and sunshine. Religious imagery is frequent (e.g. the garden, snake, rainbow, lamb, cross, etc.). Images may be single, or create patterns that run throughout a poem. For example, Tennyson’s “Crossing the Bar” uses the imagery of sailing to express views on death and the afterlife. **INVERSION** This is a change in the standard word order. It can be used for emphasis or to create a slightly Biblical and solemn atmosphere (as was much more common in older English). ``` I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree, And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made; Nine bean-rows will I have there... [Yeats, The Lake Isle of Innisfree] ``` Inversions sometimes make it easier to create a rhyme, but using it for this reason is regarded as a weakness. Any example is, of course, open to debate: The butterfly from flower to flower The urchin chas’d: and when, at last He caught it in my lady’s bower, He cried, “Ha ha!” and held it fast. [Skipsey, The Butterfly] LINES One of the things that make poetry work is the tension between grammar/syntax and the lineation of the poem. Students must try to distinguish very clearly the difference between a sentence and a line. When a line end coincides with a sentence end, the line is said to be end-stopped. If the sentence runs past and over the line end, the line is a run-on line or an enjambed line (enjambment being another name for the phenomenon). A sentence may even run on from the end of one verse to the beginning of another. Most lines also have a pause. A strong pause, breaking the flow of the line, can create a special effect, e.g. in Shelley’s Ozymandias. And on the pedestal these words appear: ‘My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings, Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!’ Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal Wreck, boundless and bare The lone and level sands stretch far away. The full-stop and pause after “remains” signifies the end of the king’s power and the isolation of his broken statue; and the following run-on lines represent the featureless desert lying all around. PERSONA The lyric “I” may, of course, represent the feelings of the poet directly – and in many cases probably does. Poems, however, are works of art, not autobiographical statements and frequently poets invent situations and speakers. To make this distinction clear, the word “persona” is used. At this level of study it is inadvisable to be too technical. Students may wish to use the term, but in the interests of good style, overuse is not recommended. PERSONIFICATION This term has fairly vague boundaries. The common sense refers to treating an abstract concept as embodying human characteristics. Liberty is personified in the famous New York statue. Talking animals or treating animals as if they think and feel like humans is sometimes called “personification”, though there is an alternative term: to “anthropomorphise”/“anthropomorphism”. The terms should not be overused. To refer to an animal as “she” or to say it feels frightened is not necessarily an example of personification or anthropomorphism. REPETITION This is a common feature of poetry mainly used for emphasis, but also for decoration and echo-effects. I love thee – I love thee! ‘Tis all that I can say; It is my vision in the night, My dreaming in the day; The very echo of my heart, The blessing when I pray: I love thee – I love thee! Is all that I can say. [Hood, I Love Thee] RHYME A huge amount of poetry in English rhymes, and a lot of people enjoy the musical effect this creates. Some poems have fairly detailed traditional rhyming patterns (rhyming couplets, for example), and much simple lyric follows an a/b/a/b pattern. Some class time should be given to rhyme. Spelling is not a trustworthy guide (e.g. “Bough” rhymes with “cow”, not with “rough”). Some poets insist on full rhymes, but others use half-rhymes. The sea crosses the sea, the sea has hooves, the power of rivers and the weir’s curves are moving in the wind-bent acts of waves. [Oswald, Sea Sonnet] As pronunciation changes over the course of time, and as English is spoken differently in different areas, what was a good rhyme for the poet may not work for the reader. English has a great many vowels and diphthongs and the match must be exact for a rhyme to occur – “brick” and “break” do not rhyme (“brick” rhymes with “trick”, and “break” with “take”). The rhyme can be a final vowel on its own, that is an open syllable, as long as it is stressed: “igloo” and “you” rhyme; but “slippery” and “fishy” do not (the final sound is too weak); or it can be a final vowel with consonant, a closed syllable, (e.g. “decide” and “tied”). Weak final closed syllables cannot create rhyme: “hoping” does not rhyme with “singing”. RHYTHM This can be a difficult and highly technical matter with lots of complex terms relating to different metres. Students do not need to master these. Rhythm is, however, basic to poetry and students need to be shown how it works. This is simpler with traditional, formal verse. Students should examine some examples from a technical perspective, counting the syllables and noticing the beat (especially the iambic and trochaic rhythms). The blackbird sang, the skies were clear and clean We bowled along a road that curved a spine … [Henley, At Queensferry] (ten syllables, five feet, iambic rhythm: stresses on the even numbered syllables). Plunged in night, I sit alone Eyeless on this dungeon stone... [Scott, Samson] (seven syllables, four feet, trochaic rhythm: stresses on the odd numbered syllables). Poets use rhythm in many expressive ways, e.g. Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O Sea. [Tennyson, Break, Break, Break] Apart from “on”, “thy” and possibly “O”, every word needs a strong stress. The effect is like a funeral march, the heavy monosyllables creating the slow beats of a drum. Good recordings of poetry available in the market and on the Internet should help students appreciate rhythm, though it is undoubtedly difficult for a second language learner and no great expertise is to be expected at this stage. SOUND A number of technical terms are explained here. Alliteration occurs when the initial consonant sounds of words close together are repeated. This can be strengthened by the use of the same sounds in the middle of words or at their ends. Older English poetry is very heavily alliterative and this remains one of the most commonly used techniques. Oh, ye wild waves, shoreward dashing, What is your tale to day? O’er the rocks your white foam splashing, While the moaning wind your spray, Whirls heavenwards away In the mist. [Sinnett, Song of Wild Storm Waves] The use of “w” and “s” + consonant (sh/sp/st) is obvious, and tries to mimic the sound of the wind at sea. Assonance (and consonance) is a term whose precise usage varies from writer to writer. Assonance is either (i) similarity of word-internal vowel sounds, or (ii) a similarity of non-initial consonants. It needs stressing again that this refers to phonetic similarity. Particular care needs to be taken in the case of vowels as the Roman alphabet has only five vowels, but English has many more vowel sounds. Examples: (i) similarity of vowel sounds: *Where the sea meets the moon blanched land* [Arnold, Dove Bench] The vowels of “sea” and “meets” are the same, as are those of “blanched” and “land”. (ii) similarity of consonants: “O where are you going?” said reader to rider [Auden, O Where Are You Going?] I found a dimpled spider fat and white [Frost, Design] Note the “d”s in the Auden example, and the “d”s and “t”s in the Frost excerpt. Consider this Tennyson example: *Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O Sea*... [Break, Break, Break] There is alliteration of “b”, assonance of “k”, and consonance of “o” in “cold”, “stones” and “O” (the “o” of “on” is a different, though related, shorter sound), and of “a” in “break” and “gray”. (Note also the way “break” evokes “ache”.) For the most part alliteration, assonance and consonance add a musical quality to the verse. These devices are used to emphasise important parts of a poem, rather than to create a precise special effect. There are, however, some sound tendencies in verse. A final “t”, “d” or “k” sounds energetic, even harsh; “l” and “r” are softer; and an initial “d” may be sad; “s” may sound like water, snakes, silence, etc.; and short vowels (as in “miniature” and “tiny”) suit small things, and long vowels (as in “huge”) larger ones. Students should try to see if they can relate sound patterns to the sense, but not worry if they cannot. For an example of beautiful use of sound, take these lines from Keats: *And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells, With a sweet kernel; to set budding more And still more, later flowers for the bees. Until they think warm days will never cease; For Summer has o'erbrimmed their clammy cells.* [Ode to Autumn] The pattern involves “f”s, “l”s, the vowel sound “or” (all, core, gourd, more, warm, for, o’er), various “s” sounds (s, sw, sh, z [hazel/bees]), “p”s and “b”s, and a run of “m”s. Many of these sounds involve rounding the mouth as if eating. Also Tennyson’s famous ...doves in immemorial trees And murmuring of innumerable bees [The Princess] is a very full example of the use of assonance of “m” to create the effect of the distant humming of a cloud of bees. **Onomatopoeia** is when the sound of the words loosely imitates a natural sound. For example, “drip, drip” and “plip-plop” may sound like slowly falling water; “pitter-patter” the sound of rain, “miaou” the noise of a cat, and “howl” the cry of a wolf. This terminology is useful, but not central. Being sensitive to sound patterns enormously enriches appreciation of poetry. **SUITING FORM TO MEANING** This entry sums up much that occurs in the others. The poet often tries to shape language to mirror as well as to present his/her content. As we have seen, this is done by means of rhythm, pause, the tension between the sentences and the lines and by the selection of sounds. Here are some further examples. *We chanced in passing by that afternoon To catch it in a sort of special picture Among tar-banded ancient cherry trees, Set well back from the road in rank lodged grass The little cottage we were speaking of, A front with just a door between two windows, Fresh painted by the shower a velvet black. We paused, the minister and I, to look.* [Frost, The Black Cottage] The “it” in line 2 is not explained until line 5. The main subject of the sentence is well set back, in the same way as the cottage is physically set back and obscured. When the “we” pause, the rhythm pauses as the pronoun’s reference is given. The act of stopping is expressed in a short sentence that comprises exactly a single line. In the second example, the sentence with its multiple subordinate clauses winds around the lines like the creeper being described. *Like a huge Python, winding round and round The rugged trunk, indented deep with scars, Up to its very summit near the stars, A creeper climbs, in whose embraces bound No other tree could live.* [Dutt, Our Casuarina Tree] Opportunities should be provided to engage students in recognising such effects. **TONE** A reader has not commented adequately on a poem if he/she has not referred to its tone and said what its prevailing mood is. Often this is clearly stated, though the reader must be on the look out for irony. It is useful to spend time thinking about adjectives that might be used to describe poems and poetic personas, e.g. angry, bitter, broken-hearted, defiant, ecstatic, nostalgic, puzzled, regretful, resigned, sad, thoughtful. **VERSES/STANZAS** Poems are written in lines that are often divided into verses/stanzas. These may all be the same length or variable. Poets often set up the standard so that they can then make a point by deviating from it. A sudden short line or verse could, for example, signify a death. **Teaching suggestions for poetry** At the preliminary stage, students may have varying degrees of knowledge and exposure to verse. If this has been limited, the first aim should be to get them interested in poetry, perhaps by asking them to share favourite song lyrics and through discussion of connotation (e.g. What do you think of when you hear the word apple/green/wolf/moon, etc.?) and symbol (e.g. What would you draw to express anger?). Sensitivity to rhyme needs to be developed by matching exercises, or by work on rhymed poems with one of the pairs of rhymes blanked out. The Internet has a great many poetry sites and students can search through them and share discoveries with one another. Self-expression through poetry writing should be encouraged. Obviously, students are not going to produce perfect sonnets, but they can experiment with free verse and simplified forms, such as the haiku in English. The first draft of the poem can then be worked on to add sound effects, such as some alliteration. In order to appreciate the sounds of poetry, students need oral/aural exercises. Schools can obtain recordings of poetry and introduce poetry websites with audio facilities to students. Teachers should model poems for students and teach them to read aloud in class. Participation in speech festivals can be advantageous, as can choral performances. An interesting selection of poems with a variety of activities designed to focus on content, poetic technique and self-expression can be found in the EDB resource packages on the learning and teaching of poetry. (See “References”.) In addition to discussing some poems at length, the class should read many others quickly so that they come to realise the enormous range of poetry in English. Different poems can be used to illustrate different features of verse. For instance, one poem might have a special image, another interesting sound effects, and a third be rich in alliteration. Students may bring in poems they have found to share with their classmates, explaining why the poems impressed them emotionally or technically. A poetry notice board can provide a further opportunity to share, though, as noted above, it is also important to develop the habit of reading poetry aloud, and oral sharing sessions have a particular value. The ability to write a critical analysis of a poem needs to be developed. At first, this can be achieved by questions which guide the reader towards special features. In relation to technical points, it needs to be stressed from the beginning that comment should be accompanied with suitable examples – not “There are many ngs and nks in verse four”, but “The many ngs and nks in verse four help express the feeling of being in prison and surrounded by metallic sounds”. There is no great point in referring to a technique if one has nothing much to say about it. Gradually, the students should learn to function without questions at least some of the time and be able to write analyses of poems on their own. Set poems are probably best taught in a lecture/discussion format, though individuals can be given prior research tasks (e.g. Please prepare to report to the class on the story of “Daedalus and Icarus”). For suggestions on teaching appreciation of poetry, please refer to Section 4.3.5 “Literary Appreciation”. Examples of poetry analysis can also be found in Appendix 2. 4.3.3 Drama Features of drama Where possible, drama texts should be approached as theatre works. Before starting to read famous plays or a set text, students should get used to looking at dramatic scenes, discussing how dramatists work as they turn stories into plays with themes, and the conventions dramatists draw upon. Obviously, theatrical plays in performance are extremely artificial artefacts, yet by the audience’s willingness to suspend disbelief the illusion works and fascinates. Treating the story of *Macbeth* as a true recounting of history, or as a novel, is to miss an important dimension of the play. The learner of literature should be interested not only in content, rich as that can be, but also in how producers of literary works create them. Many of the ideas and concepts referred to in the earlier sections of this document are directly relevant here also, though a play usually lacks a central narrator and this gives rise to a number of differences. A dramatist may comment by means of a prologue, epilogue or chorus, but this is far more limited than the interference of a narrator in a novel. The most famous writer in English, William Shakespeare, is likely to be encountered by most students of literature in English. The advantages of this are that students can derive benefit from the quality of his work, its cultural importance, the vast array of critical support available and the large number of performances in the theatre or in recorded form that students have a chance to be exposed to. The disadvantages are the linguistic difficulty of the texts, which might well and truly frighten a second language learner, the volume of difficult references in them and the multiplicity of critical opinion available that may stifle personal reaction. In addition to considering the plot, characters, dramatic structure and scheme of the play, in the case of Shakespeare, students need to think about the verse and imagery. If asked to select a favourite scene, a learner would be expected to comment on its dramatic effectiveness, ideas and poetry. Students also need some acquaintance with the conditions and conventions of the Elizabethan stage, so that they can understand the need of the characters to tell us where they/we are and create atmosphere. Knowledge of the use of boy actors for female parts will also throw important light on many scenes. The following items seem appropriate for students at the senior secondary level. **ACT** Plays are normally divided into scenes and acts, a scene being a subdivision of an act. A scene is usually the action in one place at one time, while acts are major structural divisions of the play. The length and placement of these create the dramatic structure and flow of the play. They create rhythm and pace. After an intense scene, a more relaxed interlude might provide a useful contrast and allow the playwright time to build up to a new climax. Scenes may end on a “cliff-hanging” note, leaving the audience in suspense. Anti-climax may be used to undermine audience expectations or to make a thematic point. Thinking about such issues is part and parcel of studying a dramatic text. **ASIDE/SOLILOQUY** Most of the action of a conventional play takes place through the dialogue. Interior states can also be communicated through “asides”, brief comments by a character that would be thought rather than spoken in daily life, e.g. Polonius’ comment in *Hamlet*: “Though this be madness, yet there is method in’t.” and Hamlet’s remark during *The Mousetrap* “That’s wormwood.” Soliloquies are speeches made by a character when alone and represent mental debates and inner struggles. *Hamlet* is, of course, also rich in these, e.g. “To be or not to be....” **CHARACTER** Characters are likely to be at the centre of any drama that students encounter at this stage in their education, and attitudes towards the actions and viewpoints of the characters are central to the students’ reaction to a play. Techniques of characterisation should also be noted: the actions, speech, style of speech, and description of the character, as well as the comments of other characters on him/her. Characters may have a chance to give us a further insight into their mental world by means of asides or soliloquies. The learner of a particular dramatic text should ask how he/she feels about a certain character, why, and how the dramatist has produced that reaction. **STAGING** A play is a script that needs to be brought alive through performance. Students should discuss what sort of actors they would choose for the different roles, styles of acting they think suitable for a play, and the costumes, props and scenery (if any) they would select if they were directing the play. Their attention should be drawn to such details as entrances and exits. All aspects of the staging can come together to create a unified atmosphere (e.g. in *Absurd Person Singular*, the small kitchen comes to symbolise the narrowness of suburban life, just as the references to lack of heating in later scenes reflect emotional deprivation). **SYMBOLISM** Dramatists may also avail themselves of symbolism. There may be patterns of imagery running through a text (e.g. of the graveyard in John Webster’s *The Duchess of Malfi*), or central symbols (e.g. the glass animals of Tennessee Williams’ *The Glass Menagerie*). **THEME** Plays, even more than works of prose fiction, tend to have a conscious message. Shaw’s *Saint Joan* is as much about the rise of the nation state and the birth of modernity as it is about the dilemma of Joan of Arc and the rights and wrongs of her treatment. Shakespeare’s intentions are usually more opaque and his plays more open to different interpretations, but *Othello* is certainly about jealousy, even if male violence, racism, class conflict, homosexuality and so on have also been identified as important themes by critics. **Teaching suggestions for drama** It would be advisable to take students to a theatrical performance early on in the course of study so that they can discuss how it worked, what decisions the director had taken and what alternative approaches might have worked well. Students can be asked to try to dramatise short stories they have read, so that they can become aware of the problems and enter sympathetically into the world of the playwright. Later on in the course, students might like to discuss how some major contemporary political story could be turned into drama, and what themes the play based on it might contain. To improve awareness of how a character’s lines have to suit personality, students can be given a list of character-types and asked to write suitable lines for them to be spoken in a similar situation. For example, - A poet (male) - A teenage boy - A lawyer (female) - A rather rough sailor (male) - A prince - A film star (female) Tells someone who is likely to be surprised by the news that he/she is in love with the other person. This exercise might also lead to a discussion of stereotyping and stock characters. Another exercise would be to give students main plots for plays (or ask them to contribute these themselves and then redistribute them) and ask them to think of suitable sub-plots that might complement, contrast with, offer relief from or in some way comment on the main plot. If a reasonably modern text is being read, it is probably good to read at least part of it aloud with appropriate dramatic emphasis. Everyone in class should have a chance to take part. The more artistically inclined can further contribute by sketching stage designs and costumes, and the musically gifted might like to think of suitable background tunes or songs that could be included in the reading performance. Students, especially if they are studying a complex Shakespeare play, would be well advised to keep a journal of the experience, recording thoughts, interpretations, sketches, favourite quotes and actions. Watching different film versions in order to discuss diverse approaches to the play can help students realise that there is no one official reading of the text that they must adhere to. Also, dramatising brief stories found in the press can be a stimulating exercise. In order to keep an eye on the verse, some of the most highly regarded speeches should be studied as poetry in addition to their dramatic function in the play. For suggestions on teaching appreciation of drama, please refer to Section 4.3.5 “Literary Appreciation”. ### 4.3.4 Film Film, as the genre in focus for the SBA of the subject, is included for study because of the many characteristics it shares with other literary genres (drama and prose fiction, in particular) – e.g. the use of symbolism and foreshadowing, the effects of point of view, and plot and theme development. To these are added sound and vision, which distinguishes film from the other genres and makes it a unique and powerful medium capable of stimulating students’ senses and cognitive faculties, enlarging their cultural knowledge and understanding, and adding variety to the curriculum. The choice of films for discussion and SBA portfolio is not restricted to those based on literary works. Instead, films are selected on the principles of interest, depth and literary merit. Teaching film can be a joy as most students come to the subject with plenty of background experience and a very positive attitude towards the experience of film-watching. Film theory (and literary theory in general) is beyond the reach of students at this stage. The aim is to teach the rudiments of practical criticism, and even here the range of terminology is enormous. Teachers and students are encouraged to use the basic terms and those which they find useful for the discussion, understanding and critical estimation of the films they study. The literature curriculum does not advocate knowledge of technical terms as being meritorious in itself, or endorse the memorisation of long lists of them. Film is a medium that can be used in a variety of ways. Some films can be regarded as similar to poetry in their fascination with mood and style, but overwhelmingly films have been used to tell stories; indeed, an original screenplay is probably rather less common than an adaptation of a novel. In terms of plot, characterisation, etc., most of what is said in the sections on prose fiction and drama could be repeated here; and, in fact, many of the points are probably best introduced in the consideration of films (e.g. “story arcs”), given students’ frequently greater familiarity with cinema than book culture. Films are usually less rich than books in the sense that narrative subtlety is difficult to achieve. Hinting, indirectness and elusiveness are easier to achieve in prose (though occasionally films like *The Sixth Sense*, dir. M. Night Shyamalan, 1999, manage tricks of this nature). Film, however, can visually dazzle us, overwhelm us with information and appeal in most cases to sound as well as sight. The advantages and disadvantages of the different media should be something students talk about frequently during the course, considering whether in fact it is wrong to think that a good book supplies the basis for a good film. As before, a number of items are singled out for comment here as a means of orienting teachers and students to points they might wish to consider when discussing films. **ACTORS** Many viewers choose which films to watch on the basis of which actors are in it. Hollywood has fostered the cult of stars, promoting them in the media and emphasising their looks and power by means of, for instance, close-up shots, beautiful costumes and lighting. To add attraction to a film, a star may even appear only briefly in a cameo role. The normal Hollywood style of acting is naturalistic (depending, of course, on the genre). Some important actors (e.g. Brando, De Niro) have adopted “method acting”, immersing themselves in their roles and letting them temporarily take over their private lives. In addition to the stars, the cast contains many supporting actors and extras. The British tradition of film-making is frequently more “theatrical” with famous stage-actors, such as Sir Ian McKellen and Dame Glenda Jackson, taking a rather different approach to their performances. Occasionally directors make a * The document uses the term to refer to both males and females. particular point of using non-professionals (e.g. films directed by Ken Loach and *In This World*, dir. Winterbottom, 2003). **DIRECTORS** Although in very commercial cinema, the director is a rather minor figure who simply delivers the desired product, in many cases directors have emerged as the central and controlling intelligence whose vision creates and unifies the film. Directors like Hitchcock have come to be seen as major artists. Some directors have a very personal style (e.g. Tim Burton); some specialise in a particular type of film (e.g. early Martin Scorsese); and others have a wide range, though common themes often emerge (e.g. Ridley Scott). **THE FILM INDUSTRY** One of the distinguishing characteristics of cinema is that a feature film involves tremendous effort and a huge outlay of money. As a result, marketing is very important and films are usually targeted at particular sectors of the population. The young, especially young males, are important consumers of entertainment; hence the frequency of action movies. To compete with television and video, studios have developed the concept of the blockbuster, a film that really deserves to be seen on the big screen, that is packed with special effects, that everyone talks about at the time of its release and that has many commercial tie-ins (e.g. *Titanic*, dir. J. Cameron, 1997; *Lord of the Rings*, dir. P. Jackson, completed 2003). Independent filmmakers try to maintain a more personal style, and art-house cinema caters for the highbrow. Film in English is dominated by Hollywood and the United States, but Britain, Australia and other English-speaking countries produce a number of new films each year. **GENRE** Films can be categorised in many ways and it would take pages to list all the possible genres. Story content is often the deciding factor: the Western, the coming-of-age story, the road movie, the buddy movie, science fiction, horror films, ghost stories and so on. Such categories have sub-categories: for instance, the crime film may appear as a detective story (classical or hard-boiled), a police film (maybe a buddy team, e.g. *Lethal Weapon*, dir. R. Donner, 1987), a gangster movie (e.g. many Scorsese films), a bank robbery story, and a film focussed on a con trick or con artist (e.g. *The Sting*, dir. G.R. Hill, 1973). Some categories refer to audience (e.g. the teen pic). For some films, the emotion evoked may be central (e.g. the weepy). Others are marked by a general style and pace (e.g. the action movie) or a more specific style (e.g. film noir). Biopics are based on true life stories. Animation (e.g. many Disney films) involves a completely different way of making a film. The categories are endless – some very loose and some with strict conventions – but trying to map the territory will help students in the analysis of particular films. **NARRATION** Films may contain point of view (POV) shots that show us the world from a character’s particular perspective, but it is hard to maintain for long and most films only treat the camera as a neutral all-seeing narrator. which can go anywhere. Occasionally voiceover is used, but outside film noir the technique has not been regarded as a particularly satisfactory one. Narrative sequence is frequently disrupted with flashbacks, flash-forwards, reconstructions, interviews, and cutting from story to story, between different plots/sets of characters. Some films begin with all the characters together and then diverge to follow a number of different individuals and story lines (e.g. *The Godfather*, dir F.R. Coppola, 1972); others follow the opposite course and start with two or more stories that seem unrelated, but gradually converge (*The English Patient*, dir A. Minghella, 1996). Characterisation, climax and suspense are central as in other forms of narrative fiction. **SOUNDTRACK** This consists of the dialogue, very important in most films, though less central in, for example, a pure action movie. It can in some ways be treated in the same way as a drama script, but can afford to be much less explicit because of the amount of visual information available to the filmgoer. Secondly, there are diegetic sounds, sounds that are natural to the scene (e.g. the sounds of insects, doors shutting, footsteps). These can be emphasised or downplayed by the sound editor/director. Finally, there are the non-diegetic sounds, ones that would not occur in reality. This usually takes the form of music and helps create mood and establish connections across the film. **TECHNICAL ASPECTS** As film is a visual experience, naturally this aspect deserves plenty of attention. Films can be made in black-and-white or colour. The colour can be intense (e.g. *Far From Heaven*, dir. T. Haynes, 2002), or drab to create a gloomy atmosphere (e.g. *Alien 3*, dir. D. Fincher, 1992 and *Seven*, D. Fincher, 1995). Lighting also has a strong effect on the visual style of the film and is used, for instance, to accentuate the beauty of a star (e.g. many scenes in *Casablanca*, dir. M. Curtiz, 1942). A film consists of a series of shots. The length of shots, created by cutting, affects the pace of the film. Digital effects are commonly used nowadays to enhance the visual experience (e.g. *Gladiator*, dir. R. Scott, 2000). The movement of the camera and its lens, described by means of such terms as pan, tracking, crane and zoom, is important. Slow motion, speeded up motion, freeze-frame, and jump-cut are additional terms which might crop up in the analysis of a film. **VISUAL EFFECT** A film is something we above all go to see, and great attention is given to this aspect. It needs to be taken as a general principle that what we see on the screen is there as a result of deliberate choice and worth discussing. - **Set** – Some settings belong to particular genres (e.g. Death Valley to westerns, the haunted house). Confined spaces can give a feeling of being trapped; while the open road and open countryside signify freedom (the contrast can be found in *Bonnie and Clyde*, dir. A. Penn, 1967 and the *Lord of the Rings* trilogy, dir. P. Jackson, completed 2003). Details of decoration can be used as part of characterisation (e.g. the Sikh home in *Bend it Like Beckham*, dir. G. Chadha, 2002). Nature can also reflect theme (e.g. *On Golden Pond*, dir. M. Rydell, 1981). - **Costume** – One genre of film is actually called the “costume drama”, historical films that lavish attention on the elaborate clothes of the past. In *The Breakfast Club* (dir. J. Hughes, 1985) the different types of students are indicated by their clothes. In this way clothes can be clichéd and reflect stereotypes with heroes often wearing lighter clothes than villains. Flamboyant costumes are a major source of characterisation and mood in *The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert* (dir. S. Elliot, 1994). Teenagers may be drawn to films such as those featuring rap artists in order to see the latest street fashions. - **Make-up, hair**, etc. – Every effort is made to ensure stars look as lovely as possible with perfect skin, shining eyes and so on. Make-up can be important to character (e.g. *Sunset Boulevard*, dir. B. Wilder, 1950) and even central to the story (e.g. *Elizabeth* [dir. S. Kapur, 1998], as the queen increasingly turns herself into an icon for the English people). Make-up plays a significant role in special effects also. - **Lighting** (see “Technical aspects”). - **Props** – Pairs of glasses are often, for example, significant, e.g. part of the outfit of a gangster, a sign of a brainy scientist or a symbol of shortsightedness. In one famous scene in *On the Waterfront* (dir. E. Kazan, 1954) gloves become briefly an important symbol of identity. The meals people eat can also be significant. In Bram Stoker’s *Dracula* (dir. F.F. Coppola 1992) a bloody steak is consumed, and in *Chinatown* (dir. R. Polanski, 1974) a fish, fitting in with a great deal of related imagery. Hitchcock’s films are rich in detail, e.g. the paintings on the wall in *Psycho* (1960). Good film spectators need to pay close attention to everything they are offered on the screen. **WRITING ABOUT FILM** Film writing takes many forms and there are different kinds of writing tasks teachers can assign to students as coursework. The film review can hardly be seen as a very firm genre, but the type published in newspapers and film magazines might be a useful model for students, though the style is frequently rather colloquial. The writers of these do not wish to spoil the enjoyment of their readers, who might watch the movie subsequent to reading the review, and consequently they are sparing of details of plot, especially if there are any surprises or twists. A film analysis, similar to the analytical study or essay required in the SBA of the subject, is usually longer and written in a more scholarly style. Students may also wish to keep a viewing diary/journal with filmographical detail, comments on interesting aspects and personal reactions. **Teaching suggestions for film** Movie quizzes, informal chats about the week’s new films, sharing of favourite films, advice and Internet sites and good film shops, group visits to the cinema, regular reading of film reviews, the provision of film magazines, interest in the Oscars and other film awards – all these can help generate, or harness, students’ enthusiasm for film talk and film criticism. Teachers should not hesitate to make it clear that films are not for passive entertainment, but active study. Especially after the first viewing, students are expected to review key scenes, discuss and reflect on what they have been watching. When a particular film is to be studied in depth, students can work in groups and each group can be given the task of exploring particular aspects of the film. Some groups may focus on the literary aspects, while others can work on the dramatic or the cinematic aspects. Students might choose for themselves, or be assigned, different elements to research or study. **Literary aspects:** - Narrative (the story/story line, what the story line is based on; any particular perspective used; narrative sequence disrupted by flashbacks or reconstructions) - Characters (protagonists, villains, how characters and their action help the audience gain insight into the story) - Setting (where the story happens, its significance) - Theme (the general subject of the film, e.g. love, rivalry, fantasy) - Genre (comedy, drama, science fiction, epic, horror, suspense, a mix of different genres) Students may be given the following questions to work on. **Literary aspects: questions to consider** 1. Who are the characters in the film? 2. What is the film’s setting? 3. What are the main plot elements? 4. From whose point of view is the story told? 5. What is the theme of the film? 6. What is the mood of the film? 7. What symbols are used in the film? Dramatic aspects: - Acting (how the actors perform) - Costume (how appropriate the clothes are to the characters or the setting of the story, and how they contribute to the overall effect of the film) - Make-up (whether the style is exaggerated or plain, and what effect is achieved) Students may be given the following questions to work on. **Dramatic aspects: questions to consider** 1. Did the actors make you forget they were acting? How? 2. How important were the costumes/make-up to the success of the film? 3. Was any scene particularly difficult to act? Why? 4. How did the actors use their voice or body movement to achieve the desired effects? 5. Did the actors establish their characters more through dialogue or through movement and facial expression? 6. Was there anything about the acting, set or costumes that you particularly liked or disliked? 7. Do you recognise any particular style of the director? 8. How does this film compare to other films by the same director? Cinematic aspects: - Technical (camera angles, movements and positions and the effects they create, lighting) - Sound and vision (sound effects, music, visual effects) Students may be given the following questions to work on. **Cinematic aspects: questions to consider** 1. What visual images impressed you most? What did they make you feel or think about? 2. What sounds or music do you remember? What did they make you feel or think about? 3. What scene(s) had very effective or unusual editing? 4. Were any special effects used in the film? Did they add to the overall success of the film or otherwise? Many film scripts which are available on the Internet or in book form are useful in designing learning and teaching tasks. Film commentaries, discussions, interviews and documentary material on the making of the film can also be useful learning resources. Excerpts of films can be selected for the purpose of appreciation and critical analysis. The following section provides further suggestions on teaching appreciation of films. 4.3.5 Literary Appreciation While Sections 4.3.1 – 4.3.4 focus on approaches and strategies to help students understand and interpret literary texts by exploring the different aspects of the various genres, this section takes a closer look at how to help students develop the ability to write an appreciation or a critical analysis of a poem or an extract from a prose text, which the students may or may not have studied. If the extract comes from a work the students have not previously studied, in order to get them to concentrate on literary matters, it is advisable to gloss difficult words or allow a dictionary to be used while writing the analysis. Occasionally a few introductory sentences can accompany the passage to ensure that comprehending it becomes easier. Guided questions are desirable at this stage unless the passage is a particularly accessible one. Students need to be fully conscious that the piece of prose given to them has been extracted from a longer text and may have been shortened or otherwise tailored to fit its purpose. They must in all cases try to establish the purpose of the passage, its tone and style. The following section provides suggestions for teaching literary appreciation of various genres. Further examples of critical analysis of extracts from prose texts are included in Appendix 3 to help teachers and students understand the sort of comments that may be expected in literary appreciation. It should be noted that the sample analyses and suggested answers included in this chapter and the appendices are for illustration purposes. They are examples which aim to provide a comprehensive picture of what teachers may look for in the various texts. They are by no means representative of the kind of work students generally produce, though they should always be encouraged and helped produce work of a high quality. For she was dead. There, upon her little bed, she lay at rest. The solemn stillness was no marvel now. She was dead. No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from trace of pain, so fair to look upon. She seemed a creature fresh from the hand of God, and waiting for the breath of life; not one who had lived and suffered death. Her couch was dressed with here and there some winter berries and green leaves, gathered in a spot she had been used to favour. “When I die, put near me something that has loved the light, and had the sky above it always.” Those were her words. She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. Her little bird – a poor slight thing the pressure of a finger would have crushed – was stirring nimbly in its cage; and the strong heart of its child-mistress was mute and motionless for ever. Where were the traces of her early cares, her sufferings, and fatigues? All gone. Sorrow was dead indeed in her, but peace and perfect happiness were born; imaged in her tranquil beauty and profound repose. And still her former self lay there, unaltered in this change. Yes. The old fireside had smiled upon that same sweet face; it had passed like a dream through haunts of misery and care; at the door of the poor schoolmaster on the summer evening, before the furnace fire upon the cold wet night, at the still bedside of the dying boy, there had been the same mild lovely look. So shall we know the angels in their majesty, after death. The old man held one languid arm in his, and had the small hand tight folded to his breast, for warmth. It was the hand she had stretched out to him with her last smile – the hand that had led him on, through all their wanderings. Ever and anon he pressed it to his lips; then hugged it to his breast again, murmuring that it was warmer now; and, as he said it, he looked, in agony, to those who stood around, as if imploring them to help her. * From Ch. 7 from *The Old Curiosity Shop* (1998) by Dickens, Charles edited by Brennan, Elizabeth. By permission of Oxford University Press. She was dead, and past all help, or need of it. The ancient rooms she had seemed to fill with life, even while her own was waning fast – the garden she had tended – the eyes she had gladdened – the noiseless haunts of many a thoughtful hour – the paths she had trodden as it were but yesterday – could know her never more. “It is not,” said the schoolmaster, as he bent down to kiss her on the cheek, and gave his tears free vent, “it is not on earth that Heaven’s justice ends. Think what earth is, compared with the World to which her young spirit has winged its early flight; and say, if one deliberate wish expressed in solemn terms above this bed could call her back to life, which of us would utter it!” Pre-reading activity Let students know that they are going to read an extract from a 19th century novel: A young adolescent girl, an orphan, looked after by her grandfather, has, after a short, hard life, died. Some friends visit the house. Ask students to consider the following questions: • What do you expect the passage to be like? • What tone will it have? • What techniques does the writer use? • What details of setting could be used and possibly given symbolic importance? • How would you write the scene to create the right impression in readers? Reading the passage • Let students share their expectations – writing them on the board, making sure that they include aspects such as language and syntax. • Read the passage in an appropriate tone. • Explain any words that cause trouble. • Ask the students to check how correct their predictions were. • Cross out expectations that were not realised, and add newly discovered points. • Handle questions. Post-reading activity Ask the students to write critical analyses of the extract. Note: this lesson is not for beginners, but for students who are already familiar with the main techniques of prose writing. For the inexperienced/less able students, it would be possible to give a framework for the analysis, e.g. • aim of the passage; • narrative voice; • style and its suitability; • parts of speech preferences; • tone; • imagery; and • linguistic features. Later, let the class read the best analyses and benefit from the examples. A sample analysis is provided here for illustrative purposes. This extract aims to move the readers at the death of a young girl. The omniscient narrator addresses us directly, shows us Nell’s body, reminds us of her life and presents the grief of her grandfather. The style, diction and syntax are all simple to reflect the innocence of this dear child. Adjectives abound, but they are nearly all positive: “solemn”, “beautiful”, “calm”, “free”, “fresh”, “dear”, “gentle”, “patient”, “noble”, “perfect”, “tranquil”, “profound”. There is a serene religious acceptance of Nell’s death (Nell seems to be sleeping, and God, Heaven and angels are mentioned). Her end is a blessing (see the comment of the schoolmaster), but there’s also pathos – Nell is cold, her grandfather cannot accept her death, and the schoolmaster weeps. The reader is expected to be moved. Nell is associated with nature. We read of winter berries and green leaves (the green of youth and the winter of death?), the light, the sky and her little bird. The fragility of the bird parallels that of Nell. Was the cage her life? Certainly the schoolmaster talks of the flight of her spirit. The few details we are given of her life suggest it was not an easy one (“haunts of misery and care”, etc.). Touches of alliteration help decorate and dignify the scene, e.g. “solemn stillness”, “loved the light”, “noble Nell” and “mute and motionless”. Although Nell is dead, she remains very present; she and her belongings are the grammatical subject of many of the sentences. Throughout the passage, like the sounding of a funeral bell, tolls the oft repeated “She was dead” II. The short story Through the Tunnel Doris Lessing Pre-reading activity Tell the students that they are going to read a story about a boy growing up. Before reading the story, they need to do some research and thinking. They have to work in groups and prepare short presentations on one of the following: • male initiation rites and growing-up ceremonies; • examples of young male growing-up stories (possibly films are easiest to think of); • the Oedipus complex (and optionally, phallic symbols); • the symbolism of tunnels, caves and underground places; • parental possessiveness; and • peer groups and adolescence. **Reading the story** Listen to the short presentations and answer questions. While the story is being read, ask different students to monitor and take notes on various aspects, including: • narration; • language choice/diction; • similes/imagery/symbols; • syntax; • plot development and suspense; • setting; • contrast; • colour; and • characters. Ask for reports on these aspects, correct misunderstandings and lead the class through questioning and clarification towards an understanding of the story. Possible examples of leading questions for discussion include: • How is sexuality presented in the story? • How is the mother-son relationship changed by the end of the story? What detail in particular reveals this change? • What is the mood at the end of the story? • Is the story sexist? **Post-reading activity** Ask the students to write a critical analysis of the story, or set them an essay on some aspect of it. Below is a sample analysis of the story. This is a “growing up” story. Children pass from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. Their relationships, feelings and bodies change as they grow and develop sexuality. This is the principal theme of this story. In many cultures, young men have to undergo initiation. These rituals often involve confinement in a small, dark space, pain and blood (in many cases, as a result of circumcision). All this is echoed in the story (possibly Doris Lessing’s African background is relevant in this respect). Initiation rituals lie behind many hero and quest stories, in which a young man sets out from home, undergoes an ordeal, often fighting with a monster, and then returns home victorious. The rocks in the story are duly described as being like monsters, octopuses are mentioned and there is a reference to chivalry, summoning up the image of the young knight’s quest. There is a sexual element to the story as this is obviously central to the experience of growing up. The older boys who inspire Jerry are naked. Some of the writing can be interpreted in sexual terms. For example, after his first encounter with the elder boys, Jerry “climbed back to the diving rock and sat down, feeling “the hot roughness of it under his thighs”. The following is another example: ...The great rock the big boys had swum through rose sheer out of the white sand, black, tufted lightly with greenish weed. He could see no gap in it. He swam down to its base. Again and again he rose, took a big chestful of air, and went down. Again and again he groped over the surface of the rock, feeling it, almost hugging it in the desperate need to find the entrance.... The tunnel is also a birth canal through which Jerry symbolically swims to rebirth. This is also part of the Oedipal content of the story. Jerry starts the story as a little boy following his widowed mummy. To grow up he needs to break free from this intense attachment and become independent. This is the main story arc, and at the end there are signs of a subtle change in his relationship with his mother. Other themes that could be discussed are parental possessiveness, our guilt at growing away from our parents, the importance of same-sex peer groups for adolescents, loneliness and the relationship of the tourist to the less sophisticated, but more “real”, native (a key element in, for example, the work of D.H. Lawrence and E.M. Forster). One can also see in the story the intense anxiety of the 1950s, caused by psychological theories in the United States, about the danger of mothers letting their sons become “mommy’s boys” who would probably develop into homosexuals. The story style is fairly simple. There is an omniscient narrator who describes everything and takes us into the minds of the characters by means of commentary and free indirect speech; increasingly though as the story goes on it is Jerry’s mind we enter and his point of view we take. It is right, then, that the language should not be too complex and elaborate for an 11-year-old boy. The style can be described as painterly. What there is to be seen is described in detail and with great attention to colour. Simple similes are used (e.g. “like a slice of orange peel”, “like brown whales” and so on). There are a few passages of rich and poetic description (e.g. the paragraph beginning, “Under him, six or seven feet down…”). Adjectives do a lot of work, and the typical sentence tells us what Jerry did: he + verb. This indeed is the main focus of the story. Pace is also very important. Note particularly that the narration slows down to prepare readers for the climactic journey through the tunnel. The characterisation is basically psychological. We are given insight into the minds of characters, as noted earlier, by means of free indirect speech (a good example for the mother is the paragraph beginning “She was thinking…”, and for Jerry the one beginning “She gave him a patient, inquisitive look…”). Scenes such as the one in which Jerry clowns in front of the local boys are also important, giving us a glimpse into the personality of this rather intense and introspective boy. Dialogue also has a role, but we are given little idea as to how Jerry or his mother looks. The attention to the mother’s whiteness and gradual reddening, and Jerry’s final brownness, seems more symbolic than descriptive. The setting is crucial to the story, with the contrast between the safe, crowded tourist beach, and the rocky wilder bay symbolising the changes in Jerry. There is a lovely moment when Jerry, swimming out to sea (a symbol of sexuality and femininity, according to Freud), sees his mother in the distance as just a dab of colour. This symbolises Jerry’s changing relationship with his mother as her role in his life decreases. (The goggles he buys also reinforce the point of seeing things in a new way.) Thus setting and symbolism reinforce theme, and contrast helps structure the story. The main feeling at the end of the story is that Jerry has undergone his initiation; the obstacle no longer concerns him once it has been passed. There is, however, a certain openness – is there also a sense of the emptiness of human achievement; how sometimes things we desperately wanted can suddenly seem trivial when we have them? Anyway, this is a fine and subtle story reflecting on a young man’s development – though whether a feminist would find some of its assumptions highly questionable is another point… III. Poem A Daughter of Eve A fool I was to sleep at noon, And wake when night is chilly Beneath the comfortless cold moon; A fool to pluck my rose too soon, A fool to snap my lily. My garden-plot I have not kept; Faded and all-forsaken, I weep as I have never wept: Oh it was summer when I slept, It’s winter now I waken. Talk what you please of future spring And sun-warm’d sweet to-morrow:— Stripp’d bare of hope and everything, No more to laugh, no more to sing, I sit alone with sorrow. Christina Rossetti Pre-reading activity Tell the class that later on they are going to read a 19th century poem about a girl who loses her virginity before marriage. Ask various members of the class to do some research prior to reading the poem. Possible topics: • The story of Adam and Eve; • Traditional views on suitable behaviour for young women and premarital sex; • The New Testament parable of the Foolish Virgins; • The fable of the ant and the grasshopper; • Flowers and their symbolic associations with young women and sexuality; and • Moon symbolism. Reading the poem • Ask the groups to report on their findings. • Read the poem. • Ask for comment on the diction, tone, imagery and message. • Ask for comment on the sounds in lines 4–5 and 15. Post-reading activity Ask students how they would illustrate the poem, or ask them to write a critical analysis. Below is a sample analysis of the poem. This beautiful little lyric, with its simple diction and skilful triple rhymes, is filled with sadness. The imagery comes from nature (times of the day, times of the year, the moon, flowers and gardens). The title explains the symbolism: just as Eve fell to temptation, so has the poetic persona. A number of other stories can be detected below the surface. Jesus told the parable of the careless virgins, who were asleep when the bridegroom came and so missed their chance of happiness. The fable of the ant which toiled all summer to prepare for winter, while the careless grasshopper played and then starved, seems relevant too. The lily is associated with the Virgin Mary and the plucking of flowers with a girl’s loss of virginity. The poem is a solemn warning to young women to use their time well, be industrious and avoid sexual temptation (a modern feminist might, indeed, find a lot to argue with in the poem). The persona almost becomes a personification of regret as, at the end of the poem, she sits hopeless and alone. The strong consonants of “pluck” and “snap” emphasise the force of these actions. Alliteration is used for decorative emphasis in lines 7, 8, 9, 10, 12 and 15. The assonance of “o” (-lone/-row) sounds like a sigh (Oh). The poem expresses the beauty of the woman, but shows how she has misused and wasted it. IV. Extract from a play *The Duchess of Malfi* John Webster BOSOLA Most ambitiously: princes’ images on their tombs do not lie, as they were wont\(^1\), seeming to pray up to heaven; but with their hands under their cheeks, as if they died of the tooth-ache. They are not carved with their eyes fixed upon the stars, but as their minds were wholly bent upon the world, the selfsame way they seem to turn their faces. DUCHESS Let me know fully therefore the effect Of this thy dismal preparation, This talk fit for a charnel\(^2\). BOSOLA Now I shall:-- [Enter EXECUTIONERS, with a coffin, cords, and a bell] Here is a present from your princely brothers; \(^*\) Act IV. scene ii “The Duchess of Malfi” from *The Duchess of Malfi and Other Plays* (1998) by Webster, J. By permission of Oxford University Press. And may it arrive welcome, for it brings Last benefit, last sorrow. **DUCHESS** Let me see it: I have so much obedience in my blood, I wish it in their veins to do them good. **BOSOLA** This is your last presence-chamber. **CARIOLA** O my sweet lady! **DUCHESS** Peace; it affrights not me. **BOSOLA** I am the common bellman That usually is sent to condemned persons The night before they suffer. **DUCHESS** Even now thou said’st Thou wast a tomb-maker. **BOSOLA** ’Twas to bring you By degrees to mortification\(^3\). Listen. [Rings the bell.] Hark, now everything is still, The screech-owl\(^4\) and the whistler shrill Call upon our dame aloud, And bid her quickly don\(^5\) her shroud! Much you had of land and rent; Your length in clay’s now competent\(^6\): A long war disturbed your mind; Here your perfect peace is signed. Of what is ’t fools make such vain keeping? Sin their conception, their birth weeping, Their life a general mist of error, Their death a hideous storm of terror. Strew your hair with powders sweet, Don clean linen, bathe your feet, And (the foul fiend more to check) A crucifix let bless your neck. ’Tis now full tide ’tween night and day; End your groan, and come away. **CARIOLA** Hence, villains, tyrants, murderers! Alas! What will you do with my lady? – Call for help! DUCHESS To whom? To our next neighbours? They are mad-folks. BOSOLA Remove that noise. [EXECUTIONERS seize CARIOLA, who struggles.] DUCHESS Farewell, Cariola. In my last will I have not much to give: A many hungry guests have fed upon me; Thine will be a poor reversion¹. CARIOLA I will die with her. DUCHESS I pray thee, look thou giv’st my little boy Some syrup for his cold, and let the girl Say her prayers ere she sleep. [CARIOLA is forced out by the EXECUTIONERS.] Now what you please: What death? BOSOLA Strangling; here are your executioners. DUCHESS I forgive them: The apoplexy, catarrh, or cough o’ th’ lungs, Would do as much as they do. BOSOLA Doth not death fright you? DUCHESS Who would be afraid on ’t, Knowing to meet such excellent company In th’ other world? BOSOLA Yet, methinks, The manner of your death should much afflict you: This cord should terrify you. DUCHESS Not a whit: What would it pleasure me to have my throat cut With diamonds? or to be smothered With cassia? or to be shot to death with pearls²? I know death hath ten thousand several doors For men to take their exits; and ’tis found They go on such strange geometrical hinges, You may open them both ways: any way, for heaven-sake, So I were out of your whispering. Tell my brothers That I perceive death, now I am well awake, Best gift is they can give or I can take. I would fain put off my last woman’s-fault³, I’d not be tedious to you. FIRST EXECUTIONER We are ready. DUCHESS Dispose my breath how please you; but my body\textsuperscript{10} Bestow upon my women, will you? FIRST EXECUTIONER Yes. DUCHESS Pull, and pull strongly, for your able strength Must pull down heaven upon me: – Yet stay; heaven-gates are not so highly arched As princes’ palaces; they that enter there Must go upon their knees [Kneels]. – Come, violent death, Serve for mandragora\textsuperscript{11} to make me sleep! – Go tell my brothers, when I am laid out, They then may feed in quiet. [They strangle her.] BOSOLA Where’s the waiting-woman\textsuperscript{12}? Fetch her: some other strangle the children. [Enter EXECUTIONERS. Enter one with CARIOLA] Look you, there sleeps your mistress. CARIOLA O, you are damned Perpetually for this! My turn is next; Is ’t not so ordered? BOSOLA Yes, and I am glad You are so well prepared for ’t. CARIOLA You are deceived, sir, I am not prepared for ’t! I will not die! I will first come to my answer; and know How I have offended. BOSOLA Come, despatch her. – You kept her counsel, now you shall keep ours. CARIOLA I will not die, I must not; I am contracted\textsuperscript{13} To a young gentleman. FIRST EXECUTIONER [Showing the noose] Here’s your wedding-ring\textsuperscript{14}. CARIOLA Let me but speak with the Duke. I’ll discover Treason to his person. BOSOLA Delays:– throttle her. FIRST EXECUTIONER She bites and scratches! CARIOLA If you kill me now, I am damned! I have not been at confession This two years. BOSOLA [To EXECUTIONERS.] When? CARIOLA I am quick with child\textsuperscript{15}. BOSOLA Why, then, Your credit’s\textsuperscript{16} saved. [EXECUTIONERS strangle CARIOLA.] Bear her into the next room; Let this lie still. [Exeunt the EXECUTIONERS with the body of CARIOLA.] Glossary: 1. as they were wont = as they were accustomed to. To see the change in style in tombs, compare the classic tombs with the person lying on his/her back looking upwards: \url{www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/church_reformation/church_gallery.shtml} with the Jacobean style in which the figure leans on one elbow (as if the person had toothache), as in the tomb of St. John Leventhorpe and his wife Joan: \url{www.englishchurch.org/Tour.htm}. Bosola suggests the change of style mirrors a change of attitude. 2. charnel = bone store 3. mortification = repentance, with a pun on “death” 4. screech owl, associated with graveyards 5. don = put on 6. All you need now is enough earth to cover your body. 7. I can’t leave you much money. 8. to be made unable to breathe with expensive perfume 9. Women are said to talk too much; I will be brief and not bore you. 10. i.e. give my body 11. mandragora = a poison 12. waiting-woman = a maid 13. i.e. engaged to be married 14. i.e. the rope around her neck 15. quick with child = pregnant 16. credit = good reputation Pre-reading activity Tell students that the extract they are going to read comes from a play, *The Duchess of Malfi* by John Webster, written around 1611. In the early 17th century, there was a fashion for Revenge Drama – the plays are dark ones, involving cruel murder, ghosts and especially incest (Shakespeare’s *Hamlet* is part of the genre, and possibly also *Macbeth*). The works have some similarities with the modern thriller and horror genres. The Duchess has had a secret marriage and children, against the wishes of her powerful brothers. When they find out the truth, they confine her to a madhouse and, unable to bear the thought of the dishonour they feel her behaviour has brought on them, they order her murder by their servant, Bosola. Ask students to 1. Read the extract and the notes. Make sure that they understand what is being said. 2. Think about the effect the writer wants to create and the dramatic techniques he uses, i.e. - the diction (look for any word sets) and imagery - the action on the stage - the pace of the action - the characterisation of the Duchess - the characterisation of Bosola - the role of Cariola. 3. Be prepared to share their thoughts with the class. Reading the play - Have students read the extract aloud in class. - Handle any questions. - Discuss the points raised in the pre-reading activity. - Discuss the four speeches: - Bosola’s “Most ambitiously…”; - Bosola’s “Hark, now everything is still…”; - the Duchess’ “Not a whit…”; and - the Duchess’ “Pull, and pull strongly…”. Concentrate especially on the style and imagery, and the atmosphere they create. Post-reading activity Ask students to write either an analysis bringing all these points together, or some production notes on the clothes/costumes, lighting, props, scenery, background noises, music, stage movement and style of speech they would recommend to bring out the full potential of the extract. Below is a sample analysis. This death scene is drawn out, moves from horror to horror, and almost takes pleasure in its exaggerated, decorative presentation of murder. The setting – a madhouse, possibly with screams and wild yells in the background – is bizarre enough. Bosola certainly does not simply kill the Duchess. He discusses tombs, brings in a parade of death (executioners with a coffin), delivers a speech/poem/song on death, discusses the mode of death, waits while the Duchess prepares herself, orders the execution, and when we think the horror might be over, commences killing the Duchess’s children and maid, the last a slow affair with Cariola resisting her end, screaming and fighting to the last. There is plenty here for a director to work on and bring alive through lighting, sound and colour. There are four remarkable speeches in this extract. First, Bosola’s short prose speech at the beginning of the extract: Bosola uses the changing styles of tombs to suggest that the world and its rulers have become less spiritual. The reference to toothache strikes one as strange and slightly unsettling. Next, there is Bosola’s death song, arguing the death should be welcomed, but at the same time making it hideous. The song creates effects by contrast – the carefully rhymed beauty of the poetry against the horror of the content. The effect runs throughout the extract: life against death, the beauty and calm of the Duchess against her violent murder. The Duchess has two long speeches. “Not a whit…” adds to the strange atmosphere, with its bizarre, imaginary forms of death – having one’s throat cut with diamonds, being suffocated with perfume, or being shot with pearls. Her final speech has grandeur and gives her a noble end. In terms of characterisation, Bosola is calm and ironic in overseeing these foul murders (e.g. “Here is a present from your princely brothers” and “Why then your credit’s saved”). His cruelty comes over in his comments to the Duchess on the manner of her death, gloating over her prospective suffering, and, most chillingly of all, when he reduces Cariola to a mere nothing: “Remove that noise”. The scene is designed to attract our sympathy for the Duchess. This is done by emphasising the cruelty of her killers, her dignity, the devotion of her servant to her, her concern for Cariola, her touching instructions about her children (“look thou giv’st my little boy some syrup for his cold”) and her final religious humility. She shows the strength of her character in her sharp answers to Bosola, and in her own irony. Her crime has been to dare to be herself and take her own decisions, but she says she will try to avoid that other great fault of women – talking too much – so she cuts her speech short (“I’d not be tedious to you”). Her tone is neatly emphasised by the sudden rhyme awake/take in the same speech. Cariola is a devoted servant, whose humanity is emphasised by her obvious fear of death. In this she contrasts with the Duchess, who shows her noble blood by accepting her fate. Although the scene seems to question gender stereotypes, it accepts ones about social class. Overall, the scene is dark and frightening with various bizarre details creating an unsettling, slightly weird effect. Notes: This is for a fairly advanced stage in the course after reading easier and more modern plays. It might be interesting to relate the dark world of Jacobean drama to Mannerist art in Europe and look at paintings such as Caravaggio’s *Martyrdom of St Matthew* for the same exaggerated and sadistic world. (See www.phespirit.info/pictures/caravaggio/p030.htm) V. Film (1) *The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers* Peter Jackson (2002) In this example, a film based on a well-known text is used to help students see the sort of decisions directors take. Pre-viewing activity Ask students to read two extracts from J.R.R. Tolkien’s *The Lord of the Rings, The Two Towers*: - Book III, chapter IV, from the beginning to “He ended, and strode on silently, and in all the wood, as far as the ear could reach, there was not a sound.”; and - Book IV, chapter III. Viewing the film Students watch Chapters 14 and 15, “Fangorn Forest” and “The Black Gate is Closed” from Peter Jackson’s film of the book (the sections that show Merry and Pippin being carried along by Treebeard the Ent, and Frodo, Sam and Gollum at the Black Gate). Students may view the sections a number of times and discuss the following: - the changes/differences between the book and film; - the setting and camera work; - the actors/characters; - the sound; - plot tension; and - the relationship between the two scenes. Post-viewing activity Students write a critical analysis in the form of a commentary on the extract from the film. They may work in groups if they prefer. Below is a sample analysis. The scene opens with three people in a lifeless, stony landscape, confronting danger. Frodo, Sam and Gollum are seen climbing slate-like blue rocks. Strong dissonant music plays as we reach the top and get our first look at the Black Gate in the sort of Gothic style associated with horror stories. It stands among barren mountains with a threatening sky, tinged blood red. Frodo, as befits the hero, is the more handsome with curly hair and piercing blue eyes. Sam, as suits the hero’s companion, is a more ordinary figure. Gollum is a fascinating blend of the pitiable and vulnerable (almost a naked child) and the evil (like a grub or a moving corpse). The camera shows us the battlements. Everything is grey and spiky. Then we look down on marching columns of soldiers. Orders are shouted, drums beaten and a horn sounded, so horrible it seems to hurt Gollum. The viewer is reminded of the parades loved by dictators and totalitarian states. Trolls labour to open the Black Gate. A view along the battlements makes them look like a shark’s jaws, consistent with the image of Mordor as some all-consuming beast. We return to the three travellers. Sam moves forward, the rock suddenly gives way, and he falls. The camera cuts between the mishap and the marching men. Two of the men hear something and run to investigate. Frodo rushes to help Sam. The suspense is derived from the expectation that they will be found, but the surprise is that, thanks to Frodo’s quick action, they are rendered invisible beneath Frodo’s cape. A point of view shot shows what they see as the soldiers approach with spears. There is a tense moment and then they turn away and drums, shouts, the tramp of marching feet and heavy music take over. Gollum dramatically pulls the hobbits back from trying to enter the gates and a conversation follows, portrayed by means of cuts and close-ups. Gollum begs, but his sideways-slanting eyes make him seem untrustworthy; Sam’s eyes look down showing his distrust and unease, and Frodo gives Sam a sidelong glance, knowing he is not trusted. This increases the suspense generated by the characters’ relationship, embodying as it does the potential for betrayal. The gates clang shut. (2) *Gladiator* *Ridley Scott (2000)* This second example illustrates how a film extract can be used without relying on knowledge of the story’s source or the rest of the film. The extract is taken from the end of the film *Gladiator*, from the emergence of Commodus in the arena to the final credits. *Pre-viewing activity* - Ask students to watch the extract. The film gives a fictional account of a lifelong rivalry between the real-life Roman Emperor Commodus and a heroic figure named Maximus. The part of the film students will watch shows their final confrontation, fighting as gladiators in the Colosseum at Rome. - To prepare for the viewing, students need to do some research into the Roman circus, gladiators and the emperor Commodus. **Viewing the extract** - Ask some members of the class to explain what they have found out about the topics set. - Let the class share their opinions and insights and ask questions. **Post-viewing activity** Ask students to write a critical analysis of what they have seen. Below is a sample analysis. Grand music plays as the black-clad soldiers move aside to reveal the emperor Commodus, as in some old Hollywood musical, in ornate white armour, ready to fight his foe Maximus (in black) in an arena littered with red rose petals. Commodus is portrayed as a showman, very determined to project himself as the hero of the show. Maximus’ simple ceremony of touching the earth, although not explained here, seems far more genuine than the hollow gestures of the Emperor. Close-ups between the foes show this will be a fight to the death. The fight is shown realistically with fast camerawork and swirling dust. The excitement of the crowd, the cries of the combatants and the clang of the swords add to the atmosphere. The battle goes to and fro. Maximus is obviously seriously injured, but then Commodus loses his sword. We see shock in his eyes. This arrogant man has never considered that he might lose. He demands a sword but his days of power are over and he is disobeyed. Maximus is dying. This is conveyed by shots of another place, shown half drained of colour, and obviously visionary. The speed of the film slows as we look at a wall with a door. Then Commodus leaps at Maximus; Maximus refocusses and fights, but honourably takes no advantage of his sword and fights with his fists. Commodus draws a dagger and tries to stab Maximus, but with beautiful irony, his face symbolically covered with blood, the emperor dies impaled on his own blade. As he sinks, we cut to a long shot and silence reigns as low music starts. The emperor’s death is not the key moment of this scene – that is yet to come. We are now approaching the epic ending. Maximus gives a little bow, but his life is ebbing away. We return to the vision as a solo voice joins the music. Then a close-up of Maximus as he speaks his last noble words, “Free my men,” and “There was a dream that was Rome. It shall be realised.”. He falls. The film cuts to the visionary world. He enters the door and finds open fields. Cutting back to the arena, the screen shows a noblewoman coming and kneeling over him with a startling blue sky behind her head. The camera looks down at the dying Maximus, and the woman weeps. Maximus’s death is realised cinematically as a strange floating movement over the rose-petalled ground. His wife and son prepared to greet him among the fields in that other world. Serious, slow orchestral music prepares for the grand finale. The noble lady speaks: “He was a soldier of Rome. Honour him.” And people move forward to carry him aloft out of the arena, leaving the dead emperor forgotten and unmourned. The short scene of an African laying two little clay figures to rest in the earth follows. There is a sense of closure in his gesture. He also talks of freedom and of rejoining Maximus, but “not yet”. The final feeling is not one of despair – life has its sadness, but its joy also. The camera returns to a misty Colosseum, and rises. We see, beyond the top of the walls, Roman splendour with a red sun above it. Given the events, this is probably sunset: Commodus and Maximus have died, and the Empire is entering a period of decline; but there is room for the opposite view – after all, Maximus has finally defeated the tyrant. The music climaxes, creating a final mood of epic dignity. 4.3.6 Schools of Literary Criticism Students at this stage are not expected to learn about literary theories or the tenets of the various schools of criticism. They should, however, be aware that there are different views of famous texts and controversies over the best ways to interpret them (e.g. disputes over the status of Satan in *Paradise Lost*, or Achebe’s famous criticism of *Heart of Darkness* for racism). In discussing set texts, teachers may wish to draw on the insights of various critical schools. A few general notes are offered here on those believed likely to be most relevant. **Humanistic criticism** Here the main interest is in discussing the moral issues raised by a work of literature. Characters and motivation receive careful scrutiny, and literature is used as a means to discuss life. This is the style of criticism students usually find most appealing at this stage. **Formalist and language-based criticism** This approach concentrates on style, the manipulation of language, the structure of a text, its relation to other texts and the conventions of genre. **Biographical criticism** The critic relates the literary work to the life of its author. This can be more illuminating with some writers than others, e.g. Sylvia Plath’s life story is helpful in approaching her verse. Followers of the New Criticism, however, prefer to look at a poem as an independent artefact to be studied in isolation (see “New Criticism” below). **Marxist-influenced criticism** This is concerned with the rise and fall of different classes and the economic circumstances that texts emerge from. Literary texts are seen as the product of societies rather than of autonomous individuals. **Feminist criticism** This is closely related to Marxist criticism. The most prominent form it takes is an exploration of the ways in which men have portrayed women in their writing, stereotyping and marginalising them. It is also interested in the growth of writing by women, and the question as to whether women can/should use the same literary forms and language as men, or need to develop their own literature. **Post-colonial criticism** Various critics have explored the ways in which colonialism and imperialism have been reflected in literature and continue to affect cultures which have been subjected to them. Such critics might, for example, approach *The Tempest* as a play about Prospero’s colonisation of the island and enslavement of the aboriginal population (Ariel and Caliban). Edward Said’s work on “orientalism” has opened up study of the ways in which cultures have viewed one another, and more particularly the ways in which dominant cultures regard foreign ones and justify their exploitation. **New criticism** Critics of this school view a literary work as an independent and self-sufficient object, and argue for close reading and analysis of its formal properties, rather than having recourse to the biography and *psychology* of the author and to literary history. **New historical criticism** This moves beyond the traditional history of literature, to a consideration of the historical circumstances behind a given text (e.g. *Macbeth* is written for the court of James I, the first of the Scottish Stuart *kings* of England, and the author of a book on witchcraft as well as being a strong defender of the divine right of kings). **Psychoanalytic criticism** Critics of this school use the theories of Freud and Jung. The writer or the characters in a work of literature may be psychoanalysed. Maybe the most famous example of this type of criticism is the reading of *Hamlet* as a play about Hamlet’s Oedipal feelings about Hamlet the elder, Claudius and Gertrude. The work of Lacan has created interest in the development of the Self through concepts of the Other. The more ways in which students are encouraged to look at texts, the richer their experience of literature will be. 4.3.7 Assessment for Learning Assessment is an integral part of the learning and teaching process. Therefore, while teachers are using any of the pedagogical approaches or strategies suggested in this chapter, they should consider using, where appropriate, formative and summative assessment to further promote and enhance student learning. Fundamentally, assessment involves both teachers and students reflecting on assessment data: on the one hand, it should provide students with appraisal and feedback on their performance in relation to the learning objectives to help them improve; and on the other, it offers teachers information for effective planning and intervention. Chapter 5 considers in more detail how assessment is approached in the Literature in English curriculum. 4.4 Quality Interaction Section 4.3 has offered a range of learning and teaching approaches and strategies that teachers might like to consider to achieve specific learning targets and objectives suited to students’ needs and abilities. Whatever approaches or strategies they choose, however, teachers are encouraged to build in quality interaction to ensure effective learning. The following example, which focusses on the use of short stories to develop skills of literary comprehension and appreciation, illustrates how such an interactive process can be brought about: Scaffolding Before students approach a particular story, the teacher should provide scaffolds or means of support to assist comprehension. For example, he/she may help build students’ vocabulary by explaining, or asking them to look up, key words or phrases that are crucial to understanding the text. He/she may also help increase students’ world knowledge by encouraging them to find information about a certain topic, issue, historical event or cultural practice that is related to the central theme or even presented in the story. Similarly, prompting students to reflect on their own experience, and to project themselves into situations similar to those which occur in the text, are good ways of ensuring that students approach it with the right mental set. Questioning To foster a close interaction with the text and develop higher-order thinking skills, open-ended questioning is strongly encouraged. Whether they are involved in a group discussion or an individual task, students should not just be engaged with questions which aim at eliciting information-based responses. They should also be provided with questions that stimulate reasoned interpretation and personal response. For example, they may be asked to discuss the motive of a certain character who has opted for a particular course of action, and give justifications for their interpretation; or they can be asked to imagine that they are that character, disclosing their feelings in a letter to an intimate friend after reflecting on the incident. Engaging students in this way will enable them to explore their own feelings, develop their own responses and make their own judgements – crucial skills which they can apply to the understanding and appreciation of a wider range of literary texts. **Feedback** Constructive feedback or advice should be provided during and/or after each learning activity to let students know how well they have done and how they can make improvement. For example, students can be asked to write a critical essay on the story they have read, and the teacher may provide comments on their drafts in terms of content, organisation and language, based on which students will make revisions to produce texts of better quality. The teacher need not be the sole source of quality feedback. This can come through students’ direct involvement in assessing their own and others’ work. Peer and self feedback, based on clear criteria, enhance audience awareness and encourage a critical response to texts. ### 4.5 A Learning Community As suggested in Section 3.3.5, teachers and students are encouraged to work closely together as a learning community that is characterised by mutual trust, and which fosters active learning, cooperation and teamwork. A learning community that is conducive to increasing students’ involvement and motivation easily fosters a strong sense of membership, as teachers and students become partners/joint investigators in the process of developing knowledge. Further, a learning community enables students to develop their capacity to be responsible for their own learning and to care about the learning of their peers. Such a community can be created in the study of Literature in English through giving students plenty of opportunities to discuss and share ideas and feelings about the texts they have read or viewed, to collaborate on projects or performances, and to support each other through peer feedback. The sense of membership that students share enables them to experiment with the literary knowledge and skills they have developed. Moreover, through engaging in self-directed learning, a strong sense of empowerment can be generated, as students set their own learning goals and monitor their own progress through individual or team effort. Apart from promoting partnership between students in learning, an effective learning community also involves a close partnership between the teacher and students. Far from being a mere manager of class activities and transmitter of knowledge, the teacher learns and works together with the students, forming a mentoring relationship with them. Strategies for building active learning which teachers are encouraged to promote include: - **Collaborative learning** – This provides students with the opportunity to learn actively, to negotiate with each other to discover meaning, and to develop and share understanding of the literary texts. • **Problem-solving** – This allows students to work, often in small groups, on tasks or projects to strengthen their critical and collaborative abilities through analysing closely various aspects of literary texts, discussing possible readings, and working out or justifying their own interpretations. • **Experiential learning** – This involves the use of a variety of life-wide learning activities that enable students to connect theory with practice, and to apply the literary knowledge and skills they have developed in authentic and purposeful contexts (e.g. writing a review of a theatre performance). • **Ongoing reflection** – Such practice is critical to the success of a learning community. Reflective students who are able to draw consciously on their experiences are more motivated, confident and effective as students, because they constantly examine what they have learned, how they have learned it, and how they could further improve their learning. • **Peer and self feedback** – Used appropriately, these are powerful evaluative tools for improving students’ learning. While the former facilitates enhanced interaction and mutual support amongst students and allows them insights into others’ points of view, the latter encourages self-directed learning and critical self-reflection, key enabling skills in the development of learner autonomy. ### 4.6 Catering for Learner Diversity #### 4.6.1 General Considerations Every class is composed of individuals who differ from each other in terms of maturity, motivation, ability, learning styles, aspirations and interests. Catering for learner diversity is a significant and challenging consideration in determining learning and teaching content, level and methods. To enhance curriculum planning as well as learning and teaching in a way that will help different students learn effectively, teachers are encouraged to: - be sensitive to the needs of different students and appreciate their capacity to learn and improve; - make use of materials and activities which will arouse different students’ interests, and are relevant to students’ ability levels; - create situations and select suitable questioning strategies that will provoke thinking as well as encourage experimentation and creativity; and - respond to students who require extra help and those who are ready to take on greater challenges. 4.6.2 Working with Students of Different Levels Most students have considerable experience of fiction in various forms, have seen plenty of films, and through songs have some familiarity with verse. This gives teachers a place to start from and a basis on which to build. The skills needed for appreciating films, novels and stories have much in common, and are mutually reinforcing. As students learn to focus on form, they will be able to transfer appreciation and form-focused skills to the reading of prose and verse. Classes can start at different points, concentrate on different initial texts and proceed at different speeds according to learner needs. If the class contains students of very different standards, there are a number of potential solutions. **Case 1** One group in the class contains students much less advanced as students of English. In this case, it might be necessary for them to study different written texts. This will involve creating two groups in the class. In some lessons, the teacher can spend part of the time with one group, explaining ideas and encouraging discussion, and the rest of the time with the other group. When the teacher is not with a group, its members can prepare presentations, work on projects, rehearse performances and complete worksheets. It may be possible for both groups to work on the same films, even if the tasks set are rather different. Teachers might like to note that: - Song lyrics may be more approachable than poems; short stories are easier to handle than novels; modern plays are simpler than Shakespeare’s. - Less “literary” texts may be more attractive to beginners, e.g. J.R.R. Tolkien’s *The Hobbit*, the works of science fiction writers like Arthur C. Clarke and Ursula le Guin, R. Cormier’s *Chocolate War* and various detective stories. - Chinua Achebe, Ford Madox Ford, Graham Greene, Ernest Hemingway, Susan Hill, R.K. Narayan, George Orwell and H.G. Wells often write rather simpler English than some of the other authors listed as suitable. **Case 2** Here the problem is not one of language, but of standard in more general terms (or even motivation). Everyone in the class can work on the same texts, but different types and levels of task can be set. Students can write their own critical appreciations of a poem, or can answer a series of guided questions. In allocating tasks to different people when watching a film, more straightforward ones can be given to those who find the subject challenging. There can also be more emphasis on work outside the class, with students able to choose their own texts and focus their studies on aspects that interest them. Those who are practically-minded might find making a film, staging a drama, or designing a set more exciting. These are all valid activities in terms of literary study and ultimately draw on the same skills. | Less challenging | More challenging | |------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------| | Writing a plot summary | Analysing symbolism | | Doing background research | Working on rhythm | | Finding a song to present and analyse | Finding a sonnet to present and analyse | | Writing a fable | Writing a dramatic monologue | | Discussing a character | Examining characterisation | | Answering questions on a text | Writing an unaided critical analysis of a text | Literature in English allows teachers a great deal of freedom and flexibility, which should make the task of responding to the challenges of learner differences relatively less daunting. ### 4.7 Meaningful Assignments Quality assignments help develop and reinforce learning. Such assignments may include: - reading set texts; - watching films; - creative writing, such as writing poems or short stories; - performing practical tasks, such as film editing and performing a selected scene; - doing research and preparing presentations on it; - doing projects; and - writing journals. Schools should vary the modes of assignments as suggested above to check students’ understanding and track their progress. Teachers are encouraged to set original assignments/questions that challenge students to argue a case or to think creatively. To complete the assignments, students need to respond to or discuss ideas with supporting evidence quoted or cited from reliable sources based on their own research. Such assignments require evaluative and analytical skills, creativity and reflection, which makes it difficult for students to merely regurgitate other people’s ideas without analysis. From time to time, teachers can set in-class tasks based on research notes (including quotations and bibliography) that students have prepared beforehand. The question itself is unknown, but students have been informed of the areas to research and the nature of the task. By doing so, teachers can have a better understanding of how well students, without the support of technology, can perform and monitor their progress. Feedback can be given by teachers or peers, and students presenting their assignment can learn from the reactions of the rest of the class and from self-reflection. While projects are underway, verbal comments should suffice, but a larger piece of completed work merits a detailed written response, recognising achievement and pointing to areas where improvement could be made. Chapter 5 Assessment This chapter discusses the role of assessment in learning and teaching Literature in English, the principles that should guide assessment of the subject and the need for both formative and summative assessment. It also provides guidance on internal assessment and details of the public assessment of Literature in English. Finally, information is given on how standards are established and maintained, and on how results are reported with reference to these standards. 5.1 The Roles of Assessment Assessment is the practice of collecting evidence of student learning. It is a vital and integral part of classroom instruction, and serves several purposes and audiences. First and foremost, it gives feedback to students, teachers, schools and parents on the effectiveness of teaching and on students’ strengths and weaknesses in learning. Secondly, it provides information to schools, school systems, government, tertiary institutions and employers to enable them to monitor standards and to facilitate selection decisions. The most important role of assessment is in promoting learning and monitoring students’ progress. However, in the senior secondary years, the more public roles of assessment for certification and selection come to the fore. Inevitably, these imply high-stakes uses of assessment since the results are typically used to make critical decisions about individuals. The Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) provides a common end-of-school credential that gives access to university study, work and further education and training. It summarises student performance in the four core subjects and in various discipline-oriented subjects (including Literature in English) and the Applied Learning courses. It needs to be interpreted in conjunction with other information about students as shown in the Student Learning Profile. 5.2 Formative and Summative Assessment In the context of the Literature in English curriculum, assessment serves the principal aim of promoting learning by providing information about students’ achievements in relation to the learning targets and objectives. Assessment helps students, their teachers and parents understand the learning performance and progress, facilitating planning for further improvement. To match the learning targets, objectives and outcomes, different modes of assessment serving formative and/or summative purposes are encouraged in the Literature in English curriculum. Formative assessment focuses on the ongoing evaluation of students’ performance and abilities. It is often informal and carried out during the learning process. Formative assessment, which typically involves close attention to small “chunks” of learning, may take place on a daily basis. The main aim of formative assessment is to improve learning and teaching through: - diagnosing students’ strengths and learning problems or difficulties; - providing quick guidance, quality feedback, timely support and enrichment for students; and - reviewing and improving teaching plans and strategies. Summative assessment focuses on determining progress in learning and evaluating students’ performance and abilities. It is normally undertaken at the end of a period of instruction (e.g. end of a school term, a school year or a key stage of schooling) and reviews much larger “chunks” of learning. Its main purposes are to: - provide a comprehensive summary of students’ learning achievements during the period and their performance at that particular point of time; and - help teachers check whether the major aspects of the learning targets and objectives have been achieved. **Assessment of, for and as Learning** Summative assessment is closely related to “assessment of learning”, while formative assessment comprises “assessment for learning” and “assessment as learning”. The table below explains the three complementary assessment concepts, their relationship and the different purposes they serve. | Summative | Assessment of Learning (AoL) | AoL describes the level students have attained in learning and shows what they know and can do over a period of time. It gives an overview of the previous learning of students and is mainly used for reporting purposes. | |-----------|-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Formative | Assessment for Learning (AfL) | AfL integrates assessment into learning and teaching. It assists students to understand what they are learning, what they have attained, and what is expected of them, and helps teachers collect evidence of students’ learning so that teachers can provide students with timely feedback and refine their teaching strategies. | | | Assessment as Learning (AaL) | AaL engages students in reflecting on and monitoring their progress of learning through strengthening their roles and responsibilities in relation to their learning. Students are actively involved in regulating the learning process, evaluating their own performance against the learning goals, and planning for the next step in learning. | Schools are encouraged to extend formative assessment from “assessment for learning” to “assessment as learning”, which empowers students to reflect on their own learning and develop their habit of mind and skills to monitor and evaluate their own progress. Teachers are also advised to adopt more diversified modes of assessment and make the best use of assessment data to inform learning and teaching. **Internal and Public Assessment** Another distinction to be made is between internal assessment and public assessment. Internal assessment refers to the assessment practices that teachers and schools employ as part of the ongoing learning and teaching process during the three years of senior secondary studies. In contrast, public assessment refers to the assessment conducted as part of the assessment process in place for all schools. Within the context of the HKDSE, this means both the public examinations and the moderated SBAs conducted or supervised by the HKEAA. On balance, internal assessment should be more formative, whereas public assessment tends to be more summative. Nevertheless, this need not be seen as a simple dichotomy. The inclusion of SBA in public assessment is an attempt to enhance formative assessment or assessment *for* learning within the context of the HKDSE. ### 5.3 Assessment Objectives The assessment objectives are closely aligned with the curriculum framework and the broad learning outcomes which are presented in Chapter 2 of this Guide. ### 5.4 Internal Assessment This section presents the guiding principles that can be used as the basis for designing internal assessment and some common assessment practices for Literature in English for use in schools. Some of these principles are common to both internal and public assessment. #### 5.4.1 Guiding Principles Internal assessment practices should be aligned with curriculum planning, teaching progression, student abilities and local school contexts. The information collected will help motivate, promote and monitor student learning, and will also help teachers find ways of promoting more effective learning and teaching. **(a) Alignment with the Learning Objectives** A range of assessment practices should be used to assess the achievement of different learning objectives for whole-person development. These include teacher assessment, self-assessment and peer assessment and involve the use of discussions, presentations, performances, essays, projects, portfolios and written classwork. The weighting given to different areas in assessment should be discussed and agreed among teachers. The assessment purposes and criteria should also be made known to students so that they have a full understanding of what is expected of them. (b) Catering for the Range of Student Ability Assessment practices incorporating different levels of difficulty and diverse modes should be used to cater for learners with different aptitudes and abilities. This helps ensure that the more able students are challenged to develop their full potential and the less able ones are encouraged to sustain their interest and succeed in learning. (c) Tracking Progress over Time As internal assessment should not be a one-off exercise, schools are encouraged to use practices that can track learning progress over time (e.g. portfolios). Assessment practices of this kind allow students to set their own learning goals and manage their own pace of learning, which will have a positive impact on their commitment to learning. (d) Timely and Encouraging Feedback Teachers should provide timely and encouraging feedback, through a variety of means such as constructive verbal comments during classroom activities and written remarks on assignments. Such feedback helps learners sustain their momentum in learning, and to identify their strengths and weaknesses. (e) Making Reference to the School’s Context As learning is more meaningful when the content or process is linked to a setting which is familiar to students, schools are encouraged to design assessment tasks that make reference to the school’s own context (e.g. its location, relationship with the community, and mission). (f) Making Reference to Current Progress in Student Learning Internal assessment tasks should be designed with reference to students’ current progress, as this helps overcome obstacles that may have a cumulative negative impact on learning. Teachers should be mindful in particular of concepts and skills which form the basis for further development in learning. (g) Encouraging Peer Assessment and Self-assessment In addition to giving their feedback, teachers should also provide opportunities for peer assessment and self-assessment in student learning. The former enables students to learn among themselves, and the latter promotes reflective thinking which is vital for students’ lifelong learning. (h) Appropriate Use of Assessment Information to Provide Feedback Internal assessment provides a rich source of data for providing evidence-based feedback on learning in a formative manner. 5.4.2 Internal Assessment Practices A range of assessment practices suited to the Literature in English subject, such as discussions, presentations, performances, essays, projects, portfolios and written classwork, should be used to promote the attainment of the various learning outcomes. However, teachers should note that these practices should be an integral part of learning and teaching, not “add-on” activities. **Discussions** After reading/viewing a text, students can discuss any aspects suggested by the teacher or the students themselves (e.g. how the theme of racial discrimination is presented in *To Kill a Mockingbird*). Occasionally such discussions can be formal, timed and assessed. An alternative way of conducting discussions is to ask students to role-play characters or authors and answer classmates’ questions – but this can be used for assessment only if everyone gets a chance to do so during the year. **Presentations** These usually involve a learner, or a group of students, explaining a poem or talking about some aspects of a text, etc. to the rest of the class. **Performances** These can take a variety of forms, and students may be given a choice of, for example: reciting a poem, giving a dramatic reading of a scene from a short story or novel, or performing a short extract from a play. **Essays** These are usually done as homework, but can also be written under time restrictions in class or in an examination. **Projects** These are extended pieces of work, which may include conventional written work as well as work presented in video/audio or artwork form. Students should consult the teacher on the length and choice of topic for the work they intend to produce and on the mode of presentation. Collections of students’ work These comprise the work that students have done throughout the three years of literature study, and may include creative work, critical appreciations or essays (or a mixture of these). Students may be asked to select their own favourite pieces of work for internal assessment. Teachers may wish to see drafts as well as finished pieces in the collections. Apart from participating in the selection of work for the collections, students should be encouraged to reflect on their learning progress, evaluate their own strengths and weaknesses, and identify ways of improving. Written classwork Students may, for instance, answer questions about a poem, compare two pieces of writing, write a critical appreciation, comment on an extract from a set text, or provide imaginative expansions of a text – for example, by adapting part of a set text for a different medium, or writing an alternative ending or additional scenes. Portfolio work for the School-based Assessment Despite being a component of the public assessment, the SBA of the subject, which engages students in conducting independent literary research to write a film analysis over a period of time, lends itself to promoting assessment *for* and *as* learning. In developing the portfolio work for the SBA, students can decide on the topic, scope and texts of their study based on their ability levels and interests. They can also set goals and milestones on task completion, reflect on the effectiveness of the research methods adopted and make adjustments where necessary, as well as improve their writing over drafts with the feedback and guidance from teachers. Students’ autonomy, ownership of learning and metacognitive strategies are developed in the process. 5.5 Public Assessment 5.5.1 Guiding Principles Some principles guiding public assessment are outlined below for teachers’ reference. (a) Alignment with the Curriculum The outcomes that are assessed and examined through the HKDSE Examination should be aligned with the aims, objectives and intended learning outcomes of the three-year senior secondary curriculum. To enhance the validity of public assessment, the assessment procedures should address the range of valued learning outcomes, and not just those that are assessable through external written examinations. The public assessment for Literature in English centres on the comprehension and appreciation of literary texts and the ability to write essays based on the set texts. It also includes a school-based assessment component, which aims to cover a more extensive range of learning outcomes than is possible in external examination settings, as well as to encourage independent study. (b) Fairness, Objectivity and Reliability Students should be assessed in ways that are fair and that are not biased against particular groups of students. A characteristic of fair assessment is that it is objective and under the control of an independent examining authority that is impartial and open to public scrutiny. Fairness also implies that assessments provide a reliable measure of each student’s performance in a given subject so that, if they were to be repeated, very similar results would be obtained. These issues are addressed in Literature in English by such means as the provision of detailed marking criteria, marker training, and scrutiny by the Chief Examiner. (c) Inclusiveness The assessments and examinations in the HKDSE need to accommodate the full spectrum of student aptitude and ability. The questions in the Literature in English examination papers range from straightforward, guided analysis of short extracts of prose, drama or poetry to more demanding essay-type questions on a single text or multiple short stories requiring sophisticated skills of comparison. Please refer to Sections 5.5.2 and 5.5.3, and Appendix 4 for details. (d) Standards-referencing The reporting system is “standards-referenced”, i.e. student performance is matched against standards which indicate what students have to know and be able to do to merit a certain level of performance. An overall level for the subject, inclusive of both the examination papers and the SBA component, is reported, accompanied by a set of level descriptors. (e) Informativeness The HKDSE qualification and the associated assessment and examinations system provides useful information to all parties. Firstly, it provides feedback to students on their performance and to teachers and schools on the quality of the teaching provided. Secondly, it communicates to parents, tertiary institutions, employers and the public at large what it is that students know and are able to do, in terms of how their performance matches the standards. Thirdly, it facilitates selection decisions that are fair and defensible. 5.5.2 Assessment Design The table below shows the assessment design of the subject with effect from the 2026 HKDSE Examination. The assessment is subject to continual refinement in the light of feedback from live examinations. Full details are provided in the Regulations and Assessment Frameworks for the year of the examination and other supplementary documents, which are available on the HKEAA website (www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/hkdse/assessment/assessment_framework/). | Component | Weighting | Duration | |----------------------------|-----------|----------| | Public examination | | | | Paper 1 Essay writing | 50% | 3 hours | | Paper 2 Appreciation | 30% | 2 hours | | School-based Assessment | 20% | | ### 5.5.3 Public Examinations Details of the papers are given below. **Paper 1 Essay Writing (3 hours) (50%)** This paper will comprise three sections, A – C. Candidates must answer one question on one of two novels in Section A; one question on one of two plays in Section B; and one question comparing two or more short stories in Section C. In each of the three sections, there will be a choice of two questions on each text. All questions require essay-type answers, with some inviting imaginative expansion of texts. **Paper 2 Appreciation (2 hours) (30%)** This paper is divided into 3 sections. Candidates must choose one question from a choice of four in Section A; one question from a choice of two in Section B and one question in Section C. Multipart questions will invite critical analyses of a single passage from either of the prescribed novels or the prescribed plays in Section A (10% of the subject mark), two or three set poems either by the same or different poets in Section B (12% of the subject mark), and one unseen poem in Section C (8% of the subject mark). For the Unseen Poetry section, candidates should study a broad range of modern poetry, including themes such as love, nature, war, death and animals. Candidates are expected to show an ability to understand the thought and feeling in the poetry, and the ways in which these are conveyed. Copies of the set and unseen poems will be included in the question paper. ### 5.5.4 School-based Assessment (SBA) In the context of public assessment, SBA refers to assessments administered in schools and marked by the students’ own teachers. The primary rationale for SBA in Literature in English is to enhance the validity of the overall assessment and extend it to include a more extensive range of learning outcomes through employing assessment modes that are not all possible in external examination settings. SBA involves tasks which require students to demonstrate a range of skills related to the study of literature and the arts in the world beyond the classroom, to develop the ability to work independently and to adapt and improve on successive drafts as a result of teachers’ feedback. SBA may also help prepare students for the other components of the public examination. There are, however, some additional reasons for SBA in Literature in English. For example, it reduces dependence on the results of the examinations, which are not set to assess extended pieces of writing or research skills. Assessments based on student performance over an extended period of time and developed by those who know the students best – their subject teachers – provide a more reliable assessment of each student. Another reason for including SBA is to promote a positive “backwash effect” on students, teachers and school staff. Within Literature in English, SBA can serve to motivate students by requiring them to engage in meaningful activities that lead to a more comprehensive assessment of their performance; and for teachers, it can reinforce curriculum aims and good teaching practice, and provide structure and significance to an activity they are in any case involved in on a daily basis, namely assessing their own students. The SBA component of Literature in English constitutes 20% of the total weighting for the subject. It involves the preparation of an analytical study of at least one film/filmmaker/film genre OR an essay on a topic related to at least one film/filmmaker/film genre of around 2000 to 2500 words. Work for the SBA should not be exclusively or extensively based on the films in the List of Set Texts. Similarly, work for the SBA should not be exclusively or extensively based on film adaptations of the written texts in the List of Set Texts. Candidates can use the texts they study as an inspiration for their SBA work, but they should not include detailed analysis of those works. The main film(s) chosen for study should have been made originally in English. Candidates should be encouraged to take the opportunity to explore in depth areas such as the content, filmic techniques and socio-cultural background underpinning the production of the film(s). Extended essays which deal exclusively with such subjects as history, sociology, psychology or science are not appropriate. In the process of guiding students to develop their piece of writing for the SBA, teacher-assessors should: - advise students on the choice of film(s) and topic for the analytical study or essay; - provide guidance to students on the responsible, ethical and legal use of research tools and reference materials, as well as the proper citation of sources of information, including AI generated sources, to avoid plagiarism, which the HKEAA has cautioned candidates against and would cause grave consequences; - teach students how to approach a research task and evaluate the usefulness, relevance and accuracy of material they have found; - track students’ progress over time, check their understanding of their work regularly, provide timely feedback for students to review and improve their writing over drafts; and - keep students’ SBA work and learning records for inspection and authentication purposes until the release of the HKDSE results. The detailed requirements, regulations, assessment criteria and guidelines are provided in the *SBA Handbook for HKDSE Literature in English* published by the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. ### 5.5.5 Standards and Reporting of Results Standards-referenced reporting is adopted for the HKDSE. What this means is that candidates’ levels of performance are reported with reference to a set of standards as defined by cut scores on the mark scale for a given subject. Standards-referencing relates to the way in which results are reported and does not involve any changes in how teachers or examiners mark students’ work. The set of standards for a given subject can be represented diagrammatically as shown in Figure 5.1. ![Figure 5.1 Defining levels of performance via cut scores on the mark scale for a given subject](image) Within the context of the HKDSE there are five cut scores, which are used to distinguish five levels of performance (1–5), with 5 being the highest. A performance below the cut score for Level 1 is labelled as “Unclassified” (U). For each of the five levels, a set of written descriptors has been developed to describe what the typical candidate performing at this level is able to do. The principle behind these descriptors is that they describe what typical candidates *can* do, not what they *cannot* do. In other words, they describe performance in positive rather than negative terms. These descriptors represent “on-average” statements and may not apply precisely to individuals, whose performance within a subject may be variable and span two or more levels. Samples of students’ work at various levels of attainment are provided to illustrate the standards expected of them. These samples, when used together with the level descriptors, will clarify the standards expected at the various levels of attainment. In setting standards for the HKDSE, Levels 4 and 5 are set with reference to the standards achieved by students awarded grades A–D in the HKALE. It needs to be stressed, however, that the intention is that the standards will remain constant over time – not the percentages awarded different levels, as these are free to vary in line with variations in overall student performance. Referencing Levels 4 and 5 to the standards associated with the old grades A–D is important for ensuring a degree of continuity with past practice, for facilitating tertiary selection and for maintaining international recognition. The overall level awarded to each candidate will be made up of results in both the public examination and the SBA. SBA results for Literature in English will be moderated based on the judgement of panels of external moderators through the inspection of samples of students’ work. To provide finer discrimination for selection purposes, the Level 5 candidates with the best performance have their results annotated with the symbols ** and the next top group with the symbol *. The HKDSE certificate itself records the Level awarded to each candidate. Chapter 6 Effective Use of Learning and Teaching Resources This chapter discusses the importance of selecting and making effective use of learning and teaching resources, including the set texts, to enhance student learning. Schools need to adapt and, where appropriate, develop the relevant resources to support student learning. 6.1 Purpose and Function of Learning and Teaching Resources Appropriate learning and teaching materials help students develop their literary knowledge and skills, generic skills, and positive values and attitudes. They also help broaden students’ learning experience and enlarge their perspectives and cultural understanding. The learning and teaching materials that function most effectively are those that suit the students’ needs, interests and abilities. 6.2 Guiding Principles When selecting set texts, teachers should take into account: - students’ interests and abilities; - the appropriateness of the content; - the length of the work; and - the difficulty of the language. 6.3 Types of Resources 6.3.1 Set Texts Teachers should consider the following when using set texts: - Design useful and appropriate learning tasks and activities to - ensure a balanced coverage of the learning targets and objectives; and - cater for the students’ needs, interests and abilities. - Design extended tasks or projects to encourage wider and independent reading/viewing, and critical exploration of literary texts. A list of works is provided in Appendix 5. Teachers might like to refer to it when selecting and using supplementary materials to increase students’ literary exposure and their skills of literary comprehension and appreciation. 6.3.2 Other Resource Materials Apart from the set texts, teachers should make use of other resource materials to enhance learning. There is a wealth of readily available material that can be adapted to facilitate the learning and teaching of Literature in English, e.g. - Film and book reviews in newspapers; - Literary and film magazines; - Television programming (films, critics, discussions, etc.); - The BBC World Service (www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice – mainly drama productions), and BBC Radio 3 (www.bbc.co.uk/radio3 – poetry, talks and drama); - Short story competitions sponsored by various organisations; - Cultural activities organised by such bodies as the Hong Kong Arts Centre, the Hong Kong Film Archive, the Academy for Performing Arts, and the Leisure and Cultural Services Department; - Commercial cinema, and resource materials in public libraries and bookshops; and - Learning and teaching resource materials produced by the Education Bureau. The school library should be encouraged to develop a collection of poetry, short story anthologies, novels and plays as a resource for teachers and students. The acquisition of relevant published study notes/guides and works of literary criticism can commence as soon as the librarian has the titles of the set texts. Consideration should be given to the establishment of a literature corner where all the materials can be assembled for ease of reference. Also, students can be encouraged to deposit copies of their creative writing, projects and portfolios in the library. If school resources allow, the annual publication of a literary magazine may be another way of sharing and celebrating the students’ achievements. 6.3.3 EDB Resource Materials in Support of the Curriculum Development A variety of print and electronic resource materials have been developed by the Education Bureau to support the implementation of the Literature in English curriculum at the senior secondary level, including: - Learning and teaching resources (e.g. *The Learning and Teaching of Poetry (Senior Secondary): A Resource Package*, *A Guide to Writing and Referencing for Literature in English* School-based Assessment, *Resource Materials on the Learning and Teaching of Poetry and Film*) - EDB Educational MultiMedia (EMM) videos and resources (e.g. Between the Lines: Hong Kong Poetry in English) - Resources in support of student activities and competitions (e.g. Poetry Remake Competition) More information about the resource materials to support the implementation of the Literature in English curriculum at the senior secondary level can be accessed at the English Language Education Section website (https://www.edb.gov.hk/ele). In addition to the above, the One-stop Portal for Learning and Teaching Resources (www.hkedcity.net/edbosp/) also provides diversified resources to enhance learning and teaching effectiveness. These resources include curriculum documents, learning and teaching resource packages, classroom activities and e-resources. 6.3.4 The Internet and Other Technologies Informational technology (IT) is an effective tool for enhancing the study of literature. The Internet, for instance, is a powerful resource that can be exploited for searching for information for a project, accessing online literature resources, and visiting interactive websites and virtual classrooms for pleasurable self-directed learning. Teachers may also consider using multi-media resources and IT tools such as e-books and apps to enhance students’ motivation and extend their learning experience. However, given their range in terms of quality and accessibility, care should be exercised in the choice of these materials. Good multi-media and IT resources should: - involve good models of English use; - be designed in a user-friendly way, with graphics, sound and animation designed to increase students’ motivation and support learning; and - promote interactive learning by encouraging learner contributions, allowing students to work at their own pace and providing feedback to them. While Chatbots and AI text generation tools may help students generate ideas on literary texts, including the films students may work on in the SBA, the use of such tools for literary analysis and research should also be treated with caution. Efforts should be made to guide and remind students to: - verify and critically assess the accuracy and reliability of information; - identify and cite the source of ideas and information; - avoid over-reliance on the AI generated content; and - develop original responses to the texts by close reading of the original literary works, critically analysing all information collected and expressing ideas in their own words. 6.3.5 Community Resources Many parties in the community can facilitate life-wide learning by providing students with authentic learning experiences, professional services and facilities. Teachers are encouraged to explore learning opportunities available in the community and work in partnership with the following parties: **Community Organisations, government departments and non-government organisations** These organisations and departments offer a wide range of programmes, services and activities that provide opportunities for life-wide learning. Schools should encourage students to visit museums, libraries, film archives and resource centres, watch shows and performances, read extensively and browse websites to enrich their learning experience and enhance their study of Literature in English. **Parents** Parental involvement in their children’s education contributes greatly to their academic, social and emotional growth. Schools should establish regular communication with parents to solicit their support for their children’s study of Literature in English as well as to invite them to become volunteer partners in organising related activities. **Alumni** Schools are encouraged to utilise their alumni’s expertise and resources in supporting learning and teaching by inviting them to share their learning experiences or provide services and resources. **Employers** Employers’ support may be sought for sponsoring learning activities or funding award and scholarship schemes related to Literature in English. Students should be encouraged to make use of these opportunities and participate in activities which enhance their study of the subject. ### 6.4 Flexible Use of Learning and Teaching Resources Learning and teaching resources should be used flexibly in order to cater for students’ diverse needs, interests and abilities. Through careful selection, adaptation and development of materials, teachers can provide many opportunities for learning in which the more able students are challenged and the less able ones are supported and guided. For instance, opportunities for independent inquiry can be increased for the more able students, while the less able ones can be given supplementary background information or language input for completing learning tasks and activities. Teachers are encouraged to exercise their professional judgement in deciding how best to make use of learning and teaching resources to suit students’ interests and learning styles. Teachers can, for instance, adjust the input or output of learning tasks to enable students to learn more effectively. For more specific examples of how learning and teaching resources can be used flexibly, please refer to Section 4.6. 6.5 Resource Management Sound resource management is one of the key factors for effective implementation of the three-year senior secondary Literature in English curriculum. To achieve this, teachers are encouraged to work closely with the school librarian to: - produce strategic plans for the procurement and development of resource materials based on the needs of the school; - accumulate resource materials over time and develop an efficient storage system that allows easy access and retrieval; - establish an inventory system that ensures easy expansion and writing-off of resource materials; and - devise a review mechanism for evaluating existing resources to further support learning, teaching and curriculum development. Appendices A Sample List of Set Texts Novels: *The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie*, Muriel Spark **OR** *Rebecca*, Daphne du Maurier Plays: *The Merchant of Venice*, William Shakespeare **OR** *Educating Rita*, Willy Russell Short stories: - Anita Desai: Games at Twilight - Ray Bradbury: The Veldt - Roald Dahl: Parson’s Pleasure - Kate Chopin: The Story of an Hour - Shirley Jackson: The Daemon Lover - Ken Liu: The Paper Menagerie - Langston Hughes: Thank You, M’am - George Saunders: I Can Speak!™ Poetry: - Thomas Hardy: ‘Afterwards’, ‘Bags of Meat’, ‘Weathers’ - e. e. cummings: ‘Buffalo Bill’s’, ‘maggie and milly and molly and may’, ‘nobody loses all the time’ - Emily Dickinson: ‘Like Rain it sounded till it curved’, ‘There came a Wind like a Bugle’, ‘There’s a certain Slant of light’ - Imtiaz Dharker: ‘Number 106’, ‘Speech Balloon’, ‘It Doesn’t Matter’ - Ted Hughes: ‘Thrushes’, ‘Crow and the Birds’, ‘Full Moon and Little Frieda’ Films*: - *Vertigo* (1958) Dir: Alfred Hitchcock - *Chinatown* (1974) Dir: Roman Polanski - *The Remains of the Day* (1993) Dir: James Ivory - *The Painted Veil* (2006) Dir: John Curran - *Life of Pi* (2012) Dir: Ang Lee *One or more of these films can be used as a means of preparation for the SBA component but should not form its main focus.* Example 1 (simple) ************************************************************ **Dreams** by Langston Hughes (It has not been possible to reproduce the text here, although every effort has been made to seek copyright permission. Teachers might like to access the poem at the website: [www.poets.org](http://www.poets.org)) ************************************************************ In this simple lyric the poet tells us not to lose our dreams. It is a common experience that the hopes we have when young – the perfect marriage, the life devoted to good, being able to make a difference to the world – often end in disappointment and disillusion. The poet advises us not to give in to this. As long as we keep our dreams, to use the metaphors of the poem, we can fly and something of worth can grow from our lives. The poem consists of two verses of four lines each, comprising one sentence, and rhyming a/b/c/b. The lines have four syllables, except for the third line of each verse. These lines warn us of the negative effects of letting our dreams die and are, accordingly, unmetrical. One can almost feel the bird running along dragging its useless wing on the ground. The rhyme and alliteration (“dreams die”, “field frozen”) show the beauty of the dreams, though they are as fragile and easily disrupted as the poem. The ending of the poem on the image of winter and the rhyme “snow” add sadness. It suggests it is not easy to keep the dreams alive; it is perhaps easier to despair. The poem is in the form of a wish or prayer (given the religious connotations of “blessing” and even the name of the place “St Mary’s”). The poet keeps everything very simple, with everyday words, mainly monosyllabic, and no punctuation marks perhaps to stress the flow of the water, without roughness, and the “innocence” the poet wishes for the addressee/subject of the prayer. The main image (detailed enough to be thought of as a symbol) is of a boat setting sail. The poem makes it clear that this represents a relationship (“the lip of our understanding”). This then gives the words “kiss” and “love” double force as both sailing metaphors and descriptions of emotions. In sailing terms, the tide is enabling the boat to go out to sea smoothly, so there need be no fear. The wind has to blow from behind to fill the sails. The sailor should trust the wind and accept the service, just looking ahead across the sea. When we are with people we trust we do not have to “watch our back”. In emotional terms, the poem is about love and trust helping us progress through life (from “this to that” without rocks or shoals/painful experiences). The poem is decorated with alliteration (“face of fear”, “water, water waving” and “through this to that”), the lovely pattern of “entering even”, and body imagery (lip, face, kiss, back, eyes). It is interesting that the poet chooses not to repeat the pattern may the tide may you kiss but moves the next two “may’s” further into the line. Possibly she feels the pattern would become too rigid and harm the graceful flow of the poem. The *Magnificat* is an ancient hymn of praise to God for all the wonders of creation. Here the poet finds glory even in dust. The title and the third stanza give us the situation of the poem: the simple act of dusting as part of the housework. The sunlight catches the motes of dust in a “ladder of light”, like a biblical vision of angels ascending to and descending from Heaven. The movement of the poet’s arms becomes a gesture of worship. The associations of dust are negative: dirt, dryness, neglect and death, yet the poet sees it in a quite different light. In the first stanza, the poet brings a knowledge of modern science to bear on dust. We see it and its constituents as it might appear under a microscope. The connotations of viruses are also highly negative, but here we are reminded of their beauty (like a pearl necklace). Dust does not only have beauty, but it is part of the biosphere, the web of life, an essential part of Earth’s ecology (stanza 2). Ironically, this symbol of dryness is essential to the production of rain; it is a seed of life (stanza 3). Suitably, the poem has short lines and short stanzas, though there are plenty of long words. The individual particles of dust may be highly complex. The diction is in fact rather technical and scientific, to help us consider dust in a new way. Small “i” sounds of various types dominate the first verse, and can be found scattered through the other two. As part of this, one can note the choice of “in-” words: infinite, intricate, inseparable, infernal. To add to the sense of delicate beauty, the first two stanzas are rich in “p” sounds: particles, pearl, protozoans, shapes, sub-microscopic, spores (twice), cooperation, spreading, inseparable and pole. The extra long line “mutual genetic cooperation” (11 syllables) mimics the act of working together. The final stanza stresses “l” sounds: circles, climbs, ladder of light, infernal, endless and eternal (the phonetically closely connected “r” sound is also involved in this effect). The poem ends neatly in a two-syllable, two-word phrase: For dust. The poem is in a simple song-like form. It tells a simple story that turns out to be highly symbolic. It is built on a series of contrasts: the garden/a graveyard; open/closed; flowers/briars; green/black, and implicitly childhood, innocence and freedom/age, morality and rules. The move from the one to the other is seen very negatively and the poem seems to be hostile to organised religion as represented by the Chapel and the priests, who are associated with death. The sense of being shut out is emphasised in lines five and six by the series of strong final t sounds. The poet almost seems to be experiencing a nightmare: the Garden of Love appears to change into a graveyard before the poet’s very eyes. The Garden of Love might suggest the story of Adam and Eve’s loss of Paradise and the fall of man, though here told with a very different emphasis. “Thou shalt not” obviously recalls the Ten Commandments. The diction is very simple and nearly monosyllabic. The lines of the second stanza get longer than those in the first, and the final two lines of the poem are longer again. This disruption of the poem’s structure mirrors the feelings of the poet, and is also reflected in the change in the rhyme scheme: a/b/c/b in the first two stanzas, but a/b/c/d in the third with an internal half-rhyme (gowns/rounds – this may have been a full rhyme to Blake) and a full internal rhyme in the final line (briars/desires). The further importance of these lines is stressed by the use of alliteration (w and b). The content is quite straightforward: a woman is enjoying eating a plum. The emphasis lies on her pleasure, as shown by the fourfold repetition of “they taste good to her”. Maybe the title hints at a contrast: the poor old woman is unlike the well-to-do rather younger male poet, but she is getting intense sensual pleasure from a piece of fruit. Is this a warning to people, particularly the educated, in our complex world with our minds on a million matters, not to forget the simple (animal) joys of life? Seen this way, the title may be ironic. This old woman is far from poor in the sense that counts. The poem stresses her concentration on the plum she is eating. She gives herself to it; more commonly one gives oneself to a lover. The plum seems to take over and the reference to “fills the air” hints at the fragrance of plums. The way “solace” is used it almost becomes a collective noun for plums – a solace of plums like a bunch of bananas. And note that there is no danger of pleasure coming to an end too soon – the old woman has an entire bag of plums in her hand waiting to be consumed. The title seems to run into the first verse, but formally they are separate and there would certainly be a pause in any recitation of the poem, so we start in medias res; the old lady is in the middle of her feast. The poem has to be read aloud. The vowels forced the reader to purse the lips as * By William Carlos Williams, from COLLECTED POEMS: 1909-1939, VOLUME I, copyright © 1938 by New Directions Publishing Corp. Reprinted by permission of New Directions Publishing Corp. consonants “m”, “p” and “b” are labials – in other words, reading the first few lines forces the lips to imitate the act of eating a plum! “They taste good to her” needs to be spoken differently each time, possibly more ecstatically (maybe that is why the poet lays out the sentence in different ways on its different appearances). Then the lips are back to work with “sucked”, “comforted”, “solace” (almost saliva-producing), “plums” and “seeming”. This is a truly delicious poem. [Note: use of phonetic terms such as labial, dental and sibilant is useful but by no means necessary – observing the phenomenon is what counts, not the technical term. Teachers should use their own discretion and knowledge of their students when deciding whether these terms would interest and assist their students or merely dampen their interest.] Example 1 Extract from “The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe A servant has murdered his employer. Neighbours have reported suspicious noises and the police are investigating. The police have found nothing suspicious and sit chatting with the servant. No doubt I now grew very pale; – but I talked more fluently, and with a heightened voice. Yet the sound increased – and what could I do? It was a low, dull, quick sound – much such a sound as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I gasped for breath – and yet the officers heard it not. I talked more quickly – more vehemently; but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why would they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury by the observations of the men – but the noise steadily increased. Oh God! what could I do? I foamed – I raved – I swore! I swung the chair upon which I had been sitting, and grated it upon the boards, but the noise arose over all and continually increased. It grew louder – louder – louder! And still the men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible they heard not? Almighty God! – no, no! They heard! – they suspected – they knew! – they were making a mockery of my horror! – this I thought, and this I think. But anything was better than this agony! Anything was more tolerable than this derision! I could bear those hypocritical smiles no longer! I felt that I must scream or die! and now – again! – hark! louder! louder! louder! “Villains!” I shrieked, “dissemble no more! I admit the deed! – tear up the planks! here, here! – it is the beating of his hideous heart!” Sample analysis This climactic passage is narrated in the first person by the servant, who, it seems, has indeed killed his employer. It is interesting for the reader to reconstruct what the police observe. They are satisfied with whatever the servant has told them and are talking pleasantly to him while he becomes more and more agitated, making more and more noise to cover the sound of the dead man’s heart, which to him is frighteningly audible. He insists the police must also have been able to hear it, but that only adds to the irony of the piece. Obviously, dead men’s hearts do not beat and no man’s heartbeat makes a deafening sound. Although the narrator does not realise it, he has gone out of his mind and quite unnecessarily gives away his crime. We can only assume that his guilt and panic (made very clear by the ever increasing number of exclamation marks) lead him to imagine he can hear the heart. The police officers’ growing puzzlement, concern, suspicion and then final realisation of the truth are not presented directly, but are easy to reconstruct. Having to view the situation through the eyes of a madman is what gives this passage power and interest. The principal techniques used are repetition (“the noise steadily increased”; “louder, louder…”), rhetorical questions (“and what could I do?”, etc.), a rapid sequence of verbs (“I talked/I paced/I foamed – I raved – I swore!/I swung”, etc.) and a choice of monosyllables (“low, dull, quick sound”). The repetition adds to the sense of hysteria, and along with the monosyllables echoes the heart beat that is central to the story. The rhetorical questions help create the effect of hearing the thoughts of the narrator, and the verbs mirror his restlessness and increasing agitation. The contrast between the policemen’s calm and the speaker’s panic and mental breakdown is also important to the overall effect. The way in which the speaker’s guilty conscience leads directly to the discovery of his crime makes the message of the story quite clear: crime does not pay and sin will be punished. **Further notes** The following points could be referred to in the guided questions: - What is the state of mind of the speaker? - Do you think the policemen see and hear the same as the servant? - What is the effect of the repetition used in the extract? The words that might be glossed are: - vehemently - trifles - gesticulations - strides - fury - foamed - raved - grated - derision - hark - dissemble - planks Example 2 Extract from *Mrs Dalloway* by Virginia Woolf* Mrs. DALLOWAY said she would buy the flowers herself. For Lucy had her work cut out for her. The doors would be taken off their hinges; Rumpelmayer’s men were coming. And then, thought Clarissa Dalloway, what a morning – fresh as if issued to children on a beach. What a lark! What a plunge! For so it had always seemed to her, when, with a little squeak of the hinges, which she could hear now, she had burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning: like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as she then was) solemn, feeling as she did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen; looking at the flowers, at the trees with the smoke winding off them and the rooks rising, falling; standing and looking until Peter Walsh said, “Musing among the vegetables?” – was that it? – “I prefer men to cauliflowers” – was that it? He must have said it at breakfast one morning when she had gone out on to the terrace – Peter Walsh. He would be back from India one of these days, June or July, she forgot which, for his letters were awfully dull; it was his sayings one remembered; his eyes, his pocket-knife, his smile, his grumpiness and, when millions of things had utterly vanished – how strange it was! – a few sayings like this about cabbages. Sample analysis This passage cleverly mimics the way the mind works as it moves from link to link. The thought of workmen taking doors off hinges brings the sound of hinges to Mrs Dalloway’s mind, and thus she recalls a particular morning in the past. We move from reported speech to reported thought to deeper memory (starting in the second paragraph). Mrs Dalloway’s own simile associating the morning with a beach sets up another series of links – from “beach” to two “plunges” and two “waves”. “Fresh” leads to another “fresh” and to “chill”. The memories take Mrs Dalloway to the subject of Peter Walsh, whom she had obviously once found rather attractive (“his eyes…his smile”). Is it possible that “kiss” is also a link leading to his name? Mrs Dalloway struggles to remember something amusing he once said, but can’t quite locate it and ends up associating Peter with vegetables, perhaps reflecting on the dullness of his letters and obvious loss of glamour in her eyes, compared to when she was a solemn girl setting out on the start of her life (symbolised by the open windows). * Reprinted by permission of The Society of Authors as the Literary Representative of the Estate of Virginia Woolf. Mrs Dalloway seems to come from an affluent background. Lucy usually buys the flowers, but needs to deal with workmen this morning; she seems to be the maid. The house in Mrs Dalloway’s memory seems large with its terrace and lovely view. We catch a little of her character in her thoughtfulness for Lucy, her excitement and pleasure at going out on a fresh morning and the lightness of her stream of consciousness with a hint of vagueness thrown in. The diction is everyday, but has a certain charm and naturalness. Further notes Note that it is acceptable to make tentative suggestions in the form of a question or by using words like “possibly”. Few, if any, glosses would be necessary. Example 3 Extract from *The Lagoon* by Joseph Conrad (It has not been possible to reproduce the text here, although every effort has been made to seek copyright permission. Teachers might like to access the text at the website: www.readprint.com “The narrow creek was like a ditch: …with a suggestion of sad tenderness and care in the droop of their leafy and soaring heads.”) Sample analysis This descriptive passage seeks to create in the reader an experience of the tropical rainforest. It does this partly by means of adjectives. These are as luxuriant as the vegetation being described. From one short paragraph we can select: tortuous, immense, invisible, festooned, glistening, writhing, sombre, tangled, fantastic, mysterious, invincible and impenetrable. The diction is polysyllabic, literary and Latinate. Another technique involves syntax. The sentence “Darkness oozed…forests” is itself a tangle of clauses and phrases. The creek seems almost mirrored in the organisation of the first sentence with a small section between two banks. The third method is to make us move slowly away from the forest and carry us on to a contrasting open lagoon with a small human habitation there. The tone is menacing. One suspects that something unpleasant is going to happen. The words “tortuous”, “twisted”, and “writhing” all suggest pain. There is frequent reference to darkness and gloom. (“Darkness oozed” is particularly strong.) There are many negative formations (“immense”, “impenetrable”, etc.). The third sentence, curling round like its content, reminds us of snakes; later on comes the word “poisonous”. The lagoon is stagnant, suggesting a threat to health. Although the grass, pink cloud, lotus and little house lighten the picture slightly, the palms hanging over it do so “with a suggestion of sad tenderness.” Movement is kept to a minimum also: oozing is slow, the leaves are unstirring, the men only pole along, the water is stagnant, the cloud drifts, and the palms droop. Life here seems almost arrested. The scene seems set for sadness or even horror. Example 4 Extract from *Women In Love* by D.H. Lawrence (It has not been possible to reproduce the text here, although every effort has been made to seek copyright permission. Teachers might like to access the text at the website: www.nt.armstrong.edu/Lawrence.htm “The fool!” cried Ursula loudly. “Why doesn’t he ride away till it’s gone by?” … It made Gudrun faint with poignant dizziness, which seemed to penetrate to her heart.”) Sample analysis This passage seems to be important for character and may represent a moment of great emotional importance. Ursula and Gudrun watch a man riding a horse which has been thrown into a panic by a passing train. The man resists the horse’s fear and, despite the danger of being thrown off and badly injured, forces it to stay and obey him. Ursula’s reaction of impatience seems a normal one. Gudrun’s reaction is far more complex. She is excited (dilated eyes, “spellbound”, “faint with dizziness”) and possibly falls in love with and under the power of the horse rider (“spellbound” and “penetrate to her heart” suggest this). The man is shown to be “obstinate”; he has a powerful will, shows “fixed amusement” when in danger and exerts strong compulsion on the horse. He seems a very stereotyped macho man. In fact, one can’t help noticing that it is stressed throughout the passage that the horse is female (as well as telling us it’s a mare, the narrator uses she/her in the many references to the animal). One wonders if the whole incident is not intended to be symbolic of a man mastering a woman, making this an extract that could infuriate a feminist. (Note also the detail of the nervous women clinging together rather helplessly.) The sentences attempt to model their content. The second sentence seems to wheel around like the horse, and mimic the noise of the locomotive (the effects being strengthened by alliteration – wheeling, wind, will; spun and swerved; heavily, horrifying – and various sound echoes – nor/clamour/terror and one/other/one/other/over). The sentence about the locomotive also mimics the action of the brakes and uses sound to give the effect of the frightening metallic sounds the mare fears so much (BraKes/BaCK/truCKs/reBounding/Buffers/triKing/cymBals/lashIng/rIghtful/strIdent/ConCussions/: b/k/i). Inversion is used (“back came the trucks” and “Back she went”) to match the action being described. Many similar comments could be made about the sentence “But…whirlwind”. Perhaps the whirlwind reflects also Gudrun’s emotions. It seems possible that the passage may describe the opening of a stormy relationship. A final point is the strange way in which the locomotive seems to have the will of its own and puts on its own brakes. Possibly this suggests that we live in a world where “will” is a force almost beyond understanding that determines destiny. The locomotive is in a sense a symbol of the horse rider. Example 5 Extract from *Mr Sampath: The Printer of Malgudi* by R.K. Narayan (Permission to reproduce the extract has been obtained for the print version of this Guide only. Teachers might like to use the following details to locate the text: Narayan, R.K. (1993). *Mr Sampath – The Printer of Malgudi*. London: Minerva Paperback. Chapter 1, pp. 5-6, “Unless you had an expert knowledge of the locality you would not reach the offices of The Banner … he had not made such a fool of himself as his well-wishers had feared, although the enterprise meant almost nothing to him financially.”) Sample analysis This appears to be an opening passage that plays the same role as an establishing shot in a film. We travel down some streets to a building, go up some stairs and stop in a newspaper office. The stage is set for the story to begin. Of course, a lot more is going on than this. The omniscient narrator establishes a gentle, amused, slightly cynical and ironic, but kindly tone. This is achieved in a number of ways. First, there is the idea of the rather troublesome road with a mind and personality of its own (as we learn later, very much like the people of this town, especially the editor of the Banner). Second, there is the ironic contrast between the grand abstractions of truth and vision, and the obviously ramshackle and symbolically blinded offices of the Banner – even the stairs are actually more like a ladder. The contrast, however, is not pointed out bitterly, and in fact, the fourth paragraph states that the newspaper does indeed play a responsible social role (the details given also help us start building up a picture of the town of Malgudi). Third, there are many light touches – the idea of someone posting themselves on the table, the editor’s riposte to his neighbours that no one could possibly want to observe them, and the eccentric name of the “Open Window” feature. Even the diction is lighthearted. The world’s evil is presented as pig-headedness (though it is the tenants of the pig-headed landlords who have to live in the pig-sties!) rather than any more terrible sin. The quotations from the Banner begin to introduce us to its style – grand, again in contrast to its humble format (ironically printed on *foolscap paper/F4*) and the mind of its editor, whose characterisation is getting underway as the extract ends: an idealist, a man who likes to be independent, who is sensitive to being laughed at, stubborn and with the self-image of a man of principle, rather than of business. The passage sets the scene well for a story to commence. Preparing for the Public Examination Paper 1: Essay Writing A. Some notes on writing literary essays It is conventional to use the historic present when writing about literary works, e.g. - “Hamlet decides he can no longer trust Ophelia.” - “Marlow almost suffers a nervous breakdown as a result of what he has experienced.” Common student errors are to include long plot summaries rather than short references to the text in support of their argument, to branch off into irrelevance, to fail to give a direct answer to the question, to misspell critical terms, to concentrate on content at the cost of form, to fail to define and clarify terms, to oversimplify, to be unwillingly to see faults in set texts, and to be highly repetitious. Candidates are recommended to examine questions for vague/ambiguous words and to settle their meaning early on (though not in an arbitrary way). Answers to questions 9 and 10 below would, for example, have to pay careful attention to the words “hero” and “failure”. A clear statement of the view the candidate wishes to argue is desirable, and paragraphs with strong initial topic sentences make for easy reading. Quotation is expected in essays on set texts. Examples of typical questions on a single text 1. Does George Orwell see any hope for humanity in *Nineteen Eighty-Four*? 2. What role does Dr Watson play in the Sherlock Holmes stories? 3. What is the significance of fire in *Lord of the Flies*? 4. “Joseph Conrad’s view of woman is a very narrow one.” Discuss this view. 5. “In *Dead Poets’ Society* Mr Keating’s students have to pay dearly for his egotism.” Do you agree? 6. Do you think Shakespeare’s *King Lear* has anything to say of relevance to modern readers? 7. What genre of film does *The African Queen* belong to? 8. How does Hitchcock create suspense in *Psycho*? 9. Does *The Death of a Salesman* have a hero? 10. “Ultimately *Blade Runner* has to be judged a failure.” How far do you agree with this statement? **Notes on the questions** 1. Part of the art of answering such questions is to make distinctions. Possibly there is little political hope, but some hope for and from the working class. “Humanity” is ambiguous – it means the human race, and the essential qualities of being human. The first might survive without the second. Where should the emphasis lie in the story of Winston: that he rebels, or that he fails? Does power have to have an Other to exert its authority over? These are all ways into the question that are more interesting than a blanket yes or no. It is possible that the book itself is not consistent and that contradictory messages are present. Perhaps Orwell himself wasn’t sure. 2. An answer to this might be organised in terms of a number of different roles played by Dr Watson: the foil, the buddy, a conversational partner, a plot convenience, a figure of fun, a figure of identification, etc. The candidate could select four or five of these and produce a paragraph on each with analysis and examples. A poor answer would simply try to recount Dr Watson’s actions in a number of stories. 3. The candidate could summarise briefly a few major occurrences of fire in the novel, analysing its symbolic importance; or the essay could be organised into paragraphs on different types of significance – the fire as safety, as hope of rescue, as destroyer, as centre of the power struggle, as savagery and as weapon. Or an overall argument could be developed about fire as human energy with some potential for good when under control, but even greater for evil when unleashed. 4. With questions like this, there is no pressure on candidates to be on one side or the other – in fact, the candidate might even decide that discussing the point in terms of breadth and narrowness may not be a helpful one. An essay on this topic could be organised as some points supporting the statement, followed by some against it, and a final decision; or as a clear statement followed by a strong argument on one side: “It seems clear to this reader that Conrad’s view of woman was indeed a narrow one, and I have five points to make in support of my view.” 5. The question relates to Keating’s character (do you agree he is an egotist?), and where the blame lies for Niel’s suicide (with his father, himself, the school, Keating…?). The careful candidates might like to distinguish between his/her view and the film’s – i.e. that morally Keating must take a lot of the blame, but that Peter Weir and Robin Williams draw our attention away from this. 6. This would probably be best approached as a question on theme. The candidate could identify major themes and show they are still applicable. An alternative would be to attack the question’s implication/assumption that works of art ought to be “relevant”. 7. Questions of categorisation often arise. As film genres are not rigid, the answer will probably be that it is a mixture of genres. The candidate could look at the film as an adventure story, a love story, a patriotic war story, a travel story, even an African or a boat story. Probably in the last analysis the love story prevails because of the star-casting. 8. This is a technique question and candidates would be expected to discuss plot, music, setting, dialogue and so on. 9. This question involves character analysis and a discussion about what makes a hero. Many different answers could be produced: the play is about the impossibility of heroism in the modern world; Mrs Loman is the true hero; Arthur is a hero, full of failings, but the centre of our attention and sympathy; Biff has elements of heroism; or, no, the men in the play are despicable. 10. Here the candidate is asked to develop some basic principles. What exactly is a successful film? This can be analysed at different levels: - is the storyline clear and coherent? - does everything in the film cohere? - is the film visually beautiful? - is the acting good? - has the film been influential? … and many more. B. Questions asking for a comparison of texts Comparing ideas and experiences is intended to help us clarify our thoughts and establish general principles on which judgements can be based. Sometimes the issues which need to be discussed are referred to directly in the question, but sometimes candidates have to search for them themselves. Comparisons often involve the expression of taste. Candidates need to develop the ability to explain and justify their preferences. Careful consideration must also be given to the structure of a comparison essay. Will the essay cover one topic/set text, and then move on to the next, or will each paragraph follow this structure as various points of comparison are discussed in turn? Candidates should be made aware that an examination question provides an opportunity for a student to display his/her ability and knowledge. A perfunctory response may in a sense answer a question, but the answer itself is not as important here as the discussion that leads to it. Examples of typical comparison questions 1. Compare and contrast two short stories in terms of how they use narrative structure. 2. *Araby* tells the story of a young man’s powerful desire. Compare and contrast the theme of desire in *Araby* and one other short story. 3. A good story requires a clearly defined closing. Discuss this view with reference to at least two of the short stories. 4. Discuss how women are presented in any two of the short stories. Notes on the questions 1. The question asks for a comparison of the techniques and craft of storytelling in two short stories. It is necessary to discuss the two stories in parallel rather than dealing with each in isolation. Different focuses and aspects can be identified for a meaningful comparison, such as the plot development, the opening and ending, the use of narrative techniques and sequences like flashbacks and flash-forwards. The impact created by the use of such techniques should also be discussed. 2. The question requires a comparison at the thematic level. Different approaches can be adopted and the theme could be discussed in relation to age, gender, plot, mood, characters and so on. Whether the desires are fulfilled and how they impact on the main characters and plot development can also be discussed. Where appropriate, how the desires are presented (e.g. with the use of symbolism) can also be part of the analysis. 3. This question involves the comparison of different types of endings (e.g. close vs. open or ambiguous endings, resolved vs. unresolved endings) and suitable stories have to be selected to highlight the difference and support the arguments. It could be argued that not all good stories require a clearly defined closing. Then, other factors and criteria for evaluating the overall effectiveness of a short story have to be suggested. For a meaningful discussion and comparison to happen, it may be necessary to define what “a good story” is at the beginning of the essay and lay down some criteria for evaluation. 4. This question asks for a comparison of the presentation of women in two short stories. It may be important to identify two stories in which women characters play a prominent role, though minor and supporting characters in stories can also be discussed. The presentation of women can be compared in terms of their family, gender and social roles, their qualities and attributes, their conflicts with other characters and society, how they cope with the conflicts and their overall image in the texts (e.g. heroine or victim). The hidden messages and purposes of creating such female characters (e.g. to subvert gender stereotypes, to critique male dominance in a patriarchal society) can also be discussed in the essay. C. Question involving an imaginative expansion on a text Often such questions involve the assumption of a role (possibly one of the characters of the work or an imagined onlooker or friend). The candidates must think themselves into the role demanded and present thoughts, attitudes and ideas that can be justified for that person. Sometimes supplying such a justification is actually the second part of these questions. The form to be adopted is likely to be stipulated in the question (e.g. a letter). The style should suit the speaker/writer. If the character has a certain style of speech in the work itself, an attempt to imitate it should be made. No one expects, however, this to be taken to extremes. Friar Lawrence of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, being interviewed later, does not need to speak in iambic pentameter, but he should speak as a priest with religious references and might be allowed some archaisms. Similarly, Jay Gatsby and a Jane Austen character would be expected to speak rather differently. Candidates should avoid story summary. Even if two characters meeting years later or in the afterlife might be expected to relate the events of their lives to each other, this should not be allowed to take over the piece of writing as it will not gain marks for the candidate. Examples of typical questions on a single text 1. After the end of *Lord of the Flies* an inquiry is held into what happened on the island. Write Jack’s statement for the inquiry. 2. Bonnie after the end of *Bonnie and Clyde* enters the afterlife. She is asked to reflect on her life. Write her reflections. 3. During a search of the house after the end of *Psycho*, a letter written by Mrs Bates in the last days of her life, relating to events at the motel, was found. Write the letter. 4. Suggests some alternative endings to *Othello* and discuss their merits and demerits. 5. Say how you would update one of the Sherlock Holmes short stories to make it credible in contemporary Hong Kong, and say how you would make it into a successful short movie. 6. Imagine you could meet the author of *Beowulf* (assuming such a person existed). You interview him/her and then use the interview as the basis of a magazine article. Write the article. 7. Some time after the end of the novel Max de Winter has a dream in which he talks to Rebecca about his present life. Write their dialogue. 8. Write the front page of the “Glamis Daily Post” for the day following the end of the play *Macbeth*. 9. Give a speech to the assembled people of San Piedro after the end of the events of *Snow Falling on Cedars* and tell them what you feel they should have learned from the events. 10. Imagine you were one of Sal’s community in *The Beach*. What would you have done in the final days as things went sour? Comments on the questions 1. A good answer depends on an understanding of Jack’s psychology. Would he lie and try to blacken Ralph, or push the blame on to some of his followers (all the conveniently dead Piggy), or be defiant and justify his actions? It seems unlikely he would suddenly repent. Jack’s style would need attention. If the candidate decided Jack would probably make a lot of spelling mistakes, this could be signalled to the marker as a conscious decision, e.g. [Note: this statement appears as Jack wrote it, including his unreliable spelling. Editor]. 2. The temptation to retell the story would need to be resisted. The central point is whether Bonnie’s experiences change her. With hindsight, would she have done things differently? What are her happiest moments? Does she regret anything? How did she feel towards her killers? A feeling for Bonnie’s sense of style would also be needed for a good response. 3. This question asks us to consider events from the point of view of a character to whose thoughts the film does not make us privy – but presumably Mrs Bates was aware of Norman’s increasing oddity and might have begun to worry about where it was leading. Possibly she is also a strange person with an idiosyncratic style. 4. The candidate is asked to consider whether it would work to save Desdemona at the last moment, or whether Othello’s suicide is appropriate. Would it be satisfactory if Othello at the last moment could not bear to hurt Desdemona and killed himself in despair instead? There would be more justice in this, but would it contradict the rest of the play, go against character and generally reduce the drama? 5. This question should not be too difficult. Hong Kong is a great city with its share of crime. Some social customs have changed, but others have altered little. Where would Baker Street be situated? Are there any actors particularly suited to playing a great and learned detective? There is plenty to exercise the imagination on. 6. Sometimes after reading/viewing a text, our head is full of questions. Dead authors are not available to us, but we can try to imagine their responses, and if they are far back in time, their wonderment at the things we focus on, that may have been peripheral to them. (The same approach can be used with a rather impenetrable/silent character.) 7. The question asks us to judge how happy Max is and at peace with himself. Would Rebecca find his situation worthy of mockery or would she seethe with hate that he had avoided punishment? The dialogue form gives plenty of opportunity for inquiring about reasons for attitudes. An attempt would have to be made to imitate the aristocratic tone of Max and Rebecca. 8. This highly anachronistic task gives scope for headlines, interviews and enjoyable imaginative tidbits (e.g. more omens, special weather, a sighting of the weird sisters, the reaction from London, even advertisements). 9. This question allows the candidates to show knowledge of the main themes and messages of the novel. Probably the speaker would want to castigate racism, and address some special words Kabuo and other major figures used in the story, saying how they should now change. 10. Similarly, this question gives an opportunity to make moral judgements, but also to be empathetic (e.g. “I would probably have been torn between a desire to help Christo and a wish for him to die. I think I would have kept my head and realised humanity had to be put before our selfish convenience.”) It is clear that questions 9 and 10 both offer occasions for plot summary. Candidates can only be successful if they learn to resist this. SECTION A PROSE/DRAMA ANALYSIS Example 1 Read the extract below and answer the questions which follow it. The Old Man and the Sea - E. Hemingway (Permission to use the extract has been obtained for the print version of this Guide only. Teachers might like to use the following to locate the text: Hemingway, Ernest. (1966). The Old Man and the Sea. Middlesex: Penguin. pp. 91-92. “The old man’s head was clear and good now and he was full of resolution but he had little hope … he thought, and now my fish bleeds again and there will be others.” (i) Show how Hemingway’s philosophy of life as set forth in The Old Man and the Sea is reflected in this extract. (ii) Discuss the use of language in the extract in detail and show some of the special effects Hemingway creates. A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: (i) – The old man is the hero of the book and offered as a model; he is an Everyman, nameless but an individual. – The old man was determined to catch the marlin and in this extract is determined to defend it; he is stubborn and full of fight. – He recognises there are many sharks and he is fighting a losing battle, but this does not deter him. – He hates the shark as his enemy, but we see the shark also has “resolution”; it won’t die easily – it makes a commotion before it sinks into the depths. – Life is a struggle we rarely win, but a man should never stop fighting. (ii) – Simple diction/simple man – Long first two sentences of second paragraph lack punctuation, representing the speed and flow of the action. – The shark is “he”, a worthy opponent. – We see the shark as though through the sights of the harpoon. – The three participles bring the jaws into focus. Short, sharp “He hit it”, repeated. “The shark swung over…” mirrors the action. “The rope came taut, shivered and then snapped” mirrors the action. Sample analysis (i) This extract comes at a critical moment in Hemingway’s fable of human dreams and achievement. After waiting almost a lifetime, the old fisherman catches the most wonderful marlin. He lashes it to his simple boat and begins the voyage home, but the tropical waters of the Gulf of Mexico are full of sharks, which will be attracted by the scent of blood and may destroy the marlin’s carcass. The old man has had to spend hours out at sea to catch the marlin and he has been weakened by the ordeal, but his spirit and sheer stubbornness remain strong. The extract opens with the old man’s sad, realistic but unbowed assessment of the situation. The omniscient narrator, using a fairly simple diction suitable to the lifestyle of the old fisherman, keeps us closely in touch with the old man’s thoughts. The old man both is and is not an individual – the narrator does not use his name, but we are, for example, reminded of his ethnicity by the Spanish expression. The old man is representative of a type of human, one who will not accept defeat easily. Life in *The Old Man and the Sea* is obstinate. It took a long time to defeat, tire and reel in the marlin – both the old man and the great fish have “resolution” – now it is the shark’s turn to refuse to give in. It makes a commotion as it dies, and then sinks into the deep. The old man has won, but he knows his victory will be very short-lived. Such is existence. (ii) The long first two sentences of the second paragraph with their lack of punctuation show the speed and flow of the action. The shark is dignified with a “he” – he is a worthy opponent. Almost as if it is a film, for a moment we look through the imaginary sights of the harpoon. Then, the jaws come into focus with the three participles. This is followed by a short, sharp sentence just like the blow itself. “He hit it… He hit it…” creates the feeling of the harpoon being driven home. There is no false glamour here: the narrator openly refers to the old man’s “malignancy”. The old man hates the shark utterly. Other sentences that mirror the action could be “The shark swung over…”, and the last part of “The water was white…”. Example 2 Read the extract below and answer the questions which follow it. The Two Towers - J.R.R. Tolkien* Before the next day dawned their journey to Mordor was over. The marshes and the desert were behind them. Before them, darkling against a pallid sky, the great mountains reared their threatening heads. Upon the west of Mordor marched the gloomy range of Ephel Duath, the Mountains of Shadow, and upon the north the broken peaks and barren ridges of Ered Lithui, grey as ash. But as these ranges approached one another, being indeed but parts of one great wall about the mournful plains of Lithlad and of Gorgoroth, and the bitter inland sea of Nînren amidmost, they swung out long arms northward; and between these arms there was a deep defile. This was Cirith Gorgor, the Haunted Pass, the entrance to the land of the Enemy. High cliffs lowered upon either side, and thrust forward from its mouth were two sheer hills, black-boned and bare. Upon them stood the Teeth of Mordor, two towers strong and tall. In days long past they were built by the Men of Gondor in their pride and power, after the overthrow of Sauron and his flight, lest he should seek to return to his old realm. But the strength of Gondor failed, and men slept, and for long years the towers stood empty. Then Sauron returned. Now the watch-towers, which had fallen into decay, were repaired, and filled with arms, and garrisoned with ceaseless vigilance. Stony-faced they were, with dark window-holes staring north and east and west, and each window was full of sleepless eyes. Across the mouth of the pass, from cliff to cliff, the Dark Lord had built a rampart of stone. In it there was a single gate of iron, and upon its battlement sentinels paced unceasingly. Beneath the hills on either side the rock was bored into a hundred caves and maggot-holes; there a host of orcs lurked, ready at a signal to issue forth like black ants going to war. None could pass the Teeth of Mordor and not feel their bite; unless they were summoned by Sauron, or knew the secret passwords that would open the Morannon, the black gate of his land. Discuss how the language is used to create the style. * Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. ©1996. A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: Style: the work as a whole is epic, drawing on Norse, Celtic and Germanic myth. This is a dramatic moment in the story where style becomes especially grand. - Archaic vocabulary: “darkling”, “amidmost” and “lest” is used. - The style is very rich in adjectives, some doubled and even reinforced with alliteration, e.g. “black-boned and bare”. - There is a liking for doublets, e.g. “broken peaks and barren ridges”, “strong and tall”, “pride and power”. - There is a frequent, though restrained, use of inversion: “thrust forward from its mouth were two sheer hills, black-boned and bare”, “two towers strong and tall”, “Stony-faced they were …”. - One or two similes add to the effect, e.g. “grey as ash” and “like black ants going to war”. - There is also the use of an extra “and” in lists (see the sentences “But the strength…” and “Now the watch-towers…”). This creates a slightly Biblical feel to the passage and adds to the solemnity. - Tolkien also uses names for this purpose, e.g. the mysterious Gaelic-sounding Ephel Duáth and Ered Lithui, and the menacing-sounding Mordor (obviously echoing “murder”, also Latin “mors” = “death”) Gorgoroth (echoing gorgon) and Sauron Greek for “lizard”). Other names are even more direct, e.g. the Teeth of Mordor. - The talk of teeth leads on to a comment on their “bite”. The whole landscape comes dangerously alive in this passage. Geographical features are the grammatical subjects of the majority of the sentences in the first twelve paragraphs and the verbs, metaphorical as they are, begin to turn them into dangerous creatures: - “the great mountains reared their threatening heads”; - “they swung out long arms northward”; and - “High cliffs lowered …”. We read later also of a mouth. - There is a stress on the absence of colour, e.g. “darkling”, “pallid”, “Shadow”, “grey”, “black-boned”. - The imagery is of death, e.g. “black-boned”, “decay”, “stony-faced”, “maggot-holes”. Sample analysis Menaced by the growing power of Sauron with his forces of evil in Mordor, the Fellowship of the Ring, made up of representatives of some of the different races of Middle Earth, forms to resist him. Their prime task is to prevent the One Ring in the possession of Frodo the hobbit, from falling into Sauron’s hands, while at the same time carrying it deep into his kingdom to destroy it in the Mountain of Fire. The companions become divided and Frodo and Sam have to travel on alone with the help of the unreliable Gollum. At this point in the story they reach a milestone in their journey, the Black Gate, well-guarded entrance to Mordor. Tolkien’s work is an epic, drawing on the traditions of Norse, Celtic and Germanic myth, as well as British fantasy literature. For his descriptive passages, he writes in a rather grand style, as here. Some of the vocabulary is slightly archaic: “darkling”, “amidmost” and “lest”. The style is very rich in adjectives, some doubled and even reinforced with alliteration, e.g. “black-boned and bare”. There is a liking for doublets, e.g. “broken peaks and barren ridges”, “strong and tall”, “pride and power”. There is a frequent, though restrained, use of inversion: “thrust forward from its mouth were two sheer hills, black-boned and bare”, “two towers strong and tall”, “Stony-faced they were …”. One or two similes add to the effect, e.g. “grey as ash” and “like black ants going to war”. There is also the use of an extra “and” in lists (see the sentences “But the strength…” and “Now the watch-towers…”). This creates a slightly Biblical feel to the passage and adds to the solemnity. Tolkien also uses names for this purpose, e.g. the mysterious Gaelic-sounding Ephel Duáth and Ered Lithui, and the menacing-sounding Mordor (mors = death in Latin) Gorgoroth (echoing gorgon) and Sauron (Greek for “lizard”). Other names are even more direct, e.g. the Teeth of Mordor. The talk of teeth leads on to a comment on their “bite”. The whole landscape comes dangerously alive in this passage. Geographical features are the grammatical subjects of the majority of the sentences in the first twelve paragraphs and the verbs, metaphorical as they are, begin to turn them into dangerous creatures: “the great mountains reared their threatening heads”; “they swung out long arms northward”; and “High cliffs lowered …”. We read later also of a mouth. There is a stress on the absence of colour, e.g. “darkling”, “pallid”, “Shadow”, “grey” and “black-boned”. The imagery is of death, e.g. “black-boned”, “decay”, “stony-faced”, “maggot-holes”. Tolkein, indeed, musters all his art to create this grim picture to emphasise the difficulty of the hobbits’ task and increase the suspense. Example 3 Read the extract below and answer the questions which follow it. The Diary of a Nobody - George and Weedon Grossmith* November 16 – Woke about twenty times during the night, with terrible thirst. Finished off all the water in the bottle, as well as half that in the jug. Kept dreaming also, that last night’s party was a failure, and that a lot of low people came without invitation, and kept chaffing and throwing things at Mr. Perkkup, till at last I was obliged to hide him in the box-room (which we had just discovered), with a bath-towel over him. It seems absurd now, but it was painfully real in the dream. I had the same dream about a dozen times. Carrie annoyed me by saying: “You know champagne never agrees with you.” I told her I had only a couple of glasses of it, having kept myself entirely to port. I added that good champagne hurt nobody, and Lupin told me he had only got it from a traveller as a favour, as that particular brand had been entirely bought up by a West-end club. I think I ate too heartily of the “side dishes”, as the waiter called them. I said to Carrie: “I wish I had put those ‘side dishes’ ASIDE.” I repeated this, but Carrie was busy, packing up the teaspoons we had borrowed of Mrs. Cummings for the party. It was just half-past eleven, and I was starting for the office, when Lupin appeared, with a yellow complexion, and said: “Hulloh! Guv., what priced head have you this morning?” I told him he might just as well speak to me in Dutch. He added: “When I woke this morning, my head was as big as Baldwin’s balloon.” On the spur of the moment I said the cleverest thing I think I have ever said; viz.: “Perhaps that accounts for the paraSHOOTING pains.” We all three roared. (i) What aspects of Mr Pooter’s character are evident in this extract? (ii) What comic techniques does the author make use of? A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: (i) social anxiety (the dream) class aspirations (the party) lack of self-knowledge (equivocations about his drunkenness) naivety (confidence in sales talk) * From Ch. 10 from The Diary of a Nobody (1998) edited by Grossmith, G. & W. By permission of Oxford University Press. – pride (dislike of criticism from his wife) – self-satisfaction (pride in his puns) (ii) Comic techniques – names – ridiculous detail (the bath towel) – serious tone, ironic effect as reader laughs at Pooter’s actions – Pooter’s puns, his self-congratulation, use of capitals – language snobbery (dislike of Lupin’s slang) – the genre of the published diary, usually reserved for important people Sample analysis (i) Mr Pooter has held a party. Mr Pooter is an aspiring member of the bourgeoisie, always trying to behave like the upper class; hence the party with all its effort and expense. His dream reveals all his insecurities and fear of social failure, with ‘low people’ instead of refined ones coming to the party and attacking his immediate superior at work, Mr Perkkup. Mr Pooter, as usual, takes his own anxieties very seriously. Pooter equivocates over his drinking. It is obvious from the first paragraph that he had far too much to drink, but he tries to blame the food for his feeling ill. He contradicts himself about the champagne: he kept entirely to port; he had only a couple of glasses of champagne; good champagne does not cause hangovers. (Pooter’s naivety comes over in his faith in the sales talk of the supplier, and his dislike of criticism in his annoyance with his wife, Carrie.) (ii) The names in this book are chosen for their comic effect: Pooter reflects “footling” and “poodle”; Mr Perkkup sounds like an instruction to sit up straight; Lupin is related to flowers and walls, and is rather too “poetic” for the son of the family. We encounter two of Pooter’s terrible puns, which he admires so wholeheartedly and in such a self-congratulatory way he even uses capitals in his diary to ensure nobody could possibly miss them. It is hard though to credit Pooter’s explanation of Carrie’s missing the first pun – it seems clear she chose to ignore it. Lupin’s slang, as usual, annoys his father, but he carefully records his appreciation of the second pun. As we find throughout the book, a lot of the humour comes from the diarist’s meticulous detail. For example, the mention of the bath-towels adds the touch of humour so typical of this gentle satire of lower middle-class pretentiousness. Generally, published diaries have more traditionally dealt with the doings of great statesmen rather than the daily lives of clerks. The bourgeois interest in material possessions is well-caught in this way. Read the extract below and answer the questions which follow it. Androcles and the Lion - G.B. Shaw* The Emperor (majestically): What ho, there! All who are within hearing, return without fear. Caesar has tamed the lion. (All the fugitives steal cautiously in. The menagerie keeper comes from the passage with other keepers armed with iron bars and tridents). Take those things away. I have subdued the beast. (He places his foot on it). Ferrovius (timidly approaching the Emperor and looking down with awe on the lion): It is strange that I, who fear no man, should fear a lion. The Captain: Every man fears something, Ferrovius. The Emperor: How about the Pretorian Guard now? Ferrovius: In my youth I worshipped Mars, the God of War. I turned from him to serve the Christian god; but today the Christian god forsook me; and Mars overcame me and took back his own. The Christian god is not yet. He will come when Mars and I are dust; but meanwhile I must serve the gods that are, not the God that will be. Until then I accept service in the Guard, Caesar. The Emperor: Very wisely said. All really sensible men agree that the prudent course is to be neither bigoted in our attachment to the old nor rash and unpractical in keeping an open mind for the new, but to make the best of both dispensations. The Captain: What do you say, Lavinia? Will you too be prudent? Lavinia (on the stair): No: I'll strive for the coming of the God who is not yet. The Captain: May I come and argue with you occasionally? Lavinia: Yes, handsome Captain: you may. (He kisses her hands). The Emperor: And now, my friends, though I do not, as you see, fear this lion, yet the strain of his presence is considerable; for none of us can feel quite sure what he will do next. The Menagerie Keeper: Caesar: give us this Greek sorcerer to be a slave in the menagerie. He has a way with the beasts. Androcles (distressed): Not if they are in cages. They should not be kept in cages. * Reprinted by permission of The Society of Authors, on behalf of the Estate of Bernard Shaw. They must all be let out. The Emperor: I give the sorcerer to be a slave to the first man who lays hands on him. (The menagerie keepers and the gladiators rush for Androcles. The lion starts up and faces them. They surge back). You see how magnanimous we Romans are, Androcles. We suffer you to go in peace. Androcles: I thank your worship. I thank you all, ladies and gentlemen. Come, Tommy. Whilst we stand together, no cage for you: no slavery for me. (He goes out with the lion, everybody crowding away to give him as wide a berth as possible). (i) With close reference to the passage, describe the concluding thoughts of the characters. (ii) What does the conclusion tell us about Shaw’s view of religion? (iii) How effectively does the play deliver its concluding message? A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: (i) – The Emperor is cynical and pragmatic, flexible enough to turn any situation to his advantage. – No belief system means much to him (it is not prudent to be “bigoted”, he says), and his inability to handle the lion is repackaged by him as “magnanimity”. – Ferrovius desserts the peaceful teachings of Christianity and accepts an offer to join the Imperial guards. (ii) – Shaw’s view is that Christians filled with war-fever are a contradiction in terms and should choose one side or the other. – Though the story is originally about the miraculous saving of a Christian and the glories of martyrdom, it is emptied of religious significance in the play. – None of the characters needs a religion; it is simply an expression for them of their deeper feelings. (iii) – Shaw’s failure to confront true fanaticism or to give the characters any historical credibility weakens the play’s impact. – The play’s lightness of tone also makes it unable to deliver its message convincingly. Sample analysis (i) These are the concluding lines of play and bring it to a close on a comic note (not only in the sense that the seemingly inevitable deaths of the Christian prisoners are avoided, but in the actual humour of Androcles wandering off with a ferocious lion called Tommy!). The emperor, after his initial panic, boastfully postures as the all-conquering hero. His release of Androcles and the Lion is also an acceptance of the situation. The Emperor is simply cynical and pragmatic, flexible enough to turn almost any situation to his own advantage. No belief system means much to him; as he comments, it is not prudent to be “bigoted”. Inability to handle the lion is repackaged by him as “magnanimity”. Ferrovius (the name recalls the metal iron, here associated with swords and violence) deserts the peaceful teachings of Christianity and accepts an offer to join the Imperial guards. Pacifism, he says, is an idea whose time has not yet come (“the God that will be”). (ii) As Shaw notes, Christians filled with war-fever (and he saw plenty of those at the time of the First World War) are a contradiction in terms, and should choose one side or the other. Lavinia is happy to live and devote herself to the struggle for freedom (and possibly to the Captain, whose love for her is obvious throughout the play). Androcles is an animal activist who befriends all animals and cannot bear to think of them in cages (Shaw was himself a determined vegetarian). The point is that this story, originally about the miraculous saving of a Christian and the glories of martyrdom is emptied of religious significance. None of the characters actually needs a religion – religion is simply an expression for them of their deeper feelings. (iii) The rationalist Shaw is satirising hard-line religious positions, but somehow the failure to confront true fanaticism or to make any attempt to give the characters any historical credibility weakens the play’s impact. Its lightness of tone makes it unable to deliver its message convincingly. Read the extract below and answer the questions which follow it. King Lear - William Shakespeare [Enter Albany] Lear: Woe, that too late repents – O, sir, are you come? Is it your will? Speak, sir. Prepare my horses. Ingratitude! thou marble-hearted Fiend, More hideous when thou show’st thee in a child, Than the sea-monster. Albany: Pray sir be patient. Lear: Detested kite, thou liest. My train are men of choice, and rarest parts, That all particulars of duty know, And in the most exact regard, support The worships of their name. O most small fault, How ugly didst thou in Cordelia show? Which like an engine, wrench’d my frame of Nature From the fix’d place: drew from my heart all love. And added to the gall. O Lear, Lear, Lear! Beat at this gate that let thy folly in, And thy dear judgement out. Go, go, my people. [Exeunt Kent and Attendants] Albany: My Lord, I am guiltless, as I am ignorant Of what hath moved you. Lear: It may be so, my Lord. Hear Nature, hear dear Goddess, hear: Suspend thy purpose, if thou didst intend To make this creature fruitful: Into her womb convey sterility, Dry up in her the organs of increase, And from her derogate body never spring A babe to honour her. If she must teem, Create her child of spleen, that it may live And be a thwart disnatur’d torment to her. Let its stamp wrinkles in her brow of youth, With cadent fears fret channels in her cheeks, Turn all her mother’s pains and benefits To laughter, and content: that she may feel, How sharper than a serpent’s tooth it is, To have a thankless child. Away, away. [Exit] (i) With close reference to the passage, describe the concluding thoughts of the characters. (ii) What does the conclusion tell us about Shaw’s view of religion? (iii) How effectively does the play deliver its concluding message? A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: (i) – Scene portrays Lear’s reaction when Goneril tries to lay down rules for him and reduce the size of his retinue. – He curses Goneril (who remains silent and affected by Lear’s rantings) for failing to treat him as he expects. – Lear’s reaction might be disproportionate to what has happened in the play so far but it also anticipates the real depths of Goneril’s evil. – Lear begins to realise that he has wronged Cordelia. (ii) – Shows Lear’s misery which is going to tip into madness – His passionate complaint about lack of gratitude reveals his lack of understanding and his self-delusion (that he regarded the flattery he received as king as sincere). (iii) – Ingratitude is personified and presented as a devil with a heart of stone. – Lear’s lines contain examples of animal imagery (which runs throughout the play) and a number of references to body parts. Sample analysis (i) This passage occurs when Lear storms out of Goneril’s castle because she tries to lay down rules for him and reduce the size of his retinue. Albany, her husband, enters to find out what is happening, and, very much in character as being basically a decent man, tries to calm everyone. Lear, as usual, is too headstrong to listen. Goneril remains silent, too cold to be affected by her father’s rantings, which she ascribes to his “dotage”. The actress taking her part will have to decide how to show this – possibly by turning her back on Lear. Lear insists that children should be grateful to their parents, and curses Goneril for failing to treat him as he expects. He hopes she will never have the child, or have one who will bring her nothing but pain. Lear’s reaction to Goneril’s behaviour is disproportionate to what has actually happened so far, but it also anticipates the real depths of Goneril’s evil. Lear’s defence of his followers is also exaggerated. He is a man of extremes. The pendulum which swung so firmly against Cordelia at the beginning of the play is now on the move again. Lear begins to realise that he has wronged Cordelia (“O most small fault”). This will soon be reinforced by Regan’s lack of sympathy when her father arrives on her doorstep. (ii) Lear shows both his misery, which is going to tip over into madness, when he addresses himself (“O Lear, Lear, Lear!”) and also his self-dramatisation. Lear’s fault is that he puts the expression of feeling before the actual feeling. His lack of understanding is revealed in his passionate complaints about lack of gratitude. Was he so self-deluded that he ever regarded the flattery he received as king as sincere? It seems so. This is an issue that lies at the heart of the play. (iii) Lear calls up an image of a personified Ingratitude, a devil with a heart of stone. His lines contain examples of the animal imagery that runs throughout the play, e.g. “seamonster”, “kite” and “serpent”. There are also a number of references to body parts, e.g. the “heart”, “gall”, “wound”, “organs of increase” and “spleen”. SECTION B POETRY An example With reference to *Boy at the Window* and *The Bystander* answer the following questions. (i) Compare the way in which the boy feels about the snowman in poem (A) with how the bystander in poem (B) feels about the events he witnesses. (ii) Explain the references to the Bible in both of the poems and say what effect you think they have. (iii) In line 16 of poem (A) what is the boy’s fear? (A) *Boy at the Window* Seeing the snowman standing all alone In dusk and cold is more than he can bear. The small boy weeps to hear the wind prepare A night of gnashings and enormous moan. His tearful sight can hardly reach to where The pale-faced figure with bitumen eyes Returns him such a god-forsaken stare As outcast Adam gave to Paradise. The man of snow is, nonetheless, content, Having no wish to go inside and die. Still, he is moved to see the youngster cry. Though frozen water is his element, He melts enough to drop from one soft eye A trickle of the purest rain, a tear For the child at the bright pane surrounded by Such warmth, such light, such love, and so much fear. Richard Wilbur (B) *The Bystander* I am the one who looks the other way, In any painting you may see me stand Rapt at the sky, a bird, an angel’s wing, While others kneel, present the myrrh, receive The benediction from the radiant hand. I hold the horses while the knights dismount And draw their swords to fight the battle out; Or else in dim perspective you may see My distant figure on the mountain road When in the plains the hosts are put to rout. I am the silly soul who looks too late, The dullard dreaming, second from the right. I hang upon the crowd, but do not mark (Cap over eyes) the slaughtered Innocents, or Icarus, his downward-plunging flight. Once in a Garden – back view only there – How well the painter placed me, stroke on stroke, Yet scarcely seen among the flowers and grass – I heard a voice say, ‘Eat,’ and would have turned – I often wonder who it was that spoke. Rosemary Dobson A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: (i) The boy – feels sad that the snowman is alone and without shelter from the cold and wind – projects his fears of growing up and leaving home onto the snowman, and sympathises with him The bystander – shows no feelings about the events he witnesses – is indifferent, and unaware of the significance of what he sees (ii) Boy at the Window Line 8 – The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise The Bystander line 4 – The Adoration of the Magi/Birth of Christ – the three Kings line 14 – The Massacre of the Innocents/Herod’s slaughter of all male babies line 16–20 – The Fall/The Garden of Eden – the temptation of Adam – the biblical allusions make the poems more solemn, serious – in Boy at the Window the reference to Adam’s expulsion from Eden adds depth to the poem – it helps explain what the boy is feeling and why. The boy is afraid of having to leave the warmth and security of home. The poem associates these feelings with how Adam must have felt when expelled from Eden. The boy’s loss of innocence is analogous to Adam’s Fall. – in The Bystander the allusions intensify by contrast the indifference of the bystander (iii) The boy’s fear is of growing up and leaving home – of having to make his own way in a hostile world. It is a fear of his own mortality. SECTION C UNSEEN POETRY Example 1 Read the poem below and answer the questions which follow it. ****************************************************************************** Remember Me When I Am Gone Away REMEMBER me when I am gone away, Gone far away into the silent land; When you can no more hold me by the hand, Nor I half turn to go, yet turning stay. Remember me when no more day by day You tell me of our future that you plann’d: Only remember me; you understand It will be late to counsel then or pray. Yet if you should forget me for a while And afterwards remember, do not grieve: For if the darkness and corruption leave A vestige of the thoughts once I had, Better by far you should forget and smile Than that you should remember and be sad. Christina Rossetti ****************************************************************************** (i) Comment on the diction of the poem. (ii) How does the poet make use of the sonnet form? (iii) Give your views on whether the poem is too sentimental or not. Justify your opinion. (iv) Discuss the poetic techniques used in line 4. A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: (i) Everyday diction – monosyllables (making “remember” stand out) – an effect of calm and ordinariness (ii) – A regular Petrarchan sonnet – Octave: Please remember – Sestet: Maybe you will sometimes forget – Separate rhyming patterns – Effect of regularity and calmness (iii) The topic of dying and being forgotten is potentially sentimental and the poet’s resignation may not appeal to some. Line 3 is fairly emotional. Yet no religious hope is suggested (Death is a “silent land” of “darkness and corruption”). The overall tone is calm and realistic. (iv) – The pause in the middle of the line represents a moment of hesitation and delayed departure, disappointment. – The half-lines on either side of the comma are nearly symmetrical, but there is slightly more weight on the side of going (seven syllables to five). Suggested answers (i) The diction consists of very common everyday words; only three or four (e.g. “vestige”) would not occur high in a list of the most common words in English. “Remember” with its three syllables stands out among all the monosyllables. An ordinary person is speaking simply and trying not to dramatise a difficult situation. (ii) The poem is a carefully crafted Petrarchan sonnet. The first eight lines beg the addressee to remember the speaker, and the final six allow that a little forgetting may be allowed: the speaker certainly does not want to cause pain to the other person. The octave and sestet as normal rhyme separately. The calm progression of the form and the regular pentameter lines reflect the calmness of the speaker. (iii) No, not to me. The poem is certainly sad, as it is about death and the way in which we are gradually forgotten. No religious hope is suggested. Death is a “silent land” of “darkness and corruption”. The poem, however, does not try to make us cry – it is full of gentle resignation. The nearest the poem comes to sentimentality is the third line, but holding hands is actually natural enough for this not to be too strong or sentimental. (iv) The pause in the middle of the line represents a moment of hesitation and delayed departure. The half-lines on either side of the comma are nearly symmetrical, but there is slightly more weight on the side of going (seven syllables to five). Example 2 Read the poem below and answer the questions which follow it. The Death-bed WE watch’d her breathing thro’ the night, Her breathing soft and low, As in her breast the wave of life Kept heaving to and fro. So silently we seem’d to speak, So slowly moved about, As we had lent her half our powers To eke her living out. Our very hopes belied our fears, Our fears our hopes belied— We thought her dying when she slept, And sleeping when she died. For when the morn came dim and sad, And chill with early showers, Her quiet eyelids closed—she had Another morn than ours. Thomas Hood (i) Describe the techniques used in the third stanza. How successful do you think they are? (ii) How suitable is the timing of the death? Give reasons for your opinion. (iii) What images does the poet use? (iv) Discuss the overall tone of the poem. A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: (i) Use of contrast and contradiction - line 10 reverses line 9, and line 12 reverses line 11, creating an effect of disappointment - this may reflect the confused emotions of those around the death-bed, but its cleverness may detract from the sincerity of the poem. (ii) Dawn: a beginning, not an end; reflects the religious view that she has entered a new life with “another morn” – or may also be ironic. (iii) Lines 2-4: life and breathing are related to a rather rough sea Nature is made to reflect the sadness of her death (“chill with early showers”). Her new life beyond death is a new morn. (iv) Suitably sad; death and unpleasant new day Hopeful: quiet death followed by entry to another day elsewhere Grieving, but religious Suggested answers (i) The stanza is built around contrasts and contradictions. In both couplets, the second line reverses the first, and disappointment wins. This is, indeed, clever and may reflect the confused emotions of those around the death-bed, but possibly its cleverness reduces its sincerity, and does not increase the effectiveness of the poem. (ii) The death takes place at dawn on a cold, wet day. Dawn is the start of something new. From the usual point of view, the time of the death might be seen as ironic, that from a religious point of view she has entered a new life “with another morn”. Probably both views work at the same time. (iii) Between lines 2 and 4 life/breathing are related to a rather rough sea. Nature is made to reflect sadness of her death in the fourth verse (“chill with early showers”). Her life beyond death is a new morn. (iv) The poem is suitably sad. The woman is very ill all night and dies as an unattractive day starts. But there is a note of hope at the end. Her final death seems quiet and she enters another day elsewhere. Christian hope seems to counteract the grief. Example 3 Read the poem below and answer the questions which follow it. Done With* My house is torn down – Plaster sifting, the pillars broken, Beams jagged, the wall crushed by the bulldozer. The whole roof has fallen On the hall and the kitchen The bedrooms, the parlor. They are trampling the garden – My mother’s lilac, my father’s grapevine, The freesias, the jonquils, the grasses. Hot asphalt goes down Over the torn stems, and hardens. What will they do in springtime Those bulbs and stems groping upward That drown in earth under the paving, Thick with sap, pale in the dark As they try the unrolling of green. May they double themselves Pushing together up to the sunlight, May they break through the seal stretched above them Open and flower and cry we are living. Ann Stanford (i) What contrasts are used in the poem? (ii) How effective is the image in line 14? Explain your answer. (iii) How might we relate the demolition of the house and the fate of the bulbs with the life of the poet? A possible marking scheme Candidates may make the following points: (i) Between solid house and ruins - Between garden and asphalt - Between new life and growth and the inability to break through to the surface - Between life and death * Copyright © Ann Stanford. From Holding Our Own: The Selected Poems of Ann Stanford published in 2001 by Copper Canyon Press. Reproduced by permission of Copper Canyon Press. (ii) On the one hand, to drown is to be deprived of air, trapped in an alien medium. This roughly fits the problem of the plants, though lack of light is even more important. On the other hand, the idea of the earth and garden under the hard surface being liquid does not seem appropriate or enlightening. (iii) – There seems to be a need for a connection or the poem is very loosely structured. – The poet seems to deplore what has happened; in some way something important to the poet has been killed and covered over. – The poet identifies with the living repressed bulbs and wants to shout out “we are living”. – There is a possibility that the poem is a protest against redevelopment for commercial purposes (car park?). Suggested answers (i) There is a contrast between the solid house and the ruin it turns into. There is a stronger contrast in the second verse between the garden, lovingly described, and the barren surface of asphalt that replaces it and makes the soft earth hard. (Note the near rhyme of “garden” and “hardens”). In the third verse there is a contrast between the new life in spring and the paving that will prevent its growth. This contrast between life and death is further underlined at the end of the poem. (ii) “That drown in earth”. To drown is to be deprived of air, trapped in an alien medium. This roughly fits the problem of the plants, though lack of light is even more important. The idea of the earth and garden under the hard surface being liquid does not, however, seem appropriate or enlightening. The image is not a very good one. (iii) It does seem that there must be a connection or else the poem is a very loosely constructed one. It seems that the loss of the old home leaves the poet, to use a similar metaphor, rather rootless. Something in the poet’s past has been killed and covered over. It will find it harder to express itself in the new situation. Possibly there is a protest against redevelopment for commercial purposes: has the house made way for a car park? Certainly the poet seems to feel repressed and wants to shout out with the bulbs “we are living”. The range is so enormous that any list immediately becomes more notable for its omissions than its inclusions. Thought has to be given to the suitability of the content for students at the senior secondary level, the relevance and accessibility of the material, the length of the work, the difficulty of its language, and their connection with the texts that students are studying. **Novelists** - Achebe, Chinua - Austen, Jane - Alcott, Louisa M. - Atwood, Margaret - Bronte, Charlotte - Bronte, Emily - Byatt, A.S. - Cather, Willa - Chandler, Raymond - Coetzee, J.M. - Conrad, Joseph - Crane, Stephen - Desai, Anita - Dickens, Charles - Du Maurier, Daphne - Eliot, George - Ellison, Ralph - Faulkner, William - Fitzgerald, F. Scott - Ford, Ford Madox - Forster, E.M. - Golding, William - Graves, Robert - Greene, Graham - Grossmith, George - Guterson, David - Hammett, Dashiell - Hardy, Thomas - Hawthorne, Nathaniel - Heller, Joseph - Hughes, Richard - Hemingway, Ernest - Hill, Susan - Huxley, Aldous - Ishiguro, Kazuo - James, Henry - Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer - Lawrence, D.H. - Harper, Lee - McCullers, Carson - Morrison, Toni - Naipaul, V.S. - Narayan, R.K. - Orwell, George - Rhys, Jean - Salinger, J.D. - Shelley, Mary - Sinclair, Upton - Spark, Muriel - Steinbeck, John - Tan, Amy - Twain, Mark - Walker, Alice - Waugh, Evelyn - Wells, H.G. - Woolf, Virginia Short story writers - Auster, Paul - Ballard, J.G. - Bates, H.E. - Bowen, Elizabeth - Bradbury, Ray - Carver, Raymond - Cheever, John - Chesterton, G.K. - Dahl, Roald - Doyle, Arthur Conan - Fitzgerald, F. Scott - Greene, Graham - Hardy, Thomas - Hawthorne, Nathaniel - Hemingway, Ernest - James, Henry - James, M.R. - Joyce, James - Lawrence, D.H. - Lessing, Doris - London, Jack - Mansfield, Katherine - Maugham, W. Somerset - Oates, Joyce Carol - O’Connor, Flannery - O’Connor, Frank - Parker, Dorothy - Pritchett, V.S. - Saki - Saroyan, William - Stevenson, Robert Louis - Thurber, James - Trevor, W. - Wodehouse, P.G. - Woolf, Virginia Playwrights - Albee, Edward - Ayckborn, Alan - Beckett, Samuel - Bennett, Alan - Bond, Edward - Eliot, T.S. - Frayn, Michael - Mamet, David - Marlowe, Christopher - Miller, Arthur - O’Casey, Sean - O’Neill, Eugene - Pinter, Harold - Potter, D. - Russell, Willy - Shakespeare, William - Shaw, Bernard - Soyinka, Wole - Stoppard, Tom - Synge, J.M. - Thomas, Dylan - Wilde, Oscar - Williams, Tennessee Poets - Auden, W.H. - Bishop, Elizabeth - Blake, William - Browning, E.B. - Clare, John - Cope, Wendy - Cummings, E.E. - Day-Lewis, C. - Dickinson, Emily - Dunn, Douglas - Eliot, T.S. - Frost, Robert - Gunn, Thom - Hardy, Thomas - Heaney, Seamus - Hopkins, Gerald Manley - Herbert, George - Hughes, Langston - Hughes, Ted - Jennings, Elizabeth - Keats, John - Larkin, Philip - Lawrence, D.H. - Levertov, Denise - Lindsay, Vachel - Lowell, Robert - McGough, Roger - McNeice, Louis - Mew, Charlotte - Moore, Marianne - Owen, Wilfred - Plath, Sylvia - Roethke, Theodore - Rossetti, Christina - Sandburg, Carl - Sassoon, Siegfried - Smith, Stevie - Stevens, Wallace - Tennyson, Alfred Lord - Thomas, Dylan - Thomas, Edward - Thomas, R.S. - Walcott, Derek - Whitman, Walt - Williams, William Carlos - Yeats, W.B. Films - Alien (Scott) - All that Heaven Allows (Sirk) - Apocalypse Now (Coppola) - Back to the Future (Zemeckis) - Basketball Diaries (Kalvert) - The Beach (Boyle) - Bend it like Beckham (Chadha) - Billy Elliot (Daldry) - Blade Runner (Scott) - Bonnie and Clyde (Penn) - Boys Don’t Cry (Pierce) - The Breakfast Club (Hughes) - Casablanca (Curtiz) - Cast Away (Zemeckis) - Chinatown (Polanski) - Citizen Kane (Welles) - Dead Man Walking (Robbins) - The Dead Poets’ Society (Weir) - Don Juan de Marco (Leven) - Edward Scissorhands (Burton) - Finding Forrester (van Sant) - Forrest Gump (Zemeckis) - Four Weddings and a Funeral (Newell) - Freaky Friday (Waters) - Francis Ford Coppola’s Dracula (Coppola) - The Full Monty (Cattaneo) - Gone with the Wind (Fleming) - High Noon (Zinnemann) - How to Make an American Quilt (Moorhouse) - Icestorm (Lee) - In the Heat of the Night (Jewison) - It’s a Wonderful Life (Capra) - Jurassic Park (Spielberg) - The Legend of 1900 (Tornatore) - Life of Pi (Lee) - Mr Holland’s Opus (Herek) - Moulin Rouge (Luhrman) - The Namesake (Nair) - On the Waterfront (Kazan) - The Painted Veil (Curran) - Pleasantville (Ross) - Psycho (Hitchcock) - The Purple Rose of Cairo (Allan) - Rear Window (Hitchcock) - Rebel Without a Cause (Ray) - The Remains of the Day (Ivory) - Road to Perdition (Mendes) - Saving Private Ryan (Spielberg) - Shakespeare in Love (Madden) - The Sixth Sense (Shyamalan) - Sliding Doors (Howitt) - Slingblade (Thornton) - Straight Story (Lynch) - The Terminator (Cameron) - The Third Man (Reed) - This Boy’s Life (Caton-Jones) - The Truman Show (Weir) - 2001 – a Space Odyssey (Kubrick) - Vertigo (Hitchcock) - White Squall (Scott) - The World of Suzie Wong (Quine) | Term | Description | |-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Assessment objectives | The outcomes of the curriculum to be assessed in the public assessments. | | Co-construction | Different from the direct instruction and construction approaches to learning and teaching, the co-construction approach emphasises the class as a community of students who contribute collectively to the creation of knowledge and the building of criteria for judging such knowledge. | | Curriculum and Assessment (C&A) Guide | A guide prepared by the CDC-HKEAA Committee. It comprises curriculum aims/objectives/contents, learning outcomes, and assessment guidelines. | | Generic skills | Generic skills are skills, abilities and attributes which are fundamental in helping students acquire, construct and apply knowledge. They are developed through the learning and teaching of different subjects or key learning areas and participation in diversified learning experiences, and are transferable to different learning situations. Nine types of generic skills are identified in the Hong Kong school curriculum, i.e. collaboration skills, communication skills, creativity, critical thinking skills, information technology skills, mathematical skills, problem solving skills, self-management skills and self-learning skills. | | Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education | The qualification to be awarded to students after completing the three-year senior secondary education and taking the public assessment. | | (HKDSE) | | | Internal assessment | This refers to the assessment activities that are conducted regularly in school to assess students’ performance in learning. Internal assessment is an inseparable part of the learning and teaching process, and it aims to make learning more effective. With the information that internal assessment provides, teachers will be able to understand students’ progress in learning, provide them with appropriate feedback and make any adjustments to the learning objectives and teaching strategies they deem necessary. | | Term | Description | |-----------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Key learning area (KLA) | A way of organising the school curriculum around fundamental concepts of major knowledge domains. It aims at providing a broad, balanced and coherent curriculum for all students through engaging them in a variety of essential learning experiences. The Hong Kong curriculum has eight KLAs, namely, Chinese Language Education, English Language Education, Mathematics Education, Personal, Social and Humanities Education, Science Education, Technology Education, Arts Education and Physical Education. | | Knowledge construction | This refers to the process of learning in which students are involved not only in acquiring new knowledge, but also in actively relating it to their prior knowledge and experience so as to create and form their own knowledge. | | Learner diversity | Students are individuals with varied family, social, economic and cultural backgrounds and learning experience. They have different talents, personalities, intelligence and interests. Their learning abilities, interests and styles are, therefore, diverse. | | Learning community | A learning community refers to a group of people who have shared values and goals, and who work closely together to generate knowledge and create new ways of learning through active participation, collaboration and reflection. Such a learning community may involve not only students and teachers, but also parents and other parties in the community. | | Learning outcomes | Learning outcomes refer to what students should be able to do by the end of a particular stage of learning. Learning outcomes are developed based on the learning targets and objectives of the curriculum for the purpose of evaluating learning effectiveness. Learning outcomes also describe the levels of performance that students should attain after completing a particular key stage of learning and serve as a tool for promoting learning and teaching. | Learning targets and learning objectives Learning targets set out broadly the knowledge/concepts, skills, values and attitudes that students need to learn and develop. Learning objectives define specifically what students should know, value and be able to do in each strand of the subject in accordance with the broad subject targets at each key stage of schooling. They are to be used by teachers as a source list for curriculum, lesson and activity planning. Level descriptors A set of written descriptions that describe what the typical candidates performing at a certain level is able to do in public assessments. Public assessment The associated assessment and examination system for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education. School-based Assessment (SBA) Assessments administered in schools as part of the learning and teaching process, with students being assessed by their subject teachers. Marks awarded will count towards students’ public assessment results. School curriculum Schools and teachers are encouraged to adapt the central curriculum to develop their school curriculum to help their students achieve the subject targets and overall aims of education. Measures may include readjusting the learning targets, varying the organisation of contents, adding optional studies and adapting learning, teaching and assessment strategies. A school curriculum is therefore the outcome of a balance between official recommendations and the autonomy of the schools and teachers. Standards-referenced Reporting Candidates’ performance in public assessment is reported in terms of levels of performance matched against a set of standards. Student Learning Profile Its purpose is to provide supplementary information on the secondary school leavers’ participation and specialties during senior secondary years, in addition to their academic performance as reported in the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education, including the assessment results for Applied Learning courses, thus giving a fuller picture of the student’s whole-person development. Values and attitudes Values constitute the foundation of the attitudes and beliefs that influence one’s behaviour and way of life. They help form principles underlying human conduct and critical judgement, and are qualities that students should develop. Some examples of values are rights and responsibilities, commitment, honesty and national identity. Closely associated with values are attitudes. The latter supports motivation and cognitive functioning, and affects one’s way of reacting to events or situations. Since both values and attitudes significantly affect the way a student learns, they form an important part of the school curriculum. References Curriculum Development Education Bureau. (2017). *CDC English Language Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 - Secondary 6)*. Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council. Education Bureau. (2017). *Secondary Education Curriculum Guide*. Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council. Education Bureau. (2018). *CDC Supplement to the English Language Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Secondary 1 - 3)*. Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council. Education Bureau. (2021). *CDC-HKEAA English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 - 6)*. Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Education Bureau. (2021). *Supplementary Notes to the Secondary Education Curriculum Guide (2017)*. Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council. International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme www.ibo.org International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) for English Literature www.cie.org.uk Ministry of Education, Ontario, Canada www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/teachers/curriculum.html Morris, P. (1995). *The Hong Kong School Curriculum: Development, Issues and Policies*. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Victorian Curriculum and Assessment (Australia) www.vcaa.vic.edu.au Teaching of Literature Brumfit, C., & Carter, R. (1986). *Literature and Language Teaching*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Childs, T & Moore, J. (2000). *AS English Literature for AQA B*. Oxford: Heinemann Educational. Collie, J., & Slater, S. (1987). *Literature in the Language Classroom*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cook, G. (1994). *Discourse and Literature: the Interplay of Form and Mind*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cornett, C. (2007). *Creating Meaning Through Literature and the Arts: An Integration Resource for Classroom Teachers*. New Jersey: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Eagleton, T. (1996). *Literary Theory: An Introduction*. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Falvey, P., & Kennedy, P. (Eds.). (1997). *Learning Language through Literature: A Sourcebook for Teachers of English in Hong Kong*. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Falvey, P., & Kennedy, P. (Eds.). (1999). *Learning Language through Literature in Secondary Schools: A Resource Book for Teachers of English*. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Holmes, V. & Moulton, M. (2001). *Writing Simple Poems: Pattern Poetry for Language Acquisition*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Keen, S. (2003). *Narrative Form*. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Lazar, Gillian. (1993). *Literature and Language Teaching: A Guide for Teachers and Trainers*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lennard, J. and Luckhurst, M. (2002). *The Drama Handbook: A Guide to Reading Plays*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Maley, A. & Duff, A. (1983). *Drama Techniques in Language Learning: A Resource Book of Communication Activities for Language Teachers*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Marsh, N. (2001). *How to begin Studying English Literature*. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Peck, J. & Coyle, M. (1995). *Practical Criticism*. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Peck, J. & Coyle, M. (2002). *Literary Terms and Criticism*. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Pinsky, R. (1999). *The Sounds of Poetry: A Brief Guide*. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Vendler, H. (1988). *The Music of What Happens: Poems, Poets and Critics*. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Verdonk, P. (2002). *Stylistics*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H. G. (1992). *Practical Stylistics: An Approach to Poetry*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williamson, A. (1995). *Eloquence and Mere Life: Essays on the Art of Poetry*. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. **Film Studies** Movie Scripts and Screenplays www.moviescriptsandscreenplays.com Script Crawler www.scriptcrawler.net The British Film Institute www.bfi.org.uk The Daily Script www.dailyscript.com The Internet Movie Database www.imdb.com **Assessment** Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and classroom learning. *Assessment in Education*, 5(1), 7-74. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. *Phi Delta Kappan*, October, 139-148. Stiggins, R. (2004). New assessment beliefs for a new school mission. *Phi Delta Kappan*, 86(1), 22-27. Membership of the CDC-HKEAA Committee on Literature in English (From September 2021 – August 2023) Chairperson: Dr Jeffrey Michael CLAPP Members: Mr Aaron CHAN Dr Anjuli Ishani GUNARATNE (from October 2022) Ms HO Ying-kiu, Bridget (from October 2022) Ms Jennifer HORGOS (until August 2022) Ms LI Sin-yee Dr Joanna Gwen MANSBRIDGE Ms Rachel WONG Dr Jessica VALDEZ (until August 2022) Ms Sabrina YIU Ex-officio Members: Mr Bill CHEUNG (EDB) Dr Cameron SMART (HKEAA) Secretary: Ms Elizabeth WONG (EDB)
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the International Baccalaureate (IB) Course with Seibo Japan Introduction Seibo Japan is dedicated to supporting children in Malawi by providing meals and educational opportunities to foster their growth and development. Our current outreach, which impacts over 18,000 children, is driven by community engagement and corporate partnerships, particularly through the sale of Malawian coffee. We aim to expand our impact by introducing a unique educational course aligned with the International Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum, designed to inspire students to engage with social issues, develop leadership skills, and foster sustainable global citizenship. Objectives - To introduce a course based on the IB program that connects students with global challenges, particularly focusing on poverty alleviation and sustainable development in Malawi. - To empower students to apply their creativity, critical thinking, and entrepreneurial skills to real-world social issues through service learning and project-based activities. - To build cross-cultural understanding and global solidarity between students in Japan and communities in Malawi. Vision Seibo Japan's course is inspired by the IB's Theory of Knowledge (TOK) and Creativity, Activity, Service (CAS) components, encouraging students to apply lateral thinking and develop a sense of responsibility for global and local issues. Explore the socio-economic realities of Malawi and Africa within the context of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). - Learn about Seibo Japan’s social business model and its impact on Malawian communities. - Understand fair trade, sustainability, and social enterprise through practical engagement with Malawian products like coffee with an actual corporation, Ataka Trading Company in Tokyo, first importer of Malawian coffee in Japan. Mission For IB Course Our mission is to use this course to inspire the next generation of global citizens by showing them how local actions can have a global impact. Through partnerships with schools, students will: - Tackle real-world challenges by applying IB values such as "Caring," "Balanced," and "Reflective." - Engage in creative problem-solving, service learning, and collaborative projects with local communities. - Foster leadership skills by developing fundraising, marketing, and advocacy projects that support Seibo Japan's initiatives in Malawi. - Gain hands-on experience in charity marketing, sales, and social enterprise while contributing to a tangible social impact. Course Framework 1. Introduction to Malawi and the SDGs - **Lesson Focus**: Students are introduced to the global context of poverty and sustainable development, with a particular focus on Malawi. - **Key Themes**: Global citizenship, cultural understanding, and the socio-economic challenges facing Malawi. - **Activities**: Discussions on SDGs, local stories from Malawi, and understanding Seibo Japan's role in tackling these challenges. 2. Learning Through Service: Social Business and Charity - **Lesson Focus**: Explore how Seibo Japan’s work aligns with the IB CAS framework, inspiring students to connect their talents with global needs. - **Key Themes**: Social business models, fair trade, and sustainable development. - **Activities**: Workshops on the history of Malawi's coffee, creating marketing campaigns, and collaborating on service-learning projects that use coffee sales as a fundraising tool. 3. Practical Experience: NPOs and Social Impact - **Lesson Focus**: Apply IB values by working directly with Malawian stakeholders, understanding the operational aspects of NPOs and fair trade. - **Key Themes**: Ethical business practices, stakeholder engagement, and social responsibility. - **Activities**: Students engage in direct communication with Seibo Malawi staff, participate in charity marketing, and draft reports that visualize the social impacts of their work. 4. Global Collaboration and Reflection - **Lesson Focus**: Foster a reflective practice by examining the students’ learning outcomes and social contributions. - **Key Themes**: Collaboration, global partnerships, and sustained impact. - **Activities**: Collaborative service-learning projects that connect students from Japan and Malawi, report writing, and presentations on the outcomes and impact of their initiatives. **Practical Activities and Case Studies** To reinforce learning, Seibo Japan will facilitate practical activities that allow students to engage with real-world projects. This will include: - **Marketing and Sales of Malawian Coffee**: Students will design marketing strategies, create campaigns, and sell Malawi coffee as a means to fundraise for Seibo Japan. - **Collaborative Learning with Malawian Communities**: Virtual meetings with Malawian stakeholders to discuss local issues and how students’ efforts are making a difference. - **Student-Led Fundraising Initiatives**: Students will create their own fundraising models, contributing profits to local NPOs or other social causes. **Case Studies** - **Shizuoka Salesio High School IB Project**: A small group of students from this high school successfully created a marketing campaign for Malawi coffee and engaged in cross-cultural discussions with Malawian staff. Their work not only raised funds for Seibo Japan but also fostered a deeper understanding of global citizenship and social enterprise. - Video: [Shizuoka Salesio IB Project Example](#) - **Sales Example**: Other schools have adopted the sales model as part of their IB curriculum, with students taking active roles in marketing Malawi coffee and raising awareness about the importance of fair trade and social business. - Learn more: [Sales Example](#) **Conclusion** By introducing this IB-aligned course in schools, we aim to bridge the gap between education and social responsibility, empowering students to become active participants in solving global issues. Through this collaborative effort, we can inspire students to use their talents for the greater good, fostering a sustainable future for both Japan and Malawi. We look forward to partnering with your institution to bring this vision to life and create lasting change through education and social enterprise. For more information on Seibo Japan’s work, please visit: - Seibo Japan: [https://www.seibojapan.or.jp/?la=en](https://www.seibojapan.or.jp/?la=en) - Charity Coffee: [https://www.charity-coffee.jp/en](https://www.charity-coffee.jp/en) [Organization Representative Profile] **Makoto Yamada** - 2015 Graduated from Sophia University, Department of English Literature. - 2017 Graduated from Sophia University, Department of Theology. - 2017 Joined the British company, Mobell as an inbound sales representative. - 2017 NPO Seibo is created by the chairman - 2018 Launch of donation-based coffee site: Warm Hearts Coffee Club. - 2020 Assisting Catholic schools and Malawi through inquiry-based learning, Developing online courses to learn about social business. - 2022 Received the Social Contribution Award from the Special Contribution Support Foundation. - 2024 Malawi-grown coffee wins Social Products Award. **NPO Seibo** [Corporate History] - 2015: Establishment of Organization - 2018: Launch of donation-based coffee sales Grand Warm Hearts Coffee Club. - 2020: Start offering it for inquiry-based learning in schools as a measure to contribute to the SDGs, - 2022: Received the Social Contribution Award from the Japan Foundation, a public interest incorporated foundation supporting the promotion of social contributions. [Representative/locations, Association] - Akabane Nishi, Wita Ward, Tokyo 6-4-12 - 090-3426-0734 / [email@example.com](mailto:firstname.lastname@example.org)
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DISASTER PREPAREDNESS GUIDE Mayor’s Office | Office of Emergency Management | houstonoem.org Mission Statement The City of Houston Office of Emergency Management (OEM) is responsible for coordinating emergency response for the nation’s fourth-largest city. OEM also provides information and services to residents, businesses and city departments, and coordinates Houston’s emergency response during times of disaster. With the support of our residents and community partners, OEM works to see that Houston prepares for, responds to and recovers from large emergencies and disasters. Emergency Preparedness Houston residents are no strangers to emergencies. Our location along the Gulf Coast, in combination with our status as one of the nation’s industrial centers leaves us vulnerable to many natural and human-caused hazards. When emergencies occur, our daily lives can be disrupted, having serious effects on our families, friends and neighbors. This is why preparedness is so important. Having the knowledge, skills and abilities to respond to a disaster is everyone’s job. As a Houstonian, you can do this by following a four-step preparedness process: making an emergency plan, having an emergency kit, being informed about disasters and helping members of your community prepare themselves. OEM works to help residents prepare, but also serves as the coordinator of the city’s disaster response. Working with the resources of the city, OEM ensures city departments collaborate to manage the emergency, and through a variety of plans and agreements, brings in outside help to restore basic services and help Houston get back to business. Working together, Houston residents, businesses, and community organizations play a key role in how quickly we recover from disasters. This Disaster Preparedness Guide will help you be better prepared for the next big disaster. Thank you for taking the first step. # TABLE OF CONTENTS ## PREPAREDNESS CHECKLIST - Make and Practice Your Plan ................................................................. 4 - Build a Kit .................................................................................................. 6 - Stay Informed ............................................................................................ 9 - Alerts, Texts, Social Media and Apps .................................................. 10 - Know Your Neighbors ............................................................................. 11 - Community Emergency Response Teams .............................................. 12 - Neighborhood Ready .............................................................................. 13 - Emergency Preparedness for People with Access and Functional Needs .... 13 ## NATURAL HAZARDS - Hurricanes ............................................................................................... 15 - Severe Weather ......................................................................................... 16 - Temperature Emergencies ....................................................................... 21 ## EVACUATION INFORMATION - Evacuations .............................................................................................. 24 - Hurricane Evacuation Zip-Zone Map ..................................................... 26 - Contraflow ................................................................................................. 28 ## AFTER THE STORM - Recovering After the Disaster ................................................................. 29 - Returning Home ....................................................................................... 29 - Utilities ..................................................................................................... 30 - Food Safety ............................................................................................... 30 - Generator Safety ....................................................................................... 30 - Managing Debris ...................................................................................... 31 - Water ......................................................................................................... 32 ## PUBLIC HEALTH THREATS - HUMAN-CAUSED HAZARDS - Hazardous Materials Incidents ............................................................ 35 - Chemical Release ................................................................................... 36 - Radiological Incidents ............................................................................ 37 - Biological Threats .................................................................................. 39 - Terrorist Threats .................................................................................... 40 - Active Shooter Incidents ........................................................................ 43 - Cyber Crime ............................................................................................ 45 ## EMERGENCY CONTACTS - Know Who to Contact ............................................................................. 46 - Emergency Contacts ............................................................................... 48 MAKE AND PRACTICE YOUR FAMILY EMERGENCY PLAN Every family is unique. As you make your plan, be sure to consider everyone’s needs. Sit down together and decide how you will get in contact with each other, where you will go, and what you will do in an emergency. ☐ Make sure everyone knows important phone numbers and that children know their parents’ full names. ☐ Keep a list of contacts by the phone and in your emergency kit. Be sure to have a charger for your mobile phone. ☐ Make sure you identify a safe room in your home to ride out a storm. ☐ Determine the best escape routes from your home and find two ways out of each room. ☐ Decide on a meeting place outside of your home, and one just outside of your neighborhood, in case you cannot return to your home. ☐ Pick a friend or family member both inside the city, and one who lives out of the Houston area for your family to contact in case they become separated. ☐ Make a plan about what you will do if you need to evacuate with your pets. ☐ Keep a copy of your family emergency plan in your supply kit or another safe, waterproof place where you can access it in the event of a disaster. ☐ If you live in an evacuation Zip-Zone (see pages 26-27), plan an evacuation route ahead of time. For people with access or functional needs, please see pages 13-14 for additional tips. Know where to go to get information on shelters and services following an emergency. Visit houstonemergency.org or call 3-1-1 to find the nearest shelter. Remember that all emergency shelters are accessible to people with disabilities, and that service animals and pets are always welcome. Please note that pets may be housed nearby, but not necessarily with someone in a shelter. Remember that ATMs require power, and may not be available after a disaster. It’s always a good idea to keep some cash on hand in a safe place. If you live or work in a high-rise building, remember to check with your building management on what to do in an emergency such as fire. **Prepare your home for an emergency:** - Install safety equipment such as smoke detectors, carbon monoxide detectors, and fire extinguishers. Also test them regularly. Residents of the City of Houston can request a free smoke detector (including detectors for people who are deaf or hard-of-hearing) by visiting houstonfire.org and click “Smoke Alarms”. - Learn basic safety skills such as CPR, first aid, and use of the fire extinguishers. - Know how and when to turn off water and electricity at the primary connections. - Post emergency phone numbers by all home telephones. Teach children how and when to dial 9-1-1 for fire, police, or an ambulance. - Keep a list of your possessions. Keep important papers in a safe deposit box or another safe and dry location. Be sure to practice your plan on a regular basis so that you know what to do in an emergency. Practicing your plan also allows you to find problems with the plan in a safe environment. Then, be sure to update your plan so it’s as good as it can be if a disaster strikes. - Conduct fire and emergency evacuation drills annually at your home and business. - Replace stored water every three months and food every six months. - Service and/or replace your fire extinguishers according to manufacturer’s instructions. - Test your smoke detector once a month. Replace the batteries in March and November (or as suggested by the manufacturer), and replace the smoke detector after 10 years. - Practice with your child so that he or she knows important phone numbers. - Periodically visit your meeting place and remind family members what to do during an emergency, so that everyone is familiar. Building a family emergency kit is crucial. During emergencies, you may need to be on your own for a period of time. You may want to consider three types of kits: A Go-Bag, a Shelter-in-Place Kit, and a Pet Disaster Supply Kit. **Go-Bag** A Go-Bag is one that you would take with you in case of an evacuation. Go-Bags should be easily portable like a backpack or suitcase on wheels. Store it somewhere you can easily get to it. **Recommended items to consider including in your Go-Bag:** - Copies of your important papers in a waterproof bag. - Extra set of car and house keys. - External mobile phone battery pack or solar charger. Some hand-crank flashlights will also include a phone charger. - Bottled water and snacks such as energy or granola bars. - First-aid supplies, flashlight, and whistle. - Battery-powered or hand-crank radio (with extra batteries, if needed). - A list of the medications each member of your family needs and at least a 14-day supply of each medication. - Toothpaste, toothbrushes, wet cleansing wipes, and other items needed for personal sanitation. - Contact and meeting place information for your family and a map of your local area. - A stuffed animal or toy for your child and something to help occupy their time, like books or coloring books. If this includes a hand-held video game, make sure you have extra batteries. - Rain ponchos. - Escape Tool for your car. List any other items for your family’s particular needs. For suggestions on planning for people with disabilities or those with access and functional needs, see pages 13-14. - _______________________________________________________ - _______________________________________________________ - _______________________________________________________ Shelter-in-Place Kit Keep a Shelter-in-Place Kit for when you need to shelter at home for an extended period. Recommended items to consider including in your Shelter-in-Place Kit: ☐ Water (one gallon per person per day, for drinking and sanitation—up to a 7-day supply). ☐ Non-perishable food (up to a 7-day supply per person). ☐ Battery-powered radio (with extra batteries) or hand-crank radio/NOAA radio. ☐ Weather radio with tone alert and extra batteries. ☐ Flashlight and extra batteries. ☐ First-aid supplies. ☐ Whistle to signal for help. ☐ Filter mask or cotton t-shirt, to help filter the air. ☐ Moist towelettes, garbage bags, soap, disinfectant, and plastic ties for personal sanitation. ☐ Wrench or pliers to turn off utilities (water and electric). ☐ Manual can opener if your kit contains canned food. ☐ Plastic sheeting and duct tape to shelter-in-place (see pages 35-36). ☐ Plastic tarps for emergency roof repair. ☐ Items for unique family needs, such as daily prescription medications, infant formula, or diapers. ☐ Mess kits, paper cups, plates, and plastic utensils. ☐ Cash and change. (ATMs may not be available after an emergency, especially if power goes out.) ☐ Paper towels. ☐ Fire extinguisher. ☐ Matches in a waterproof container. ☐ Rain gear, sturdy shoes, long pants, and gloves. ☐ Important family documents such as copies of insurance policies, identification, birth certificates, passports, and bank account records in a waterproof, portable container. ☐ A stuffed animal or toy for your child and something to help occupy their time, like books or coloring books. If this includes a hand-held video game, make sure you have extra batteries. List any other items for your family’s particular needs. For suggestions on planning for people with access and functional needs, see pages 13-14. ☐ ____________________________________________ ☐ ____________________________________________ STAY INFORMED Staying informed in an emergency situation may be different than normal. In the Houston area, we often have warning of upcoming weather emergencies. However, there are other emergencies which may happen with little-to-no notice. It’s important to keep informed about anything that may come our way. AlertHouston The City of Houston offers emergency alerts through the AlertHouston emergency notification system. People who live or work in Houston can receive emergency notifications via email, text message and through a mobile app. To find out more information on AlertHouston, and to sign up for alerts, visit houstonemergency.org. During emergencies, listen to KUHF 88.7 FM or KTRH 740 AM, our region’s designated Emergency Alert System (EAS) stations, for up-to-the-minute information from local public officials. Houston residents can also stay informed about emergencies by signing up for emergency notifications from the City of Houston at houstonemergency.org. Follow instructions and recommendations — and be ready to adjust your disaster plans and supply kits as situations change. In an emergency, many people turn to the Internet and social media for information. While this is often a way to quickly access updates about an incident, not all information posted on websites or social media is accurate. The best source of accurate information is from official government websites or social media accounts. In the City of Houston, those can be found at houstonemergency.org. To help prevent the spread of inaccurate, misleading, or dangerous information, please do not re-tweet or re-post incident updates that are not coming from official sources. If you come across inaccurate, misleading, or dangerous emergency-related information on social media, politely direct the poster back to houstonemergency.org. If you live outside the City of Houston, visit readyhoustontx.gov to find contact information for your local Office of Emergency Management. WIRELESS EMERGENCY ALERTS Authorized government agencies can send short text alerts directly to your phone based on your current location. These alerts happen automatically and do not require you to sign up. To manage these alerts, check your phone’s messenger settings. Though most new phones receive these alerts, they are not yet available on all devices. Learn more at ready.gov/alerts. ALERTHOUSTON Staying informed through emergency notifications helps make sure you know what to expect in an emergency, and what to do to stay safe. AlertHouston offers emergency alerts through email, text message, a mobile app, and social media. Sign up at houstonemergency.org. CITIZENSNET Want to know more about disaster preparedness and receive news and information from city departments that are of interest to you? Sign up for CitizensNet at houstontx.gov/citizensnet. TEXT MESSAGING It’s important that everyone in your family know how to use text messages, because when phone networks are busy after a disaster, text messages may still get through. Text messages are limited in size, so keep them short and to the point. Also, remember that text messages can only be sent between mobile phones (not to a landline) and that additional charges may apply. SOCIAL MEDIA Social media is a great way to get quick updates on emergencies from your local government. Facebook is usually used for medium-length posts and pictures. Twitter is great for short messages, and those messages (called Tweets) can be sent to you via text message if you subscribe to them. Blogs are used for longer messages and updates. For links to official social media channels, visit houstonemergency.org. APPS American Red Cross Shelter App Contains emergency shelter information. Updated only when shelters are opened. The Ready App Emergency preparedness information for the Houston region. Houston 3-1-1 App Report non-emergency situations to Houston 3-1-1 from your phone. Find these apps and more at houstonemergency.org. GET INVOLVED Communities that plan together, and work together before a disaster, are better prepared to help each other during a disaster. Get involved in your community throughout the year, meet your neighbors, and make connections. There are some great ways to do this, including joining your Civic Club or Superneighborhood meeting (houstontx.gov/superneighborhoods), or attending a Positive Interaction Program (PIP) meeting, hosted by the Houston Police Department (houstonpolicecommunityevents.com). You can also engage in your community online using social media groups, and through Nextdoor.com. CERT (Community Emergency Response Team) Have you ever wanted to learn more about how to respond in your community after a disaster? Then you should consider a Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) class. • CERT trains people in neighborhoods, the workplace, and schools in basic disaster response skills, like fire suppression, urban search and rescue, and medical operations. • This awareness-level course helps residents take a more active role in emergency preparedness by providing skills that allow neighbors to come together and assist one another until local agencies can step in. • CERT volunteers are called upon to provide assistance with the BP MS 150 bike ride; various City of Houston special events; and community education events put on by the Houston Fire Department, Houston Police Department, and Houston Office of Emergency Management. • CERT training and materials are available in English and Spanish, and accommodations can be made for American Sign Language and other languages. All are welcome to participate at the level they are comfortable with. For more information on the training program (a series of eight three-hour sessions) and scheduled classes, visit houstoncert.org. People living outside of the City of Houston can find their local CERT coordinator’s contact information on houstoncert.org. MRC (Medical Reserve Corps) Do you have medical training or expertise and want to help treat survivors following a disaster? MRC volunteers receive training in emergency response, and are placed on teams with other medical professionals to work in disasters and assist with community events throughout the year. Even if you do not have specific medical training, but still want to be part of an MRC team, there are non-medical positions available as well. For more information or to sign up, visit harristxmrc.samariteam.com. Neighborhood Ready If an eight-week CERT class isn’t possible, the Ready Houston program offers a 90-minute training class called “Neighborhood Ready,” which is facilitated by you or a member of your community. The course covers topics such as determining if you and your neighbors are ready, understanding what disasters could affect your neighborhood, making a plan, building a kit, knowing your neighbors and staying informed. The host/facilitator helps the neighbors get to know each other and gives you the foundation you need to be prepared and ready. The Neighborhood Ready Meeting Kit If you are willing to host a neighborhood preparedness meeting and you are located in the greater Houston region, we will send you a meeting kit free of charge that includes a facilitator guide providing tips and suggestions to help make the presentation unique to you and your group. The kit also includes a number of items to help you effectively conduct your training session including a DVD, discussion guides, notepads, pens and safety lights. At the end of the session, the participants can keep their workbook, which also serves as a template for creating their own family emergency plan and building preparedness kits. To obtain your kit, please visit readyhoustontx.gov/neighborhood-ready/training-and-resources. NATIONAL NIGHT OUT Throughout Texas, the first Tuesday in October is when neighbors come together to introduce themselves to one another, get to know the local law enforcement officers and emergency responders who patrol their area, and help make their communities safer. To learn more about National Night Out in your community, visit houstonpolice.org, contact your local law enforcement agency, or check your neighborhood’s page on Nextdoor.com in late September. Emergency Preparedness for People with Disabilities or Access & Functional Needs In addition to the preparedness steps that have already been mentioned, if you have an access or functional need, you should develop a support system made up of individuals who can help you during a disaster. These should be people you trust, who know the type of support you need in an emergency. This system can involve paid caregivers, family members, loved ones, friends, or neighbors. Support system members should know your capabilities and needs, and be able to help quickly. Some professional caregivers and assisted living facilities are required to have emergency plans, so ask them what these plans are and what to expect in a disaster. If a plan is not required or does not exist, work with facility managers, family members, loved ones, and neighbors to develop one. Go through all the tasks involved in a normal day. Make a list of any accommodations, specialized equipment, or other necessities that you rely on. Also make note of the things you do every day that you need help with. This list might include: - adaptive equipment for dressing, showering, or eating - equipment that you have that runs on electricity - special vehicle or transportation requirements - prescription and non-prescription medications that you take on a regular basis This list will be the backbone of your emergency plan. For each action item on your list, identify what you would do if your normal routine were disrupted. Part of the planning process may include adding items to your emergency kit based on the list, while for other items on the list (such as specialized transportation), assistance from someone else may be necessary. Of course, you will need to tailor the contents of the kits to your specific needs and abilities. Ideally, you will need to plan for up to two weeks and include every item that you must use on a daily and weekly basis – such as: medication, syringes, ostomy bags, catheters, or padding. By law, emergency shelters and transportation providers must make reasonable accommodations for you. This may include ramps for wheelchairs or people with difficulty using stairs, interpreters or alternate ways to communicate for people who are deaf or hard of hearing, and access for a service animal for people that use one. However, staff at shelters or on buses may not be familiar with your particular needs. Please be sure to ask the staff if you need an accommodation that is not present (such as a power outlet for a medical device). People who may need extra assistance in a disaster should register with the State of Texas Emergency Assistance Registry (STEAR) by visiting [texasstear.org](http://texasstear.org) or dialing 2-1-1. **PRE-REGISTER FOR ASSISTANCE** **TEXASSTEAR.ORG** STEAR may be used by those who require transportation assistance in an evacuation, as well as by individuals who may require other assistance during a disaster. Information in the STEAR system is kept confidential. In the event your area is subject to an evacuation order or other disaster, your local Office of Emergency Management may contact you to schedule transportation or other services. Registration is not a guarantee of assistance, however, so please continue to include transportation in your personal emergency plan. For additional information on hurricane preparedness for people with disabilities or those with access and functional needs, visit [togetheragainsttheweather.org](http://togetheragainsttheweather.org). | IMPORTANT SUPPORT SERVICES | |---------------------------| | City of Houston Office of Emergency Management | houstonoem.org | | State of Texas Emergency Assistance Registry (STEAR) | texasstear.org | | United Way Texas 2-1-1 Support Line | texas211.org | HURRICANE IMPACTS Before a Hurricane Part of knowing what to do for a hurricane includes understanding the terms and phrases used by officials when a hurricane is expected to impact your area. | UNDERSTANDING HURRICANE WATCH AND WARNING TERMS | |-----------------------------------------------| | **Tropical Storm Watch** | High winds (39-73 mph) are possible within 48 hours. | | **Tropical Storm Warning** | High winds (39-73 mph) are likely within 36 hours. | | **Hurricane Watch** | Hurricane-force winds (74 mph or greater) are possible within 48 hours. | | **Hurricane Warning** | Hurricane-force winds (74 mph or greater) are likely within 36 hours. | | **Storm Surge Watch** | Life-threatening coastal flooding from storm surge is possible within 48 hours. | | **Storm Surge Warning** | Life-threatening coastal flooding from storm surge is likely within 36 hours. | When a WATCH OR WARNING is issued for your area, do the following: • Continue to monitor local TV or radio stations for instructions. • Check supplies, especially water (at least one gallon per person/pet per day for up to seven days). • Fuel vehicles and generators. • Cover windows with plywood. The Federal Alliance for Safe Homes (FLASH) recommends buying sheets that are at least 5/8 inch thick. • Bring in all outdoor furniture, toys, and tools. • Moor any boats securely or move boats to a safe place. • Move out of evacuation zones early if told to do so by officials (see pages 26-27). • Check tie-downs if you live in a mobile home. Find a sturdy shelter to ride out the storm. • If you’re not in the evacuation zone, review and verify that your emergency plan checklist(s) are completed. • Clean and fill bathtubs and all available containers with extra water. • Turn off utilities, if requested. • Stay away from windows, doors, and openings. • For more information on evacuation, see page 24. Hurricanes produce three major threats: wind, storm surge, and flooding. Hurricane wind speed is used to determine a hurricane’s category, and stronger winds have a greater potential to damage trees, houses, and trailers. Storm surge refers to water from the Gulf, bay, or its tributaries that is pushed onto land by the hurricane. The risk of storm surge determines whether or not an area is subject to evacuation during a hurricane. In addition, hurricanes bring rain, which can cause flooding inland, even in areas not subject to storm surge evacuations. Houston is also at risk for tropical storms. While tropical storms have lower wind speeds than hurricanes, they can still bring dangerous storm surges, heavy rain, and high winds. Residents should heed tropical storm watches and warnings and follow advice given by local officials. **During a Hurricane** - Remain indoors in an interior hallway, bathroom, or closet on the lowest level of your house well away from windows as long as it remains safe to do so. - Seek shelter under something sturdy, such as a well-constructed dining room table, which could protect you from possible debris. - Stay informed of changing conditions from local officials. - Have a secondary plan in the event your residence begins to flood. For example moving to a second floor. It is not recommended to go to an attic unless you identify another way out, i.e. a window or way to break open the roof. **SEVERE WEATHER** **Thunderstorms** A thunderstorm is a storm containing lightning caused by unstable atmospheric conditions. When cold upper air sinks and warm, moist air rises, storm clouds, or “thunderheads,” develop. Thunderstorms may occur by themselves, in clusters, or in lines. So, it is possible for several thunderstorms to affect one location in the course of a few hours. Some of the most severe weather occurs when a single thunderstorm affects one location for an extended period of time. Severe thunderstorms can bring heavy rains (which can cause flash flooding), strong winds, hail, lightning, and tornadoes. To protect yourself in a severe thunderstorm, get inside a sturdy building away from windows and stay tuned to a battery-operated radio for weather information. | **UNDERSTANDING SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH AND WARNING TERMS** | |---------------------------------------------------------------| | **Severe Thunderstorm Watch** | Severe thunderstorms are possible. | | **Severe Thunderstorm Warning** | Severe thunderstorms are imminent or occurring. | Lightning Lightning is an electrical discharge resulting from the build-up of static electricity within clouds, or between clouds and the ground. It always accompanies a thunderstorm. When the build-up is strong enough, lightning appears as a “bolt.” This flash of light can remain within the clouds, occur between them, or strike toward the ground several miles from the parent cloud. Lightning is a major threat during a thunderstorm. In the United States, between 75 and 100 people are hit and killed each year by lightning. If you are caught outdoors, avoid tall, isolated trees in an open area and metal objects such as wire fences, golf clubs, light poles, and metal tools. It is a myth that lightning never strikes twice in the same place. The safest place to go during a thunderstorm is inside a building. Remember, when thunder roars, go indoors. Flooding The most common type of all natural hazards is flooding. This is especially true for Houston. Our recent history with flooding has made us all aware of how dangerous and damaging flooding can be. Before flooding occurs, it’s important for Houston residents to know their risk, ensure they are covered, and make sure they know what to do if they encounter flood water. There are two types of flooding that can occur: flash flooding and flooding. Flash flooding occurs when a large amount of water rushes down a creek bed or bayou, creating a dangerous, fast-moving rush of water. Other floods happen over time, and occur when heavy rain fills channels and creeks slowly. The National Weather Service may advise of flooding for a region (“Areal Flooding”) or specific areas (“Forecast Point Flooding”). | Term | Description | |-------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Flash Flood Watch | During heavy rain, flash flooding can develop quickly. | | Flash Flood Warning | Flash flooding is imminent or occurring. | | Flood Watch (Areal or Forecast Point) | Significant rainfall has occurred and may cause flooding (region or specific area). | | Flood Warning (Areal or Forecast Point) | Regional or specific area flooding is imminent or occurring. | Know Your Risk While flooding generally occurs in low-lying areas and along the sides of creeks, streams, and bayous, it can happen anywhere at any time of the year. Everyone in Houston is at risk of encountering flooding at some point. You should know whether or not you live in a mapped flood plain or a flood prone area. The Harris County Flood Control District’s Flood Education Mapping Tool (harriscountyfemt.org) helps residents better understand their risk from floodplains, as well as help them identify which watershed they live in. Get Covered Did you know that homeowner’s and renter’s insurance doesn’t cover damage from flooding? Also, federal disaster assistance may not be available for every flood, and it generally does not cover a majority of the damage. This type of plan, which is relatively inexpensive, is the only way to cover damage that is caused by a flood. More information about flood insurance, or to find out what a policy would cost, can be found online at the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) website at floodsmart.gov. Know What To Do There are two types of flooding that can occur: flash flooding and area flooding: **Flash flooding** Occurs when a large amount of water rushes down a creek bed or bayou, creating a dangerous, fast-moving rush of water. **Area flooding** Happens when rainfall causes rivers, streams, creeks or bayous to gradually fill up with water. In both situations, it’s important to avoid flooded areas. This may mean delaying travel until flood waters recede. Heavy rainfall can keep you from clearly seeing the road in front of you, which may lead to unknowingly drive into high, or fast-moving water. If you find yourself in a life-threatening flood situation in your vehicle, **immediately get out of the car and seek higher ground**. When safe, if you need emergency assistance, call 9-1-1. Make sure you have a safety hammer, which has a steel tip and a seat-belt cutter to help you more easily get out of the vehicle, and break windows if necessary. If you find yourself driving through dangerous heavy rainfall conditions and encounter high water, stop your vehicle, and if possible, turn around. DO NOT attempt to cross any areas of high water. Remember, it only takes 6 inches of water to float or stall out a vehicle. Turn Around, Don’t Drown®. If officials expect severe weather, they may pre-stage barricades throughout the region to help law enforcement and streets officials close off dangerous areas. Pay attention to flood markers and always respect barricades. Under NO circumstances, should you move, or go around a barricade. Tornadoes Tornadoes strike with little or no warning. You should develop a tornado plan and designate a place in your home, school and office to go in the event a Tornado Warning is issued for your area. If a Tornado Warning is issued for your area: **Get In** - Seek shelter inside a sturdy building immediately, go to an interior room on the lowest floor possible. If you can, find a room with few doors and no windows. **Get Low** - Get low to the ground, and if possible, put on a bicycle helmet to protect you from any debris that might be kicked up by a storm. **Hold On** - Hold onto something sturdy, like a heavy piece of furniture, and wait for the tornado to pass. Be sure to stay in your shelter location until the Tornado Warning has expired, or has been canceled. Be sure to have a battery-powered NOAA Weather Radio nearby to be able to hear the latest information from the National Weather Service. **UNDERSTANDING TORNADO WATCH AND WARNING TERMS** | Term | Description | |-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Tornado Watch | Due to weather conditions, tornado formation is possible. | | Tornado Warning | A tornado has been sighted or detected on radar. | Before Severe Weather - Purchase flood insurance (visit [floodsmart.gov](http://floodsmart.gov) for information). - Determine if your property is in a designated flood prone area (visit [harriscountyfemt.org](http://harriscountyfemt.org) for information). - Purchase a tone-alert weather radio. - Assemble a disaster supply kit. During Severe Weather - Listen to local radio and TV stations for the most current information, follow official social media accounts, or visit official emergency information web sites. - For flooding: - Know what areas near your home are prone to flooding. - Do not drive into or go near flooded streets or areas if water depth and condition of the roadway are not certain. Remember, **Turn Around—Don’t Drown**®. - Carry an escape tool in your car to break glass and/or cut seat belts. • For tornadoes: - Move indoors, seeking shelter in a windowless room on the lowest floor (often a closet or bathroom). - In a mobile home, trailer, or vehicle, get out immediately and go to a substantial structure. A ditch, ravine, or culvert could be used if no structure is available. - Do not attempt to out-drive a tornado. - In a school, nursing home, hospital, shopping center, or other public building, go to pre-designated shelter areas or interior halls on lowest level. - In a high-rise building, go to a small, interior room, or hallway on the lowest floor possible. • Prepare to relocate from your immediate area, if required. • If advised to evacuate, do so immediately. • Call 9-1-1 for life-threatening emergencies. Call 3-1-1 to report street flooding, downed trees, and other severe weather damage (see page 47). • When traffic signals are out or flashing red, treat the intersection as a four-way stop. **TEMPERATURE EMERGENCIES** **Heat Emergencies** People living in southeast Texas are no stranger to high temperatures and high humidity during the summer. Residents should be aware of how to cope with these conditions. Our natural line of defense against heat is sweating, but this method of cooling doesn’t work as well during high humidity. When your body is not able to maintain proper body temperature, you can suffer heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. To help people better understand how these conditions will affect them, the term Heat Index was developed. The Heat Index is a combination of temperature and humidity and is used to describe “how hot it feels.” The Heat Index value is calculated as if standing in a ventilated, shady place. Prolonged exposure to Heat Indices ranging from: • 80° to 90° F could lead to possible fatigue. • 90° to 105° F could lead to heat cramps and heat exhaustion occurring. • 105° to 130° F make heat cramps and heat exhaustion likely. Heat stroke is also possible. • Greater than 130° F is when dangerously fatal conditions exist. Some tips to help you cope with reducing potential health-related problems are: - Drink plenty of water. - Reduce strenuous physical activities to early morning or late afternoon. - Wear loose-fitting and light-colored clothes. - Spend as much time as possible in air conditioning. Remember children, the elderly, and people with chronic ailments are most at risk during periods of extreme heat. Also, don’t forget your pets can succumb to the effects of excessive heat. Ensure they have plenty of drinking water and a shady place to rest. And remember to never leave children or pets in a car on a hot day, even if the windows are cracked. In the event heat indexes reach dangerous levels for a period of time, the City of Houston may open cooling centers. These are places where residents can go to be in air conditioning during the hottest part of the day. For a list of open cooling centers, or to schedule a free ride to a cooling center, visit houstonemergency.org, or call 3-1-1 (713.837.0311). **Cold Emergencies** Houston is generally spared from dealing with winter weather. Occasionally, we experience freezing or below freezing temperatures, icy roadways, and wintery precipitation such as snow, ice, and sleet. Be prepared for these types of wintery conditions. Even if temperatures are not below freezing, bridges and overpasses may ice over in cold weather. If roadways are at risk of icing, avoid driving unless absolutely necessary. If you must go out, drive slowly, give plenty of following distance between yourself and the vehicle in front of you, and avoid braking or accelerating suddenly. If you have a collision or break down, remain in your vehicle. Do not stand outside your vehicle during slippery conditions. During freezing temperatures, remember to protect the four P’s: - People should dress warmly, in layers, to avoid hypothermia (abnormally low body temperature). - Pets should be brought indoors or provided with a warm place to sleep. - Pipes that run outside or under a house should be wrapped in pipe insulation to avoid cracks due to water freezing in them. - Plants may need to be covered or brought inside to avoid frost damage. | Understanding Winter Watch and Warning Terms | |---------------------------------------------| | **Winter Storm Watch** | Severe winter conditions are possible in the next few days. | | **Winter Weather Advisory** | Winter weather conditions are expected to cause major inconveniences, some of which may be life threatening if caution is not exercised. | | **Winter Storm Warning** | Severe winter weather conditions are likely or are occurring. | EVACUATIONS Regional emergency managers and the Texas Department of Transportation have developed an evacuation plan for the Houston region. It is based on several factors, and is designed to get residents out of harm’s way quickly. One of the situations where an evacuation may occur is during a hurricane, but other situations may also trigger local or regional evacuations. Always follow directions from local officials on whether or not you need to evacuate. • Should an evacuation be announced, television and radio, official social media accounts, official web sites, and freeway signs will be used to provide motorists with important evacuation information. Determine if your residence is in an evacuation Zip-Zone (see pages 26-27). Evacuation during hurricanes is not necessary for most Houston residents. • If you live outside an evacuation Zip-Zone, you should think about whether your residence can withstand a severe storm. If you believe that your residence is not strong enough to withstand a storm, you should plan to move to a stronger structure nearby. After a storm has passed, if conditions are unsafe due to damage or uncomfortable due to loss of utilities such as power and water, you may choose to evacuate then. HURRICANE EVACUATION ZIP-ZONES Hurricane evacuations are based on the damage expected from various storms, and may be local or regional. Several regions of the Texas Gulf Coast have been designated as Hurricane Evacuation Zip-Zones. The map on pages 26-27 depicts, in color, the four evacuation Zip-Zones within the City of Houston, and Brazoria, Chambers, Galveston, Harris, and Matagorda counties. If you live in a designated evacuation Zip-Zone, have an evacuation plan ahead of time. However, not all residents of a particular Zip-Zone may be instructed to evacuate during a hurricane. Decisions on who evacuates will be based on the hurricane’s strength and its predicted landfall location. During emergencies, listen to KUHF 88.7 FM or KTRH 740 AM, our region’s designated Emergency Alert System stations, visit houstonemergency.org, and follow other official sources of information, for up-to-the-minute information from local public officials. Follow instructions and recommendations — and be ready to adjust your disaster plans and supply kits accordingly. TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT PLANS In the event of high vehicle traffic during an evacuation, local government officials may decide to implement traffic management plans. Possible traffic management plans are included on page 28, but these are subject to change and may not be used in all incidents. Remember to always follow directions from law enforcement, local media, and highway signs. This section continues on page 28. This product is for informational purposes and may not have been prepared for or based on the most current information available. It does not represent an on-the-ground survey and represents only the approximate relative location of property boundaries. Additional maps and information available. Brazoria, Chambers, Galveston, Harris and Matagorda Hurricane Evacuation Zip-Zones Coastal, A, B, C | ZIP ZONE COASTAL | | | | | | |------------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------| | 77414s | 77422s| 77465s| 77534s| 77541 | | 77550 | 77551 | 77554 | 77563 | 77577s| | 77623 | | | | | | ZIP ZONE A | | | | | | |------------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------| | 77058s | 77510 | 77514s| 77518 | 77539 | | 77563 | 77565 | 77568 | 77573 | 77586 | | 77590 | 77591 | | | | | ZIP ZONE B | | | | | | |------------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------| | 77058n | 77059 | 77062 | 77414n| 77422n| | 77465n | 77507 | 77511 | 77514n| 77515 | | 77517 | 77520 | 77523 | 77531 | 77534n| | 77546n | 77546s| 77560 | 77566 | 77571 | | 77577n | 77597 | 77598 | 77665 | | | ZIP ZONE C | | | | | | |------------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------| | 77011 | 77012 | 77013 | 77015 | 77017 | | 77023 | 77029 | 77034 | 77049 | 77061 | | 77075 | 77087 | 77089 | 77430 | 77444 | | 77480 | 77486 | 77502 | 77503 | 77504 | | 77505 | 77506 | 77521 | 77530 | 77535 | | 77536 | 77547 | 77562 | 77578 | 77581 | | 77583 | 77584 | 77587 | | | Some zip codes are split into north (n) and south (s) for evacuation purposes. Route Designation - Evacuation Corridors - Evacuation Connections - Other Roads - County Boundary Revision Date: March 29, 2023 Expiration Date: December 31, 2023 Map Created by: Houston-Galveston Area Council Contraflow Contraflow involves reversing the flow of traffic on highways so that all traffic flows out. There are four possible locations for this to occur near Houston. During an evacuation, look for signs indicating whether or not the contraflow plans are in effect. Most evacuations will not require contraflow, and not all contraflow options may be used. US-290 (Northwest Fwy) at Highway 6/FM 1960 W US-59 at Mandell Road south of Cleveland in Liberty County I-45 (North Fwy) north of Conroe between Loop 336 and FM 3083 I-10 (Katy Fwy) at FM 359 in Brookshire Courtesy of TxDOT Evaculanes Three local highways—I-10 (Katy Fwy), I-45 (North Fwy), and US-290 (Northwest Fwy)—have been designed to allow for additional traffic flow during an evacuation. These additional lanes are called “Evaculanes” and are marked with a white hurricane symbol on a blue circle as shown to the left. During an evacuation, look for information on whether these additional lanes are open to traffic. AFTER THE STORM After a storm occurs, it’s important to let the city know about any damage your home or business has sustained. This helps the city bring much-needed resources into the area to help get Houston back up and running. Call 3-1-1, visit houston311.org or make a report on the Houston 311 Mobile App if you experienced damage or flooding. You may also report things like debris or trees in city streets, street flooding, and drainage issues. Following a large-scale disaster, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) may provide assistance to disaster survivors. FEMA assistance is not automatic, and may take a few days, weeks, or months to come through. FEMA will work with the city to help people register for assistance, and may set up Disaster Recovery Centers (DRCs) throughout the area to help residents apply for help. RECOVERY AFTER THE DISASTER Those residents affected by a disaster should pay close attention to the information the city, its partner agencies and nonprofits are providing. One of the best ways to stay up-to-date is to visit the city’s Disaster Recovery website, houstonrecovers.org. This website will be updated continually following a disaster and can point you to specific information and services you might be eligible for. RETURNING HOME If you evacuated, wait for official instructions before returning home. This is done to ensure the safety of you, your neighbors, and emergency responders. Your health and safety is the most important concern. Do not enter areas that are potentially unsafe. This includes damaged buildings, areas with downed power lines or with heavy debris. Floodwaters can contain diseases, debris, wildlife, or chemicals. If flooding has damaged your home or property, throw out contaminated items. This includes livestock feed and hay. If your home, vehicle, or personal property has been damaged or destroyed, contact your insurance agent. If it is safe to do so, take pictures or video of the damage. Also listen to local officials for instructions. In large-scale disasters, additional assistance may be (but isn’t always) available. **UTILITIES** Utilities, such as power lines or natural gas service, may have been damaged during the disaster. If you see downed power lines or suspect a gas leak, leave the area. Once you are in a safe location, call 9-1-1 and your utility company to report the emergency. **FOOD SAFETY** Disasters can cause power outages. Even if your power is back on when you return, food that was stored in your refrigerator or freezer may no longer be safe to eat. If your power does go out, be aware that lack of refrigeration can cause food to spoil and become unsafe to eat. The FDA and USDA recommend that any refrigerated food that rose above 40° F for more than two hours be thrown out, and that any frozen food that is now thawed be thrown out as well. Learn more at [foodsafety.gov](http://foodsafety.gov). **GENERATOR SAFETY** If you choose to use a generator during or after a disaster, follow these simple safety tips to protect you and your family from dangerous carbon monoxide gas and electrocution: - Always use generators outside, away from doors, windows, awnings, and eaves. Generators should be 20 feet away from buildings. - Do not use chains or locks to secure a generator, because this can hamper firefighters in an emergency. - Never connect a generator directly to your home’s electrical system. Instead, use properly-rated extension cords and connect appliances directly to the generator. - Consult an electrician before performing advanced generator tasks, like using an automatic generator or transfer switch. - Do not store gasoline inside your home or near water heaters. - Always have a UL-approved carbon monoxide detector when using generators. **NEVER use a generator indoors, in garages, or carports.** ONLY use outdoors and far from open windows, doors, and vents. Courtesy of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) MANAGING DEBRIS Debris Collection Following a large-scale emergency, the city may implement a program to collect debris in neighborhoods. Documenting Damage Before putting debris out for collection, you should do the following: - Contact your insurance company to file a claim - Document your property damage(s) by taking photographs - Contact 311 (713.837.0311) to notify the city of your damage(s). This will help the city identify areas that will need debris collection. - If a federal disaster declaration has been issued, call FEMA (800-621-3362), or apply online at disasterassistance.gov to a Disaster Assistance Claim. Safely Handling Debris Remember that debris, especially after flooding incidents, can be hazardous to your health or safety. You should always: - Wear gloves and eye protection when removing construction materials such as drywall, wood siding, large furniture - Wear long-pants and sturdy shoes in debris-riddled areas to prevent injury. - For specific instructions on how to safely remove drywall and debris, go to houstonrecovery.org. NEVER attempt to clean and re-use cloth articles (such as furniture, bedding, etc.) that have encountered flood water. You may attempt to clean and reuse clothing items only if they can be fully washed and dried in a washing machine and dryer. Separating Debris Once you are ready for your debris to be collected, be sure to separate your debris into these five categories when you put them on the street: - **Vegetative Debris** – leaves (do not put in bags), logs, plants, tree branches. - **Construction & Demolition Debris** – building materials, carpet, drywall, furniture, lumber, mattresses and plumbing. - **Appliances & White Goods** – air conditioners, dishwashers, freezers, refrigerators, stoves, washers, dryers and water heaters. - **Electronics** – computers, radios, stereos, televisions, other devices with a cord. - **Household Hazardous Waste** – cleaning supplies, batteries, lawn chemicals, oils, oil-based paints, stains and pesticides. Where to put your Debris **DO** place debris on the edge of your property before the curb, on a sidewalk, or in a ditch. **DO NOT** place debris by trees, poles, fire hydrants, or water/electric meters. Additionally, the City may designate additional facilities where you can take disaster debris. These locations, and their hours of operation will be posted at houstonrecovers.org. WATER While most disasters don’t impact fresh water service, your drinking water can occasionally be impacted by a disaster. If fresh water service has or may have been impacted: - Stay informed and listen to local officials for information on your local water service. - If your water quality is impacted, listen to the directions given on what to do. - Some water issues can be addressed by purifying water as described below, or by using the seven-day supply of water you have in your Shelter-in-Place Kit. - Certain types of contamination make water unsafe even after purification. In this case, you **MUST** use your supply of bottled water. - Remember that water that is unsafe for drinking should not be used to brush teeth, wash dishes, or for mixing infant formula. Boiling is the easiest and fastest way to kill many diseases in water. However, boiling does not remove chemicals or dirt. To purify water by boiling, put water in a large pot or kettle. If the water is cloudy, filter it by pouring it through a coffee filter, cheese cloth, or paper towel first. Then bring the water to a rolling boil for at least one minute. Allow to cool before using. Bleach will also kill some diseases in water, but again will not remove dirt or chemicals. Find regular household bleach (typically between 5.25% and 8.25% chlorine), not scented or “color safe” bleach alternatives. For best results, use bleach from an unopened bottle. Next, add your water to a clean container, filtering it first if it is cloudy. For each gallon of water, add 1/4 teaspoon of bleach. Stir, then wait 60 minutes. Finally, there are commercial water filters or purification systems available. Each system has different chemicals and diseases it can or cannot remove. Please read the label or packaging for the limitations of each system, the directions for use, and the expiration date on any filters or components. Always listen to local officials for specific directions on water safety after a disaster. Local officials will know what special precautions, if any, need to be taken for that particular emergency. Pandemic Influenza Influenza pandemic is a large outbreak of the flu. It occurs when a new flu virus emerges for which there is little or no immunity in the human population. Anyone, including healthy people, can get the flu. What Are the Symptoms of the Flu? Symptoms of the flu, which can take one to four days after the virus enters the body, include: - Sudden fever (100.4° F or more) - Headache - Tiredness, sometimes extreme - Dry cough Preventing the Flu by: - Getting the flu vaccine every year. - Washing your hands, covering your cough, and disinfecting surfaces or objects that have come into contact with someone who is sick. - If you do get the flu, stay home so you don’t get anyone else sick. Get rest, drink plenty of fluids, and follow directions given by your doctor. - If you or a loved one has severe symptoms, including difficulty breathing, purple or blue discoloration of the lips, pain or pressure in the chest or stomach, confusion, severe vomiting, or convulsions/seizures, seek medical help immediately. Wash your hands often with soap and water. If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand rub. Cover your nose and mouth with a tissue when you cough or sneeze. Throw the tissue in the trash after you use it. Clean and disinfect surfaces and objects that may be contaminated with germs like the flu. Mosquito-Borne Diseases There are a variety of dangerous diseases that can be spread by mosquitoes, including West Nile, Zika and others. Because of Houston’s climate, we are an ideal place for mosquitoes to live. As a result, we should take steps to prevent contact with mosquitoes, including: **Drain** Drain areas of standing water near your home. This includes flowerpots, trash, and debris. If there is an area of trash that is causing a nuisance, call 3-1-1 (713.837.0311) to report it to the City. **Dress** Wear long-sleeves and pants when outside. Mosquitoes cannot easily penetrate clothing. **DEET** Use mosquito spray that contains DEET. This is the best type of repellent for reducing bites from mosquitoes. Emerging Diseases There are always risks for diseases that scientists do not understand well. These diseases can remain dormant in certain parts of the world and then kick up, resulting in more infections. It’s always important to be aware of changing health conditions, and keep yourself and your family healthy. The Houston Health Department’s website, houstonhealth.org has the latest information on emerging diseases, and what you can do to keep your family safe. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INCIDENTS Hazardous materials are substances, which because of their chemical, physical, or biological nature, pose a potential risk to life, health, and property if they are released. Hazards can exist during production, storage, use, disposal or transportation (may include transportation by vehicle, train, or ship). What to Do in a Hazardous Materials Incident - If you witness a hazardous materials incident or explosion, dial 9-1-1. - Avoid the incident site to minimize risk of contamination or exposure. - If you are caught outside during an incident, try to stay up-stream, uphill, and upwind. - If you are in a car, close windows and shut off ventilation. - For a poison emergency, call 800.222.1222. Sheltering in Place Depending on the type of emergency, local officials may recommend that you take shelter inside a building. This is done if officials believe that air inside your building is safer than air outside. Orders to take shelter inside a building will be given by local officials via radio, TV, AlertHouston, or a wireless emergency alert. When you “shelter-in-place,” you create a temporary barrier between the clean air inside your building and the bad air outside. Locate a room in your home that has a minimum number of exterior windows, such as a bathroom or closet. Once you’ve located your shelter-in-place room, follow the steps below (illustrated in the diagram to the right): Steps 1 and 2 should be done now. Steps 3 and 4 are for when a shelter-in-place order is given. 1. Measure all openings to your shelter-in-place room. Examples of openings include doors, windows, vents (also check the ceiling), exhaust fans, and outlets. 2. Add 6–12 inches to your measurements, then cut sheets of 2–4 mil plastic to fit each opening you measured. Remember that the sheets must be larger than the opening to fit over them. Label each sheet with the opening it was designed to cover. 3. If a shelter-in-place order is given, take your pre-cut plastic sheets, place them over the appropriate opening, and start by taping down the corners. 4. After all four corners are secured, completely tape all four sides of the sheet. Make sure the tape overlaps at the corners. Repeat this process for the other openings in the room. You can build a Shelter-in-Place Kit by putting your pre-cut plastic sheets together with duct tape, food, water, and a battery-powered radio. When you shelter-in-place, use your battery-powered radio to listen for instructions. After the immediate hazard has passed, local officials may ask you to open windows and doors in your home to let fresh air back in. **CHEMICAL RELEASE** A chemical release of a toxic gas, liquid, or solid can poison people and the environment. These can be both intentional or accidental. **Possible Signs of Chemical Exposure** - Many people suffering from watery eyes, twitching, choking, having trouble breathing, or losing coordination. - Many sick or dead birds, fish, or small animals are also a cause for suspicion. - A large boom and a cloud drifting over an area around an incident sight. **If You See Signs of Chemical Exposure** - Find clean air quickly. - Quickly try to define the impacted area or where the chemical is coming from, if possible. - Take immediate action to get away. - If the chemical is inside a building where you are, get out of the building without passing through the contaminated area, if possible. - If you can’t get out of the building or find clean air without passing through the area where you see signs of a chemical release, it may be better to move as far away as possible and “shelter-in-place.” - If you are outside, quickly determine the fastest way to find clean air. Consider if you can get out of the area or if you should go inside the closest building and “shelter-in-place.” **If You Think You Have Been Exposed to a Chemical** - If your eyes are watering or your skin is stinging, or if you are having trouble breathing, you may have been exposed to a chemical. - If you think you may have been exposed to a chemical, remove your clothes immediately. - Look for a hose, fountain, or any source of water, and wash with soap if possible. RADIOLOGICAL INCIDENTS Radiation is present all around us. Some of it comes from natural sources, like the sun. Other radiation is present in objects we may interact with regularly. And we are also exposed to radiation from artificial sources like x-rays, medical imaging devices, or cancer treatments. These sources are considered safe because the radiation levels are very small or only present for short periods of time. However, radiation is still a topic that people find disturbing, and for that reason, radiological devices may be used by terrorists. The potential terrorist uses of radiation fall into three categories: radiological dispersion devices, nuclear devices, and other radiological emergencies. Radiological Dispersion Devices (RDD) Radiological Dispersion Devices, also called RDDs or dirty bombs, are devices in which a radiological material is scattered or dispersed to create fear and environmental impact. While there is the possibility of injury or death due to the method of dispersion, such as using conventional explosives, the RDD’s biggest threat is the panic they create. In the event of a RDD being deployed, people in the immediate area should remain calm and follow the directions of local officials. Nuclear Devices Nuclear devices are different than dirty bombs. Rather than spreading radioactive material, a nuclear device creates a chain reaction, which leads to an explosion. Nuclear devices can be military-grade or homemade. Homemade nuclear devices are called “improvised nuclear devices,” or INDs. In addition to the explosive blast, nuclear devices have the potential to create radioactive fallout. This is radiation in the form of dust particles that is blown by the wind. Other Radiological Emergencies Other radiological emergencies include various radiation sources not from a dirty bomb or nuclear device. Examples include sabotage at facilities that use radioactive materials or incidents during transportation of radioactive materials. The scope and impact of these other radiological emergencies will vary based on the circumstances. If There is a Radiological Emergency Protecting yourself from radiation can be summed up in three points: GET INSIDE, STAY INSIDE, AND STAY TUNED Courtesy of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) emergency.cdc.gov/radiation • **Get Inside:** Walls of buildings can block many types of radiation. If a building is not available, take shelter in a vehicle (shut off ventilation), or cover exposed skin and place a cotton shirt or mask over your mouth. • **Stay Inside:** Follow the shelter-in-place directions listed on pages 35-36. Decontaminate yourself by removing any clothing you had on while outside, then take a shower. Decontaminate pets by washing them with shampoo or soap and then rinsing them completely. • **Stay Tuned:** Detailed directions based on the type and severity of radiation emergency will be provided by local officials. Listen to our local Emergency Alert System stations, KTRH 740 AM or KUHF 88.7 FM for instructions. BIOLOGICAL THREATS A biological attack is the deliberate release of germs or other biological substances that can make you sick. Many agents must be inhaled, enter through a cut in the skin, or be eaten to make you sick. Some biological agents, such as anthrax, do not cause contagious diseases. Others, like the smallpox virus, can result in diseases you can catch from other people. If There is a Biological Threat Unlike an explosion, a biological attack may or may not be immediately obvious. While it is possible that you will see signs of a biological attack, it is perhaps more likely that local health care workers will report a pattern of unusual illness or there will be a wave of sick people seeking emergency medical attention. You will probably learn of the danger through an emergency radio or TV broadcast. You might get a telephone call or emergency response workers may come to your door. In the event of a biological attack, public health officials may not immediately be able to provide information on what you should do. It will take time to determine exactly what the illness is, how it should be treated, and who is in danger. However, you should watch TV, listen to the radio, or check official Internet websites to determine the following: - Are you in the group or area authorities consider in danger? - What are the signs and symptoms of the disease? - Are medications or vaccines being distributed? - Where are they being distributed? - Who should get them? - Where should you seek emergency medical care if you become sick? BIOLOGICAL ATTACK A deliberate release of germs or other biological substances that can make you sick. TERRORIST THREATS Unfortunately, terrorism remains a threat to our nation. People with political or social causes may use extreme violence to make a statement, or to achieve some other political goal. Although terrorism remains a threat to our safety and security, we have witnessed how the vigilance of communities and pro-active law enforcement efforts have actually prevented planned terrorist attacks. Even though the U.S. has recently experienced terrorist incidents, over time, however, people typically become less vigilant about the threat and their chance of being at the scene of an attack. Our federal, state, and local governments are working hard to keep us safe, but we all play a role in securing our public spaces. You are the first line of defense in protecting your fellow community members, public spaces and our country. Be aware of your surroundings, and what type of activity might be the beginnings of a terrorist plot. Report suspicious activity by calling 1.855.i.Watch.4 (855.492.8244) or visit iWatchHouston.org. If it is an emergency, dial 9-1-1 immediately. Everybody should be aware of the threat of terrorism and how to handle it. Such knowledge is all the more essential because we live in a major metropolitan area. Large, heavily populated urban centers all over the world have long been the favored targets of terrorists. IF YOU SEE SOMETHING SAY SOMETHING™ Terrorists One essential fact to remember is that it is not illegal for an individual to belong to any political group even if other members of that group have committed terroristic acts as long as the individual is not committing, conspiring to commit, or aiding others in committing criminal acts. It is not what you say or think, it is what you do that defines one as a terrorist. What to Look For The following key points summarize some behaviors that could be suspicious. 1. Suspicious packages and concealed IEDs - Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) are generally small and easily transportable. - Be alert to packages left unattended. - If you see someone leave a bag, don’t touch it. Leave the area and alert the authorities. 2. During the planning phase, a terrorist will often conduct surveillance, such as: - Photographing entrances, exits, or security measures. - Asking inappropriate questions about the facility and its security. - Trying to conceal their actions. 3. Unusual supplies - Be suspicious of items like wire, batteries, altered electronics, chemicals, or various unidentifiable substances. - Be alert for individuals purchasing large amounts of chemicals, fertilizers, or other suspicious items. 4. Unseasonable or Bulky Clothing - Clothing that is too warm for the season or is unusually thick could be used to conceal weapons. 5. Unauthorized Entrance into Restricted Areas - Persons sneaking into “Employees Only” areas or following others into locked buildings pose a threat to security. - At work, never let people into secured areas without proper ID. - If someone is accessing an area they shouldn’t, or if you aren’t sure they belong in a restricted area, notify security or the authorities. 6. Suspicious Vehicles - Report vehicles apparently left vacant for long periods, or vehicles parked in prohibited areas. - Report if you see someone parking a vehicle in a prohibited area and walking away from the location. *If You See Something, Say Something™* is used with permission by the NY Metropolitan Transportation Authority. ACTIVE SHOOTER INCIDENTS An active shooter is an individual actively engaged in killing or attempting to kill people in a confined and populated area, typically through the use of firearms. - Victims are most often selected at random. - The event is unpredictable and evolves quickly. - Law enforcement is usually required to end an active shooter event. When an active shooter is in your vicinity, you must be prepared both mentally and physically to deal with the situation. You have three options: RUN > HIDE > FIGHT® SURVIVING AN ACTIVE SHOOTER EVENT 1. Run - Have an escape route and plan in mind. - Leave your belongings behind. - Evacuate regardless of whether others agree to follow. - Help others escape, if possible. - Do not attempt to move wounded people. - Prevent others from entering an area where the active shooter may be. - Keep your hands visible. - Call 9-1-1 when you are safe. 2. Hide - Hide in an area out of the shooter’s view. - Lock the door or block the entry to your hiding place. - Silence your cell phone (including the vibration) and remain quiet. 3. Fight • Fight as a last resort and only when your life is in immediate danger. • Attempt to incapacitate the shooter. • Act with as much physical aggression as possible. • Improvise weapons or throw items at the active shooter. • Commit to your actions...your life depends on it. When Law Enforcement Arrives • Remain calm and follow instructions. • Put down any items in your hands (i.e., bags, jackets). • Raise hands and spread fingers. • Keep hands visible at all times. • Avoid quick movements toward officers such as holding on to them for safety. • Avoid pointing, screaming, or yelling. • Do not stop to ask officers for help or direction when evacuating. Information to Provide to the 9-1-1 Operator If you are able, try and remember the following information so you can provide it to the dispatcher when you call 9-1-1: • Location of the active shooter(s). • Number of shooter(s). • Physical description of shooter(s). • Number and type of weapons held by shooter(s). • Number of potential victims at the location. The first officers to arrive to the scene will not stop to help injured people. Expect rescue teams to follow the initial officers. These rescue teams will treat and remove the injured. Once you have reached a safe location, you will likely be held in that area by law enforcement until the situation is under control, and all witnesses have been identified and questioned. Do not leave the area until law enforcement authorities have instructed you to do so. To watch the Run. Hide. Fight.® video, go to readyhoustontx.gov/videos. Run. Hide. Fight.® is a registered trademark of the City of Houston. **CYBER CRIME** Today, technology is an ever-increasing part of our lives. And while technology makes many things easier, it also comes with risks. You can protect yourself and loved ones from cyber threats by following these tips. For more suggestions, visit stopthinkconnect.org and staysafeonline.org. **Keep a Clean Machine** - Keep operating system, anti-virus, and firewall software current by turning on automatic updates. - Be sure all internet-connected devices (including phones and video game systems) are protected. - Scan USB drives with your anti-virus software before opening files. - Make regular backups of your data so you’re protected in case your files get lost or stolen. **Protect Your Personal Information** - Use complex passwords that are at least eight characters long, use a mix of upper- and lower-case characters, and include numbers and symbols. - Do not use the same password with multiple accounts or give out your password to anyone. - Make sure you set privacy and security settings on websites you visit to keep your personal information private. - Be careful about asking websites to remember your password, especially on shared computers. - Report stolen finances, identity theft, and other cybercrime at ic3.gov. Be Web Wise • If an e-mail, tweet, post, or ad seems questionable, don’t click the link. • Don’t automatically connect to WiFi when it’s available, and be cautious about entering personal information on websites when connected to public WiFi. • When doing financial transactions online, make sure the website address starts with “https://”, not “http://”. • Beware of online communications that ask you to act immediately, that offer something that sounds too good to be true, or that ask for personal information. Be a Good Online Citizen • Your actions online affect others, so practicing good online habits benefits the global digital community. • Talk with friends and family about ways to stay safe online, and share the latest information with one another. Adapted from the Stop. Think. Connect. Campaign. KNOW WHO TO CONTACT Know when to dial 9-1-1 • When you are in immediate danger or witness a crime in progress. • For a serious injury or medical condition. • Any other situation needing urgent attention. • Do not dial 9-1-1 for non-emergencies or to report a power outage (power outages may be urgent, but phone lines need to be kept open for emergency calls). • For non-emergency situations that require the response of a police officer, call 713.884.3131. • For power outages, call CenterPoint Energy at 800.332.7143. Know when to dial 2-1-1 (877.541.7905) • 2-1-1, a program of The United Way of Greater Houston, is a free information and referral service for anyone who needs help connecting to disaster relief services. • Call 2-1-1 to register with the State of Texas Emergency Assistance Registry (STEAR) if you don’t have access to transportation, or have an access and functional need that might keep you from quickly evacuating. • By registering now, if an evacuation order is issued for your area, emergency management personnel can contact you to schedule your transportation. • Be sure to renew or update your information each year. Know when to dial 3-1-1 (713.837.0311) • 3-1-1 provides non-emergency help and information from the City of Houston. • Call to report debris or flooding in a roadway, traffic signal or sign maintenance, or any other non-emergency situation that requires city assistance. • You should also call 3-1-1 to report damage to your home or business after a disaster. • A city representative will answer your call 24 hours a day. • During disasters, wait times may be longer. • Do not call to report an emergency. Know when to dial 8-1-1 (877.541.7905) • Call 8-1-1 two business days before beginning any project that requires you to dig. • 8-1-1 will notify the owners of underground utilities, such as gas pipelines, cable companies, and electrical companies of your plans. • These companies may send out a crew to mark the location of underground utilities. | City of Houston | houstontx.gov | |-----------------|--------------| | City of Houston Emergency Information | houstonemergency.org @alerthouston facebook.com/alerthouston | | Office of Emergency Management | 713.884.4500 | houstonoem.org @HoustonOEM facebook.com/HoustonOEM | | Help and Information | 3-1-1 or 713.837.0311 | houston311.org facebook.com/houston311 | | Mayor’s Citizens Assistance Office | 3-1-1 or 713.837.0311 | houstontx.gov/cao @neighborhou facebook.com/neighborhou | | Houston Police Department | Emergency: 9-1-1 Non-Emergency: 713.884.3131 | houstonpolice.org @houstonpolice facebook.com/houstonpolice | | Houston Fire Department | Emergency: 9-1-1 Non-Emergency: 832.394.6700 | houstonfire.org @houstonfire facebook.com/houstonfireddept | | Houston Health Department | General Questions: 832.393.5169 24/7 Disease Reporting: 832.393.5080 | houstonhealth.org @houstonhealth facebook.com/houstonhealth | | Harris County | harriscountytx.gov | |---------------|--------------------| | Harris County Emergency Information | readyharris.org | | Office of Homeland Security and Emergency Management | 713.881.3100 | www.hcoem.org @readyharris facebook.com/readyharris | | County Switchboard | 713.755.5000 | harriscountytx.gov | | Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services | 713.439.6000 | hcphes.org @hcphes facebook.com/harriscountypublichealth | | Harris County Sheriff’s Office | Emergency: 9-1-1 Non-Emergency: 713.221.6000 | harriscountyso.org @hcsotexas facebook.com/hcsotexas | | Motorist Assistance Program | 713.CALL.MAP (713.225.5627) | ridemetro.org/Services/MAP.aspx | | Harris County Toll Road Authority (Motorist Assistance) | 713.222.7328 | hctra.org | | Harris County Flood Control District | 713.684.4000 | hcfcd.org @hcfcd facebook.com/hcfcd | | County | Website | Contact Information | |----------------------|--------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Brazoria County | brazoria-county.com | Office of Emergency Management: 979.864.1201 Help and Information: 979.849.5711 Brazoria County Sheriff’s Office: Emergency: 9-1-1, Non-Emergency: 979.864.2392 Brazoria County Health Department: 979.864.1484 | | Fort Bend County | fortbendcountytx.gov | Office of Emergency Management: 281.342.6185 County Switchboard: 281.342.3411 Fort Bend County Sheriff’s Office: Emergency: 9-1-1, Non-Emergency: 281.341.4704 Fort Bend County Health and Human Services: 281.238.3233 | | Galveston County | www.galvestoncountytx.gov | Office of Emergency Management: 888.384.2000 County Switchboard: 409.762.8621 Galveston County Sheriff’s Office: Emergency: 9-1-1, Non-Emergency: 409.766.2322 or 281.534.3515 Galveston County Health District: 409.938.7221 | | Montgomery County | mctx.org | Office of Emergency Management: 936.523.3900 County Switchboard: 281.364.4200 or 936.756.0571 Montgomery County Sheriff’s Office: Emergency: 9-1-1, Non-Emergency: 936.760.5800 | | Organization | Phone Number | Website/URL | |--------------------------------------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Montgomery County Public Health | 936.523.5000 | mchd-tx.org/public-health | | Metropolitan Transit Authority (METRO) | | ridemetro.org | | Route Information and Customer Service | 713.635.4000 | @metrohouston | | METRO Police | 713.224.COPS (2677) | | | METRO Lift | 713.225.0119 | | | Regional, State, and Federal Agencies | | | | Texas Consumer Protection | 800.621.0508 | texasattorneygeneral.gov/cpd/consumer-protection | | Department of Aging and Disability Services (DADS)| 512.438.3011 or 855.937.2372 | www.dads.state.tx.us | | Texas Health and Human Services (HHS) | 512.424.6500 | www.hhs.texas.gov | | Harris County Area Agency On Aging | 832.393.4301 | www.houstontx.gov/health/Aging | | Texas Department of Transportation - Houston District | 713.881.3106 | txdot.gov/travel | | National Weather Service Houston/Galveston | 281.337.5074 | weather.gov/houston | | FEMA Disaster Assistance | 800.621.FEMA (3362) | disasterassistance.gov | | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | 800.CDC.INFO (800.232.4636) | cdc.gov | | National Flood Insurance Program | 888.379.9531 | floodsmart.gov | | Report Suspicious Activity | Emergency: 9-1-1 Non-Emergency: 855.i.Watch.4 (855.492.8244) | iwatchhouston.org | | CenterPoint Energy | Electric: 800.332.7143 Gas: 800.752.8036 | centerpointenergy.com/outagetracker @CNPAalerts facebook.com/centerpointenergy | | Entergy | 800.9.OUTAGE (800.968.8243) | www.etrviewoutage.com/external/tx.aspx @entergytx facebook.com/EntergyTX | | Texas New Mexico Power | 888.866.7456 | tnmp.com | | Service Agencies | Phone Number | Website/Contact Information | |------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | American Red Cross of Greater Houston | 866.526.8300 | redcross.org/houston @redcrosshouston facebook.com/redcrosshouston | | Poison Control | 800.222.1222 | poisoncontrol.org @txpoisoncontrol facebook.com/txpcn | | Salvation Army Greater Houston Area Command | 713.752.0677 | salvationarmyhouston.org @salarmyhouston facebook.com/salvationarmyhouston | | 2-1-1 Texas/United Way Helpline | 2-1-1 or 877.541.7905 | 211texas.org | | Disaster Distress Helpline | 800.985.5990 | disasterdistress.samhsa.gov @distressline facebook.com/distresshelpline | | Web Resources | Description | Website/Contact Information | |------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Ready Houston | Regional Disaster Preparedness | readyhoustontx.gov @readyhouston facebook.com/readyhouston | | Together Against the Weather | Hurricane Preparedness for Persons with Access and Functional Needs | togetheragainsttheweather.org | | Flood Warning System | Monitor stream gauges and rainfall levels | harriscountyfws.org | | Flood Education Mapping Tool | Find flood risk for your area | harriscountyfemt.org | | Houston TranStar | Map of current traffic conditions | houstontranstar.org @houstontranstar facebook.com/houstontranstar.org | | Drive Texas | Online portal from Texas Department of Transportation | drivetexas.org @txdotalert | | FEMA Ready | National Disaster Preparedness Campaign | ready.gov @readygov facebook.com/readygov | ORDER COPIES OF THIS GUIDE DISASTER PREPAREDNESS GUIDE – AVAILABLE IN MULTIPLE LANGUAGES To order copies of this guide in English, or to download an accessible PDF, please visit houstonoem.org or call 3-1-1. Para solicitar copias de esta guía en español, descargar un documento en formato PDF disponible, visite houstonoem.org o llame al 3-1-1. Để yêu cầu bản sao hướng dẫn này bằng Tiếng Việt, để tải về tập tin PDF có thể xem được, vui lòng vào trang houstonoem.org hoặc gọi số 3-1-1. 如需订购本指南中文版或下载可存取 PDF，请访问 houstonoem.org 或拨打 3-1-1. Pour télécharger un document PDF accessible de ce guide en français, rendez-vous sur houstonoem.org ou appelez le 3-1-1. لتنزيل نسخة مفتوحة بتنسيق PDF من هذا الدليل باللغة العربية، يرجى زيارة houstonoem.org أو الاتصال بـ 3-1-1. 713.884.4500 houstonoem.org @houstonoem facebook.com/houstonoem houstonoem If you live outside the City of Houston, visit readyhoustontx.gov to find your local Office of Emergency Management. Department of Homeland Security Grant Funded Project. Produced by the City of Houston Mayor’s Office of Public Safety and Homeland Security and the Office of Emergency Management.
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About chronic kidney disease and feeding The kidneys filter blood and remove extra water, salt and waste in urine. However, babies and children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have poor kidney function – their kidneys do not work as well as they should. It is important that your baby or child with CKD feeds or eats well. Good nutrition is essential for their growth and healthy brain development. It gives them strength to fight illness and infections. Some children with CKD struggle with eating. They will need extra support to make sure they get the energy and nutrients they need to grow and stay healthy. » Chronic kidney disease (CKD) – an introduction About your child’s care Your child will probably be referred to a paediatric renal unit, a specialised unit that treats babies, children and young people with kidney conditions and may be in a different hospital from the one you would normally visit. The renal team, a group of healthcare professionals who specialise in treating and caring for babies, children and young people with kidney conditions, will support you and your family. The team will include: - A paediatric nephrologist – a specialist doctor who treats children with kidney problems. - A paediatric renal dietitian – a healthcare professional who advises on what to feed your child to help control the effects of poor kidney function, and to ensure your child thrives. Feeding your baby Babies need to go through stages of feeding. This starts with milk. Breast milk is best for most babies, but some will need a special formula milk. They then move on to solid foods, often starting with pureed (mashed up) foods, and then on to lumpy foods. This is called weaning. Your baby’s healthcare team will check that he or she is getting enough milk or food to meet his or her needs. Coping with feeding problems Some babies and children with CKD struggle with feeding or eating. Children are more likely to be happy feeders if they sense that their parent is calm and relaxed. You may wish to talk to someone – a family member, friend or healthcare professional – to help manage your anxiety away from your child. This will help you to stay calm and in control, without leaving you feeling that you will raise your voice or force feed your child. Feeding devices Some babies and children cannot eat and drink the amount they need for their growth and development. If needed, they can be fed through a tube. All or some of their nutrition – and water and medicines, if needed – can be given through a nasogastric tube, a gastrostomy tube or gastrostomy button. Acknowledgements This topic was co-authored by Sarah Trace, funded by the BKPA. © BAPN and Kidney Care UK 2013-2022, all rights reserved For details on any sources of information used in this topic, please contact us through our website www.infoKID.org.uk. We take great care to make sure that the information in this leaflet is correct and up-to-date. However, it is important that you ask the advice of your child’s doctor or nurse if you are not sure about something. This information is intended for use in the United Kingdom, and may not apply to other countries. The British Association of Paediatric Nephrology (BAPN), Kidney Care UK and the contributors and editors cannot be held responsible for the accuracy of information, omissions of information, or any actions that may be taken as a consequence of reading this information.
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Our Adventuresome Student-of-the-Week: Ria Would you jump out of a boat into the cold Humboldt current off the coast of Ecuador? How about if that meant you had to keep moving so little sharks wouldn’t nibble on you? Kind of stressful, says Ria. If you weren’t paying attention you might come up from the water right next to a sea lion. They could scare you but they weren’t dangerous. A lack of Spanish could be dangerous. While ordering from the kids’ menu, Ria chose something with “beef” in the name even after the waiter kept saying, Do you know what that is?. Turned out to be tripe, really slimy and strange, says Ria. The best part was seeing cool animals like iguanas climbing the hotel walls, crabs scurrying along the beach along with sea turtles and tortoises wandering around. No wonder Ria wants to be a rainforest biologist. She has also visited her grandparents in India, a place with monkeys everywhere and wild cows wandering around. They even had a wild lizard in their apartment! Eating meant going to the market and soaking the food in salt water to kill germs. Indian food is spicy but you could always have bread and butter. A warm mango smoothie was not as good as the cold kind here. Traffic was crazy there with people just making a run through it to cross the street. She saw people riding on top of sacks piled up on a truck and five people on one motorcycle. One of the coolest places was an underground well with carved pictures all over. It was really old and built before there were machines, all hand work. Some people would sleep there. When asked if she has any advice, Ria said, Don’t give up. Keep trying. Don’t let something you don’t understand get in the way. Don’t let other people make you give up on something. You are going to get it eventually. Trust yourself. By Dr. John Grandma Donna Taylor left this world suddenly and we miss her very much. She made 100s of masks for us, brought us goodies, and always had kind words for us. We are planning a special remembrance. History of Thanksgiving By Nolan Thanksgiving is one of the most celebrated holidays in the United States. Many people know the general idea but not the entire history. Today I will be taking on that challenge. Our story begins in 1621 Pilgrims had a terrible harvest season and half of their population had died. They struck up with a treaty with the Native Americans and to celebrate this they had a big feast known as the first Thanksgiving. Fun fact: they didn't actually eat turkey, most likely they ate goose. In 1777 The 13 colonies decreed that a Thanksgiving feast would be held to celebrate their victory at Saratoga. After that the holiday began to die out until a newspaper manager Sarah Hale ranted about how Thanksgiving could be used as a time of peace due to the tensions arising between the South and the North. She first mentioned the idea in her 1827 novel. Eventually the holiday was declared by Abraham Lincoln and they celebrated it on the 25th of November. Many other cultures celebrate Thanksgiving such as China. They have the Mid-Autumn Festival, also known as the Harvest Moon. During this time, they eat moon cake and celebrate with ornate lights. Thanksgiving is the second most popular non-religious holiday. By the way, the time I'm writing this it's December. Have a happy holidays and I hope you had a good thanksgiving. Winter Activities This winter we are going to have tons of fun! We are going ice skating December 7th at 10:30 A.M., that is on a Tuesday, at the East Aurora rink. It should be tons of fun! If you don’t have ice skates you can rent skates there for $4. More things we could do this winter are sledding, skiing and lots of other exciting things. Parents are welcome to come ice skating. I hope to see you all there! By Katelyn Science Class Recently, the older group has started a unit on geology. We finished up our research on glaciers and the impact they have on nearby geography. There are two processes that occur when a glacier moves: erosive and depositional. Before we get into those, we should mention what a glacier is. Glaciers are giant hunks of ice and snow (along with the other junk they pick up along the way) that slowly move around, lubricated by the meltwater below them. At some point, they melt more than they accumulate, in what is called the ablation zone. This process of melting can also affect the terrain surrounding a glacier. To put it simply think of glaciers as rivers of ice. Erosion is when the glacier moves and picks up dirt, rocks, cobble, and sometimes boulders. Glaciers can pick up rocks and take them thousands of miles. This assortment of rocks, dirt and many other things is called till. This leads us to the other process, deposition. This occurs when the glacier deposits the sediment it has picked up along its journey. This forms piles of sediment called moraines. By Juan & Jackson The Mandala addition… …Started in May 2021 with teachers & students tearing down the back of the school, tearing siding, pulling nails out of boards, and we even found some old newspapers in the wall from 1918. On June 15, 2021 the school got a building permit. We started the foundation in the second week of August. Now the addition has two floors, a basement, a roof, five skylights, and we might have a see through wall. You would see a little bit of the second floor from the first floor. There were pictures of this in one of our previous newsletters (October 29, 2021). In this edition, Graham mentioned he saw wood, ladders, drills, and squares of wood. In the new addition I saw wood, parts of the fireplace, and painted wood. Dr. John thinks the addition will be done towards the middle of spring. By: Ella Nappa Daydreaming By Nolan We’ve all done it. During a boring conversation or boring class, we’ve all zoned out into another plane of existence once or twice. I think when you’re daydreaming it is very hard to be disturbed. Some of the only noise you hear is the noise of your own breath. I’ve never seen someone experience a day nightmare. Most likely because this isn’t really a dream; it’s more of a silence. There’s an expression “I can’t hear myself think.” I think when you’re daydreaming you can hear yourself and I think your thinking becomes quite loud, almost yelling but also calm and collective. When you’re daydreaming your worries seem to float away. People daydream about many different things. I particularly daydream about ideologies and historical events. But I have multiple friends who daydream about sleeping. I’d say If life is a prison, daydreaming is the key. But the key doesn’t last forever. You only get to go out of the cage for a small amount of time. For example, everything in the modern day goes very quickly but daydreaming makes it slow. Thank you for listening to me ramble on about daydreaming! Older students read the poem below then wrote about daydreaming. To make a prairie (1755) Emily Dickinson - 1830-1886 To make a prairie it takes a clover and one bee, One clover, and a bee. And revery. The revery alone will do, If bees are few. The book *Holes* was good and had a lot of details. There were lots of people like Zero, Stanley, Squid, X-Ray, the warden, Mr. Sir, Mr. Pendanski and Kate Barlow. The kids were all there because they had gotten in trouble. They were at Camp Greenlake but the lake had dried up so it was ugly. Every day each kid had to dig a five-foot deep hole. You have to read the book to find out what happened. Although we did not finish the movie yet, we have learned a lot. The movie is a lot like the book. Stanley is the main character and his best friend is Zero. Most kids are normal size but Zero is small. They thought Zero had nothing going on so that was why he got his name. Stanley thought he was smart so he started calling him by his real name. We recommend this book for people eight and up. *By Graham & Katie* **Observing Classes** *By Sarah and Kate* On Tuesday and Wednesday we spent a few minutes in every class. **WRITING:** The middle kids are working on a writing piece about a red sled. Omi was writing about going really fast on the sled. Her characters’ names are Charlotte, Kyle, and Megan. **ART:** The two older kid groups started a project to honor Starlight’s grandmother. Ria said she thinks this idea is very special, but she did say that she will have some difficulties. Zachary thinks it is a fun idea, but the start of it was complicated. **Little kids Math:** The younger kids are weighing themselves and items they found around the classroom. They say that they enjoy math and they think it’s fun. The little kids in FRENCH class were practicing their animals. They would all name two animals and act them out for everyone else.
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Inquiry learning in the Beaufort Delta schools In Tuktoyuktuk, Mangilaluk School conducted a whole building inquiry around a fish net excursion, incorporating a data analysis project, Elder stories and wisdom, discussions about climate change, and fish anatomy workshops. In Ulukhaktok, students are engaging in a project called “Collaborative Spaces” which centers local stories in the Inuinnaqtun language and told by Elders. These stories are a way to provoke thoughts, questions and excitement in students and encourage classes to go deeper in their inquiries about the local learning they are doing. THE DEHCHO TEAM A number of students from the Dehcho Divisional Education Council attended the First Annual North of 60 Judo Tournament in Yellowknife, November 25-27. The tournament was a huge success with athletes getting to compete and practise with students from Yellowknife and as far away as Inuvik. There were children as young as 6 participating in the event all the way up to senior age groups, and with the chance to participate in ne-waza (ground work) only or the full tournament style competition, the participants got plenty of opportunities to test their skills on the mat. Our goal is not only to grow the skills of our judoka (students of judo), but also to build a judo community. REMEMBERING By: Talina Storr (Moose Kerr School – Grade 10) Remembrance Day is a day Canadians pay their Respect and Honor to the men and women who fought and continue to fight for our rights of freedom and peace. On November 11th, we mark the calendar to remember those brave and strong. THE TRAVELLING STAGE TOURED THE DEHCHO From Nov 1-15, The Travelling Stage had the great honour of travelling to the NWT to work with schools and communities throughout the Dehcho. A team of 7 arts educators from Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg worked in person in Fort Providence, Fort Liard and Fort Simpson with live virtual programming reaching schools in more remote areas from the DDEC Board Office. Travelling Stage programming supports and encourages a positive sense of identity for all learners, while developing competency in literacy and the performing arts. We also use arts and wellness education to facilitate more acceptance of others and higher self-esteem as a way to combat bullying. PRINCIPAL’S HONOUR ROLL Destiny Berreault – Grade 1 Roger Tremblay – Grade 3 Cooper Wilson – Grade 3 Queen Ajibade – Grade 8 Jaana Sutherland – Grade 8 Adrain Bilodeau – Grade 10 Kadence Norn – Grade 11 By: Principal Ilonos Hall It has been a wonderful start to the new year, and I am pleased to serve the community of Fort Liard through my leadership of the Echo Dene School. I would like to take this opportunity to thank all parents and guardians for sending your children so prepared to learn! I want to extend my heartfelt congratulations to our students who have earned a place on the Principal’s Honour Roll and to all our students who continue to shine socially and academically. We are extremely proud of your achievements, and we look forward to your continued success. What an eventful weekend for Fort Liard and Fort Simpson Judo Clubs! From the intense drive up on snow and ice-covered roads to the successes of medal wins and personal accomplishments, the athletes and chaperones left with new friendships and many memories made. Our weekend began Friday morning at 5:30 am. We headed out from Fort Simpson and Fort Liard with 6 adults and 18 athletes. We traveled through loads of snow on the road to make it to Yellowknife for the North of 60 Judo Competition. It was an eventful drive up with lots of sleeping athletes and car karaoke for the drivers. Once arriving safely in Yellowknife and checking into the wonderful hotel at a little after 4pm, both groups met up at Boston Pizza for a group supper. It was so exciting to have the two communities come together for the first time to talk and get to know each other. From there we headed off to the pool in Yellowknife for some swimming and fun. It was so exhilarating to see the athletes get to know each other and relax together. After all that swimming, our day wasn’t over yet as we headed to the Multiplex for a chance to meet the rest of the judo athletes from Yellowknife and Inuvik. We did a fun filled hour of judo practice before going back to our hotel with the hope of everyone getting some sleep. Saturday was competition day and boy was everyone excited. Putting on the Judo Gis’, they all looked amazing. Don’t get me wrong, we had some very nervous athletes on the mats, but they all pulled together and cheered each other on. It was the best thing as a coach to see my Fort Simpson athletes cheering for Fort Liard Athletes and vice versa—I loved that. After a long day of doing ground (Ne-waza) fighting and stand-up (Iachi-waza) fighting, we were winning medals. The athletes were so happy to show off their medals and celebrate their successes. It brought back a lot of amazing memories for myself of when I started judo. The fun wasn’t over yet, though, as we had many more activities planned. We raced back to the hotel to get changed and dress warmly before heading downtown for the Santa Clause Parade. We watched the parade and even got some candy. The floats were so pretty. The kids had a great time and really enjoyed themselves. After the parade the kids had a choice of evening entertainment. Some went to the movies and other chose to go back to the pool. Everyone had a good time. Sunday morning was a slow start for a lot of the athletes and parents, but we all managed to get in some shopping time before a stop at Subway for lunch. Before long, we hit the roads to be back in Fort Liard and Fort Simpson. Watching the athletes grow and mature over the weekend was the best experience for me. I hope that each one loved it, and I can’t wait to do it again. Thank you so much to all the parents and chaperones that came and helped make this weekend a huge success. I would also like to thank everyone who donated funds to cover the travel and accommodation costs, and the North West Store in Fort Liard for the donation of drinks and snacks for the athletes. Weekend events like this wouldn’t be possible without the support of our communities and families. It is greatly appreciated! Great work Cooper on your 2 medals Fun in pool Jona, Ila, Cooper and Emily Nick ready to fight Gold for Eloise. Great work! Amy, Lexi, Emily Great hold-down for Eloise Ila trying to get out of a hold-down Jana getting ready to fight Megan getting ready to attack Janna happy with her medals Gold Medal Emily, Silver Medal Eloise, Bronze Medal Lexi A number of students from the Dehcho Divisional Education Council attended the first Annual North of 60 Judo Tournament in Yellowknife, November 25-27. The tournament was a huge success with athletes getting to compete and practise with students from Yellowknife and as far away as Inuvik. There were children as young as 6 participating in the event all the way up to senior age groups, and with the chance to participate in ne-waza (ground work) only or the full tournament style competition, the participants got plenty of opportunities to test their skills on the mat. Our goal is not only to grow the skills of our judoka (students of judo), but also to build a judo community. The social connections you make practising sport have been some of the strongest bonds in my life and we believe that the regional events that we are hosting this year are important to not only provide athletes with a chance to have fun competing, but to also start building relationships with fellow judoka from other parts of this beautiful territory. It was amazing to see the growth of the students displaying incredible skill, as well as great enthusiasm with which they competed and supported each other all day long. I believe that all of the coaches, Amy Cotton OLY, Ron Hanji, Ed Hartley, Chantal Steitzer, Maddysen Kingmiaqtuq and Chloe Malin should all be incredibly proud of how the students performed. I am incredibly excited that our next event, The Dehcho Judo Gathering, will be based out of Fort Simpson, January 27-29 and we are hoping to welcome many more students from throughout the DDEC as well as other parts of the territory. I cannot wait to see how the students progress in the next couple of months leading up to the event as well as additional students in attendance. Our third and final event of the season, The Arctic will take place February 24-26 in Inuvik and should be well attended with our large base of students in Inuvik. I would personally like to thank all the volunteers, parents and chaperons for helping encourage and support not only the students but the event itself, as well as the Dehcho First Nations, the Hamlet of Fort Liard and the DDEC for helping make this event possible. Finally I just want to say that courage is not when you do things that are easy but rather when you are greatly challenged or even scared and continue on. A lot of children, teens and even adults stepped outside of their comfort zone to participate and I feel fortunate that the NWT Judo Association was able to help facilitate that. As part of our SEE Learning initiative, the students of Louie Norwegian School have undertaken a Kindness project. After each snowfall, we visit the homes of elders in our community to shovel their steps and walkways. This also falls in line with our Dene Laws to ‘Help Each Other’, ‘Love each Other’ and ‘Be Respectful of Elders.’ In the first photo, we see Martin working hard to clear the snow from an elder’s steps. The second picture shows the group getting ready to go shovelling. Students at Louie Norwegian School “feed the fire” to give thanks for everyone in Jean Marie River who are so kind to them DDEC IS PLEASED TO INTRODUCE AND WELCOME OUR NEW REGIONAL SCHOOLING COORDINATOR, MRS. ELISSA GARRETT My name is Elissa Garrett, and I am the new Regional Inclusive Schooling Coordinator (RISC) with the DDEC. While I am new to my position, I am not new to the Dehcho. I have lived here since 2017 with my husband and growing family. We have three children, two are school age and attend school in Fort Simpson. Since coming to the Dehcho in 2017, I have worked as a program support teacher and as a school principal in Jean Marie River from 2018-2022. My goals for Inclusive schooling in the district are to collaborate with other district staff to build on goals around indigenizing education, improving literacy rates, and supporting mental health. I also want to support schools in making student support plans (SSPs) and Individual Education Plans (IEPs) living documents that are effectively utilized and updated to reflect student need. I believe that collaboration is at the heart of what we do, and that we must work together to build a district that fosters inclusion and that strengthens our students’ potential. By sharing ideas, building supports through external agencies, community agencies, and engaging in effective professional development we can build our capacity to support our students and inclusive programming. The student accommodation program is another important part of my job. I am looking forward to getting to know some of the smaller communities and have been working to build a connection with the families as we work together to support our students in the accommodations program. Elissa Garrett with her family – husband Peter and children, Felix, Elsie, and Rosalie at last years’ year end celebration in Jean Marie River. Elissa Garrett and Shayla Richards from Continuum North getting ready to visit Wrigley. Shayla and her team do a lot of consulting and assessments within our region. They are part of a collaborative effort to build strong programming and inclusive services to our students. During the month of November, Deh Gáh Elementary and Secondary School focused on the Dene Law: Help Each Other. Students were encouraged to help Elders cut wood for the winter and complete other heavy tasks for them. As a community, we helped people struggling with health issues and with bereavement. When a community member loses a loved one, we half their sorrows by sharing their grief. We reach out to widows and take care of orphaned children. We visit the lonely and bring them food. Deh Gáh School’s Student Assistants – Charlene Bonnetrouge, Bertha Landry, Jonas Landry, Laura Sabourin, Edith Squirrel, and Theresa Vandell – decorated the school’s entrance bulletin board with encouraging and helpful ways that students and staff at Deh Gáh School can help each other. When asked about this Dene Law, high school students responded with positivity. “We help by sending home cooked foods from our various cooking classes and bake sales.” “We are helpful by being positive role models to younger students.” The elementary students reflected on what this Dene Law means to them. “Teachers help students and students help each other with learning and having fun too!” At DGESS, we cherish the Dene Laws, and we embody the meaning of each law in our daily interactions with one another. So don’t forget to help one another wherever you are and no matter what month we are in! Mahsi Cho! --- On Friday, October 28th, 2022 at 10 AM, DGESS school hosted their annual Hallowe’en Costume Parade. Parents were welcome to come to the school to see their children in full Hallowe’en regalia. We gathered in the gym as a school for the first Hallowe’en since Covid struck in 2020. During the past two years, the DGESS Hallowe’en costume parade has been enjoyed over ZOOM as we remained within our Covid classroom bubbles. What a joy to be together again in the school gymnasium! Each class walked in a circle to scary Hallowe’en music as judges, Bertha Landry, Belinda Sabourin, Olivia Nadl, and Cynthia Landry eyed the scary and creative costumes. The winners were: Dean Squirrel (Grade 11), Dahtu Landry (Grade 1), James LaBrasque (Grade 8), Isaiah Elleze (Grade 6), Ashley Bond (Grade 7), Caerob Sapp (Grade 2), Mikal Sabourin (Grade 3), and Kole Landry (Grade 11). Halloween winners 2022 SA Jonas Landry and Morgan Elleze Isaiah Elleze --- In October, for its first Cultural Day, Deh Gáh staff began the process of making moccasins. With the guidance of SAs Charlene Bonnetrouge, Laura Sabourin, Jonas Landry, and ILE teachers Diana Gargan, Kathy Pelissey and Theresa Bonettoiruge, DGESS staff embarked upon the journey of making moccasins for Christmas gifts or for themselves. Some have progressed more quickly than others. The staff will continue to make their moccasins on the second staff Cultural Day scheduled for February 2023. Let’s see who will be finished by March! Deh Gáh Elementary and Secondary School celebrated Remembrance Day on Thursday, November 10th, 2022. At 9:30 AM, the school gathered for a Feeding of the Fire ceremony next to the Friendship Center. Local drummer, Ricky Gargan, drummed with other student drummers. At 10:30 AM, the students and staff gathered in the gym for a Remembrance Day service, which included the local Rangers and RCMP constables dressed in full serge. Local drummer, Walter Landry, joined the drummers with Ricky Gargan and drummed in the Rangers and RCMP constables. Principal Griffin presented a slide show that celebrated the contribution of Indigenous people to Canada’s war efforts during WWI, WWII and the Korean War. DGES secondary students created a video of images of Indigenous servicemen and women, and read the poem by Chief Stacey LaForme called, I Love This Land. LaForme’s poem is of the injustices that returning Canadian Indigenous servicemen and women faced at home after they returned from the front lines in Europe and/or the Eastern theaters of war. After lunch, at 1 PM, the visiting Stage Actors hosted grades 6, 7, 8 and 9 in the gym for Books & Bannock. They celebrated storytelling keeping the theme of remembrance in mind. Deh Gáh wishes the Dehcho a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. We wish everyone peace, good health, love and prosperity in the new year. May the Creator bless each home in the Dehcho. Merry Christmas to all! Students decorated and gathered around the Christmas decorations at the school this week. Christmas is a time for family and friends; however, Christmas is not always a stress free time for many, Deh Gáh tries to make the holiday season as merry and bright as possible for its students and staff and their loved ones. The students have been working with a visiting music teacher, Katy Ng, for the past few weeks preparing for the school’s 2022 Christmas concert on Thursday, December 15th at 5 PM in the school gym. The school and the Fort Providence DEA will host a Santa luncheon on December 16 at 12 PM. The community will feast on stew and bannock, followed by Santa’s sleigh landing at 2 PM. Rumour has it Santa will have presents for every child in Fort Providence. Deh Gáh School is working with the Fort Providence community to set up an Alternative to Suspension Program (A2S). When a student commits an offense against the school community, an action that is injurious to the welfare of that child or others, that child may be suspended in accordance with the school’s progressive discipline policy. Rather than suspend children, Principal Griffin is working to launch an Alternative to Suspension (A2S) Program in keeping with a Restorative justice practice embraced by Indigenous cultures. The program will involve Elders and Knowledge Keepers working daily within the community. DGESS’s CYCC, Daine Blanco-Sarlay will assist Principal Griffin in training the Elders and Knowledge Keepers as they launch the program. The day will be structured beginning and ending with a check-in circle. Within the day, students will work with Elders and Knowledge Keepers on cultural activities and also complete classwork with the support of the Elders and Knowledge Keepers. The idea is to make reparation and take responsibility for one’s actions within the love and safety of the school community. Since last we reported about our fall camps, students in Grades 2 & 3 were visited by many interesting people and were involved in many different activities. On October 12, the Fire Marshal visited our classroom and gave a presentation regarding fire prevention and demonstrated safe ways to escape fire. Each student received a goodie bag with fire prevention coloring sheets and other fun things to remind them to be fire safe. From November 3rd to the 10th, the Travelling Stage Actors participated in various activities with students including acting, drama games, collaging and yoga movements. Students enjoyed these activities! On November 15 and 16, students were involved in various movement activities with the Kinball & Fundamental Movement Skills people. Students enjoyed rolling on the gym floor! Other activities in which students were involved included making a Remembrance Day wreath for the Remembrance Day celebration, and students also did various Social, Emotional and Ethical Learning (SEE-1) activities to strengthen their attention and self-awareness in order to create a more compassionate classroom, and build individual kindness and resilience. --- **INTRODUCING A WONDERFUL INITIATIVE FROM THE GNWT: THE CAREER ADVISORS** Did you know that Career and Education Advisors are available to all Northwest Territories (NWT) students Grade 9 and up? They work one-on-one with high school students across the NWT. Advisors help students connect their own interests, skills and potential to possibilities for work and learning after high school. They also provide practical support with applications, résumés and cover letters. Learn more about this hands-on program here: https://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/en/services/resources-current-education-staff/career-and-education-advisors Career and Education Advisors are available to all high school students in the NWT! They work one-on-one with Grade 9-12 students. Talk to your principal about connecting with a CEA, or email email@example.com --- **Jillian Brown** **Career and Education Advisor** **Student Support and Wellness Division** **Department of Education, Culture and Employment** Jill Brown is based in Fort Simpson and provides career and education advising to students in Grades 9-12 at high schools in the Dehcho Region. Born and raised in Nanaimo, BC, Jill completed her post-secondary studies at Vancouver Island University. She has her Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Education, and Inclusive Schooling Graduate Diploma from Vancouver Island University. As a lifelong learner, more post-secondary school or other formal training is a long-term goal. Jill began her career working for federal government and Parks Canada where she spent 10 years working at Pacific Rim National Park Reserve. Eventually it was time to try something new; teaching. This led Jillian and her family to Arctic Bay, Nunavut. In 2012, Jillian moved “south” to teach at Mackenzie Mountain School in Norman Wells. She is a night shift science and home room teacher. Jill joined the Career and Education Advising team in August 2022. This is her dream job, since working with students and helping them explore their strengths and interests is one of her passions. The Career and Education Advisors (CEA) program at the Department of Education, Culture and Employment (ECE) works with Grade 9 to 12 Northwest Territories (NWT) students to provide career and education advising services. The CEA program is a practical, efficient, modern resource designed for the unique needs of students, youth and their families, as well as educators across the NWT. Students and youth can choose to work with a CEA as early as Grade 9. CEAs help them identify skills, strengths and possibilities for their future. CEAs focus on connecting with these students and youth and assisting them to make meaningful choices about their next steps, which can lead to success in their home community and beyond after high school. **How the CEA program works** CEAs are now based in every NWT region. The program is accessible in all communities, and CEAs work with educators at every school to determine how to best support their students. The diverse team of eight CEAs work directly with students in their schools, and work with school aged youth who are not currently attending school. - CEAs connect students with people who are doing work that interests them, and with learning opportunities they can participate in while still in school. - CEAs provide practical support, including how to write resumes and cover letters, how to complete applications for work, post-secondary programs, Student Financial Assistance, bursaries, grants or scholarships. - They also provide information to youth about the many jobs that are in demand to help them make informed decisions about their education and employment. **Connect with a CEA** When CEAs connect with students it can make them feel supported and heard. Youth who have met with a CEA have expressed feeling more clear, confident and hopeful about their future. If you want to know more about the program, contact your local school principal, or get in touch with a CEA at firstname.lastname@example.org More information | email@example.com CHRISTMAS IS COMING TO KAKISA We know it will soon be Christmas! The students, with the help of Mrs. M., are eagerly baking Christmas cakes. It’s been a tradition since Mr. & Mrs. M. have been in Kakisa that the students help make a cake for every household in the community and distribute them before the Christmas break. This year the tradition continues. Over the next few weeks the students will again be making cakes and they will be learning and experiencing the joy associated with doing and giving to others. KINDNESS & COMPASSION BY: DOYLE MANUEL Learning to care and feel compassion for others, especially those who cannot help themselves like the elderly and little children, is at the core of being a human being. Our students in Kakisa are learning and practicing this on a regular basis. Students are shown here helping two of our Elders by clearing away snow and bringing wood unto their step so they can easily get it when needed. KAKISA STUDENTS GETTING WET! Kakisa Lake Students experienced their first swimming lessons since the Covid 19 pandemic began. They were thrilled to be back in the water. It seems they have lost none of their skills and were quite comfortable swimming and doing the required drills, in the deep end of the pool. Of course they were a little ‘out of shape’, but with continued practice I know they will excel. TUNING UP BY: DOYLE MANUEL Part of the purpose of our excursions to Hay River is to visit Linda Duford, fiddler extraordinaire, to work on the student’s fiddling skills. This year our students have expressed a lot of interest in fiddling and our school has accommodated that by arranging lessons with Linda. They will also be able to practice, between lessons, at school with Margaret Lacorne who also has some fiddling skills as well. SWEET MUSIC BY: DOYLE MANUEL William Greenland had a message for the students of Kakisa. Work hard, stay away from drugs, listen to your parents and teachers. William’s message combined with his beautiful flute music was very touching and timely. The students were very receptive and especially enjoyed learning to play the flute. They listened attentively, learned how to hold, place their fingers, and make music with their flutes. Welcome back, Pauline! Charles Yohin School is ecstatic to welcome Pauline back to the Charles Yohin School family. Pauline will be a classroom assistant focusing on supporting Dene Zahtie and cultural experiences for the students. During October, students began weekly visits with Elder Elsie. Elder Elsie is teaching the school about making Moccasins. Currently, staff and students are making their uppers for their very own pair of moccasins. Mason says he loves learning from Elder Elsie and making his slippers. Ciara and Brayden say they like it and that sewing with Elsie is fun. Kathy, our support assistant, states, “it is a great experience learning for myself since I didn’t do anything like that as I was growing up. Very educational and great knowledge that she is sharing with us.” Kathy is thankful and appreciative of Elsie for sharing her knowledge with us. Elder Lena also began the weekly visit with the school in October. Elder Lena shares her knowledge about beading items like key chains, card holders, hair ties, car ornaments, and broaches. Brayden states, “Thank you for sewing with us. I appreciate you sharing your knowledge.” Ciara states, “Thank you for teaching us how to sew and sewing with us.” Mason says, “It is good sewing with Lena.” Kathy says, “I would like to thank her for giving us the time she is spending with us so she can share her knowledge of sewing and stories with us.” Thank you, Elder Elsie and Elder Lena, for coming into the school weekly to share your knowledge, histories, and traditions with the staff and students. We truly appreciate the expertise and cultural activities you have shared with us. We look forward to continuing to learn from you, other elders, and community members. Halloween was a blast for the school! The students and staff carved pumpkins in the afternoon. These creations were fun to make. From cutting the pumpkin open to digging out the insides of the pumpkins, staff and students enjoyed this experience. Students even got to save the pumpkin seeds to toast them. Following Halloween, students experienced the travelling stage, where they did dance, mindfulness, and creative movement activities. These activities presented the opportunity for students to express themselves creatively. For example, one of the activities was spelling your name with your body. Students needed to find ways to move their bodies to make a specific letter; for instance, the letter Y was feet together, hands above your head, and spread out. Students experienced drama and enjoyed this new experience. We were sad to see it end and would like to see more of these activities. On top of all these busy activities, Charles Yohin School and the DEA hosted a Thanksgiving Community gathering with the funds provided by the Jays Care Foundation. Students learned to make pie crust from scratch and use that crust to make fresh apple pie with homemade filling. On top of all, students made Bannock and muffins for the feast. Thanks to Bryan, Kathy, Sharon, Marlene, Cathryn, Stacey, Ciara, Brayden, and Mason for their help cooking the dinner. The school and DEA look forward to hosting our next community gathering (Christmas). To end our exciting term, Marlene volunteered her time to demonstrate how to skin a rabbit. Marlene also made the school some rabbit soup! Thank you, Marlene, for sharing your knowledge of skinning a rabbit and making rabbit stew. We genuinely appreciate the soup you made for us. Staff and students of Charles Yohin School would like to wish everyone a Merry Christmas and Happy Holidays. SKINNING A RABBIT BY: BRAYDEN MATOU Me (Brayden) and my dad set 5 rabbit snares beside the road on the hill and 3 snares beside the water plant in town. We caught a rabbit but it got eaten by a hungry fox and it took the snare too. There was rabbit fur on the snow and the snare was gone and fox tracks in the snow. Then we caught a rabbit a second time. It was beside the water plant. I was happy we finally caught a white rabbit. After that we gave the rabbit to my mom to skin. My mom put the rabbit in the bag. My mom skinned the rabbit at the school. Brayden, Mason, Ciara, Mr. Strong, and Kathy got to watch my mom show us how to skin a rabbit. At school my mom took the rabbit snare off the rabbit neck. Next my mom cut the fur off the legs then pulled the fur off the legs and pulled the fur off the rabbit’s body. After that my mom cut the ears off then pulled the fur off the head. Then grabbed the hair off the rabbit meat. Next my mom cut the rabbit legs and the head off. Next cut the stomach open and took guts out of the rabbit and put it inside a bag to throw in the bush. My mom put the rabbit guts in the bush to be respectful to the mother nature. Then use a wet paper towel to clean the sharp knife. Finally it was ready to cook the rabbit and make rabbit soup with Delta long grain rice. My mom made soup with rabbit meat. First my mom grabbed a pot and cleaned it with baking soda. Second put water in the pot then put the rabbit body and the rabbit legs in the pot. Third my mom grabbed a toothpick and seer the soup to get the rabbit hairs out. Next put Delta rice in the soup. Then let it cook for 20 minutes on the stove. After that let it cool down for awhile. Finally when it was done then we ate it. Thank you mom. MAKING MOCCASINS WITH ELSIE BY: CIARA VITAL When Ciara, Mason, Brayden, Kathy, Mr. Strong, and Pauline sews with Elsie she would sometimes tell us stories. One of the stories was that her school was a tent. She told me that she did not have a wooden floor she had spruce bows which is a tree branch from spruce trees. After she was done telling us the story Ciara, Mason, Brayden, Kathy, Pauline, and Mr. Strong started tracing their foot for the moccasins. After Ciara, Mason, Brayden, Pauline, Kathy, Mr. Strong are done the next thing that we all had to do is to cut the fabric to make it look like moccasins. And then Ciara, Mason, Brayden, Kathy, Mr. Strong, and Pauline makes their uppers. I feel happy when I sew with her. When I started making my moccasins first I traced my foot. I’m really happy when she comes out and sews with us. On November 2022 me, Mason, Brayden, Mr. Strong, Pauline, Kathy went to Elsie’s house to sew our uppers for the mocassins. When I started sewing my uppers I made a pattern of green, red, and silver. When me, Mason, Brayden, Kathy, Pauline, Mr. Strong sew with Elsie we sometimes get community visitors to sew moccasins with us. The next thing to sew is my back of my moccasins then I need to do my next one. Making moccasins with Elsie is fun, exciting, and it also inspired me to do lots of sewing. ELA INTEGRATED IN CULINARY CLASSES-CJYS BY: MRS. LYDIA BOADI-JK – GRADE 5 TEACHER Chief Julian Yendo School (CJYS) has started a cooking class for the lower grades during which I take students to the kitchen and introduce them to healthy recipes. The benefits for teaching cooking to youth are numerous, but our focus is mainly on guiding students to hone their cooking and writing skills, create cultural awareness, improve self-confidence, and allow them to get familiarized with the kitchen. We intend to train them, so they can turn what they have locally into delicious and healthy meals for the family. Additionally, some of the students can seize the opportunity to kickstart a culinary career in future. I realized that my students feel comfortable telling their own stories anytime we engage in such activities. I took advantage of this discovery and programmed my cooking instruction such that after each cooking class, the students share their experiences using the expository writing strategy. In our last lesson, students wrote the processes for preparing African Bannock which is their favorite. The photos below show samples of their writing and students who are actively involved in the cooking process. Kudos to my little students! The students and staff at Charles Tetscho School wish to offer our sincere gratitude to some of our partners from outside of the community of Sambaa K’e who have reached out to enhance the school experience of our young ladies and gentlemen. We truly appreciate your thoughts, positivity, time, and dedication to us! To the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) who presented the students of Charles Tetscho School with backpacks full of school supplies (and of course, some toys and other goodies!), we appreciate the gifts and the fact that you value our education! Thank you. To Josh Hagen, Executive Director and Head Coach of the Northwest Territories Judo Association, who visited our students here at Charles Tetscho to interact with us, inspire us, and remind us of the importance of physical, mental and emotional health and balance: We thank you for a fun-filled week and look forward to your return! To Stacey Read and Deanna Dolstra who visited our students to reintroduce fiddling and music to our students after a long Covid hiatus: We thank you both for returning music to Charles Tetscho, and thank the Kole Crook Fiddle Association for their commitment to fiddling and their fantastic music teachers! To the staff of The Travelling Stage who were unable to join us in person but who visited us virtually – Josh Murray, Cora and Fanny: We thank you for the wonderful job that you did in drawing our students to you and engaging them in meaningful dance, team-building and story-telling activities! Truly, the students and staff of Charles Tetscho are grateful to all of our out-of-community partners for the time they spend with us. The many wonderful people, and the varied experiences they bring, help to present us with tremendous opportunities for individual growth and learning. Mahsi Cho. CHARLES TETCHO IS HAPPY TO WELCOME OUR ELDERS BACK INTO THE SCHOOL After three challenging years of school for many around the world during Covid, the students and staff of Charles Tetscho School are happy, honoured, and privileged to welcome the Elders of Sambaa K’e into the school once again. We know that the knowledge and wisdom that you possess is invaluable to us as we grow, develop, learn and live. We know that, in truth, many of the most important lessons about values and life that we will learn come from your teachings and example. Our families – our Elders and our parents – are our first teachers and we are grateful for the fact that you are willing to work alongside the Charles Tetscho School staff to ensure that we receive balance in Life and learning. With your guidance in, and outside of the school, we will continue to grow proud and strong. At Echo Dene School, there is a strong push for hands-on learning, also known as experiential learning. This term, our students can take Experiential Science 20, Experiential Science 30, Biology 30, and Science 30. We believe in giving our students the best possible opportunity to learn by helping them foster creative and critical thinking. In these courses, students can self-correct any educational missteps immediately – with professional guidance from our teachers. While copying notes can help students retain some information, we believe that live examples of core concepts help them develop a deeper understanding and foster inquiry. **How Should Students Prepare for Hands-On Learning?** To receive the most benefits from this valuable teaching method, students should arrive at each lesson ready to explore the projects and components. That means: - Familiarizing themselves with any safety procedures beforehand - Ensuring they have any necessary personal protective equipment (PPE) prepared to use. - Arriving on time so as not to miss preliminary show-and-tell steps - Never miss a class (barring emergencies), so they always feel comfortable with the current skills they are applying. - Getting enough sleep and eating/drinking before class to keep the mind sharp. - Setting aside extra time before or after a class to work with the teacher on any problem areas. While we believe experiential learning is an effective teaching strategy, it does not entirely replace traditional learning. So, we also give our students notes and other activities to support the conclusions they make from their various experiments. It has been an excellent start to the new year, and I am pleased to serve the community of Fort Liard through my leadership of the Echo Dene School. I want to take this opportunity to thank all parents and guardians for sending your children so prepared to learn! At Echo Dene School, we believe that relationships matter! Whether it be greeting students in the morning or engaging them in conversations, building positive relationships with students is our priority! As a parent, one of the most important things you can do for your child’s education is to develop relationships with the people in your child’s academic life. These people may include teachers, principals, your child’s friends, and parents. We also value the relationship with our community. Therefore, we invite you to join us to help your child maximize their potential. When concerns arise, we encourage you to go to the origin of the source (for example, if the situation is in the classroom, please get in touch with the teacher,) so we can quickly resolve the matter. Let us continue to be partners in education. Together we can achieve great things! Finally, I extend my heartiest congratulations to our students who have earned a place on the Principal’s Honour Roll and to all our students who continue to shine socially and academically. We are incredibly proud of your achievements and look forward to your continued success. **HIGH ACHIEVERS LIST** - Sadika McLeod - Grade 1 - Rylyn Berreault - Grade 1 - Paige McLeod - Grade 3 - Loveena Bertrand - Grade 3 - Mckeena Deneron-Vital - Grade 3 - Carlene Sassie - Grade 6 - Ilia Wetrade - Grade 6 - Jonalizza Bertrand - Grade 6 - Tara McLeod - Grade 6 - Aiden Gonet - Grade 7 - Kianna Berreault - Grade 8 - Hunter Bertrand-Deneron - Grade 10 - Corbin Wilson - Grade 10 - Zachary Berreault - Grade 10 - Conrad Sassie - Grade 11 - Lynden Deneron - Grade 12 **PRINCIPAL’S HONOUR ROLL** - Destiny Berreault – Grade 1 - Roger Tremblay – Grade 3 - Cooper Wilson – Grade 3 - Queen Ajibade – Grade 8 - Jaana Sutherland – Grade 8 - Adrain Bilodeau – Grade 10 - Kadence Norn – Grade 11 **MOST IMPROVED STUDENTS** - Harley Bugghins - Grade 1 - Levi Hope - Grade 2 - William McLeod - Grade 3 - Xander Duntra - Grade 6 - Alden Gonet - Grade 7 - Jadyn Lauck - Grade 7 - Mason Tremblay - Grade 8 - Jesse Klondike - Grade 8 - Zachary Ricketts - Grade 8 - Sandro Loe - Grade 8 - Linkyn Lauck - Grade 8 - Nicholas Bilodeau - Grade 9 - Burton Duntra - Grade 11 - Stevenson Klondike - Grade 12 **MEET MISS QUINN’S GRADES 1-3** We’ve had the chance to do many fun things in grade 1/2/3 so far! We love having discussions as a group about special days like Orange Shirt Day or learning the history behind celebrations such as Halloween. Hands on learning is our favourite! We enjoy working with materials to pattern or represent numbers, gather data from friends and staff in the older grades and do experiments to build on our knowledge. We have had the absolute pleasure of meeting and working with some special people that taught us new skills. We played some games and learnt judo with Ms.Amy in Phys-Ed, made our own puppets and learnt some fun dance moves from the ladies with the Travelling Stage and listened to some talented fiddlers and flute player during music. We can’t wait to see what the next few months bring for our class! Our very youngest students are learning to write! There is a big jump between learning the alphabet and communicating your ideas in writing and it is challenging to teach. Kathy Pelisssey, the K/1 teacher at Deh Gâh School along with Della Beck, the Program Support Teacher, have been guiding students to share their ideas on paper. Kathy begins this process with a demonstration of a simple drawing with a few words that go with the picture. Kathy shows children what writers think about before they write and as they write. She even shows them how beginning writers use inventive spelling to share their ideas on paper. Her students are excited to share their drawings and are beginning to describe the pictures with letters and words. When children first attempt writing, they won’t have enough knowledge of spelling patterns to spell correctly, so children will listen to sounds they hear in words and put a few of those letter sounds on paper. It starts with the first consonant in a word, then the last consonant, and then later a vowel. Some students may not even know that letters make sounds, so they imitate adult writing by putting a string of random letters on the page. They now understand that the marks they are making represent spoken words. This is the first step in a process of learning to write that will take several years. As time goes by, and with teacher modelling and encouragement, correct spelling emerges. When students use the sounds that they hear to write, it develops their confidence and independence, so that they will not always have to rely on an adult to spell for them. This process of putting down the sounds you hear is called inventive spelling and all students go through this stage. Kathy’s process of modelling ‘how to think about writing’ and how to put letters on paper is extremely important in becoming a writer. Children learn that the purpose of writing is to communicate stories and ideas. They practice coming up with ideas and adding details to drawings just as they will soon plan to do this in their writing. As well, inventive spelling helps children to practice matching letters to sounds and this helps with learning to read. All our Kindergarten and Grade 1 teachers are using this practice to support our emerging writers. Our youngest writers are so proud to share their work with you, and we are too! In mathematics, two quantities are said to be in golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. This can be expressed algebraically, for the quantities \(a\) and \(b\) with \(a > b > 0\) \[ \frac{a + b}{a} = \frac{a}{b} = \varphi \] where \(\varphi\) is a Greek letter called “phi” that denotes the golden ratio. The constant \(\varphi\) satisfies the quadratic equation \[ \varphi^2 = \varphi + 1 \] On solving this equation \(\varphi^2 - \varphi - 1 = 0,\) we get \(\varphi = \frac{1 \pm \sqrt{1+4}}{2} = \frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2} = 1.6 \Rightarrow \text{Golden Ratio}\) Mathematicians have studied the golden ratio’s properties since antiquity. **Golden Rectangle:** Golden Rectangle is a rectangle with a distinctive ratio of \(\varphi\) by cutting the rectangular into a square with side ‘\(a\)’ and a smaller rectangle with length ‘\(b\)’ and width ‘\(a\)’ with the satisfaction of \(\frac{a}{b} = 1.6\). --- **Euclid**, the father of Geometry, called Golden Ratio as “Extreme and Mean Ratio”, and Luca Pacioli called it “Divine Proportion”. **Golden Ratio** is highly connected with **Fibonacci Numbers** 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,…. In the Fibonacci sequence, each number is equal to the sum of the preceding two, starting with the base sequence, \[ \frac{1}{0} = \text{infinity}; \quad \frac{1}{1} = 1.0; \quad \frac{2}{1} = 2.0; \quad \frac{3}{2} = 1.5; \] \[ \frac{5}{3} = 1.6; \quad \frac{8}{5} = 1.6; \quad \frac{13}{8} = 1.6 \ldots \ldots \ldots \ldots \ldots \] **Golden Ratio Point of the Earth:** The latitude of **Bethlehem** city of Israel is 31.7054° N Taking the cot value of this angle, \(\cot 31.7054^\circ = \frac{1}{\tan(31.7054^\circ)} = 1.6 \Rightarrow \text{Golden Ratio}\) Let us try with the famous historical city named Faran, Becca in the past and now termed **Mecca** in Saudi Arabia. The distance between the South Pole and Mecca = 12390 km The distance between the South Pole and North Pole = 20004 km When we divide these two distances, \[ \frac{\text{Distance between the South Pole and North Pole}}{\text{Distance between the South Pole and Mecca}} = \frac{20004}{12390} = 1.6 \quad \rightarrow \quad \text{Golden Ratio} \] --- Michel Benoit shops once a week at the Northern Store and buy produce which he makes into breakfast and lunch for $500 a week. The money provided by the Lîdlj Kîc First Nation Band. I asked Benoit how long he has been preparing meals. “Before COVID, I was doing it all the time. It started up again on 22nd of September,” answered Benoit. When asked why he does breakfast and lunches, Benoit replied, “Because I believe there is a need for it. I know there is a need for it. I believe in it. I can cook, and I like to cook and make sure the kids get different meals during the week. But some kids learn to cook for themselves as well.” Moreover, given the time it would take the kids to bus home and return to school, the kids would only have 20 minutes to eat at home, explained Benoit. Besides, there is the advantage that after eating at school the kids can go to the computer lab and do some work. Said Benoit, “It’s a good way to decrease conflict between senior and junior high school — a way to stop bullying.” What do the kids say?: Gr 8-Layla: “I’m thankful for Benoit’s good food at lunch because otherwise I would have to go all the way on top of the hill and all the way back.” Gr 7-Megan: “Thank you for the food Benoit, its always soo good.” Gr 7-Paige: “wants to say thank you for being there to make food for her and her friends.” Gr 8-Makayla: “I don’t have a favourite, I love everything he makes.” Gr 8-Katana: “Thanks for all the food it was all amazing and delicious.” Gr 8-Nazeeh: “He is a good chef and he cooks everyday.” Gr 10-Ethan: “It’s good.” Gr 10-Hendrix: “It’s very good.” It is hard to study when you are hungry. Lîdlj Kîc Regional High School and teacher Benoit try to make sure no kid is too hungry. Greetings from LKES! It’s beginning to look a lot like Christmas! Since our last newsletter contribution, we have been quite busy with events and, now that it’s nearing December, we are starting to feel the Christmas spirit school and community wide. We have celebrated a multitude of events this past fall: Mr. Jim Jordan On Tuesday, Sept. 20 Mr. Jim Jordan visited our school once again to present an anti-bullying session to our students. This is the second time Mr. Jordan’s been at our school since May and, believe me when I say, “our students absolutely enjoy his presentations”. Mr. Jordan keeps students intrigued by using magical props and funny voices from his professional background as a clown. He is well-versed with anti-bullying programming and presents it in a way for students to remember for years to come. We’re looking forward to your next visit, Mr. Jordan! (Figure 1) National Truth and Reconciliation Day This year our staff and students decided to make a huge orange t-shirt for students to paste their very own smaller ones on (Figure 2). We also created a 20-foot banner that displayed student handprints and our school’s name. The banner was then displayed at the Arbor for our community-wide T&D Day ceremony (Figure 3). Wolfpack Cross Country Running Tournament Our Wolfpack Cross Country Running team made their way to Fort Providence for the regional tournament on Oct. 7. We had one of our students come 2nd place and other students who came quite close. All-in-all, it was a memorable experience that will last for years to come. Mahsi for representing our school well, Wolfpack! (Figure 4). Liidlii Kue First Nation Archery Club The week Oct. 3-6 our K-6 students participated in Archery Club during their assigned gym classes. Mr. Steven Meek from Liidlii Kue First Nation worked with our students on archery. This program was made possible by LKFN as they continue to show strong partnership with our school. In addition to the Archery Club, LKFN also aptly supports our breakfast program to ensure students have a filled belly while at school. Mahsi LKFN and Mr. Meek! (Figure 5). Annual Moose Feast This year’s Annual Moose Feast was the first in 3 years due to past Covid restrictions. Let’s just say that our LKES staff were beyond speechless with this year’s turnout. To provide you some insight about this annual feast, every October our school focuses on the theme “Moose” as a cultural component. During October each works on moose research, writing pieces, moose facts, tanning hide, etc. To culminate this theme, we then host a community-wide moose feast in our school gymnasium; hence “Annual Moose Feast”. We estimated at least 200 residents and school pupils participated in the feast. Most dishes recipes included moose meat, except for Mr. Adams’ mashed potatoes. Haha!!! Staff showcased student work from October by placing it on the gym walls and setting up tables to display students’ moose work. (Figure 6). A huge mahsi cho to parents, students and staff for making this year’s feast a success. Also, our DDEC board supported us heavily by helping fund some of the food products. Lastly, we thanked Mr. Steven Jose during the least with a small gift card in recognition of his moose meat donation. We are hoping for even bigger results next year! (Figure 7). Remembrance Day. Travelling Stage. A major highlight of our programming this past fall would have to be the implementation of the Travelling Stage team and their ability to work with us on an array of fun-filled educational pieces. The Travelling Stage facilitates in-person programming with artists who adapt to local teaching styles and ideology. During their time with us from Nov. 3-10 they provided our students with sessions of puppetry, hip-hop dance, and two Remembrance Day pieces for our ceremony on Nov. 10 (Figure 8). Our annual Remembrance Day ceremony was held on Thursday, Nov. 10. Another big turnout of community members. During this ceremony we paid our respects to our fallen and present-day soldiers, and our veterans by showcasing student performances. It was at this ceremony where The Travelling Stage, Glee Club, and class performances took place. (Figure 9). This 45-minute ceremony encapsulated a time for all to participate in the pinning of poppies, to sing our national anthem, and to observe a minute of silence. Our staff and parents were very impressed with our student performances, work displayed on the gymnasium walls, and how respectful everyone was during the ceremony. Lastly, Mr. David Berman professionally video recorded the ceremony and shared it with our school. Another Mahsi to all! (Figure 10). Halloween It was a spooky Halloween at LKES, well not really but students had a whole lot of educational fun. Each class participated in a door decorating contest, displayed Halloween work on walls, had an hour of rotational games, and lastly met in the gymnasium on the afternoon of Oct. 31 for the Halloween Parade. Our staff decided to be minions this year (figure 11 & 12). Library The aftermath of Covid’s wrath is still heavily felt throughout communities and institutions, such as our school. With restrictions lifted into this new school year, one of our goals as a staff was to renovate and reopen our school library. The past 3 years the library was closed to prevent mixing of cohorts in common spaces. On Monday, Nov. 17, our staff took the last 2hrs of the day to work on our library, and that they did. The undertaking was massive because it became a dumping ground over 3 years. Lots of chairs, random unused educational resources, a plethora of unchronicled books, and so forth. During that time, Mr. Adams requested some additional support from DDEC to purchase much needed furniture to help in our pursuit in rebuilding our library. Mahsi DDEC for helping us with this project. Lastly, the library project would not have been made possible without the help of Mrs. Tiffany Thomas. In addition to staff collaboration on this project, Mrs. Thomas went well beyond her Support Assistant role by helping ensure that the library was going to be done before students return on Oct. 24. She was successful in reaching our school goal! (Figure 13 & 14). National Children’s Day Saturday, Nov. 19, our staff participated in the National Children’s Day at the community rec centre. It was there that Mrs. Jose and Mr. Adams setup a table filled with activities, school clothes, and literature for our children. Absolutely free! It was great seeing parents join the activities with their children. Another success! (Figure 15). Judo Ms. Amy Cotton has been working extremely hard this fall in having students learn and practice their judo skills. Grade K-6 participated in Judo Week from Oct. 11-14 during gym class. They have also been joining the after-school Judo program every Thursday. Some of the end results from their hard practice was put to the test in Yellowknife from Nov. 25-27 during the Judo tournament. Our grade 2 student, Eloise Lesbarreers, won 2nd place. Congrats Eloise! (Figure 16). Mahsi to our students from both schools who respected us well and worked extra hard during the tournament. Made lasting memories! Agriculture Project Our grade 3 students have been working on a “Plant Growth” unit in Science this past fall. To optimize their learning experiences, the grade 3 class decided to start an indoor garden to grow vegetables such as lettuce, carrots, and bell peppers. Together everyone helped gather all necessary resources to start the project (Figure 17). They have impressive green thumbs! (Figures 18 & 19). It’s been a busy fall for our staff and students so far, with parents getting in on the action, too. We truly want to continue our good works and promote a sense of community at our school. Please follow our monthly LKES Events Calendar, check memos sent home, and follow our Facebook page for up-to-date info. Mahsi everyone for reading! FORT SIMPSON ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Over the course of the first few months of the school year the BDDEC has been actively engaged in Inquiry learning. This form of teaching empowers students at the center of learning and many Beaufort Delta schools are using the land as a textbook in this work. In Tuktoyuktuk, Mangilaluk School conducted a whole building inquiry around a fish net excursion, incorporating a data analysis project, Elder stories and wisdom, discussions about climate change, and fish anatomy workshops. The whole school worked collaboratively through a Google Slide Deck to get ideas, share out their findings, and produce powerful learning resources for the following year’s fish excursions. The students are highly engaged in this type of learning and are starting to get curious about the ways in which learning can connect to land and culture. In Inuvik, high school students used the trails in town as a place-based provocation to generate some deep questions to turn into thesis statements which was a highly engaging way to practice this new skill. The enthusiasm and the depth of their questions showed the impact land-based learning can have in any classroom. In another high school classroom, Experiential Science students learned about the significance of the land and ecosystems within the Delta and then visited a local cultural site to harvest living organisms for a biome project. They learned ethical harvesting, cultural protocol and were able to integrate the land in their learning in a deep and meaningful way. Projects like these have been highly successful in many classrooms throughout the fall. In Ulukhaktok, students are engaging in a project called “Collaborative Spaces” which centers local stories in the Inuinnaqun language and told by Elders. These stories are a way to provoke thoughts, questions and excitement in students and encourage classes to go deeper in their inquiries about the local learning they are doing. “Collaborative Spaces” includes a hands-on learning component tied to a local art form such as Drum Dancing, carving, print making and exploring the ways to harvest and process a fish. This project is collaborative and includes the whole school in multi-age groups. Teachers and students alike are really excited about these activities and are seeing progress in the depth of thinking and questioning throughout the classrooms. This project is a great integration of curricular learning and Indigenous language and culture and is another example of the way Inquiry learning is developing in BDDEC Schools. Seeing students and staff actively engaged in teaching and learning with the land has been a significant highlight throughout the fall and early winter in BDDEC schools. As the BDDEC employs Inquiry learning in its classrooms, reflections from students tell us how it’s going for them and the ways in which they are feeling a part of the learning process. East Three Secondary School Social Studies student, Bianca Rogers, explains her experiences learning through inquiry this year: “Inquiry-based learning is a noticeably practical teaching style, as it provides a visual component to assigned schoolwork and concepts that cannot be properly demonstrated on a piece of paper. For example, visually combining our ideas on colorful sticky notes, or staging ourselves around a classroom to depict our stance on a statement or controversy; I found I felt more engaged, as I could picture the concept in my head and fathom how it would take place in reality. Especially since I could physically organize my opinions among other students, which enforces respect for others’ opinions, because it is difficult to think less of someone’s opinion when you notice they are only a few steps away from your own. There is a lot of collective effort that goes into inquiry-based learning that can help a student realize the significance of their individuality. Through this learning experience, I am able to take my assigned work with more intensity, and understand social studies concepts at a higher level. Although, this teaching style does not include tests or formal exams; it puts more emphasis on organizing ideas and evidence, rather than cramming solid definitions without fluidity or perspective.” Remembrance Day is a day Canadians pay their Respect and Honor to the men and women who fought and continue to fight for our rights of freedom and peace. On November 11th, we mark the calendar to remember those brave and strong. I think that if it were not for those who gave their lives and those that continue to place themselves in harm, we would not be standing together with our heads held high as a nation. Although I have not served or fought in wars, I hold dear the idea that there were those who sacrificed their lives so I could feel safe to live mine. They have allowed the opportunity for me to have an education, to work on a career, and to feel free to make my own decisions. So, today I honor and respect the fallen by wearing my poppy with pride, and by remembering them as they should be. I would also like to honor the sacrifices of those who came from the north, and from Aklavik. They include Garnet Greenland, James Gardlund, Henry Rivet, Brenen Greenland, Alert Steward, Victor Steward Sr., and Neil Greenland. Each of these men served to better my home and we will not forget you. So here is to all those who have made the ultimate sacrifice and those who continue to lay their lives on the line. We honor the soldiers for fighting the fight. We honor the nurses and doctors who attended the wounded. We honor the families who lost members all far from home; and the children who could not understand why mums and dads could not be with them during Christmas and family time. And, we honor the teenagers who shipped off before they could start their lives. There are so many we could remember and thank. To you all, as we stand here in peace and with freedom, remember why and how we are here; remember those who fought, those that survived and those that did not; remember those that still fight for us today and those that may not return; remember the volunteers who sacrificed despite the families they left behind; and, remember that without all of them we would not be the country we are. Thank you. Lest we forget. In November, almost 100 MADD Canada volunteers came together for a weekend of learning, networking and empowerment. In sessions run by volunteer leaders, key note speakers and MADD Canada staff, volunteers were provided with in-depth information and valuable resources to bring back to their communities to further MADD Canada’s mission. The weekend included workshops on volunteer engagement, volunteers’ impactful contributions to the community and strategies on recruitment and showing appreciation to volunteers. Eric Dumschat, MADD Canada’s Legal Director, presented MADD Canada’s Top 10 Report, which contains recommendations for improving safety on Canada’s roads and reducing impaired driving crashes. Key note speakers provided powerful workshops on “Know, Grow and Show your Grit!” which is a powerful, unconventional way for volunteers to navigate life’s obstacles – self-discovery made simple! Several volunteers shared their “mission moments” – their passionate stories on how and why they became involved with MADD Canada. Friday evening, volunteers were able to preview the new MADD Canada’s School Program “Final Play” which is a powerful dramatization about the tragic consequences of impaired driving. The video ends with testimonials from real-life victims who share their heartbreaking stories with the audience. MADD Canada’s School Program targets students in grades 7 through 12. For a preview of the program, visit: https://madd.ca/pages/programs/youth-services/school-programs/. Saturday evening featured the National Awards Dinner to celebrate long-term volunteers and recognize special achievements. MADD Fort Simpson Community Leader Sharon Allen was recognized for her 10 years of volunteering with MADD Canada. Previously, Sharon receive the Volunteer of the Year award in 2017. On Sunday morning, to close out the Conference, several white doves were released in a beautiful ceremony to thank all the volunteers for attending the conference and to wish safe travels home. MADD Canada is a volunteer run organization with the mission to stop impaired driving and support victims of this violent crime. If you have been affected by impaired driving or would like information on volunteering, please contact firstname.lastname@example.org From Nov 1-15, The Travelling Stage had the great honour of travelling to the NWT to work with schools and communities throughout the Dehcho. A team of 7 arts educators from Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg worked in person in Fort Providence, Fort Liard and Fort Simpson with live virtual programming reaching schools in more remote areas from the DDEC Board Office. Travelling Stage programming supports and encourages a positive sense of identity for all learners, while developing competency in literacy and the performing arts. We also use arts and wellness education to facilitate more acceptance of others and higher self-esteem as a way to combat bullying. Fort Providence based artists ran an event called “Bannock and Books” for the community. All students also made a “Capsule of Consciousness” where they wrote affirmations, a poem and one of their dreams. Students here also participate in drama, creative movement and music programming. Fort Liard based artists held a yoga and mindfulness event in their community in addition to their work in the school. Students participated in expressive drama, puppetry and dance classes. Fort Simpson based artists had drama and music program presentations as part of their Remembrance Day ceremony at the Elementary school. The Junior High and High Schools participated in a strategy called “Collective Creation”, which helped them to use their voices to create a video about their school and community stories. The schools also participated in puppetry, improv, dance, mindfulness and expressive arts. There was community yoga programming held at the Rec Centre as well as a yoga training for high school students who wanted to learn how to teach yoga programming on their own. An Intro to Comedy Improv was also offered at the Rec Centre for adults. Now celebrating our 21st season, The Travelling Stage offers students an opportunity to participate in dance, drama, music and wellness programming alongside established performing artists. This past year alone, we worked with over 5 million students. Our teachers are some of Canada’s top performing artists and have worked on stages across North America and Europe. Our programs were created to enrich school curriculum, to inspire students to strive for excellence, to increase self-esteem and to cultivate an appreciation for the performing arts. We offer programs in person, via live synchronous online learning and through asynchronous learning. It was an honour and privilege to have been invited to work with schools in the DDEC and we look forward to spending time with them again next year. We would welcome the opportunity to return to the North to work with other schools and communities. If you are interested in connecting more about Travelling Stage programming for your board or your community, contact Director Toni Grates at email@example.com For more information: www.travellingstage.com Our 2022 Experience in the Dehcho - THANK YOU DDEC! The blue button below will take you to a visual recap of our experience. The Travelling Stage tours the Dehcho (https://youtu.be/RrT3ZbghjU8) From Nov 1-15, 2022, The Travelling Stage had the great honour of travelling to the NWT to work with schools and communities throughout the Dehcho. A team of 7 arts educators from Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg worked in person in Fort Providence, Fort Liard and Fort Simpson and virtually from the DDEC Board Office to reach schools in more remote areas. Travelling Stage programming supports and encourages a positive sense of identity for all learners, while developing competency in literacy and the performing arts. We also use arts and wellness education to facilitate more acceptance of others and higher self-esteem as a way to combat bullying.
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The independent guide to the referendum on blasphemy This guide is written for people with an intellectual disability Dear Voters, On Friday, 26th October 2018 you will be asked to vote on two things. You will have the chance to vote in an election to choose a president. You will also be able to vote in a referendum. This information is about the referendum. A referendum is a vote to change the constitution of Ireland. The constitution of Ireland sets out the rules of the country. This referendum asks: Would you like to change the constitution so the rules about blasphemy in Ireland can be changed? **Blasphemy** is being very insulting or abusive about things which are sacred to a religion, and deliberately hurting the feelings of people who follow that religion. The Referendum Commission gives you information about what your vote will mean. The Referendum Commission does not tell you to vote yes or no. You can vote yes or no using your ballot paper. It is up to you how to vote. It is important to vote. The constitution belongs to you. You can help decide whether to change the constitution or not. Make sure your voice is heard by voting on Friday, 26th October 2018. All the votes are counted at the end of the day. The constitution changes if most people vote YES. The constitution stays the same if most people vote NO. Isobel Kennedy Chairperson Referendum Commission The Constitution of Ireland sets out the rules of the country. This referendum asks you to vote about changing a rule. This rule is about what people can say or publish about a religion. Publishing includes writing something in a newspaper, magazine or on the internet. Blasphemy is about being very insulting or abusive about things which are sacred to a religion. Blasphemy is a crime. If it is proved that someone is guilty of blasphemy, they might have to pay a lot of money. The referendum asks if you would like to change what Article 40.6.1 says in the constitution. **Blasphemy in Ireland now:** - The constitution says that blasphemy is a crime. - In Ireland, someone cannot say or publish something very insulting about a religion, and deliberately hurt people who follow that religion. - This is breaking the law. They could be fined €25,000. - Nobody has been punished for blasphemy for a very long time. (More than 150 years) The proposed change to Article 40.6.1 The proposal is to take the word blasphemy out of the Constitution so that blasphemy won’t be a crime anymore. What will happen if most people vote yes? If most people vote yes to this referendum, the rules in the constitution about blasphemy will change. Politicians will be able to change the law that makes blasphemy a crime. What will happen if most people vote no? If most people vote no to this referendum, the rules will stay the same. The constitution will not change. Blasphemy will still be a crime. Some things will stay the same, whether most people vote yes or no. It will still be against the law to publish things which encourage people to hate other people. How to vote Polling stations open all day (from 7 in the morning to 10 at night) Voting in the presidential election will take place on the same day as voting in the referendum. You will be given two ballot papers to use. The white ballot paper is for the presidential election. This will have the names of people who would like to be President of Ireland. The green ballot paper is for the referendum. This will have boxes marked YES and NO. You can vote in the referendum by marking an ‘X’ in the YES box or the NO box. Only mark one box. Do not mark any other part of the ballot paper. Sample Ballot Paper An bhfuil tú ag toiliú leis an togra chun an Bunreacht a leasú atá sa Bhille thiosluaité? Do you approve of the proposal to amend the Constitution contained in the undermentioned Bill? An Bille um an Seachtú Leasú is Tríocha ar an mBunreacht (Cion a aisghairm arb éard e ní diamhaslach a fhoilsiú nó a aithris), 2018 Thirty-seventh Amendment of the Constitution (Repeal of offence of publication or utterance of blasphemous matter) Bill 2018 Ná cuir marc ach san aon chearnóg amháin Place a mark in one square only Má thoilíonn tú, cuir X sa chearnóg seo ........... If you approve, mark X in this square ............ Mura dtoilíonn tú, cuir X sa chearnóg seo ........... If you do not approve, mark X in this square........... An Coimisiún Reifrinn Referendum Commission
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A Tale of Two Science Buses: Diversity of Knowledge and Inclusion Practices Executive Summary Public engagement activities labelled in the same way can generate very different practices and experiences for participants. The key difference appears to be the way scientific knowledge is framed and the engagement activity is designed. This affects the scope and parameters of public experimentation and inclusion of social groups. It is important to use appropriate materialisations of ‘science’ to achieve intended public engagement goals. Science Bus Context Science buses are a common public engagement approach used by public museums and science institutions across the world. Their physical mobility is used to bring scientific experiments and knowledge closer to the public. This form of public engagement has a long history. For example, in India the first mobile science exhibition launched in 1965¹ and involved buses traveling to rural areas to reach illiterate populations, and a 1983 UNESCO report provides a design manual and organisation advice for science buses². Today, in Europe and the US, science buses tend to target children and involve them in hands-on small-scale experiments that are tied directly into the school curriculum. Typical experiments include “how a potato clock works”, “what causes optical illusions”, “how to test for acids using red cabbage juice”³. The concept being, that these experiments will illustrate well-established scientific concepts for the students. This tends to mean that the experiments are carefully designed and standardised for predefined age groups and with a specific scientific topic focus. Comparing the two DITOs buses This research insight focuses on the two science buses from Doing it Together Science (DITOs) project which is a H2020 funded Coordination and Support Action that is building citizen science and science communication across Europe. This report is an ethnographic vignette that compares the two science buses from the DITOs to highlight some differences that have broader pertinence. The XperiLAB truck was created by the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (RBINS), while the official Do-It-Together science bus was coordinated by the Waag, an organisation focused on emerging technologies as instruments of social change. Both of the science buses were specially outfitted and staffed and carried specialised equipment for participatory workshops. XperiLAB The XperiLAB truck created by RBINS has been operating since 2010 and travels across Belgium from school to school bringing structured science experiments to enhance the existing education programmes. The stated goal is that the activities should teach the inductive method to the children. The XperiLAB activities take place inside the truck via custom designed workstation consoles that each focus on single scientific concepts from biology, chemistry and physics such as hydrodynamics. During the workshops, energetic music plays as the pupils enter the science bus, change into lab coats and move towards the consoles that are illuminated with lighting, providing a dramatic atmosphere. Working in small groups, the school children simultaneously work on a series of hands-on activities that involve physically manipulating and submerging objects and collecting data, guided by an on-screen computer persona that gives instructions. The activities, while closely based on scientific concepts, also use playful metaphors from popular media such as spy films, that are combined with game mechanics of team competition, button presses, time limits and point scores to reward progress through the activity. At the end of a workshop, the children are all gathered together for a collective discussion with the instructor who highlights the pedagogical value of the activities to the children. **Do-It-Together Science Bus** The scope and focus of the Do-It-Together science bus coordinated by the Waag was different. It started by recruiting multiple ‘science bus captains’ from the public to drive the bus across the whole of Europe and make 17 stops at a variety of community centres, small towns, public festivals and museums to run participatory workshops and document the process on social media. The goal was to involve a broad public in ready-made activities from the bus and ask the participants to contribute their own folk remedies and recipes that the bus would take on its journey to bring to new places and people. During the four workshops observed in Birmingham, the participants were a diverse age mix of children accompanied by parents and a significant number of elder members of the community. The ethnic and cultural breakdown was also highly diverse, including British people, as well as those from newly arrived and long-term ethnic communities. The main science bus activities were yoghurt-making and sun cream making, which involved participants sitting on long wooden benches in front of metal pots that they used to mix and heat ingredients such as milk or beeswax. The diverse mix of ages and ‘homely’ activity gave an atmosphere of a cooking lesson, with adults chatting and getting to know neighbours while kids were playing rock-paper-scissors. The science bus captains used the sun cream making activity as an opportunity to explain the physical properties of sun-rays and the yoghurt to teach about bacteria. Yet based on my discussions with participants, some had come to the activity because they usually took part in the community centre’s activities while others had come for pragmatic reasons. One mother needed sun cream that would not irritate her child who was allergic to commercial sunscreen. Similarly, with the yoghurt, the participants wanted to take it home to eat. Thus, many of the participants used extra jars to mix additional batches of sun cream and yoghurt to give to friends. This seemed to surprise the science bus captains, who perceived the activities as demonstrating scientific principles that were more pure and educational than playing such a pragmatic part in people’s everyday lives. At the end of the workshop, the local coordinator of the community centre where the event was hosted, thanked the science bus captains and told the group how pleased she was that the event showed that ‘also normal people go to university - and you don’t look like nerds’. Interviewing the community centre coordinator afterwards, she explained that the local area was a highly deprived area, and this meant local people didn’t aspire to science because it was seen as remote and the people who carry it out, as ‘other’. She saw the benefits of the science bus workshops as creating intergenerational bonds and connecting different community groups as well as offering an alternative to the ‘guns and crime narrative’, usually attributed to the area. Analysis As the ethnographic vignettes of the two buses illustrate, both buses involved different practices and framings of scientific knowledge and publics. The XperiLAB bus targeted a specific age range of school children with activities and took place during lesson time and in the physical vicinity of the school and included the classes teacher. The XperiLAB framing is that the bus is an extension of the school classroom. In particular scientific knowledge is defined by the workshop activity and the experiment constrained to the consoles that the children stand around within the bus. In contrast, the Waag science bus had a looser concept of scientific knowledge and publics that revolved around the notion of instructables\(^8\). These are text and image guides that are created by people within online forums to share instruction for a variety of projects. Crucially instructables are peer-created and shared amongst ‘makers’ without any clear assertion of knowledge authority or expertise. The workshop activities were available as printed instructables as well as website downloads, which meant the participants could carry out the experiment one their own at home. The bus workshops where thus a physical run-through of the instructable information as guided by the science bus captains. Furthermore, the Waag bus was collecting folk remedies from the workshop participants as a two-way knowledge exchange process. By framing folk remedies as ‘life hacks’, they positioned them similar to the instructables already created for the bus. For the Waag bus, the scientific experiment was the bus trip itself that extended across the whole of Europe gathering recipes. A key part of the Waag bus, were the video blogs and social media content produced by the science bus captains on their European journey documenting their experiences. For the Waag team, this social media presence was a key outcome of the project and the main way in which it was documented. Thus, the scientific experiment extended across the whole of Europe, and via the instructables entered into people’s homes. The different concepts of knowledge of the two hosting organisations had an effect on the design of the two buses and their experiments. Furthermore, this had an impact in the reach and make-up of the potential audiences and publics they could involve. The notion of the instructable presents an expansive concept that allowed practically useful activities such as sun cream and yoghurt making as well as the inclusion of different kinds of knowledge via the concept of folk remedies. This had a direct impact on the possibility of reaching the age and ethnically diverse audience. Both the pragmatic and homely nature of the activities allowed the intergenerational as well as cultural mixing. Interviews with the Waag bus organisers and science bus captains suggest they were not specifically targeting cultural or social inclusion. The majority of the Waag bus stops did not explicitly target deprived areas but visited a wide range of different settings including rural areas such as the small town of Aranda de Duero in Spain as well as large public festivals and science museums. Rather, it was the expansive notion of scientific knowledge in the form of the instructable that allowed the workshops to function in many different settings and with different audiences. In the last years, it was possible to see the emergence a new model of scientific outreach derived from internet communities, ‘maker cultures’ and DIY science that is premised on qualities of openness, pragmatism and two-way exchange. An example of one these maker science buses is ‘Junk Genies’ run by Cornell University, which focuses on student initiated ideas, ‘self efficacy’ and ‘just-in-time teaching’\(^9\). Afterthought During the process of the DITOs project, there was a shift in the way RBINS were engaging with the XperiLAB bus. Previously the bus would visit any Belgian school that would invite them to come and pay the fee. Yet during the process of the DITOs project, the location of the XperiLab workshops were geographically mapped and analysed for the first time. Having this overview and discussions around inclusion have led to discussions in the RBINS team about whether deprived areas should be specifically targeted by the bus in the future. If this approach was adopted it would be part of a shift towards framing inclusion a part of science education and led to an expansion of scope of the bus experiment. These discussions can be attributed to the XperiLAB participation in the DITOs project. References 1 Ministry of Culture Government of India. 2014. Mobile Science Exhibition [WWW Document]. Natl. Councl. Sci. Museums. URL http://ncsm.gov.in/mobile-science-exhibition/ 2 Bose, A. 1983. Mobile Science Exhibition. New Delhi. 3 Ahlstrom, D. 2000. Science bus brings mobile laboratory to schools. Irish Times. Herman, E. 2015. Today’s ‘Junk Genies’ tomorrow’s engineers [WWW Document]. CHESS Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source. URL https://www.chess.cornell.edu/about/news/todays-junk-genies-tomorrows-engineers (accessed 4.27.19). 4 Waag, n.d. DIY sunscreen [WWW Document]. URL https://togethersciencebus.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/EN-DITOS-07-Sunscreen.pdf (accessed 5.4.19). 5 Herman, E. 2015. Today’s ‘Junk Genies’ tomorrow’s engineers [WWW Document]. CHESS Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source. URL https://www.chess.cornell.edu/about/news/todays-junk-genies-tomorrows-engineers (accessed 4.27.19). Conclusions This ethnographic vignette suggests that the way scientific knowledge is framed defines the scope of public engagement activities and impacts the inclusion of social groups. There is potential for cross-fertilisation between ‘classic’ models of science outreach and fresh approaches from DIY science and maker cultures. How to Cite DITOs Consortium. (2019). *A Tale of Two Science Buses: Diversity of Knowledge and Inclusion Practices*. Policy Brief 11. Colophon This policy brief was written by Christian Nold on behalf of UCL as part of the DITOs project evaluation. While this was carried out as part of H2020 ‘Doing It Together Science’ (DITOs) Coordination and Support Action project, the views expressed in it do not reflect the consensus opinion of DITOs partners. togetherscience.eu This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no. 769443.
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Ranger Explorer Activity Guide Discover & Explore! Ages 6-12 Welcome to Pu`uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park Pu`uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park is a special place with deep significance to Hawaiian culture and history. Here, a royal residence, a place of refuge, and a sacred temple have been preserved and protected for future generations. Ma`o hau hele (yellow hibiscus) is the state flower of Hawai`i. How to become a Junior Ranger Junior Rangers are dedicated young people who help to protect the natural and cultural resources of Pu`uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park. Parents are encouraged to take the opportunity in guiding your child’s learning experience and to discover for yourself the wonders of the last remaining pu`uhonua (place of refuge) in Hawai`i. Complete four or more activities and the Park Ranger Duties page in this booklet. Present the booklet to the Park Ranger at the Visitor Center to recite the Junior Ranger Pledge and to receive your Junior Ranger Badge and Certificate. Places to Explore Using the walking tour guide section of the park brochure, explore the royal grounds, Keone`ele Cove, the Great Wall, and the sacred temple of Hale o Keawe with its many ki`i (wooden images). Walk around the seaward side through the pu`uhonua and return back as you walk between the royal fish ponds. 1. The Royal Grounds This is where the ali‘i (royal chiefs or kings) resided. It is a place where the maka‘āinana (the common people) were forbidden to enter. The penalty for breaking this kapu (sacred law) was death. Find a quiet place to sit. List five things you see: 1. _______________ 2. _______________ 3. _______________ 4. _______________ 5. _______________ How is it different from the town you live in? What do you hear? What don’t you hear (like traffic noise)? Your Royal Grounds You are the aliʻi nui (high chief of the entire island). You have found this wonderful place in Hōnaunau and have decided to build your home here. If you were the high chief, what would you like to have on your own royal grounds? Make a list or draw your own Royal Grounds. The Great Wall This massive wall with a thickness of 17 feet, height of 10 feet and extending over 1000 feet towards the sea was built sometime in the 1500’s to separate the pu’uhonua from the royal grounds. Some of the stones used to construct the wall are massive, weighing several tons (1 ton = 2000 pounds). Can you find the largest stone in the wall (hint: it has slightly reddish color and faces the royal grounds)? Draw yourself standing next to the stone. Believe it or not: Legend says that it took only 5 days to build the wall. How do you think the ancient Hawaiians moved the massive stones without any large equipment that we have today? 4. Under Water The waters of Hōnaunau Bay (bordering the park on the north side) are teeming with life. From the walking path you can look out into the waters and see a variety of colorful wildlife: fish, turtles, crustaceans and more. Please give the green sea turtle and angelfish bright and beautiful colors. (Crayons are available at the visitor center.) Hale o Keawe The sacred temple of Keawe was and still is a place of worship where *hoʻokupu* (offerings) are placed on the *lele* (tower). The temple possessed tremendous mana (spiritual power) to protect the puʻuhonua and was the resting place of the bones of many past aliʻi. Today what you see is a close replica of the original structure that was built around 1650 including the many *kiʻi* (wooden images). Hale o Keawe (literally meaning the House of Chief Keawe) is dedicated to god Lono. Lono and Kū, two of the four major gods of ancient Hawaiʻi, have *kiʻi* standing tall at the temple. | gods | represent | |------|-----------| | Lono | god of agriculture, rain, peace, wisdom and prosperity | | Kū | god of war and forest | If you were to bring an offering, what would you bring and why? 6. Your ‘Aumakua (Family god) In ancient times, every family had an ‘aumakua (a guardian spirit) which was the spirit of deceased ancestors. The ‘aumakua could take on a physical form such as an animal, sea life, plants, clouds or anything in nature to communicate with their descendants. For example, a family that lived along a shore whose main skill was fishing, their ‘aumakua might be a certain type of fish or a shark. If you had lived in ancient Hawai‘i, what would your ‘aumakua to be? Why? Draw your family ‘aumakua. Pu’uhonua A pu’uhonua is a place of refuge — this is the best preserved pu’uhonua in Hawai’i. People who broke the kapu (sacred laws) could come here for forgiveness. It was also a refuge for defeated warriors and people in time of war. Kapu regulated the daily activities and relationships of ancient Hawaiians. It outlined the ways of worship of the gods and regulated the natural resources of the ‘āina (land) and the sea to conserve the finite resources for future generations. Everyone respected the kapu including the ali’i. If one were to break a kapu, the punishment was usually death unless he or she made it to a pu’uhonua for forgiveness by the gods. Once a kapu breaker reached pu’uhonua, no one could harm them and the kahuna (priest) would perform a purification ceremony to remove the guilt of breaking the kapu. Some examples of kapu are: - One could not fish for certain kind of fish at certain times. This was to protect fish during spawning season (when the fish reproduce) so there would be lots of baby fish. - Not praying to a god or disrupting a religious ceremony. Respect of the gods, who represent all things on earth, was very important. - Women were not allowed to eat pork, bananas and certain types of fish. These foods were common offerings to the gods and therefore were forbidden to women. Today’s Kapu Just like the ancient Hawaiians, there are laws and rules that we all live by. List some of the rules in your house. Do you think that these rules are fair and necessary? Why or why not? Now list some of the rules at the school that you attend. Do you think that these rules are fair and necessary? Why or why not? If there were no rules or kapu, what do you think may happen? “Canoe” Plants Brought to Hawai‘i Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park is home to many Polynesian introduced plants. Early Polynesians brought with them in canoes many of the essential plants to survive in a new land. As you walk around the park, try to identify these important plants and as you discover them check them off in the box next to the names. ☐ Hala (Pandanus) Leaves were used as canoe sails, weaving baskets, mats, hats, and sandals. The bark and roots were used to make dyes and the fruit was used as paint brush. ☐ Noni (Indian Mulberry) The fruit of the noni tree was used as medicine to cure many illnesses. Also the root, bark, leaves, and flower were used as medicine and for dyes. ☐ Niu (Coconut Palm) Like other plants, every part of the coconut tree was used. Coconut was used as food, leaves for weaving baskets and roofing, and the trunk for wood and musical instruments. 9. **Voyage to a New Home** Like the early Polynesians who explored the oceans, discovered the Hawaiian Islands and settled here, you and your family will set out to explore and discover unknown land for your new home. What would you take with you to live and survive? List 8 items that you would take with you. 1. ____________________________ 2. ____________________________ 3. ____________________________ 4. ____________________________ 5. ____________________________ 6. ____________________________ 7. ____________________________ 8. ____________________________ Draw or describe one item that you consider to be most important. Why? The People of Ancient Hawai‘i In traditional Hawaiian society, people were born into different groups or social status. Ali‘i ruled the land. The highest group was the ali‘i. They were the chiefs who ruled the land with the mana (spiritual power) from the gods. They were responsible for the welfare and security of the population. The ali‘i was not just the ruler but was also the chief warrior. Anytime there was a battle or war, the ali‘i led the battle. So the ali‘i had great responsibilities to lead his people, who believed the ali‘i was a god in human form. The kahuna were the religious leaders. They were the kahuna (priests and highly skilled craftsman). They communicated with the gods and advised the ali‘i. It was their duty to know how to appease the gods. They were also the highly skilled craftsmen as well as medical specialists. The kahuna also went into battle next to the ali‘i. The maka‘āinana were the most numerous of the different groups. They were the common people who lived by fishing, farming, craft work and paying taxes to the ali‘i. Maka‘āinana lived in ahupua‘a (traditional land divisions) that ran from the sea to the mountains where all the resources to survive existed. They raised families, took care of the land and the sea and were the backbone of the Hawaiian society. Who Are You? You have been chosen to be the first person to go back in time to ancient Hawai‘i in a time machine. Which of the groups would you want to be in and why? What skills and knowledge would you need to live in ancient Hawai‘i? How different or difficult do you think it would be to live without anything modern like computers, T.V., Nintendo, cars, refrigerator, or even foods like ice cream, chocolate, and peanut butter? What five things would be the hardest to live without? People of the National Park Service This and other national parks would not be able to exist without the dedication and hard work of many people. Some of the park staff are shown below with their job description and pictures. Draw a line from the jobs on the left to the corresponding pictures on the left. I am Resource Management I study and protect the cultural and natural resources in the park. I work with plants, animals, and historical objects. I help to control the invasive species that threaten native species. I am Maintenance I keep the park clean and maintain buildings, roads and visitor facilities. Sometimes I work with big equipment. I am Park Ranger (Law Enforcement) I keep the visitors and park employees safe. I respond to emergencies and help people who are hurt. Mission The National Park Service preserves the natural and cultural resources and values of the national park system for the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations. If you could be a National Park employee who would you want to be? Why? Park Ranger Duties You can be a Junior Park Ranger. Draw yourself with your name tag, badge, and a smile under the hat. As a Junior Park Ranger, your job is to share information about the park. Answer some questions from park visitors and write your answers of why or why not? 1. Is it okay to climb on the Great Wall? □ Yes □ No Why or why not? 2. Can someone carve their name on the wooden structures? □ Yes □ No Why or why not? 3. Is it okay to touch the turtles? □ Yes □ No Why or why not? JUNIOR RANGER PLEDGE As a Junior Ranger, I pledge to always do the following: 1. I pledge to protect the land, plants, wildlife and special places at Pu`uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park and to keep the park clean. 2. I pledge to leave things in their rightful place and tell my friends and parents to do the same. 3. I pledge to learn more about the National Parks and how to protect them. Created by Pu`uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park Supported by Student Conservation Association Visit us online at: http://www.nps.gov/puho Junior Ranger Certificate is hereby awarded to: ______________________________ for the highest achievement in the dedication and protection of all national parks for future generations ______________________________ Park Ranger ______________________________ Date
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Minnesota State Monuments Since 1873, Minnesota has officially established State Monuments. The list below features monuments related to people or events connected to the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862. Many other local and county markers, monuments and statues are found across Minnesota. Monument to the Living Minnesota State Capitol, St. Paul, Minnesota Native American Monument Minnesota State Capitol, St. Paul, Minnesota Massacre at Little Crow’s Village Monument Ness Lutheran Cemetery in Meeker County Acton Green City in Meeker County Lundborg-Broberg State Monument Lundborg-Broberg Historical Site in New London, Minnesota Guri Endreson Roseland State Monument Vikor Lutheran Cemetery, near Wilmar, Minnesota Traverse des Sioux State Monument Traverse des Sioux Historic Site in Nicollet County Jackson State Monument Jackson State Park, Jackson County, Minnesota Defenders’ State Monument Center State Park, New Ulm, Minnesota Withee State Monument On County Road 4 near Essig, Minnesota Camp Release State Monument Fort Ridgely Cemetery Eliza Miller State Monument Rochester State Cemetery Fort Ridgely State Monument Fort Ridgely State Park Chippewa Point State Monument Fort Ridgely Cemetery Birch Coulee State Monument Overlooking Highway 19 near Morton, Minnesota Schwandt State Monument On County Road 10 near North Redwood, Minnesota Lake Shetek State Monument Lake Shetek State Park, Murray County Stolen State Monument Overlooking Highway 19 near Morton, Minnesota Wood Lake State Monument Invicta Lake State Wayside near Granite Falls, Minnesota Camp Release State Monument Comp Release Memorial State Wayside near Monticello, Minnesota Charles A. Lindbergh Historic Site Little Falls • 320-606-5421 Comstock House Moorhead • 218-291-4211 Folsom House Taylors Falls • 651-465-3125 Forest History Center Grace Ridge • 651-327-4482 Historic Forestville Preston • 507-855-2785 James A. Hoxie House St. Paul • 651-297-2555 Jeffers Mounds Confrey • 507-628-5591 Marine Mill Marine on St. Croix • 507-697-6321 Mill City Museum Minneapolis • 612-341-7055 Miller Library Museum Oronoka • 320-532-3632 Minnehaha Depot Minneapolis • 612-228-1263 Minnesota State Capitol St. Paul • 651-296-1881 North West Company Fur Post Pine City • 320-629-6356 Oliver H. Kelley Farm Elk River • 763-441-6896 Split Rock Lighthouse Beaver Bay • 218-226-6372 “The Signing of the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux” by Francis Davis Millet, BSSS. On view in the Governor’s Reception Room at the Minnesota State Capitol. Tour the Minnesota River Valley Learn about the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 Call 888-601-3010 and Take a Mobile Tour Listen to stories and reflections about historic sites along the river valley. Learn about the people who lived there and the lasting impact of the U.S.-Dakota War. Mobile Tour Starts Here Call 888-601-3010 from any location – from the byway, from home, from anywhere. Press the * key at any time to return to the menu and select another stop. More stops will be added in 2013. Visit Minnesota Historic Sites, Parks & Cities Along the Minnesota River Valley: • Lac qui Parle Mission (page 16) • Traverse des Sioux (page 17) • Lower Sioux Agency (pages 18 & 19) • Upper Sioux Agency (Page 20) • New Ulm (page 21) • Fort Ridgely (pages 22 & 23) • Birch Coulee Battlefield (pages 24 & 25) • Mankato (pages 26 & 27) • W. W. Mayo House (page 28) • Harkin Store (page 28) • Camp Release (page 29) Stop #01 Introduction Hear about Dakota origins, the settlers who moved into the area, and reflections about the war from Dakotas today and a poem by Gabrielle Tateyuskanskan. Stop #02 Traverse des Sioux Hear reflections on the treaty signings of 1851 and their lasting impact. Stop #03 New Ulm, Minnesota Hear reflections from European immigrant, Native American, Prairie and the legacy 1862 left on the people of New Ulm. Stop #04 Lower Sioux Agency Learn about the rich tradition of land and home for the Dakota people along the Minnesota River Valley and how the war changed things. Stop #05 Birch Coulee Battlefield Hear reflections on the spiritual connection Dakotas people have with the land and their fight for survival. Stop #06 Upper Sioux Agency Hear reflections on the values and enduring strength of the Dakotas. Stop #07 Camp Release Peer into story of Mankato and learn about the mounting tensions within the Dakota community leading up to the war. Foldout Map of Minnesota River Valley Scenic Byway and Mobile Tour Thank You The Minnesota Historical Society is grateful to the many individuals who are helping to share the history of the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862. Special thanks to the many people who provided advice and input into the creation of the exhibition at the History Center and to the dozens of people throughout Minnesota, the Midwest and Canada who shared their stories through the Oral History Project. The audio interviews are available at www.usdakotawar.org and are included, in part, in the Minnesota River Valley Scenic Byways Mobile Tour. Letter from the Director 2012 marks 150 years since the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 raged throughout southwestern Minnesota for six weeks in the late summer. But the war’s causes began decades earlier, and the profound loss and consequences are still felt today. Along with many organizations and communities across the state, the Minnesota Historical Society invites you to learn more. We hope you will: • Visit www.usdakotawar.org for an overview of the war, links to resources, oral histories and a listing of events statewide, • See the new exhibit “The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862,” opening June 30 at the Minnesota History Center in St. Paul, • Tour Minnesota’s many historic sites and museums, • Take in the wealth of knowledge available from sources throughout the state, • Travel the Minnesota River Valley and take the mobile tour (888-601-3010), and • Discuss the war and what it means to our state today with your friends and family. We look forward to seeing you this year and hearing your perspectives about this defining period in history. D. Stephen Elliott Director and CEO, Minnesota Historical Society Opening June 30, “The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862” is a new exhibit that recounts the Minnesota war that tore apart lives, families and the Dakota nation. Visitors can view documents, images and artifacts related to the war, as well as hear heart-wrenching stories and learn about the broken treaties and promises that led to this disastrous chapter in Minnesota history. There are many, often conflicting, interpretations of events related to the war. The exhibit includes multiple viewpoints, as well as historical and contemporary voices. Visitors are encouraged to review the evidence and determine for themselves what happened and why, to discuss the exhibit’s content and to share their comments. Special Programs at the Minnesota History Center Mni Sota Makoce/Minnesota: The U.S.-Dakota War and the Making of Minnesota (July 18, 7 p.m., FREE) Explore how the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 forever transformed the land the Dakota call Mni Sota Makoce. With author Mary Lethert Wingerd, associate professor of history at St. Cloud State University. “A Meeting of the Grandfathers” by Lyle Miller. Painted for the Minnesota History Center’s exhibit “The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862.” We Are Still Here: Minnesota Is a Dakota Place (July 25, 7 p.m., FREE) The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 marked a major turning point in the history of the Dakota people, but it is only one small part of their story. Join Dakota artist, poet and scholar Gwen Westerman as she shares her perspectives on the modern Dakota people and their place in Minnesota. Dakota Family History Class (Sept. 11, 6–7:30 p.m.) Learn how to locate and use photographs, state and national records, censuses and online programs like Ancestry.com to research Dakota family histories in the Gale Family Library. Dakota Tiospaye (Family) Day (Sept. 29, Noon–4 p.m., FREE) Learn and share traditional and contemporary crafts and culture of the Dakota people. This event is for families and people of all ages. Also in the Twin Cities “De Unkiyepi, We Are Here” Art Exhibit This exhibition of contemporary American Indian artists is presented by the Native American Community Development Institute and All My Relations Gallery. • All My Relations Gallery, 1414 E. Franklin Ave., Mpls., www.allmyrelationsarts.com (Aug. 3–Sept. 28, Tues.–Fri. 11 a.m.–6 p.m., Sat.–Sun., 11 a.m.–3 p.m.) • James J. Hill House, 240 Summit Ave., St. Paul, 651-297-2555, www.mnhs.org/hillhouse (Oct. 13, 2012–Jan. 13, 2013, Mon.–Sat., 10–4 p.m., Sun. 1–4 p.m.) The Minnesota Historical Society gratefully acknowledges the Grotto Foundation for their support of this exhibit. U.S.-Dakota War of 1862: A Brief History While the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 lasted just six weeks, the issues surrounding its causes and its aftermath continue to affect Minnesota and the nation to this day. The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 followed years of the U.S. government breaking treaties and promises to the Dakota people, combined with a burgeoning white population in the state. Months before the war, George E. Day, a government official from Washington D.C., visited Minnesota and wrote a report to President Abraham Lincoln documenting the rampant corruption associated with Indian Affairs, but no action was taken. In August 1862, when the Dakota were facing starvation after late annuity payments and the refusal by government agents and traders to release provisions, four young Dakota men killed five settlers near Acton. In the days that followed, tribal factions attacked the Lower Sioux Agency, Fort Ridgely and white settlements in south central and southwestern Minnesota. The fighting lasted six weeks. Between 400 and 600 white civilians and soldiers and an unknown number of Dakota were killed. Troops under the command of former Gov. Henry Sibley were sent to support Fort Ridgely and the settlers, ultimately defeating the Dakota forces and bringing the war to a close by the end of September 1862. On December 26, 1862, 38 Dakota men were hanged in Mankato in the largest mass execution in U.S. history. More than 300 had initially been condemned to death, but President Lincoln commuted 264 to prison terms. Taoyateduta’s (Little Crow) wife and children at Fort Snelling, ca. 1863. Mdewakanton Chief Taoyateduta led Dakota forces during the war. When the fighting ended, some Dakota fled west or into Canada. Approximately 1,600 non-combatant Dakota and mixed-race people who surrendered – mostly women, children and the elderly – were held over the winter of 1862-63 in an internment camp at Fort Snelling, suffering severe hardship. As many as 300 died. In 1863, those who survived were forcibly moved to reservations in the Dakota Territory and what is now Nebraska. Punitive expeditions in 1863 and 1864 resulted in numerous battles in which hundreds of Dakota were killed or forced further westward. Visit www.usdakotawar.org for more information and a timeline of the war. Bdote – Dakota Birthplace The confluence area of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers is known to some Dakota as “Bdote” – or the place of creation. As such, it is also considered the center of Dakota spirituality and history. In a series of treaties in the early- and mid-1800s, the U.S. government, through treaties which were not always upheld, coerced the Dakota into ceding land in exchange for promises of cash, goods, annuities and education. “This is our ancient homeland; the birthplace of the Dakota people.” Dr. Clifford Canku, Sisseton-Wahpeton, Oral History Project Participant Above: Fort Snelling as seen from the Minnesota River, by Henry Lewis, ca. 1850. Fort Snelling State Park St. Paul • 612-725-2389 www.dnr.state.mn.us/fortsnelling Park is open year-round, 8 a.m. - 10 p.m. In 1962, the area surrounding the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers was designated as Fort Snelling State Park. Located within the park’s boundaries are the sites of historic Dakota villages, a treaty location and the internment camp, also referred to as a concentration camp, where Dakota prisoners were held following the war. Information in the Thomas Savage Visitor Center and interpretive signs along the trail to Pike Island highlight this area’s importance to the Dakota. “At that point it was starting to settle that their lives were going to be changed forever and there wasn’t a thing they could do about it.” Dallas Ross, Upper Sioux, Oral History Project Participant Historic Fort Snelling: U.S. Outpost and Military Launch Point St Paul • 612-726-1171 www.historicfortsnelling.org Once the farthest outpost of the United States, Fort Snelling was built in the 1820s to serve the fur trade. In the early 1800s, Europeans hunted and traded with the Dakota. In 1851, the settler population in Minnesota was about 7,000. By 1858, it had grown to 150,000. As Dakota were pushed onto smaller reservations of land, tensions mounted. When the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 broke out, Fort Snelling served as a launching point for U.S. soldiers. Fort Snelling Today Today, the reconstructed fort is a National Historic Landmark and interprets stories throughout the fort’s 120-year active history. Historic Fort Snelling offers visitors an orientation film with an overview of the war. Visitors may call 877-411-4123 from the fort’s Round Tower and Half Moon Battery for recordings about the Indian Agency located near the fort in the 1800s and the internment camp, or concentration camp, where 1,600 Dakota were held after the war. Special Programs at Historic Fort Snelling Commemorating Controversy: The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 (Aug. 1–Sept 2: Tues.–Sat., 10 a.m.–5 p.m., Sun., noon–5 p.m.; Sept. 3–29: Mon.–Sat., 10 a.m.–5 p.m.) A 12-panel exhibit in the visitor center explores the causes, voices, events and long-lasting consequences of the war. Produced by Gustavus Adolphus College students in conjunction with the Nicollet County Historical Society. Top: Internment camp at Fort Snelling, by photographer Benjamin H. Upton, ca. 1862. Above: Historic Fort Snelling today. Henry H. Sibley’s Role in the War Born in 1811, Henry Hastings Sibley came to Minnesota in 1834 as the regional manager of the American Fur Company. He established close ties with the Dakota community and often hunted with Dakota men. Because of his connections, Sibley also played an important role in treaty negotiations. By the early 1840s the fur trade was dying. Treaties had reduced prime fur hunting territories for the Dakota, and the demand for furs declined due to changing fashion trends. In 1853, Sibley liquidated his holdings and began investing in land at Traverse des Sioux, Mendota, Hastings and Saint Anthony Falls. Soon after the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 began, Sibley was given command of the state’s military response. After the war, he led “punitive expeditions” against the Dakota who had left Minnesota for the western territories. “They made promises in those treaties that they never intended to keep. They had browbeaten and coerced the Indians to the point where they didn’t have much choice.” Dr. Elden Lawrence, Sisseton-Wahpeton, Oral History Project Participant Sibley House Historic Site Mendota • 651-452-1596 www.mnhs.org/sibleyhouse The restored home of Gen. Henry H. Sibley and other historic buildings are located near Historic Fort Snelling, just east of Highway 55, on Sibley Memorial Highway/Highway 13. Visitors can learn about Sibley’s interaction with the Dakota before, during and after the war. Special Programs at the Sibley House Henry Sibley and the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 (Sept. 8, 15, 22 & 29, 10 a.m.–4 p.m.) Tour restored historic buildings and learn about the roles Sibley played in the fur trade and early treaties with the Dakota, his military service during and after the war, and how he is remembered today. Alexander Ramsey’s Role in the War In 1851, as territorial governor and superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Minnesota Territory, Alexander Ramsey negotiated treaties on behalf of the U.S. government with the Dakota for the cession of large areas of Minnesota land for white settlement, most notably the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux in 1851. Ramsey also served as governor during the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862, the causes of which were directly related to the treaties and lack of compliance with them by the government and traders. He appointed his longtime friend and political rival Henry Sibley as commander of the forces raised to fight against the Dakota, and notoriously stated that “the Sioux Indians of Minnesota must be exterminated or driven forever beyond the borders of the state.” Alexander Ramsey House St. Paul • 651-296-8760 www.mnhs.org/ramseyhouse Only open for special events and programs, the Alexander Ramsey House was home to Minnesota’s first territorial governor during his retirement. Ramsey’s granddaughters willed the home and all of its contents to the Minnesota Historical Society in 1964. Special Programs at the Alexander Ramsey House Alexander Ramsey and the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 (Sept. 8, 15, 22 & 29, 10 a.m.–4 p.m.) Learn about Gov. Ramsey’s role in the politics and events leading up to and during the war, as well as his actions in the aftermath. Above: The restored home of Alexander Ramsey. Lac qui Parle Mission Near Montevideo • 320-269-7636 www.mnhs.org/lacquiparle Established in 1835, the Lac qui Parle Mission was one of the first churches and schools in Minnesota. It was built by missionaries at a trading post founded by explorer and fur trader Joseph Renville. The missionaries also completed the first Dakota dictionary, grammar and gospel at this location. The site features artifacts and exhibits related to Dakota people and the missionaries who worked with them. Learn More • See what life was like at a pre-territorial mission. • Learn the role of missionaries in developing the written Dakota language. • View exhibits that share more about the Dakota people and the impact of the war. The Minnesota Historical Society gratefully acknowledges the Chippewa County Historical Society, which manages this site. “We didn’t own the lands, they belonged to everybody, and so we were willing to share with others... It was used against us; the generosity was used against us.” Michael Childs, Prairie Island, Oral History Project Participant Traverse des Sioux Near St. Peter • 507-934-2160 www.mnhs.org/traversedessioux A shallow river crossing, Traverse des Sioux was a gathering place for thousands of years. When European settlers first came to Minnesota, they traded information and ideas here with Dakota hunters. It was also the site of the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux in 1851 where the upper bands of the Dakota nation sold about half of present-day Minnesota to the U.S. government. Today, visitors can walk trails along the 10,000-year-old Minnesota River Valley and learn about Dakota culture. The nearby Treaty Site History Center, provides information about treaties, the fur trade and Dakota culture. “The Indians wanted to live as they did before the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux—go where they pleased..., hunt game wherever they could find it, sell their furs to the traders and live as they could.” Big Eagle, Mdewankanton, 1894 Call: 888-601-3010 Stop #02 Listen to perspectives on the treaty signings of 1851 and 1858 and their lasting impact. The First Attack: Lower Sioux Agency Near Redwood Falls • 507-697-8674 www.mnhs.org/lowersioux The scene of the first attack of the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862, this site was a U.S. government administrative center for the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute Bands of Dakota. In the months leading up to the war, the U.S. government failed to pay annuity payments owed to the Dakota and refused to provide food and supplies. These actions contributed to the growing unrest that led to the war in the summer or 1862. As tensions mounted, a reluctant Taoyateduta (Little Crow) led an attack on the Lower Sioux Agency on August 18, 1862, killing 18 traders and government employees. The Dakota then attacked settlements along the Minnesota River Valley, killing white settlers and compelling thousands to flee in the first few days in a strategic effort to reclaim their homeland. Today, the visitor center features exhibits on Dakota history, life and culture. Self-guided interpretive trails allow visitors to explore the landscape and the warehouse building and to walk along the Minnesota River. The Minnesota Historical Society gratefully acknowledges the Lower Sioux Indian Community, which manages this site. Learn More at the site • Learn about reservation life and causes of the war. • Walk interpretive trails along the Minnesota River. “I’m standing in a place where my ancestors were... and I wonder what they were thinking when they were here? ...It gives me comfort to know that they stood right here.” Sandra Geshick, Lower Sioux, Oral History Project Participant Call: 888-601-3010 Stop #04 Gain insights into the notion of land and home for the Dakota people along the Minnesota River Valley and how the war changed this. Upper Sioux Agency Near Granite Falls The Upper Sioux Agency, also known as the Yellow Medicine Agency, was established in 1854 near the confluence of the Yellow Medicine and Minnesota Rivers as a place to teach the Dakota about European farming methods. The agency never realized its mission. Most of the buildings were destroyed in the war. One remaining structure has been reconstructed to its pre-1862 condition and the foundations of other buildings are marked. Learn More • Visit the Upper Sioux Agency State Park, which is managed by the State of Minnesota and preserves the site of the Upper Sioux Agency. • Walk the 18 miles of trails around the Yellow Medicine River Valley. • Read interpretive signs that tell the history of this area and the Upper Sioux Agency. “Families were torn apart. I just wonder how my relatives made it through all of that, how difficult a time that had to have been, to be able to survive.” Lavonne Swenson, Lower Sioux, Oral History Project Participant Above: Upper Sioux Agency, photograph by Dale Bohike. Attacks on New Ulm, Minnesota New Ulm was the site of two attacks on settlers by the Dakota – on August 19 and 23, 1862. Using outlying buildings for cover, the Dakota fired on the town’s defenders and burned buildings near the river. The Dakota retreated after both battles leaving more than a third of the town in ruins. When word of the attacks reached St. Paul, Col. Henry Sibley gathered his forces, mostly untrained civilians, and headed up the valley. With little food and ammunition left in New Ulm and fear of another attack, about 2,000 residents fled to Mankato, St. Peter and St. Paul. New Ulm settlers began returning in early September. In December 1862, the town officially reorganized. Today, monuments and memorials commemorate the attacks. Learn More • Visit the Brown County Historical Museum. Located at 2 N. Broadway St., see exhibits, many dealing with the war. • See the Frederick W. Kiesling Haus. Located at 320 N. Minnesota St., this little house is one of few structures that survived the war. • Visit the Harkin Store Historic Site. See page 28. “New Ulm basically became a ghost town.” Robert Beussman, New Ulm Settler Descendent, Oral History Project Participant Call: 888-601-3010 Stop #06 Hear reflections on the values and enduring strength of the Dakota. Call: 888-601-3010 Stop #03 Hear reflections on European immigrant life on the prairie and the legacy 1862 left on the people of New Ulm. Attacks on Fort Ridgely In Fort Ridgely State Park, near Fairfax 507-426-7888 • mnhs.org/fortridgely Built in 1853, Fort Ridgely was originally designed as a law enforcement center to keep peace as settlers poured into the former Dakota lands. By 1862, it was being used as a training base for Civil War volunteers. Dakota forces attacked the fort twice—on August 20 and 22, 1862. The fort suddenly became one of the few military bases west of the Mississippi to ever be formally attacked by an American Indian Nation. Fort Ridgely’s 280 military and civilian defenders held out until U.S. Army reinforcements ended the siege. Today, visitors to the Fort Ridgely Historic Site can wander through the ruins of this once thriving outpost and learn more about its role in the U.S.-Dakota War. A visit to the adjacent Fort Ridgely Cemetery offers more history. Special Programs at Fort Ridgely Building Fort Ridgely with Historian Roger Breckenridge (May 26, 2 p.m.) State Park Open House Day (June 9, 10 a.m.–5 p.m. FREE. No park permit required). See traditional Dakota dancing and military demonstrations by the First Minnesota Infantry and the New Ulm Battery. Causes of the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 and Battlefield Tour with Independent Historian John LaBatte (June 16, July 14 & Aug. 18, 1 & 2:30 p.m.) Minnesota River Steamboats with Dr. William Lass, MSU-Mankato Professor Emeritus (June 23, 2 p.m.) See photographs and hear stories of early travel by steamboat from St. Paul to the Lower Sioux Agency. The Spirit Lake Massacre of 1857 with Independent Historian Mary Bakeman (June 30, 2 p.m.) Learn about the 1857 attack near Spirit Lake. The Christian Dakota with Independent Historian John LaBatte (Aug. 4, 1 p.m. and 2:30 p.m.) Learn about missionaries among the Dakota, their influence and the experiences of Christian Dakota in 1862. The Minnesota Historical Society gratefully acknowledges the Nicollet County Historical Society, which manages this site. Birch Coulee Battlefield Near Morton • 507-697-6321 www.mnhs.org/birchcoulee One of the hardest fought battles of the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 took place in this now peaceful prairie field. On Sept. 2, 1862, Dakota soldiers attacked a burial party sent by Col. Henry Sibley. The Dakota kept U.S. soldiers under siege for 36 hours before a relief detachment arrived from Fort Ridgely. Visitors can tour the self-guided site where markers explain the battle from Dakota and U.S. soldiers’ perspectives. Learn More • Stand where history happened. • Read about the battle from the perspectives of an Army captain and a Mdewakanton soldier. • Walk a self-guided trail through restored prairie. • See a soldier’s sketches of vivid battle scenes. • Find guideposts pinpointing U.S. and Dakota positions. Above: “The Battle of Birch Coulee,” Lithograph by Paul G. Biersach, 1912. Call: 888-601-3010 Stop #03 Hear reflections on the spiritual connection Dakota people have with the land and their fight for survival. Execution in Mankato, Minnesota Of the hundreds of Dakota who surrendered or were captured during the U.S.-Dakota War, 303 men were tried in a military court and convicted. At the urging of Missionary Henry Whipple, President Abraham Lincoln reviewed the convictions and commuted the sentences of 264 to prison terms. Lincoln then signed the order condemning 39 men to death by hanging. One prisoner was reprieved just before the sentencing was carried out. The remaining 38 men were hanged at Mankato on December 26, 1862—the largest mass execution in U.S. history. “The aftermath for the people was horrendous. Some of the trials only took a few minutes for the people to condemn them to death.” Pamela Halverson, Lower Sioux, Oral History Project Participant Learn More • Visit Reconciliation Park at 100 North Riverfront Drive in Mankato. On the site of the execution, this park was built through a collaboration of the Dakota and Mankato communities. • Visit Blue Earth County Heritage Center, www.bechshistory.com. Operated by the Blue Earth County Historical Society in Mankato, the center preserves, displays and celebrates Dakota culture. Special Programs Pow Wow Etiquette and Reconciliation (Sept. 8, 10 a.m., Blue Earth Co. Heritage Center) Mahkato Wacipi (Powwow) (Sept. 21-23, Land of Memories Park) 2012 marks the 40th anniversary of this annual event, which memorializes the 38 executed with music, dance, crafts and food. Located at the confluence of the Blue Earth and Minnesota Rivers off Highway 169, west of Mankato. Film “Dakota War of 1862” (Nov. 3, 10 a.m., Blue Earth Co. Heritage Center) Discovering Dakota Culture and Heritage Monthly Educational Series (Oct. 6, Nov. 3 and Dec. 1, 10 a.m., Blue Earth Co. Heritage Center) The Minnesota Historical Society gratefully acknowledges the Blue Earth County Historical Society for its role in planning events to commemorate the war. Above: Public execution of 38 Dakota Indians at Mankato, by W. H. Childs, 1862. W. W. Mayo House Le Sueur • 507-665-3250 www.mnhs.org/mayohouse Dr. William Worrall Mayo and his family lived in a house in Le Sueur at the time of the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862. In August 1862, Mayo went to New Ulm to provide medical assistance to the town’s defenders. In December 1862, after 38 Dakota men were hanged in Mankato and their bodies were buried in shallow graves nearby, doctors in the area, including Dr. Mayo, unearthed some of the bodies for medical study and demonstrations. Today, visitors can tour the house, hand-built by W. W. Mayo, and learn about the Mayo family. Harkin Store New Ulm • 507-354-8666 www.mnhs.org/harkinstore While the Harkin Store Historic Site does not interpret the events of 1862, it provides a glimpse of settler life after the war. Scottish-born Alexander Harkin opened his store 10 years after the war. It served as the center of a bustling community in the early 1870s. A visit to the Harkin Store today allows visitors to see an authentic mid-19th century general store with period wares still on the shelves. Camp Release Near Montevideo In late September, after the defeat of Little Crow’s forces, a group of Dakota chiefs released white and mixed-race captives to Col. Henry Sibley. He then moved the captives to his own encampment near Montevideo, which came to be known as Camp Release. Sibley also took into custody about 1,200 Dakota, a number which grew to nearly 2,000 as more surrendered or were captured. The mass trial of the Dakota who took part in the war began at Sibley’s Camp Release headquarters on September 28, 1862. Sibley later moved his troops and the prisoners to the Lower Sioux Agency where the trials continued. “I just try to imagine what it would have been like to be there… The Indians [must have been] realizing: This is over. What’s our next step?” Terry Sveine, New Ulm Settler Descendent, Oral History Project Participant Above: Captives at Camp Release, by photographer Adrain John Ebell, ca. 1862. Call: 888-601-3010 Stop #07 Hear the story of Mazasa and learn about the mounting tensions within the Dakota community leading up to the war. The War’s Aftermath The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 tore apart thousands of Dakota and settler homes and families. The losses were great and the consequences were severe for all who were touched by the fighting. Even after the war ended, the destitution, disease and displacement it caused continued for years. In 1863, the Dakota were forced onto reservations in the Dakota Territory and what is now Nebraska. Punitive expeditions that followed resulted in numerous battles in which hundreds of Dakota were killed or forced further westward. The war also forced around 20,000 settlers to flee their homes – many never to return. Meanwhile, the Treaties of 1851 and 1858 and a U.S. victory in the war opened up thousands of acres for new settlement. Minnesota had changed forever. “They said 500 people were killed, and virtually a nation disappeared; land right along with it.” Judith Anywaush, Sisseton Wahpeton, Oral History Project Participant “It impacted everyone in one way or another. That conflict molded a great deal of what we are. To forget that would be immoral and wrong.” Fred Juni, New Ulm Settler Descendent, Oral History Project Participant Learn More Visit www.mnhs.org – a gateway to all Minnesota Historical Society services, information, museums and historic sites. Check out www.usdakotawar.org for resources and information on the war: • Learn more about history • Experience an interactive timeline of the war • Listen to oral histories (or interviews) with descendants of those touched by the war • Discover your family history • Find events, programs, books and initiatives related to the war • Share your story or leave a comment • Link to informative websites: Explore the Society’s collections www.mnhs.org/collections for art, photographs and historical artifacts Find 1,000 artifacts related to the Dakota, Lakota and Nakota at www.collections.mnhs.org/sevencouncilfires Visit the Gale Family Library www.mnhs.org/library for periodicals, newspapers, maps and atlases, moving images, sound recordings, manuscripts and government records Research newspapers from 1862 at www.mnhs.org/newspapers Locate library resources related to the war at www.mnhs.org/library/tips/history_topics/94dakota.html Plan to visit a historic site at www.visitmnhistory.org Check out the Minnesota History Center at www.minnesotahistorycenter.org
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The Economics of Inequality and Human Development James J. Heckman University of Chicago Co-Director, Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Working Group, INET Building a Legal Framework for Public Policies for Early Childhood Brasilia, Brasil April 16, 2013 Promoting the capabilities of people • Capabilities are the capacities to function in a multitude of life tasks. • Capabilities are skills. • They can be acquired. Avoid Fragmented Solutions. The approach I am suggesting not only addresses poverty but also a wide range of social problems such as: i. Crime ii. Teenage pregnancy iii. Health iv. College attendance Current policy discussions around the world have a fragmented quality. They focus on one problem at a time with policies that are designed to address that one problem, usually by some remediation strategy. Examples of Fragmented Solutions • For crime, hire more police. • For health, provide more doctors. • For teenage pregnancy, conduct pregnancy prevention programs. • To reduce inequality, give cash transfers. • Today I present a unified approach to policy that addresses these problems using a strategy of human development. • It will go a long way toward promoting social mobility and productivity and reducing inequality. • It advocates policies that avoid the conventional tradeoff between equity and efficiency. • For these policies what is socially fair is also economically efficient. • Pre-distribution not redistribution • The accident of birth plays a powerful role in determining lifetime opportunities. • Recent estimates from a variety of sources reveal that conditions determined before age 18 contribute to roughly 50% of lifetime earnings inequality. Recent Studies in the Economics of Human Development Establish That: • A core, low-dimensional set of capabilities predicts and causes a variety of diverse socioeconomic outcomes. • Capabilities are multiple. • Current public policy discussions focus on enhancing and rewarding cognitive ability as measured by achievement tests. • However, cognitive skills are only part of what is required for success in life. • Cognitive and noncognitive—personality—skills are both important causal determinants of life-cycle outcomes with equal strength for many outcomes. • Biology and health are also important determinants of life-cycle success and life-cycle development. • Capabilities are not set in stone. There is strong evidence of genetic components, but capabilities evolve and can be shaped in part by investments and environments. • Gaps in all types of skills between the advantaged and disadvantaged open up early in the lives of children. • Family environments of young children are major predictors and causes of the attained levels of cognitive and socioemotional skills. • Family influence extends well beyond transmission of genes. • The powerful role of family influence is a concern because family environments in many countries around the world including Brasil have deteriorated over the past 40 years. • Both experimental and non-experimental evidence shows that adverse family environments, especially adverse parenting, substantially impair child outcomes. • Critical and sensitive periods for producing capabilities: – Earlier for cognitive capabilities – Later for noncognitive capabilities – Varies depending on the particular biological (health) capability being studied • Gaps across socioeconomic groups in both types of capabilities open up early: – Persist strongly for cognitive capabilities – Less strongly for noncognitive capabilities – Widen with age for many biological capabilities • Many successful interventions to promote skills operate primarily through boosting noncognitive capabilities. • IQ is barely affected—if at all—by many interventions, especially in successful interventions that target adolescents. • This is a consequence of the technology of skill formation. • Life-cycle-stage dependence of the efficacy of investment. Technology of Skill Formation Skills Enhance Each Other: Technology of Skill Formation | Social-emotional Skills | Cognitive Skills | |-------------------------|------------------| | (sit still; pay attention; engage in learning; open to experience) | | Health | Cognitive Skills | |--------|------------------| | (fewer lost school days; ability to concentrate) | | Cognitive Skills | Produce better health practices; produce more motivation; greater perception of rewards. | |------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | (child better understands and controls its environment) | Outcomes: - increased productivity, higher income - better health, more family investment - upward mobility, reduced social costs Evidence from the Technology of Skill Formation The Importance of Cognitive and Soft Skills • Recent studies have advanced our understanding of which skills matter for success in life. • While cognitive skills are important, so are personality and social skills. Equally important in explaining: i. Crime ii. Teenage pregnancy iii. College attendance and graduation iv. Wages Gaps Open Up Early • Gaps in important abilities open up early across socioeconomic groups. Trend in cognitive scores by age by maternal education Each score standardized within observed sample. Using all observations and assuming data missing at random. Source: Brooks-Gunn et al. (2006). Average percentile rank on anti-social behavior score, by income quartile (The higher the score, the worse are behavioral problems) | Age | Lowest Income Quartile | Second Income Quartile | Third Income Quartile | Highest Income Quartile | |-----|------------------------|------------------------|-----------------------|-------------------------| | 4 Yrs | 49 | 48 | 38 | 31 | | 6 Yrs | 48 | 45 | 39 | 33 | | 8 Yrs | 49 | 45 | 38 | 32 | | 10 Yrs| 52 | 45 | 38 | 31 | | 12 Yrs| 50 | 46 | 37 | 30 | HCEO hceconomics.org • Which aspects of families are responsible for producing these gaps? • Is it due to genes? • Family environments? • Social environments? • Parenting and family investment decisions? Family Environments • In the U.S. and many other countries where it has been documented, a divide is opening up between the advantaged and the disadvantaged in the quality of early family environments. • Those born into disadvantaged environments are receiving relatively less stimulation, child development resources, and access to health care than those from advantaged families. • Fosters persistence of inequality across generations. Family environments shape child development. Hart & Risley, 1995 Children enter school with "meaningful differences" in vocabulary knowledge. Emergence of the Problem In a typical hour, the average child hears: | Family Status | Actual Differences in Quantity of Words Heard | Actual Differences in Quality of Words Heard | |---------------|-----------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------| | Welfare | 616 words | 5 affirmatives, 11 prohibitions | | Working Class | 1,251 words | 12 affirmatives, 7 prohibitions | | Professional | 2,153 words | 32 affirmatives, 5 prohibitions | Hart & Risley, 1995 Meaningful Differences By the time the children were 3 years old, parents in less economically favored circumstances had said fewer different words in their cumulative monthly vocabularies than the children in the most economically advantaged families in the same period of time. | Cumulative Vocabulary | | |----------------------------------------|----------------| | Children from welfare families: | 500 words | | Children from working class families: | 700 words | | Children from professional families: | 1,100 words | Share of Sole Mother Families with Children Out of All Families with Children, Brazil Source: IBGE Proportion of Children Living in Poverty and Extreme Poverty, Brazil 2007 Source: CEPAL-UNICEF Adversity Gets Under the Skin. Evidence on gene-environment interactions DNA methylation and histone acetylation patterns in young and old twins Source: Fraga, Ballestar et al. (2005) Early Life Experiences Change The Way Genes Express Themselves Up- and Down-Regulated Genes in Rhesus Monkeys Differential gene expression (GO annotations, biological functions), SPR vs. MR monkeys Cytokine-mediated signaling pathway (GO19221) Positive regulation of T cell proliferation (GO42102) Interleukin-27-mediated signaling pathway (GO70106) Defense response (GO6952, GO42742, GO50832) Immune response (GO6955) Innate immune response (GO45087) Antigen processing and presentation (GO19882) Source: Cole, Conti, Heckman and Suomi (2012) Human Brain Development Experience-dependent Synapse Formation Adult levels of Synapses Neurulation 18–24 prenatal days Cell Migration 6–24 prenatal weeks Myelination -2 months to 5–10 years Seeing / Hearing Visual Cortex / Auditory Cortex Receptive Language / Speech Production Angular Gyrus / Broca’s Area Higher Cognitive Functions Prefrontal Cortex Synaptogenesis -3 months to 15–18 years? Source: Thompson and Nelson (2001) Nutrition: Nutrition as an investment • Malnutrition in pregnancy affects the capacities of the child. • Vitamin A deficiencies (blindness) • Iron deficiencies—IQ • Malnutrition in early childhood has effects on the ability to learn and to concentrate. • While the problem of malnutrition is more widespread in developing countries, it is present in developed and middle income countries as well. Anaemia as a public health problem by country: Pregnant women Source: de Benoist B et al., eds. Worldwide prevalence of anaemia 1993-2005. WHO Global Database on Anaemia. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2008. The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. ©WHO 2006. All rights reserved Category of public health significance (anaemia prevalence) - Normal (<5.0%) - Mild (5.0-19.9%) - Moderate (20.0-39.9%) - Severe (>40.0%) - No data Severity of Vitamin A deficiency Vitamin A deficient Key Policy Issue • What is the optimal time of intervention for promoting different capacities? Enriched Early Environments Can Compensate In Part For Risk Features of Disadvantaged Environments Early Intervention Programs for Disadvantaged Children The Perry Program • The Perry Program is the best studied of all early childhood intervention programs. • Children targeted to be low IQ ($\leq 80$). • An experiment with follow up through age 40. • The program focused on developing planning, execution and social skills. Plan-Do-Review. • The control and treatment groups have been followed through age 40. • Perry did not raise IQ of participants in a lasting way. • It boosted personality skills. • It has a rate of return of 7–10% per annum—above the long-term return to equity on U.S. stock market. The Perry Preschool Program worked primarily through improved socioemotional channels. Carolina Abecedarian Study: Overview ABC Project • Where: Conducted in Chapel Hill, North Carolina • When: The mid 1970s - the early 1980s • Who: Children born to high risk mothers, mostly African-Americans (with some Whites), recruited during pregnancy. Carolina Abecedarian Study: Overview • What: 1. Fulltime Daycare (8 hours/day, 5 days/wk, 50 weeks/yr) for 5 years at age 0-5. Gave cognitive stimulation and training in self-control and social skills. 2. Full-day need-based, individualized tutoring + bi-weekly home visits for 3 years at age 6-8, but not during early childhood. 3. Gave health checkups to the children in the program. Carolina Abecedarian Study: Results - Lasting IQ effect - Improved parenting practices and child attachment - Positive effect on female behavior and mental health - Higher educational attainment - Higher employment rate - Reduced criminal activity - Better child and adult health | Health Effect | Treatment Mean | Control Mean | $p$-value | |-------------------------------|----------------|--------------|-----------| | Systolic Blood Pressure | 125.79 | 143.33 | 0.018 | | Diastolic Blood Pressure | 78.53 | 92.00 | 0.024 | | Pre-Hypertension | 0.68 | 0.78 | 0.235 | | Hypertension | 0.10 | 0.44 | 0.011 | | HDL Cholesterol | 53.21 | 42.00 | 0.067 | | Cholesterol/HDL-C | 3.89 | 4.69 | 0.057 | | Abdominal Obesity | 0.65 | 0.87 | 0.136 | | Metabolic Syndrome | 0.00 | 0.25 | 0.009 | Source: Campbell, Conti, Heckman, Moon, Pinto (2012). Early Intervention Programs for Disadvantaged Children Nurse Family Partnership - NFP is a prenatal and early childhood intervention through age 2 that consists of nurses home visitation and combines prenatal care, parenting education and family planning components. - It targets economically disadvantaged families. - The target population consists of first time mothers considered at risk if they are poor, unmarried or young. Jamaican Intervention: (Gertler, Grantham-McGregor, Walker, Pinto et al., 2013) • Long-term (several waves up to 22 years old) follow up of cognitive and socioemotional stimulation and supplementation. • Randomized trial on 129 stunted kids in Jamaica: – Stimulation consisted of weekly home visits and involved mother and children, taught mother how to stimulate child intellectually and emotionally. – Nutritional supplementation by formula. Jamaican Intervention: (Grantham McGregor, Walker et al.) • Short-term impact of both nutrition and stimulation, additive effect. • But long-term fade out of nutrition program. However, long-term persisting effect of stimulation. Jamaican Intervention: (Grantham McGregor, Walker et al.) • Consistent long-term impact of stimulation on – Education – Self-control and social behavior – Earnings and employment at 22 years old – Cognitive skills Traditional Methods of Later Remediation are Often Costly and Often Ineffective • As currently implemented, many adolescent remediation efforts to boost skills targeted toward the disadvantaged have returns that are low compared to early childhood programs targeted towards disadvantaged populations. For example: 1. Class size reductions (reducing class size by five pupils per classroom) 2. Adult literacy programs 3. Public job training programs 4. Tuition reduction policy However, motivational programs—programs that build social skills and promote social behavior—are effective in the adolescent years. Apprenticeships and workplace-based educational programs that focus on the same key ingredients of attachment, personality, discipline, and self control, as emphasized in early childhood programs, are effective. Attachment • Good parenting and good adolescent mentoring is based on good attachment relationships. • One on one advice, support, and scaffolding to support children. • Conscientiousness and consistency are important features of any successful parenting—mentoring—teaching relationship. • Attachment and support are more important for human development than monetary or material resources per se. • The proper measure of childhood poverty is not money income per se but absence of attachment, consistency and psychological support. What about promoting education? Disparities by Education (Post-compulsory Education) Note: Conti and Heckman (2010). Author's calculations using BCS70. Disparities by Education (Post-compulsory Education) Note: Conti and Heckman (2010). Author's calculations using BCS70. Skills Enhance Each Other: Technology of Skill Formation | Social-emotional Skills | Cognitive Skills | |-------------------------|------------------| | (sit still; pay attention; engage in learning; open to experience) | | Health | Cognitive Skills | |--------|------------------| | (fewer lost school days; ability to concentrate) | | Cognitive Skills | Produce better health practices; produce more motivation; greater perception of rewards. | |------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | (child better understands and controls its environment) | Outcomes: - increased productivity, higher income - better health, more family investment - upward mobility, reduced social costs Prevention, not remediation. Returns to a Unit Real Invested Source: Heckman (2008). Summary The proper measurement of disadvantage is the quality of parenting, attachment, consistency and supervision, not income per se. • Social policy should be redirected toward the malleable early years, if we want to successfully reduce inequality and promote productivity in society by producing effective people. Appendix The Argument 1. Modern society is based on skills. 2. Low levels of skill are major predictors and causal determinants of major social problems (dropping out of school, crime, teenage pregnancy, obesity, and poor health). 3. Socioemotional abilities, "soft skills," physical and mental health, perseverance, attention, motivation, and self confidence are also important and are often neglected. 4. So are health and mental health skills. 5. They contribute to performance in society at large and even help determine scores on the very tests that are currently used to monitor cognitive achievement (e.g., PISA). 6. Gaps in all types of skills between the advantaged and disadvantaged open up early in the lives of children. 7. Family environments of young children are major predictors of cognitive and socioemotional skills, as well as crime, health and obesity. 8. Family influence extends well beyond the transmission of genes. 9. The powerful role of early family influence is a concern because family environments in many countries around the world have deteriorated over the past 40 years. 10. Experimental evidence on the effectiveness of early interventions in disadvantaged families is consistent with a large body of non-experimental evidence that adverse family environments, especially adverse parenting, substantially impair child outcomes. 11. If society intervenes early enough, it can raise cognitive and socioemotional capabilities and the health of disadvantaged children. 12. Through multiple channels, these effects percolate across the life cycle and across generations. 13. Adolescent interventions suitably targeted toward promoting personality skills can also be effective. 14. Early interventions reduce inequality by promoting schooling, reducing crime, and reducing teenage pregnancy. 15. They also foster workforce productivity. 16. They promote health and health-improving behaviors. 17. These interventions have high benefit-cost ratios and rates of return. They pass efficiency criteria that any social program should be asked to pass. 18. As a rule, early interventions have much higher economic and social returns than traditional later life interventions much discussed in the literature such as reduced pupil-teacher ratios, public job training, convict rehabilitation programs, adult literacy programs, tuition subsidies or expenditure on police. 19. This greater return arises because of the greater malleability of the young child as captured by the technology of skill formation. 20. Life cycle skill formation is dynamic in nature. Skill begets skill; motivation begets motivation. If a child is not motivated and stimulated to learn and engage early in life, the more likely it is that when the child becomes an adult, it will fail in social and economic life. Skills Enhance Each Other: Technology of Skill Formation | Social-emotional Skills | Cognitive Skills | |-------------------------|------------------| | (sit still; pay attention; engage in learning; open to experience) | | Health | Cognitive Skills | |--------|------------------| | (fewer lost school days; ability to concentrate) | | Cognitive Skills | Produce better health practices; produce more motivation; greater perception of rewards. | |------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | (child better understands and controls its environment) | Outcomes: - increased productivity, higher income - better health, more family investment - upward mobility, reduced social costs 21. The longer society waits to intervene in the life cycle of a disadvantaged child, the more costly it is to remediate disadvantage. Similar dynamics appear to be at work in creating child health and mental health. 22. If we attempt remediation in adolescents, we should focus primarily on the more malleable non-cognitive skills - personality skills. 23. A major refocus of policy is required to incorporate modern understanding of the life cycle dynamics of skill and health formation and the importance of the early years in creating inequality and opportunity, and in producing skills for the workforce and the larger society. 24. Although schools and schooling are important, effective social policy targets and strengthens the family. 25. The family is under challenge around the world. 26. Successful families produce successful children. 27. Successful interventions mimic successful families and work to bolster the resources and the capabilities of the family. Adolescent Birth Rate (15-19) Per 1000 Women, Brazil Source: World Bank Ever been in jail by age 30, by ability (males) Note: This figure plots the probability of a given behavior associated with moving up in one ability distribution for someone after integrating out the other distribution. For example, the lines with markers show the effect of increasing noncognitive ability after integrating the cognitive ability. Source: Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua (2006). Probability of being single with children (females) Note: This figure plots the probability of a given behavior associated with moving up in one ability distribution for someone after integrating out the other distribution. For example, the lines with markers show the effect of increasing noncognitive ability after integrating the cognitive ability. Source: Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua (2006). Probability of being a 4-year college graduate by age 30 (males) Notes: The data are simulated from the estimates of the model and our NLSY79 sample. We use the standard convention that higher deciles are associated with higher values of the variable. The confidence intervals are computed using bootstrapping (200 draws). Mean log wages by age 30 (males) Notes: The data are simulated from the estimates of the model and our NLSY79 sample. We use the standard convention that higher deciles are associated with higher values of the variable. The confidence intervals are computed using bootstrapping (50 draws). Cognitive Stimulation: Age 0-2, White, By Family Type Source: Seong Hyeok Moon (2011) analysis of CNLSY data Cognitive Stimulation: Age 10-11, White, By Family Type Source: Seong Hyeok Moon (2011) analysis of CNLSY data Children Under 18 Living in Single Parent Households by Marital Status of Parent Source: March CPS 1976-2010; Note: Parents are defined as the head of the household. Children are defined as individuals under 18, living in the household, and the child of the head of household. Children who have been married or are not living with their parents are excluded from the calculation. Separated parents are included in “Married, Spouse Absent” Category. Human Brain Development Synapse counts in layer 3 of middle frontal gyrus as a function of age Source: Huttenlocher (1979) Mean number of synapses per neuron, derived from data of the present study, as a function of age. Confidence limits = ± 1 S.D. Source: Huttenlocher (1979) Perry preschool program: IQ, by age and treatment group Source: Perry Preschool Program. IQ measured on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Terman & Merrill, 1960). Test was administered at program entry and each of the ages indicated. Decomposing Treatment Effects of the Perry Program Decomposition of Treatment Effects, Males CAT total at age 14, end of grade 8 (0.566*) - Cognitive Factor: 0.161 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.557 - Other Factors: 0.114 # of misdemeanor arrests, age 27 (-1.21**) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 # of felony arrests, age 27 (-1.12) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 # of adult arrests (misd.+fel.), age 27 (-2.33**) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 Monthly income, age 27 (0.876**) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 Use tobacco, age 27 (-0.119*) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 # of misdemeanor arrests, age 40 (-3.13**) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 # of felony arrests, age 40 (-1.14*) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 # of adult arrests (misd.+fel.), age 40 (-4.26**) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 # of lifetime arrests, age 40 (-4.20*) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 Employed, age 40 (0.200**) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 Use heroin, age 40(-0.143*) - Cognitive Factor: 0.071 - Externalizing Behavior: 0.071 - Academic Motivation: 0.114 - Other Factors: 0.246 Cognitive Factor Externalizing Behavior Academic Motivation Other Factors Decomposition of Treatment Effects, Females - CAT total, age 8 (0.565*) - CAT total, age 14 (0.806**) - Any special education, age 14 (-0.262**) - Mentally impaired at least once, age 19 (-0.280**) - # of misdemeanor violent crimes, age 27 (-0.423**) - # of felony arrests, age 27 (-0.269**) - Jobless for more than 1 year, age 27 (-0.292*) - Ever tried drugs other than alcohol or weed, age 27 (-0.227**) - # of misdemeanor violent crimes, age 40 (-0.537**) - # of felony arrests, age 40 (-0.383**) - # of lifetime violent crimes, age 40 (-0.574**) - Months in all marriages, age 40 (39.6*) - Ever on welfare, age 40 (-0.163**) Cognitive Factor: Red Externalizing Behavior: Blue Academic Motivation: Green Other Factors: Gray HCEO hceconomics.org
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Workcamps (Earthquake Solidarity) INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTARY SERVICE “There are many hopes behind the despair, there are many suns behind the darkness” • Mevlana GSM-A01 to A05 GSM-B01 to B05 DISASTER REGION! What is Earthquake Solidarity? IVS MOVEMENT AFTER THE DISASTER International Voluntary Work Programme; It refers to groups of young volunteers working together to create an atmosphere of international solidarity between countries. This program was started in 1920 between Germany and France to repair the negative effects of the First World War and the deep wounds it inflicted on the society, and became institutionalized with more than a century of experience and spread all over the world. Short and long term International Voluntary Work Program of which GSM is a member today; It is carried out within the scope of universal principles and values by international umbrella organizations such as CCIVS (Coordinating Committee for International Voluntary Service), ALLIANCE (of European Voluntary Service Organizations) and SCI (Service Civil International). In addition, the national and international volunteer work we foresee, in cooperation with institutions such as public institutions, municipalities, universities, foundations in Türkiye; We organize psycho-social support, children's activities, youth work, education, and public health by getting support from expert organizations. Voluntary programs aim to provide multidimensional assistance to people and environments that are adversely affected by war and natural disasters, and in times of peace, they turn into a structure that develops the social skills of young people through volunteering and tries to give them a vision of world peace. Programs that adopt the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals as a global approach come to the fore with the coordinated and massive contributions of volunteers in healing social wounds in times of social trauma. As GSM, our goal is to contribute to meeting the social needs that emerged as a result of the great earthquake disaster in our country through volunteerism. Young volunteers from all over the world and Türkiye; It can assist in the establishment of container living spaces to be created for earthquake victims, support logistics efforts for established living spaces, contribute to psycho-social support programs and activities for children and youth, work with the disabled and the elderly who need care, provide public health, hygiene and cleaning services. They can work 5-6 days a week in services such as helping (within the scope of a predetermined work program). A volunteer from abroad can take part in the studies for a minimum of 14 days and a maximum of 89 days (longest legal stay without visa or residence permit). The presence of young volunteers from various countries can also be a source of hope for local citizens and earthquake victims, and can contribute to the consolidation of intercultural learning by fostering the spirit of solidarity. Volunteers will play a major role in both improving post-disaster physical conditions and reducing social traumas. Within the scope of this work, the accommodation, food, local transportation, working material needs and emergency health needs of the volunteers are met by the host organizations of which GSM is a partner. Volunteers can share the resources saved for earthquake victims or personnel, get meals prepared for everyone, and stay in containers in a designated area in their living spaces. Costs such as flight tickets, visas, travel health insurance are covered by the volunteer. Some camps may have more specific conditions. You can see it on the last page of the document. The earthquake in Türkiye is the most severe in the last centuries. The earthquake, which started with a magnitude of 7.4, was followed by many earthquakes with a magnitude of 6.3, 6.7 and 6.8. However, another 7.8 magnitude earthquake occurred in the same region and severe aftershocks still continue. Many buildings could not withstand all these tremors and collapsed. There are still many aftershocks in the region, and damaged buildings can be demolished. Search and rescue activities continue. The eastern Mediterranean and 10 cities in the southeast of Türkiye were affected by the earthquake. However, Northern Syria was also greatly affected by the earthquake. Metropolitan cities such as Istanbul, Ankara and İzmir are far from the earthquake zone. 6,800 buildings were destroyed and hundreds of thousands were heavily damaged. Currently, we have 46,156+ casualties and 167,000+ injured. We have friends who were under the rubble, and acquaintances who lost their families. We strive for both our acquaintances and other people. There is no way to beautify this apocalyptic landscape. However, we should add this: There is a great mobilization in Türkiye. Public institutions and non-governmental organizations sent a lot of aid to the region. Civil volunteers are coordinated by professionals and directed to the field. A large number of aid materials were delivered to the region. However, our call for international assistance was also answered. So far, hundreds of search and rescue and emergency medical teams from 35 countries, 27 of which are EU countries, have come to Turkey. Thousands of rescuers and 72 search dogs reached Turkey. Despite being at war, Ukraine supported Turkey by sending an emergency team. Unfortunately, as GSM, we could not do anything other than send humanitarian aid to the disaster area. Only by declaring the national and international voluntary mobilization and coordinating this program can we make a big contribution! Because although we saw a great social reflex right after the earthquake, it is obvious that we need sustainable voluntary work activities and well-planned coordination. It is very important that national and international volunteers in the civil field can work systematically in the areas where earthquake victims stay temporarily. Because it is not correct and unrealistic to expect this support only from public services. **How can you join?** 1) Please apply to join our workcamps in Türkiye! - If you are going to participate from outside of Türkiye, you can submit your application to us through one of the following international coordination centers: A) [ALLIANCE OF EUROPEAN VOLUNTARY SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS](#) B) [SERVICE CIVIL INTERNATIONAL](#) 2) If you want to participate in our volunteer work programs **from Türkiye**, you can apply directly to us: [https://forms.gle/NUvzKNszb5pc6cTS6](https://forms.gle/NUvzKNszb5pc6cTS6) Donation Options The following institutions are the local governments of the cities where the earthquake victims were transferred and the non-governmental organizations that most support the post-earthquake recovery efforts. You can donate to these organizations. **MEZİTLİ MUNICIPALITY** TRY IBAN: TR96 0001 5001 5800 7309 0449 23 EUR IBAN: TR14 0001 5001 5804 8017 9800 15 USD IBAN: TR39 0001 5001 5804 8019 7438 01 SWIFT: TVBATR2AXXX - Explanation “I want to make an unconditional donation.” https://mezitli.bel.tr/2023/02/14/sartsiz-bagis/ A municipality that provides humanitarian aid and temporary accommodation for earthquake victims. **ANKARA METROPOLITAN MUNICIPALITY** TRY IBAN: TR50 0001 5001 5800 7284 8818 87 EUR IBAN: TR09 0001 5001 5804 8000 4613 23 USD IBAN: TR02 0001 5001 5804 8010 9098 04 SWIFT: TVBATRAA - Explanation “I want to make an unconditional donation.” https://www.ankara.bel.tr/duyurular/sartsiz-bagis-yapilabilecek-hesaplar-350 A municipality that provides humanitarian aid and temporary accommodation for earthquake victims. **AHBAP ASSOCIATION** TRY IBAN: TR12 0006 4000 0011 0211 3800 59 EUR IBAN: TR15 0006 4000 0021 0212 1502 77 USD IBAN: TR32 0006 4000 0021 0212 1502 62 SWIFT: ISBKTRIS - Exp: “I want to make an unconditional donation.” https://ahbap.org/bagisci-ol A large NGO providing humanitarian aid and volunteer labor for earthquake victims. **DARÜŞŞAFAKA SOCIETY** ONLINE DONATION BY CREDIT CARD https://www.darussafaka.org/en/donation/earthquake-support-campaign It is a 160-year-old educational institution that offers 8-year full scholarship and boarding education to earthquake survivors and acts with the motto of equal opportunity in education. 1985 GSM-Youth Services Center was established in Ankara in 1985 in order to contribute to the individual, social and cultural development of young people and to support their active participation in social and economic life. GSM accepts the youth as the main resource and the most dynamic segment of the society. It believes that the active participation of young people in social life contributes to the continuation and development of the democratic social infrastructure. It strives for the development of youth work and youth policies with a rights-based approach so that young people can become individuals who look to the future with hope. Working Areas Volunteering It is a social enterprise for the purpose of solidarity or to meet a societal need, and It is a unique learning process that contributes to the individual and social development of young people. YOUTH WORK It is a process that focuses on young people, expressing different types of activities and approaches that will ensure their individual, social and emotional development in line with their problems, needs, expectations and rights. YOUTH POLICY Sustainable, inclusive and holistic youth policies that will enable young people to participate actively in social, political, artistic, cultural and economic life have the potential to contribute to the solution of their problems and meeting their expectations and needs. YOUTH INFORMATION It is a process that enables young individuals to develop their skills, access useful services, opportunities and opportunities, actively participate in social and economic life, and learn to find the solution to their problems. YOUTH ACTIVITIES It creates spaces with interactive and fun processes that aim to increase the experiences of young people to come together, socialize, express themselves, love and respect, listen and tell. GLOBAL EDUCATION Global Education; It is a joint program of the Council of Europe and the European Union, supported by the United Nations, that facilitates the world's citizens to acquire the knowledge, skills, values and behaviors necessary to comprehend global problems and to understand world issues. ALLIANCE | of European Voluntary Service Orgs. ALLIANCE is the association of authorized organizations working in the field of International Voluntary Service. GSM is a former and active member of the European Association of Voluntary Service Organizations. CCIVS | Coordinating Committee for International Voluntary Service CCIVS is the coordinating committee of authorized organizations working in the field of International Voluntary Service. GSM is a former and active member of CCIVS. SCI | Service Civil International SCI is the cooperation network of authorized organizations working in the field of International Voluntary Service. GSM is SCI's international partner. GOFOR | Youth Organizations Forum The Youth Organizations Forum, which works to address youth policy in Turkey with a rights-based approach, is a common platform where youth organizations act together. GOFOR is an observer member of the European Youth Forum. GSM is a founding member of GOFOR. Avrupa Konseyi | CoE North-South Center It was established by the Council of Europe to spread universal values such as human rights democracy and the rule of law. GSM is the Turkish National Partner of Kuzey Güney Center and works to expand its Global Education efforts in Turkey. UGK | National Volunteering Committee The National Volunteering Committee (UGK) is a strategic advisory body that supports the recognition, strengthening and dissemination of volunteering. It was established in May 2013. It is a body that has adopted the principle of supporting cooperation by bringing together the actors in the field of volunteering in line with a common goal such as the recognition of volunteering. Global Education and International Voluntary Service GSM is the Turkish National Partner of the Council of Europe North-South Center Global Education Network and works to make the Global Education approach widespread in Turkey. GSM-Youth Services Centre is an active part of International Volunteer Service Movement as ALLIANCE-Alliance of European Voluntary Service Organizations and CCIVS-Coordinating Committee for International Voluntary Service. The people of the world today are faced by basic challenges: warfare and conflict, the struggle for social, cultural and economic justice and the preservation of the global ecosystem. The IVS movement is committed to overcoming these challenges. Our work is based on the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Sustainable Development Goals. IVS by people with different skills and high ideals is a practical demonstration of the commitment, solidarity and cooperation which our world so urgently needs. It is our aim to promote these ideals both locally and globally. GSM-Youth Services Centre is Turkey National Coordinator of the Council of Europe North-South Center, the Global Education Network. NSC-The North-South Centre’s objective is to enable forming strategies and policies, raising awareness, capacity-building, and expanding its co-operation area. The official name of The North-South Centre (NSC) is the European Centre for Global Interdependence and Solidarity. The mandate of the North-South Centre of the Council of Europe is to provide a framework for European co-operation designed to heighten public awareness of global interdependence issues and to promote policies of solidarity complying with the Council of Europe’s aims and principles, respect for human rights, democracy and social cohesion. Global Education; is a holistic approach deals with the increasing links between local and global realities. Global Education which aims to improve participant global citizenship, intends people to understand the world issues, gain knowledge and skills for global problems in the basis of values and behaviors towards the global issues. It helps individuals to understand the complication of the world; be aware of contradictions; understand that there is not one particular solution for complex problems, and think critically. It creates a transformative educational process for the development of these competences; and for individuals to become active global citizens. Transformative learning enables a common vision for a world which is more fair and sustainable for everyone. Global Education and International Voluntary Service GSM is the Turkish National Partner of the Council of Europe North-South Center Global Education Network and works to make the Global Education approach widespread in Turkey. As a result of many ties of interdependence among countries, the world we live in has evolved into a globalised system. World-wide economic, geopolitical and social relations, modern communications and technologies, media and transport allow a fast flow of information. People and goods are both causes and characteristics of globalisation as a process that leads to an interdependent world and to what nowadays is called glocalisation. Globalisation is complex and ambivalent and its consequences can be regarded as both positive and negative. Among the positive consequences of globalisation are the widening of peoples’ horizons, access to knowledge and the products of science and technology, multiculturalism and intercultural views, an increase in opportunities, personal and social development and possibilities of sharing ideas and joint action towards solutions to common problems. The negative consequences are mainly on social, economic and environmental levels. On one hand there is increasing poverty in societies, low standards of living, disease, forced migration, and human rights violations, exploitation of weak social groups, racism and xenophobia, conflicts, insecurity and growing individualism. There is a growing gap between developed and developing countries and between privileged and excluded people. On the other hand, there are many environmental repercussions such as the greenhouse effect, climate change, pollution and the exhaustion of natural resources. Worldwide consciousness of global change towards more sustainable, fair development and the need for international cooperation have been increasingly addressed through covenants, declarations and campaigns promoted mainly by a growing civil society commitment and international organisations. Hence, the need for global education as an international dimension in learning and teaching methods in both formal and non-formal education in order to move towards a better understanding of the current issues of the world, its impact at local and global level, is not only a need, but an ethical challenge in today’s world. As a part of Global Education and International Volunteer Service, GSM aims to provide global education approach, and values of global education to volunteers from different countries and Turkey by gathering all its short-term volunteer services(workcamps) under the name of “Global Education Through Volunteering”. Universal Charter of International Voluntary Service GSM IS A FULL MEMBER OF ALLIANCE AND CCIVS; IS A PARTNER OF SCI We, the following, ALLIANCE (Alliance of European Voluntary Service Organizations), CCIVS (Coordinating Committee for International Voluntary Service), EAVS (Eastern Africa Voluntary Service Development Network), ICYE (International Cultural Youth Exchange), NVDA (Network for Voluntary Development in Asia), SCI (Service Civil International), present our fundamental principles and ideals through this Universal Charter of International Voluntary Service (IVS). PREAMBLE The people of the world today are faced by basic challenges: warfare and conflict, the struggle for social, cultural and economic justice and the preservation of the global ecosystem. The IVS movement is committed to overcoming these challenges. Our work is based on the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Sustainable Development Goals. IVS by people with different skills and high ideals is a practical demonstration of the commitment, solidarity and cooperation which our world so urgently needs. It is our aim to promote these ideals both locally and globally. PRINCIPLES Volunteers are people who offer to devote their knowledge, time and energy, within the framework of a collective social effort, working actively for the general interest of the community without replacing paid labour. IVS brings mutual benefit to volunteers and to the wider community. Volunteers have the opportunity to learn from experiences and to develop through new friendships and intercultural learning. Volunteers must not be exploited for private interests. Volunteers cannot expect any compensation other than personal growth, gaining knowledge, skills and sense of value for both themselves and the local community. IVS is a vehicle for non-formal and informal education and seeks to encourage the belief of the volunteers and their hosts in their personal potential as tools of positive change. IVS demonstrates a concern for the problems of local communities, raises Universal Charter of International Voluntary Service awareness among the stakeholders involved, and shows how problems may be overcome through co-operative effort. Volunteers should co-operate with the local community as fully as possible in useful work and exchange knowledge, skills and experience with the members of the local community. Thus, international voluntary service supports local objectives and actions, provides practical training and education, develops social responsibility, self-awareness and self-reliance, as the basis for sustainable socio-economic progress. IVS encourages a spirit of reciprocal international co-operation, and emphasises the need to reconstruct global society to achieve material and social equality between countries and between people. IVS encourages global citizenship and promotes peace, justice and sustainability. COMMITMENT Volunteers, IVS organisations, hosting communities and all other stakeholders should work within the spirit of this Charter. We, who co-sign it, commit ourselves to subscribe to the principles above and we appeal to national and international bodies as well as states and local governments, to provide the voluntary organisations with the necessary means to develop international voluntary service. This Charter can be amended over time. However, IVS at the local and global level is a tide of practical idealism, which will only be effective if it retains its basic principles. 27th General Conference of CCIVS, 8-13 November 1998, Rabat - Morocco Revised in the Meeting of Global Task Force “What is Our IVS?”, 29 September-03 October, 2017, Kawasaki - Japan Adopted by the 35th General Assembly of the Alliance - 1-3 November 2017, Athens - Greece SPECIAL CONDITIONS Attention volunteers who will participate in our programs! • We try to coordinate the programs as well as possible. However, it takes time for the conditions of the post-earthquake recovery period to mature. The maturity of these conditions depends on the situation of the earthquake victims and the situation of the host organization. Please note that during this process, physical conditions such as date, accommodation, food, location may change, and there may be changes in the work plan. Maximum adaptation to changing conditions is strongly requested. • Our general aim is to improve the physical conditions of earthquake victims in temporary accommodation, to meet their basic needs and to minimize the effects of trauma. In addition, it is among our duties to make the environment they are in a more livable place. If you do not know how to personally approach traumatized individuals, you can get support from experts in the area. If you are unsure of yourself, please stay away from one-on-one social communications to avoid possible risky approaches. • Children may also be among the earthquake victims. Please follow the advice of experts and display pedagogical attitudes. Building strong social bonds with children can be risky. If you are not familiar with children's rights and pedagogical approaches, please seek support from an expert in the region or establish a maximum social distance to prevent possible risky behaviors. • Discrimination, verbal and physical conflict of any kind against earthquake victims or your colleagues will not be tolerated. Please try to establish an environment of positive relations and intercultural understanding. • Maximum compliance with the Universal Charter of International Voluntary Service is required. | KOD | İSİM | KONUM | BAŞLANGIÇ TARİHİ | BİTİŞ TARİHİ | TEMA | KOTA | YAŞ | |-----------|-----------------------------|---------------|-----------------|--------------|---------------|------|---------| | GSM-A01 | A LONG NARROW ROAD MTV 01 | Dikmen ANKARA | 28 April | 26 May | SOCI RENO KIDS| 6 | 18-30 | | GSM-A02 | A LONG NARROW ROAD MTV 03 | Dikmen ANKARA | 26 May | 23 June | SOCI RENO KIDS| 6 | 18-30 | | GSM-A03 | A LONG NARROW ROAD MTV 04 | Dikmen ANKARA | 23 June | 21 July | SOCI RENO KIDS| 6 | 18-30 | | GSM-A04 | A LONG NARROW ROAD MTV 05 | Dikmen ANKARA | 21 July | 18 August | SOCI RENO KIDS| 6 | 18-30 | | GSM-A05 | A LONG NARROW ROAD MTV 06 | Dikmen ANKARA | 18 August | 15 Sept | SOCI RENO KIDS| 6 | 18-30 | | GSM-B01 | KIDS AND ART 01 | Mezitli MERSİN| 02 July | 15 July | KIDS ART SOCI | 12 | 18-30 | | GSM-B02 | KIDS AND ART 02 | Mezitli MERSİN| 16 July | 29 July | KIDS ART SOCI | 12 | 18-30 | | GSM-B03 | KIDS AND ART 03 | Mezitli MERSİN| 30 July | 12 August | KIDS ART SOCI | 12 | 18-30 | | GSM-B04 | SOLIFEST | Mezitli MERSİN| 11 June | 26 June | FEST CULT ENVI| 12 | 18-30 | HOST ORGANIZATION We will organize this camp in cooperation with the Aşık Veysel Cultural Association and this year it will be the first year of our cooperation. Aşık Veysel Culture Association is an association that tries to keep alive the teachings, lifestyle and contributions of folk poet Aşık Veysel Şatiroğlu, who has become a cultural heritage in Türkiye. For detailed information about Aşık Veysel, please click here. For detailed information about Aşık Veysel Cultural Association, click here. WORK A total of 10 cities were affected by two major earthquakes and hundreds of aftershocks that followed in Kahramanmaraş, located in southeast Turkey. Thousands of buildings were destroyed and many more severely damaged. Tens of thousands of adults and children affected by the earthquake were transferred to temporary accommodation areas in the surrounding safe cities as they had nowhere to go. Aşık Veysel Cultural Association opened the student dormitory located in the center of Ankara to the earthquake victims. In this dormitory, earthquake victims' families and their children live. All the needs of the earthquake victims are met by the Aşık Veysel Cultural Association, with the donations made to them and the efforts of the volunteers. We will need the support of volunteers in many areas such as cooking for earthquake victims, food distribution, environmental cleaning, public health and hygiene, organization, organization and distribution of humanitarian aid materials, transportation and transportation, psycho-social support for children and gamified activities. Various business divisions can be made on many subjects that are written and not written here. Volunteers can be assigned for any job in the living spaces created for earthquake victims, depending on the need. Please note that in such extraordinary circumstances, work plans and needs can change rapidly. Maximum adaptation to changing conditions is strongly requested. Volunteers can participate in more than one program without a work permit and visa for a minimum of 4 weeks and a maximum of 89 days. ACCOMMODATION & FOOD Volunteers will stay in Aşık Veysel Girls' Dormitory, where the depressed people live, in rooms for 2-3 people only with volunteers. The rooms have a shower and toilet. There is a dining hall and cafeteria in the dormitory. The dormitory is in a very central location in Ankara. Volunteers will be provided with three meals a day. LOCATION & LEISURE Dikmen is one of the central districts of Ankara. From this location, you can easily reach every part of Ankara by using public transportation. There is also a park next to the dormitory. You can spend time here with earthquake-affected children. You can explore Ankara with volunteers and camp leader. You can make friends with the volunteer youth of the Aşık Veysel Cultural Association and participate in other activities of the cultural association. With the contribution of the Children's Art Space Platform, you can organize activities for children and establish social bonds with earthquake victims. A comfortable, friendly and hospitable environment awaits you. HOST ORGANIZATION We will organize this camp in cooperation with Mezitli Municipality and this year it will be the fifth year of our cooperation. Mezitli Municipality, democratic, social, fair and transparent municipality has proven its understanding with the international awards it has received, social innovation in Turkey and in the world. It has been one of the most influential municipalities in Humanitarian aid for earthquake victims services are available. https://mezitli.bel.tr WORK Two major earthquakes in Kahramanmaraş, southeast of Turkey, and 10 cities were affected by the hundreds of aftershocks that followed. Thousands of buildings destroyed and much more took heavy damage. Tens of thousands of adults and children affected by the earthquake were transferred to temporary accommodation areas in the surrounding safe cities. Many of these regions are established by municipalities and many of them continue to be established. More than 150,000 earthquake survivors live in Mezitli. Many of the earthquake victims stay in their relatives' houses, student dormitories and private estates in various parts of the city. Various art activities will be organized in order to reduce the trauma of children who came from the earthquake region and experienced the earthquake in Mezitli and to heal their anxiety disorders through art. With the collaboration of artists from various regions of Turkey and you, our esteemed volunteers, workshops such as painting, music and creative drama will be organized, and activities such as social clowning and magic will be carried out. Through these studies, it is aimed to reduce the anxiety experienced by children aged 10-14 and 15-17. In addition, you will be able to support all kinds of work, such as a soup kitchen for earthquake victims, humanitarian aid materials, if needed. Appropriate accommodation conditions such as landscaping need to be created. The earthquake was felt closely in Mezitli. However, it did not have a devastating effect here. Still, many adults and children in the area experienced the fear of the earthquake, and many children were exposed to the psychological effects of this fear. Similar social activities will be organized for children whose houses were not destroyed in the earthquake, but who experienced the panic of the earthquake. In this context, gamified trainings are also planned for children on the scientific causes of natural disasters, living in peace and harmony with nature, and sustainable development goals. Volunteers who can provide visual, auditory and non-formal education and activities for children and young people aged 10-14 and 15-17 will be preferred. All these activities will be held in Happy Life Village, which is owned by the Mezitli Municipality. In this program, the subjects of study may change in line with the needs of Mezitli Municipality. Every contribution you make will provide social and community benefits to the local people. ACCOMMODATION & FOOD Volunteers will stay in Happy Life Village belonging to Mezitli Municipality. It is a facility where social work is carried out for children and young people, national and international volunteers. It supports the social work done here throughout the year. There is bungalow houses for 2-3 people and there is a dormitory for 40 people (20 female, 20 male). Volunteers, depending on the situation and need this bungalow will be placed in houses. Toilet, bathroom, social areas, green space, cafeteria, air conditioning and security is available. Happy Life Village is a social environment that is developing and enriching day by day. Volunteers sometimes eat in the cafeteria of Happy Life Village, sometimes in the soup kitchen, Sometimes they can eat in the municipality and sometimes as food. Ready meals for volunteers will be provided. Sometimes, volunteers will be able to have their meals at the Down Cafe. In this cafe individuals with Down syndrome are employed. Cost of meals eaten by volunteers here is covered by the municipality and in this way, individuals with Down syndrome are supported, contributes to equal opportunities in life. **LOCATION & LEISURE** Mersin is a coastal city full of historical, cultural and social places where volunteers can spend social time. The host institution, Mezitli Municipality, will do its best to provide you with sufficient opportunities to access activities where you can experience Mersin and Mediterranean culture and spend social time. HOST ORGANIZATION We will organize this camp in cooperation with Mezitli Municipality and this year it will be the fifth year of our cooperation. Mezitli Municipality, democratic, social, fair and transparent municipality has proven its understanding with the international awards it has received, social innovation in Turkey and in the world. It has been one of the most influential municipalities in Humanitarian aid for earthquake victims services are available. https://mezitli.bel.tr WORK You will be able to support the work done at Soli Festival. Soli Festival is a festival that tries to raise awareness about solar energy sustainable effects. Concerts at this festival, electricity from solar energy with outdoor activities and workshops for individuals of all ages such as awareness raising and capacity building activities on energy production and similar issues. Many activities are available. If you have the knowledge and experience, this festival will focus on solar energy. You can also organize workshops. The preparation, organization and daily life of this three-day festival. You will be able to participate in the works and participate in the festival. ACCOMMODATION & FOOD Volunteers will stay in Happy Life Village belonging to Mezitli Municipality. It is a facility where social work is carried out for children and young people, national and international volunteers. It supports the social work done here throughout the year. There is bungalow houses for 2-3 people and there is a dormitory for 40 people (20 female, 20 male). Volunteers, depending on the situation and need this bungalow will be placed in houses. Toilet, bathroom, social areas, green space, cafeteria, air conditioning and security is available. Happy Life Village is a social environment that is developing and enriching day by day. Volunteers sometimes eat in the cafeteria of Happy Life Village, sometimes in the soup kitchen, Sometimes they can eat in the municipality and sometimes as food. Ready meals for volunteers will be provided. Sometimes, volunteers will be able to have their meals at the Down Cafe. In this cafe individuals with Down syndrome are employed. Cost of meals eaten by volunteers here it is covered by the municipality and in this way, individuals with Down syndrome are supported, contributes to equal opportunities in life. LOCATION & LEISURE Mersin is a coastal city full of historical, cultural and social places where volunteers can spend social time. The host institution, Mezitli Municipality, will do its best to provide you with sufficient opportunities to access activities where you can experience Mersin and Mediterranean culture and spend social time.
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0
Secondary 1-6 GREEN PREFECT Programme Handbook School Name: Class: Name: School Year: ABOUT THIS HANDBOOK This handbook provides best practices in environmental aspects, useful environmental checklists and suggestions for environmental promotion activities to help you carry out your monitoring duties and promote environmental messages in schools. You can also share your ‘smart ideas’ for protecting the environment and green living. Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Roles & Responsibilities Chapter 3 Greening Your School Chapter 4 Best Practices & Environmental Checklists Chapter 5 Environmental Promotion Activities Chapter 6 Programme Evaluation Chapter 7 More Information Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Objectives • To enhance the environmental performance of participating schools • To develop a group of energetic and resourceful Green Prefects (GPs) with a deeper understanding of environmental issues and act as models for their peers • To enhance students' environmental awareness and build up green habits on campus Programme Timeline - **OCT** - Online Briefing Sessions - **NOV-MAY** - Monitoring - Monitoring at least once a month - **JAN-FEB** - Training Workshops - First-come, first-served - **FEB** - Interim Review - **JUN** - Inter-School Achievement Sharing Sessions - First-come, first-served - **JUL** - Final Review Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events Climate change is a global threat, bringing extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, storms, heat waves, wildfires and insect outbreaks etc., which affect our daily lives, damage ecosystems and biodiversity. The main driver of climate change is the excessive emission of greenhouse gases resulting from human activities. The emissive of these greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, trap more heat in the Earth’s atmosphere and enhance greenhouse effect, resulting in climate change. Examples of Major Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): - Carbon dioxide (CO₂) - Methane (CH₄) - Nitrous oxide (N₂O) - Fluorinated Gases In recent decades, extreme weather events has become more frequent in Hong Kong, resulting in the hourly rainfall records being broken multiple times, whereas in the past, such records were typically broken once every few decades. According to IPCC AR6 report, the global surface temperature is projected to continue increasing unless carbon neutrality (net zero emission) could be achieved by around and after 2050 to keep global surface temperature increase within 2°C (under the SSP1-1.9 and SSP1-2.6 scenarios). The current emissions level (SSP2-4.5) is insufficient to avoid the risks of climate change. High and very high levels of warming (SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5 respectively) would lead to severe and widespread climate impacts that would be very difficult for humans to adapt to. Therefore, transformative actions are needed to create a sustainable future. Source and Photo extracted from IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) Waste Problem Waste is a particularly significant concern considering that waste management contributes to around 8% of Hong Kong’s total greenhouse gas emissions. Besides, the current main solution to waste treatment adopted in Hong Kong is landfilling. The large amount of waste generated in Hong Kong is rapidly depleting the limited landfill capacity. In Hong Kong, over 70% of the waste generated is Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). Food waste, waste plastics and waste paper are the three categories that contribute significantly. Composition of MSW disposed of at landfills in percentages in 2022 - Food Waste: 30% - Plastics: 21% - Paper: 20% - Others: 25% - Metals: 2% - Glass: 2% Total disposed quantity: 4.06 million tonnes Note: Others include yard waste, textiles, wood, household hazardous wastes, bulky items and miscellaneous waste materials. Source: Monitoring of Solid Waste in Hong Kong 2022 High Ecological Footprint The Ecological Footprint is a measuring tool to assess the land and sea areas required from nature to fulfil our needs and support our activities. It includes the resources we need, such as paper, seafood, livestock, crops and the areas needed to absorb our carbon emissions, etc. If the current lifestyle of Hong Kong were adopted globally, we would need 4.4 Earths to sustain it. This is about 2.6 times higher than the current global average (1.7 Earths)! This unsustainable level of lifestyle makes it clear that we must change our behaviours, adopt more eco-friendly and sustainable lifestyles so that we can continue to live within our finite planet. Therefore, it is necessary for us to adopt more sustainable practices across the key areas outlined in the Handbook to help mitigate climate change and conserve the environment. How do environmental problems affect our daily lives? **Sea Level** The meltwater from glacier flowing into the ocean leads to a rise in sea levels, causing people who are living in coastal areas to lose their homes. *Projection of sea level rise in Hong Kong* Scan or click the QR code **Landfill Burden** Disposing of waste at landfills depletes the limited landfill space, creates an odour nuisance, and generates leachate and greenhouse gases. **Damage to Infrastructure** More frequent extreme rainfall will increase the risks of floods and landslides which can damage building foundations, utility cables and roads. **Health Risks** The increase in the number of very hot days causes more heat-related, allergic and vector-borne diseases. **Food Security** Under frequent extreme weather events, production of local food will reduce and the price of fresh and raw foods will increase, leading to a higher risk of food shortage and increased food prices. Global climate change affects all regions and Hong Kong cannot exempt itself from the impacts: - Rising mean sea level at Victoria Harbour; - Higher temperatures and more extreme weather phenomena, such as drought, extreme rainfall, thunderstorms, more intense tropical cyclones and storm surges; - Increased risk of wildfires; - Coral bleaching; etc. As a part of the Earth, Hong Kong must take timely actions to address the issue of carbon emissions at source and mitigate temperature rise to protect ourselves and the next generations. **Extended Learning:** Climate change in Hong Kong Scan or click the QR code What is circular economy? Circular economy is an economic system which aims at minimising waste and maximising resource efficiency. Closed-loop system is adopted with the continuous cycle of making, using, reusing and recycling products. This approach brings positive impacts to the environment, customers and companies. How can Hong Kong achieve its waste reduction target? O-PARK1 and O-PARK2 can treat [a]_________ and [b]_________ tonnes of food waste per day respectively. Hints: Find answers in the Waste Blueprint for Hong Kong 2035! Using less resources, minimising waste generation and promoting resource circulation, which incorporates the principles of the circular economy, is an integral part of waste management policy in Hong Kong. To achieve the vision of “Waste Reduction • Resources Circulation • Zero Landfill” in Hong Kong, six major areas of action are outlined: - Education and Publicity - Waste Reduction - Innovation and Cooperation - Waste Separation - Industry Support - Resources Circulation Source and Photo extracted from "Waste Blueprint for Hong Kong 2035" Answers: (a) 200 and (b) 300 What is carbon and carbon neutrality? “Carbon” refers to carbon dioxide, which is one of the significant greenhouse gases contributing to climate change. “Carbon neutrality” aims to achieve “zero-carbon emissions” by balancing the carbon emission and carbon absorption. How can Hong Kong achieve its carbon neutrality goal? Medium-to-long-term decarbonisation targets - **Before 2035** - Total carbon emissions - Compared with 2005 level - ↓50% - **Before 2050** In 2021, four major decarbonisation strategies were outlined by the Hong Kong Government to help Hong Kong achieve carbon neutrality before 2050. - **Net-zero Electricity Generation** - **Energy Saving and Green Buildings** - **Green Transport** - **Waste Reduction** Source: “Hong Kong’s Climate Action Plan 2050” **Fighting Climate Change Together** Acting on climate change is everyone’s responsibility. We should work together to achieve the goal of carbon neutrality by practising low-carbon living. As a GP, you play an important role in school by leading your peers to build up green habits on campus through monitoring their environmental behaviours and being a role model for your schoolmates. **Extended Learning:** *Hong Kong’s Climate Action Plan 2050* Scan or click the QR code In our daily lives, huge amounts of carbon dioxide are emitted into the atmosphere due to resource and energy consumption. To mitigate climate change, it is important for us to understand our **carbon footprint**, which is a measure of the impact we have in terms of the greenhouse gases we produce from home, transportation, and daily life. Then we can reflect on and improve our lifestyle patterns accordingly. “Low Carbon Living Calculator” helps you assess your **carbon emissions** in respect of **clothing**, food, living and travel in the past year. You are encouraged to complete the calculation with your family members too. **Tips for practising low-carbon living:** - **Clothing** - Choose clothes that do not require ironing. - Donate unwanted clothes to those in need or charity organisations. - **Food** - Leave enough space between refrigerators and the walls or cabinets. Trapped heat increases energy consumption. - **Living** - Donate unwanted gifts to the needy through relevant organisations. - **Travel** - Opt for low-carbon local tours, such as visiting the country parks and the Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark. As a GP, you have a unique opportunity to lead and inspire your peers to adopt green and low-carbon practices in their daily lives. The first step towards a greener future is to carefully examine your own personal habits, identify and improve the areas where you can reduce your carbon footprint. Take a moment to reflect on your green behaviours in the past month and complete the self-reflection checklist below. | Item | Reflection Date | |------|-----------------| | | 11 | 12 | 01 | 02 | 03 | 04 | 05 | | Clothing | 01. Wait until there is a full laundry load before using the washing machine. | | | 02. Hang dry washed clothes under sunlight. | | | 03. Hand wash clothes instead of using washing machines. | | | 04. Think twice before buying new clothes. | | | 05. Choose clothes that do not require ironing. | | | 06. Donate unwanted clothes to those in need or charity organisations. | | Food | 07. Buy food with no or minimal packaging. | | | 08. Avoid using one-off disposable containers and utensils. | | | 09. Allow hot/warm food to cool down to room temperature before putting it in the refrigerator. | | | 10. Eat more fruits, vegetables, plant-based or organic food. | | | 11. Leave no food waste. | | Item | Reflection Date | |------|-----------------| | | /11 | /12 | /01 | /02 | /03 | /04 | /05 | | 12. Bring your own shopping bags. | | | | | | | | | 13. Avoid purchasing unnecessary items and choose more durable products. | | | | | | | | | 14. Adopt simple packaging and avoid gift wrapping. | | | | | | | | | 15. Turn off lights and electrical appliances when they are not in use. | | | | | | | | | 16. Avoid leaving electrical appliances on standby mode. | | | | | | | | | 17. Wear light, open the windows and use fans instead of air conditioners. | | | | | | | | | 18. Set the temperature of air conditioners at 24 - 26 °C when they are turned on. | | | | | | | | | 19. Keep windows and doors closed when the air conditioner is turned on and use curtains or blinds to block sunlight. | | | | | | | | | 20. Set the water temperature of the water heater at the lowest acceptable level, especially in summer. | | | | | | | | | 21. Switch the water heater off after use. | | | | | | | | | 22. Take shorter showers. | | | | | | | | | 23. Turn off the tap while brushing teeth or applying soap. | | | | | | | | | 24. Reduce waste. | | | | | | | | | 25. Donate unwanted gifts to the needy through relevant organisations. | | | | | | | | | 26. Practise clean recycling. | | | | | | | | | Item | Reflection Date | 11 | 12 | 01 | 02 | 03 | 04 | 05 | |------|-----------------|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | Travel | 27. Use stairways instead of lift. | | | | | | | | | | 28. Walk or use public transportation. | | | | | | | | Small changes can have a significant cumulative effect. **EXCELLENT!** 80% or above >22 “Achieved” items **GOOD** 50% - 80% 14-22 “Achieved” items **NEED IMPROVEMENT** Less than 50% <14 “Achieved” items What are the roles & responsibilities of GPs? Recommended Structure of the GP Group* Teacher Advisor Head GPs (1-2 in school) • To assist Teacher Advisor in managing the GP Group and organise environmental activities • To be the spokesperson of the GP Group School GPs (1-2 per class) • To monitor peers’ environmental behaviours as well as the school’s environmental performance with the aid of environmental checklists • To act as role models for their peers in practising green living • To encourage their peers to build up green habits on campus • To follow instructions from the Head GPs *Schools can adjust the structure of the GP Group based on their school-based circumstances. How to become a GP? Examples of Appointment Methods*: • Students sign up voluntarily, then the Teacher Advisor then selects and appoints students who are passionate about environmental protection. • Each class teacher nominates not more than two School GPs for his/her class or assigns existing monitors/prefects to undertake the duties. • Teacher Advisor assigns student members of the Environmental Protection Club to undertake the duties. • Each school can assign not more than two Head GPs who are usually from senior levels and directly responsible to the Teacher Advisor. • GPs of senior levels pair up with those of junior levels to assist the latter in performing their duties. Recommended Commendation Methods*: • All GPs will receive a “Certificate of Appreciation” from the school, while GPs with excellent performance will be awarded an “Outstanding Award” as recognition. *Schools can adjust the ways of appointment and commendation methods of the GP Group based on their school-based circumstances. Chapter 3 Greening Your School What are the important environmental aspects? Energy Conservation Did you know that over 60% of greenhouse gases emitted in Hong Kong are sourced from electricity generation? In fact, the main energy source in Hong Kong is fossil fuels (coal and natural gas), which release large amounts of carbon dioxide when being burnt, contributing to climate change. To help mitigate climate change, we should conserve energy by using air conditioners and lights more efficiently on campus, as they generally account for the majority of energy consumption in the education sector. Water Conservation Water is the source of life and an essential natural resource that we can use for drinking, bathing and household cleaning. Most water resources on Earth are saltwater that cannot be used directly. Fresh water, which is available for usage, accounts for less than 1% of the total water supply. On average, people in Hong Kong consume about 150 litres of domestic fresh water per day, which is around 40 litres more than the global average. The high water consumption calls for the need to be mindful of our daily water usage. Therefore, it is crucial for us to establish good water conservation habits to ease the water crisis. Cities generate several types of solid waste every day, including waste from households, commercial and industrial activities. On average, people in Hong Kong generate 1.51 kg of waste per day, which is higher than that of the neighbouring cities like Taipei (1.09 kg) and Tokyo (0.88 kg). To solve the waste problem in Hong Kong, we need to practise “Dump Less, Save More, Recycle Right” actively in view of its contribution to climate change and the limited land resources in Hong Kong. Source: Monitoring of Solid Waste in Hong Kong 2022, Department of Environmental Protection, Taipei City Government and Ministry of the Environment, Japan We should avoid and minimise waste at source, reuse and cherish resources, and perform clean recycling. 8 Types of Recyclables: - Waste Paper - Plastics - Metals - Glass - Fluorescent Lamps and Tubes - Regulated Electrical Equipment (REE) - Small Electrical Appliances - Rechargeable Batteries Clean Recycling | Material | Instructions | |----------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Paper | Please tear off plastic tape, remove non-paper materials and keep dry. | | Plastic bottles| Please rinse before recycling. | | Metal | Please remove labels and rinse before recycling. | | Beverage cartons| Remove straws and plastic wrappings, cut a corner, rinse and dry, flatten, recycle. | Guess it! Which of the following cannot be recycled currently? - Styrofoam - Bubble wrap - Digital cameras - Thermal paper - Silicon rubber - Photographs Hints: find answers from: Home Recycling One Stop Shop Scan or click the QR code Answers: Thermal paper, Photographs and Silicon rubber. Despite being a densely populated city and known as a "concrete jungle", Hong Kong possesses natural coastlines and mountains. Over 40% of its land is designated as country parks, which serve as important habitats for wildlife. Apart from the countryside, a variety of plants, insects and birds can also be found within the urban areas. As members of nature, we have the responsibility to protect the natural environment and wildlife. You can actively learn about the flora and fauna on your campus and support campus greening to enhance biodiversity in your school and its surroundings. The quality of indoor air is crucial to our health and learning as we spend most of our time indoors. Clean indoor air not only helps prevent the spread of diseases but also enhances our learning efficiency and classroom performance. Therefore, it is necessary for us to maintain good indoor air quality and effectively control pollutants in the air. Chapter 4 Best Practices & Environmental Checklists How to monitor? | Role | Frequency | |------------|------------------------------------------------| | Teacher Advisor | At least once a month (November – May, a total of 7 months) | | GP Group | • Discuss with GP Group to formulate best practices for each environmental aspect • Design the inspection schedule and keep it confidential for surprise checks • Use the environmental checklists to monitor students’ environmental behaviours and the school’s environmental performance regularly | * The Teacher Advisor can adjust the monitoring methods and frequency according to the actual circumstances. For example, the Teacher Advisor or Head GPs may arrange School GPs to inspect each class/floor regularly, or monitor and promote a designated environmental aspect each month. How to use the environmental checklists? • The environmental checklists provided in this chapter are for reference only. Teacher Advisor can revise the environmental checklists according to the school setting by adding, modifying or deleting non-applicable items. • The “Environmental Checklists”, “Environmental Promotion Activities Record” and “Programme Evaluation Record” (editable) in Microsoft Word and PDF formats have been uploaded to the Schools Go Green website for school use. Schools Go Green website Scan or click the QR code Example • Input the year and date of checking • Fill in the status for each checklist item | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| | Date | 01/11/2024 | 02/12/2024 | 06/01/2025 | 10/02/2025 | 03/03/2025 | 07/04/2025 | 02/05/2025 | **Energy Conservation** E1. Make use of the natural daylight as far as practicable and only switch on the necessary lights on sunny days. E2. Turn off lights, computers and other electrical equipment (e.g. projectors, microphone boxes, etc.) when not in use. What are the best practices for each environmental aspect and how to monitor? Best practices and recommended monitoring methods for five important environmental aspects are listed below to assist the GP Group in performing the monitoring duties. | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **E1.** Make use of the natural daylight as far as practicable and only switch on the necessary lights on sunny days. | • When there is sufficient daylight, check if natural daylight is being utilised and only necessary lights have been turned on. | | **Tips:** | | | • Divide the classroom lighting system into regular use and supplementary lights, and place labels on the switches to indicate the lighting arrangement for sunny and cloudy days. | | | **E2.** Turn off lights, computers and other electrical equipment (e.g. projectors, microphone boxes, etc.) when not in use. | • When the classroom/special room is unoccupied, check if the lights have been turned off. | | | • When there are no teachers conducting classes, check if computers and other electrical equipment (e.g. projectors, microphone boxes, etc.) have been turned off. | | **E3.** Adopt natural ventilation (i.e. open windows and doors) and use fans to improve air flow when the outdoor temperature is below 25°C and the outdoor air quality is good. | • Check the Hong Kong Observatory (HKO)’s forecast for maximum temperature and the Environmental Protection Department (EPD)’s Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) in the morning based on the school’s location. | | **Tips:** | | | • Install a thermometer in the school’s covered playground for easy checking of outdoor temperature. | | | • Place the thermometer away from direct sunlight and rain. | | - If the maximum temperature of the forecast or school’s outdoor thermometer is below 25°C and AQHI is low, observe whether natural ventilation is adopted and/or fans are used. QR Code: HKO’s Weather Forecast QR Code: EPD’s AQHI | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |---------------|-----------------------------| | **E4.** Maintain the temperature of air conditioners in your classroom within the temperature range set under the school policy. | • Read the temperature displayed on the classroom thermometer and check if the temperature of the air conditioners in the classroom is maintained within the range set by the school policy. | | **Tips:** • Install a thermometer in the classroom for easy checking of indoor temperature. • Set and maintain the average indoor temperature between 24°C and 26°C. • If additional cooling is needed, for example, after Physical Education classes, use fans to enhance air circulation instead of lowering the air conditioning temperature. | | | **E5.** When leaving the classroom, turn off fans and air conditioners that are not in use. | • When the classroom/special room is unoccupied, check if fans and air conditioners have been turned off. | | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |---------------|----------------------------| | **W1.** Turn off the water tap and/or drinking fountain after use. Tips: • If the school has installed infrared automatic sensing water taps, this item can be omitted. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | **W2.** When soaping hands, turn off the water tap/move hands away from the tap (applicable to schools with infrared automatic sensing water taps installed). | | | **W3.** Do not overwater the plants (applicable to schools that have plotted plants in the classrooms or along the corridors). | • Monitor classmates’ plant watering habits and check for excessive water accumulation at the bottom of potted plants. | | **W4.** Check the water taps, water fountains and/or toilets regularly and report any leakages immediately, if any. | • Inspect the condition of water taps, water dispensers and other equipment regularly. | | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |---------------|----------------------------| | **R1.** Do not produce a significant quantity of leftovers. | • Randomly select 5 students during lunch break to check if there are any leftovers in their lunchboxes. If no leftovers are found in 4 out of the 5 lunchboxes, it can be considered as not generating a significant quantity of leftovers. | | **Tips:** | | | • Leftovers refer to discarded edible food, such as food wasted due to picky eating. | | | • Schools are recommended to implement on-site meal portioning serve food to students based on their needs. | | | **R2.** Separate the food waste from lunchboxes, cutlery and/or containers to facilitate food waste recycling, if any. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour in food waste separation and recycling for 10 minutes during lunch break. | | **Tips:** | | | • Food waste refers to inedible food materials that are discarded, such as bones and peels. | | | • Schools are recommended to set up food waste collection bins and install composters to convert food waste into compost for campus gardening. | | | **R3.** Use handkerchiefs/towels instead of paper towels. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | | • Randomly select 5 classmates to check if they have the habit of bringing their own handkerchief/towel. | | **R4.** Put one-side-used paper into the appropriate collection box. | • Check the one-side-used paper collection box and observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | **Tips:** | | | • Schools are recommended to set up collection boxes for one-side-used paper and double-side-used waste paper separately to facilitate students’ reuse of one-side-used paper. | | | **R5.** Use both sides of the paper and put double-side-used waste paper into the recycling bin. | • Check the double-side-used waste paper recycling bin and observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |---------------|----------------------------| | **Plastics** | | | R6. Bring your own water bottle. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. • Conduct surprise checks to count and record the number of students who have brought their own reusable water bottles to school in each class on a given day. | | R7. Stop buying bottled water and/or drinks. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. • Randomly select 5 students to check if they have bought bottled water and/or drinks | | R8. Drink without plastic straw or use reusable straws when necessary. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. • Randomly select 5 classmates to check if they have used plastic straws. | | R9. Use reusable meal boxes, cups, bowls and cutlery (such as spoons, forks, etc.) at school. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during lunch break. • Conduct surprise checks to count and record the number of students who have brought reusable utensils to school in each class on a given day. | | **Reuse & Recycle** | | | R10. Reuse folders. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | R11. Use recyclables to make decorative items at school events (such as parties, sports days, picnics, outings, fun fairs, open days, etc.). | • Observe decorative items of classmates/classrooms at school events. | | R12. Collect printer cartridges for recycling. | • Check the printer cartridges recycling bin(s) during recess/lunch break. | | R13. Practise clean recycling. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. • Check whether the recyclable items are placed in the appropriate recycling bins and are clean and free from impurities. | **Tips:** - Recyclables (metal cans, plastics and beverage cartons) should be clean and free from impurities before being placed in the appropriate recycling bins. - Remove staples and tape of waste paper being placed in the appropriate recycling bins. Clean Recycling Guideline Scan or click the QR code | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **G1.** Grow and look after plants in the classroom/along the corridor/green area/organic farm, if any. | • Develop a duty record to take care of the plants on campus regularly and check their growth status. | | **G2.** Use organic fertilisers (such as compost) as appropriate. | • Develop a duty record to check if organic fertilisers have been used when taking care of the plants on campus. | | **G3.** Record the diversity of flora and fauna (the number of species) on campus regularly. | • Develop a duty record and a biodiversity record sheet, then conduct ecological surveys on campus. | | **Tips:** | | | • Conduct ecological citizen science surveys using iNaturalist, which helps identify the species found on the campus | | | **G4.** Practise “Leave No Trace” during school outings (e.g. school picnics, visits to country parks/geoparks, etc.). | • Observe classmates’ behaviour (e.g. use reusable waterbottle and lunchbox, “Take Your Litter Home”) before leaving the countryside. | | **Tips:** | | | • “Leave No Trace” is a set of principles aimed at reducing the negative impacts of humans on the natural environment. The seven principles include “Take Your Litter Home”, leave what you find, respect wildlife, etc. | | Scan or click the QR code iNaturalist | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |---------------|-----------------------------| | **A1.** Keep the rubbish bin in the classroom clean and covered with a lid properly after use. | • Observe the rubbish bin in your classroom during recess/lunch break and check if it is clean without strong smells and properly covered. | | **A2.** Keep the food waste collection bins and/or composters on campus clean and ensure the lids are tightly closed after use, if any. | • Check the food waste collection bins and/or composters during lunch break to ensure they are clean and properly covered. | | **Tips:** • Place the food waste collection bins and composting machines in well-ventilated areas on campus or install ventilation systems to enhance air circulation and prevent the spread of odour from food waste. | | | **A3.** Keep the seats and classroom clean and free of dust. | • Check if classmates' seats and the classroom are tidy and clean during recess, lunch break or after school. | | **A4.** Clean up food or drink spills immediately to prevent mould or bacterial growth, if any. | | | **A5.** Do not use stationery containing high level of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as marker pens, in the classroom. | • Check the stationery in the classroom during recess, lunch break or before/after school. | | **A6.** Timely activate the air purifier in the classroom, if any. | • Check if the air purifier in the classroom is turned on before the morning class starts. When the classroom is unoccupied, check if the air purifier is turned off to conserve energy. | | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | **Date** | | | | | | | | ### Energy Conservation - **E1.** Make use of the natural daylight as far as practicable and only switch on the necessary lights on sunny days. - **E2.** Turn off lights, computers and other electrical equipment (e.g. projectors, microphone boxes, etc.) when not in use. - **E3.** Adopt natural ventilation (i.e. open windows and doors) and use fans to improve air flow when the outdoor temperature is below 25°C and the outdoor air quality is good. - **E4.** Maintain the temperature of air conditioners in your classroom within the temperature range set under the school policy. - **E5.** When leaving the classroom, turn off fans and air conditioners that are not in use. - **E6.** Other practice: ### Water Conservation - **W1.** Turn off the water tap and/or drinking fountain after use. - **W2.** When soaping hands, turn off the water tap/move hands away from the tap (applicable to schools with infrared automatic sensing water taps installed). - **W3.** Do not overwater the plants (applicable to schools that have plotted plants in the classrooms or along the corridors). - **W4.** Check the water taps, water fountains and/or toilets regularly and report any leakages immediately, if any. - **W5.** Other practice: | Waste Avoidance & Reduction | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |-----------------------------|------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | **Food Waste** | Date | | | | | | | | | R1. Do not produce a significant quantity of leftovers. | | | | | | | | | | R2. Separate the food waste from lunchboxes, cutlery and/or containers to facilitate food waste recycling, if any. | | | | | | | | | | R3. Use handkerchiefs/towels instead of paper towels. | | | | | | | | | | R4. Put one-side-used paper into the appropriate collection box. | | | | | | | | | | R5. Use both sides of the paper and put double-side-used waste paper into the recycling bin. | | | | | | | | | | **Paper** | | | | | | | | | | R6. Bring your own water bottle. | | | | | | | | | | R7. Stop buying bottled water and/or drinks. | | | | | | | | | | R8. Drink without plastic straw or use reusable straws when necessary. | | | | | | | | | | R9. Use reusable meal boxes, cups, bowls and cutlery (such as spoons, forks, etc.) at school. | | | | | | | | | | **Plastics** | | | | | | | | | | R10. Reuse folders. | | | | | | | | | | R11. Use recyclables to make decorative items at school events (such as parties, sports days, picnics, outings, fun fairs, open days, etc.). | | | | | | | | | | R12. Collect printer cartridges for recycling. | | | | | | | | | | R13. Practise clean recycling. | | | | | | | | | | **Reuse & Recycle** | Other practice: | | | | | | | | | R14. | | | | | | | | | | Greening, Nature Conservation & Biodiversity | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |---------------------------------------------|------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | G1. Grow and look after plants in the classroom/along the corridor/green area/organic farm, if any. | Date | | | | | | | | | G2. Use organic fertilisers (such as compost) as appropriate. | | | | | | | | | | G3. Record the diversity of flora and fauna (the number of species) on campus regularly. | | | | | | | | | | G4. Practise “Leave No Trace” during school outings (e.g. school picnics, visits to country parks/geoparks, etc.). | | | | | | | | | | G5. Other practice: | | | | | | | | | | Clean Indoor Air | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------------|------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | A1. Keep the rubbish bin in the classroom clean and covered with a lid properly after use. | Date | | | | | | | | | A2. Keep the food waste collection bins and/or composters on campus clean and ensure the lids are tightly closed after use, if any. | | | | | | | | | | A3. Keep the seats and classroom clean and free of dust. | | | | | | | | | | A4. Clean up food or drink spills immediately to prevent mould or bacterial growth, if any. | | | | | | | | | | A5. Do not use stationery containing high level of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as marker pens, in the classroom. | | | | | | | | | | A6. Timely activate the air purifier in the classroom, if any. | | | | | | | | | | A7. Other practice: | | | | | | | | | Chapter 5 Environmental Promotion Activities How to engage your peers, school members, parents and/or community? The GP Group is encouraged to organise at least two different types of environmental promotion activities during this school year to encourage students, school members, parents and/or community to adopt environmental behaviours. For example: For the School Activities • Sharing via morning announcements, assemblies, classroom presentations, etc. • Drama • Sharing on-campus TV or radio • Environmental talk/sharing • Inter-class competitions/quiz contests • Green idea competitions • Themed Environmental Day/Week • Decorating bulletin boards/campus with eco-friendly materials • Co-organising environmental activities with alumni associations/parent-teacher associations Publicity • Posters/bulletin boards • Slogans • Green tip labels • Environmental promotional videos • Environmental information booths • Newsletters of the school/alumni associations/parent-teacher associations • Social media platforms • School website For the Community Activities • Green community events • Inter-school competitions Publicity • Open day exhibitions • Social media platforms • School website • School’s newsletters To increase the participation rate of the students in the activity organised by GPs, the school can introduce incentives or competitive elements, such as providing rewards or organising inter-class competitions. Schools can also inquire about the available environmental education activities for the GP Group and/or students of different grades through the Environmental Campaign Committee’s programme – “GreenLink - Environmental Education Support Programme (GreenLink - EESP)”. The Contractor of GreenLink – EESP will provide options for environmental education activities matching the needs of your school and assist you with the applications for the activities. How to plan and organise environmental promotion activities? Review the school’s resources • GP Group can examine the school’s environmental hardware and software resources, and then evaluate its strengths and weaknesses in the environmental aspects. • **Environmental hardware** includes LED energy-efficient lights, real-time energy monitoring systems, flow controllers for water taps, rainwater collection barrels, recycling bins, food waste composters, water dispensers, green spaces, organic farming areas, air purification devices, environmental corner (publication on environment-related information), etc. • **Software resources** include environmental club, geography club, biology club, campus TV/radio, school social media platforms, websites, morning announcements, organising eco-tours or incorporating co-friendly elements into the school’s annual picnic or other school events, etc. Develop an activity proposal • Based on the review and findings collected, the GP Group can develop an activity proposal. Framework example of an activity proposal: | Target Environmental Aspect | • All or one of them? | |-----------------------------|----------------------| | Activity Name | • Use your creativity to name the activity and attract your peers to join! | | Date, Time and Venue | • Post-exam activity? • During recess or lunch break? Before or after school hours? • Duration of the activities? • Indoor or outdoor? • Off-campus visit? | | Aim | • What specific environmental messages would you like to convey? | | Target Audience (Participants) | • Inter-class or whole-school activity? • Is student participation compulsory or voluntary? • Expected number of participants? • School staff included? • Parents involved? | | Format | • Recall the past events organised by the school, which types of activities are more popular among students? • One-time or regular activities? • Incentives/a competitive element included? | | Resources and Budget Needed | • How to develop a duty roster to assign tasks and responsibilities among the GP Group? • How to utilise resources from different parties effectively? • Evaluation and appraisal system needed for further improvement? | | Activity Name | Green Campus Exploration | |---------------|--------------------------| | Date, Time and Venue | Date: 4-6 November Time: 12:30-13:00 (Lunchtime) Venue: Environmental facilities on campus | | Aim | • To raise students’ awareness towards the concept of a green campus and familiarise them with the environmental facilities on campus • Learn the proper use of the environmental facilities | | Participants | All students and school staff | | Content | • The activity will take place during lunchtime for three consecutive days for students to participate in it voluntarily • Students will use a treasure map to discover various environmental facilities within the school, such as the environmental corner, recycling bins, food waste composting machines, water dispensers, flow controllers for water taps, thermometers, green spaces, etc. • School GPs will station at each environmental facility to introduce the environmental concepts behind, such as waste reduction at source and clean recycling, and demonstrate the proper way to use the facility • After listening to the School GPs’ introduction, students will complete a quiz game based on the map | | Responsibilities | • The GP Group to prepare the introduction materials and the treasure map worksheet • The GP Group to promote the activity (such as during morning assemblies and through campus radio) • The Head GPs to create a duty roster and arrange School GPs to provide on-site assistance | | Part A | Part B | |--------|--------| | **Activity Name** | Be the Energy Inventor | “Be the Energy Inventor” Exhibition | | **Date, Time and Venue** | Date: 2 – 9 December | Date: 10-13 December Time: Recess, lunchtime and/or after school Venue: Covered Playground | | **Aim** | • To raise students’ interest towards STEAM and energy • To allow students to apply knowledge on energy efficiency, renewable energy and resource reutilisation | • To allow participants to appreciate the creative work pieces of the “inventors” [students participated in Part A] • To enhance participants’ knowledge on renewable energy and resource reutilisation | | **Participants** | All students | All students and school staff | | **Content** | • Intra-school competition • Open recruitment • Design and create an environmentally friendly device which could generate electricity by using waste materials | • Showcase inventions of the “inventors” along with descriptive text • Introduce renewable energy to the participants | | **Responsibilities** | • The Teacher Advisor to form an assessment panel • The GP Group to promote the competition and prepare environmental prizes | • The “inventors” [students participated in Part A] to demonstrate the use of their inventions and share about their experience • The GP Group to design display boards to introduce different types of renewable energy to the participants • The GP Group to encourage the participants to be committed to energy conservation | | Part A | Part B | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Activity Name** | **Inter-class Water Conservation Quiz Competition** | | “Save water, Save us” Exhibition | | | **Date, Time and Venue** | **Date: 24 February - 28 February** | | Date: 12 February – 19 February | Venue: School Hall | | Venue: School Library | | | **Aim** | To enhance the knowledge of water conservation | | **Participants** | All students and school staff | | **Content** | • Place display boards with text and photos on water resources and | | | water conservation | | | • Each class sends three participants to join the inter-class | | | competition | | | • The competition will be divided into Form 1 to Form 3 Groups | | | and Form 4 to Form 6 Groups | | | • The winning class from each group will receive environmental | | | prizes | | **Responsibilities** | • The GP Group to promote the activity | | | • The GP Group to set quiz questions, set up the venue and prepare | | | the environmental prizes | | | • The Teacher Advisor to approve the quiz questions and answers | | • The GP Group to design display boards to showcase information | • The GP Group to create worksheets to reinforce students’ knowledge | | about water conservation | • The Teacher Advisor to contact the School Library staff | | • The GP Group and the Teacher Advisor to create worksheets to | | | reinforce students’ knowledge | | | • The Teacher Advisor to contact the School Library staff | | | Part A | Part B | |--------|--------| | **Activity Name** | Visit to EPD’s EcoPark and WEEE-PARK | Sharing at school after the visit | | **Date, Time and Venue** | Date: 7 March Time: 15:00-16:00 Venue: EcoPark & WEEE-PARK (Tuen Mun) | Date: 10 March Time: 08:30 - 09:00 Venue: School Hall | | **Aim** | • To enhance the knowledge of waste recycling technologies • To understand the operation of waste recycling industry in Hong Kong | | | **Participants** | 20 students and teachers [including GP Group members & other schoolmates] | All students and teachers | | **Content** | • Open recruitment • Visit EPD’s EcoPark and WEEE-PARK | • Share the visit experience through presentations and videos • Introduce waste recycling facilities and promote messages of source reduction and clean recycling | | **Responsibilities** | • The Teacher Advisor to contact EcoPark & WEEE-PARK and arrange the visit (EcoPark: 2496 7633, WEEE · PARK: 2290 9500) • The GP Group to promote the activity | • Sharing by GPs and/or students who participated in Part A | | Activity Name | GREEN@School – Clean Recycling Campaign | |---------------|----------------------------------------| | Date, Time and Venue | Date: 11 March – 11 April (Every Tuesday and Friday) Time: 10:00-10:20 (Recess) Venue: Covered Playground | | Aim | • To teach and encourage all students and school staff to practise waste separation and clean recycling (including plastic bottles, metal cans, beverage cartons (tetra pak), etc.) | | Participants | All students and school staff | | Content | • Special recycling points will be set up on campus during the campaign • Students and teachers will bring emptied and cleaned recyclables to the collection points • Each recyclable item will earn points, and students and school staff can accumulate points to redeem eco-friendly gifts or rewards such as organic crops from the school • All collected recyclables will be taken to the nearby “GREEN@COMMUNITY” or handled by the school’s waste recycling contractor every week • Display boards will be set up to showcase the GREEN@COMMUNITY recycling service and information about the GREEN$ Electronic Participation Incentive Scheme | | Responsibilities | • The GP Group to design posters and display boards providing instructions for waste separation and clean recycling, as well as information about the “GREEN@COMMUNITY” • The Head GPs to create a duty roster and arrange School GPs to provide on-site assistance at the recycling points • The GP Group to record and track the quantities of different recyclables collected and the performance of different grades • The GP Group to promote the activity and share the results of the campaign during morning assemblies and through campus radio | | Part A | Part B | |--------|--------| | **Activity Name** | Campus Bioblitz Week | Our Campus Little Creatures | | **Date, Time and Venue** | Date: 22-25 April Time: After school Venue: Greening space on campus | Date: 28 April Time: 08:30-09:00 Venue: School Hall | | **Aim** | • To enhance students’ and teachers’ knowledge of urban ecology and biodiversity • To appreciate the biodiversity on campus | | | **Participants** | 20 students and teachers per day (including GP Group members & other schoolmates) | All students and teachers | | **Content** | • Observe wildlife on campus with binoculars and cameras, and record on the record sheets • Upload photos to iNaturalist for species identification | • Share the survey results in the form of presentations, photos and videos • Upload relevant presentations, photos and videos to the school website to share the survey results with the community after the activity | | **Responsibilities** | • The Teacher Advisor to borrow binoculars and cameras from the laboratory staff • The GP Group to prepare the record sheets • The GP Group to collect and analyse the survey results • The GP Group to promote the activity | • The GPs and/or students participated in Part A to share about their experiences and create videos • Students to encourage their parents to visit the school website to view the survey results | | Part A | Part B | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Activity Name** | Participate in “Understanding Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)” activities organised by EPD | | **Date, Time and Venue** | Presentation | Interactive IAQ models and exhibition | | Date: 2 May | Date: 2 May - 9 May | Venue: School Library | | Time: 13:30 - 14:00 | | | Venue: School Hall | | | **Aim** | • To enhance students’ and teachers’ knowledge on IAQ | | | • To understand the importance of good IAQ to our health | | **Participants** | All school teachers & students | | **Responsibilities** | • The Teacher Advisor to contact EPD (EPD: 2784 3900) | | | • The GP Group to promote the activity | | | • The GP Group and the Teacher Advisor to create worksheets to | | | reinforce students’ knowledge | **Presentation** *Understanding Indoor Air Quality* **Interactive IAQ models and exhibition** Photos extracted from EPD website Environmental Promotion Activity Record Form Activity Name: ____________________________ Environmental aspect: Date, time and venue Aim Participants Content Responsibilities Environmental Promotion Activity Record Form Activity Name: ____________________________ Environmental aspect: Date, time and venue Aim Participants Content Responsibilities Environmental Promotion Activity Record Form Activity Name: ____________________________ Environmental aspect: Date, time and venue Aim Participants Content Responsibilities Environmental Promotion Activity Record Form Activity Name: ____________________________ Environmental aspect: Date, time and venue Aim Participants Content Responsibilities Environmental Promotion Activity Record Form Activity Name: ____________________________ Environmental aspect: Date, time and venue Aim Participants Content Responsibilities Environmental Promotion Activity Record Form Activity Name: ____________________________ Environmental aspect: Date, time and venue Aim Participants Content Responsibilities Chapter 6 Programme Evaluation Why is it necessary to conduct programme evaluation? • Through data analysis, the school can assess its performance in each environmental aspect and understand whether students have developed environmental behaviours and the effectiveness of different measures. • Through Group evaluation, the school can identify environmental aspects that need to be improved and brainstorm solutions to improve students’ environmental behaviours. • To enhance the effectiveness of the programme, it is recommended that schools conduct evaluations during the mid-term (around February) and at the end (around June) of programme implementation. How to conduct programme evaluation? Step 1: Data Analysis • School GPs are responsible for collecting the completed environmental checklists and submitting the recorded data to the Head GPs. • Head GPs conduct half-yearly evaluations on each checklist item and verify the evaluation results with the Teacher Advisor. The suggested evaluation method and corresponding level of achievement are illustrated as follows: Achievement rate of the item and corresponding level (over the period of 7 months) - **EXCELLENT!** - 80% or above - **GOOD** - 50% - 80% - **NEED IMPROVEMENT** - Less than 50% Example: | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | Date | 01/11/2024 | 02/12/2024 | 06/01/2025 | 10/02/2025 | 03/03/2025 | 07/04/2025 | 02/05/2025 | **Energy Conservation** E1. Make use of the natural daylight as far as practicable and only switch on the necessary lights on sunny days. Achievement rate of the item: \[ \frac{4 \text{ times of "Achieved"}}{7 \text{ times of monitoring}} \times 100\% = 57\% \] **Step 2: Group Evaluation** - After completing the data analysis, the GP Group can hold a meeting to review the performance of the school in each environmental aspect based on the achievement level of each checklist item. - The Group identifies environmental aspects that need to be improved, discusses how to improve students’ environmental behaviours and brainstorms improvement solutions. **Step 3: Result Announcement** - The GP Group can report the programme results to all students and commend classes with excellent environmental performance. - The GP Group can also share their experiences and insights gained from participating in the programme through morning broadcasts, assemblies or classroom presentations, etc. - The Teacher Advisor can share the results of the annual GP programme with the school management and teachers. - Based on the programme results, the school can incorporate improvement recommendations into the Annual School Plan and the 3-year School Development Plan, or set up an environmental working group to practise green campus. **Step 4: Setting New Goals** - The GP Group can use the year-end environmental performance as a basis for developing goals and plans for the next school year. Which environmental aspect does your school need to improve? Please put a “✓” next to the environmental aspect that needs the most improvement. - Energy Conservation - Water Conservation - Waste Avoidance & Reduction - Greening, Nature Conservation & Biodiversity - Clean Indoor Air How to improve the selected aspect? Suggestions: (Example: Set up a green corner at school, enhance school-based promotion, launch incentive schemes to encourage schoolmates to reduce waste, etc.) What are the targets and plans for the next school year? Targets: Plans: What have you learnt from this programme? In this programme, I have learnt...... I felt...... The most memorable part is Chapter 7 More Information Energy Conservation Relevant websites Energyland by Electrical and Mechanical Services Department https://www.emsd.gov.hk/energyland/en/home/index.html Hong Kong Energy Efficiency Net by Electrical and Mechanical Services Department https://ee.emsd.gov.hk/english/index.html Hong Kong Renewable Energy Net by Electrical and Mechanical Services Department https://re.emsd.gov.hk/english/index.html Carbon Neutral@HK by Environment and Ecology Bureau https://cnsd.gov.hk/en/ Visits Education Path at the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department https://www.emsd.gov.hk/en/about_us/public_education/guided_tour_on_education_path/index.html kNOw Carbon House https://www.knowcarbonhouse.hk/en/ CIC–Zero Carbon Park http://zcp.cic.hk/eng/home Jockey Club Museum of Climate Change https://www.mocc.cuhk.edu.hk/en-gb/ CLP Power Low Carbon Energy Education Centre https://www.cityu.edu.hk/lowcarbon/index.aspx Water Conservation Relevant websites Water Conservation by Water Supplies Department https://www.waterconservation.gov.hk/en/home/index.html Visit H2OPE Centre https://www.h2opecentre.gov.hk/en/home/index.html Relevant websites Indoor Air Quality Information Centre by Environmental Protection Department https://www.iaq.gov.hk/en/home/ Waste Avoidance & Reduction Relevant websites Hong Kong Waste Reduction Website by Environmental Protection Department https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/en/index.htm Food Wise Hong Kong Campaign by Environmental Protection Department https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/en-hk/waste-reduction-programme/food-wise-hong-kong-campaign Green Lunch by Environmental Protection Department https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/en-hk/waste-reduction-programme/green-lunch Visits GREEN@COMMUNITY https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/en-hk/waste-reduction-programme/greencommunity EcoPark https://www.ecopark.com.hk/en/index.aspx O • PARK1 [Organic Resources Recovery Centre] https://www.opark.gov.hk/en/index.php T • Park https://www.tpark.hk/en/ WEEE • PARK [Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Treatment and Recycling Facility] https://weee.com.hk/ Y • PARK https://www.ypark.hk/en/ Relevant websites Greening Knowledge by Leisure and Cultural Services Department https://www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/green/education/greeningknowledge.html Hong Kong Biodiversity Information Hub by Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department https://bih.gov.hk/en/home/index.html Hong Kong Plant Database – Hong Kong Herbarium by Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department https://www.herbarium.gov.hk/en/hk-plant-database/index.html iNaturalist https://www.inaturalist.org/ Visits Green Education and Resource Centre https://www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/green/gerc/index.html Enjoy Hiking https://www.hiking.gov.hk/ Lai Chi Wo https://www.geopark.gov.hk/en/discover/attractions/lai-chi-wo Country Parks and Special Areas in Hong Kong by Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department https://www.afcd.gov.hk/english/country/cou_lea/the_facts.html Volcano Discovery Centre https://volcanodiscoverycentre.hk/index.php?option=com_content%20&view=article&id=2:intro&catid=8&lang=en&Itemid=113 Hong Kong Geopark https://www.geopark.gov.hk/en The Hong Kong Biodiversity Museum https://www.hkbiodiversitymuseum.org/ Green Schools Relevant websites Schools Go Green by Environmental Campaign Committee https://school.ecc.org.hk/en/index.html GreenLink - Environmental Education Support Programme by Environmental Campaign Committee https://www.greenlinkeesp.com.hk/en/ Green Schools 2.0 by Environment and Ecology Bureau https://www.eeb.gov.hk/en/green-schools-2.html Guide to Low Carbon Schools by Environment and Ecology Bureau https://cnsd.gov.hk/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/EPD_CA_Guidebook_Schools_Eng.pdf Hong Kong Green School Guide by Hong Kong Green Building Council https://www.hkgbc.org.hk/eng/engagement/guidebooks/green-school-guide/index.jsp Facebook & Instagram ECC1990 ECFriends 環保友 Clean Shorelines Hong Kong Country Parks Big Waster Witty Bear Water Save Dave Mr. B Nature Classroom Enquiries Environmental Campaign Committee Secretariat 2835 1738 firstname.lastname@example.org Technical consultant – Business Environment Council Limited 9301 0140 email@example.com Edition: 2024.10
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## Summary of Narrative Text Rubric | Genre Chart Summary: Narrative | 3 Accomplished Goal | 2 Just Beginning | 1 Hasn’t Started | |-------------------------------|---------------------|-----------------|-----------------| | **Includes a topic sentence that captures the theme** | Topic sentence captures the theme of the text | Topic sentence includes the theme in a general way | No topic sentence | | **States the title and author** | Clearly states the title and author with correct formatting | Includes the title or the author | Forgot to include the title and author | | **Includes only main ideas from the narrative’s plot (story elements)** | Includes only the main ideas from the narrative’s plot | Includes some main ideas from some parts of the plot | Includes a main idea from one part of the plot | | **Paraphrases information** | Restates information in your own words | Most of the summary is in your own words | Copied from text | | **Uses transition words** | Transitions link together sentences | A few transitions are used to link together sentences | Missing transitions | | **Includes a concluding sentence** | Sentence restates the theme | Has a concluding sentence, but does not restate the theme | No concluding sentence | | **Correct conventions support meaning** | No or minor errors in spelling, punctuation, and grammar | A few errors pop out but do not interfere with the summary | Frequent errors distract the reader | Summary: Narrative Lesson 1 Name_____________________________________ Story Map Conflict: Rising Action: Climax: Falling Action: Introduction: Main Character(s): Setting: Situation: Resolution: Solution and Wrap Up: Climax Falling Actions Resolution Paraphrasing Practice As a class: I need everyone to be quiet, please. Everyone take out your books. With partners: My mother washes the laundry every Sunday. The teacher was helping a student when the bell rang. I love to play on the monkey bars during recess. The Wicked Ride Last March, Sam had the scare of his life. He was visiting his aunt and uncle on their farm in Iowa for a week. ________________________________ his aunt, uncle, and cousins were there to pick him up in their huge silver pick-up truck. _____________________________ his cousin, Aaron, showed him to his room and helped unpacked the suitcase. ___________________________ Aaron and Sam jumped down the stairs and gobbled up a ham sandwich. “May we ride the horses, Aunt Lisa?” Sam asked taking a bite of the delicious lunch. “Sure Sam, just make sure you are very careful and don’t jump any of the fences,” she answered. _____________ Aaron and Sam finished their lunches and raced out the backdoor to the barn. They walked into the old barn to take out two of the finest quarter horses Sam had ever seen, Danger and Cookie. _________________________ they brushed the horses. _________________ they put the leg and hoof pads on and threw the saddles up on the horses’ backs. ___________________________ they gently put on the horses’ bridles. and jumped on. As they trotted out in the pasture, Sam focused on a fence they could jump. “Let’s jump over that fence. It’s not too big,” Sam told Aaron. “I don’t know, Sam. My mom would be upset if something happened or we got hurt,” he responded. “Okay,” Sam answered. Trotting, and then galloping, they went all over the pasture. It was fun, but Sam wanted to do more. ___________________________ he was bored of running around. He wanted to jump over a fence like he had seen in the movies! ________________ Sam kicked the horse and Danger took off toward the fence. ________________________ Danger stopped and Sam flew off the front of him right into the old fence. Sam hit the fence so hard that it knocked him out! Aaron raced over to him and jumped off Cookie. “Sam!” Aaron called as he checked to make sure Sam was breathing. ___________________________ Sam woke up and saw his aunt, uncle, and cousins standing around him. Helping him up, his aunt asked if he was okay. “I’m fine,” Sam said. “My head hurts a little, but I’m fine.” “Well, we need to go to the doctor just to make sure.” Aunt Lisa gently hugged him and brushed the dirt off his face. After seeing the doctor, Aunt Lisa was relieved to find out that everything was fine. “May we ride the horses again tomorrow?” Sam asked Aunt Lisa. “Only if the doctor says it’s okay, but there will be no jumping, young man,” she answered. On the way out, the doctor told Aunt Lisa that Sam could ride again tomorrow if he rested for at least 24 hours. Sam learned a valuable lesson. In the future, he will be sure to be more careful and listen to his aunt! Revision: Summary Narrative Name: ___________________________ Date: _______________________ Rubric Score Student Teacher Genre Chart Includes a topic sentence that captures the theme Suggestion for improvement: _______________________________________ States the title and author Suggestion for improvement: _______________________________________ Includes only the main ideas from the narrative’s plot (story elements) Suggestion for improvement: _______________________________________ Paraphrases information Suggestion for improvement: _______________________________________ Uses transition words Suggestion for improvement: _______________________________________ Includes a concluding sentence Suggestion for improvement: _______________________________________ Editing Checklist Name: ___________________________ Date: ___________________________ Student Teacher _____ _____ 1. Paper includes name, date, and title _____ _____ 2. Correct punctuation at the end of each sentence . ? ! _____ _____ 3. Correct capitalization (beginning of sentences and proper nouns) _____ _____ 4. Each paragraph is indented _____ _____ 5. Correct spelling, including “No Excuse” words _____ _____ 6. _______________________________________________________ (Grammar focus for the class) Write a summary about this story. Discuss the theme, the main ideas from the plot, and have a concluding sentence. Use all elements from the Genre Chart. I often think about palm trees, beaches, and the crystal blue ocean. Paddling out in the cool water, I can relax and surf. Since I live in the mountains, I can only go to the beach a few times a year. During my last summer vacation, three of my friends came with me on a road trip to San Diego. Driving down the coast of California was amazing! The beaches were so beautiful and the weather was perfect. After six hours of driving and two gas stops at gas stations, we finally arrived at our destination! Around noon, Brandon, Jason, Tuck, and I pulled into the parking lot of our small orange motel right next to Carlsbad State Beach. We checked into the motel room, unpacked our luggage, and grabbed our surfboards. “Hey, Rick, I need to get my bag out of the car before we go to the beach,” Brandon called from the bathroom. “That’s cool,” I shouted back. Leaving the room, we walked down the stairs and waited for Brandon to grab his backpack from the car. Next, we ran to the beach and put our surfboards down in the warm sand. Brandon opened his backpack and gave everyone sunscreen to put on. We waxed our surfboards and then fastened the leashes to our ankles so we wouldn’t lose our boards if we fell off. Silently, we paddled out to sea to catch some waves and soak up the sun. After about five minutes, Tuck started paddling toward the beach to catch this huge wave. Immediately, he jumped up and rode the wave all the way to the shore. Then Brandon and Jason turned their boards and started paddling to catch the next wave. Brandon stood up and made a quick turn left, while Jason went right. Jason did a couple of cool tricks and then rode in toward the shore. Sitting on my board alone in the middle of the ocean, I eagerly awaited my turn. When I saw that the current was taking my board and me further south down the coast, I started paddling towards the beach because I didn’t want to drift too far away from my friends. Within five minutes of paddling, I started to feel stinging pains on my hands and on my legs. I didn’t know what was going on. “Ahhh!” I screamed as I stopped paddling looking around. It seemed like there were hundreds of plastic shower caps floating all around me. Just then, one of the white floating caps brushed my arm. “Ahhhhhhhhh!” I moaned. Suddenly I realized that the hundreds of stinging bags floating around me were jellyfish. I had drifted into a jellyfish patch and was being stung repeatedly. Knowing I had to get away from the painful jellyfish stings, I kept paddling towards the shore. After being stung at least 20 more times, I couldn’t go any further. I laid there on my board, rocking to the rhythm of the ocean in pain. The salt water stung as it washed over the jellyfish stings. “WOOOOOOO WEEEE WOOOOOOO WEEEE WOOOOOOO WEEEE,” a siren rang out as I heard, “This is the Coast Guard. Stay where you are and we will come get you.” In minutes, I was pulled out of the water and helped onto the boat. Someone wrapped me in a towel and started applying medicine to my wounds. I was grateful to be out of the painful water. Ever since that trip, I have been tremendously afraid of jellyfish. Now when I go surfing, I make sure to keep a look out for these dangerous floating animals.
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The Future of Oak is in Your Hands Dave Apsley, Extension Natural Resource Specialist Why is Oak So Important? Responding to this question is a difficult task since oaks are important for so many reasons, and there are valid concerns about their future. I’ll share just a few examples of the importance of oaks for wildlife and the forest products industry in this brief article. This quote from William McShea and William Healy (2002) sums up the importance of oak for wildlife: “Acorns are the most important wildlife food in the deciduous forests of North America, the ecological equivalent of manna from heaven”. Acorns are a high energy food source that stores well (Kirkpatrick and Pekins 2002). As a result they are a key food source that helps wildlife populations survive winter when food supplies are most limited. More than 90 wildlife species from songbirds and small rodents to white-tailed deer and black bear, use acorns (Martin et. al. 1961). Even animals that don’t directly consume acorns can be positively affected by oaks. Some of these relationships are obvious, for example, many of the small mammals that carnivores (like bobcats) feed on have a diet of acorns. While others are not as obvious. For example, ponds and vernal pools with oak leaf litter produce more and larger wood frog tadpoles and salamanders than those with mostly maple litter (Rubbo and Kiesecker 2004). The wood from oaks is used in many applications, but most people think of flooring, cabinetry and furniture. The most recent data from the U.S. Forest service shows that 30% of the volume of wood harvested in Ohio comes from oaks (Forest Inventory and Analysis 2016). This percentage is even higher for southeastern Ohio. Additionally, more than 50% of the lumber consumed in the Amish Furniture industry centered in Holmes County, Ohio is oak (Burgardner et. al. 2011). One historic use of white oak is cooperage (barrels). White oak barrels have had many uses, but there has been a recent resurgence in demand for use in the wine and spirits industry which has resulted in a couple of new companies setting up shop in southern Ohio. Why are we concerned? Currently, about 60 percent of Ohio’s 8.1 million acres of forest is classified as Oak Hickory (Ohio’s... Forests 2011). Although oaks dominate the canopies of much of our forests, there is a serious lack of smaller oak seedlings, saplings and pole sized (4-10 inches diameter) trees to replace them. Instead, the trees getting established under the oak canopies are mostly shade tolerant species like red maple, sugar maple and beech (Figure 1, pg 1). As a result the volume of oaks in Ohio has declined considerably since 1965 while that of maples increased to the point that they are almost equal with oaks (Figure 2, pg 1). Why is this happening? Oaks are a bit like Goldie Locks. Too much light from heavy cutting (clear cutting) and they often lose the battle to light loving species like yellow-poplar, bigtooth aspen, and black cherry; too little light from no cutting or light cutting (select cutting or diameter-limit cutting) and they lose to shade loving species like red and sugar maple. However, when young oak seedlings receive adequate light from partial canopies they can invest much of their energy into the development of large carrot-like roots. These roots give them the ability to sprout and grow rapidly following disturbances such as fire. As the size of woodland properties decreases, the trends of not harvesting or harvesting only a few trees from the canopy at a given time has increased. This situation combined with the lack of disturbances which favor oak, along with a dramatic increase in non-native invasive plants have resulted in a large decline in oak seedling establishment. What is being done about it about? The Northern Research Station of the U.S. Forest service has been conducting research at the Vinton Furnace Experimental Forest (which is located within the Vinton Furnace State Forest) near McArthur since 1952. For more than 20 years the focus of the research has been on regenerating and sustaining oak forests. In a nut shell what they are finding is that eliminating much of the mid and understory poles and saplings (mostly red maple) with repeated fire or herbicides is not enough for oak seedlings to become established. However, when combined with a harvest that allows adequate light to reach the forest floor (i.e. shelterwood harvest) oaks can be successfully established on many sites. These practices are currently being employed on State Forests in southeastern Ohio and on the Wayne National Forest; however, they are rarely employed on private woodlands which make up nearly 80% of Ohio’s forest. In 2015 the U.S. Forest Service-Wayne National Forest, U.S.D.A Natural Resources Conservation Service, and the ODNR-Division of Forestry combined forces to restore and sustain oak ecosystems on state, federal and private woodlands in southeastern Ohio. The chiefs of the Forest Service and NRCS provided funding to kick-start the effort. The goal is to build a larger coalition of federal, state and private partners to address oak restoration in the region. In 2016 the Natural Resources Conservation Service in conjunction with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources – Division of Forestry began offering special EQIP (Environmental Quality Incentives Program) funding to assist woodland owners in 17 southeastern Ohio counties with practices designed to help sustain oaks. The future of oak is in your hands! If you would like to enhance oaks in your woods be sure to contact your service forester (forestry.ohiodnr.gov/landownerassistance) or a consulting forester (osafdirectory.com) to get assistance or contact Call Before You Cut (CALLB4UCUT.com; 1-877-424-8288). Oaks were here in the past, and they’re here now. Help us to make sure that they are here in the future. References: Continued on page 5, Column Welcome our New Natural Resource Economist Hello! I am Dr. Sayeed Mehmood. I am a new faculty and extension specialist at the School of Environment and Natural Resources. My area of specialization is economics. Prior to joining SENR in July, I was a faculty at the School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Arkansas for 16 years. I have had extensive research experience in a broad range of natural resource economics topics including forest landowner behavior analysis, wood-based energy issues, and environmental policy analysis. I plan to use my previous experience to help the people of Ohio through my research and outreach efforts. In the near term (2-3 years), I plan to focus on analyzing economic contributions of the forest products industry to Ohio’s economy at the state level, county, and urban levels. I also plan to analyze relevant economic indicators important for Ohio’s timber market outlook. My long-term plan is to do applied scientific research on a variety of topic including modeling woodland owner behavior, identifying ways to optimize resource management, providing technical assistance to woodland owners, valuation of ecosystem services and non-traditional forest products such as recreation, water quality, carbon sequestration, maple syrup, and Christmas trees. In my outreach activities, I hope to work with a number of stakeholders such as woodland owners, forest products industries, forestry professionals and practitioners, and extension staff. I hope to work with all of you in the near future. Busy as a Beaver Marie Titcherell, Extension Wildlife Specialist We’ve all heard the phrase “busy as a beaver,” tossed around in reference to someone who is hurriedly checking items off their to-do list, but is there truth behind such a phrase? For the most part, the answer is yes. Beaver are often busiest in the spring and fall, repairing dams and lodges in preparation for the New Year or for the coming winter. However during the winter, beaver activity slows (much like ours does, ha) and they spend more time in their lodges, which can be surprisingly warm when a family of beavers is living inside. In fact on a cold day, steam can be seen rising from the top of an active beaver lodge. A lodge is a large pile of branches, sticks and debris piled high above the water level. A beaver lodge typically has several underwater entrances, which allow the lodge to be accessible to the beaver even when the pond freezes over. So why would a beaver need to come and go during the winter? They do not hibernate during the winter, and so require food. Like other rodents such as squirrels and chipmunks, beavers cache food. In the fall, while beavers are working hard to maintain their dam(s), they are also stockpiling food for the winter. They create what is called a raft, which is essentially a floating collection of branches, sticks, and other preferable woody plants. Often times, the very top of the raft is composed of inedible or less preferred species whereas the bottom of the raft (underwater, accessible, and ice free) is composed of the species beavers like to munch on the most. There are many fascinating adaptations of beavers such as webbed feet, clear eyelids for seeing with protected eyes underwater, valvular ear canals and nostrils, waterproof fur, effective digestion of a cellulose-rich diet, and the ability to hold their breath under water for 15 minutes! The most impressive, in my opinion, is their ability to completely change and alter a landscape to their benefit. Through the construction of a dam made mostly of sticks and mud, beavers can reroute rivers and streams. Their main objective is to slow the flow of the water and create a calm, deep area of water (often called a beaver pond) in which to construct their lodge. However, it is this natural behavior of beavers, along with missing and chewed up trees, that can sometimes give landowners such a headache. Despite the damage beavers can cause they are integral parts of their ecosystem, creating habitat for not only themselves, but for other wildlife as well. Scientists have reported beavers as keystone species and ecosystem engineers. A keystone species is one that greatly influences biodiversity and ecosystem functionality; such influences are disproportionately large relative to the species abundance. An ecosystem engineer means the beaver controls the availability of resources to other species by physically altering the ecosystem, such as providing nesting grounds for waterfowl in a beaver pond. Talk about being “busy as a beaver!” Your Land, Your Legacy New Resources available for Ohio Woodland Owners. In order to be good stewards many Ohio woodland owners invest considerable time, energy, money and a host of other resources into their land. Throughout their ownership they are building a legacy for the future – whether they think of it that way or not. However, what happens to this legacy when the time comes to pass it on to future generations? What happens to this when you’re gone? Some thought and planning should be part of this legacy building process. In fact planning may very well be the most important step that you take as a landowner. Now with the help of several Extension foresters, especially Paul Catanzaro from the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and funding from the USDA-National Institute of Food and Agriculture woodland owners in Ohio now have a new resource to guide them through the process of deciding what happens to their property after they are gone. Your Land, Your Legacy- Planning for Every Ohio Landowner is a detailed guide with resources just for Ohio landowners. This publication and a narrated white-board video are both available under the publications tab on the Ohio Woodland Stewards webpage (woodlandstewards.osu.edu). References: Bumgardner M.S., G.W. Graham, P.C. Goeble and R.L. Romig. 2011. How clustering dynamics influence lumber utilization patterns in the Amish-based furniture industry in Ohio. Journal of Forestry 109(2):74-81. Kirkpatrick R.L. and P.J. Pekins. 2002. Nutritional value of acorns for wildlife. Pp. 54-65 in Oak Forest Ecosystems Ecology and Management for Wildlife. (McShea W.J., and W.M. Healy, eds.). Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, Maryland Martin A.C., H.S. Zim and A.L. Nelson. 1961. American Wildlife and Plants: A guide to wildlife food habits: the use of trees, weeds, and herbs by birds and mammals of the United States. Courier Corporation, New York, New York McShea W.J. and W.M. Healy. 2002. Oak Forest Ecosystems Ecology and Management for Wildlife. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore Maryland. U.S. Forest Service. 2016. Forest Inventory and Analysis Webpage. Accessed 9-16-2016. fia.fs.fed.us/tools-data/ U.S. Forest Service. 2014. Ohio’s Forests 2011. Resource Bulletin NRS-90. Newton Square PA. Rubbo M. and J.M. Kiesecker. 2004. Leaf litter composition and community structure: Translating regional species changes into local dynamics. Ecology 85 (9): 2519-2525 Calendar of Events We are working hard on getting a calendar of events together for the 2018 season. Here is a start for the year. As always, check out the website for more up to date information and links for registration. woodlandstewards.osu.edu | Date | Event | |------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | March 7 | Ohio Woodland Water and Wildlife Conference for Professionals – Mid-Ohio Conference Center, Mansfield | | March 17 | River Valley Woodland and Wildlife Landowner Workshop, Oasis Conference Center, Loveland, OH | | April 10 | For The Love of Trees – from Landscapes to Forests, Lucas County | | April 27 | The Good, The Bad and The Hungry: Dealing with Wildlife Conflict at Home – Ohio State, Mansfield Campus | | May 18 | Managing Woodlands for Pollinators – Ohio State, Mansfield Campus | | May 23 | Trees on Tap – Ohio State, Mansfield Campus | | June 28 | Name That Tree – Defiance County | | July 12 | Woodland Wildlife – Defiance County | | July 13 | Name That Tree – Ohio State, Mansfield Campus | | July 26 | Timber Marketing – Williams County | Ohio Woodland Stewards Program School of Environment & Natural Resources, 210 Kottman Hall 2021 Coffey Road Columbus, OH 43210 facebook.com/OhWoodlandStewards?ref=nf Check Us Out On The Web! Look for newsletter articles, links to fact sheets and other publications by browsing our site. Registration for upcoming Woodland Stewards classes may also be done electronically. Website: woodlandstewards.osu.edu Kathy L. Smith Program Director - Forestry Ohio Woodland Stewards Program Coordinator Contact Us! For program information contact Mary Slyby at 614-688-3421 by email: firstname.lastname@example.org or by mail at: Ohio Woodland Stewards Program School of Environment & Natural Resources 210 Kottman Hall 2021 Coffey Road Columbus, OH 43210 CFAES provides research and related educational programs to clientele on a nondiscriminatory basis. For more information: go.osu.edu/cfaesdiversity
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The word Renaissance means rebirth in French. The Renaissance was a period of artistic and cultural achievement in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. It was characterized by a number of distinctive ideas about life, specifically secularism, individualism, humanism, and materialism. The spirit of the Renaissance influenced European society for generations, making the Renaissance truly a golden age in European history. If the Renaissance was a rebirth of culture, you might think that the period before the Renaissance was one of gloom and darkness. Actually, historians have shown that the Medieval Era, or Middle Ages, did produce art, architecture, literature, and other ideas in law, languages, and economics that influenced Europe in the fourteenth century and provided the foundation for the Renaissance. However, during the Middle Ages, writers and philosophers viewed society as a preparation for the afterlife. Renaissance writers were interested in the present or secular world. The table below explains some of the important differences between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance: | Differences between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance | |--------------------------------------------------------| | **Middle Ages** | **Renaissance** | | Purpose of art | Glorify God | Glorify the individual | | Politics | Local/feudal lords ruled | Kings in England, France, and Spain centralized power | | Society | Church as center of activity | Secular/material world becomes a vital part of life | | Religion | Focus of one’s life | Important but not most dominant | | Education | Church promoted it to prepare students for religious life | Stressed teaching of history, arts, ethics, and public speaking | **Italian Renaissance** The Renaissance began in Florence, Italy, and subsequently spread to the rest of Italy and then to Northern Europe. Unlike other areas of Europe, Italian cities had survived the economic crises of the late Middle Ages. Italian towns had remained important centers of Mediterranean trade and boosted their production of textiles and luxury goods. Furthermore, Italy was the center of ancient Roman history. Architectural remains, statues, and amphitheatres were visible reminders to Italians of the “Glory of Rome.” The Italian City-States At the time of Renaissance, Italy was made up of numerous city-states that were geographically situated to benefit from the revival of trade that had developed as a result of the Crusades. The northern city-states of Florence, Venice, and Genoa acted as middlemen in the lucrative trade with the East. These Northern independent city-states marketed goods such as wool, silk, and other products to countries in Europe and Asia. They became prosperous centers of banking, trade, and manufacturing. The cities of Northern Italy also benefited from being able to absorb stimulating new ideas from their advanced Byzantine and Muslim neighbors on the Mediterranean Sea. By 1350, the city-states of Florence, Venice, and Genoa were urban regions with a population of about 100,000, a large figure by medieval standards. The conditions were right for these cities to undergo a cultural explosion. At the height of the Renaissance, several city-states, including the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Florence, the Duchy of Milan, the Venetian Republic, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples, were important. Within these city-states, merchants used their wealth as stepping-stones to economic and political leadership. Bankers made loans to kings and supported other commercial ventures that contributed to economic growth across Europe. Men like Francesco Sforza in Milan and Cosimo de’ Medici in Florence, who gained power because of their own merit and not based on birth, became sponsors of the arts. They began to realize that their wealth enabled them to enjoy the material pleasures of life as well as fine fashion, arts, and architecture. Florence: The Symbol of the Renaissance Florence, the most dominant of the Italian cities, became known as the symbol of the Renaissance. Like ancient Athens, Florence attracted people of talents from other Italian city-states. The Quattrocento, a common historical term for the Golden Age of the Renaissance, began in the 1400s when the Medici family of Florence exerted power over that city. The Medici family was a merchant family who amassed a fortune in the wool trade and expanded into banking. It provided Florence with political and artistic leadership. Through marriages, the Medici family became affiliated with the major houses of Europe. Besides acquiring the “Grand Dukes of Tuscany” title, the Medici family produced three popes (Leo X, Clement VII, and Leo XI), two queens of France (Catherine de Medici and Marie de Medici), and several cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church. The rise of the Medicis in Florence coincided with the triumph of the capitalist class over the guild merchants and artisans. The Medicis also exerted control over the government without holding any permanent official position, ruling Florence as part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany until the 1700s. However, the Medicis were driven from power and expelled from Florence three times: in 1433 to 1434, from 1494 to 1512, and from 1527 to 1530. The attempts (such as the Pazzi conspiracy of 1478) of the Florentine republicans to restore the former liberties ultimately failed because of the Medicis’ wealth and connections. In 1434, Cosimo de’Medici (1389–1464) took control of the government of Florence. He was a shrewd political leader who was also the wealthiest man of his time but chose to rule Florence by staying behind the scenes. He controlled local politics by insuring that all eight members of the city council were loyal to him. He ruled for thirty years as a dictator and won the support of the people by championing popular causes. Lorenzo de’Medici (1449–1492), Cosimo’s grandson, also known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, was a clever politician who never held any public office but ruled with absolute control behind the scenes. Lorenzo represented the Renaissance ideal. He was a generous patron of the arts who saw the beauty of present life as complete fulfillment. Poets and philosophers visited the Medici palace. Lorenzo, who wrote poetry, supported artists such as Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Botticelli (1445–1510) and encouraged them to visit Florence. Lorenzo’s son, Giovanni de’Medici (1475–1521), who became Pope Leo X from 1513–1521, was also an important patron of the arts. He is remembered more for his interest in art than as a pope. He was a patron of the genius Raphael (1483–1520), who was one of the Renaissance’s greatest Italian painters. Raphael painted a number of Madonnas, mostly during his time in Florence. Giovanni also promoted the rebuilding of St. Peter’s Church in Rome. Humanism and Society The defining concept of the Renaissance was humanism, a literary movement that began in Italy during the fourteenth century. Humanism was a distinct movement because it broke from the medieval tradition of having pious religious motivation for creating art or works of literature. Humanist writers were concerned with worldly or secular subjects rather than strictly religious themes. Such emphasis on secularism was the result of a more materialistic view of the world. Unlike the Medieval Era, Renaissance people were concerned with money and the enjoyment of life and all its worldly pleasures. Humanist writers glorified the individual and believed that man was the measure of all things and had unlimited potential. Humanism had far-reaching effects throughout Italy and Europe. The advent of humanism ended the church dominance of written history. Humanist writers secularized the view of history by writing from a nonreligious viewpoint. The Humanists also had a great effect on education. They believed that education stimulated the creative powers of the individual. They supported studying grammar, poetry, and history, as well as mathematics, astronomy, and music. Humanists promoted the concept of the well-rounded, or Renaissance man, who was proficient in both intellectual and physical endeavors. Humanist writers sought to understand human nature through a study of classical writers such as Plato and Aristotle. They believed that the classical writers of Ancient Greece and Rome could teach important ideas about life, love, and beauty. The revival of interest in the classical models of Greece and Rome was centered primarily among the educated people of the Italian city-states and focused on literature and writing. During the Middle Ages in Western Europe, Latin was the language of the Church and the educated people. The Humanist writers began to use the vernacular, the national languages of a country, in addition to Latin. Some important Italian Humanists are: - **Giovanni Pico della Mirandola** (1463–1494) was an Italian who lived in Florence and expressed in his writings the belief that there were no limits to what man could accomplish. - **Francesco Petrarca**, known as Petrarch (1304–1374) was the Father of Humanism, a Florentine who spent his youth in Tuscany and lived in Milan and Venice. He was a collector of old manuscripts and through his efforts the speeches of Cicero and the poems of Homer and Virgil became known to Western Europe. Petrarch’s works also led to the rise of people known as Civic Humanists, or those individuals who were civic-minded and looked to the governments of the ancient worlds for inspiration. Petrarch also wrote sonnets in Italian. Many of these sonnets expressed his love for the beautiful Laura. His sonnets greatly influenced other writers of the time. - **Leonardo Bruni** (1369–1444), who wrote a biography of Cicero, encouraged people to become active in the political as well as the cultural life of their cities. was a historian who today is most famous for *The History of the Florentine Peoples*, a 12-volume work. He was also the Chancellor of Florence from 1427 until 1444. - **Giovanni Boccaccio** (1313–1375) wrote *The Decameron*. These hundred short stories were related by a group of young men and women who fled to a villa outside Florence to escape the Black Death. Boccaccio’s work is considered to be the best prose of the Renaissance. - **Baldassare Castiglione** (1478–1529) wrote one of the most widely-read books, *The Courtier*, which set forth the criteria on how to be the ideal Renaissance man. Castiglione’s ideal courtier was a well-educated, mannered aristocrat who was a master in many fields from poetry to music to sports. **Humanism and Women** Humanism represented some advances for women. During the Middle Ages, few women could read or write outside of the convents. In the cities of the Renaissance, upper-class girls received an education similar to boys. Young ladies studied the writings of ancient Greek and Rome. Some women could also speak one or two modern languages such as French or Spanish and a small minority achieved some fame. In the latter sixteenth century, at least 25 women published books in Italy. **Laura Cereta** (1469–1499) reflected the success and failure of humanist women. Educated in a convent, she learned languages, philosophy, theology, and mathematics. However, by 15, like other educated women, she had to choose between marriage and full participation in social life or to study and withdraw from the world. Although Cereta chose marriage, she was widowed after only eighteen months of marriage and spent the remaining twelve years studying and withdrawing from society. Although some Renaissance women were better educated than their medieval counterparts, their education prepared them for the social function of domestic or home life. They were expected to use their education to run a household. Educated men, however, were supposed to know how to rule and to participate in public affairs. The ideal was different for men and women. The ideal woman offered balance to man. She was vibrant but not too reserved. She also had to be beautiful because that was a sign of goodness. **Spreading Humanism** Two inventions helped spread the ideas produced by the Humanists across Italy and the rest of Europe. About 1450, **Johannes Gutenberg** (c1390–1468), a German printer, invented printing from a movable metal type press. The first European book printed by machine was the **Gutenberg Bible** (1456). With the Gutenberg Bible, the European age of printing had begun. As compared to the medieval practices of hand copying or block printing books at a tediously slow pace, the movable type press tremendously increased output and decreased costs. As books became more readily available, more people learned to read and write. The increased circulation of books by Italian writers helped to spread more of the ideas of the Renaissance to other parts of Europe. **Northern Renaissance** In the last quarter of the fifteenth century, the ideas of the Italian Renaissance spread to Northern Europe. Northern writers interpreted Italian ideas and attitudes towards the classical antiquity in terms of their own traditions. These writers in Holland, England, Germany, and France were more Christian, or at least more pious, than those of Italy. The secular and pagan themes of Greece and Rome received more attention from the Italians. In Northern Europe, the Renaissance had a distinct religious character and stressed biblical and early Christian themes along with the original works of the classical world. These writers tried to create a more perfect world by combining the best elements of the ancient world with Christian culture. Unlike the Italian Humanists, who stressed secularism and individualism, the Northern Humanists focused on broad programs of social reform based on Christian ideals. Some of the most important writers of the Northern Renaissance include: - **Sir Thomas More** (1478–1535) of England wrote his *Utopia* (which means “nowhere”) in 1516 to describe a fictional ideal society somewhere off the main land of the New World. In More’s *Utopia*, all children received an education in the Greco-Roman classics. There also was social equality since all profits from business and property were held in common. *Utopia* asserts that man, through his own efforts, can construct a perfect world. More’s ideas were original in that he contradicted the long-standing view that evil existed in society because man was basically corrupt. Instead, More maintained that the acquisition of private property promoted vice and corruption. If a society could reform or change the institution that molded an individual, society could improve. More played a major role in introducing humanism into England. He was decapitated in 1535 by Henry VIII for not supporting Henry’s break with the Catholic Church. In 1935 the Catholic Church made him a saint. Desiderius Erasmus (c1466–1536) of Holland, known as “The Prince of Humanists,” dominated the intellectual thought of the northern Renaissance. His *In Praise of Folly* satirized ignorance, superstition, and many Church practices. He criticized the religious abuses of the Church and called for men to lead lives exemplifying simple Christian piety. He also published a Greek edition of the New Testament. William Shakespeare (1564–1616) of England is often considered the greatest poet and playwright of all time. Shakespeare’s best known plays include the histories, *Henry IV* and *Henry V*, and the tragedies, *Romeo and Juliet*, *Hamlet*, *Julius Caesar* and *Macbeth*. Shakespeare helped set the standards for the English language. François Rabelais (1483–1553) of France, a friar and classicist, wrote the romances *Gargantua* and *Pantagruel*. With tongue-in-cheek humor, he portrayed a comic world of giants whose adventures satirized education, politics, and philosophy. Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533–1592) of France introduced the essay as a literary form to Europe. He expressed skepticism towards accepted beliefs and urged people to reject superstition and intolerance. Geoffrey Chaucer (c1342–1400) of England wrote the *Canterbury Tales*, a collection of witty short stories. This is one of the early classics of English literature. **Politics of the Renaissance** **Italy** During the Middle Ages, the test of a good government was whether it provided justice, law, and order. Politically, the Renaissance produced a different approach to power. During the Renaissance, the test of a good government was whether it was effective as well as able to increase the power of the ruler. The Florentine Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527) put this new approach into practice. Machiavelli served the Florentine Republic as secretary and diplomat but was dismissed from office when the Medici family came back to power in 1512. In an attempt to regain the favor of the government, Machiavelli wrote *The Prince* (1513), a virtual instruction manual for a prince or ruler on the manner in which he should rule. This major work, which focuses on ethics and government, describes how rulers maintain power by methods that ignore right or wrong. Rulers need to accept the philosophy that “the end justifies the means.” Machiavelli believed that politicians should manipulate people and use any means to gain power. He did not advocate amoral behavior but thought that a politician’s actions should not be governed by moral consideration. A prince had to combine the cunning of a fox and power of a lion to achieve his goals. The most able practitioners of Machiavelli’s approach to politics were the fifteenth- and sixteenth-century monarchs: Louis XI of France, Henry VII and Henry VIII of England, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. These leaders acted according to the principles discussed in *The Prince*. They invested in their government a strong sense of authority and leadership. In the sixteenth century, Jean Bodin’s (1530–1596) work, *The Six Books on the State*, outlined the first systematic and clear conception that absolute sovereignty resided in the nation regardless of the forms of government. The “state” was an absolute sovereign that tolerated no rival legal authority above it except God. Bodin’s ideas would contribute to the rise of absolutism in Europe. **France** Although France won the **Hundred Years’ War** (1337–1453), a series of wars fought between France and England, the French country was left devastated. Farmland was destroyed and many French nobles lost their lives. Yet, the French monarchy became stronger since the war had weakened the power of the nobles. A revival of commerce, leading to the rise of the bourgeoisie (middle class), further strengthened the power of the king. Throughout the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the French kings consolidated their powers. Louis XI, who ruled from 1461 to 1483, was the most successful of these monarchs. He curbed feudal anarchy, set up an efficient government, and is considered to be the architect of French absolutism. **England** After the Hundred Years’ War, England struggled to rebuild its economy. Unfortunately, the end of this war led to a civil war, known as the **War of the Roses**, between the House of York (symbolized by a white rose) and the House of Lancaster (symbolized by a red rose). After a 30-year struggle (1455–1485) a Lancasterian, Henry Tudor, gained control of England and his line ruled England until the seventeenth century. Henry Tudor (**Henry VII**) re-established the monarch’s authority over the nobles and promoted trade and prosperity. His most famous accomplishment was the establishment of the **Star Chamber**, a court to check aristocratic power. There was no jury, and torture was a common remedy for all problems. **Spain** Spain, unlike France and England, was divided into many separate kingdoms. The various groups who lived on the peninsula lacked a common tradition. Muslims (Moors) and Jews had significantly influenced Spanish society. Until the 1100s, the Moors had controlled most of the country and many Jews had achieved high positions in finance, government, and medicine. The **Reconquista** represented a centuries-long attempt to unite Spain and expel Arabs and Jews. In 1469, **Ferdinand V of Aragon** (1452–1516) was married to **Isabella of Castile** (1451–1504), thus uniting the Christian kingdom of Spain. In 1492 (the same year that Columbus landed in America) the combined armies of these kingdoms drove the Moors from Granada and from Europe. Under their reign, Spain remained a loose confederation of separate states. Ferdinand and Isabella worked together to consolidate royal authority and to strengthen the Spanish kingdom. They used the **hermandades**, a local police force, to strengthen royal justice. The Church was also used as a vehicle of state authority. Ferdinand and Isabella revived the **Inquisition** in 1478, a religious court controlled by the monarchy. They monitored and persecuted persons suspected of heresy, especially converted Jews, known as the *marranos* or *conversos*. The Inquisition ultimately led to the expulsion of all Jews. Despite this sanctioned intolerance, by the end of their reign, Ferdinand and Isabella had established a strong central government, which enabled Spain to become a leader in the exploration of Asia and the discovery of the New World in the Americas. Artistic Achievements of the Renaissance Renaissance art has the following characteristics: - It imitates the classical work of Greece/Rome and rejects the medieval forms of art. - It is very realistic. Artists studied human anatomy in detail and worked from live models. They also created the technique of three-dimensional perspective. - It portrays secular themes and glorifies the achievements of the individual. Some Renaissance artists include the following: - **Giotto** (1267–1337) was born in Florence and helped to make it the first great center of the Renaissance. He is famous for his frescoes (paintings on walls), such as *St. Francis Preaching to the Birds*. His realistic paintings replaced the artificial two-dimensional art represented in the Middle Ages. He also designed a bell tower, usually called Giotto’s Tower, for the Cathedral of Florence. - **Lorenzo Ghiberti** (1378–1455) was a Florentine sculptor. He is famous for the bronze doors of the Baptistery, a great cathedral in Florence. The ten panels on the door took 21 years to complete and depict realistic scenes from the Bible. - **Donatello** (1386–1466) was the most influential Florentine artist before Michelangelo. He revived the classical figure of the nude body with its balance and self-awareness. His work, *David*, was the first nude statue of the Renaissance. - **Leonardo da Vinci** (1452–1519) is known as a “Renaissance man,” a person expert in many fields who has a wide range of interests. He was a painter, sculptor, inventor, architect, musician, engineer, and scientist. He dissected human corpses to see how muscles and bones worked. His sketchbooks include plans for a flying machine and underwater boats. His paintings also include *The Last Supper*, which was painted with oil on a plaster wall. His most famous painting is the *Mona Lisa*. - **Michelangelo** (1475–1564), like da Vinci, was skilled in many areas. He was a sculptor, engineer, poet, painter, and architect. His murals of biblical figures and scenes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel are his most famous work. His sculptured masterpiece of the fourteen-foot statue of *David* in the city of Florence is considered a propaganda tool to inspire the citizens in their struggle against Milan. Michelangelo also carved the *Pieta*, showing Mary grieving over the dead Jesus, and designed the dome of St. Peter’s Church in Rome. - **Raphael** (1438–1520) worked in Florence and Rome. He is considered to be the greatest painter of the Renaissance. Although he is famous for his beautiful Madonnas, especially *Sister Madonna*, his fresco, *The School of Athens*, is considered to be the greatest masterpiece of the Renaissance Art. Raphael’s realistic portrayal of Aristotle and Plato, combined with God, the Father, holding the globe and St. Augustine dictating the City of God, exemplify the realistic religious themes of the Renaissance. His use of proportion and perspective add to the quality of the fresco. Raphael’s fresco, *The School of Athens*. © Ted Spiegel/CORBIS - **Frans Hals** (c1580–1666) painted portraits of everyday life that captured the spirit of the Dutch people. His well-known work, *The Laughing Cavalier*, is probably one of the most reproduced paintings in art. - **Rembrandt** (1606–1669) is considered the greatest Dutch painter. He is famous for his realism and dramatic use of light and shade. His paintings include religious subjects and scenes from everyday life. His most famous works include the *Night Watch* and *Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer*. - **El Greco (The Greek)** (1541–1614) was a Spanish artist. He painted religious scenes, such as *The Assumption of the Virgin*, and landscapes, such as *View of Toledo*. - **Albrecht Dürer** (1471–1528) was a German artist who is famous for his metal and wood engravings. His most noteworthy work is *Praying Hands*. | Date | Event | |------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1337–1453 | Hundred Years’ War between England and France. The war leaves both nations crippled. | | c.1353 | Boccaccio’s *Decameron* becomes the first great prose work of the Renaissance. | | c.1390 | Geoffrey Chaucer’s *Canterbury Tales* becomes one of the first works written in the vernacular, or language of the people, of the author’s homeland. England’s Chaucer had become familiar with the works of Dante and Boccaccio while traveling in Italy. | | 1434 | Cosimo de Medici establishes his family’s dominance in Florence. | | c.1450 | German Johannes Gutenberg revolutionizes the world of the written word with the introduction of the movable type printing press. | | 1453 | Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople; end of the Byzantine Empire. | | 1455–1485 | The English House of York and House of Lancaster fight each other for political control in the War of the Roses. | | 1469 | Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. | | 1478 | The Inquisition is introduced into Spain to control the activity of the *marranos* (Jews who had converted to Christianity). | | 1485 | The Tudor dynasty is established in England with the end of the War of the Roses. | | 1492 | Completion of the Reconquista; expulsion of the Jews from Spain. | | 1503–1506 | Leonardo da Vinci labors on his signature piece, the *Mona Lisa*. | | 1508–1512 | Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel ceiling. | | 1509 | Erasmus publishes *In Praise of Folly*. | | 1513 | Niccolo Machiavelli writes *The Prince*. | | 1516–1519 | Desiderius Erasmus produces his Greek and Latin translations of the *New Testament*. | | 1527 | The Sack of Rome by Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. | 1. Which situation contributed most to the beginning of the Renaissance? A. Strong rulers censored new ideas. B. Europe became increasingly isolated from other regions. C. The emphasis on religious uniformity increased. D. A wealthy class that supported the arts emerged. E. Europe began to discover the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas. 2. An important characteristic of Renaissance Humanists was their emphasis on A. accepting ideas based on Confucian thought B. the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church C. magic and alchemy D. the idea that the glorification of the individual was sinful E. classical Roman and Greek writings 3. Which of these books describes Renaissance court life and behavior? A. Castiglione’s *The Courtier* B. Machiavelli’s *The Prince* C. Augustine’s *City of God* D. Boccaccio’s *Decameron* E. More’s *Utopia* 4. The intellectual and cultural center of the Renaissance was A. Florence B. Rome C. Naples D. Venice E. Genoa 5. The northern Humanists were different than the southern Humanists because they emphasized A. economic gain and materialism B. social reform based on Christian ideals C. pagan virtues D. scholastic dogma over reason E. emphasis on democracy as a political system 6. “The question arises about whether it is better to be loved more than feared or feared more than loved. The reply is that one ought to be both feared and loved, but it is much safer to be feared than loved.” Who would have supported the ideas contained in the above passage? A. John Locke B. Niccolo Machiavelli C. Sir Thomas More D. St. Augustine E. Castiglione 7. Which is the best description of the War of the Roses? A. Civil wars between the English houses of York and Lancaster B. A war between England and France C. Civil wars between the English king, Henry VI, and the aristocracy D. Minor disputes among English gentry E. Struggles for democratic rights 9. Renaissance men’s view of educated women was that they should A. be encouraged and given an equal place in society B. have a voice in the affairs of the city C. not be encouraged in any manner D. be allowed to add a social touch to the household, but otherwise remain subservient to men E. be treated as equals in all activities 8. A common theme running through Erasmus’ works was A. paganism B. Christian education for moral and intellectual improvement C. a monastic life of contemplation and divorce from the material world D. emphasis on formalism in religion E. disloyalty to the church 10. A basic idea contained in Sir Thomas More’s *Utopia* was: A. Evil exists because men and women are basically corrupt. B. Political leaders must learn how to manipulate their subjects. C. Social order is only an unattainable ideal. D. Corruption and war are due to acquisitiveness and private property. E. Government derives power from a social contract with the people. Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions and Explanations 1. D. In the fifteenth century a wealthy class of merchants and bankers, such as the Medici family who had amassed large fortunes in Florence, became the major sponsors of Renaissance artists. Art was used as a way to glorify the success of the sponsors and their families. Strong Renaissance rulers were more concerned with developing countries into nations than with censoring new ideas. The Catholic Church, however, was more concerned with censorship, such as in the case of Galileo and Copernicus. Religious uniformity declined in the Renaissance. Writers such as Erasmus criticized some of the abuses of the Church. These criticisms gave rise to the Protestant Reformation, which destroyed the religious unity of Europe. Humanism rejected the Scholastic philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas and focused on the writings of the Greeks and Romans. Europe became less isolated as it increased trade with Asia and explored new lands in the Americas. 2. E. Renaissance Humanists and writers emphasized classical Roman and Greek writings, examining the worldly subjects that the Romans and Greeks had studied. These Humanist writers hoped to use these ancient writings to increase their knowledge about their own times. Petrarch, a Humanist writer, saw the fourteenth century as a rebirth of ancient Roman culture. Humanism was not concerned with the ideas of Confucius nor with magic and alchemy. A basic tenet of Humanism was the importance of the individual as a unique personality capable of fulfilling all of his potential. 3. A. Castiglione’s *The Courtier* greatly influenced court behavior and was widely read by European gentlemen to learn the social mores and patterns of conduct for elite groups. Machiavelli’s *The Prince*, on the other hand, describes the politics of Renaissance Italy. St. Augustine’s *City of God* is an expression of Christian historical and religious thought in the third and fourth centuries C.E., which is by far the wrong time period. *The Decameron* is a collection of tales describing sensual and worldly society. 4. A. The first literary and artistic manifestation of the Renaissance appeared in Florence, which was an enormously wealthy city. Rome, Naples, Venice, and Genoa never dominated the cultural life of the Italian Renaissance like Florence and the Medici family who ruled during the city’s Golden Age. 5. B. The northern Humanists promoted social reform based on Christian ideals as a way to develop an ethical way of life combining the best elements of classical and Christian cultures. The Dutch writer Erasmus ridiculed upper class privileges in the hope of getting people to think about reforms in society. He stressed reason over scholastic dogma. Sir Thomas More of England wrote about an ideal country (Utopia) that was free from war, injustices, and poverty. His works did not consider democracy a viable form of government. The northern Humanists based their program on Christian ideals, not economic gain and materialism. They stressed biblical and Christian themes and not the pagan themes characterized by the Italian Renaissance. 6. B. Niccolo Machiavelli wrote *The Prince* describing the competitive politics of the Italian city-states. Machiavelli believed that a ruler had to use whatever means necessary to achieve success. For Machiavelli, power was achieved through fear, not by being well-loved. John Locke was an English philosopher who wrote *Two Treatises on Government* in 1690 to justify the Glorious Revolution, which ended absolutism in England. Sir Thomas More wrote *Utopia* about an ideal society. St. Augustine wrote *The City of God* describing how Christianity could lead to a world of peace and perfection. 7. A. The Wars of the Roses, the civil war between the houses of York (symbolized by the white rose) and Lancaster (the red rose) disrupted trade, agriculture, and domestic industry. The Wars of the Roses were a struggle between different feudal factions and not between the English king, Henry VI, and the aristocracy or among the English gentry. This civil war was not fought to promote democracy. 8. B. One of the fundamental themes in all of Erasmus’ scholarly work was the importance of Christian education for moral and intellectual development. The Dutch Humanist Erasmus advocated the “philosophy of Christ, not paganism.” Erasmus had been forced to enter a monastery as a young orphan and intensely disliked the monastic life. He did not advocate the formalism, ceremony, or laws of the Church. Even though Erasmus was extremely critical of the Church, he still remained loyal to it. 9. D. During the Renaissance, women did receive a better education, but this education was intended to adorn the home of the husband, not to challenge men intellectually. Renaissance men believed that educated women violated nature and thus ceased to be women. They felt they were a threat to male dominance and did not want them to have an equal place in society, a voice in the affairs of the city, or to be encouraged in any manner. 10. D. Sir Thomas More promoted the concept that corruption and war were due to society’s flawed institutions, such as ownership of private property. His approach was extremely radical in that he contended that society, not the inherently corrupt nature of humanity, was responsible for corruption. Machiavelli, not More, promoted that political leaders should learn how to manipulate their subjects. Exemplified by his *Utopia*, More believed that society could be perfected through the reform of the social institutions that mold the individual. John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau, not Sir Thomas More, promoted the belief that government was a contract between government and the people.
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The purpose of a language is to communicate with our fellows. All languages must change to fit the times. New words become necessary. Old words take on new meanings. The way in which words are put together evolves. The rules we learnt as children do not last forever. In the preface to his seven-volume *A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles* (1909-1949), the great Danish linguist Otto Jespersen remarked It has been my endeavour in this work to represent English Grammar not as a set of stiff dogmatic precepts, according to which some things are correct and others absolutely wrong, but as something living and developing under continual fluctuations and undulations, something that is founded on the past and prepares the way for the future, something that is not always consistent or perfect, but progressing and perfectible – in one word, human. He restated this principle in his briefer *Essentials of English Grammar* (1933), and went on to describe some of the forces that serve to vary and to fix a living language: Language is nothing but a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings, and especially to impart them to others. As with other habits it is not to be expected that they should be perfectly consistent. No one can speak exactly as everybody else or speak exactly in the same way under all circumstances and at all moments, hence a good deal of vacillation here and there. The divergencies would certainly be greater if it were not for the fact that the chief purpose of language is to make oneself understood by other members of the same community; this presupposes and brings about a more or less complete agreement on all essential points. The closer and more intimate the social life of a community is, the greater will be the concordance in speech between its members. In old times, when communication between various parts of the country was not easy and when the population was, on the whole, very stationary, a great many local dialects arose which differed very considerably from one another; the divergencies naturally became greater among the uneducated than among the educated and richer classes, as the latter moved more about and had more intercourse with people from other parts of the country. In recent times the enormously increased facilities of communication have to a great extent counteracted the tendency towards the splitting up of the language into dialects – class dialects and local dialects. The following print *Speech* (1985) by Carla Kleekamp illustrates the idea of language as communication between people in the context of a society. The picture was used on the cover of Levelt’s 1989 book *Speaking: from intention to articulation*. Countries such as France have an Academy to review the language and promote its proper usage. The endeavors of l’Académie Française (founded in 1635) often fail: speakers of French much prefer “weekend” to *fin de semaine*; they “go jogging” rather than *faire la course*; they send “emails” rather than *couriers électroniques*. In 1712, Jonathan Swift proposed to the government of the newly United Kingdom that it should establish a similar society to oversee the rules of English, but the government ignored his request. Thankfully, no one has therefore provided us with the proper English words for *avant-garde*, *cliché*, or *savoir-faire*. With no formal academy, the care and maintenance of the English language was left to lexicographers and grammarians. These scholars tended toward one of two approaches: descriptivism simply portrayed how the language is normally used; prescriptivism defined rules for its proper usage (Linn, 2006; Peters, 2006). Both are necessary. The language should evolve, but basic standards of usage should be taught so that we can understand each other. As in all things, freedom must be tempered with restraint. Two main processes therefore determine how the language changes. First, those who speak the language will invent new ways to say things. Some of these may be worthwhile, some not. What survives will become accepted usage. Second, a few people will promote rules for how to speak and write properly. Their intent is (or should be) to enhance communication and prevent ambiguity. **A Brief History of English Grammars and Dictionaries** Those who speak a language as their mother tongue have little need of grammar. The earliest grammars of the English language were used to teach those learning it as a second language. The cases and tenses of English were compared to those of Latin or French, even though English handled these very differently: noun-cases in English are largely determined by word order, and verb tenses are often handled using auxiliary verbs rather than word-endings. The first grammar of the English language written in English was that of William Bullokar (1586). The first widely used grammars were those of Joseph Priestley (1761), who is more widely known for his scientific research, and Robert Lowth (1762), an Anglican Bishop: Joseph B. Priestley (1733-1804) by Henry Fuseli (1783) Robert Lowth (1710-1787) by Robert Pine (circa 1770) Priestley addressed his grammar to the middle and lower classes in order to help them obtain an education. He was more of a descriptivist than a prescriptivist (Fernández Martínez, 2012): We need make no doubt but that the best forms of speech will, in time, establish themselves by their own superior excellence: and, in all controversies, it is better to wait the decisions of Time, which are slow and sure, than to take those of Synods, which are often hasty and injudicious. (p xix-xx, Priestley, 3rd Edition, 1772). Lowth addressed the upper classes and tended toward prescriptivism. Some of his rules were to completely ban the split infinitive, not to strand prepositions at the ends of sentences they were part of, never to use a double negative, and to ensure the proper cases for personal pronouns. Lowth found examples of grammatical barbarisms in the works of great writers. Modern grammarians look to these writers for examples of accepted usage. Since Priestley and Lowth, many books have described how best to speak and write in English. The most famous of the 20th-Century style guides are Fowler’s *Modern English Usage*, first published in 1926, and Strunk and White’s *The Elements of Style*, first published in 1959. Pinker’s *Sense of Style* (2014) and Dreyer’s *English* (2019) are helpful guides for our present century. The first real dictionary of English with the meanings expressed in English was Cawdry’s *Table Alphabetical* (1604). The magnificent dictionary of Samuel Johnson, first published in 1755, provided definitions and etymology for some 40,000 words. Though he was not the first to provide multiple meanings for single words, Johnson provided quotations to illustrate the different senses, and noted whether these were obsolete. On the right is a portrait of Johnson. His dictionary’s original entry for the verb “dress” is illustrated below – note the long-s (\( \text{f} \)) form of the letter “s”. Most of the dictionaries that followed Johnson suggested which usages might be preferred, but tended not to adamant evaluations. Dictionaries are predominantly descriptive (Landau, 2001; Lynch, 2009). In retrospect, it seems strange that Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of 1961 should have been so pilloried for describing the usage of such words as “ain’t” and “irregardless.” (reviewed in Pinker, 2014, pp 187-201). Although we hope that our categories reflect true differences among things, more than not the borders between them are fuzzy. One only has to look at a set of simple objects such as the those on the right (from Löbner, 2013) to see that what one might call a vase, a cup, or a bowl is not absolutely clear, and will change if we think of flowers, coffee or cereal. We have come to terms with this in perception. We should also come to terms with in our understanding of language (Aarts, 2004). Our minds have more thoughts than our language has words. In any current dictionary almost 40% of the words have more than one meaning or “sense” (Ravin & Leacock, 2000). Sometimes, this might have occurred by chance, as words that were once differently spelled and spoken became the same (homonymy). For example (from Löbner, 2013, pp 44-48), the English adjective “light” derives either from the German licht meaning the opposite of dark or from the German leicht meaning the opposite of heavy. At other times different meanings occur evolve as the word is applied in different contexts (polysemy). Most dictionaries provide several additional senses for the adjective “light” that originally just meant the opposite of heavy: undemanding as in “light entertainment,” easy to digest as in a “light meal,” of low density as in “light traffic.” This multiplicity of meaning is illustrated in the following poem by Richard Wilbur (1973): The opposite of fast is loose And if you doubt it you’re a goose, “Nonsense!” you cry. “As you should know The opposite of fast is slow.” Well, let’s not quarrel: have a chair And see what’s on the bill of fare. The opposite of fast is feast. The word “starve” initially meant the same as “die.” However, “die” became the general term, and “starve” came to denote the specific way of dying from lack of food. Ultimately, “starve” assumed another sense: to suffer from a severe lack of food, without necessarily dying. "Eke out" initially meant supplement, but it can now more commonly mean barely subsist, only just obtain, or frugally consume: He eked out his meager wages by driving a taxi in the evening. They eked out a minimal existence in the desert. The team eked out an overtime victory. They could survive by eking out the remains of the meal over the succeeding days. As the language evolves some words may even become "autoantonyms" with meanings that are the opposite of each other: "cleave" can mean either stick together or split apart. Despite the fact that there are too few words for our ideas, many words are sufficiently related that they may indicate the same idea (synonymy). Some would propose that each word actually has its own specific domain of meaning. For example, "change" is a more general term than "alter" which suggests conscious intent: Hems are altered. Seasons change. Semantically similar words can be distinguished by estimating how frequently they occur with other words. For example, Kaminski (2017) has found that the near-synonyms "fake, artificial, false and synthetic" can be used interchangeably, but they each occur most commonly with certain other words. Only "fur, pearls, chemicals, fibres and pitch" are commonly used with more than one of the near-synonyms: Nevertheless, despite the hopes of writers like the Riding-Jacksons (1997) that every word should precisely indicate one and only one idea, the boundaries between domains of meaning remain fuzzy. Grammatical categories tend to be more clearly defined than words, but they too are affected by fuzziness. Words like “before” and “after” may have begun as prepositions, but they were later also used as conjunctions and adverbs: before the revolution. before I was born Have you been here before? Though it began as a preposition, “like” is also used as a conjunction, especially since “as” has various meanings (because, while) in addition to comparison. Winston tastes good like a cigarette should. In recent years “like” has become over-used as a “discourse-marker” in conversational English. Phrases, words or sounds such as “um, oh, eh, and, but, so, I mean, you know” are used between units of discourse (Schiffrin, 1987). They can serve as auditory punctuation, highlight particular parts of the discourse, comment on something, request attention, or connect one section to another. So, James was like feeling under the weather. Over time English adjectives have sometimes become used as nouns (often with the definite article) the good, the bad and the ugly human and sometimes as adverbs without requiring the suffix “-ly” though this is unusual He ran fast He ran quickly Usage often allows a noun to become a verb and vice versa. Thus “impact” can mean to have an impact upon, and “produce” can mean that which is produced. Verbs can be derived by back-formation from nouns: “enthuse” from enthusiasm, “liaise” from liaison, and “emote” from emotion. Purists may object, but this is how language works: it is far better to use these new verbs than to say “be filled with enthusiasm,” “form a liaison,” or “display emotion.” Nevertheless, even evolution makes mistakes. In biology these die out; in linguistics they may persist. Sometimes words evolve new senses that are more confusing than helpful. Word mavens correctly advise us not to use “infer” (conclude something from some evidence) in the same sense as “imply (suggest or entail). The words inhabit the same semantic neighborhood, but “infer” derives a conclusion and “imply” presents a hypothesis: He inferred from the cancelled ticket stubs that I had been at the theater. He therefore implied that I was lying when I claimed not to have seen the play. And we should not qualify our superlatives even if others do: *From his rather unique position As an aside, we would be better off not qualifying any adjectives, let alone superlatives, with vacuous words like “rather, quite, really, actually” (cf Dreyer, p 3-4) Although the grammatical rules governing syntax tend to be more clearly defined than those that relate to the parts of speech, all rules have exceptions. The most obvious involves the verb “to be” which, unlike other verbs, uses the subjective case for the noun that follows it (though we only notice this if what follows is a pronoun). Furthermore, the rules change over time. After acknowledging the importance of the rule of law, Benjamin Dreyer remarks: The English language, though, is not so easily ruled and regulated. It developed without codification, sucking up new constructions and vocabulary every time some foreigner set foot on the British Isles—to say nothing of the mischief we Americans have wreaked on it these last few centuries—and continues to evolve anarchically. It has, to my great dismay, no enforceable laws, much less someone to enforce the laws it doesn’t have. (Dreyer, 2019, p 6). He then goes on to recommend some reasonable rules that, at least for the time being, can increase the clarity of the language. Given the fuzziness of definitions and the plasticity of rules, this posting will consider some of the changes that English language has undergone, evaluate some current trends, and suggest what might happen in the future. In the examples that follow, an asterisk denotes a usage that is considered “incorrect,” and a diamond means a usage that some might consider “improper.” Changing the Old Orders. (i) splitting the infinitive English differs from most other languages in that the infinitive of a verb is composed of two words: the preposition (although in this usage it is just considered a marker) “to” and the basic form of the verb. Many early grammarians proposed that one should not disrupt this two-word combination by inserting an adverb between the marker and the verb. ◊to fully believe Students were taught the rule so thoroughly that the sight or sound of a split infinitive was painful. I remember a mentor telling me that reading or hearing a split infinitive felt like silk catching on a nail. Some teacher extended the idea of unsplit verbs to mandate that one should not separate an auxiliary verb from the main verb, as in the oath of office (Pinker, 2009): ◊I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States These rules have neither logic nor style. They were finally laid to rest in the introduction to the 1966 television series Star Trek where the mission of the Starship Enterprise was ◊to boldly go where no man had gone before: https://creatureandcreator.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/boldly.mp4 Now that we have learned how to split the atom (which originally meant a particle that could not be split), we have no reason not to split the infinitive. Nevertheless, we must be aware of differences in meaning that occur with the adverb in different locations. The adverb typically follows the verb it modifies: He decided rapidly to go home. [a rapid decision] He decided to go rapidly home. [a rapid movement] Split infinitives are not wrong, but they can still sound uneasy: ◊He decided to rapidly go home. Unsplit infinitives can sound even stranger or completely change the sense, as in the third example: We expect the price to almost double by next year. ◊We expect the price almost to double by next year. *We expect the price to double almost by next year. Negatives do not generally follow the infinitive. He decided not to go home. ◊He decided to not go home. *He decided to go not home. (ii) shall and will For a long time, various prescriptive grammarians (e.g. Lowth, 1763, p. 62) insisted that the English future tense was formed with the auxiliary verb “shall” in the first person (I and we) and “will” in the second person (you) and third person (he, she, it, they). They further insisted that the opposite usage – “will” in the first person and “shall” in the second and third – conveyed the meaning of promise or threat (in the first person) or promise, threat or command (in the second and third). Fries (1925) reviewed the actual usage of the words over the years in English drama and found no evidence to support this usage. No one knows how the bizarre rule came about. Perhaps it was an affectation of a small group of speakers. The rule has been completely abrogated. Nowadays we use “will” to express the simple future for all persons and “shall” to express promise or compulsion. There is no more ringing first-person promise than Churchill’s We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender. https://creatureandcreator.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/churchill-we-shall-never-surrender.mp3 Probably because it is no longer used for the simple future, the word “shall” has become much less frequent over the past century. The following is from Google Books Ngram Viewer. Note that the scales are different for the two words with “shall” occurring half as frequently as “will.” (iii) Dangling modifiers Many grammarians insist that all modifiers (such as phrases and participles) must clearly and unambiguously link to a word in the superordinate clause of the sentence. Thus ◊Climbing higher, the view became more and more beautiful. As we climbed higher, the view became more and more beautiful. Climbing higher, we found the view more and more beautiful. Most examples of this problem, as in the first example, are innocuous. No one would think that the view was doing the climbing. Many participles are used quite correctly in this Excluding a miracle, Donald Trump will win all the states where the Missouri river flows. However, one must beware of ambiguity: *Having killed a man and shown no remorse, I do not believe that we should parole the prisoner.* Perhaps we should not worry about dangling *per se* but just ensure that we do not dangle ambiguously. (iv) adverbial disjuncts. Many grammar books define an adverb as a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. However, adverbs have long been used to modify whole sentences. Quirk and his colleagues (1985, pp 612-620) called these adverbs “disjuncts.” They distinguished two kinds: style disjuncts, such as “honestly” or “sadly,” that convey information about the speaker; and content disjuncts such as “really” or “understandably” that convey information about the truth or value of the sentence or clause they are attached to. These disjuncts often come at the beginning of a sentence, as in Rhett Butler’s famous last line in the 1939 movie *Gone with the Wind*: Frankly, my dear, I don’t give a damn. https://creatureandcreator.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/frankly-.mp4 However, disjuncts can also come later in the sentence: We believe that he probably murdered his wife. He did not murder in a probable manner. What is probable is the truth of the statement that he murdered his wife. However, we must beware of ambiguity, since some adverbs can modify the verb as well as the sentence. This may be why there was such an upset when the adverb “hopefully” became popular in the sixties. This adverb can be used to mean “in a hopeful manner” as well as “it is to be hoped that:” We travelled hopefully to London, but we were unable to find work. Hopefully, we travelled to London to find work rather than to escape our responsibilities. Nevertheless, many stylists quickly expressed outrage about “hopefully” as an adverbial disjunct. This reaction came in part from a prolonged dislike of dangling modifiers – words and phrases that did not precisely link to other words. However, much of the outrage was likely against the type of person who used the word rather than the word itself: *hopefully* in the sense of ‘it is to be hoped (that)’ has never been respectable. When someone says or writes, ‘Hopefully, the plan will be in operation by the end of the year,’ we know immediately that we are dealing with a dimwit at best. The most serious objection to the use of hopefully in a dangling position, often signalled by a following comma, is not that it is not good English, though it is not, nor that it is a trendy usage, though it is, nor even that the thing remains obstinately afloat after many well-aimed salvoes of malediction, but that it is dishonest. In the example given, all that is really meant is, ‘I/we hope the plan will be in operation by the end of the year,’ or still less dishonestly, ‘With luck, the plan,’ etc., but the type who says or writes hopefully puts on a false show of nearly promising something while actually saying precious little. (Amis, 1997, pp 158-9) The following illustration shows how frequently the disjuncts “hopefully” and “frankly” occur in Google Books using the Ngram Viewer. I have used the case-sensitive option to limit the search to words that begin sentences: As indicated in the diagram, “hopefully” is now accepted by several style guides. In 2012, Charles Osgood expressed his grief at this development: The Associated Press Stylebook now accepts the adverb “hopefully” and the way that it’s been misused by so many for such a long time. As in, “Hopefully, it won’t rain today.” Now, arguably, if the same mistake is made by enough people for a long enough time, it becomes okay. But the late Edward Newman, network newscaster and writer of books on English usage had a sign in his office which read, “Abandon all ‘hopefully’ ye who enter here.” He hoped to discourage us from using “hopefully” the way the Associated Press now says is perfectly okay. “It raineth on the just and on the unjust” as we know, and on those who speak correctly and on those who don’t. And so, perhaps it doesn’t matter if grammar’s rules pertain, but I have Yankee tickets and I hope it doesn’t rain. Hopefully, such indignation might in future be channeled to defeat injustice rather than to denounce a simple word. (v) impersonal relative pronouns Some early rules about the relative pronouns are now no longer observed. “Whose” was originally meant to indicate only personal possession, but modern English uses also uses this pronoun for inanimate relations: ◊an idea whose time has come an idea the time of which has come. The former is so much more fluent. “That” has also come to be used as a relative pronoun for persons as well as things, as in Gershwin’s song: ◊The man that got away This usage may be partly related to an old distinction between “that” and “which/who” for restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. A clause that restricted or defined someone or something was generally formed without punctuation and with “that.” Gershwin’s song refers to the particular man that got away. A non-restrictive clause, one that simply provided extra information, was isolated by commas and introduced by “who” or “which.” The man that lives next door won the prize. John Smith, who lives next door, won the prize. Nowadays “who” and “which” can also be used with restrictive clauses. What is important is the absence of the commas: The man who lives next door won the prize. Times are Changing (i) Cases for pronouns English does not differentiate between subjective and objective cases other than for some personal pronouns (“I/me, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them”) and the relative pronouns “who” and “whom” (and variants thereof). English generally distinguishes between subject and object by means of word order. Subject precedes and object follows the verb, except occasionally in rhetoric and poetry, when both may precede. We have defeated the enemy, and liberated our country. The enemy we have defeated, and our country we have liberated. Perhaps because we are not used to cases, errors in the cases of pronouns abound. The most notorious of these is *between you and I How this usage came about is not known. Perhaps it occurred as an overcorrection following a teacher’s instructions not to use “me and you,” but to politely put the first person in the second place and use the subjective case. *Me and you will be good friends. You and I shall be good friends. However, the cases are not clearly thought out. Modern English often uses the objective case for pronouns after the verb to be: ◊Hello, it’s me again. Saying the more correct “It is I again” sounds wrong. Another point of contention is what case to use after “than.” Prescriptivists have proposed that we use the subjective case in the following construction: John is taller than I. ◊John is taller than me. They argue that “than” is being used as a conjunction and that the word “am” has been elided at the end of the sentence. However, “than” is a preposition as well as a conjunction, and many modern stylists would consider both examples correct. To What is going to happen to the English personal pronouns? The use of “me/him/her/them” after the verb “to be” will become more common. I think that the objective case will still be used after other verbs and after prepositions. However, with the relative pronouns “who/whom” everything is in flux. The objective “whom” should be used after a proposition or when the pronoun is the object in the main clause that it introduces: The man from whom he took the book ... The man whom Mary loved ... However, if the preposition is not directly attached to the pronoun, most people nowadays use “who: ◊The man who he took the book from … Similarly, when the pronoun represents the simple object, “who” sounds easier: ◊The man who Mary loved … ◊Do you see who I see? In questions, “who” seems much more reasonable, perhaps because questions are more common in informal speech than in writing: Whom should we elect as President? ◊Who should we elect as President? One of the disadvantages of “whom” is that we are sometimes tempted to use it improperly: *The candidate whom I believe should be elected president is not Donald Trump. In this particular example, the pronoun is not the object of “believe” but the subject of “should be elected.” However, the sentence is far too convoluted for its own good, and could be much better expressed as: I believe that Donald Trump should not be elected president. As Greene (2018, pp 13-14) points out, no one would suffer much if we were to do away with “whom.” The word has significantly declined in frequency over the past century. Perhaps it will soon only be used when it immediately follows a preposition. The following is from Google Books Ngram Viewer, which tracks the frequency of words in the books that Google has digitized. Note that there are separate scales for the two words, with “who” generally occurring more than five times more frequently than “whom.” (ii) Singular they In recent years it has become obvious that human gender is not restricted to either male or female. Both biology and psychology allow for individual genders between these two extremes and for some fluidity in their location. The language therefore needs a personal pronoun that does not specify male or female. Many have suggested that we use “they” in the both singular and plural forms like “you.” The singular “they” has caused a great outcry among those that fear that the language is losing its clarity and world becoming irrational. However, it is but simple politeness. If someone goes by the name “Michael” they should not be called “Mickey.” If someone wishes to be referred to as “they,” they should not be called “he” or “she.” The English language has struggled for years to refer to a person without defining their gender. For example, once schools became coeducational, they needed to instruct both male and female students: The student should write his or her name on the exercise books. He or she should carefully complete all assignments. Both “his or her” and “he or she” are clumsy. Varying “he or she” with she or he” sounds even clumsier. The generic “he” meaning either “he” or “she” has long been used, but this is as confusing as it is misogynistic. Baron (2020) has reviewed the many words that have been coined to refer to a person without mentioning gender – from “ou” to “e” to “thon” to “zie.” None became widely accepted. However, as Baron points out, the answer has been there all along. The English language has used the singular “they” for centuries in constructions with “everyone”: Everyone indicates their vote by placing an X beside the name of the candidate they wish to elect. Now we all know what has happened over the years to the right of women to vote if we substituted in this sentence the generic “his” for “their” and “he” for “they.” Politeness, linguistics and politics all justify the singular “they.” What is interesting is that verb that goes with singular “they” is typically plural. In the last example, we do not say “they wishes.” This seems to be an interesting feature rather than a significant bug. (iii) subjunctives Many languages use a subjunctive form of the verb to express actions or states that are hoped for (optative) or commanded (mandative). In the English subjunctive, for all persons both singular and plural, the verb is in the base form. This makes it easy to recognize for the verb “be” since the base form does not occur in the actual present tense. He insisted that I/you/we/he/she/they be kept informed. I hope that my sins be forgiven. For other verbs it is only noticed by the missing ‘s’ in the third person singular. He insisted that she come to the meeting. However, the meaning of the subjunctive can easily be expressed using modal auxiliaries He insisted that I must/should be kept informed. I hope that my sins may/might be forgiven This approach allows one to qualify commands (“should” is less insistent than “must”) and hopes (“may” is stronger than “might”) However, using the simple future instead of the subjunctive does not offend the modern ear. He insisted that I will be kept informed. I hope that my sins will be forgiven In all probability the English subjunctive will soon die out, though it may survive in certain idiomatic expressions such as God forbid ... Long live the Queen! Grammarians (e.g. Greenbaum, 1996, pp 268-9) have also described a “past subjunctive” (equivalent to the simple past) that is used to express something that is not true (counterfactual) or hypothetical: If I were a rich man … This usage is only evident in the first or third person singular of the verb “to be” since otherwise the form of the verb is the same as the simple past. As Pinker (2014, pp 232-30) points out, this usage is actually neither past nor subjunctive, but rather represents an “irrealis” mode. Although “if I were” will likely persist, its meaning can also be expressed by using the simple past tense to refer remoteness in fact rather in time: If I was a rich man … (iv) the dying of the gerund In English adding the suffix “-ing” to a verb makes either the present participle – an adjective that describes how a noun is acting – or a gerund – a noun that describes the action. When acting as the unmodified subject of a clause or sentence, the sense of the gerund can sometimes also be expressed with the infinitive: To err is human Erring is human Swimming is prohibited Once it is used in other parts of the sentence, the gerund becomes confusing. According to the old rules of grammar the subject of a gerund should be in the possessive case: I was upset by John’s insinuating that the business was a scam. I was upset by John insinuating that the business was a scam. However, most people prefer the second version. John is the subject of the gerund, not the possessor thereof. Numerous examples can show how strange the possessive can sound in this situation (e.g. Pinker, 2014, p 212): *I was annoyed by the people behind me in line’s being served first *She objects to men’s making more money than women for the same work. With this problem tentatively solved, another immediately arises – what to do with pronouns? I was upset by his insinuating that the business was a scam. ◊I was upset by him insinuating that the business was a scam. *I was upset by he insinuating that the business was a scam. In the second (more common) usage, the pronoun takes the case of the gerund which is the object of the preposition “by.” However, this does not work if the gerund is the subject of the sentence, where only the possessive sounds correct. His insinuating that the business was a scam upset me. *He insinuating that the business was a scam upset me. My feeling is that the gerund is far too confusing to persist much longer in any language that aims for clarity of communication. Sentences with gerunds can and should be recast using some other verb form: I was upset by his insinuation that the business was a scam. I was upset that he had insinuated that the business was a scam. (v) apostrophes Over the years the apostrophe has been used in many different ways, some of which are no longer considered proper English (Crystal, 2019, p 215). Its first use, derived from the French, was to indicate omitted letters, which happen much more frequently in French (l’homme, n’est-ce pas): than in In addition, adding an apostrophe plus “s” to a noun has come to denote the possessive case. This rule is not true for pronouns, which have their own possessive form: The dog’s ears are pointed. [one dog] *It’s ears are pointed. The rule for the indicating the possessive for plural nouns is simply to add the apostrophe after the “s” The dogs’ ears are pointed. [more than one dog] For names ending in a sibilant, simply add the apostrophe plus “s” though some would recommend that for foreign names ending in a sibilant, perhaps just add the apostrophe: Charles’s son Texas’s cities [though “the cities of Texas” or “Texan cities” would be far better] Sophocles’ plays Much recent outrage has been expressed about the improper use of the apostrophe, for example to indicate the plural: However, in the 18th Century the apostrophe was correctly used to indicate the plural for words of foreign origin ending in a vowel, for example “comma’s” (Piton & Pignon, 2010), though this particular usage is no longer accepted as correct. I am happy at present to follow the rules that copy-editors suggest. But I am unaware of a case where an improper apostrophe has led to ambiguity or a failure to communicate. And I shall not correct those who do not follow the arbitrary rules. If the apostrophe of possession were to die out in the near future it would not be missed. We could write “dogs” and, as in speech, the context would indicate whether we meant the plural or the possessive, or both. We could then simply use the apostrophe to indicate missing letters. This is the etymological meaning of the word (from the Greek “turning away”). **Clarity** The best advice for writing or speaking English is to make sure that what you say is clear. Grammatical rules are there to make this possible. The best advice about how to be clear is to check (and recheck) to see if what you have written or what you are about to say is ambiguous. When applied to linguistics, Murphy’s law states that if something can be misinterpreted it will be. And even if it isn’t, the possible misinterpretation will have to be considered, and will thus slow down the correct interpretation. The other main rule is that your sentences should not be so convoluted that they become incomprehensible. If your reader or listener has difficulty figuring out how the parts of your sentences fit together, they will get tired and have no energy left to understand their meaning. Henry James may have written sentences containing tens of clauses and hundreds of words but you should not. Precision is always better than prolixity. Envoi The goal of language is to communicate. We should still keep and teach sensible rules that facilitate this goal. However, if the sense of the words is clear, one should not greatly care if these rules are broken. And, as the following brief story *Ships in the Night* (Bush, 1994) illustrates, it is probably best not to correct each other: I had only just arrived at the club when I bumped into Roger. After we had exchanged a few pleasantries, he lowered his voice and asked, “What do you think of Martha and I as a potential twosome?” “That,” I replied, “would be a mistake. Martha and me is more like it.” “You’re interested in Martha?” “I’m interested in clear communication.” “Fair enough,” he agreed. “May the best man win.” Then he sighed. “Here I thought we had a clear path to becoming a very unique couple.” “You couldn’t be a very unique couple, Roger.” “Oh? And why is that?” “Martha couldn’t be a little pregnant, could she?” “Say what? You think that Martha and me....” “Martha and I.” “Oh.” Roger blushed and set down his drink. “Gee, I didn’t know.” “Of course you didn’t.” I assured him. “Most people don’t.” “I feel very badly about this.” “You shouldn’t say that: I feel bad....” “Please, don’t,” Roger said. “If anyone’s at fault here, it’s me!” Historical References (Available at Archiv.org and other websites) Bullokar, W. (1586). *Bref Grammar for English*. London: Edmund Bollifant. (Transcription available in pp 331-285 of Plessow, M. (1906). *Geschichte der Fabeldichtung in England bis zu John Gay (1726)*. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.) Cawdry, J. (1604) *A table alphabeticall*. London: Edmund Weaver. Jespersen, O. (1933). *Essentials of English grammar*. New York: H. Holt and Company Jespersen, O. (1909-1949, reprinted 1961). *A modern English grammar on historical principles*. 7 Volumes. London: Allen & Unwin. Johnson, S. (1755). *A dictionary of the English language*. London: J. and P. Knapton; T. and T. Longman; C. Hitch and L. Hawes; A. Millar; and R. and J. Dodsley. Volume I, Volume II, transcription. Lowth, R. (1763). *A Short Introduction to English Grammar: With Critical Notes* (2nd Ed.). London: A. Millar and R. and J. Dodsley. Priestley, J. (1772). *The rudiments of English grammar*. (3rd Ed). London: J and F. Rivington. Swift, J. (1712). *A proposal for correcting, improving and ascertaining the English tongue*. London: Benjamin Tooke. **Current References** Aarts, B. (2004). *Fuzzy grammar: A reader*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Aarts, B., Bowie, J., & Popova, G. (Eds.) (2020). *The Oxford handbook of English grammar*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Aarts, B., & McMahon, A. M. S. (Eds.) (2006). *The handbook of English linguistics*. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Baron, D. (2020). *What’s your pronoun? Beyond he & she*. New York: Liveright (W.W. Norton & Company). Bush, L. (1994). Ships in the night. *New York Times*, April 4, 1994, p A21. Crystal, D. (2019). *The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language*. 3rd Edition. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press. Dreyer, B. (2019). *Dreyer’s English: An utterly correct guide to clarity and style*. New York: Random House Fernández Martínez, D. (2012). Authority in Lowth’s and Priestley’s prefaces to their English Grammars. *Studia Anglica Posnaniensia* 47/4. Fowler, H. W. (1926, edited and revised by Burchfield, R. W., 2004). *Fowler’s modern English usage*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fries, C. C. (1925) The periphrastic future with “shall” and “will” in modern English. *Publications of the Modern Language Association* 40, 963–1024. Greenbaum, S. (1996). *The Oxford English grammar*. London: Oxford University Press. Greene, R. L. (2018). *Talk on the wild side: The untameable nature of language*. London: Economist/Profile Books. Kaminski, M. P. (2017). Visualisation of collocational preferences for near-synonym discrimination. *Lexikos*, 27, 237-251. Landau, S. I. (2001). *Dictionaries: The art and craft of lexicography*. 2nd Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). *Speaking: From intention to articulation*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Linn, A. (2006). English grammar writing. In B. Aarts and A. M. S. McMahon (Eds.) *The handbook of English linguistics*. (pp 72-91). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Löbner, S. (2013). *Understanding semantics*. London: Routledge Lynch, J. (2009). *The lexicographer’s dilemma: the evolution of “proper” English, from Shakespeare to South Park*. New York: Walker & Co. Peters, P. (2006). English usage: prescription and description. In B. Aarts and A. M. S. McMahon (Eds.) *The handbook of English linguistics*. (pp 759-780). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Pinker, S. (2009) Oaf of office. *New York Times*, Jan 21, 2009. Pinker, S. (2014). *The sense of style: The thinking person’s guide to writing in the 21st century*. New York: Viking Piton, O., & Pignon, H. (2010). “Mind your p’s and q’s?”: or the peregrinations of an apostrophe in 17th Century English. arXiv Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). *A Comprehensive grammar of the English language*. London: Longman. Ravin, Y., & Leacock, C. (2000). *Polysemy: Theoretical and computational approaches*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Riding Jackson, L., Jackson, S. B., (edited by Harmon, W., 1997). *Rational meaning: A new foundation for the definition of words, and supplementary essays*. Charlottesville: University of Virginia. Schiffrin, D. (1987). *Discourse markers*. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Strunk, W., & White, E. B. (2009). *The elements of style*. 50th Anniversary Edition. New York: Pearson Longman:
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Contents - Present perfect (I have done) 2 - Present perfect (I have done) and past simple (I did) 2 - I will and I’m going to 3 - Past continuous (I was doing) 4 - Past continuous (I was doing) past simple (I did) 4 - Past perfect (I had done) 5 - Reported speech (He said that…) 6 - If I do, If I did and If I had done 7 - Must and can’t 8 - May and might 8 - Passive (is done / was done) 9 - Passive verbs with two objects 9 - Verb + -ing / to 10 - Preposition (in / for / about etc.) + -ing 10 - Spelling rules 11 - List of irregular verbs 12 For Further Practice: English Grammar in Use Supplementary Exercises Louise Hashemi with Raymond Murphy Cambridge University Press © 2000. Not for sale separately. Present perfect (I have done) Tom is looking for his key. He can’t find it. He has lost his key. ‘He has lost his key’ = He lost it and he still hasn’t got it. Have/has lost is the present perfect simple: | I/we/they/you | have (=I’ve etc.) | |---------------|-------------------| | | finished | | | lost | | | done | | he/she/it | has (=he’s etc.) | | | been | The present perfect simple is have/has + past participle. The past participle often ends in -ed (finished/decided etc.), but many important verbs are irregular (lost/done/been/written etc.). For a list of irregular verbs, see p.12. Present perfect and past (I have done and I did) Now Tom has found his key. He has it now. Has he lost his key? (present perfect) No, he hasn’t. He has found it. Did he lose his key? (past simple) Yes, he did. He lost his key (past simple) but now he has found it. (present perfect) The present perfect is a present tense. It always tells us something about now. ‘Tom has lost his key’ = he doesn’t have his key now. The past simple tells us only about the past. If somebody says ‘Tom lost his key’, we don’t know whether he has it now or not. We only know that he lost it at some time in the past. Do not use the present perfect (I have done) when you talk about a finished time (for example, yesterday / ten minutes ago / in 1985 / when I was a child). Use a past tense: - The weather was nice yesterday. (not ‘has been nice’) - They arrived ten minutes ago. (not ‘have arrived’) I will and I’m going to Sue is talking to Helen: Let’s have a party. That’s a great idea. We’ll invite lots of people. will (‘ll): We use will when we decide to do something at the time of speaking. The speaker has not decided before. The party is a new idea. Later that day, Helen meets Dave: Sue and I have decided to have a party. We’re going to invite lots of people. going to: We use (be) going to when we have already decided to do something. Helen had already decided to invite lots of people before she spoke to Dave. Compare: • ‘George phoned while you were out.’ ‘OK. I’ll phone him back.’ but • ‘George phoned while you were out.’ ‘Yes, I know. I’m going to phone him back.’ • ‘Ann is in hospital.’ ‘Oh really? I didn’t know. I’ll go and visit her.’ but • ‘Ann is in hospital.’ ‘Yes, I know. I’m going to visit her tomorrow.’ When we say that ‘something’ is going to happen, the situation now makes us believe this. The man is walking towards the hole now, so he is going to fall into it. He is going to fall into the hole. Past continuous (I was doing) Yesterday Karen and Jim played tennis. They began at 10 o’clock and finished at 11.30. So, at 10.30 they were playing tennis. They were playing = ‘they were in the middle of playing’. They had not finished playing. Was/were -ing is the past continuous: | I/he/she/it | was | |-------------|-----| | we/you/they | were | playing doing working etc. When we use it: We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already started before this time but had not finished: - This time last year I was living in Brazil. - What were you doing at 10 o’clock last night? - I waved at her but she wasn’t looking. Past continuous (I was doing) and past simple (I did) Past continuous (in the middle of an action) - I was walking home when I met Dave. (= in the middle of walking home) - Ann was watching television when the phone rang. Past simple (complete action) - I walked home after the party last night. (= all the way, completely) - Ann watched television a lot when she was ill last year. Past perfect (I had done) At 10.30 Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too but they didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10.30 and Sarah arrived at 11 o’clock. So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone home. Had gone is the past perfect (simple): | I/we/they/you | he/she/it | had | (= I’d etc.) | (= he’d etc.) | |---------------|-----------|-----|--------------|--------------| | | | | gone | seen | | | | | finished etc.| | The past perfect simple is had + past participle (gone/seen/finished etc.). For a list of irregular verbs, see p.12. Sometimes we talk about something that happened in the past: - Sarah arrived at the party. This is the starting point of the story. Then, if we want to talk about things that happened before this time, we use the past perfect (had...): - When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul had already gone home. Compare have done (present perfect) and had done (past perfect): - Who is that woman? I’ve never seen her before. - We aren’t hungry. We’ve just had lunch. - The house is dirty. They haven’t cleaned it for weeks. - I didn’t know who she was. I’d never seen her before. (= before that time) - We weren’t hungry. We’d just had lunch. - The house was dirty. They hadn’t cleaned it for weeks. Reported speech (He said that...) You want to tell somebody else what Tom said. There are two ways of doing this: You can repeat Tom’s words (direct speech): Tom said ‘I’m feeling ill.’ Or you can use reported speech: Tom said that he was feeling ill. Compare: | direct: | Tom said ‘I am feeling ill.’ | |---------|-----------------------------| | reported: | Tom said that he was feeling ill. | In writing we use these to show direct speech. When we use reported speech, the main verb of the sentence is usually past (Tom said that… / I told her that… etc.) The rest of the sentence is usually past too: - Tom said that he was feeling ill. - I told her that I didn’t have any money. In general, the present form in direct speech changes to the past form in reported speech: am/is → was do/does → did will → would are → were have/has → had can → could want/like/know/go etc. → wanted/liked/knew/went etc. Say and tell If you say who you are talking to, use tell: - Sonia told me that you were ill. (not Sonia said me’) TELL SOMEBODY - What did you tell the police? (not ‘say the police’) Otherwise use say: - Sonia said that you were ill. (not ‘Sonia told that…’) SAY SOMEBODY But you can ‘say something to somebody’: - Ann said goodbye to me and left. (not ‘Ann said me goodbye’) - What did you say to the police? If I do... and If I did... Compare: (1) Sue has lost her watch. She thinks it may be at Ann’s house. SUE: I think I left my watch at your house. Have you seen it? ANN: No, but I’ll have a look when I get home. If I find it, I’ll tell you. In this example, Ann feels there is a real possibility that she will find the watch. So she says: \[ \text{If I find..., I'll...} \] (2) Ann says: If I found a wallet in the street, I’d take it to the police. This is a different type of situation. Here, Ann is not thinking about a real possibility; she is imagining the situation and doesn’t expect to find a wallet in the street. So she says: \[ \text{If I found..., I'd (= I would)... (not ‘If I find..., I'll...’).} \] When you imagine something like this, you use if + past (if I found / if you were / if we didn’t etc.). But the meaning is not past: - Sarah has decided not to apply for the job. She isn’t really qualified for it, so she probably wouldn’t get it if she applied. If I had known... Study this example situation: Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didn’t know this, so she didn’t go to visit him. They met a few days ago. Liz said: If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you. Liz said: If I had known you were in hospital… . The real situation was that she didn’t know he was in hospital. When you are talking about the past, you use [if + had ('d)...(if I had known/been/done etc.)]: - I didn’t see you when you passed me in the street. If I’d seen you, of course I would have said hello. (but I didn’t see you) - The view was wonderful. If I’d had a camera, I would have taken some photographs. (but I didn’t have a camera) Must and can’t Present | I/you/he (etc.) | must can’t | be (tired / hungry / at work etc.) | |-----------------|------------|-----------------------------------| | | | be (doing / coming / joking etc.) | | | | do / go / know / have etc. | We use **must** to say that we feel sure something is true: - You’ve been travelling all day. You **must** be tired. (Travelling is tiring and you’ve been travelling all day, so you **must** be tired.) We use **can’t** to say that we feel sure something is not possible: - You’ve just had lunch. You **can’t** be hungry already. (People are not normally hungry just after eating a meal. You’ve just eaten, so you **can’t** be hungry.) Past | I/you/he (etc.) | must can’t | have | been (asleep / at work etc.) | |-----------------|------------|------|------------------------------| | | | | been (doing / working etc.) | | | | | done / gone / known / had etc.| - The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. I **must** have been asleep. - Tom walked straight into a wall. He **can’t** have been looking where he was going. May and might Present | I/you/he (etc.) | may might | (not) | be (true / in his office etc.) | |-----------------|-----------|-------|-------------------------------| | | | | be (doing / working / having etc.) | | | | | do / know / have / want etc. | We use **may** or **might** to say that something is a possibility. Usually you can use **may** or **might**, so you can say: - It **may** be true, *or* It **might** be true. (= perhaps it is true) - She **might** know, *or* She **may** know. Past | I/you/he (etc.) | may might | (not) have | been asleep / at work etc. | |-----------------|-----------|------------|-----------------------------| | | | | been (doing / waiting etc.) | | | | | done / known / had / seen etc.| - A: I wonder why Kay didn’t answer the phone. B: She **may** have been asleep. (= perhaps she was asleep) - A: I was surprised that Sarah wasn’t at the meeting. B: She **might** not have **known** about it. (= perhaps she didn’t know) Passive (is done / was done) The passive is be (is/was/have been etc.) + the past participle (done/cleaned/seen etc.): (be) done (be) cleaned (be) seen (be) damaged (be) built etc. For irregular past participles (done/known/seen etc.), see Present simple active: clean(s)/sees(s) etc. Somebody cleans [this room] every day. passive: am/is/are cleaned/seen etc. [This room] is cleaned every day. - Many accidents are caused by careless driving. - I’m not often invited to parties. - How is this word pronounced? Past simple active: cleaned/saw etc. Somebody cleaned [this room] yesterday. passive: was/were cleaned/seen etc. [This room] was cleaned yesterday. - We were woken up by a loud noise during the night. - ‘Did you go to the party?’ No, I wasn’t invited.’ - How much money was stolen? Verbs with two objects Some verbs can have two objects. For example, give: - We gave the police the information. (= We gave the information to the police.) So it is possible to make two passive sentences: - The police were given the information. or The information was given to the police. Other verbs which can have two objects are: ask offer pay show teach tell When we use these verbs in the passive, most often we begin with the person: - I was offered the job but refused it. (= they offered me the job) - You will be given plenty of time to decide. (= we will give you plenty of time) - Have you been shown the new machine? (= has anybody shown you...?) - The men were paid £200 to do the work. (= somebody paid the men £200) Verb + -ing Here are some verbs that are followed by -ing: stop delay fancy consider admit miss involve finish postpone imagine avoid deny risk practise - Suddenly everybody stopped talking. There was silence. - I’ll do the shopping when I’ve finished cleaning the flat. Verb + to… If these verbs are followed by another verb, the structure is usually verb + to…(infinitive): offer decide hope deserve attempt promise agree plan aim afford manage threaten refuse arrange learn forget fail - It was late, so we decided to take a taxi home. - Simon was in a difficult situation, so I agreed to lend him some money. Preposition (in/for/about etc.) + -ing If a preposition (in/for/about etc.) is followed by a verb, the verb ends in -ing. For example: | Are you interested? | preposition | verb (-ing) | for us? | |---------------------|-------------|-------------|---------| | I’m not very good | in | working | languages. | | She must be fed up | at | learning | | | What are the advantages? | with | studying. | | | This knife is only | of | having | | | How | for | cutting | | | I bought a new bicycle | about | playing | | | Carol went to work | instead of | going | | | | in spite of | feeling | | 10 Spelling rules Nouns, verbs and adjectives can have the following endings: | noun + s/es (plural) | books | ideas | matches | |-----------------------|-------|-------|---------| | verb + s/-es (after he/she/it) | works | enjoys | washes | | verb + -ing | working | enjoying | washing | | verb + -ed | worked | enjoyed | washed | | adjective + -er (comparative) | cheaper | quicker | brighter | | adjective + -est (superlative) | cheapest | quickest | brightest | | adjective + -ly (adverb) | cheaply | quickly | brightly | Words ending in -y (baby, carry, easy etc.) If a word ends in a consonant* + y (-by/-ry/-sy insert / oblique -vy etc.): y changes to ie before the ending -s: - baby/babies - lorry/lorries - country/countries - secretary/secretaries - hurry/hurries - study/studies - apply/applies - try/tries y changes to i before the ending -ed: - hurry/hurried - study/studied - apply/applied - try/tried y changes to i before the endings -er and -est: - easy/easier/easiest - heavy/heavier/heaviest - lucky/luckier/luckiest y changes to i before the ending -ly: - easy/easily - heavy/heavily - temporary/temporarily Doubling consonants (stop/stopping/stopped, wet/wetter/wettest etc.) Sometimes a word ends in vowel + consonant. For example: - stop - plan - wet - thin - slip - prefer - regret Before the endings -ing/-ed/-er/-est, we double the consonant at the end. So p → pp, n → nn etc. For example: | stop | p → pp | stopping | stopped | |-------|--------|----------|---------| | plan | n → nn | planning | planned | | rub | b → bb | rubbing | rubbed | | big | g → gg | bigger | biggest | | wet | t → tt | wetter | wettest | | thin | n → nn | thinner | thinnest | | infinitive | past simple | past participle | |------------|-------------|-----------------| | be | was/were | been | | beat | beat | beaten | | become | became | become | | begin | began | begun | | bend | bent | bent | | bet | bet | bet | | bite | bit | bitten | | blow | blew | blown | | break | broke | broken | | bring | brought | brought | | broadcast | broadcast | broadcast | | build | built | built | | burst | burst | burst | | buy | bought | bought | | catch | caught | caught | | choose | chose | chosen | | come | came | come | | cost | cost | cost | | creep | crept | crept | | cut | cut | cut | | deal | dealt | dealt | | dig | dug | dug | | do | did | done | | draw | drew | drawn | | drink | drank | drunk | | drive | drove | driven | | eat | ate | eaten | | fall | fell | fallen | | feed | fed | fed | | feel | felt | felt | | fight | fought | fought | | find | found | found | | flee | fled | fled | | fly | flew | flown | | forbid | forbade | forbidden | | forget | forgot | forgotten | | forgive | forgave | forgiven | | freeze | froze | frozen | | get | got | got | | give | gave | given | | go | went | gone | | grow | grew | grown | | hang | hung | hung | | have | had | had | | hear | heard | heard | | hide | hid | hidden | | hit | hit | hit | | hold | held | held | | hurt | hurt | hurt | | keep | kept | kept | | kneel | knelt | knelt | | know | knew | known | | lay | laid | laid | | lead | led | led | | leave | left | left | | lend | lent | lent | | let | let | let | | lie | lay | lain | | infinitive | past simple | past participle | |------------|-------------|-----------------| | light | lit | lit | | lose | lost | lost | | make | made | made | | mean | meant | meant | | meet | met | met | | pay | paid | paid | | put | put | put | | read | read [red]* | read [red]* | | ride | rode | ridden | | ring | rang | rung | | rise | rose | risen | | run | ran | run | | say | said | said | | see | saw | seen | | seek | sought | sought | | sell | sold | sold | | send | sent | sent | | set | set | set | | sew | sewed | sewn/sewed | | shake | shook | shaken | | shine | shone | shone | | shoot | shot | shot | | show | showed | shown/showed | | shrink | shrank | shrunk | | shut | shut | shut | | sing | sang | sung | | sink | sank | sunk | | sit | sat | sat | | sleep | slept | slept | | slide | slid | slid | | speak | spoke | spoken | | spend | spent | spent | | spit | spat | spat | | split | split | split | | spread | spread | spread | | spring | sprang | sprung | | stand | stood | stood | | steal | stole | stolen | | stick | stuck | stuck | | sting | stung | stung | | stink | stank | stunk | | strike | struck | struck | | swear | swore | sworn | | sweep | swept | swept | | swim | swam | swum | | swing | swung | swung | | take | took | taken | | teach | taught | taught | | tear | tore | torn | | tell | told | told | | think | thought | thought | | throw | threw | thrown | | understand | understood | understood | | wake | woke | woken | | wear | wore | worn | | weep | wept | wept | | win | won | won | | write | wrote | written |
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Early Years – 12 Family Handbook COMPASSION. COURAGE. CURIOUSITY. ## Content 04 Welcome and Guiding Statements 09 OSC Learning Model 12 OSC School Structure 15 Section 1: General (Whole-School) - Admissions - Attendance - Behaviour of Students - Bell Schedules - Calendar of School Dates - Canteen Services - Child Safeguarding - Class Sizes - Contract and Communication - Counselling Programmes - Curriculum - Dress Code - Extracurricular Activities - Event Rules - Facilities - Field Trips - Financial Assistance Programme - Grading and Assessment - Harassment, Threats, and Bullying - Health and Safety - House System - Languages at OSC - Learning Support Services (LSS) - Lockers - Lost and Found - Parent Supervision/Guardianship - Gecko Community Network (GCN) - Pets on Campus - Political and Religious Neutrality Statement - Security and ID Cards - School Supplies - Student Records - Sustainability Initiatives - Technology Use - Tuition Fee Schedule - Transportation and Bussing - Uniform (PE) - Visitors Procedures - Well-being Team - Withdrawals Section 2: Our Primary School → Introduction to the Primary → IB Primary Years Programme (PYP) → Approaches to Learning (ATL) in the PYP → PYP Curriculum → Assemblies and Productions → Assessing Learning in the Primary → The PYP Exhibition → Attendance in the Primary → Awards in the Primary → Counselling Programme at the Primary Level → Homework in the Primary School → Learning Management Systems and Software in the Primary → Parent Involvement in the Primary School → Student Leadership – Primary School → Ambassadors – PSA → Student Responsibilities → Trips in the Primary School Section 3: Our Secondary School → Introduction to the Secondary → IB MYP (MYP) Programme → MYP Curriculum → The IB MYP Personal Project → IB Diploma Programme (DP) → IBDP Overview → Courses offered at the DP Level at The Overseas School of Colombo → The IBDP Core at OSC → Comprehensive Sexuality Education in the IB DP at OSC → OSC High School Diploma Programme → OSC Diploma Programme → Approaches to Learning (ATLs) in the MYP and DP → Assemblies and Productions → Assessing Learning in the Secondary → Malpractice and Academic Integrity in the Secondary → Assignment Deadline Policies → Attendance in the Secondary → Awards in the Secondary → Counselling Programme at the Secondary Level → Graduation Requirements → Homework Expectations in the Secondary School → Learning Management Systems and Software in Secondary Education → Parent Involvement in the Secondary School → Student Leadership – Secondary Student Government (SGA) → Trips in the Secondary School → Week Without Walls Programme Welcome and Guiding Statements Principal’s Welcome Dear Parents, A Warm Welcome to The Overseas School of Colombo! We are delighted to welcome you and your child to The Overseas School of Colombo (OSC). OSC offers a comprehensive educational experience, from our nurturing Early Years Programme for 3-year-olds to Grade 12. The OSC Family Handbook will help you learn how primary and secondary schools operate. Your two main guides to OSC are 1) The School Policy Manual, written by the Board of Directors, and 2) The OSC Family Handbook, which describes how many policies are operationalised and helps you navigate our School. Student-centred Learning at Its Core At OSC, our philosophy centres around the student. We believe in fostering a learning environment where every conversation, action, and decision prioritises your child's development. We believe that “Schools are for children... it just happens that adults work in them”. International Baccalaureate and Tailored Support As an authorised three-programme International Baccalaureate (IB) school, OSC offers a rigorous and engaging curriculum that encourages students to take ownership of their learning. The IB is an inclusive Programme. Our full-time English as an Additional Language (EAL) teachers provide dedicated support for students still developing their English proficiency. For students who need additional support in accessing the curriculum due to their diverse learning needs, our Learning Support (LS) Department will work closely with you. Partnership for Success OSC strongly believes in the power of parental involvement. We view the relationship between student, parent, and teacher as vital in maximising your child's educational journey. Unlike traditional schools, OSC welcomes open communication and collaboration. We value your input and participation throughout the learning process. Open Communication is Key Clear communication between parents and the school is essential for creating your child’s best learning environment. Please don’t hesitate to contact us if you have any questions or want to discuss the Programme further. We look forward to a successful and enriching school year of collaboration and learning. Kind Regards, Jason Grandbois Principal firstname.lastname@example.org 1.1 School Guiding Statements MISSION Compassion, Courage, and Curiosity VALUES We value community and relationships. We value process and growth. We value integrity and dignity. We value empowerment and taking action. We value sustainability. We value creativity and expression. VISION At OSC, we live our mission by creating space and time for learners to engage in mutually respectful and enriching connections; teaching intercultural understanding, development, and competencies; fostering a culture of learning that sparks joy, thinking, and inquiry; nurturing personal identity so every learner feels a sense of belonging; and inviting all learners to persevere in their learning journey. MOTTO UNITY IN DIVERSITY Diversity Statement at OSC OSC is a place where multiple perspectives are valued, and our differences strengthen our community. This school provides a space where everyone receives support and resources that will best meet their needs. We use inclusive language in our classroom, curriculum, and community spaces to celebrate the variety of cultures, identities, and values our school represents. Students at OSC can access learning experiences regardless of their cultural background, gender identity, sexual orientation, religious beliefs, or racial identity. At OSC, social justice is evident on our campus when students feel safe to identify when physical or emotional harm happens to them and know that they will be believed and a resolution will be found. We believe in restorative justice. Growth creates a community where we learn from our mistakes, and empathy is the focus of our disciplinary actions. Students should feel safe to express their identity, culture, or beliefs without risk of harm or judgement. With a diverse student population and faculty, our international school has much to cherish and celebrate, and we accept the challenge of acknowledging and confronting injustices, hurtful words, and actions and work towards a more equitable and inclusive school for our students. Like many international schools worldwide, we recognise the historic legacies we have inherited, and we are committed to modelling new patterns of behaviour and policies that support what it means to live our core concept of “Unity in Diversity” truly. We are a diverse community organised around a pledge to learn. As such, we call for open-mindedness, compassion, respect, collaboration, and honesty in our teachers, parents, students, and learning partners. Our guiding beliefs will inspire sincere problem-solving, community reflection, and efforts towards correcting past harms, learning new practices and approaches, continuing to embrace cooperation, and a growth mindset going forward. At OSC, we use culturally responsive teaching practices in our learning experiences, assessment policies, and classroom environments. We use the philosophy of restorative justice as outlined in our behaviour policy, which guides classroom management and, where needed, disciplinary responses from principals. At OSC, we provide a multi-tiered system of academic and social-emotional support and the right to participate regardless of students’ neurodiversity, gender, racial or cultural identity, or other diverse ways of existing. All members of the OSC community are expected to adhere to a standard set of definitions of diversity, equity, inclusion, and justice and model pedagogical and behavioural practices that create a space where all learners feel included and safe. We will be aware of our biases and reflect on how they impact teaching and learning on our campus and community. Accountability from the Board of Directors, the Head of the School and her School Leadership Team, and all stakeholders will lead to actions that decolonise our curriculum, resources, school policies, and teaching practices. Faculty and students are encouraged to report when harm, such as microaggressions or other injustices, happens on our campus. We are fully committed to implementing our mission, Compassion, Courage, and Curiosity, across all aspects of our school community. Born from our mission, we pledge to prioritise and systematise DEIJB across all aspects of policy, practice, curriculum, and school culture. **Global Citizenship and Interculturalism at OSC** As a community, OSC recognises and values the ways in which internationalism and interculturalism define our identity and the actions that arise from that identity. We are a community of diverse beliefs, experiences and perspectives, and yet we see our role in international education within the context of global citizenship. We recognise that actions guided by principles of self-determination, humanitarianism and lifelong learning are engendered by these concepts. Together, internationalism and interculturalism prepare students to positively participate in and contribute to a world where citizenship and its responsibilities are no longer confined to national and regional boundaries. **Internationalism:** Empowering our learners to be open-minded and take action to contribute positively in a complex world. - Local, national, and global perspectives - Human rights, development and cooperation and governance - Environmental awareness and sustainability - The role of peace education and conflict resolution in our world - The interdependence of natural and human systems on our planet **Interculturalism:** Incorporating cultural perspectives to create a shared understanding which guides our actions. - Culture through language and literature - Communication and language learning - The role of culture in our lives and the lives of others - Citizenship and service as an expression of individual responsibility - Authentic learning through service with the community - Mutual respect for the diversity of beliefs and values, and in ways of being as well as ways of knowing - Debate and free inquiry within the bounds of courtesy, sensitivity, confidentiality and respect both in and out of the classroom setting OSC Learning Model Teaching Standards: Tripod 7 Cs Framework Cultures of Thinking: Project Zero’s Eight Cultural Forces OSC Definition of Learning Personal Support Care Confer Curricular Support Captivate Clarity Consolidate Modelling Interactions Beyond academics Community service Lifelong learning Routines Opportunities Voice, choice & ownership Real-world impact Process-based Diversity Academic Press Challenge Classroom management Expectations Language Environment Time Connect, extend and transfer Student agency Teacher Growth and Improvement Framework The Overseas School of Colombo (OSC) is a dedicated learning community committed to reflective and impactful practices. We all strive towards getting better each and every day to support learning for all students. The OSC Teacher Growth and Improvement Framework aims to support an ethos for continuous improvement for all teaching staff and is intended to ensure our students have access to high quality education aligned to our Guiding Statements. OSC’s Teacher Growth and Improvement Framework stems from **The OSC Learning Model**, which integrates three key layers: - OSC’s Definition of Learning - OSC’s implementation of Project Zero’s [Cultures of Thinking](#) Eight Cultural Forces - OSC’s commitment to the [Tripod 7Cs Teaching Standards](#) The OSC Teacher Growth and Improvement Framework is designed to support all teachers equally. The process is centred on instructional supervision which includes observation-based feedback, goal setting, a healthy culture of care and trust, instructional coaching and support, strong collaborative structures, sharing of practices, positive collegial relationships, and opportunities for self-reflection. Observation-based feedback provides data, identifying strengths and areas for development and growth. Tracking this data helps with goal setting and leads to better student outcomes. Regular feedback creates a culture of care and trust, reflecting on whether all students (regardless of their background or abilities) are accessing all aspects of their education, and identifying and addressing any biases or discrimination that may be present in the curriculum or the classroom. OSC believes that a school is at its best when teachers believe that all learners can grow and flourish, have the collective capacity to bring this about, and are fully engaged in that effort. It is a professional expectation that every teacher and staff member at OSC actively engages in improving her/his professional practice as part of the collective whole. As a priority, the school provides support and resources in alignment with the goals of the School. The aim of all IB programmes is to develop internationally minded people who, recognise their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, make it their purpose to create a better and more peaceful world. | IB LEARNERS STRIVE TO BE: | | |--------------------------|--------------------------------| | **Inquirers** | We nurture our curiosity, developing skills for inquiry and research. We know how to learn independently and with others. We learn with enthusiasm and sustain our love of learning throughout life. | | **Knowledgeable** | We develop and use conceptual understanding, exploring knowledge across a range of disciplines. We engage with issues and ideas that have local and global significance. | | **Thinkers** | We use critical and creative thinking skills to analyse and take responsible actions to solve complex problems. We exercise initiative in making reasoned, ethical decisions. | | **Communicators** | We express ourselves confidently and creatively in more than one language and in many ways. We collaborate effectively, listening carefully to the perspectives of other individuals and groups. | | **Principled** | We act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness and justice, and with respect for the dignity and rights of people everywhere. We take responsibility for our actions and their consequences. | | **Open-minded** | We critically appreciate our own cultures and personal histories, as well as the values and traditions of others. We seek and evaluate a range of points of view, and we are willing to grow from the experience. | | **Caring** | We show empathy, compassion, and respect. We have a commitment to service, and we act to make a positive difference in the lives of others and in the world around us. | | **Risk-takers** | We approach uncertainty with forethought and determination; we work independently and cooperatively to explore new ideas and innovative strategies. We are resourceful and resilient in the face of challenges and change. | | **Balanced** | We understand the importance of balancing different aspects of our lives – intellectual, physical, and emotional – to achieve well-being for ourselves and others. | | **Reflective** | We recognise our interdependence with other people and with the world in which we live. We thoughtfully consider the world and our own ideas and experiences. We work to understand our strengths and weaknesses in order to support our learning and personal development. | Well-being at OSC At OSC, we are committed to developing learners that embrace learning their whole life. For learners to learn well, they need to be well. Well-being at The Overseas School of Colombo is a positive state experienced by individuals and the community, encompassing quality of life and developing our students as civilisation builders. OSC School Structure The Overseas School of Colombo (OSC) is an English medium international school serving Colombo’s internationally mobile expatriate and Sri Lankan communities. It was founded during the 1957-58 academic year as the Overseas Children’s School with 25 children and today has about 340 students from over 40 different countries. The School is registered as a non-profit limited company in Sri Lanka under its revised name, “The Overseas School of Colombo”. The parents of all students attending the School are members of the Company. Full-fee-paying parents are entitled to attend and vote at the Annual General Meeting, which is held in January of each year. The Company’s Memorandum and Articles of Association were revised in March 1998, and copies are available on the school website. The Company is managed by a Board of Directors of up to nine members, including all parents of children in the School. Board members are elected at the Annual General Meeting. The School’s Articles of Association do not allow more than two members of any one nationality to serve on the Board at the same time. The full Board meets at regular intervals throughout the year. Two working Board committees are Governance and Nominations and Finance and Facilities. The Primary School spans early years to Grade 5, and the Secondary School comprises Grade 6 students through Grade 12, with typically two teaching sections per grade level. The Principal If more information is required or if a situation is not resolved with a teacher or Programme coordinator, parents are encouraged to contact the Principal with the knowledge of the teacher concerned. In addition to the above, you may wish to consult the Principal directly on matters related to: → Timetable or room issues → Broad issues involving the School → Behaviour or morale, communication, and information related to the operation of the School → School communication → Discipline → Curriculum and Programme coordination → Reporting on student performance → School trips or events → School facilities The Head of Administrative Operations If parents have questions about accounts and finances – school fee issues, payments, refunds, etc. – they may contact the Head of Administrative Operations. The Head of School If more information is required or the concern remains unresolved, parents may wish to contact the Head of School, with the knowledge of the Principal. In addition to the above, parents may wish to consult the Head of School directly on matters related to: → Community/school communication and relations → School-wide issues such as security and application of school policies → Strategic planning → Financial policy and oversight → Long-term planning, including the development of facilities and the school environment ## OSC Organisational Chart ### OSC Board of Directors ### Head of School | Head of Administration and Finance | Child Safeguarding Lead | Director of Student Support | EY-12 Principal | Technology Director | Director of Facilities and Maintenance | Head of Security and Transport | Director of Admissions | |------------------------------------|-------------------------|-----------------------------|-----------------|---------------------|----------------------------------------|-------------------------------|-----------------------| | Professional and Admin Staff | The Child Safeguarding Committee | Primary and Secondary School Counsellors | Assistant Primary Principal | PYP Coordinator | Project Engineer | Security and Transport Coordinator | | | Academic Support Staff | | Primary and Secondary Learning Support Teachers | Assistant Secondary Principal | MYP Coordinator | Service Staff (Maintenance) | Service Staff (Drivers and Messengers) | | | | | Primary and Secondary EAL Teachers | Learning Leaders and Coordinators | DP Coordinator | | | | | | | Primary and Secondary Learning Support Teacher Assistants | Primary and Secondary Teachers, Teacher Assistants and Lab Technicians | | | | | | | | School Doctor | | | | | | Section 1: General (Whole-School) Admissions The OSC Admissions Policy is open and inclusive. We welcome students from diverse backgrounds with various talents and abilities. Please read through our Admissions Policy for more detailed information. Attendance Students who attend regularly are more likely to succeed. Daily class attendance is a condition for fulfilling credit requirements, completing coursework, and general academic progress. To qualify for course credit, students must attend school for at least 85% of the instructional days designated in the school calendar. Parents are asked to contact the relevant office by 8:00am if a student will be absent for any reason. Parents who wish to withdraw a student for an extended period of time need to consult with the Principal. Students who arrive late must report to the Primary or Secondary Office to ensure our records are accurate. Parents are responsible for informing the School when travelling and leaving their children with a guardian. The School requires advance notice, full contact details of the guardian, and parent contact details while away. Behaviour of Students Creating a safe and inclusive learning environment is crucial for every child’s holistic growth and development. Our OSC behaviour policy is based on Positive Discipline, which includes restorative practices and evidence-based approaches to social-emotional learning. We recognise that children’s behaviour is a form of communication and respond in a culturally responsive, equitable manner that promotes a sense of belonging for all students. What is positive discipline? Positive Discipline is the theoretical underpinning of our approach at OSC. It encourages healthy and constructive behaviour. It is a nonpunitive, relationship-based approach emphasising mutual respect, effective communication, and logical consequences. Rather than relying on punishment or rewards, it teaches children valuable life skills, such as problem-solving, empathy, and self-regulation, to promote a sense of belonging and purpose for all children in our community. What are restorative approaches? Within Positive Discipline, OSC uses restorative approaches that are culturally responsive and equitable to address misbehaviours. Restorative approaches prioritise repairing harm and restoring relationships when conflicts or misbehaviours occur. They involve all parties affected by an incident, facilitate open communication, and promote accountability, understanding, and healing. How do we train our staff? OSC is committed to providing ongoing professional development and training for all staff members in Positive Discipline. We foster collaboration among teachers, administrators, parents, and external experts to continually improve our approaches and ensure alignment with current research and best practices. In addition to Positive Discipline and restorative approaches and practices, staff professional development includes training on equity, diversity, inclusion, and anti-bias principles to ensure that our approaches and interactions with students and each other are culturally responsive and equitable. How do we train and communicate this policy to our parents? OSC maintains open communication and partnership with families to ensure that our parents understand our programme and can reinforce the same positive and restorative approaches with their children at home. Parents are provided access to all policies during enrolment through the Family Handbook and access to the OSC Parent Portal. OSC offers various opportunities yearly to ensure our parents partner effectively with us, such as Positive Discipline parenting workshops, open discussion forums, and consultations with school counsellors. At OSC, each student has the right to: → Experience a secure, welcoming, and accepting atmosphere, free from prejudice or unjust conduct. → Thrive and acquire knowledge without any adverse influence from peers or others. → Express themselves and participate in matters that impact them. → Receive respectful, courteous, and thoughtful treatment from all faculty and fellow students. → See staff members modelling and providing guidance on expected behaviours in our School. → Receive positive feedback, acknowledgment, and appreciation for growth, positive behaviours, and achievements. → Have the option to contest any decisions made by educators and administrators through a formal process. (Reference: OSC School Policy: 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 5.2, 5.43, 5.6, 5.8, 6.5, 7.34, 8.2, 8.21, 8.22 and 8.31) At OSC, every student is expected to: → Show respect for people and property in and out of the School. → Participate actively in their learning and the learning of others. → Be compassionate, responsible, honest, courageous, and curious. → Use appropriate, inclusive, and respectful communication and language. → Promote school spirit and unity in diversity. At OSC, every staff member is expected to: Implement Positive Discipline: → Establish clear expectations within their teaching environment. → Teach and model positive behaviours and skills. → Encourage all students. → Use restorative practices when challenges arise. Implement Restorative Practices with Students: → Engage with students in discussing misbehaviour and work towards repairing harm. → Build community and have open discussions to address conflict. → Teach students the tools to resolve conflict. → Support student reintegration after an incident. Implement Cultural Responsiveness: → Be self-reflective and aware to recognise and challenge one’s own biases. → Learn about everyone’s backgrounds. → Use culturally appropriate methods and materials in the classroom and address cultural bias in lessons. → Build relationships with students, staff, and families. → Celebrate diversity in the school. At OSC, every parent is expected to: Demonstrate behaviours outlined in the Parent Code of Conduct found in our OSC School Policy Manual. Addressing Misbehaviours and Serious Offenses OSC implements proactive measures to promote positive behaviour and prevent misbehaviours, such as clear expectations, consistent routines, and student voice and agency opportunities. Teachers use classroom management strategies for minor misbehaviours, such as reminders, redirections, and logical consequences. Administrators become involved in more severe or recurring incidents, and interventions may include restorative circles, student conferences, behaviour contracts, or referrals to outside professionals when necessary. In cases of severe or unlawful offenses (e.g. violence, substance abuse, harassment), OSC follows a clear protocol that prioritises safety, involves appropriate authorities, and provides support for all parties involved. OSC aims to implement restorative practices to repair harm and facilitate the reintegration of students when and as appropriate. We may temporarily remove students from the environment if their behaviour is severely disruptive or unsafe. In the most severe cases, we may use natural consequential actions such as expulsion and legal actions as the last resort. The primary goal is to create a safe, positive school climate while providing support to address the function of misbehaviour and teach appropriate replacement behaviours using Positive Discipline practices. Students learn best in the classroom, and we want to keep them there. Below are the levels and types of behaviours that guide OSC in decision-making and approach. When determining appropriate consequences or restorative actions, OSC considers culturally relevant options that align with the student's cultural values and traditions while addressing the harm caused and promoting accountability. | Levels | Examples of Types of Behaviours | Examples of Possible School Responses Using a Positive Discipline Approach | |--------|---------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Level 1 | Distracting behaviour Minor teasing that is not welcomed Incomplete homework Unprepared for class Dress code violations | → Redirection and a verbal reminder of expectations. → Teacher-student conversation to better understand the root cause (Example, Mistaken Goals Chart). → Collaborative problem-solving between community members to improve student behaviour. → Teaching appropriate replacement behaviours. | | Level 2 | Repeated Level 1 behaviours Disruptive behaviour Inappropriate language Defiance and disrespect Put down others Classroom disruptions | → Parent notification and involvement. → A teacher/student conference will be held to resolve the issue. → Support from and collaboration with the school counsellor. → Reflective activity related to the behaviour. → A staff member leads restorative circles with all parties so there is an attempt to resolve, close, and restore relationships. | | Level 3 | Repeated Level 2 behaviours Aggressive/targeted language Minor property damage Disruptive classroom behaviour where others cannot learn Bullying | → Parents are notified, and a conference is held. → Support from and collaboration with the school counsellor. → A comprehensive behaviour intervention plan that is developmentally appropriate may be created. → A staff member leads restorative circles with all parties so there is an attempt to resolve, close, and restore relationships. → If necessary, temporary removal from the classroom environment, intending to return as soon as possible. | | Levels | Examples of Types of Behaviours | Examples of Possible School Responses Using a Positive Discipline Approach | |--------|---------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Level 4 | Repeated Level 3 behaviours, Harassment, Fighting, Aggressive behaviour, Theft, Vandalism, Substance abuse/possession | ➔ Parents are notified, and a conference is held. ➔ Suspension (in or out of school); long-term suspensions; or expulsion. ➔ Re-entry meeting with students, parents, and support team. ➔ Behaviour contract implementation as necessary ➔ Ongoing counselling and intervention from outside professionals may be a condition for enrolment. ➔ Restorative practices are applied for the re-engagement plan. ➔ Child safeguarding protocols are implemented. | | Level 5 | Repeated Level 4 behaviours, Serious threat to own safety and the safety of others, Weapon possession, Hate crimes, Severe property damage, Illegal activities | ➔ Parents are notified, and a conference is held. ➔ Long-term suspension or expulsion. ➔ Re-engagement plan for possible reinstatement. ➔ Alternative educational placement may be recommended. ➔ Legal actions, as appropriate. ➔ Child safeguarding protocols are implemented. | In Levels 4 and 5: 1. Parents may be asked to take their child home until further investigation and a final decision regarding the consequences of the behaviour are made. 2. Parents are invited to the School to speak with the Head of School and appropriate members of the Leadership Team. 3. The student may request for a particular teacher advocate to be present. 4. The school team meets to decide on the consequence, which will be communicated to the relevant parties as soon as possible. 5. Parents can appeal an expulsion decision to the School Board through the Head of School. 6. Parents and students should be aware that some universities require reporting disciplinary actions as part of the application process, and we may be required to report such violations. **Suspension** A student who commits a serious infraction of school rules and policies, as judged by the administration, can be suspended for up to five days. The Board will be informed if a student is suspended for a longer period. Students may be suspended “in school” or “out of school (home)”. A student may be suspended in school, i.e. suspended from a class or classes and assigned special school work. Students suspended “in school” may not attend regular classes, may be given a special schedule, and will be expected to make up all missed class work and homework. Students may also be suspended “out of school” (home). A student suspended from school may not attend classes and school events. The student must make up all missed classwork and homework on returning to school. A suspended student cannot return to school and must follow the regular school schedule until a conference is held between the administration, student, parent(s), or guardian. **Expulsion** The administration must inform the Board when a student is expelled. Normally, this would be in a situation where, following counselling and conferences with the student and parents, the student continues to behave in a manner that is detrimental to the School, is unable to profit from the academic programme, or either interrupts the learning of others or endangers their safety. However, in severe cases, expulsion may be recommended without the benefit of prior counselling or conferences. In the event of expulsion, all fees for that billing period are forfeited. **Appeal to the Board** In the event of a five-day suspension or an expulsion, parents may appeal to the Board if they feel due process has not been followed. During the period leading up to the appeal, the actual decision taken by the administration will stand. ## Bell Schedules ### PRIMARY SCHOOL SCHEDULE | Time | Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday | Wednesday | |-----------------------|-----------------------------------|-----------| | Morning Bell | 8:15 | 8:15 | | Homeroom | 8:15 - 8:25 | 8:15 - 8:25 | | 1 | 8:30 - 9:40 | 8:30 - 9:40 | | 2 | 9:45 - 10:30 | 9:45 - 10:20 | | Snack and Break | 10:30 - 11:00 End of Break Bell | 10:20 - 10:50 End of Break Bell | | 3 | 11:05 - 11:50 | 10:55 - 11:30 | | 4 | 11:55 - 12:40 | 11:35 - 12:10 | | 5 | 12:45 - 1:30 | 12:15 - 12:50 | | 6 Lunch | 1:30 - 2:15 End of Lunch Bell | 12:50 - 1:35 End of Lunch Bell | | 7 | 2:20 - 3:05 | 1:40 - 2:15 | | 8 | 3:10 - 3:30 | 2:20 - 2:30 2:45 - 4:30 Staff PD | | ASA's | 3:30 - 4:30 | 2:30 - 3:30 | ### SECONDARY SCHOOL SCHEDULE | Period | Times | |--------|------------------------------| | HR | 8:15 - 8:25 | | Block 1| 8:30 - 9:45 | | Break | 9:45 - 10:00 (15 minute) | | Block 2| 10:00 - 11:15 | | Block 3| 11:20 - 12:30 | | Lunch | 12:30 - 1:20 (50 minute) | | Block 4| 1:20 - 2:35 | | Block X| 2:40 - 3:30 | No X Block on Wednesday: 2:30 dismissal for students. Students are issued a class timetable on arrival that will detail their learning journey for the week. This will enable them to plan when to bring their PE and swimming kit in addition to indicating when other specialist classes will occur. We operate using a six-day system at OSC. This system will ensure that no particular day’s timetable is missed more than any other. Students will be provided with an OSC “book-bag” that they will be able to use to transport their homework, diary and reading books, and other materials safely. → Primary dismisses at 2:15 on a Wednesday allow for staff professional development and collaborative planning. → Morning drop-off should be between 8:00 - 8:10. School starts promptly at 8:15. **Calendar of School Dates** The School emails home a one-page PDF calendar and prints a month-by-month calendar for all families. The Digital Portal Calendar of the OSC website is the most up-to-date calendar, and you may digitally subscribe to it once you have used your credentials to enter the Parent Portal Site. **Key dates include:** | Term Activities | Dates | |-----------------------------------------------------|------------------------------| | First day of school | 7 August 2024 | | Mid semester break | 12 – 20 October 2024 | | Return to school after the mid-semester break | 21 October 2024 | | Last day of semester 1 | 13 December 2024 | | Winter vacation | 14 December 2023 – 5 January 2025 | | First day of semester 2 | 6 January 2025 | | Mid-semester break | 12 – 20 April 2025 | | Return to school after mid-semester break | 21 April 2025 | | Last day of school | 6 June 2025 | Canteen Services The Canteen Hours: 7:30 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. – all day menus updated frequently. OSC subcontracts its food services to a local company called *Skinny Suddha* to run its canteen and the courtyard coffee shop. “*Skinny Suddha* strives for quality in all regards, but we are particularly fussy about additives and food that does good rather than harm, to that end we shy away from the use of MSG, trans-fats, and chemicals of all sorts. Most items are hand-made which we sell with love and care and recycle wherever possible with paper glass and recyclable pots. We work closely with OSC’s Eco School Committee to ensure our choices are in line with an eco-school philosophy.” The Courtyard Coffee Shop Hours: 7:30am to 4:30pm The Courtyard Coffee Shop offers a variety of items such as Italian coffees, juices, smoothies, icecream, overnight oats, yogurts, hummus and salads, homemade kombucha and cakes made the *Skinny Suddha* healthy-way. Coffee is made on site in an Italian Nuova Simonelli Aurelia II machine. The Coffee shop has a great seating area for parents waiting for their children. Look out for the menu, specials and more information about what schemes may be in place for the Gecko Community in the Gecko Times. Primary School Students may use the Gecko Courtyard Coffee Shop with their parents present. MYP1, MYP2, and MYP3 Students may use the Gecko Courtyard Coffee Shop after school hours ONLY. MYP4 – MYP5 Students may use during breaks but cannot purchase caffeinated drinks. DP Students may use it at any time to purchase any items. Orders and Payment We offer a cashless system in the form of a personalised QR code for each student. A link to our self service payment gateways is below. Once parents register their child on our system, and load money onto the child’s account (credit cards accepted), students can order directly from the canteen without bringing money into the School. The cashless system also generates a personalised QR code for each child. Parents of young children cut out the QR code, laminate it and paste it on the back of their child’s security lanyards for easy scanning. Older children just have it in their phone galleries, and show it to us throughout the day. You can talk to your child’s classroom teacher or to us, if you need advice on how to manage the QR code for your child’s food orders. **Child Safeguarding** OSC has a comprehensive Child Safeguarding Policy, and staff and parents must sign it annually upon enrolling their child and in the re-enrolment process. All parents must read through the Child Safeguarding Policy to understand how OSC defines and operationalises its policy. You can find the Child Safeguarding Policy on our Website at [www.osc.lk](http://www.osc.lk) **Class Sizes** The teacher/student ratio for instruction is governed by considerations of academics, physical space, cost, and the diversity of the student population. To underscore the concern for children as individuals inherent in the School’s philosophy, the School will do everything possible to ensure a student/teacher ratio that is in the best interest of all concerned, taking into account educational as well as financial considerations. The minimum number of students for an instructional class will be five full-fee-paying students. In special cases where it is to the School’s advantage to run a particular course for reasons of continuity of our programme or other special circumstances, a class of fewer than five full-fee paying students may be allowed to run at the discretion of the Head of School, provided the Head of School notifies the Board of the reasons for running such classes. The maximum teacher/student ratio for instruction in Grades 1-12 will be 1:20. The Head of School is authorised to increase this to 1:24 when the situation warrants it. No class may run with a teacher/student ratio over 1:24. In our Early Years Programmes, the maximum number of students is 16. In kindergarten, the maximum number of students is 18. In both cases, each classroom has a full-time classroom teacher and an assistant teacher. The Head of School can increase this to 1:18 in Early Years and 1:20 for kindergarten if necessary. In Grades 1-5 and single classes in Grades 6-10, when numbers exceed the stated class size policy, students will be placed on a priority waiting list and notified when a place becomes available. **Contract and Communication** We expect all families to keep the School updated with home, mobile, and emergency contact numbers. In an emergency, we need to reach the parent or designated guardian as quickly as possible. If parent contact information changes, including a change of home telephone number, home address, parents’ email addresses, office, and mobile numbers, please contact the Relevant Office at once, where our family contact database is maintained. Parents are expected to notify the School if their child is absent, late to school, or needs to be dismissed early. Please contact the School Office after 8.00am. Parents may also email [email@example.com](mailto:firstname.lastname@example.org) or [email@example.com](mailto:firstname.lastname@example.org) **Method of Contact** The most effective communication method is face-to-face; however, we realise this is not always possible. As an alternative, the most efficient method of contacting a teacher, a specialist, and/or an administrator is through email at first initial of first name, followed by last name @osc.lk. **Class Teachers** If parents have a question or concern about their child’s general well-being, friendships, or adjustment to change, they should first contact their child’s class teacher. The following issues should be addressed directly to the class teacher: → Academic concerns → Student behaviour → Questions about general day-to-day routines and expectations → Classroom and school relationships → Field trips → Missing items **Guidelines for Healthy Communication** Healthy school communication is essential for a constructive and student-centred school culture. It nurtures empathic and positive assumptions about all stakeholders. This document aims to clarify what healthy communication looks like at OSC and how it helps to build a positive school culture for all of us so that we remain focused on our students. Our Communication Principles We Are All Builders of Trust. Trust is fundamental to a school. Once trust is built, we can master the healthy, respectful conflict that moves a school forward. Trust at its core means we respect everyone’s roles in our community and act and communicate promptly, with honesty and integrity. The following principles will help to build trust across all constituents in our School: We Assume Positive Intent. We believe everyone’s intent is in the best interest of the children, the School, and the community. Therefore, diverse points of view are welcome and assumed positively, even if they are not necessarily adopted. We Are Open About Tackling Issues Where They Start. It is always better to talk directly and openly to the teacher you may be having difficulty with before going on to the next level. In the event you are unable to find a solution, only then should you transparently say it is not working and you will need to consult with another member of administration to seek support. We Prioritise What’s Most Important. We determine what’s most important, and we are prepared to let less salient issues go. We Start with What is Going Right. It is always better to start with something positive. We are all better prepared to hear concerns if we can be recognised and appreciated for what is going well. We Engage in Active Listening, Listening for a Deeper Understanding. Our engagement in the discussion signals a deep respect for others’ ideas and concerns. We Avoid Negative Criticism in Front of Our Students. Children find it confusing when their parents criticise their teachers in front of them; teacher criticisms of parents are equally unhealthy. After all, we are all on the same team, and it does nothing to address the problem. In older children, a pattern of negative criticism may foster arrogance, defiance, and rudeness towards teachers. Instead, we can explore solutions and always assume honourable and positive intentions from everyone involved. Even when both parties believe they are correct, this doesn’t stop us from creating win-win solutions for the child’s sake. We Believe Grace and Composure Matters. Constructive communication respects the dignity of all, includes grace and composure, and always precipitates solutions. We Use Discretion. Many times, parents like to talk to other parents about teachers, and teachers can do the same about parents. This isn’t always healthy. We consider whether our conversation is going to be constructive in solving the problem – otherwise, we don’t have it. Parent Portal OSC has created a Parent Portal for parents to gain important information about how the School works, including access to important contacts, phone numbers, curriculum overviews, Board information (including minutes of open session meetings), School Policies, Handbooks, and most importantly a digital calendar you can subscribe to. Every new parent receives their credentials before the start of the school year begins. If at any time you support, or need those credentials sent to you again, please reach out to email@example.com. Parent Code of Conduct The OSC Board of Directors has written a Parent Code of Conduct, which is the School’s Policy and can be found in the OSC School Policy Manual. It is a document that all parents must acknowledge upon new and re-enrolment. To download a copy of the Parent Code of Conduct, please access the School Policy Manual or Parent Portal on our website. Gecko Times Friday Newsletter OSC publishes a weekly newsletter on Fridays. The newsletter is sent electronically, and its articles are posted on the OSC website. The newsletter also publishes important school events and dates. Call Out System Should a civil disturbance or any other emergency occur, do not send your child to school. The School’s SMS system will inform you if the School is to be closed. If you are not contacted and cannot contact a reliable source, err on the side of safety and keep your child at home. Should an emergency occur during school hours, the students will be kept on campus until parents can collect them. Counselling Programmes Our school counselling programme offers comprehensive support to all students. Our counselling programme reflects the ideas of the internationally recognised and evidence-based Social Emotional Learning (SEL) competencies developed by the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) and the International School Counsellor Association’s (ISCA) Student Standards, and is aligned with best practices against the American School Counselor Association’s (ASCA) Professional Standards and Competencies. Counsellors provide guidance and support in academic planning, career exploration, and personal and social development. Students can seek assistance with a range of issues, including time management, study skills, college applications, and emotional well-being. Our counsellors collaborate closely with students, parents, and teachers to create supportive learning environments. In cases where additional support is needed, we can connect students with external mental health professionals or specialised services. Curriculum The OSC curriculum is carefully designed and planned in accordance with our IB programmes. Curriculum Overviews The OSC’s Curriculum Standards are set in place to ensure the highest of educational standards and care are met by all members of the school community. We invite you to read through each grade level’s curriculum and standards overview to learn about each year’s curriculum framework, units of inquiry, and what we teach in Language Arts (Writing, Spelling, Reading) and Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, Languages, Art, Music, Performance, Physical and Health Education, Comprehensive Sexual Education, Library and Technology. We have a robust curriculum that is transdisciplinary, well organised and informed by regular assessment. Learning is our number one priority. At OSC, we are very intentional about our learning programme. Click here to read our Primary Grade Level Overviews and our Secondary Course Descriptions. Standards Our Primary and Secondary School curriculum is grounded by the overarching framework of the PYP and consolidated by the Aero standards. This comprehensive approach ensures a well-rounded, vertically aligned education that fosters critical thinking, inquiry, and global citizenship. To develop strong literacy skills, our language programme incorporates the PYP framework and the proven structure of Readers and Writers Workshop. These standards provide a clear path for students to become confident communicators and lifelong learners. As students progress through the Secondary School, the IB framework guides our learning via specific MYP and DP aims and objectives. We use AERO standards to review our curriculum and ensure coherent alignment of key skills and understanding. Experiential Education OSC’s Experiential Education programme fulfils key goals of our mission and vision by providing students with learning opportunities beyond the classroom context. Students are challenged physically, socially, emotionally, and intellectually as they face new challenges, broaden their experiences, engage with issues of global importance, and develop greater self-awareness. Holistic Learning A holistic education programme aims to encompass all aspects of personal learning and growth. It emphasises the development of active relationships at all levels, whether among the subject domains, individuals and their peer groups and communities or between the individual and the world around them. Holistic education nurtures students’ broad development and focuses on their intellectual, emotional, social, physical, creative or intuitive, aesthetic, and spiritual potentials. It promotes the importance of relationships at all levels within a learning community where educators and students work together in an open and collaborative relationship. There is an emphasis on life experience and learning beyond the confines of the classroom and the formal educational environment towards education as growth, discovery, and a broadening of horizons. It encourages a desire to elicit meaning and understanding and to engage with the world. The approach empowers learners to examine critically the cultural, moral, and political contexts of their lives. It leads learners towards actively challenging and changing cultural values to meet human needs. **Academic Freedom** OSC believes that academic freedom benefits both teacher and student and is a necessary condition for the fulfilment of the OSC mission. Teachers are granted academic freedom to exercise their right and responsibility to encourage freedom of discussion in the classroom and to develop students’ critical thinking skills and a discerning intellect. Application of the principle of academic freedom should take into account both relevant cultural mores and local laws as well as the relative maturity of students and the need for guidance and help in studying issues and respecting balanced viewpoints. Controversial issues will be presented in a fair and unbiased manner. Accordingly, censorship or undue restraint that impedes instruction consistent, as determined by the Head of School, with the School’s Educational Philosophy shall not be practiced. The Head of School shall ensure that academic freedom is understood and honoured throughout the School. --- **Distance Learning Programme (DLP)** The Distance Learning Plan (DLP) has been designed to describe the actions and approaches that OSC will take in the event the campus has to close, and learning has to switch to an online or distance method for a period of time. This could happen as a result of a variety of circumstances such as a crisis or specific emergency, political situation, health and safety reasons, or local government decisions. At all times, the Head of School will consult with the Board and The Integrated Leadership Team, and together a decision will be made in the best interest of the students and community. If the Head of School takes the decision to move to the DLP, a communication will be sent out to all community members delineating a timeline for implementation. If this happens in the middle of a school year, the faculty may need up to two full days from the time of the announcement to organise itself into the DLP Framework. On the first day, students and parents may use this time to organise their home environments and make their common agreements and plans as a family based on the guidelines and expectations outlined in this document. During the second day, teachers will be in touch with the parents of their students. On the third day, the DLP will begin. Students may not attend school physically, nor be required to start their DLP until the date designated by the Head of School. The purpose of the DLP is to maintain the planned curriculum content and skills development for students in all grade levels, ensuring a smooth transition back to classroom learning, and completion of grade-level expectations. We also aim to help students remain connected to one another and supported in a novel learning environment. **Dress Code** The OSC Dress Code ensures that community members of all cultural backgrounds feel comfortable, respected, and safe while enabling students to express their identities and values. The OSC Dress Code treats everyone equitably, regardless of race, sex, gender identity, gender expression, sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, cultural observance, or body type/size. The OSC Dress Code is grounded in Comfort, Safety, and Respect principles. The following specific guidelines fall within these principles: **Comfort** Clothing should be comfortable and practical for learning, depending on the specific activity and setting. **Safety** → When playing outside and under the sun, a hat must be worn. → Footwear must be worn at all times. → Additional safety requirements may be necessary depending on the specific activity and setting (e.g. in science labs). **Respect** → Clothing may not display text or images of violence, drugs or alcohol, profanity, pornography, or hate speech. → Clothing must always cover the body in a way consistent with legal interpretations of decency. → Undergarments should not be visible except for waistbands and straps. → To adhere to specific cultural regulations or expectations, further requirements may be necessary during specific activities (e.g. school trips). Responses to Contravention of the Dress Code by Students: → The primary responsibility for a student’s attire rests with the student and their parent(s) or guardians. If communication with parent(s) or guardians becomes necessary, this will be undertaken by the Principal or Head of School. → If intervention is deemed necessary, it will be done discreetly, individually, without bias, and in a way that minimises embarrassment and limits interference with learning. The School operates on a “No Hat, Seek Shade” policy. Students who play outside during break, lunch, PE lessons, and after-school activities must wear a hat. Otherwise, they will be directed to the shade and may miss their favorite activity. Physical Education On days when students have PE, they are expected to wear the OSC PE uniform. House T-shirts and selected items of OSC clothing can be obtained from the school shop. These include the OSC PE shirt, PE shorts, and OSC caps. Dress Code for the Swimming Pool: For Girls, one-piece, full-fitting bathing suits with shoulder straps that allow for physical activity should be worn. For Boys, bathing shorts designed for swimming and above-knee length should be worn. Swimming caps are required to be worn in the swimming pool. Extracurricular Activities Gecko Athletics programme The Gecko Athletics programme at OSC is linked closely with the OSC vision and mission. Curiosity We encourage all of our student-athletes to explore different sporting opportunities and to find enjoyment in sports in general as part of their holistic development as well-rounded and responsible learners. We develop student self-reflection and an understanding of how sport can impact their physical, mental and emotional well-being. Courage Gecko Athletes should endeavour to develop their fitness, skills, technique, and knowledge of concepts in a variety of activities, and to build an understanding that these can be used in, and transferred across different sporting situations. This, we hope, enables them to discover their gifts and explore and extend their talents, striving for excellence in all that they do. Compassion We strive to provide our student-athletes with opportunities to come together with like-minded student-athletes in Sri Lanka and within the South Asia region giving them experiences that will help them develop and explore their sportspersonship, learning to be humble in victory and gracious in defeat, and become role models for our younger students and throughout the community. OSC is a member of two international school organisations that help to provide students at OSC with competitive sporting opportunities. Click on the headings below to find out more about TISSL and SAISA. **The SAISA League** OSC participates in competitions with international schools in the region belonging to the South Asian Inter-Scholastic Association (SAISA). We regularly prepare teams for Swimming, Basketball, Volleyball, Soccer/Football, and Athletics. SAISA aims to promote and coordinate regional professional activities, fine arts festivals, athletic tournaments, and other events. **The TISSL League** There are 26 affiliated TISSL schools. The OSC Athletic Director works in collaboration with the TISSL groups to engage in sporting fixtures during the academic year. TISSL runs a comprehensive calendar of events throughout the year. OSC participates in as many competitions as possible depending on how they fit with our calendar and team availability. OSC does its best to organise sports fixtures with some of these schools and to enter competitive tournaments with other TISSL Schools. TISSL Sports Events that OSC regularly participates in include: Swimming (IISSC), Football, Track and Field (ISAC) --- **After School Activities** Students are encouraged to participate in sporting, aesthetic, recreational, and cultural activities. These occur throughout the week, after regular school hours, and are organised by teachers, some outside instructors, and parent volunteers. Each year, a variety of different activities are offered to students. These are determined by interest and by the availability of sponsors to organise particular activities. At the beginning of each quarter, information on the activities is emailed. All sign-up selections are done online. Creative activities include programmes such as Drama productions, Music ensembles, and other leadership opportunities such as Model United Nations. Every year, OSC hosts the Colombo Model United Nations (COMUN) with schools from within Sri Lanka. After School Activity times are as follows: **Grade 1 – 5:** Monday, Tuesday, Thursday (Wednesday swim activities) **Timing:** 15:30 – 16:15 **Grade 6 – 12:** Monday through Friday **Timing:** 15:30 – 16:30 34 / Early Years – 12 Family Handbook Service Learning The Service programme at OSC is ultimately driven by a desire to facilitate change through propagating sustainable action in the local community and towards the environment. The emphasis of the Service programme is on students making their world a better and more peaceful place. The service groups at OSC promote action and service through character formation based on respect, compassion and empathy and in this way, the Service programme fosters the necessary attributes of the future “global citizen”. Student leaders drive the programme and all students at OSC have the opportunity to be involved in 15 service groups that focus on service to the environment, local communities and human rights. Students are also encouraged to design service projects and classes are challenged to consider ways to take action as extension of their classroom learning experiences. For Grade 11 and Grade 12 students at OSC, service is formed at the programme’s core through Creativity Action and Service (CAS). The emphasis is on learning and the expectation that students will be involved in a balanced range of activities reflecting creativity, action, and service within this programme. DP students are also expected to take on leadership roles and are encouraged to initiate their activities. Weekend Supplementary Programmes From time to time, OSC allows external sports organisations to use its facilities over the weekends, and sometimes during the week. These groups are vetted by our Sports Department, and open to students with their parent’s permissions. Private Music Lessons on Campus OSC has a private lesson music coordinator who establishes a schedule of private music lessons for students. The lessons include a variety of instruments and are held during the week after school. Parents pay for these lessons directly to the Music Coordinator. If you wish to enquire further please contact our Coordinator, Mr Marlon Perera at firstname.lastname@example.org Event Rules Rules and Regulations for School Events: → No student should have access to the campus without supervision. Events are restricted to the prescribed locations only. → Swimming may not take place without lifeguards on duty. → School rules for behaviour, drug and alcohol use, and dress code apply to all school events. → For some events, especially in the auditorium, a bag check process may be implemented, and a storage place for backpacks will be provided at the entrance. → Any non-OSC guests need to be pre-approved and on a guest list. They must be clear on school rules, especially those related to the use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. Guests not complying with OSC expectations will be asked to leave. Facilities The Overseas School of Colombo is located on its self-contained campus in Battaramulla, eight kilometres from the centre of Colombo. OSC occupied this new, purpose-built six-acre campus in 1985. Attractively laid out, the School consists of six main buildings, which are fully air-conditioned. It includes 48 general classrooms, four science labs, and specialist art, drama, and music rooms. In addition, the School has two libraries with over 25,000 volumes and computer facilities. Medical Facilities OSC has a school doctor on campus, and the office is equipped to handle minor injuries or illnesses. Teachers and assistants receive regular first-aid training. In the case of serious illness or injury, every effort is made to contact parents immediately. In an emergency, the students will be taken to the nearest hospital. We also house three defibrillators: one at the Pool, one in the Auditorium and one in the Primary School. The Medical Facility has and an isolation room for students with contagious diseases. A medical form must be completed prior to enrolment. Please notify the school doctor if this form requires updating. Students who contract infectious diseases must be kept at home until the illness has passed the infectious stage, as will students with any other form of sickness, such as fever. The School must be notified if a student has any food allergies so that we can accommodate any specific procedures. Food and Filtered Water Facilities Students can either bring a packed lunch or purchase lunch through our canteen. All students (apart from those in their early years) eat their lunch together in the canteen under the supervision of staff. Early Years students eat lunch in their classrooms with their teachers. The canteen menu is published in the Friday Gecko Times newsletter and on the school website. Students are encouraged to bring a healthy snack each day for their morning break in addition to a drink or water bottle. Water fountains are situated around the campus and have fully filtered water. Students are actively encouraged to drink water throughout the school day, including during lessons. Bathroom Facilities All bathrooms are clearly labelled around the School. Students and adults do not share bathroom facilities. OSC has gender neutral bathrooms on the School grounds, and they are clearly marked. Sports Facilities Our Sports Centre has a rock-climbing wall, basketball, badminton, and volleyball courts, a movement room, and ample indoor and outdoor viewing areas. Other sports facilities include an outdoor FIBA-approved basketball court, a spacious playing field, and a 25-metre swimming pool. High school students and staff may use the exercise weight room. Arts Facilities The School has a purpose-built, state-of-the-art auditorium complex with a theatre that can seat over 450 people. OSC has a black box theatre and soundproof music practice rooms for rehearsing. There are two classrooms professionally outfitted for visual arts. Design Lab Facilities The MYP programme integrates a product design lab with a cross-section of product tools and materials and a digital design lab with robotics, 3D printers, and other gadgets to teach and inspire creative design principles. A primary maker space with a green screen is available for PYP students. Media Facilities Libraries are an important resource for Primary and Secondary School students. They offer a variety of printed and digital resources such as books, databases, subject-related materials, reference sources, works of fiction, home language resources, and periodicals, as well as computer facilities and audiovisual facilities. All other resources except reference books and current periodicals are available for check-out. Borrowers are responsible for maintaining materials in good condition and will be required to pay for any loss or damage. Students and parents are encouraged to make full use of these facilities. Mobility Limitations of Our Facilities At this stage, the OSC campus does not have an elevator for anyone with mobility conditions. The campus is widespread and contains many stairs and levels. A mobility plan is in the works as part of the campus redevelopment plan. Campus Use During the Day and on Weekends and After School Hours All students and families will be given an identity card to be brought to school daily as access is restricted. Families are welcome to use the campus on weekends between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m., provided the facilities are available. Security is a priority at the School, and the safety of students and personnel is assessed carefully at all times. The OSC Campus is available for families on the weekends. The pool is open on the weekends when the lifeguards are present. Lifeguards work most weekends, and when they are not, we inform the security and the families through the portal calendar, newsletter, or upon entering the premises. Field Trips The School organises many field trips for its students. Depending on the ages and grades of the students, some are day trips in Colombo, some are overnight trips and once students enter the Secondary School there will be international trip opportunities as well. Many trip are connected to our SAISA Athletics programme, and to the arts, theatre, music, robotics, and academics. OSC offers experiential learning trips within Sri Lanka through its Duke of Edinburgh programme, and in the IBDP Environmental System and Geography classes, and Week Without Walls, students explore the biodiversity and regions of Sri Lanka. The School will communicate all the field trip opportunities to students during the school year, and all the trips are posted on the Digital Portal Calendar. All day, overnight, local and international trips include a risk assessment and clear guidelines about the roles and responsibilities of chaperones. All safeguarding procedures are strongly adhered to. Chaperoning costs for all international trips (this includes all expenses for teacher chaperones) will be distributed equally among parents and divided by the number of students who travel. For SAISA events, all the chaperoning costs will be divided among all the athletes who travel each season. As per SAISA rules, the school must have at least three chaperones for each sporting event. For OSC international trips that are non-SAISA-related, our policies regarding chaperones will be followed based on the number of students attending the trip. Financial Assistance Programme The Board of Directors have decided to offer a funding programme to assist parent(s)/Guardian(s) of OSC students in settling tuition fees with the objective of supporting the parent(s)/Guardian(s) in need of financial assistance due to change of financial circumstances for a limited period of time, whilst maintaining the diversity of the student population as well as sustaining the operations aligned to the values of the organisation. OSC is committed to support the school community regardless of nationality, race or religion. The financial assistance offered will solely be guided by the extent of financial need of each family and will not be influenced by the academic capabilities and extracurricular activities of the OSC Student. The Financial Assistance Programme includes: → The parent eligibility criteria for the financial assistance programme. → The basis for determining the priority under this programme. → The journey of the application process for the programme. Details for this programme can be found here on our website. Grading and Assessment Reporting Periods Report cards are sent home four (4) times per year. In the middle of a semester, the Primary and Secondary schools send home progress reports. At the end of each semester, the final report card is communicated through ManageBac. The dates for reporting are on the Parent Portal Calendar. Academic Integrity OSC’s mission statement encourages all students to act responsibly. A student must acknowledge and appropriately credit sources of information when that information is used in a student’s work. To have an authentic piece of work, a student must base their work on their original ideas with the work of others fully acknowledged. Therefore, all written or oral assignments must use a student’s language and expression. Where sources are used or referred to, whether in direct quotation or paraphrase, such sources must be appropriately acknowledged. At OSC, one of our core values is being “principled,” which extends to work submitted by students for assessment. The values that lead to personal integrity and how learners should behave in the assessment process are part of the Approaches to Learning. Academic integrity is a serious matter; all School community members need to know the school’s expectations. Although it is important to be aware of the negative consequences of not adhering to this policy, it is also important to emphasise the positive reasons for accurate attribution of sources. Proper documentation empowers students to: → Join the “great conversation,” in which ideas throughout the world and time are invented, discussed, or refuted. → Honor the thinking and intellectual property of other authors by crediting their work. → Lend authority to their contributions. → Help other researchers find the sources that inspired their work. → Avoid infringing an author’s legal copyright. How will the School help? Good practices of academic honesty are introduced, taught, modelled, and used throughout the School. Students are expected to transfer the skills of appropriate referencing from one class to another. If a student is unsure of the expectations outlined below, they should ask a teacher for advice. A student demonstrating academic integrity: → Acknowledges the source of facts, figures, images, and ideas from other’s work. → Uses quotations when another person’s exact words are used. → Knows how to construct a list of works cited using the MLA format. → Abides by the rules of tests and external exams by not communicating in any way with, seeking assistance from, or assisting any other student while the examination or test is in progress. → Only use allowed materials in an assessment when instructed by a teacher. → Submits their work and does not copy from another student. → Does not do homework for another student. Harassment, Threats and Bullying OSC will not tolerate harassment, threats or bullying by any member of the community, student, teacher, administrator, parent, school or contractual staff, or visitor on the premises or at events sponsored by the School. Bullying or harassment is especially harmful when students are bullied due to actual or perceived characteristics such as race or ethnicity, ancestry, colour, ethnic group identification, gender expression, gender identity, gender, disability, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, age, or a person’s association with a person or group. The School will follow up on any accusations by way of its 1) Student Behaviour Policy, 2) Staff Code of Conduct, 3) Parent Code of Conduct and 4) Visitor/Adult Code of Conduct. Harrassment is when the speech or actions are so severe, pervasive, or targeted at particular people that it hinders the student’s ability to get an education, significantly harms their well-being, substantially interferes with their rights, or intimidates the student because of their identity. Threat Threat is a communication or behaviour that indicates an individual poses a danger to the safety of school staff or students through acts of violence or other behaviour that would cause harm to self or others. Bullying is when a student causes another student to feel less safe, fearful, or like they are unable to participate in school. Bullying, often involves an imbalance of power, and can include physical, verbal, or psychological actions against a student. Bullying can also happen through communications, including social media. Health and Safety The School considers the health and safety of its students to be of prime importance. Accordingly, the School has a full-time qualified doctor on the staff and maintains a health office on the ground floor of the Primary Office. If a student becomes ill, the doctor will determine whether the student should remain at school or be sent home. If there is a problem, the school will contact the parents and make appropriate arrangements with the principal’s consent. The doctor should be informed if a child is on medication or has special health problems requiring regular attention. Parents should report a prolonged illness, especially a contagious one, to the doctor. Parents should list such information on the student medical form, which should be updated annually. The doctor will remind parents of this. If a child needs urgent medical attention and the School cannot contact the parents/guardians immediately, the Principal will arrange for the child to be taken to an appropriate hospital. Emergency Procedures The School maintains a comprehensive and appropriate emergency procedures manual to ensure appropriate responses. Regular practice drills are held at intervals during the school year to ensure all students are familiar with the procedures. These include provisions for both evacuation of the buildings and the campus. Details are available in the classrooms, and the teachers explain the directions. The School has fitted a sophisticated intercom system with funding from the US State Department. Speakers in every room and corridor allow communication with the Head of School, Primary Office, Secondary Office, and Head of Security if an emergency requires special measures. Food Allergies All families are required to fill out medical forms upon enrolment. The School has a Medical Manager Software it uses to keep track of any food allergies, or other types of allergies. If you know that your child has an allergy, we ask that you inform our Doctor. We are not a NUT FREE school, but we are Nut Aware. Communicable Diseases Fever is a common symptom of many diseases, the most common being viral flu. If your child experiences flu-like symptoms, please keep them at home until they are fever-free for 24 hours. If your child develops pink eye, please do not send them to school, as it can be contagious conjunctivitis. Head Lice Head lice do not carry disease but can spread quickly and must be treated immediately. At OSC, we take a preventative approach and schedule monthly checks with the primary students with our school doctor. All primary students need to have their hairbrush or comb at school to allow for these monthly checks. Parents will be notified and asked to collect their child immediately if a student is identified as having head lice at school. The student should not return to school until the lice have been treated. The school doctor will recheck the student and confirm effective treatment before the student is allowed to return to class. Parents will be notified if there is still evidence of head lice, and the student will be sent back home. Insurance for Accidents at School The School carries personal accident cover and a basic legal liability policy. Students may obtain an insurance policy for personal accidents over and above the limit provided by the School. The school cannot accept liability for students on or off the school premises. If students are travelling away on an extended or overseas field trip, such as a SAISA commitment, parents are expected to make travel insurance provisions. Slap on a Hat or Seek Shade The sun is hot, and we are so close to the equator that we must take this seriously. Our current policy states that if students do not wear a hat, they cannot play. We are adjusting this to heighten awareness and education about sun damage and the importance of caring for ourselves outside under the sun. We are following the guidelines from the Australian Government Cancer Council, which can be found here. → Slip on a T-shirt → Slop on sunscreen → Slap on a hat (wide-brimmed, preferably) → Seek shade → Slide on sunglasses All students must wear hats during recess, breaks, PE, athletics, and after-school activities. If they are not wearing a hat, they will be moved to a shaded space to ensure their safety and well-being. Please ensure your child comes to school with a properly labelled hat. Please send sunscreen with your child and follow the above advice to avoid the negative effects of sun exposure while at school. Hats are available at the School Gecko Shop, and our Gecko Gear Service Group will design wider-brimmed hats for students to purchase soon! Thank you for your cooperation in keeping our students safe. Tobacco/Nicotine/Alcohol Student smoking and use of other tobacco products or possession of drugs or alcohol is forbidden at all times and on all occasions on school grounds and school-sponsored activities. Air Pollution Outdoor air quality is linked with a large array of different medical problems and our exposure to particulates must be monitored and reduced where possible. In some cases, exposure can cause lung damage and respiratory problems, particularly with members of sensitive groups. OSC will respond to poor outdoor air quality when this is detected to ensure the safety of our community. OSC follows the USA AQI EPA’s index for reporting outdoor air quality. OSC has installed outdoor air quality monitors on campus and uses this data to help inform decision-making. OSC is also using the Air Now - Air Quality Index Resource and Guidance shared below: https://www.airnow.gov/aqi-and-health/ https://www.airnow.gov/about-airnow/ Read our Policy on Outdoor Air Quality and view our responses when air quality deteriorates. House System OSC organises all of its students into four house colours: Blue, Green, Red, and Yellow. All the siblings in a family are organised in the same colour. The House System is used for various ways to organise our students, for sports and festival competitions, and events. Upon enrolment you will assigned a House Colour-Tshirts of that color, are bought from the Gecko Store in the reception building. Languages at OSC The Overseas School of Colombo (OSC) student body comprises over 40 different nationalities, with a target maximum of 25% of the school population consisting of any one nationality. Our student population consists of native speakers of various languages, many of whom have more than one Home Language. OSC aims to employ individuals from a variety of national and cultural backgrounds. Thus, a range of languages are used amongst our staff. Definitions: → OSC defines a Home Language as a language that may include one or more of the following: the language first learned by our students, what they use to communicate with family, and the language they connect with their home country’s culture. → The principal language of instruction at OSC is English. → All students from Grade 1 onwards must take a course in at least one language besides the language of instruction, whether it is their home language or an acquisition language. → The national languages of Sri Lanka are Sinhala and Tamil, with English being the link language. Language Philosophy: At OSC, we believe that language is fundamental to all learning, thinking, and communicating. Languages are essential for understanding culture and building an international outlook. Language must be learned in context, and all OSC teachers are teachers of language regardless of their discipline. The Overseas School of Colombo aims: → To support students in developing their home language by coordinating qualified teachers to continue developing our students’ home language skills. This is sometimes done in person; other times, it is done using digital means, and parents pay for it. → To support students in the acquisition of host nation languages. → To support students in achieving personal excellence in the principal language of instruction, English. → Ensure all students acquire at least one language besides their Home Language. → To take full advantage of the variety of languages spoken in our school community, we use language as a resource to explore the richness of culture from local, national, and global perspectives. Language instruction at the OSC aims to support: → Learning language: as students learn, listen, and use language with others. → Learning through language: students use language to think about or reflect on a theme, concept, culture, or issue. → Learning about language: as students understand how language works. → Oral, written, and visual communication is to be learned across and through all subject areas. Learning Support Services (LSS) A Director of Student Support supervises all Learning Support Services. Student records and assessment reports are requested and reviewed through the admissions process. Students are assessed before acceptance for requiring English Additional Language and/or Learning Support services. When a newly admitted student comes with a current Educational Evaluation and/or history of Learning Support from their previous school, they may receive Learning Support services immediately upon enrolment. Learning Support Programme (LS) The LS Programme is designed to support students who experience academic difficulties. If not identified during the admissions process, students are referred to the Student Study Team, which meets regularly to discuss the academic concerns of individual students. The initial steps include record review and teacher/student/parent input. A student may then be recommended for further internal assessment. If the evidence supports that the student may benefit from learning support, the LS Teacher meets with parents to seek permission. A Student Learning Plan is developed and signed in consultation with teachers, parents, and the student. In Early Years – Grade 5, students new to English can be supported. In Grades 6–8, students are accepted to the EAL Programme with some exposure to English or with limited English proficiency. In Grades 9–10, students are accepted to the EAL Programme with English proficiency or near proficiency with the expectation that they will be able to participate fully in the IB Diploma Programme in Grade 11. EAL and LS services can take several forms and may include a combination of the following: → Co-teaching: A support teacher or assistant teacher works collaboratively within the classroom, assisting identified students with a specific subject → Pull-out Lessons: These are offered in lieu of a whole class lesson on a particular concept or skill to offer individualized instruction and support.. → Consultation: The EAL/LS teacher consults with classroom teachers and assists with differentiation. After assessment and progress review in consultation with the Director of Student Support and teachers, the Student Study Team recommends a change in the LS Programme or exit from the EAL Programme. The EAL/LS teacher then meets with the parent/student to finalise the process. The Student Learning Plan is updated, and if there is a change, the student’s progress is monitored closely. English as an Additional Language (EAL) OSC welcomes all students whose English is not their first language and has specialised teachers to support multilingual learners’ access to the English curriculum. The Learning Support Department has instructional specialists for this purpose. The EAL Programme is designed to provide support as proficiency in English develops. Individualised instruction will focus on developing listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. As proficiency increases, confidence and independence will further develop. A Student Learning Plan is developed and signed in consultation with teachers, parents, and the student. Lockers Students in Grades 6–12 are provided with individual lockers and locks for their use in School. This facility offers a place to leave books or possessions not required in a given class. Bags and books not in use must be carefully locked away and not left around. It is expected that once a student has been allocated a locker, they will keep it in good order and ensure it is always secure. Each student will receive a lock from school at the start of the school year. Students must pay Rs 2,000 for a replacement if the lock is lost or damaged. **Lost and Found** Lost items are kept outside the canteen and the Secondary Office. Parents and students are asked to ensure all possessions are marked with names. Great care should be taken with possessions, and respect should be shown to items belonging to others. Students are expected to ensure that valuables, personal electronics, and laptops are kept securely on their person or in their assigned locker with the lock engaged. **Parent Supervision/Guardianship** In normal circumstances, a student will be residing with their parents. A guardian will be accepted only if there is full agreement with the Head of School. If the School is not satisfied with the efficacy of the guardian, continued enrolment and/or re-enrolment will not be offered by the School. **Gecko Community Network (GCN)** The Gecko Community Network plays an active role in the OSC community and is an invaluable supporter of all aspects of school life at OSC. There are a variety of voluntary roles open each year, including grade-level and national representatives. **Pets on Campus** *Regulation to Permit Pets on Campus* OSC is a friendly place for all living things. OSC will allow pets to visit a classroom or activity during school hours so long as it is pre-approved and safe to do so, with the expressed permissions of the classroom teacher and Principal and insofar as the visit is related to the School Programme. Otherwise, parents, staff and children may not generally bring pets on campus during the school day. After school hours 4:30 p.m. and on the weekends, the only type of pet that may come on campus is a dog. This pet must be accompanied by the legal owner at all times. OSC will only allow five (05) dogs at any one time on the campus. Note this is on a first come first serve basis, and pet owners will have to work it out between themselves who stays and who must go if more than five dogs and their owners wish to access the campus grounds. OSC recognises that there may be risks in bringing a dog on campus. OSC is adopting this policy having considered the requests made by the numerous members of the OSC community for permission to entertain pets on the campus premises, and other factors including that in any school environment there exists inherent risks of injuries or incidents, and the conditions set out in this regulation are designed to remove or minimise, to the extent reasonably possible, any additional risks which may be caused by the presence of managed pets. **Political and Religious Neutrality Statement** OSC maintains the posture of neutrality on all matters relating to religion and politics. The School will not proselytise a specific religious belief or political ideology, but will incorporate into the curriculum knowledge and appreciation of the role that religion and politics play in the social, cultural, and historical development of civilisation. School facilities may not be used by any individual or group for religious or political purposes unless special permission is given by the Head of School. **Security and ID Cards** Only OSC students wearing their ID cards will be admitted onto campus. Students with a friend or relative staying with them may request permission from the Principal to bring the person on campus. The Principal will inform the gate guard of the guest’s name to be admitted. While we enjoy the visits of friends or alumni, we can only offer a maximum of one school day for a visit of any individual within an academic year. Parents wishing to speak with teachers should make a prior appointment so that the guards may be informed. Parents must wear their ID cards for admission onto the school premises. Please note that the security guards at the front gate have complete authority to determine who is admitted to the school grounds outside of school hours. Those who demand entry but do not have their ID cards will be refused entry. Any person who behaves suspiciously, aggressively, or rudely at the gate, even though he or she may have a school ID card, will also be refused entry. Your cooperation is kindly requested to ensure the safety and security of everyone in our community and to respect the authority of security personnel. **School Supplies** All school supplies, such as books, pencils, and pens, are supplied by the School. **Student Records** An academic file or record is maintained on each student in the School. Student files contain information that is pertinent to a child’s functioning at school, including notes on academic, social, and behavioural progress. Files are available for parents to read, but may not be removed from the School. The student file is best interpreted to parents by the Principal or Counsellor. Sustainability Initiatives OSC is a Green Flag School accredited by the Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE). OSC takes the following initiatives to ensure we take good care of our environment and our planet. → We reduce our ecological footprint by separating, recycling and composting solid waste. This is a big Programme that includes the biogas plant and composting initiatives. → We monitor energy consumption with IOT devices to inform action on using energy wisely and implementing solar photovoltaic systems. This has potentially broad positive impacts on addressing climate change through a reduction in Carbon Dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$) from the campus. → We monitor air quality and other environmental variables using IQ and Purple Air sensors. This is principally for health alerts but the devices are also used in classroom teaching. → We teach and learn about organic farming and food production through garden beds. → We monitor biodiversity on the campus and helping to create a virtual sanctuary through our gardens and green spaces. This extended with learning about urban wetlands and rainforests in Sri Lanka. → We work in our neighbourhood, through the service programme, to clean up and raise awareness about plastic pollution and burning. Technology Use The Technology Department at The Overseas School of Colombo is well-resourced, offering seamless connectivity throughout the campus. Here’s how technology is integrated into student learning: → **Pre-School to Kindergarten:** Students use iPads. → **Grade 1 to Grade 4:** Students are provided with individual Chromebooks. → **Grade 5-12:** Students participate in the Bring Your Own Laptop (BYOL) Programme, using Windows or Mac laptops. Students are expected to use all technology equipment carefully, following the Student Acceptable Use Policy. The technology programme at OSC fosters an environment aligned with 21st-century life, aiming to develop discerning, compassionate, and responsible users and creators of media and information. All students sign a promise to adhere to responsible technology use. OSC believes technology should enhance learning, creativity, and communication within both the school and global communities. We follow the *ISTE NETS* standards, focusing on: → Creativity → Communication and Collaboration → Research and Information Fluency → Critical Thinking, Problem-Solving, and Decision-Making → Digital Citizenship → Technology Operations and Concepts Bring Your Own Laptop, Grades 5-12 All OSC students in Grades 5 to 12 must bring a laptop to school. Parents or sponsors of student school fees are responsible for purchasing the laptop device, maintenance, and insurance. To learn what specs the School recommends, please contact the admissions director at email@example.com or the firstname.lastname@example.org. Data Protection All users of personal data within the OSC must ensure that personal data are always held secure and are not disclosed to any unauthorised third party. This policy will be considered violated if data is shared through accidental, negligent, or intentional means. The Student tech use guidelines, Staff Acceptable Use, Audio and Video Surveillance, Data Consent, Marketing Consent, and the Administrative Operational Handbook. Any queries regarding data protection and data retention can be directed towards our data protection lead at email@example.com. Social Media Policy Student Tech Use Guidelines Staff Acceptable Use Policy Audio/Video Surveillance Policy Mobile Phone Use in Schools Primary School (EY – Grade 5) students cannot bring mobile phones to school, so please do not send a phone with your child to school. Although students can bring phones to school and keep them in their possession throughout the day, upon entering their classes, they will be asked to switch off their phones and place them in a centrally located area until the class is over or until the teacher asks them to use their phones for an academic purpose. Students can then pick up their phones, take them to their next class, and store them in the central area again. Students may freely use their phones during breaks. This routine is discussed with our students during the first week of school. **Student Information Systems and Learning Management Systems** This Handbook details the systems used in our School’s primary and secondary sections. Across both divisions, the following systems are used: - **OpenApply**: Admissions management and re-enrolment. - **ManageBac**: Learning management system for Secondary. - **SeeSaw**: Learning management system for Primary. - **School’s Buddy**: Three-way conference booking and ASA attendance booking for the whole school. **Tuition Fee Schedule** The annual Tuition Fee Schedule is set by the Board of Directors and communicated to the parents after the Annual General Meeting by spring. The Fee Schedule and policies are published on our school website found here: [https://www.osc.lk/admissions/tuition-fees](https://www.osc.lk/admissions/tuition-fees) **Transportation and Bussing** The School provides a user-pay bus service. Alternative routes are available, details of which can be obtained from our Transportation Office and Transport Coordinators. The bus company provides supervision with paid adult bus monitors. **Uniform (PE)** OSC does not require a school uniform except for PE classes. The uniform for PE can be purchased at the Gecko Shop in the reception of the School. **Visitors Procedures** Parents wishing to have a student visit OSC from another school must obtain prior permission from the classroom teacher and the Principal. Permission will normally be granted for one school day. During this time, the visitor will accompany the host student to classes and be subject to OSC regulations. The host family must accept full responsibility for the visitor. Well-being Team Student well-being starts with morning check-ins and classroom meetings facilitated by the homeroom and advisory teachers. As your child’s daily point of contact, they can monitor your child’s social, emotional, and personal development. We believe every student has the right to feel a sense of belonging and significance in a safe environment, allowing learning to occur. The Student Well-being Team is an important element in student well-being. The team consists of the principal, assistant principal, members of the learning support team, and counsellors. It meets regularly to discuss student progress. Withdrawals If parents plan to withdraw their child(ren) from OSC, please contact the Primary School Secretary. The office will arrange: - An official transcript - An official OSC leaving certificate - Copies of OSC reports - Withdrawal forms Students must follow the procedure below to acquire the documentation mentioned above. At least two weeks before withdrawal, parents should inform the School Office that their son/daughter is withdrawing from school, specifying the last day of school. → Parents will be emailed an electronic Withdrawal Form that should be filled out and submitted. → All outstanding library books need to be returned to the library. → The Withdrawal Form will be approved by the class teacher and the librarian and then approved by the Principal. The Form automatically goes to the Business Office for the refundable deposit to be released. Parents may contact the Principal to make arrangements if a student requires assistance with admissions testing for another school. If a student requires references/recommendations for a new school, please contact the Office, and the Secretary will facilitate this with the class teacher and Principal. Please allow for ten working days for these to be completed. Section 2: Our Primary School Introduction to the Primary OSC is committed to developing the whole person. Integral to this is a curriculum that provides our students with the opportunities for this development. In the Primary we offer the International Baccalaureate Primary Years Programme (PYP) for students aged 3-11 (Early Years-Grade 5). This is a transdisciplinary programme of inquiry that supports student’s development of key knowledge, skills, concepts, attitudes, and action. This then feeds into the Middle Years Programme (MYP, Grades 6-10) and the Diploma Programme (DP, Grades 11-12). At the heart of our educational philosophy, the IB Primary Years Programme is dedicated to cultivating a comprehensive learning journey for students, embracing student-centred inquiry-based units that embody the essence of holistic education. In the PYP it is recognised that development and learning are interrelated, and the PYP curriculum framework allows for concept development that applies across and beyond subject-specific areas. This integrated approach allows students to explore concepts, acquire skills, develop positive attitudes, and demonstrate understanding through action. IB Primary Years Programme (PYP) Programme of Inquiry The programme of inquiry at OSC comprises the units of inquiry taught at each Grade level from Early Years to Grade 5. In the Early Years and Kindergarten, there are four or five units of inquiry for the year; all other grades focus on six. These units are defined in terms of six transdisciplinary themes – these themes connect learning across a number of curriculum areas, most notably, Science, Social Studies, Personal, Social, and Physical Education and the Arts (visual and performing). The six transdisciplinary themes are: → Who we are → Where we are in place and time → How we express ourselves → How the world works → How we organise ourselves → Sharing the planet This programme is reviewed and refined on an annual basis by all primary teachers. Each unit of inquiry will include a central idea (deep conceptual understanding or big idea) and several lines of inquiry, which indicate the direction the learning will take and the areas to be researched. There will also be a number of teacher and student questions that will help focus the learning. Concepts, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and action are all taught through our programme of inquiry. Please refer to the curriculum in the Primary Section of our school website to view the programme of inquiry. This programme is reviewed and refined on an annual basis by all primary teachers. Each unit of inquiry will include a central idea (deep conceptual understanding or big idea) and several lines of inquiry, which indicate the direction the learning will take and the areas to be researched. There will also be a number of teacher and student questions that will help focus the learning. Concepts, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and action are all taught through our programme of inquiry. Please refer to the curriculum in the Primary Section of our school website to view the programme of inquiry. Approaches to Learning (ATL) in the PYP As part of the International Baccalaureate’s Primary Years Programme (PYP), there are a set of strategies and attitudes that teachers are encouraged to help their students develop. These are known as the Approaches to Learning (ATL). The approaches to learning are designed so students can learn how to learn. This is an important part of the PYP process, as learning how to learn with enthusiasm and an inquisitive, interdisciplinary nature is a key part of the IB. The approaches are designed to apply to all topics across the curriculum, so students can develop and work on a range of transferable skills applicable to all their topics at school and life beyond it. This is the overarching aim of the IB – to help children develop as learners and people who can effectively function in society with a range of admirable qualities. | Thinking Skills | Critical thinking | Analysing | I look closely at new information and make connections to what I already know. | |-----------------|------------------|-----------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | | Evaluating | I see things in different ways to solve problems. | | | | Forming decisions | I am flexible and open-minded when making a choice or learning something new. | | Creative thinking | Generating novel ideas | I show other people new ideas and questions I have in different ways. | | | Considering new perspectives | I consider different ways of thinking with an open mind. | | Information transfer | | | I take information I have learned and use it in different places. | | Reflection and metacognition | | | I answer, “What did I learn today and why did I learn it?” | | Research Skills | Information literacy | Formulating and planning | I ask questions and figure out how to answer them. | |-----------------|----------------------|--------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | | | Data gathering and recording | I find information and show it using words or pictures. | | | | Synthesising and interpreting | I sort information into groups to understand and organise what I am learning. | | | | Evaluating and communicating | I communicate what I have learned and where I learned it from, in lots of ways. | | Media literacy | | | I use media resources to connect, create, and communicate. | | Ethical use of media/information | | | I am responsible, respectful, and safe when using media to learn and share. | | Communication Skills | Exchanging Information | Listening | I listen respectfully and responsibly to others so I can understand. | |---------------------|------------------------|-----------|-------------------------------------------------------------------| | | | Interpreting | I understand what I see and hear. | | | | Speaking | I speak clearly to share and explain my ideas in many ways. | | Literacy | Reading | I read, understand and talk about what is written. | | | Writing | I use writing to share my thoughts and sort information. | | ICT | | I decide on different ways to share what I know or wonder about, including the use of technology. | | Social Skills | Interpersonal relationships | I get along with and care for others as we learn. | |--------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | | Social and emotional intelligence | I name my feelings and control my actions so that everyone can learn. | | | Organization | I choose a learning goal and make a plan to complete a task. | | Self-management Skills | States of mind | Mindfulness | I am aware of my feelings and my body to stay focused. | | | | Perseverance | I complete challenging tasks by never giving up. | | | | Emotional management | I know and manage my emotions. I stand up for myself and others. | | | | Self-motivation | I always tell myself, “I CAN DO IT!” | | | | Resilience | I keep trying when things are new or difficult. | Developed at Kaposia Education Center, an IB World School (South St. Paul, Minnesota, USA) – @MrRyanHigbea – 2019 PYP Curriculum Language in the PYP Reading OSC focuses on the development of reading and writing skills through a balanced literacy approach, based on the IB PYP Language Scope and Sequence Guide. “Reading is constructing meaning from text by making inferences and interpretations. The process of reading is interactive and involves the reader’s purpose for reading, the reader’s prior knowledge and experience, and the text itself (Making the PYP Happen, 2009)”. OSC uses the Lucy Calkins Units of Study as a resource and a wide variety of texts to teach reading. Wherever possible, reading will be taught through the relevant and authentic context of the units of inquiry. Word Study Kindergarten uses Jolly Phonics as a resource to teach children to read and write. Students are taught the main 42 sounds of English. With this knowledge students are taken through the stages of blending sounds to form words and then to reading. The Jolly Phonics assessment, administered three times a year, provides for differentiated instruction. The developmental resource, Words Their Way is our approach to teach phonics, vocabulary and spelling. The spelling inventory, a common assessment at OSC provides for differentiation to form word study groups. Learners actively engage in word sorts each week, to learn spelling patterns (vowel patterns, prefixes and suffixes) and the conventional rules of spelling. Writing OSC follows the writers workshop model to teach writing. The Lucy Calkins units of study is our main resource to teach the genres: Narrative, information and opinion writing. Wherever possible, writing will be taught through the relevant and authentic context of the units of inquiry. Math in the PYP The mathematics programme at OSC has been developed to provide all our students with a strong grounding in core areas of mathematical skills in addition to the ability to problem solve using these skills. We also intend for our students to become comfortable with the language of mathematics and see it as a “way of thinking”, as opposed to a series of facts that need to be memorised. Wherever possible, we place mathematical learning in a real-world context, with hands-on materials to support all concepts. This is especially the case with our younger learners, where imaginative, differentiated, and practical activities help facilitate a love of mathematics as well as an ability to recognise its importance. At all grade levels, mathematics will involve working with concrete materials, pictorial representations, discussing and recording, collaboration, investigations, problem solving, practice and consolidation, and mental mathematics. We have a variety of materials and resources to support our mathematics programme. The mathematics programme is broken down into five mathematical strands: → Data handling → Measurement → Shape and space → Pattern and function → Number A number of “big conceptual ideas” are scaffolded within these stands and spiral throughout the curriculum. Students review and build upon prior knowledge to deepen their understanding as they mature as mathematical learners throughout the year. For each new concept a child will move through three stages of mathematical development before achieving mastery: → Constructing meaning → Transferring meaning → Applying understanding Programme continuity is established through a Mathematics Scope and Sequence Document. The Scope and Sequence identifies specific grade-level indicators of what our students need to be able to accomplish in every area. A complete list of grade-level indicators can be found on the school website, under curriculum in the Primary Section. Social Studies and Sciences The transdisciplinary nature of the PYP Programme of Inquiry allows for all subjects (including language arts, mathematics, social studies, art, and even physical education) to be integrated into each Unit of Inquiry. This integration teaches children to connect ideas and experiences, and offers a meaningful context for learning. In the PYP, science is viewed as the exploration of the biological, chemical, and physical aspects of the natural world, and the relationships between them. The science knowledge and the application of that knowledge will enhance inquiries into the central ideas defined by the transdisciplinary themes. In the PYP, social studies is viewed as the study of people in relation to their past, their present, and their future, their environment and their society. Social studies encourages curiosity and develops an understanding of a rapidly changing world. The Arts At OSC, our educational philosophy is deeply rooted in the concept of holistic learning, reflecting our commitment to nurturing each individual’s comprehensive growth and development. The Arts are not merely supporting disciplines but are integral to the Primary Years Programme. Wherever possible, learning in the Arts is linked closely to what is taking place in the regular classroom environment. We believe that both Visual and Performing arts are powerful modes of communication through which our students can explore and construct a sense of self and develop an understanding of the world around them. The Visual Arts The Visual Arts programme is aimed at providing students with a wide range of opportunities and means to respond to their experiences and engage with cultural, social, and historical perspectives. Students are encouraged to think and communicate their thoughts in new ways, and through a variety of media and techniques. Key elements from art and design are incorporated into the programme. Learning specifically falls under two common strands across grade levels: **Responding** – where students are given opportunities to respond to their own and other artists' work or processes, and in doing so develop the skills of critical analysis, interpretation, evaluation, reflection, and understanding. **Creating** – where students are given opportunities to communicate distinctive forms of meaning, develop their technical skills, take creative risks, solve problems, and visualise consequences. Performing Arts Our Performing Arts programme is a combination of dance, drama, and music. Aspects of the curriculum are linked to the local context and Sri Lankan experiences are highlighted. As in Visual Arts, there are two overarching strands – responding and creating. Students are encouraged to take risks with the skills they are learning in Performing Arts and showcase these at every opportunity – within their class, grade level, or in assemblies or public performances. Each year, a Primary School production is a highlight for all our budding performers on stage. Languages We believe that language is at the centre of all learning. All our teachers are language teachers, as it plays such a vital role in the construction of meaning for our students. It is the major connecting element across our curriculum and provides a vehicle for all forms of inquiry. In particular, the integration of literature into our student inquiries helps to deepen a life-long love of reading and language. At OSC we see language as three critical aspects – learning language, learning about language, and learning through language. Our students will be exposed to three areas of language development: - **Oral language** – listening and speaking - **Visual language** – viewing and presenting - **Written language** – reading and writing We have a wide variety of resources to support these areas within our classrooms, our Primary Learning Resource Centre, and our Book Room. Sinhala and French We believe the acquisition of more than one language enriches personal development and helps facilitate international-mindedness. In the Primary School, Sinhala cultural is taught from Early Years through to Grade 5, however, starting in Grade 1 students have the option to study either Sinhala or French as their additional language. These programmes are not designed as mother tongue classes. Support will be provided for both Sinhala and French mother tongue speakers during these lessons; however, a degree of independent learning will be expected from these students. After school mother tongue language classes may be available upon demand. In Early Years and Kindergarten, the Sinhala programme is taught by the assistant teacher through immersion and is integrated into the Units of Inquiry. Grade 1 through Grade 5 classes are taught by a qualified Sinhala and French teacher. The French programme is taught by a qualified native speaker. Home Languages Acquisition of Home Language is crucial for cognitive development and in maintaining cultural identity. It also has the potential to increase intercultural awareness and understanding, and enables students to remain in touch with, and maintain esteem for, the language, literature, and culture of their home country. Wherever appropriate, students are encouraged to share Home language experiences, with key words and phrases related to the current concepts being taught translated. Our Primary Library has a variety of Home Language reading resources, which we expand each year. A variety of Home Language clubs take place after-school, with resources and support provided by the School. Please contact the Primary or Secondary Office for more information about our existing Home Language Programme opportunities. Physical Education Embedded within our commitment to holistic education is an emphasis on physical well-being and empowering students to make informed choices regarding their lifestyles and physical engagement. All our students participate in at least one swimming lesson per week, where a PE teacher and two trained swimming instructors are present. Early Years, Kindergarten, and Grade 1 have two lessons per week to help build water confidence. This allows for appropriate differentiation within the programme. Our PE programme has a combination of the following experiences: - Individual pursuits: development of basic motor skills and the body’s capacity for movement - Movement composition: involving the linking of movements aesthetically - Games: development of skills and strategies - Adventure challenges: tasks that require physical and critical-thinking skills by individuals and groups - Health related fitness: recognising and appreciating the importance of maintaining a healthy lifestyle Comprehensive Sexual Education The primary school teaches the Rights, Respect, Responsibility, a K-12th Grade Comprehensive Sexuality Education Curriculum. This K-12 comprehensive sex education curriculum is fully mapped to the National Sexuality Education Standards, covers all 16 topics deemed essential by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, is LGBTQ-inclusive, trauma informed and culturally responsive. Social and Emotional Learning Social Emotional Learning (SEL) is deeply integrated into the IB PYP. It’s not a separate subject but is woven into the fabric of the curriculum, helping students develop the skills they need to understand and manage their emotions, build positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. Key Components of SEL in PYP → Learner Profile: This core element of the PYP outlines the qualities of the ideal IB student, including attributes like caring, respectful, and balanced. These qualities are directly linked to SEL competencies. → Approaches to Learning (ATL): These skills, such as communication, collaboration, and self-management, are essential for SEL development. → Inquirers: The PYP fosters curiosity and critical thinking, which are fundamental to emotional intelligence and understanding the world around them. → Knowledgeable Thinkers: Students develop the ability to gather, evaluate, and use information effectively, which is crucial for problem-solving and decision-making. → Communicators: Effective communication is essential for building relationships and expressing emotions. How SEL is Implemented in PYP → Through Units of Inquiry: SEL is integrated into thematic units, allowing students to explore emotions, relationships, and social issues in real-world contexts. → Classroom Culture: Creating a supportive and inclusive classroom environment where students feel safe to express themselves is essential for SEL development. → Collaborative Learning: Group work and projects encourage students to develop empathy, cooperation, and conflict resolution skills. → Reflective Practices: Journals, discussions, and self-assessment opportunities help students understand their emotions and develop self-regulation strategies. → Service Learning: Engaging in community service helps students develop empathy, compassion, and a sense of responsibility towards others. In essence, the PYP provides a holistic framework for students to develop social and emotional competencies alongside academic knowledge. By focusing on the whole child, the Programme aims to equip students with the skills they need to thrive in an ever-changing world. Technology Wherever possible, we try integrate technology into our everyday teaching and learning. All students have immediate access to technology within the classroom, using either iPads or Chromebooks. With our wireless campus, this allows students to seamlessly access a range of research facilities depending on the particular learning that is taking place. Please refer to our Technology Standard found on the OSC website under the section “Technology”. Service Learning In the PYP students are involved with a choice on which of the 15 OSC service groups they support. This is done through the PSA ambassador Programme where they act as representatives for their classes. It’s also achieved through the “action” piece where students decide how they are going to implement their learning which usually involves supporting one of the OSC service groups. Assemblies and Productions At the end of each week at 8:15 a.m., the Primary School holds a short, informal assembly on the basketball court. This is an opportunity to recognise student achievements, share short student performances, and to pass on notices and reminders to students. Occasionally, a more formal assembly is held either in the Primary Multi-Purpose Room (PMPR) or the auditorium. This is an opportunity to share literature and for students to share their learning in a variety of areas. Our community is welcomed and encouraged to attend these events. The Primary School puts on one major production each year. Students from KG-Grade 5 are involved. We also host assemblies each week to highlight events and learning experiences, and we often have impromptu jam sessions hosted by individual grade levels. Assessing Learning in the Primary Assessment is seen as an integral element of the teaching/learning process. Our assessment procedures are based on current educational philosophy and are directly related to the school curriculum. Types of Assessment Practices Assessment for learning is learner-centred, forward thinking and involves the entire learning community. It is a collaborative effort that starts with assessment of prior knowledge to determine what students already know and what they are able to do with further guidance (Griffin 2014). Using pre-assessment data, teachers design opportunities for students to test and revise their models, and support them in making connections between their previous and current perceptions. Assessment produces evidence of student learning. Continuously monitoring, documenting and measuring learning, and then analysing assessment data, provides insights into students’ understanding, knowledge, skills and dispositions. Assessment is a means for teachers to personalise learning and for students to self-adjust based on emerging data and feedback from teachers and peers. Assessment as learning promotes learning by helping students to take responsibility, while developing enthusiasm and motivation for their learning. By encouraging students to actively design, manage and measure their own learning, they develop the skills to use assessments to self-assess, to reflect on and to make adjustments in future learning. Assessment of learning is an integral part of learning. At appropriate points of the inquiry, it provides students with the opportunity to gauge their acquisition of knowledge, development of conceptual understandings and skills during the inquiry (Teaching and Learning, PYP Enhanced Resources). **Figure AS07: The Three Assessment Practices** | **Purpose** | **Assessment for learning** | **Assessment of learning** | **Assessment as learning (Clark 2012; Earl 2012)** | |-------------|-----------------------------|----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | | Also known as formative assessment. Its goal is to inform teaching and promote learning. | Also known as summative assessment. Its goal is to certify and to report on learning progress. | As part of the formative process, its goal is to support students in learning how to become a self-regulated lifelong learner. | | **Timing** | It is conducted throughout the learning process. It is iterative and interactive. | It is typically conducted at the end of a unit, year level or developmental stage, or programme. | It is conducted throughout the learning process. It is iterative and interactive. | | **Features**| Student involvement Quantitative and qualitative data Written and oral artifacts Observations and feedback Questionnaires Teacher/student dialogues/conferences Context-based Informal Indication of process Indication of knowledge/skill application | Limited student involvement Quantitative data Tests, exams, standardised tests Indication of skills and knowledge acquisition or mastery Based on teacher judgement Norm- or criteria-referenced | Students are active agents in their own learning by developing and using meta-cognitive strategies to: → Plan learning goals → Monitor goals → Reflect in order to modify learning and to adjust learning | (Learning and Teaching, PYP Enhanced Documents) Student learning is evaluated through a combination of these practices. Dimensions of Assessment Assessment has four dimensions: monitoring, documenting, measuring, and reporting on learning. Each of these aspects has its own function, but all aim to provide evidence to inform learning and teaching. Although the four dimensions of assessment are not weighted the same, each dimension has its own importance and value. When, What, and How We Assess Within the PYP, continuous assessment is an integral part of teaching. The use of assessment to judge the effectiveness of both teaching and learning processes is essential to allow teachers and children to identify their strengths and weaknesses and the effectiveness of the programme. The purpose and means of assessment should be clearly explained to the children. The Primary reporting schedule for the school year is as follows: - **October:** Three (3)-way conferences - **December:** Semester 1 report - **March:** Three (3)-way conferences - **May:** Student-led conferences - **June:** Semester 2 report Three-Way Conferences These conferences are usually formal and designed for students to be the centre of discussion involving their progress with their parents. Students focus on what they have achieved and the goal setting process. Teachers and parents are then given the opportunity to highlight the student’s achievements and to determine how they can best help the student to meet goals at school and at home. Student-Led Conferences These conferences are formal ones where children are involved in discussing their work and their progress with their parents. The children will, with the support and guidance of the teacher, select the work (based on predetermined criteria) to be discussed. The format of these conferences will depend on the age of the child, and all of the participants must understand the format and their roles prior to the conference. The value of student-led conferences is that children reflect on and consolidate their progress and share the responsibility of informing their parents. **Portfolios** Portfolios are collections of student work designed to demonstrate successes, growth, higher order thinking skills, creativity and reflection over time. Teachers and students collect evidence to show development and reflection in SeeSaw, our main learning management system. **Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) – External** Students in Grades 2-5 at OSC participate in the Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) testing in September and again in April. MAP tests are unique in that they are administered online and are adapted to each child’s level of learning. As a result, each student has the same opportunity to succeed and maintain a positive attitude towards testing. With MAP tests, we can administer shorter tests and use less class time while still receiving detailed and accurate information about your child’s growth. During the month of September, your child will take one reading and one mathematics test, and spend a total of about one and a half to two hours completing these tests. The MAP testing will run again in April so that student progress can be tracked. **International School Assessment (ISA) – External** In February, all students in Grades 3, 4, and 5 undergo an online writing assessment. The assessment is completed in two testing sessions – Writing Task A (Narrative/Reflective) and Writing Task B (Exposition/Argument). Students are given approximately 40 minutes to respond to a writing prompt and results are assessed by an external body, then shared with parents. **Development Reading Assessment (DRA) – Internal** The DRA is an individually administered assessment of student reading proficiency. The DRA allows teachers to determine each student’s instructional level for reading and provides a method for evaluating their individual reading growth over time. **The PYP Exhibition** All our students in Grade 5 engage in one unit of inquiry entitled “The Exhibition” as part of their six units of inquiry throughout the year. The PYP Exhibition provides the culminating experience of the learner’s engagement with the PYP. It unites the teachers, learners, and parents of the class in an activity that captures the essence of the PYP transdisciplinary inquiry conducted in a spirit of personal and shared responsibility. It marks a rite of passage, both symbolic and actual, from the PYP to the Middle Years Programme (MYP). Most importantly, it is a celebration, an event that synthesises all that is best in the PYP, and shares it with the whole community. The PYP Exhibition is an extended, collaborative inquiry, undertaken by students in their final year of the PYP. The subject of the exhibition inquiry comes under the six transdisciplinary themes and is a real-world issue or problem, local or global, of sufficient scope and significance to warrant an extended investigation. The class will generate relevant and realistic proposals for solutions to the selected issue and in doing so, apply their accumulated knowledge. The Exhibition represents a significant event in the life of the School, encapsulating the essence of the PYP and encouraging younger students to look forward to their final year in the programme. **Attendance in the Primary** Regular attendance at school is an expectation at OSC in order to set every student up for success and enable them to maximise their learning. If a child is to be on a sustained absence, this needs to be communicated to the Principal, indicating the rationale. If your child is absent, parents are asked to phone the Primary Office (+94 11 278 4920) to inform the Primary School Secretary. Should the school not have had notification of an absence, a phone call to the child’s home will be made to ensure that the whereabouts of a student is known. If a child needs to leave the campus during the school day, parents or guardians are required to obtain a “Gate Pass” from the Primary Office. Parents wishing to remove students from class due to personal circumstances are expected to seek permission prior to their departure. Permission for leave will be granted by the Principal. In a situation of sustained lateness, parents will be notified and an action plan to resolve the situation will be drawn up and agreed upon. Students are required to be present for at least 85% of the instructional time. Students who are absent from school, excused or unexcused, for more than 15% of the instructional time may jeopardise their promotion. **Awards in the Primary** **Gold Award for Excellence** The President’s Award for Educational Excellence recognises academic success in the classroom. This category of the award enables school personnel to use new assessment and evaluation tools in developing award criteria at their school and apply the criteria fairly to all students. The primary indicators of excellence must be based on academic achievement. School personnel may also consider, as part of the criteria, activities in which a student demonstrates high motivation, initiative, integrity, intellectual depth, leadership qualities and/or exceptional judgement. They may also require student essays and outstanding attendance, but these activities must bear some relationship to the academic performance of a student. Silver Award for Achievement The President’s Award for Educational Achievement recognises students that show outstanding educational growth, improvement, commitment to or intellectual development in their academic subjects – but do not meet the criteria for the President’s Award for Educational Excellence. This award should not be compared to the President’s Award for Educational Excellence or be seen as a second tier award; it recognises a very different type of academic achievement. It is meant to encourage and reward students who work hard and give their best effort in school, often in the face of special obstacles to learning. This award is given at the Principal’s discretion based on the criteria developed at the school. The criteria should reflect the purpose of the award and must be applied fairly to all students. Following are examples of criteria for which the President’s Award for Educational Achievement may be presented: → Show tremendous growth but not meet all the criteria for the President’s Award for Educational Excellence → Demonstrate unusual commitment to learning in academics despite various obstacles → Maintain a school record that would have met the School’s selection criteria for the President’s Award for Educational Excellence but illness, personal crisis, or special needs prevented the student from maintaining such high standards despite hard work → Achieve high scores or show outstanding growth, improvement, commitment to or intellectual development in particular subjects, such as English, math, science, etc. → Demonstrate achievement in the arts such as music or theatre Head of School’s Award for Critical Thinking Awarded to a primary student who has demonstrated they can imagine different solutions to a problem, seeks out and understands different points of view, does not accept ideas at face value, is intellectually curious, does not give up when solutions are not readily apparent, challenges self and others in solving problems, makes use of symbolic expressions through language, art, music, dance or drama, uses humour in the thinking process and is not afraid to have an opinion that is different to others. Counselling Programme at the Primary Level The counsellor plays a pivotal role in fostering the holistic development of students in the IB PYP. Their responsibilities extend beyond traditional academic counselling to encompass the social, emotional, and personal growth of young learners. Key Roles of a Counsellor in PYP → **Social and Emotional Development:** → Supporting students in understanding and managing their emotions. → Building strong relationships with peers and adults. → Developing empathy and compassion. → Teaching conflict resolution and problem-solving skills. → **Academic Support:** → Helping students develop effective learning strategies. → Providing academic guidance and support. → Facilitating transitions within the School. → **Parent and Teacher Collaboration:** → Building strong partnerships with parents and teachers. → Providing support and guidance to parents on child development. → Collaborating with teachers to create a supportive learning environment. → **Programme Implementation:** → Understanding the PYP philosophy and curriculum. → Integrating SEL (Social Emotional Learning) into the Programme. → Supporting the development of the Learner Profile in students. → **School Culture:** → Promoting a positive and inclusive school climate. → Addressing bullying and other social issues. → Supporting the well-being of the entire school community. In essence, the counselor is a key player in creating a nurturing environment where students can thrive academically, socially, and emotionally. They work collaboratively with teachers, parents, and administrators to ensure that the PYP’s holistic approach to education is fully realised. **Homework in the Primary School** Learning at home should be authentic, connected and meaningful. At OSC, we have moved away from traditional homework tasks, instead, we encourage families to follow their child’s curiosity and passion to guide their learning. Science experiments, outside play, cooking and reading books together are an equally important part of your child’s development, along with the curriculum they learn at school. Current research suggests that for Primary School students, homework has a negligible effect on academic achievement and worse, it can lead to stress, family conflict, and a lack of time for other important activities such as play and rest. However, developing a love for reading is important for all primary students and should be part of a daily routine. Below are a few ideas to help guide reading at home: → **Interactive family reading:** Build in time for daily family reading, whether that’s library books, classroom levelled readers, or books from home. This creates a shared experience, sparks discussions, and exposes children to new vocabulary and concepts in a natural way. → **Choice and personalisation:** Allow children some choice in their reading materials, whether it’s choosing books based on their interests or selecting different formats like audiobooks or eBooks. This fosters engagement and ownership over their learning. Connecting reading to the real world: Encourage students to draw connections between what they read and their own lives and experiences. This could involve creating projects, participating in discussions, or making real-world applications of what they learned. Incorporating technology thoughtfully: Utilise technology tools like educational apps or online games that supplement learning in a fun and interactive way, but ensure they are not solely focused on drill and practice. Remember, the goal of home learning in primary grades is not to overburden young learners but to nurture a love for reading and learning that will serve them throughout their lives. By focusing on authentic connections and meaningful learning experiences, you can create a more engaging and effective learning environment at home. Parent Involvement in the Primary School Parents are an integral part of the learning process at OSC. We know that when parents are actively involved in their child’s education, it is highly beneficial to the child’s learning. As a parent in the OSC community, you may help your child’s learning in a multitude of ways: - Listening to students read during the day - Reading with your child at night - Discussing your child’s learning with them at night - Supporting them with homework tasks - Going on field trips - As a guest speaker in a particular area of expertise - Sharing your talents with your child’s class - Helping to facilitate responsible “action” - Being enthusiastic about learning - Modelling “lifelong” learning - Helping them problem solve - Promoting independence and responsibility - Encouraging and supporting them in whatever areas they are passionate about Each class has two appointed support parents who work in collaboration with the class teacher and the Support Parent Coordinator. Their role is primarily to act as a link between the School and class community. The role will take on differing aspects depending on the level; however, support parents are an excellent contact point and source of information. Please refer to the School Community Network (SCN) section. of the weekly newsletter for more specific details. Parent workshops are provided throughout the year on a variety topics from our Programmes, to positive discipline, to parenting strategies. This process ensures that all students are actively involved in decision-making at the school. We believe that the PSA gives our students an active role in the running of their school and helps all involved further develop key attributes of the learner profile. **Student Leadership – Primary School Ambassadors (PSA)** The Primary School Ambassadors are group of students from Grade 1 to Grade 5 who represent students in decision-making affecting their lives at school. They provide a link between staff and students and present a student perspective. The association is made up of two students who are elected from each class. Skills and attributes necessary to be a class representative are discussed and their nominations called for, with students then voting. **How are Student Decisions Made?** The PSA meets weekly at lunchtime to discuss issues brought to them from class meetings. These issues are then directed back to all classes, via PSA minutes, for further discussion. When necessary, a proposal is then made that goes to classes and a vote is conducted. The class that brought the idea to the PSA is then responsible for taking any action necessary, for example meeting with the Primary Principal, organising fundraisers, etc. **Student Responsibilities** At OSC we strive to allow our students to be self-directed wherever possible. We hope that ultimately, through the reinforcement of positive behaviours, our students display intrinsic motivation to “do the right thing”, both individually and collectively. Our Primary Student Government Association, through class meetings, has developed a set of responsibilities and expectations that all Primary students at OSC follow. These are: - care for and respect each other - speak nicely to each other - share - keep our school clean and tidy - recycle - learn and play as a team - are creative - ask questions - always try our best Trips in the Primary School Field trips are an integral component of the PYP. They provide students with opportunities to explore, investigate, and understand the world around them in a hands-on and engaging way. By incorporating field trips into the PYP curriculum, we create rich and authentic learning experiences that empower students to become lifelong learners and engaged citizens. Grades 3 and 4 go on one overnight trip each year and in Grade 5 students go away for two nights. Section 3: Our Secondary School Introduction to the Secondary The Secondary School is a time where students become more independent and develop their interests and strengths. OSC remains committed to developing the whole child. Integral to this is a curriculum that provides our students with opportunities to develop their approaches to learning, their voice and their collaboration skills. The Secondary School includes both the Middle Years Programme (MYP) and the Diploma Programme (DP). While there are individual subjects there are many interdisciplinary projects, and opportunities for students to transfer their learning conceptually. As a secondary team we are all about the journey, believing that paying attention to the journey will help every child achieve success. The academic year runs from mid-August to mid-June and is divided into two semesters for assessment purposes. This provides 180 days of instructional time with three main vacation periods. The school day begins at 8:15 a.m. and concludes at 3:30 p.m. apart from Wednesdays when there is an early finish at 2:35 p.m. The Secondary School runs on an 6-day cycle. The rotating schedule allows for an equal distribution of time for the various subjects. The school calendar has these numbers for each date. Advisory and Homeroom All students have a Homeroom Teacher/Advisor, who is responsible for the general welfare of the students and for sharing information in the homeroom group. The Advisor is the first point of contact for students and parents. This teacher will likely also be a classroom teacher for one of the academic courses in the grade level. Parents can reach out to the Advisor or any subject teacher at any time. Please contact firstname.lastname@example.org if you need support. Advisory takes place during the “X Block” at the end of each day. IB MYP (MYP) Programme The IB Middle Years Programme (IB MYP) is an internationally recognised Programme designed for students aged between 11 and 16 years. It recognises that students in this age group are developing their social, emotional, academic, and metacognitive skills. Therefore, the MYP is designed to provide academic progress while also acknowledging the need to build social skills and develop connections in and outside of the classroom. While developing the skills students need for success, the MYP also allows for flexibility and creativity to meet the diverse needs of young adolescents. Through the MYP Programme, students prepare for future challenges in both academics and beyond. The MYP is designed to provide students with the values and opportunities that will enable them to develop sound judgment and critical thinking skills. The MYP embraces the IB Learner Profile which promotes the development and expression of character traits. The program also emphasises the importance of “Approaches to Learning” (ATLs), the transferrable skills which enable students to learn new information in any context. These ATLs are necessary for students to be independent, life-long learners. **The IB MYP Curriculum Model** The MYP spans Grades 6–10, also referred to as MYP Years 1–5. The curricular framework for the MYP is established by the International Bachelorette (IB) but is flexible enough to allow schools to determine the specific curriculum and content taught. Through the MYP, the Overseas School of Colombo is able to support students in their academic, social, and emotional development as students transition from early puberty to mid-adolescence. The diagram represents the Middle Years Programme Model. The Programme model of the IB MYP places the learner at its centre, educating the whole person, placing importance on conceptual learning through contexts. The student interacts with their eight subject groups through the development of skills, known as Approaches to Learning, and the transfer of content, skills, and knowledge into action. **MYP Curriculum** The IB MYP curriculum includes eight subject groups. Our learning activities are designed through the lens of the six Global Contexts to nurture curiosity and creativity. The MYP encourages the same intellectual risk-taking that drives the IB Primary Years Programme (PYP), and develops critical and independent thinking as we prepare students for the rigours of the IB Diploma Program (IB DP). **Language and Literature** Study of literature and language of instruction. **Math** Integrated Numerical Reasoning, Algebra, Modelling, Geometry, Trigonometry, and Statistics. **Individuals and Societies** Integrated History, Geography, and Economics **Sciences** Integrated Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Earth Science **The Arts** Visual Arts, Music, and Theatre **Language Acquisition and Home Languages** OSC offers French, Spanish, Sinhala, and Mandarin languages for acquisition (B languages) If a student wishes to study their home language (A language), and not one of OSC provided languages, they need to consult with the Home Language Coordinator. **Design** Digital and Product Design Technology **Physical Education** Health, Sport, and Fitness **Comprehensive Sexual Education** The secondary school teaches the Rights, Respect, Responsibility, a K-12th Grade Comprehensive Sexuality Education Curriculum. This K-12 comprehensive sex education curriculum is fully mapped to the National Sexuality Education Standards, covers all 16 topics deemed essential by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, is LGBTQ-inclusive, trauma informed and culturally responsive. **X-Blocks** At the end of each day (except Wednesdays) students have a 50 minute block of time dedicated to non-assessed social-emotional learning and development. During this time, we schedule sessions intended to cover all aspects of the [CASEL framework](#) helping our students learn and grow in terms of their self-management, self-awareness, responsible decision-making, social awareness and relationship skills. We organise this through sessions focused, for example, on digital citizenship, comprehensive sexuality education (see above), PLEx time (Personalised Learning Experiences) or ATL skill development. Please refer to the OSC website for subject specific outlines. Each subject group focuses on teaching and learning through the six Global Contexts or common themes, which connect students to the subject groups. This leads to teaching through an interdisciplinary approach and allows for transfer between subjects as well as the outside world. Through these contexts, students learn to investigate, plan, take action, and reflect. The IB MYP Personal Project The MYP Personal Project is the capstone of the MYP. Over a period of nine months, from the end of year 4 to the middle of year 5, students undertake the creation of an individualised project. Through the completion of this project, students demonstrate the knowledge and skills they have developed over the five years of the IB MYP. Students are free to choose any topic of interest and create their project, which impacts their learning and community. To accompany the project, students write a report that explains the process of planning, applying skills, and reflecting. Students celebrate the completion of their projects through a Personal Project Exhibition where their work is displayed to the school community. Students receive a final 1–7 IB MYP grade for the Personal Project. This grade is awarded by the student’s supervisor, an internal moderator, and an external IB moderator. All students attending the Overseas School of Colombo in MYP year 5 (Grade 10), complete the Personal Project. IB Diploma Programme (DP) The Overseas School of Colombo is proud to have been offering the rigorous and internationally recognised International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme to its students in Grades 11 and 12 since 1983. At OSC, we support students in the Diploma Programme beginning in the second half of their MYP 5 year with individual course selection meetings with students, parents, the Diploma Coordinator and the College Counsellor to ensure students find the best pathway to success both in the Diploma Programme and with regard to their post-secondary goals. In addition to their course work, supported by our DP teaching faculty, we support students throughout the programme with regularly scheduled support sessions with the Diploma Coordinator, CAS Coordinator, and Extended Essay Coordinator in addition to student well-being and study skills sessions and regular contact with the College Counsellor. What follows are descriptions of the key elements and requirements of the two-year IBDP programme that we support OSC students to understand and we guide them to meet. For additional information about the specifics of the programme beyond what is provided below, please refer to the IB’s Diploma Programme website or contact OSC’s Diploma Coordinator at email@example.com. IBDP Overview The International Baccalaureate describes the Diploma Programme’s purpose and structure as follows: The Diploma Programme (DP) is a rigorous pre-university course of study designed for students in the 16 to 19 age range. It is a broad-based two-year course that aims to encourage students to be knowledgeable and inquiring, but also caring and compassionate. There is a strong emphasis on encouraging students to develop intercultural understanding, open-mindedness, and the attitudes necessary for them to respect and evaluate a range of points of view. The course is presented as six academic areas enclosing a central core. Students study two modern languages (or a modern language and a classical language), a humanities or social science subject, an experimental science, mathematics and one of the creative arts. Instead of an arts subject, students can choose two subjects from another area. It is this comprehensive range of subjects that makes the Diploma Programme a demanding course of study designed to prepare students effectively for university entrance. In each of the academic areas students have flexibility in making their choices, which means they can choose subjects that particularly interest them and that they may wish to study further at university. Normally, three subjects (and not more than four) are taken at higher level (HL), and the others are taken at standard level (SL). The IB recommends 240 teaching hours for HL subjects and 150 hours for SL. Subjects at HL are studied in greater depth and breadth than at SL. In addition, three core elements – the extended essay, theory of knowledge and creativity, activity, service – are compulsory and central to the philosophy of the programme. (https://www.ibo.org/globalassets/new-structure/university-admission/pdfs/ee_subjectbrief_en.pdf) Courses offered at the DP Level at The Overseas School of Colombo Students choose from the following 2-year courses at the start of Grade 11 to satisfy their IB DP requirements: | GROUP | SUBJECT | LEVELS | |-------|----------------------------------------------|--------| | Group 1 (Courses subject to change) | English A Language and Literature | HL or SL | | | Other Language A Literature (School Supported Self Taught) | SL | | Group 2 (Courses subject to change) | French B | HL or SL | | | Spanish B | HL or SL | | | French *ab initio* | SL | | | Mandarin *ab initio* | SL | | Group 3 (Courses subject to change) | Economics | HL or SL | | | Global Politics | HL or SL | | | Geography | HL or SL | | | Psychology | HL or SL | | Group 4 | Biology | HL or SL | | | Environmental Systems and Societies | HL or SL | | | Physics | HL or SL | | | Chemistry | HL or SL | | Group 5 | Mathematics Analysis and Approaches | HL or SL | | Group 6 | Visual Arts | HL or SL | | | Theatre | HL or SL | | | Music | HL or SL | For extensive syllabus outlines for each subject, please refer to the Parent Portal. In rare cases, it may not be possible to meet the unique educational needs of specific students with the above course offerings. The option to take International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Programme courses at The Overseas School of Colombo (OSC) through Pamoja Education is by special arrangement only. Pamoja Education is an online school authorised by the IB to offer and meet the curricular requirements of a number of IB Diploma Programme courses. **The IBDP Core at OSC** **The IB DP Core: Creativity, Activity, and Service (CAS)** The Creativity Activity and Service (CAS) component is a vital part of the educational experience for all DP 1 and 2 students at OSC. Our school recognises, as stated in the mission statement, that education neither begins nor ends in the classroom or the examination hall. In fact, the essential aspects of education may exist outside both and the CAS Programme highlights this. An international education must go well beyond the provision of information and is inevitably involved in the development of attitudes and values which transcend barriers of race, class, religion, gender or politics. As per the IB design, CAS encompasses a broad range of extracurricular activities including SAISA sports, creative pursuits, activities like COMUN and service to the community. The emphasis is on experiential learning and includes an expectation that students will be involved in a balanced range of activities reflecting creativity, action and service within this Programme. Community service and service-learning have a special place in OSC’s philosophy of education. At OSC students are encouraged to develop a positive and active approach towards service. In the Secondary School specific Programmes are offered to students which emphasise an awareness, concern and responsibility for service in the community. Some of these happen on a weekly basis (Thursday afternoons) after school while others are part of the Week Without Walls Programme (scheduled at the beginning of the 2nd term). The Overseas School of Colombo (OSC) runs an innovative Programme in reflective learning that supports student engagement, authentic learning and a deep engagement in this Programme of experiential learning. All OSC DP students keep track of their goal-setting and progress in the Creativity Activity and Service (CAS) Programme using online blogs (digital portfolios). The management of their experiences, learning outcomes, supervisors and time commitments is accomplished on ManageBac. The idea of the blog or digital portfolio reflective space is for students to chart their growth and progress in each of the three (Creativity-Activity-Service) CAS strands as they navigate the Diploma Programme. Students are encouraged to use pictures, videos and links to make these visually stimulating records of their CAS experience. The reflections connect back to the seven CAS learning outcomes (see attached OSC CAS Handbook for details) that are at the core of their CAS experience. The blogs are publicly available and are also used to share evidence of extracurricular participation for university applications. [https://www.osc.lk/learning/secondary-geckos/diploma-programme/cas](https://www.osc.lk/learning/secondary-geckos/diploma-programme/cas) The IB DP Core: Theory of Knowledge (TOK) The IB describes the Theory of Knowledge course on their DP curriculum site as follows: *Theory of Knowledge (TOK) plays a special role in the International Baccalaureate® (IB) Diploma Programme (DP), by providing an opportunity for students to reflect on the nature of knowledge, and on how we know what we claim to know.* It is one of the components of the DP core and is mandatory for all students. The TOK requirement is central to the educational philosophy of the DP. **How is TOK Structured?** As a thoughtful and purposeful inquiry into different ways of knowing, and into different kinds of knowledge, TOK is composed almost entirely of questions. The most central of these is “How do we know?”, while other questions include: → What counts as evidence for X? → How do we judge which is the best model of Y? → What does theory Z mean in the real world? Through discussions of these and other questions, students gain greater awareness of their personal and ideological assumptions, as well as developing an appreciation of the diversity and richness of cultural perspectives. **Assessment of TOK** The TOK course is assessed through an exhibition and a 1,600 word essay. The exhibition requires the students to create an exhibition of three objects that explores how TOK manifests in the world around us. The essay focuses on a conceptual issue in TOK. For example, it may ask students to discuss the claim that the methodologies used to produce knowledge depend on the use to which that knowledge will be used. **What is the Significance of TOK?** TOK aims to make students aware of the interpretative nature of knowledge, including personal ideological biases – whether these biases are retained, revised, or rejected. It offers students and their teachers the opportunity to: → reflect critically on diverse ways of knowing and on areas of knowledge → consider the role and nature of knowledge in their own culture, in the cultures of others and in the wider world. In addition, TOK prompts students to: → be aware of themselves as thinkers, encouraging them to become more acquainted with the complexity of knowledge → recognise the need to act responsibly in an increasingly interconnected but uncertain world. TOK also provides coherence for the student, by linking academic subject areas as well as transcending them. It therefore demonstrates the ways in which the student can apply their knowledge with greater awareness and credibility. The IB DP Core: Extended Essay The IB describes the Extended Essay on their subject brief publication as follows: The extended essay, a component of the DP core, is a compulsory, externally assessed piece of independent research, presented as a formal piece of academic writing. It is an in-depth study of a focused topic, undertaken either through a subject-focused approach, or an interdisciplinary approach combining two DP subjects. Students choose from the list of available Diploma Programme subjects for the examination session in question. For those taking the diploma this is normally one of the student’s six selected subjects, or two in the case of the interdisciplinary pathway. Students can also choose a topic in which they have some background knowledge. The EE is intended to promote academic research and writing skills. It gives students the opportunity to engage in personal research on their own choice of topic, under the guidance of a supervisor (an appropriately qualified member of staff within the School). Students produce a significant piece of appropriately presented and structured writing, in which their ideas and findings are communicated in a coherent, reasoned manner that is suitable for the chosen subject(s). (https://www.ibo.org/globalassets/new-structure/university-admission/pdfs/ee_subjectbrief_en.pdf) Comprehensive Sexuality Education in the IB DP at OSC OSC teaches the Rights, Respect, Responsibility, a K-12th Grade Comprehensive Sexuality Education Curriculum. This K-12 comprehensive sexuality education curriculum is fully mapped to the National Sexuality Education Standards, covers all 16 topics deemed essential by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, is LGBTQ-inclusive, trauma informed and culturally responsive. OSC High School Diploma Programme In addition to offering the IB diploma, OSC offers an accredited American high school diploma. The OSC diploma is a college preparatory diploma that allows students to pursue their interests after high school graduation without participating in the IB diploma. Students pursuing the OSC diploma are required to take Theory of Knowledge (TOK) as well as completing the Creativity, Activity, and Service (CAS) requirement. Approaches to Learning (ATLs) in the MYP and DP The focus of the ATLs is “learning how to learn.” Students discover their strengths and needs as learners and develop skills that enable them to be independent, lifelong learners. ATLs are both general and subject-specific skills that students will apply during the programme and beyond. A focus on ATL skill development requires students to consider the questions “how do I learn best?” and “how do I communicate my understanding?” ATL skill development enhances students’ abilities to: → manage time → analyse information → develop, organise, and present ideas → access information from the library, the internet, and other media → collaborate with others → reflect and problem solve → communicate in a variety of modes → think critically and creatively ### Approaches to Learning | Category | Description | |----------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | COMMUNICATION | Exchange thoughts, messages, and information effectively through interaction, reading, writing, and using language to gather and communicate information | | SOCIAL | Working effectively with others | | SELF-MANAGEMENT| Managing time and tasks effectively managing state of mind (Re-)considering the process of learning; choosing and using ATL skills | | RESEARCH | Finding, interpreting, judging, and creating information; Interacting with media to use and create ideas and information | | THINKING | Analysing and evaluating issues and ideas Generating novel ideas and considering new perspectives Utilising skills and knowledge in multiple contexts | ### Assemblies and Productions Secondary students meet as a community on a periodic basis to share learning experiences and to celebrate achievements. Parents are often encouraged to join and will be informed in advance when there are events they can attend. ### Assessing Learning in the Secondary At OSC, assessment is integral to the learning process and should complement and be connected to the written and taught curriculum. Assessment is the gathering of information about student performance and growth, and is used as a tool to identify what students know, understand, can do, and feel at different stages in their learning process. Assessment Principles We believe assessment is... ...comprehensive - Assessment is broad, using a balance of diagnostic, formative and summative approaches. - Assessment is an ongoing, continuous process, spread at reasonable intervals. - Assessment is holistic and flexible, allowing access to all learners. - Assessment is integral to planning, teaching and learning. - Assessment involves both competence and performance orientations. ...transparent - Assessment strategies and learning expectations are made clear to students and parents. - Assessment is based upon criteria which are made clear to students in advance. - Assessment data is recorded and monitored to support student learning. - Assessment allows for meaningful reporting to parents about student progress. ...empowering - Learning activities involve students in both peer and self-assessment. - Assessment provides students with regular and prompt feedback. - Assessment and feedback gives students a sense of ownership over their learning. - Assessment is both a measure of learning and a tool for learning. ...transformative - Assessment provides meaningful opportunity for reflection on learning. - Assessment data is analysed to provide information about the individual student needs. - Assessment data informs learning experiences. Types of Assessment Teachers use a wide variety of techniques and evidence gathering to assess student learning. This evidence ensures that the tasks set for students are matched to their individual needs and abilities. Diagnostic, formative and summative assessments help us to understand, support and measure student learning and growth. **Diagnostic** assessments are used at the start of the learning process to help us understand what students already know and can do in relation to a unit of learning. These assessments help us understand the students and may offer useful information about their prior learning, their preconceptions, their preferences, and their experiences that will impact their learning. The results of diagnostic assessments help teachers to make important decisions about the content and process of a unit of learning. Formative (assessment for learning) and summative assessments (assessment of learning) are central to each unit of learning. They are the means by which we plan, monitor, support, direct, and evaluate learning. | Formative | Summative | |-----------|-----------| | Students aim to... | improve, grow | prove, demonstrate learning | | Teachers aim to... | comment, help, explain | evaluate, judge, measure | | by... | giving feedback | awarding levels and grades | | using... | a rubric (optional) | a rubric | | It occurs... | during the learning | at the end of period of leaning | While formative and summative assessment are designed by teachers, we aim for students to understand and take control of their own learning. This kind of assessment as learning requires transparency and clarity of communication through tools such as task-specific rubrics and learning goals. When students understand the learning process, they are equipped to conduct self and peer assessments which both advance learning and develop a sense of efficacy and agency. Internal Assessment refers to tasks and activities that are planned, delivered and evaluated internally by teachers at OSC. This occurs in the following ways: → MYP summative assessment tasks within each unit of learning → DP class tasks, practice papers and mock exams → DP internal assessments (IAs) External Assessment refers to tests and tasks designed and evaluated by organisations outside of OSC. → NWEA’s MAP tests for Grades 6-8 → PSATs tests for Grades 9-11 → MYP Personal Project → DP Extended Essays, TOK Essays, Arts Assessments, Lang A HL Essays → DP final exams Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) MAP assessments are adaptive digital tests which help us to measure achievement and growth of students in Maths and Reading. We administer these externally set and assessed tests twice per year, usually in April and October, allowing us to monitor growth over a period of time. The data provided by these tests helps to identify common areas of need among students, but also to flag specific areas of need for individual students who may need intervention. We communicate the results of the tests to families and offer a workshop for parents interested in finding out more. Please visit the NWEA MAP website for further information. Preliminary SAT/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT) The PSAT is a standardised test that is designed for American students in Grades 8, 9, 10, and 11. At OSC, we administer the PSAT in Grades 9 and 10, as one way we help determine academic growth. For American citizens, they can take the PSAT in Grade 11 as the National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test, which, if students perform well enough, can lead to a National Merit Scholarship. Again, only American citizens are eligible for the National Merit Scholarship. For more information about the PSAT please visit this website. For more information about the National Merit Scholarship, please visit this website. Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) The SAT is a standardised test that is designed for American Grade 11 students to determine potential for university. It contains an evidence-based reading and writing section, as well as a mathematics section and is scored out of 1,600. It is primarily used by American universities in their college admission decisions. Though it has decreased in popularity in recent years, it is still required for entrance into some universities in the United States. For more information about the SAT, please visit this website. Three-Way Conferences Parent-Student-Teacher Conferences (face-to-face conferences involving the teacher, student, and parents) take place each semester immediately after the issuing of the interim reports. As part of these conferences, students will share their reflections and form action plans based on the advice of their teachers. End of Year Exams – Internal At the end of each academic year, we provide opportunities for each MYP year group to celebrate or consolidate their learning. In Grades 6-9 (MYP 1-4) this might take the form of a public demonstration of learning or a more formal test to review understanding. In Grade 10 (MYP 5) students take a more formal and scheduled exam aimed at introducing the experience which they will face as they move forward into Grades 11 and 12 (the IB Diploma). While these exams offer a rigorous and complete exam experience, the results are used like any other assessment task throughout the year as a data point in the continuous monitoring of student growth. In the diploma programme, students in Grade 11 (DP1) will take an end of year exam which mimics their final exams, providing both valuable experience for students and actionable data for teachers to help learners and inform their instructional strategies. In Grade 12 (DP2) students will sit both a “Mock Exam” in January before their final exams in May. **Reporting on Assessment** Each semester (twice per year), teachers report on learning through a cycle of interim reports, three (3)-way conferences and semester reports. After each semester report we issue Honour Roll certificates. The table below identifies the purpose and differences between these ways of reporting. | **Interim report** | **Three (3)-way conference** | **Semester report** | |--------------------|-------------------------------|---------------------| | **Timeline** | | | | Semester mid-point Oct./Nov. and Mar. | After interim feedback Oct./Nov. and Mar./Apr. | Semester end Jan. and Jun. | | **Purpose** | | | | Formative feedback Student growth | Formative feedback Student growth | Summative feedback Student evaluation | | **Content** | | | | → Teacher comment | → Discussions to clarify feedback and set goals | → Criterion levels → Criterion descriptors → Overall subject grade → ATL levels | | → “On track for...” grade | | | | **Format** | | | | Written – published on MB | Oral – 10 minute time slots | Written – published on MB | | **Focus** | | | | Teacher comments based on Approaches to Learning (ATL) skills demonstrated in the reporting period. Areas of strength and areas for growth are identified. Grade is given in a 2-band range and is based on formative and summative assessment completed at this point. In the Diploma Programme, a level is also awarded for “Learning Engagement”. | The interim reports act as a starting point for discussions based on the student’s learning skills and academic achievement. Discussion takes place between the teacher, student, and parent/guardians with the common interests of student learning. | Teacher uses summative assessment data to make a “best-fit” judgement on each student’s achievement levels in each descriptor. An ATL level is awarded based on the explicit teaching and learning of skills within the reporting period. In the Diploma Programme, a level is also awarded for “Learning Engagement”. | | Learning Support or EAL Students | Interim report | Three (3)-way conference | Semester report | |---------------------------------|----------------|--------------------------|----------------| | Students receiving learning support receive a comment from their LS teacher. | Students who are not yet able to access the curriculum may not receive a grade in some/all subjects. | Parents are encouraged to make an appointment with the learning support or EAL teacher. | Students receiving learning support receive a comment from their LS teacher. | | Students who are not yet able to access the curriculum may not receive a grade in some/all subjects. | ### Grade Descriptors **Achievement Grades Descriptors – Grade 6–10** | GRADE | BOUNDARY GUIDELINES | MYP DESCRIPTOR Grades 6-10 | |-------|---------------------|----------------------------| | 1 | 1–5 | Produces work of very limited quality. Conveys many significant misunderstandings or lacks understanding of most concepts and contexts. Very rarely demonstrates critical or creative thinking. Very inflexible, rarely using knowledge or skills. | | 2 | 6–9 | Produces work of limited quality. Expresses misunderstandings or significant gaps in understanding for many concepts and contexts. Infrequently demonstrates critical or creative thinking. Generally inflexible in the use of knowledge and skills, infrequently applying knowledge and skills. | | 3 | 10–14 | Produces work of an acceptable quality. Communicates basic understanding of many concepts and contexts, with occasionally significant misunderstandings or gaps. Begins to demonstrate some basic critical and creative thinking. Is often inflexible in the use of knowledge and skills, requiring support even in familiar classroom situations. | | 4 | 15–18 | Produces good quality work. Communicates basic understanding of most concepts and contexts with few misunderstandings and minor gaps. Often demonstrates basic critical and creative thinking. Uses knowledge and skills with some flexibility in familiar classroom situations but requires support in unfamiliar situations. | | 5 | 19–23 | Produces generally high quality work. Communicates secure understanding of concepts and contexts. Demonstrates critical and creative thinking, sometimes with sophistication. Uses knowledge and skills in familiar classroom and real-world situations, and, with support, some unfamiliar real-world situations. | | GRADE | BOUNDARY GUIDELINES | MYP DESCRIPTOR Grades 6-10 | |-------|---------------------|----------------------------| | 6 | 24–27 | Produces high quality, occasionally innovative work. Communicates extensive understanding of concepts and contexts. Demonstrates critical and creative thinking, frequently with sophistication. Uses knowledge and skills in familiar and unfamiliar classroom and real world situations, often with independence. | | 7 | 28–32 | Produces high quality, frequently innovative work. Communicates comprehensive, nuanced understanding of concepts and contexts. Consistently demonstrates sophisticated critical and creative thinking. Frequently transfers knowledge and skills with independence and expertise in a variety of complex classroom and real world situations. | **Achievement Grade Descriptors – Grades 11-12** | GRADE | DESCRIPTION | |-------|-------------| | 7 | A consistent and thorough understanding of the required knowledge and skills, and the ability to apply them almost faultlessly in a wide variety of situations. Consistent evidence of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation where appropriate. The student consistently demonstrates originality and insight and always produces work of high quality. | | 6 | A consistent and thorough understanding of the required knowledge and skills, and the ability to apply them in a wide variety of situations. Consistent evidence of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation where appropriate. The student generally demonstrates originality and insight. | | 5 | A consistent and thorough understanding of the required knowledge and skills, and the ability to apply them in a variety of situations. The student generally shows evidence of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation where appropriate and occasionally demonstrates originality and insight. | | 4 | A good general understanding of the required knowledge and skills, and the ability to apply them effectively in normal situations. There is occasional evidence of the skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. | | 3 | Limited achievement against most of the objectives, or clear difficulties in some areas. The student demonstrates a limited understanding of the required knowledge and skills and is only able to apply them fully in normal situations with support. | | 2 | Very limited achievement against objectives. The student has difficulty in understanding the required knowledge and skills and is unable to apply them fully in normal situations, even with support. | | 1 | None of the standards above has been reached. | Malpractice and Academic Integrity in the Secondary **Malpractice:** is behaviour that results in, or may result in, a student gaining an unfair advantage in one or more assessments. OSC adopts the IB’s definitions of malpractice. **Plagiarism:** this is defined as the representation of the ideas or work of another person as the student’s own. **Collusion:** this is defined as supporting malpractice by another student, such as copying or allowing one’s work to be copied or submitted for assessment by another student. **Duplication of Work:** this is defined as the presentation of the same work for different assessment components and/or diploma requirements. **Other Forms of Malpractice:** include any action that gains an unfair advantage for one student that affects the results of another student (for example, taking unauthorised material into an examination room, misconduct during an examination, falsifying a CAS record). **Intellectual Property:** can take many forms such as patents, registered designs, trademarks, moral rights, and copyright. These should be respected and are normally protected by law. --- **Malpractice in Internal and External Examinations** During an examination, and at other times specified by the invigilator, a candidate must not communicate with any other candidate. Failure to observe this regulation may constitute malpractice, resulting in appropriate action by the school and/or the examining board. All work completed during an examination and then submitted for assessment must be the authentic work of the candidate. Any copying, collusion, plagiarism, reference to unauthorised material, or communication between candidates may constitute malpractice, resulting in appropriate action by the school and/or the examining board. The impersonation of another candidate will be treated as malpractice. If a candidate finds that he or she has accidentally taken unauthorised material into an examination, this material must be given to the invigilator immediately. Failure to do so may lead to an allegation of malpractice against the candidate. --- **Consequences of Malpractice Grades 6-8** In Grades 6-8, if a student is found to be in violation of the Academic Integrity Policy, the student may be asked to resubmit the work and the student’s homeroom and subject teachers will be notified of the incident. A report will be sent to the student’s parents and support will be provided, depending on the severity of the malpractice. Grades 9–12 If, after an investigation, it is determined that a student has violated the Academic Integrity Policy, his/her work will be subject to disqualification, and the student’s homeroom and subject teachers will be notified of the incident. Students who are found to be academically dishonest will receive a written report which will be kept on their personal file and shared with parents. Students will be subject to consequences which may include: → Disqualification of student work → In-school suspension → Exclusion from the honour roll for the semester → Suspension by the Principal. If students continue to participate in malpractice, their enrolment will be reviewed. If a student is found to be guilty of malpractice during external examinations (IB DP), the school is obliged to inform the examining board, which will take appropriate action. Consequences may include disqualification for a component, subject, or the IB Diploma. Assignment Deadline Policies Academic work done outside of class time is essential to learning. It provides opportunities to practice skills, solidify understandings, demonstrate learning, and embark on new learning. Working independently and managing time are important competencies for all learners within the context of school as well as lifelong skills. Work done outside of class is often a precursor for the next learning in class. As such, it is essential that students come to class prepared, with work completed. Adhering to set deadlines supports you so that you can balance your commitments. Projects: Large projects are often assigned over the period of several weeks. Set small and achievable goals for yourself and make sure you make regular progress towards the final task. Reading: Readings that are assigned for homework form the basis for class discussions, activities, and further learning. Not completing the reading prevents you from participating fully. Homework: Homework, such as practice problems, short writing assignments or other small assignments, sets the stage for learning in the next class. You must come to class prepared in order to maximise your learning. Procedure for missed deadlines: Students are expected to turn in assignments according to the deadline given so that feedback from teachers may be given within seven (7) school days of/from the due date. In unusual circumstances, if a student is struggling to meet a deadline, it is expected that they will communicate with their teacher prior to the submission date to discuss a solution. Teachers may, at their discretion, provide an extension if appropriate. If a revised deadline is not met, the teacher should discuss with the relevant Learning Leader and provide an opportunity as soon as possible to complete the work in school, outside of lesson time. We ask students to aim to turn assignments in on time and to be proactive in speaking with teachers if they find a deadline is unmanageable. If your child is absent, parents are asked to phone the Secondary Office to inform the Secondary School Secretary or email at firstname.lastname@example.org Should the School not have had notification of an absence, a phone call to the child’s home will be made to ensure that the whereabouts of a student is known. If a child needs to leave the campus during the school day, parents or guardians are required to obtain a “Gate Pass” from the Secondary Office. Parents wishing to remove students from class due to personal circumstances are expected to seek permission prior to their departure. Permission for leave will be granted by the Principal. In a situation of sustained lateness, parents will be notified and an action plan to resolve the situation will be drawn up and agreed upon. Students are required to be present for at least 85% of the instructional time. Students who are absent from school, excused or unexcused, for more than 15% of the instructional time may jeopardise their credit. Attendance in the Secondary Regular attendance at school is an expectation at OSC in order to set every student up for success and enable them to maximise their learning. If a student is to be on a sustained absence, this needs to be communicated to the Principal, indicating the rationale. Awards in the Secondary Awards given at OSC are summarised in the table below: | AWARD | GRADE(S) | DESCRIPTOR | |--------------------------------------------|---------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | VALEDICTORIAN | 12 | Grade 12 student with the highest grade point average in years 11 and 12. | | SALUTATORIAN | 12 | Grade 12 student with the second highest grade point average in years 11 and 12. | | SUBJECT AWARDS | One award per subject per Grade 11 and 12 | This award is presented to one student in each subject per grade level who has exhibited the best Approaches to Learning and commitment throughout the school year. The student has shown an appreciation and interest in the subject, commitment to their studies, and contribution to the learning community. | | HEAD OF SCHOOL’S AWARD FOR CRITICAL THINKING | 11-12 and 6-10 | This is awarded to a student who has demonstrated they can imagine different solutions to a problem, seeks out and understands different points of view, does not accept ideas at face value, is intellectually curious, does not give up when solutions are not readily apparent, challenges self and others in solving problems, makes use of symbolic expressions through language, art, music, dance or drama, uses humour in the thinking process, and is not afraid to have an opinion that is different to others. | | US PRESIDENT’S GOLD AWARD | 9-12 and 6-8 | This Award is presented to a student who has demonstrated academic excellence based on academic achievement and also demonstrated high motivation, initiative, integrity, intellectual depth, leadership qualities, and/or exceptional judgement. | | US PRESIDENT’S SILVER AWARD | 9-12 and 6-8 | This Award is presented to a student who has demonstrated outstanding educational growth, improvement, commitment, or intellectual development in their academic subjects. This award encourages and rewards students who work hard and give their best effort in school, often in the face of special obstacles in their learning. | | EVI WESTMORE AWARDS | 12 | This Award is presented to a student in recognition of broad-based and exemplary participation in the School’s programme outside of the classroom. This student is an active member of groups such as sports teams, community service, Student Government, Week-Without-Walls, and other activities. | | COMMUNITY SERVICE AWARD | 6-10 and 11 | This Award is presented to a student who has contributed most in time and enthusiasm to community service while in Sri Lanka. This student has taken risks with and for others, and his/her contributions have made a difference. Selected by the Service-Learning Coordinator. | | AWARD | GRADE(S) | DESCRIPTOR | |---------------------|-------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | OUTSTANDING STUDENT | One award in each Grade 11-12 | This award is presented to one student at each grade level who exemplifies both personal and academic excellence. The student has also made extraordinary contributions to the school community while demonstrating the values of integrity, participation, responsibility, and respect. This student is active in all areas of school life, modelling the Learner Profile and exemplifying the school mission. Homeroom teachers select these students. | | HONOUR ROLL | 6-12 | The Honour Roll is awarded twice per year following the release of report cards based on a minimum total points in the programme of study. MYP students make the honour roll when their total points in 8 subjects meet or exceed 46. DP students make the honour roll when the total points in 6 subjects and the core meet or exceed 36. Grades in the Core Programme must be a minimum of satisfactory (C) in TOK and EE and good (B) in CAS. Students who are on special educational programmes or have reduced numbers of classes or non-graded classes may be eligible to earn the honour roll at a pro-rated basis depending on the terms of their individual programmes. | **Counselling Programme at the Secondary Level** Our secondary counselling programme focuses on academic, career, and social-emotional development. Our counsellors provide a range of services, including individual and group counselling, whole-class lessons for social and emotional development, and consultations with parents and teachers. Social-emotional counselling addresses students’ mental health, building resilience, and developing coping strategies. Our university counselling programme focuses on college and career readiness, offering guidance on course selection, standardised tests, and college applications. The ultimate goal of these programmes is to equip students with the skills and knowledge needed to succeed academically, personally, and professionally. **Graduation Requirements** Credit requirements for Grades 9-12 The OSC high school diploma is based on the successful completion of the following requirements in Grades 9-12. The minimum passing level is a course grade of 3. Each course unit length is one (1) year. Students are required to complete 24 credits to graduate. | COURSE | UNITS | |---------------------------------------------|------------------------| | Language and Literature – English | 4 | | Language Acquisition or Additional Literature | 2 | | Individuals and Societies | 3 (recommended 4) | | Science | 3 (recommended 4) | | Mathematics | 3 (recommended 4) | | Arts and Design | 2 | | Physical Education | 2 | | Theory of Knowledge | Satisfactory completion of course | | Creativity, Activity and Service | Satisfactory completion of course | | Electives | As needed to meet total credits | **Diploma with Distinction** At OSC, we expect students to reach for more than minimal requirements of graduation and recognise this in offering the potential to achieve the OSC high school Diploma with Distinction. This includes the requirements above and in addition: → An average grade of 5.0 or higher in Grades 11 and 12 → Submission of the Extended Essay → Submission of the TOK Essay → At least 2 of the courses listed above to be taken at Higher Level → An additional 2 years of a language other than English IB Diploma Programme courses are taught in Grades 11 and 12. However, a student not pursuing the IB Diploma may opt to take internal final exams rather than sit for IB certification. Progression to the next grade level is contingent on the student meeting the above grade level requirements. The School’s ability to support the students to be successful as either an IB Diploma Candidate or an OSC Diploma Candidate will also be considered. This may include, but is not limited to, an appropriate standard of English language proficiency, academic aptitude, and motivation to continue in a rigorous college preparatory programme of study. **Homework Expectations in the Secondary School** Homework expectations increase as students move through the Secondary School. Homework reinforces the learning covered during lessons. It is recommended that parents remain aware of their son or daughter’s homework, course work, and assignments. Helping to ensure that time is set aside and that there is a quiet place to study is of particular assistance in establishing good study habits. Since IB MYP and IB DP courses often demand larger assignments to be completed over a few weeks, it is suggested that students spend time each evening working towards completing them. Teachers may set deadlines for different stages to help students organise themselves. Students are expected to work each evening for an approximate amount of time: → Grades 6-8: 1-2 hours → Grades 9-10: 1-3 hours → Grades 11-12: 2-3 hours Since students often have a lot of assignments to manage at the same time, OSC has put in place various methods to help students fulfil these requirements. In the Secondary School, ManageBac is our online communication tool for assignment deadlines, assessment submission, and feedback. Students and parents can check regularly to see what is coming up and plan accordingly. **Learning Management Systems and Software in Secondary Education** *ManageBac* is our primary online communication tool for managing assignment deadlines, assessment submissions, feedback, and attendance. This student academic learning platform enhances communication between teachers, parents, and students. As key partners in the educational process, parents can assist their children by monitoring due dates and ensuring the timely submission of assignments on [https://osc.managebac.com](https://osc.managebac.com). **Google Classroom and Google Apps for Education** We also utilise Google Classroom alongside Google Apps for Education to augment our learning management system. Google Classroom provides a seamless platform for distributing assignments, sharing resources, and facilitating communication within the classroom. Google Apps for Education, including tools like Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides, enhances collaboration and productivity among students and teachers. Together, these tools streamline workflow, foster real-time collaboration, and support an interactive learning environment. **Educational Technology Tools** Our educational technology tools support various aspects of teaching and learning. These tools are carefully vetted by the Tech Director and the Learning Leaders to ensure they meet our educational standards. Some of the tools we use across the Secondary School include: → **Kognity**: An interactive online textbook platform for the Diploma Programme (DP). → **InThinking**: Provides subject-specific resources and support for IB teachers and students. → **Various question banks**: Designed to assist DP students. → **Quizlet**: For interactive flashcards and study games. → **Padlet**: For collaborative boards and projects. → **IXL Maths**: For comprehensive maths practice. → **Gizmos**: For interactive maths and science simulations. → **GIS**: Geographic Information System resources for mapping and spatial data analysis. BrainPOP: For engaging educational videos and activities, particularly beneficial for Middle School. Raz-Kids: For ELL (English Language Learners) to improve reading skills through interactive ebooks. Library Databases: Our extensive library databases support the teaching and learning process with a wide range of academic materials. These databases provide access to high-quality resources across various subjects, including: ABC-CLIO: A comprehensive resource for history and social studies. News Bank: Provides access to current and archived news articles from around the world. JSTOR: A digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources across many disciplines. Artstor: A collection of high-quality images and related data for use in education and scholarship. Drama Online: Offers access to play texts, audio, and video from the National Theatre and other sources. Newsela: Provides leveled news articles to enhance literacy and critical thinking skills. By leveraging these tools, we aim to provide our students a comprehensive and supportive learning environment. Parent Involvement in the Secondary School Parents are our partners. It is important that our parent community is involved in the life of the School. At the start of the academic year, we hold a “Meet the Teachers” evening where parents can find out more about our teachers, the academic programme, and other opportunities for students. At the midpoint of each semester, there is an opportunity to discuss student progress at Three (3)-Way Conferences. We feel it is important to include the student in these conversations about general progress in various subjects. We will also contact parents if we are concerned about a student’s progress at any point during the year. Information evenings are also held for parents to stay informed about our programmes. Student Leadership – Secondary Student Government (SGA) The purposes of the Student Government Association (SGA) at OSC are to represent the student body, to improve the student experience at OSC, and to support the community outside of the campus walls. This includes listening to suggestions or complaints from the student body and advocating for relevant needs, making efforts to improve the social and emotional climate at OSC through school spirit events and community building, and providing support to the School’s established service groups in the form of fundraising, manpower at events, and otherwise meeting the requests of the service community at OSC. Members of the SGA at OSC are selected by election, and are led by an Executive Counsel that spearheads the SGA’s efforts and handles the majority of communication between the students and the administration. **Trips in the Secondary School** Field trips, overnight trips, international trips are an exciting part of the OSC secondary programme. Many trips are planned throughout the year and they can be found on our Portal and printed calendars. **Week Without Walls programme** In the second term of the school year OSC’s Secondary School runs its annual off-campus *Week Without Walls (WWW) programme. Experience Sri Lanka!* is a programme of experiential education designed to facilitate learning experiences outside of the traditional classrooms in our host nation Sri Lanka. **Works Cited** Hare, John. *Holistic Education: An Interpretation for Teachers in the IB Programmes*. Cardiff, July 2010 PDF. Harris, Robert. *Evaluating Internet Research Sources*, 15 June 2008. Web. 29 March 2014. International Baccalaureate. “MYP: From Principles into Practice 2014.” *May 2014 Online Curriculum Center*. International Baccalaureate Organisation. “Handbook of Procedures for the IB Diploma Programme 2014.” September 2013. ibpublishing.ibo.org. Web. 14 April 2014. *IB Learner Profile*. International Baccalaureate Organisation, “Language and Learning in IB Programmes. “Geneva; International Baccalaureate Organisation, 2011. 41. “Theory of Knowledge Guide (examinations in 2015).” 2013. ibpublishing.ibo.org. <http://ibpublishing.ibo.org/exist/rest/app/tsm.xql?doc=d_0_tok_gui_1304_1_e&part=1&chapter=>. Sri Lankan Government. Department of Official Languages. 2013. 19 March 2013 <http://www.languagesdept.gov.lk/> School Site Map 1. Entrance 2. Security Complex 3. Business Office 4. Courtyard/Coffee Shop 5. Library 6. Basketball Court 7. Primary Playground 8. Primary Block 9. Bus Park 10. Indoor Sport Complex/Gym 11. Secondary Field 12. C Block 13. S Block 14. M Block 15. Swimming Pool 16. Auditorium 17. Auditorium Entrance 18. Fire Assembly Points The Overseas School of Colombo (Guarantee) Limited Pelawatte, P.O. Box 9, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka [10120] 📞 +94 112 784920-2 📠 +94 112 784999 🌐 www.osc.lk 🔗 [Facebook] [YouTube] [LinkedIn] [Instagram]
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| Holy Week | Lenten Calendar for Children | |-----------|-----------------------------| | **Monday** | **Tuesday** | | When they got to the top of the hill the soldiers roughly tore off Jesus’ clothes. | They laid Jesus on the cross and nailed his hands and feet to it. | | • Thank God for your clothes and put them away neatly when you go to bed. 35 | • Visit, call or write a card to someone who is sick or in hospital today letting them know you are thinking of them 36 | | **Wednesday** | **Holy Thursday** | | The soldiers lifted the cross so that Jesus was hanging from the nails in his hands and feet. | Jesus told the disciples at the Last Supper, “Love one another as I have loved you.” | | • Think today of all the things you have to be grateful for in your life 37 | • Think of someone who hurt or offended you. Forgive that person. 38 | | **Good Friday** | **Holy Saturday** | | Jesus died on the cross. | Our Lady’s day | | • Look at a crucifix for two minutes and think of how much Jesus loves you. 39 | • Mary cared for her son Jesus. Say a prayer of thanks for all the people who care, love and look after you! 40 | The Lenten Calendar For Children This calendar has a little activity for you to do each day of Lent. Besides what you see in the calendar it’s good to do one or two things all through Lent. Some people give up things – sweets, chips, xbox or playstation for example… Some people take up something - a good work or a small act of kindness - helping more at home, making your bed each morning, giving some of your pocket money to a good cause for example… Remember to try and say an extra prayer each day!! As you’ll see, the Sundays of Lent don’t really count. There are 40 days without Sundays. Each Sunday is like a mini Easter - So you can have a special treat those days!! | Monday | Jesus willingly took up the cross. | |--------|-----------------------------------| | | *Ask Mom or Dad for a hard job and do it! | | Tuesday | Jesus fell three times while carrying His cross. | |---------|--------------------------------------------------| | | *Pray for someone who is sick. Visit them if you can. | | Wednesday | Simon of Cyrene was made to help Jesus carry the cross because Jesus was too weak. | |-----------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | *Help one of your parents or siblings with their work today. | | Thursday | The crowds of people watched Jesus carrying the cross. | |----------|-------------------------------------------------------| | | *Think of someone you know who has having a rough time. Say a prayer and maybe write them a small note to let them know you are thinking of them! | | Friday | The women of Jerusalem wept for Jesus, Who consoled them. | |--------|----------------------------------------------------------| | | *Pray for mothers who are expecting babies. | | Saturday | Jesus and His Mother met on His way to Calvary. | |----------|-------------------------------------------------| | | *Do something good for your parents or guardians today and let them know how much you love them! | ## Fourth Week | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday | |--------|---------|-----------|----------|--------|----------| | The soldiers made a crown of sharp thorns and put it on Jesus. - Have you ever thought unkindly of others? | The Soldiers mocked Jesus, saying, "Hail, king of the Jews!" - Have you ever made fun of someone? Maybe it's time to say sorry! | Jesus was beaten with rods and spit upon. - Say something kind about a person who is made fun of. | Pilate set Jesus before the people, saying, "Behold the Man!" Do you see God at work in our world today... In people helping others, in nature, in...? Draw a picture. | They shouted, "Crucify Him!" - Say an Act of Contrition: O my God, I thank you for loving me. I am sorry for all my sins, for not loving others and not loving you. Help me to live like Jesus and not sin again. Amen | Pray to Our Lady: Holy Mary, mother fair, Filled with love for God, Pray for us in all our needs. Pray for us today | ## First Week | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday | |--------|---------|-----------|----------|--------|----------| | After the Last Supper Jesus went out to the Garden of Gethsemane to pray. - After supper take some time to thank God. | Jesus took His friends Peter, James and John with him. - Say a prayer with your brother, sister or friend. | Jesus knew what He would have to suffer. - Today turn off your phone, tablet, Xbox ... and say a prayer for all those children who will never experience these. | Jesus accepted His Father's will, saying "Thy will be done!" - Ask Mom or Dad what they want you to do and do it without complaining. | Judas, one of the apostles, betrayed Jesus to His enemies with a kiss. - Give Mom or Dad a hug and show you love them by your actions. | Pray to Our Lady: Mary, my loving mother, thanks for being always there and watching over us. Look after all Mums & Dads and care for all children. Amen | Second Week Monday Jesus submitted to His arrest even though He was innocent. - Pray for people who are in jail - those who are guilty as well as the innocent. Tuesday The mob hit Jesus and spit on Him. - If you have money, give some to the poor. Otherwise say a prayer for them. Wednesday Peter denied knowing Jesus three times before the cock crowed. - Say Sorry if you have told any lies. Do one good thing today to help someone. Thursday Jesus spent the night in prison after he was arrested. - Say an 'Our Father' right before you go to sleep. Friday Early the next morning He was brought to trial. - When you wake up pray: Everything today I offer to You, O Lord! Saturday Plant a flower in your garden or in a flower pot. Watch it grow up to Easter. Third Week Monday Pilate condemned Jesus to be scourged at the pillar. - Do at least one small act of kindness today for someone. Make someone smile!! Tuesday The soldiers took off Jesus' clothes and tied Him to a pillar. - Have you old toys or clothes that you could donate to a local charity? Wednesday The soldiers whipped Jesus many times. - Kneel and say a 'Glory Be.' Thursday Jesus bled so much that He became weak. - Drink water instead of juice or soda today. Friday The soldiers roughly put the clothes back on Jesus. - Be gentle to your friends or brothers and sisters, especially if they are sad. Saturday Pray to Our Lady: The angel of the Lord declared unto Mary, and she conceived by the Holy Spirit. (say a Hail Mary) "Behold the handmaid of the Lord. May it be done unto me according to thy word." (say a Hail Mary) And the Word became Flesh and lived among us. (say a Hail Mary.)
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Inside the Issue National Hiking Day is November 17th. Embrace nature and all the benefits of hiking this month! It’s the Season of Gratitude! Learn why it matters and ways you can practice thankfulness. EVENTS Check out this month’s upcoming events for fun-filled seasonal activities! SLC Youth Bureau’s ANNUAL HOLIDAY CARD DRIVE SLC YOUTH BUREAU IN PARTNERSHIP WITH OFFICE FOR THE AGING Students of all ages are invited to make holiday cards, notes, or pictures for older adults this holiday season. Let's spread some cheer! Mail (or drop off) cards by Friday, December 13th to SLC Youth Bureau 80 SH 310 Canton, NY 13617 Contact us if your organization would like to receive cards Questions? Email firstname.lastname@example.org or call 315.379.9464 Celebrate National Hiking Day: Embrace Nature and Adventure Every year on November 17th, nature enthusiasts and outdoor lovers come together to celebrate National Hiking Day. This special day encourages people of all ages to explore the great outdoors, reconnect with nature, and enjoy the many physical and mental benefits of hiking. Whether you’re an experienced trekker or a novice, National Hiking Day is the perfect opportunity to lace up your boots and hit the trails! Hiking Benefits Hiking offers a multitude of benefits that go beyond just physical fitness: 1. **Physical Health** Hiking is an excellent cardiovascular exercise that strengthens your heart, tones muscles, and improves overall endurance. It’s also a low-impact activity, making it suitable for various fitness levels. 2. **Mental Well-Being** Spending time in nature has been shown to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression. The sights and sounds of the great outdoors can be incredibly calming, promoting mindfulness and a sense of peace. 3. **Connection to Nature** Hiking allows you to immerse yourself in the natural world. Observing wildlife, enjoying breathtaking views, and breathing in fresh air fosters a deep appreciation for the environment. 4. **Social Interaction** Hiking can be a fantastic way to spend quality time with family and friends. Whether it’s a group hike or a solo adventure, the experience can strengthen relationships and create lasting memories. Hiking Tips: **Choose a Trail:** Research local hiking trails suitable for your skill level. Whether it’s a short nature walk or a challenging hike, there are options for everyone. **Plan Ahead:** Check the weather and trail conditions before heading out. Make sure to pack essential items such as water, snacks, a first-aid kit, and appropriate clothing. **Practice Leave No Trace:** As you enjoy your hike, remember to respect nature. Follow Leave No Trace principles by staying on designated trails, packing out what you bring in, and minimizing your impact on the environment. **Reflect and Relax:** After your hike, take some time to reflect on your experience. Consider journaling about what you saw, how you felt, and what you appreciated about being in nature. Thanksgiving is a time for reflection, connection, and, most importantly, gratitude. In the hustle and bustle of everyday life, it's easy to overlook the many blessings we have. This holiday presents a perfect opportunity for teens and families to come together and express appreciation for each other and their experiences. Here are some ways to cultivate gratitude this Thanksgiving. **Why Gratitude Matters** Gratitude has numerous benefits, from improving mental health to strengthening relationships. Studies show that practicing gratitude can increase happiness, reduce stress, and even enhance physical health. By focusing on what we are thankful for, we shift our perspective from what we lack to the abundance in our lives. **Tips for Practicing Gratitude as a Family** **Create a Gratitude Jar:** Encourage each family member to write down what they're thankful for on slips of paper throughout November. On Thanksgiving Day, gather around and read them aloud. This simple activity can spark meaningful conversations and remind everyone of their blessings. **Share Gratitude at the Table:** Before enjoying your Thanksgiving meal, take a moment for each person to share one thing they are grateful for. This tradition can help set a positive tone for the gathering and strengthen family bonds. **Volunteer Together:** Giving back to the community is a powerful way to cultivate gratitude. Find local organizations that need help during the holiday season and volunteer as a family. This experience can open your eyes to the needs of others and remind you of the blessings you may take for granted. **Gratitude Journals:** Encourage your teen to keep a gratitude journal where they can jot down things they appreciate daily. This practice helps develop a habit of gratitude that can continue long after the holiday season. **Create a Family Gratitude Collage:** Gather photos, drawings, or words that represent what your family is thankful for and create a collage. Display it in a common area as a daily reminder of your shared blessings. This Thanksgiving, let’s embrace gratitude as a family. By actively practicing appreciation, we can enhance our connections, improve our well-being, and foster a sense of community. Whether through sharing stories at the dinner table or engaging in acts of kindness, cultivating gratitude is a gift that lasts beyond the holiday. As you gather together, take a moment to reflect on the joy and abundance in your lives. VETERANS DAY 11.11.2024 HONORING ALL WHO SERVED November 11, 2024 THANK YOU FOR YOUR SERVICE Pie Crust Recipe Ingredients: - 2 cups all purpose flour - 1 teaspoon salt - 1 cup shortening, cut into small pieces and freeze for thirty minutes - 1/2 cup ice-cold water, or as needed Procedure: 1. Whisk together flour and salt in a large bowl. Cut in chilled shortening with a pastry blender until the mixture resembles coarse, pea-sized crumbs. 2. Add 1/4 cup ice-cold water; use a fork to stir the flour up from the bottom, just until it’s mixed in. Press down on any chunks and continue working the dough around the bowl. Continue to add ice-cold water, in 1 tablespoon increments, mixing just until dough is moist enough to hold together when molded; you will not need more than 4 tablespoons and in fact, may need less. Do not add too much water! 3. Gently gather dough together into a ball. Divide in half, and flatten each half into a 1-inch-thick disc. Wrap each disc in plastic wrap and chill in the refrigerator for at least 30 minutes. For best results, chill for 4 hours, or up to 2 days. 4. When ready to use, roll dough on a lightly floured surface, being careful not to overwork it. 5. Fit dough into a pie plate and cook as directed for filling! Apple Pie Filling **Ingredients:** - Apples - Lemon Juice - 10 Cups Water - 4.5 Cups Sugar - 1 Cup Cornstarch - Salt - Ground Cinnamon **Procedure:** 1. Toss apple slices with lemon juice 2. Combine with remaining ingredients in dutch oven and bring to a boil 3. Add apples and return to boil then simmer until apples are tender --- Pumpkin Pie Filling **Ingredients:** - 1 (15 ounce) can pumpkin puree - 1 (14 ounce) can sweetened condensed milk - 2 eggs - 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon - 1/2 teaspoon ground Ginger - 1/2 Teaspoon Ground Nutmeg - 1/2 Teaspoon Salt **Procedure:** 1. Gather all ingredients and preheat over to 425° F 2. Wisk all ingredients in bowl until smooth 3. Pour into crust and cook for 15 minutes 4. Reduce temp to 350° F and continue baking until knife comes out clean 30-40 minutes 5. Let cool before serving and enjoy Fueling our Bodies Around the Holidays We all know around the holidays cooking and baking is happening a lot more than usual. Here are some tips and tricks to make sure we are fueling our bodies the right way. **Eat Before** Eat breakfast, lunch, and snacks throughout the day, and have a small snack before an event. This can help you avoid overeating and feeling hungry at the event. **Portion Control** Put food on individual plates instead of large serving dishes, and use small containers for snacks. You can also try writing down what you’re eating to help you track your portion sizes. **Mindful Eating** Be aware of what and when you’re eating. Eat slowly and check in with your fullness levels. **Hydration** Carry a water bottle and drink even when you don’t feel thirsty. Stay away from soda or carbonated drinks. **Stay Active** Go for a walk, indoor or outdoor. Eating Disorder Awareness Tough Times Around the Holidays Treat Thanksgiving like any Other Meal The Thanksgiving meal has often been thought of as a meal to “save up for” and eat past the point of satiety. Contrary to popular belief, Thanksgiving doesn’t have to be this way. When preparing for the day, ensure you are still eating at the appropriate times as decided by you and your treatment team. Identify Coping Skills to Use Before, During & After Thanksgiving Dinner To ensure Thanksgiving doesn’t pass you by while your thoughts are on your meal plan or the food, come to the gathering equipped with coping methods to help you soothe your emotions and anxiety. Take a “Time Out” During the Holiday Give yourself mini breaks from the stress of the food, possible diet and food talk and triggering conversations. Some ways to do this include going on a short walk with your support person, going into another room for 5-10 minutes to decompress or simply stepping outside and taking a few deep breaths. Identify a Support Person for the Meal Ask someone who will be at the meal (or accessible by phone) ahead of time to support you at the Thanksgiving gathering. Your support person could help distract you from a triggering moment with relatives or help change the subject during an awkward dinner conversation about food or weight. Thanksgiving is a time to get with family and friends to eat lots of food, and reflect on the past year of what you are thankful for. Thanksgiving dates back to 1621 when the Plymouth colonists from England, known as Pilgrims, and the Native American Wampanoag people shared an autumn harvest feast that is acknowledged as one of the first Thanksgiving celebrations in the colonies. Thanksgiving Traditions Volunteering Around the holidays is a great time to spend volunteering. You can be grateful for what you have and help others that don’t have as much as you. Football Football is the most popular sport to watch in the US and the idea of games played on Thanksgiving Day actually dates back as early as 1876, shortly after the game was invented. Families and friends gather around to watch their favorite teams compete in one of America’s favorite sports. Or, to burn off some of those Thanksgiving calories, some families split into teams and play a game of football themselves. Breaking the Wishbone A 20th century tradition that involved pulling apart the turkey’s wishbone. Breaking the wishbone promoted patience and spending more time with family because only a dry wishbone would break. Turkey Trot A popular race that can help burn calories before the big meal. Participants may dress up in turkey costumes or bundle up against the cold. Thanksgiving Day Parade The Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade is now of the most famous holiday traditions in the United States. In New York City, thousands of people line the streets of Manhattan to watch. This particular parade is known for its giant inflatable balloons that float between the skyscrapers, high above the onlookers. Shopping Stores all across the country have some of their biggest sales the day after Thanksgiving. Now known as Black Friday, this day is almost a holiday in itself. While this shopping tradition has changed with the rise of e-commerce, people still stand in line for hours early in the morning to get great discounts and start their Christmas shopping. Be grateful for the good things Spend time with family and focus on the good in your lives. Look back on the year and talk about successes and memories. Take a Nap After an afternoon filled with cooking and eating delicious food, many retreat to the couch for a mid-day nap. Turkey is well known as the culprit of this sudden onset of sleepiness, with its high levels of the amino acid tryptophan. While tryptophan is known to help release chemicals like melatonin (which makes you drowsy), it’s not entirely the turkey’s fault. Eating other foods that are high in sugar (like pie) also increase your tiredness. But with all the business of the holiday, everyone deserves some rest! Let's talk Contrary to common belief, one effective way to cope with the holiday madness is to SLOW DOWN and take a little time each day to cultivate and practice mindfulness. Research has demonstrated that practicing mindfulness is associated with improvements in well-being, physical and mental health, relationship satisfaction, and attentional focus. In addition, the practice of mindfulness has been shown to help reduce stress and associated negative emotions such as anxiety and sadness. Love Family WEBSITE - ENJOY THE HOLIDAYS WITH MINDFULNESS NOVEMBER HUMANS DON’T HIBERNATE CHALLENGES PHYSICAL HEALTH CHALLENGE Smile Mile: Walk a mile someplace that brings you joy and/or with someone who makes you smile. Share a photo of your best smile after to complete this challenge. NUTRITIONAL CHALLENGE Meatless Monday: Pick a Monday this month to have a meatless meal full of plant-based proteins like tofu or black beans. Share photo of your meal to complete this challenge. MENTAL HEALTH CHALLENGE Clutter Cleanse: Pick one space (car, room, drawer) and completely declutter it. Share before and after photos or video of the process to complete this challenge. MACY'S DAY PARADE NOVEMBER 28, 2024 The Macy's day Thanksgiving parade is an annual parade in New York City put on by the department store Macy's. It is a 2.5 mile route filled with floats, marching bands, music and so much more. This parade started in 1924. Tune in all day of Thanksgiving to continue this tradition! UPCOMING EVENTS Click on Events for More Information Let Us Help You with YOUR HOLIDAY SHOPPING Craft and Vendor Fair ...To Benefit the Canton Booster Club Saturday, Nov. 9 • 9am-3pm Canton Central School, 99 State Street FREE ADMITTANCE! Over 40 Vendors & Talented Crafters to help you with YOUR HOLIDAY SHOPPING! Photographer on Hand for Portraits! Concession Stand • Booster Club Apparel For Sale Join us for Health Center Community Conversation Wednesday November 13 4 pm to 6 pm Edwards Knox Central School Library (2512 CR 24, Hermon, NY) Wednesday November 20 4 pm to 6 pm Community Health Center of the North Country Conference Room (102 Ford St., Ogdensburg, NY) First 20 participants for each location will receive $50 grocery card. Registration at QR code or 315-261-8054 or email@example.com On behalf of The Crane School of Music’s West African Drum and Dance Ensemble, we invite you to our Fall 2024 concert November 9th at 7:30 PM, Snell Music Theater at SUNY Potsdam Our group has worked very hard this semester, and we cannot wait to showcase what we learned about West African culture through song and dance. This concert is also a fantastic opportunity to see what the ensemble is all about if you are interested in taking this course in the future. Morristown Auxiliary Craft Fair Crafters and Vendors Welcome! 8 ft. table space = $30 November 9th from 9am-3pm For more information: call/text Ann @ 315-778-9614 or email firstname.lastname@example.org We’re HIRING! STEM Educator Requirements • Degree in STEM Field • 3 Years Teaching Experience • Full Time • Salary range $60,000-$65,000 • Retirement & Benefits Contact: email@example.com NORTH COUNTRY CHILDREN’S MUSEUM STEM-TASTIC WEEKEND! WITH CLARKSON HONORS & CLARKSON INSTITUTE FOR STEM EDUCATION NOV 16TH & 17TH, 10AM TO 5PM Hands-on STEM activity stations at the Children’s Museum! These drop-in family activities will run all weekend. No need to pre-register. Program included with the cost of admission and membership. Join the Adirondack Food System Network, CCE St. Lawrence County, and GardenShare for a regional roundtable on: Challenges and Opportunities in Regional Food System: Strengthening Collaboration Through Collective Action Thursday, November 14: 3-5pm, back classroom at the Extension Learning Farm (2-3pm optional farm tour) 2043B State Highway 68, Canton All food system actors are invited: farmers, retailers, social care providers, cooks and chefs, emergency feeding programs, and more! Please RSVP at www.adkfoodsystem.org for one or more events. Light refreshments will be provided to attendees. ACT CHILDREN'S THEATER presents: MAGIC TREE HOUSE COLLECTION PIRATES PAST NOON KIDS Book by Jenny Laird Music & Lyrics by Randy Courts Additional Lyrics by Will Osborne Based on Magic Treehouse #4: Pirates Past Noon by Mary Pope Osborne Friday & Saturday, November 15th & 16th John F. Kennedy School Cafetorium Tickets $7 each at the door or online at actchildrenstheater.com Empty Bowls is an international effort that starts locally: Artists make some bowls, add some soup... attendees keep their handmade bowl as a reminder of real food insecurities locally and globally. Events raise money to care for & feed hungry in our communities. Monday, November 18, 2024 6 - 8 PM 1844 House 6885 US-11, Potsdam $35 per seat Includes locally made bowl filled with stew Limited number of seats available, book yours today! Contact 1844 House to reserve Your Seat! 315-268-1844 ALL PROCEEDS TO SUPPORT GARDEN SHARE BONUS BUCKS FOR MORE INFO: EMPTYBOWLS.COM & GARDENSHARE.ORG SEAWAY FESTIVAL SPECIAL EVENTS PRESENTS HOLIDAY CRAFT SHOW SATURDAY 10-4 NOVEMBER 23, 2024 JOHN F KENNEDY SCHOOL PARK ST. - OGDENSBURG 100 VENDORS Visits with Santa & Mrs. Claus Delicious Food & Drinks available Coat and package checkroom LIGHT UP THE NIGHT PARADE 6 PM - STATE STREET FIREWORKS FOLLOWING THE PARADE IN THE GREENBELT Books and Beyond Created for children in Kindergarten through 2nd grade. Each month, we'll explore a theme with books, activities, games, and art. - Canton Free Library, 8 Park Street - Meets each third Thursday afternoon from 3-4 pm. Registration for each month required by the Monday before. - Questions? Ms. Val @ 386-3712 x 4 firstname.lastname@example.org Please join us for a Jingle & Mingle Let's keep the holiday cheer here! Saturday, November 30, 2024 Celebrate the Spirit of the Holidays in Potsdam, NY Shop local this season Remington's Merry Market November 30th, 2024 11AM - 4PM Celebrate Small Business Saturday @ St. Lawrence County Arts 6 Raymond Street, Potsdam With live music from Andrew LaMora 12pm - 2pm Camp Trefoil welcomes the author and illustrator of "The Adirondack Kids" book series at a program for Girl Scouts and their families! Learn about the 3 R's, reading, (w)riting and relationships, as author Gary VanRiper and author/illustrator Carol VanRiper talk about the "tools of the trade" they've used in the 20 books they've published. These include why reading is essential, where story ideas can be found, creating characters, outlining a story, "live" research, editing, proofing and practicing stick-to-itiveness! This session will last about 50 minutes with time for a Q&A after. Youth in attendance will each earn a fun patch and receive one book from "The Adirondack Kids" series. SLC Youth Bureau | 80 State Highway 310 | Canton, NY 13617 US Unsubscribe | Update Profile | Constant Contact Data Notice
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AN ANALYSIS OF THE FACTORS AFFECTING SUCCESS IN THE TEACHING OF TYPING IN RURAL SCHOOLS BEING A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF EDUCATION BY STANLEY PUTCH GAINAN MANITOBA JANUARY, 1954 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express his feeling of gratitude to his adviser, Dr. G.S. Maccia, for the guidance, assistance, and advice so freely given in the planning and writing of this thesis. Grateful acknowledgment is also made to the typing teachers in the province who filled out the questionnaire and in addition offered helpful suggestions. Without these generous contributions, this study would scarcely have been possible. TITLE: THE TYPEWRITING TEACHER IN MANITOBA, HER METHODS AND ACTIVITIES, AND THE OPINION OF AUTHORITIES CONCERNING CERTAIN METHODS USED BY: STANLEY K. FUTCH, CARMAN, MANITOBA FINDINGS: The study revealed in general several inadequacies in regard to the typing course offered in the high schools of Manitoba. The qualifications of typing teachers in the province was found to be unsatisfactory. One-quarter of the teachers do not possess degrees; one-third have had no business experience of any kind and over one-third of the teachers have not had any training in commercial methods. In the teaching of the subject matter, too many teachers still adhere to traditional methods of teaching typing which research has proved to be unsound. A case in point is the forbiddance of students to look at the keyboard. The grading of student work appears to be most unsatisfactory. More than half the teachers answering the questionnaire admitted that they are not satisfied with their own grading system. The matter of tests appears to be quite satisfactory except that production tests are not used enough. Prognostic testing too needs more study. The equipment in classrooms was found to be rather unsatisfactory. The equipment that is available is not put to the best advantage. For instance the height of tables is adjusted in only a few cases and too few demonstration stands are used by the teachers. It was found that a partial solution to the presenting existing inadequacies of teacher qualifications and its attendant shortcomings for the typing course might be found through the implementation of a business teacher training program. # TABLE OF CONTENTS | CHAPTER | PAGE | |---------|------| | I. INTRODUCTION | 1 | | Purpose | 1 | | The questionnaire and the sources of questions | 1 | | The Returns from the questionnaire | 2 | | Importance of the problem | 3 | | Delimitation of the Study | 4 | | II. A BRIEF HISTORY OF TYPEWRITING | 5 | | Introduction | 5 | | The development of the typewriter | 5 | | Introduction of typewriting courses | 6 | | The introduction of typing into Manitoba high schools | 7 | | III. THE TYPING TEACHER | 9 | | Introduction | 9 | | Academic qualifications of the typing teacher | 9 | | Training in commercial methods | 11 | | Training in academic methods | 12 | | Business experience of typing teachers | 13 | | The typing abilities of the teacher | 15 | | The typing teacher and books on the theory or typing | 16 | | The typing teacher and current professional literature | 18 | | CHAPTER | PAGE | |----------------------------------------------|------| | Qualifications of supervisors | 19 | | Objectives and lesson plans | 21 | | IV. METHOD OF PRESENTATION OF SUBJECT MATTER.| | | Introduction | 25 | | Teacher demonstrations | 25 | | Demonstration by other members | 28 | | The use of films | 28 | | Length of time required to present | | | Keyboard | 30 | | Should students look at the keyboard? | 33 | | Speed versus accuracy | 36 | | Presentation of a new problem | 40 | | Rhythm and the use of the phonograph | 42 | | Erasures | 44 | | Special class drills | 47 | | Individual differences | 49 | | Error analysis and error charts | 53 | | Teaching composition at the machine | 57 | | V. GRADING | 60 | | Introduction | 60 | | Relative weight assigned by teacher to | | | different aspects of typing | 61 | | Methods of checking work of typing | | | students | 63 | | Grading systems | 64 | | CHAPTER | PAGE | |---------|------| | I.Q. and final grading | 66 | | The perfect-copy requirement | 68 | | Unsatisfactory work | 70 | | VI. TESTS | 72 | | Introduction | 72 | | Speed tests | 72 | | Production tests | 75 | | Prognostic testing | 77 | | VII. EQUIPMENT | 81 | | Introduction | 81 | | Makes of machines used | 81 | | Frequency of different makes of typewriters | 84 | | Blank versus open keyboards | 85 | | Pica versus elite type | 88 | | Noiseless typewriters | 90 | | Electric typewriters | 91 | | Degree of use of the typewriter | 92 | | Typing tables and chairs | 93 | | Demonstration stand | 98 | | Copyholders | 100 | | Wall charts | 102 | | Class bulletin board | 104 | | Timing devices | 106 | | CHAPTER | PAGE | |----------------------------------------------|------| | Progress charts | 107 | | VII. WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT UNSUCCESSFUL TYPISTS? | | | Introduction | 110 | | Goals | 110 | | Motivation | 112 | | Use of progress charts | 114 | | Material rewards as a motivating device | 114 | | Competition as a motivating device | 115 | | Recognition of achievement as a motivating device | 116 | | Other motivating devices | 117 | | The use of drill | 117 | | Use of drill for skill building | 117 | | Use of drill for remedial purposes | 118 | | Remedial work | 119 | | Vocational and personal uses of typewriting | 120 | | Typewriting teaching difficulties | 124 | | Improvement of typing instruction | 125 | | VIII. CONCLUSIONS | 128 | | Qualifications of teachers | 128 | | Teaching of subject matter | 128 | | Grading | 130 | | Tests | 130 | | Equipment | 131 | | Unsuccessful students | 132 | | CHAPTER | PAGE | |---------|------| | IX. RECOMMENDATIONS | 134 | | Recommendations to the Department of Education | 134 | | Recommendations to the teacher | 136 | | Recommendations for further study | 138 | | BIBLIOGRAPHY | 139 | | APPENDIX A | 143 | | B | 149 | | C | 151 | | TABLE | PAGE | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | I. Academic Qualifications of Typing Teachers in Manitoba High Schools | 10 | | II. Training in Commercial Methods of Manitoba Typing Teachers | 11 | | III. Training in Academic Methods of Typing Teachers in Manitoba | 12 | | IV. Business Experience of Typing Teachers in Manitoba High Schools | 14 | | V. Typing Speed of Typing Teachers | 16 | | VI. Teachers Reporting Books on Theory of Typing | 17 | | VII. Teachers Reporting on Current Professional Literature | 19 | | VIII. Teachers Planning Specific Objectives | 22 | | IX. Intervals for Planning Objectives | 22 | | X. Teachers Preparing Written Lesson Plans | 23 | | XI. Teacher Demonstrations | 26 | | XII. Demonstration by Other Members | 28 | | XIII. Use of Films by Typing Teachers | 29 | | XIV. Length of Time Required to Cover the Keyboard | 32 | | XV. Teachers' Practices with Regard to Students Looking at the Keyboard | 35 | | XVI. Teachers' Emphasis on Speed and Accuracy | 39 | | TABLE | PAGE | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | XVII. Methods of Presenting a New Problem | 41 | | XVIII. Rhythm and the Use of the Phonograph in Teaching Typing | 44 | | XIX. Erasure Practices of Typing Teachers | 46 | | XX. Teachers Giving Special Drills | 49 | | XXI. Methods Used to Provide for Individual Differences Among Apt Students | 50 | | XXII. Showing Whether an Attempt is made by Student to Classify his Typing Errors | 56 | | XXIII. Remedial Practices Carried out by Teachers With Types of Errors made by Students being Used as a Guide | 57 | | XXIV. Methods Used to Teach Composition at the Machine | 58 | | XXV. Teachers' Reactions to Their Own Grading System | 61 | | XXVI. Range in Percentage Values Given to Various Aspects of Typing | 62 | | XXVII. Methods of Checking Students' Work | 63 | | XXVIII. IQ and Final Grading in Typing | 67 | | XXIX. Perfect-Copy Requirements | 70 | | XXX. How Typing Teachers Cope with Unsatisfactory Work | 71 | | XXXI. Introduction of Speed Tests | 73 | | XXXII. Length of Speed Tests Most Frequently Given | 74 | | XXXIII. Production Testing of Typing Students | 76 | | XXXIV. Teachers' Use of Prognostic Tests | 80 | | TABLE | Description | PAGE | |-------|-------------|------| | XXXV | Number of Different Makes of Machines Used in Rural Schools of Manitoba | 83 | | XXXVI | Number of Different Makes of Machines Used in Urban Schools of Manitoba | 84 | | XXXVII| Types of Keyboards Used in Schools | 86 | | XXXVIII| Frequency of Elite and Pica Typewriters in Schools | 90 | | XXXIX | Students per Typewriter in Manitoba Schools | 93 | | XL | Schools Which Adjust Heights of Typing Tables and Chairs | 97 | | IXL | Frequency of Demonstration Stands in Typing Classrooms | 99 | | VIIIIL| Frequency of Copyholders in Typing Classrooms | 101 | | VIII | Use of Keyboard Charts in Typing Classrooms | 104 | | VII | Frequency of Bulletin Boards in Typing Rooms | 105 | | VI | Frequency with which Material is Changed on Class Bulletin Boards in Typing Classrooms | 106 | | IVL | Availability of Timing Devices in Typing Rooms | 107 | | IIIIL | Use Made of Progress Charts in Typing Rooms | 109 | | III | Planning of Goals in Typing Classrooms | 111 | | II | Motivating Devices Used by Typing Teachers | 113 | | I | Teachers' Differentiation Between Personal-use and Vocational Typing | 123 | | TABLE | PAGE | |-------|------| | LI. Typewriting Teaching Difficulties | 124 | | LII. Suggestions as to how Typewriting Instruction Can be Improved | 126 | LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. Showing desk Level of Improper Height-- Forearm is not Parallel with Slant of Keyboard........... 95 2. Desk Level of Proper Height-- Slant of Forearm is the same as Slant of Keyboard............. 95 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Purpose This study was undertaken in order to attempt to discover what methods are being used by the teacher in the typing classrooms in the high schools of Manitoba. The study will reveal as accurately as possible how typing is being taught and show through the use of tables any unusual lack of uniformity in the methods being employed throughout the province. Wherever possible, the opinion of experts will be given on the methods of instruction which are discussed. The Questionnaire and the Sources of Questions The data on which this study is based were secured by sending out questionnaires to ninety-three typing teachers throughout the province. The questions were derived from ideas expressed in various books and articles on the theory of teaching typing and from personal problems which have been encountered in the typing classroom. Books on the theory of teaching typing principally used were: *Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting*¹ by E. G. Blackstone and Sofrona L. Smith; *Typewriting Be- --- ¹ E.G. Blackstone and Sofrona L. Smith, *Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting*. Second Edition; New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952. I by August Dvorak et al and Methods in Vocational Business Education by Harm Harms. Each one of the authors is recognized by his or her own colleagues as an authority in the field of typewriting. The writer also obtained twenty-one theses from American universities through the inter-library loan plan. These theses dealing with studies of typewriting, were read through carefully and studied closely. The Returns from the Questionnaire Out of ninety-three questionnaires mailed, seventy-one were answered and returned. The questionnaire was in mimeographed form and contained ninety questions. The response of 77.8 per cent indicated that typing teachers are willing to cooperate for the purpose of studying the methods of instruction being used. The writer was fortunate in that he personally knew more than half of the typing teachers in the province. He spoke to over fifty teachers personally prior to handing out the questionnaire. The purpose of the study was fully outlined to the teachers who in most cases were only too willing to be of assistance. 1 August Dvorak et al, Typewriting Behavior. New York: American Book Company, 1936. 2 Harm Harms, Methods in Vocational Business Education. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1949. There was evidence from the teachers' responses that several questions on the questionnaire dealing with teaching methods were difficult to answer. While most of the teachers agreed that the questions were worded plainly enough, it appears that the reason for the difficulty arising was due to the fact that typing teachers in Manitoba as a whole do not assess their teaching methods as much as they should. Question number 61 was especially poorly answered and for this reason is not dealt with in this study. All the other questions on the questionnaire have been dealt with either directly or indirectly. Importance of the Problem Bernard H. Shilt\(^1\) points out that business men are constantly taking inventory of their stock and merchandise to determine what merchandise is selling and what to restock as well as the profit and loss incurred. On the basis of this survey the business men can determine how effective their policies are and whether any changes need to be made. It is logical therefore for business educators to take inventory of existing conditions in business education. Since business education in our schools is comparatively young, a survey of one of its most important aspects would seem to be very much needed. \(^1\)Bernard H. Shilt, "Taking Inventory," *Journal of Business Education*, April, 1946, p. 21. Delimitation of the Study This study was not concerned with all the schools that teach typewriting in the province. Only the public high schools which are supported by a provincial educational grant were considered for purposes of this study. Business colleges which offer typing courses were not considered because they are not public institutions. Only the major aspects of the typing program were considered. When any problem was dealt with, only the general consensus of opinion of the authorities was given. The reader thus obtains only a general picture of the typing program in the province and suggestions made are of a general nature. CHAPTER II A BRIEF HISTORY OF TYPEWRITING Introduction Business education has experienced very rapid advancement in the past fifty and particularly in the past twenty-five years. Traditionally, the business education program was developed from 1850 to 1918 to train the all-around worker in an office. This worker had to be skilled in penmanship, shorthand, typewriting, business law, bookkeeping, and other related subjects. Small offices today are operated on a similar plan. Larger offices are changing to a "horizontal" type of employment because costs and competition compel the change. Pupils who were formerly trained for "vertical" jobs can now be trained for horizontal jobs by the schools as well as by business itself in a shorter length of time. Large businesses today are interested in employees with specific qualifications for "horizontal" jobs. If the schools do not accept this new function by providing trained "technicians", business may increasingly employ and train its own personnel. The Development of the Typewriter The first attempts to invent a typewriter were --- 1 Canadian banks for instance do not depend upon schools in the main to train their employees. In most cases they have their own training program. made in Europe as early as 1714.\textsuperscript{1} The archives of the British Patent Office show that Patent No. 395 was granted on January 7, 1714, for a writing machine--the first typewriter known--to Henry Mill, an English engineer. The first successful typewriter for commercial use was manufactured in 1874 and was later called Model I Remington. The machine began to gain in popularity during the 1880's after a series of attempts to interest the public in the new invention. The Model I Remington had two early rivals, the Caligraph and Smith-Premier. The first portable typewriter was introduced in 1906. The first noiseless typewriter was placed on the market in 1909, but the first successful model did not appear until about 1924. The electro-matic typewriter was first manufactured in 1923. During the past few years most of the larger typewriter companies have been concentrating on the production of the electric machine. Introduction of Typewriting Courses The demand for typists by business led to the introduction of typewriting courses in private business schools. Many such schools still operate all over the world. Early typewriting textbooks contained advice on how to operate the typewriter, but they contained few \textsuperscript{1}Chas. E. Weller, \textit{The Early History of the Typewriter}. La Porte, Indiana: Chase and Shepherd, 1918, p. 7. drills or exercises to help the pupils learn the keyboard, develop accuracy, or learn to write practical typewriting papers.\(^1\) The touch method of typewriting was discovered by the blind. The first person to use the touch method was Mrs. Elias Longley in 1881. The superiority of the touch method over the sight method was proved by typing contests. The growth of business schools was checked somewhat by the introduction of typewriting instruction into the public high schools. Parents demanded that the free public schools provide typewriting instruction. **The Introduction of Typing into Manitoba High Schools** In 1912 the Manitoba Government acting in accordance with the wishes of the people began to enquire into the possibilities of introducing commercial courses into the high schools. Manual Training and Household Science were already being taught in the high schools of the City of Winnipeg. In 1912 a Royal Commission was appointed and instructed to enquire into, investigate and report on "How far it would be advisable to provide technical education for young people still in the schools."\(^2\) --- \(^1\) Ruth Irene Avey, "A Study of the History of Typewriting in the United States," Master's thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, 1942, p. 92. \(^2\) Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education and Industrial Training. (Sessional Papers--No. 3). Winnipeg: King's Printer, 1912, p. 237. The Commission concluded its findings in part as follows: "(1) That vocational and general education should go hand in hand, each in turn contributing to the effectiveness of the other and each recognizing their interdependence. (2) That at the present stage of our development, this can be done more economically and effectively by the modification of existing agencies and the enlargement of their scope than by the establishment of special institutions."\(^1\) Thus the groundwork for a commercial course in the high schools was laid. School boards were authorized and encouraged to provide vocational training and the Provincial Government undertook to pay technical education grants for commercial education. Schools were handicapped because of a lack of well-prepared typewriting teachers. The Commission also recommended that provision be made for the training of typing teachers. We shall now turn to this aspect to see how well qualified the present typing teacher is to conduct a typing class. --- \(^1\) *Ibid.*, p. 294. CHAPTER III THE TYPING TEACHER Introduction In the early years of teaching typing it was believed that any student could learn to type if he had a machine and a textbook. The function of the teacher was to keep discipline and to check the errors made on the papers written by the student. It has, however, been discovered that typewriting is not easy, but difficult, if learned well. It requires more supervision than most subjects because the skill in operation depends on getting the student started properly and having him maintain a correct technique. The types of habits formed, both motor and mental, are of great significance. Since it has been proved that students who have the benefit of a teacher produce decidedly better results than the group that has no teacher,\(^1\) considerable effort has been made to train the teachers as efficiently as possible.\(^2\) Thus teacher qualifications and her activities in the classroom may be an important factor and have a great impact on the typing pupil's progress. Hence a considerable portion of the questionnaire was devoted to teacher qualifications and her methods of teaching. Academic Qualifications of the Typing Teacher The original training school for business teachers \(^1\)E.G. Blackstone and S.L. Smith, *op. cit.*, p. 60. \(^2\)This refers to business teacher-training in general. was the private business school. Many of these teachers graduated from high and then took a business course. This method is still followed to a large extent in Manitoba. Walters and Nolan express their point of view regarding the need for more desirable standards with respect to the qualifications of business teachers as follows: "Regardless of what the conditions may have been in the past, at present the person who plans on becoming a business teacher must meet the requirements for a college."1 Table I shows the academic qualifications of typing teachers in the province of Manitoba. **TABLE I** ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS OF TYPING TEACHERS IN MANITOBA HIGH SCHOOLS | Academic Qualification | Total | % of Total Sample | |-----------------------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Grade XI | No response | | | Grade XII or First Year U. | 17 | 23.6 | | Second Year | No response | | | Third Year | " | " | | Fourth Year (Bachelor's Degree) | 54 | 75 | | Fifth Year | No response | | | Sixth Year (Master's Degree) | 1 | 1.4 | Table I reveals that 76.4% of the typing teachers --- 1 R.G. Walters and C.A. Nolan, *Principles and Problems of Business Education*. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1950, p. 81. answering the questionnaire hold a university degree. Although typing teachers must possess academic qualifications, it is equally important that they have professional training in the subject they are teaching. Training in Commercial Methods In many instances in the United States specific requirements have been set up for commercial teachers. The requirement in many cases is fifteen semester hours in the subject that the potential teacher wishes to teach. Table II reveals the number of months that the typing teachers answering the questionnaire have had in methods of instructing typing. TABLE II TRAINING IN COMMERCIAL METHODS OF MANITOBA TYPING TEACHERS | No. of Months | Total | % of Total Sample | |---------------|-------|-------------------| | Nil | 27 | 37.5 | | 1 to 5 | 27 | 37.5 | | 6 to 10 | 17 | 23.6 | | 11 and over | 1 | 1.4 | We note that 37.5% of the teachers teaching typing have never had any instruction as to how typewriting may best be taught. One would readily conclude that many of the teachers are trying to teach their students in a manner similar to the way they themselves were taught. Yet the questionnaire reveals that only 29.2% of the teachers teach typing according to the way they themselves were taught. Thus one might easily draw the inference that there can be little uniformity in the methods used to teach typing. Training in Academic Methods Since there is considerable "carry-over" in the teaching of several subjects we may expect that the teacher who has taken courses in psychology will be better able to teach typing than the teacher who has not had the benefit of the course. Thus we should obtain a clearer picture of the typing teacher's qualifications if we review her training in methods of teaching academic subjects. TABLE III TRAINING IN ACADEMIC METHODS OF TYPING TEACHERS IN MANITOBA | Training Taken in- | Total | % of Total Sample | |-----------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Normal School.............. | 17 | 23.6 | | Faculty of Education .......| 55 | 76.4 | While the foregoing figures show that 23.6% of the typing teachers graduated from the Provincial Normal School and 76.4% of the teachers graduated from the Faculty of Education, a further analysis shows that 68% of the teachers who graduated from the Faculty of Education are teaching in the City of Winnipeg. Hence the better qualified teachers are in the urban centers. **Business Experience of Typing Teachers** A requirement of any typing teacher is that she have actual office experience. A person watching a teacher spend most of the class periods on timings of writings of straight copy may wonder if such a teacher actually knows how typing is done in the business office, where straight copying is a rarity. The teacher must know, by personal contact, of office conditions and requirements. She can scarcely hope to learn them from books. Walters and Nolan show that there are several reasons why schools should adhere to the policy of requiring business teachers to have had occupational experience in the subjects they teach. They state: "In the first place, a teacher should have an over-all picture of the organization and procedures of a large office or store. Textbooks often present isolated skills and facts that relate to a particular occupation; seldom do they tie up one business to another department. But the teacher, if he is to escape blunders in answering student questions, should understand the interrelations of business occupations and of business departments. This understanding he can get most easily through practical business experience."¹ ¹ R.G. Walters and C.A. Nolan, *op. cit.*, p. 344. Table IV shows the business experience that typing teachers in the province have had. **TABLE IV** **BUSINESS EXPERIENCE OF TYPING TEACHERS IN MANITOBA HIGH SCHOOLS** | Months of Experience | Total | % of Total Sample | |----------------------|-------|-------------------| | Nil | 27 | 37.59 | | 1 to 6 | 15 | 20.9 | | 7 to 11 | 6 | 8.34 | | 12 months or over | 21 | 29.16 | | Unanswered | 3 | 4.17 | Table IV shows that the business experience of typing teachers in the Province of Manitoba is rather limited. Only 29.16% of the teachers have had one or more years office experience which is the minimum suggested by the Technical Branch of the Department of Education. In short, the typing teachers of the province, as a rule, have not had adequate business experience. Some of the teachers with little or no business experience have been teaching typing for ten years or more. Perhaps the Department of Education would do well to require typing teachers to work in an office at least one summer vacation.\(^1\) Even a short business experience \(^1\) Recommendation concerning business experience made on page 138 of this study. would give a teacher an insight as to what is required of a potential typist. The Typing Abilities of the Teacher As a skill subject, typewriting emphasizes doing rather than knowing. Because of this emphasis, it is important that the teacher be a good typist in order that she may demonstrate to the class the correct techniques of typing. Regarding the ability of the teacher as a typist, Blackstone and Smith state: "The qualified teacher of typewriting must be a good typist; one who has experienced the actual manipulative situations of learning the correct touch and the combination of single strokes into sequences and word or phrase units, and who is aware that practice is constant readjustment in the direction of better and more efficient motions rather than an attempt to fix movements into set patterns. Only the person who has learned to type at 60 or more words a minute is capable of leading students through the difficult phases of speed development. The teacher who cannot type rapidly can hardly be expected to understand the processes she is trying to teach. One essential, therefore, of successful teaching is that the teacher be a good typist."¹ Thus we note that if teaching is to be effective, one qualification of the teacher is that she be at least an average typist--able to type at least 60 words a minute. Table V reveals that 33.33% of the typing teachers can type at this rate. Some of the teachers in answering the questionnaire stated that they did not know how fast they typed. ¹ E.G. Blackstone and Sofrona L. Smith, op. cit., p. 83. | Words per Minute | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------|-------|-------------------| | Up to 39 | 3 | 4.17 | | 40 to 49 | 18 | 25.09 | | 50 to 59 | 21 | 29.17 | | 61 and over | 24 | 33.33 | | Did not know | 6 | 8.24 | Here again we note a deficiency on the part of the training of the typing teachers. One reason for this deficiency in the operation of the typewriter is quite conceivably due to the fact that the Department of Education, the certifying agency, does not insist that teachers possess a minimum typing speed before they can instruct in this subject. The Typing Teacher and Books on the Theory of Typing In view of the lack of adequate qualifications of the typing teacher which has been revealed thus far, it would be interesting to see whether the teachers are trying to improve their qualifications. One method of improving their qualifications would be through the reading of books on the theory of teaching typing. One question in the questionnaire was designed to reveal the extent to which books on the theory of teaching typing had been read. In Table VI the number of teachers who have read books on the theory of typing within the past two years is shown. **TABLE VI** **TEACHERS REPORTING BOOKS ON THEORY OF TYPING** | Name of Book | Number Who Read Book Within Past Two Years | |--------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------| | Clem, *The Teaching of Typing* | No response | | Blackstone and Smith, *Improvement of Instruction in Typing* | 3 | | Book, *Learning to Typewrite* | No response | | Dvorak, *Typing Behavior* | No response | | Lamb, *Your First Year of Teaching Typing* | 15 | | Others | 15 | | Read no text | 48 | * The total will be greater than 72 since some teachers read 2 or 3 books. Henceforth wherever an asterisk appears in a table it shall mean that the possible number of responses is more than 72. We see that 66.67% of the teachers have not read any books on the theory of teaching typing within the past two years. These books, written by authors with many years teaching experience in the field, present new ideas and give the pros and cons of old ones. Some teachers might find that new and different methods of presenting the course would bring better results than the way they themselves were taught. In the rural areas it is especially important that typing teachers have books on the theory of typing since, as a rule, the other teachers in the neighborhood are not qualified to suggest new ideas as is the case in the city schools. A further analysis revealed that books on the theory of teaching typing are not available to teachers. Hence it is suggested that the Department of Education might do well to purchase a few copies of the better known books in this field and stock them in its library. These books could be loaned to teachers in the same manner as has been the practice with other books. The Typing Teachers and Current Professional Literature Education is now considered a science. New ideas and new techniques are being developed constantly. They are made available to interested readers through the texts and more frequently through current professional literature. The teachers returning the questionnaire were asked to list all such literature which is available to them and to check the names of those from which they receive actual help. Table VII gives the tabulated results of the answers to this question. The number of teachers reading current professional literature is fortunately much larger than that of those reading books on the methods of teaching typing. Ten of teachers reported no current literature on typing available. Probably if adequate information were provided to each teacher about these publications, there would be few schools without several of them on hand. Appendix B shows a list of most of the commonly used publications along with other pertinent facts such as place of publication. A few professional magazines such as the *Pitmanite*, *The Balance Sheet* and *Typewriting News* are sent out free of charge to any typing teacher expressing a desire to receive them. As a rule magazines which are not free are not very expensive. **TABLE VII** TEACHERS REPORTING ON CURRENT PROFESSIONAL LITERATURE | Name of Publication | Number Listing Publication Available | Number Listing Publication Helpful | |---------------------|--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Balance Sheet.......| 62 | 55 | | Pitmanite...........| 33 | 30 | | U.B.E.A.............| 12 | 6 | | Canadian Business...| 12 | 10 | | Business Teacher....| 12 | 9 | | Others...............| 13 | 11 | Ten teachers listed no publication available Qualifications of Supervisors Much has been written and said about the high school principal as the supervisor of instruction. It has long been regarded by educational leaders that supervision is perhaps the most important activity and function of the school principal. Ideally, and rightly so, he has been considered the major supervisor. Under certain conditions he is able to allot a good portion of his time to supervisory duties. The questionnaire reveals that 25% of the principals have had a course in typing. Even these principals who have had such a course are not necessarily qualified to supervise typing and offer helpful suggestions. That all teachers need such assistance, and the result if such assistance is not forthcoming, is amply pointed out by Moorman and Maxwell. They state: "All teachers need supervisory assistance in reaching the highest level of professional development that is possible for them to attain. Certainly no one questions the advisability of wise and competent supervisory help for beginning teachers. But all too frequently inexperienced teachers receive practically no supervisory assistance. They are compelled to muddle through as best they can."1 The last statement would appear to apply to many typing teachers in Manitoba. Several teachers have told --- 1 John H. Moorman and Hugh C. Maxwell, "Supervision in Local Schools," *Administration and Supervision of Business Education*. The American Business Education Yearbook, Volume IX. The National Business Education Association and the Eastern Business Teachers Association, Des Moines: Wallace and Homestead Co., 1952, p.35. the writer that they would like to have more adequate supervision from their principals. Specific Objectives and Lesson Plans The efforts of the teacher and pupils must be continually focused toward the attainment of a valuable and predetermined end. This predetermined end or objective provides for uniformity among classes. Students in certain classes have been found to make high achievements in one phase of work and yet be exceptionally deficient in others i.e., they might type excellently from copy and yet be poor in arranging letters or making carbons. In addition, objectives enable the teacher to be sure that all desirable units are taught. The text cannot ordinarily be relied upon to give all of the desirable units and only the desirable ones. Miss Clem\(^1\) states that good teaching demands that the teacher analyze her job and set up the aims and objectives of her work as a teacher. She goes on to say that few teachers realize how hazy and indefinite their aims and objectives are until they attempt to set them up. An attempt was made to discover how many typing teachers actually planned objectives for their courses. No classification of objectives was asked for since the purpose of this question was to discover whether or not \(^1\)J. Clem, *the Teaching of Typewriting*. Chicago: Gregg Publishing Company, 1929, p. 43. at least some objectives are planned. Table VIII gives the tabulated report of the answers made by the teachers in the high schools of Manitoba. **TABLE VIII** **TEACHERS PLANNING SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Do Plan Objective | 63 | 87.5 | | Do not Plan Objective | 3 | 4.16 | | Unanswered | 6 | 8.34 | The fact that 87.5% of the teachers state that they set up definite objectives is encouraging. The teachers who set up at least some objectives should certainly obtain better results than teachers who do not. The teachers were also asked to state the intervals at which they planned their objectives. Table IX shows the results. **TABLE IX** **INTERVALS FOR PLANNING OBJECTIVES** | Intervals | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Daily | 3 | 4.16 | | Weekly | 24 | 33.33 | | Monthly | 21 | 29.18 | | Every Six Months | 9 | 12.5 | | Unanswered | 15 | 20.83 | Closely allied to objectives are written lesson plans. There is some disagreement about the worth of written lesson plans. Some educators argue for unit planning. Blackstone and Smith\(^1\) however strongly advise lesson planning. They criticize the experienced teachers who feel that since they have taught the material before and know the subject matter well they do not need lesson plans to follow. The authors point out that a teacher who plans his lesson mentally as the class assembles will frequently discover that certain supplies in the way of carbon paper, envelopes, stencils, or something else, which are needed have not been provided for. It also seems likely that if a teacher can handle a lesson well without a plan, she can handle it better with one. The teachers were asked whether or not they made written lesson plans, and Table X shows how they replied. **TABLE X** **TEACHERS PREPARING WRITTEN LESSON PLANS** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |----------------------|-------|-------------------| | Prepare Written Plans| 24 | 33.33 | | No Written Plans | 39 | 54.17 | | Unanswered | 9 | 12.5 | Those who prepare lesson plans constitute 33.33% of the teachers responding. No written lesson plans are made \(^1\)E.G. Blackstone and S.L. Smith, *op. cit.*, p.89. by 54.17% of the teachers. CHAPTER IV METHOD OF PRESENTATION OF SUBJECT MATTER Introduction This chapter will be devoted exclusively to the methods used in teaching typing. The various methods in use now in Manitoba, as revealed by the questionnaire, will be given, and comments will be made regarding these methods in the light of opinions of leading men and women in the field. Teacher Demonstrations Just as it is important that teachers start the first day of typing by developing a proper attitude in their students toward the course, it is equally important that the teacher demonstrate her ability on the machine the very first day in order that students may form their attitude about their teacher's ability. Teacher demonstration is also a valuable timesaver when effectively done. Initial student experimentation will usually present a problem to the student and indicate to him that he does not possess a very efficient pattern of skill. When followed immediately by a demonstration of the desired technique, the student will recognize both the need for learning a better way and the improved technique itself. Commenting on demonstration as an effective teaching device, Blacker states: "Demonsrations fit in well with classroom instruction. They save hours of talk and explanaion because the procedure or operation is performed accurately in carefully planned steps or stages. Correct techniques are used which appeal to the senses of sight, hearing and touch."1 Thus we see that if typing is to be taught economically, demonstration must be utilized wherever possible. The student sees and hears each reach and technique presented before he tries it. Demonstration saves hours of talk and explanation since it is quicker to show than to tell how something should be done. It is interesting to note from Table XI that most of the teachers demonstrate the operations which actually require them to do little or no typing before the class. The writing of class drills is the least demonstrated by the teachers. Teachers would be well rewarded to demonstrate more in this area. TABLE XI TEACHER DEMONSTRATIONS | Type of Demonstration | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Posture at the Machine | 57 | 79.17 | | Insertion of Paper | 69 | 95.83 | | Changing the Ribbon | 66 | 91.67 | | Carriage Return | 69 | 95.83 | | Operation of the Machine | 40 | 55.56 | | Rhythmical Typing | 51 | 70.83 | | Writing of Class Drills | 36 | 50 | 1W.R. Blackler, "Attaining Objectives Through Effective Use of Teaching Devices," Appraising Business Education, New York: New York University Bookstore, 1946, p. 190. When demonstrating, there should be a minimum of oral comment; directions and explanations should be brief and concise. In order for the comments to be more effective it is recommended that the teacher use a vocabulary that is expressive, sound-catching, and relevant, so that the students will associate the sound with the action. Examples of how the use of carefully selected words and phrases may facilitate more effective teaching of specific skills in typewriting are given below: a. In teaching the proper stroking technique say: "Strike the keys." "Use a staccato stroke." "Imagine the keys are red-hot with heat; strike them without getting your fingers warm." "Use a tiger or snatch stroke." "Snap, recceil, get-away." When students are learning the keyboard, dictate letters in a staccato, clipped fashion to indicate a quick stroke. b. In presenting the carriage throw: Use the word "throw" rather than "return." Tell the students that the carriage throw is a hand movement and not a body movement. c. In presenting tabulation: Say, "press down the tabulator key," and "hold down." d. Inserting the paper into the machine: Use such descriptive words as "twirl" and "spin." e. In timed writings: Say "timed writing" rather than "test." Start the students by saying "begin" rather than "go." The teacher should demonstrate in such a manner that all students can see. For most purposes, the front left corner of the room is the best. Demonstration by Other Members To be effective a demonstration does not necessarily always have to be given by the teacher. There is considerable evidence to prove that demonstrations by former students, so called "experts" and skilled class members may be very effective. The teachers were asked whether demonstrations were given by other people and Table XII shows the results. **TABLE XII** **DEMONSTRATION BY OTHER MEMBERS** | Persons Demonstrating | Frequency | |--------------------------------|-----------| | Former Students | 9 | | Experts | 57 | | Skilled Class Members | 36 | | Unanswered | 9 | The majority of teachers have experts giving demonstrations. Half of the teachers have skilled class members giving demonstrations and only nine teachers invite former students to give demonstrations. The Use of Films Films may be used as a means of demonstrating posture, technique and other desirable qualities of a typist. Commenting on the benefit derived from a film, Causey states: "...A film on typewriting goes further than merely illustrating performance. It is a motivating influence and the student sees someone typewriting with expert skill which he would like to attain, inspires and stimulates him. He views the act as a whole before it is divided into specific techniques to be practiced. The speed and efficiency of the expert inspires in the pupil a desire to imitate the work habits and attitude of the performer."¹ Many films are available free of charge from the typewriter companies. Some of the best films in this regard e.g. *Hints on Typewriting*, *Ten Copies Please* and *Electric Typing Time* may be loaned free of charge. The Underwood Typewriter Company has the first two films mentioned while *Electric Typing Time* is available from the IBM Company on Donald Street in Winnipeg. Table XIII shows the extent to which films are used by typing teachers. **TABLE XIII** **USE OF FILMS BY TYPING TEACHERS** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Teachers Using Films .....| 69 | 95.83 | | Teachers Not Using Films | 3 | 4.17 | ¹ Frances Causey, "A Study of Teaching Aids and Devices as Applied to the Teaching of Typewriting," Unpublished Master's thesis, Florida State University, Tallahassee, 1951, p. 30. It is encouraging to note that 95.83% of the teachers make use of at least some of the films available. It is hoped that some films on typing will be made available to typing teachers before long through the Department of Education. Length of Time Required to Present the Keyboard Interest in the study of keyboard teaching problems began in the 1920's and has been rather continuous since that time. Of a total of almost 50 studies dealing mainly with a phase of instruction in typewriting, 32 deal with problems of teaching the typewriter keyboard.\(^1\) The main purpose of about half of the research studies of keyboard teaching problems was to study the results of various periods required to cover all the alphabetic reaches on the keyboard. As is the case with any other controversial topic, there are two extremes as to the length of time required to cover the keyboard. There are those who state--and with some proof--that the entire keyboard should be covered during the first lesson. There are those again who would take several weeks to present the entire keyboard. Speaking of the disadvantages of introducing all the alphabetic reaches in the first lesson, Klein states: "The presentation is so swift that the method \(^1\)Harves Rahe, "Teaching the Typewriter Keyboard." *The Journal of Business Education*, May, 1952, p. 372. may actually be a handicap to the pupil, rather than an aid. He is forced to develop his own methods for learning the key locations. These methods are often extremely inefficient; thus instead of time being saved, it is actually lost while the student discovers for himself, through trial and error, some way of remembering the location of each individual key and the corresponding finger reach. The student's own method necessitates a great deal more peeking at the keys than would otherwise be necessary--so much peeking, in fact, that some students never stop doing it."1 Nevertheless, the main advantage of the quick introduction (the typing of material in natural context in an extremely short time) should not be overlooked. The early typing of complete sentences, instead of interminable repetition of nonsense syllables or isolated words, is much to be preferred according to the foremost authorities in this field. Speaking of the prolonged method of presenting the keyboard, Klein is in agreement with other authorities in this field when he points out its disadvantages. He states in part: "Those who believe in "stretching out" the keyboard introduction do not permit the student to go on to a new lesson, containing new reaches, until he has "mastered" the current lesson. They force the student to stay with the lesson to the point of overlearning. That this approach does not result in complete mastery is obvious, for we all know that the student will, in subsequent lessons, make errors on some of the letters "mastered" in the preceding lessons."2 --- 1 A.E. Klein, "Fallacies in Teaching Typewriting," *Business Education World*, October, 1951, p. 70. 2 *Ibid.*, p. 71. The conclusion reached by Klein as to the length of time that should be required to present the entire keyboard, excluding the top row, is stated concisely as follows: "Experience indicates that from 4 to 8 periods is a sufficient length of time to present the letters and punctuation marks without rushing it."¹ As the result of an analysis of some thirty keyboard teaching studies, Harves Rahe abstracted the following comments regarding the length of time required to present the keyboard: "An optimum amount of time to spend on the initial coverage of the keyboard may be four or five class periods."² Thus it would appear that from four to eight periods is all that is required to cover the keyboard during the first phase of instruction. Teachers were asked to state the number of periods required to present the keyboard. Table XIV reveals the picture. **TABLE XIV** LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED TO COVER THE KEYBOARD | Number of Periods/ | Total | % of Total | |--------------------|-------|------------| | One to Four | 1 | 1.39 | | Five to Eight | 5 | 6.94 | | Nine to Thirteen | 24 | 33.33 | | Over Thirteen | 30 | 41.67 | | Unanswered | 12 | 16.67 | ¹Loc. cit., p. 71 ²H. Rahe, op. cit., p. 70 / Based on a 45-minute period. On the whole the time taken by the teachers to present the keyboard is nine periods or more. Over forty per cent of the teachers take at least thirteen periods for the initial presentation of the entire keyboard. One teacher takes 36 periods to present the keyboard. In general the reader will note that there is considerable lack of uniformity in the amount of time required to present the keyboard. What is perhaps more serious is that teachers are taking far too much time with this phase of instruction. Should Students Look at the Keyboard? Perhaps one of the most controversial topics in the field of student typists is whether or not they should be allowed to look at the machine when they are not certain of the location of a particular key. It has been the custom among most teachers of typing in the past to forbid their students to look at the keyboard. However, during recent times we find an increasing abundance of evidence that proves that students should be permitted to look at the keyboard periodically. Harvey Rahe in his analysis of the 30 keyboard studies states as follows regarding typists looking at the keyboard: "The learner should be allowed to look at the keyboard when first learning new reaches; a clear picture of the distance and direction of each reach helps in the development of touch control." 1Ibid., p. 373. Rahe further states that the investigators of miscellaneous keyboard teaching problems have found that teaching key location by the sight method does not interfere with learning to type by the touch method.\(^1\) Gress conducted a nation-wide survey by sending out 271 questionnaires to 271 graduates of 153 different business training institutions for teachers covering all forty-eight states. He found that "keeping eyes off the keyboard" ranked number one in the difficulties experienced by typewriting teachers. He concluded that: "The fact that beginning business teachers considered "keeping the eyes off the keyboard" as their number-one difficulty in the teaching of typewriting is added evidence that the training methods still in effect in business teacher-training institutions are out of date."\(^2\) Years ago the "blinker" the blindfold, and the slap-on-the-wrist methods were employed in the teaching of typewriting. This era was followed, and is still present, by the "eyes-off-keyboard" instructor who would move heaven and earth to prevent students from taking one "peep" at the keyboard. In summation it would appear that research proves that students should be allowed to look at the keyboard, particularly when new reaches are being taught. --- \(^1\) Harves Rahe, "Review of Research in Typewriting, A Classification and Summary of Studies Completed Prior to 1949," Doctor's thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1950, p. 567. \(^2\) John J. Gress, *Teaching Difficulties of Beginning Business Teachers*. Monograph 78, Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1952, p. 20. With the foregoing in mind we shall examine an analysis of this topic as answered in the questionnaire. Table XV shows the tabulated results. **TABLE XV** TEACHERS' PRACTICES WITH REGARD TO STUDENTS LOOKING AT THE KEYBOARD | | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Allowed to Look at Keyboard... | 21 | 29.1 | | Not allowed to Look at Keyboard | 51 | 70.9 | Table XV shows that the majority of teachers do not allow their students to look at the keyboard. Some of the teachers were most emphatic in their answers as to whether or not they allowed their students to look at the keyboard. Statements such as "of course not" and "strongly discouraged" were received. It is interesting to note that 68% of the cases where students were not allowed to look at the keyboard, the teachers also stated that they themselves were admonished for looking at the keyboard when they were learning to type. Hence, students will teach as they themselves were taught and thus perpetuate the bad practices of their teachers. What we need, therefore, is an efficient and sound program of training for our typing teachers which will remove the teaching techniques in practice now which are either of doubtful pedagogical value or are known to be detrimental to efficient typewriting. Speed Versus Accuracy Another very controversial topic, and one which has received much attention during recent years, is the matter of speed and accuracy. Many studies have been conducted to try to determine how much emphasis should be placed on each. Speed and accuracy are two of the basic elements of skill and power in typewriting. Not only are these two items necessary when writing straight copy, but also when planning and typewriting practical business and personal papers such as letters, tabulation, manuscripts, invoices, and envelopes. The permanent writing habits of typists and the ultimate skill they attain may be affected by the early typewriting instruction they received; that is, whether the emphasis was on accurate writing, on rapid writing, or on both. It is therefore of great importance to determine where the emphasis should be placed in the elementary learning stages of typewriting. The traditional emphasis was on accuracy. This emphasis was based on an interpretation of Book's theory of habit formation as applied to typewriting in *The Psychology of Skill* first published in 1908 and later republished without contextual changes in 1925. --- 1 William F. Book, *The Psychology of Skill*. New York: Gregg Publishing Company, 1925. Book treated the learning of typewriting stroking skill as the acquisition of a hierarchy of habits on two levels—the single-stroking and the pattern-stroking.\(^1\) Much of Book's work is now regarded in the same light that the work of pioneers in many other fields is regarded. This means that teachers of typing must test the tenet of "accuracy first". Many studies have been carried out with regard to the emphasis to be placed on speed and accuracy. The speed-accuracy emphasis of contemporary methods of teaching elementary typewriting are characterized by deviations and disagreements. These divergencies, together with trends in textbook materials, suggest some inadequacies. However, in general there is considerable evidence to indicate that in the past too much emphasis has been placed on "accuracy first". The important problem of emphasizing speed before accuracy in learning motor skills was first raised by Gilbreth's\(^2\) time-and-motion studies of bricklaying and other industrial skills. In these studies it was noted that the master-mason used different movements when demonstrating to an apprentice. --- \(^1\)Book referred to these manipulative habits of the two levels as the "letter-association stage" and the "syllable-and-word-association stage". In addition to these manipulative habits were the mental habits of control. \(^2\)Morris Viteles, *Industrial Psychology*. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1932, p. 428. DuFrain conducted a two-year experiment with four classes in which the students were paired with regard to I.Q., age, reading ability, etc. She concluded that emphasizing speed before accuracy in elementary typewriting is practicable. She concludes her findings as follows: "Teachers can now adopt with confidence a method which places an initial emphasis on speed rather than on accuracy, permitting the students to make large numbers of errors. They can free the students from the straight jacket which required high initial accuracy of typewritten work."¹ The foregoing conclusion carries with it, however, the implication that the alternated emphasis on speed and accuracy shall be planned and controlled by the teacher, not unplanned and unlicensed. When evidence was first discovered that more emphasis should be stressed on speed, many teachers began to emphasize speed at the expense of jeopardizing accuracy. This practice is not in accordance with the latest findings. In short speed should be emphasized more, particularly in elementary typewriting, but accuracy should not be forgotten. Blackstone and Smith also point their criticism at the traditional emphasis on accuracy first. They state as follows: "Time and motion studies in many areas of skill development reveal, over and over again, that learning success is achieved by an initial drive for a fairly high rate of speed, with accuracy treated as ¹Viola DuFrain, "The Practicability of Emphasizing Speed Before Accuracy in Elementary Typewriting." The Journal of Business Education, Vol. XVIII, No. 3, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945, p. 39. a developmental precision of time. This principle should apply to typewriting and shorthand as well as to other skills. There is no excuse for continuing to teach accuracy first merely because it has almost always been done that way in the past. Here, as in other phases of typewriting, progress and improvements in teaching demand that changes in teaching techniques be accepted."1 Hence we note again that more emphasis should be placed on speed and less on accuracy. However, we should not overlook accuracy but type quickly with a fair degree of accuracy. In the questionnaire, teachers were asked what emphasis they place on speed and accuracy in the teaching of typewriting. Table XVI shows the results of their answers. **TABLE XVI** **TEACHERS' EMPHASIS ON SPEED AND ACCURACY** | Type of Emphasis Given | Total | % Total Sample | |-------------------------------------------------------------|-------|----------------| | Speed only....................................................| No response | | | Accuracy only.................................................| No response | | | Speed with accuracy with equal emphasis on each.............| 15 | 20.83 | | Speed with accuracy but with emphasis on accuracy..........| 51 | 70.83 | | Speed with accuracy but with emphasis on speed..............| 6 | 8.34 | Table XVI shows that most of the teachers, 70.83%, stress speed with accuracy but with emphasis on accuracy. --- 1 E. G. Blackstone and S. L. Smith, *op. cit.*, p. 3. In the light of the research studies already indicated in this study it would appear that this particular stress given by Manitoba teachers is not quite in line with up-to-date practices. The foregoing research studies prove--with some reservations--that, for elementary typing at least, the practice of emphasizing speed with accuracy but with emphasis on speed should be adopted. At the same time the teachers should lay particular emphasis on correct stroking technique. Presentation of a New Problem Every teacher knows that in any teaching situation students are being continually confronted with problems with which they did not have the opportunity to cope with previously. When such a situation arises the teacher may do one of several things. She may tell the students what to do; she may let the students experiment with the problem on a trial-and-error basis; she may give the students various methods from which to choose; or she may give the students the goal and certain cues as to the correct procedure to be followed for the successful completion of the problem. Table XVII shows that 58.35% of the teachers tell their students which method they should use; 16.67% of the students are given various methods from which to choose; and 20.83% of them give the students the goal and certain cues as to the correct procedure. | Method Used | Total | % of Total Sample | |----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Students are told which method to use ........................................ | 42 | 58.35 | | Students are left to work out the problem for themselves .................. | no response | | | Students are given various methods from which to choose ................... | 12 | 16.67 | | Students are given the goal and certain cues as to correct procedure ..... | 15 | 20.83 | | Unanswered .............................................................................. | 3 | 4.17 | The fact that none of the teachers let their students experiment with a solution to a problem indicates that student initiative is not encouraged. Blackstone and Smith maintain that if a student tries to do a task and is not able to do it the first time, he will then show greater interest in it and pay closer attention to the solution of the problem. It would appear to be sound teaching to ignore a student whose typewriter may have been switched to "stencil position" without his knowing it. Of course, the student should not be allowed to struggle indefinitely. Thus an attitude of inquisitiveness and desire for experimentation on the part of the student should be encouraged. Learning is at its best when a student is --- 1 E. G. Blackstone and S. L. Smith, *op. cit.*, p. 47. learning to do a task by reaching the goals set as a result of his own initiative. Rhythm and the Use of the Phonograph For over sixty years rhythm has held an important part in typing skill. Teachers advised students to strive for it and in the late 90's began introducing devices for developing it. One of the very first devices was the oral dictation of one letter after another. A later device was the use of the phonograph record. Other devices have been the tapping of a ruler, the counting method, and the metronome. The use of music as a motivating device to develop rhythm in typewriting is becoming more widespread. Special records called "Rational Records" have been especially designed for use in the typing classroom. The tempo remains the same throughout a complete record and the number of strokes per minute and words per minute is noted on each record. In Manitoba the writer has seen several teachers use "Polka" records where the beat is evenly spaced. Yet despite this wide use of the rhythm devices it appears to have little scientific support. McDermott conducted an experiment on 120 pupils for a period of two years. The pupils were divided into eight groups of --- 1 Mary S. McDermott, "An Experimental Study of the Use of Rhythm in Learning Typewriting," Master's thesis, Catholic University of America, Melbourne, 1938. fifteen pupils to each group, thereby giving four controlled and four experimental groups. Ten tests were given each year, one for each school month, and there were twelve hundred tests to substantiate the findings. She found no appreciable difference in the typing production of these two groups. Blackstone and Smith are of the opinion that the use of rhythm in typewriting can not be employed successfully because the fingers have to travel further in some cases than in others when striking the different keys. They comment as follows: "A thoughtful analysis of the nature of typewriting would indicate that while rhythm (defined as giving the same amount of time to each stroke) may be possible, it is totally undesirable. Typing motions involve some strokes on keys in the upper and lower rows which require finger reaches and some strokes on the home keys. It seems obvious that the student can successfully strike the letter f, which is directly under his finger in less time than he can strike the figure 2, which is two rows away. It is equally obvious that some fingers are better controlled than others, at least for beginners."¹ Teachers were asked to state whether or not their students typed to music. While the majority of teachers do not use this method, there are indications that more teachers would like to use this method but are handicapped due to lack of records, musical instruments or some other physical inadequacy. Table XVIII reveals that 25% of the teachers have ¹ E. G. Blackstone and S.L. Smith, op. cit., p. 150. their students type to music. For one reason or another 75% of the teachers do not employ this method. **TABLE XVIII** **RHYTHM AND THE USE OF THE PHONOGRAPH IN TEACHING TYPING** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Do Type to Music.......| 18 | 25 | | Do Not Type to Music...| 54 | 75 | While research shows that typing to music has little or no great scientific value, the occasional use of records may be made, however, purely as a motivating device. **Erasures** Every typist makes errors. In an office, the typist will usually erase the error and then retype the letter or word or sentence as the case may be. In school however, teachers have long frowned on beginning students practicing erasing. During recent years this practice has been modified. The reason for the adoption of the new practice is explained by Klaus who states: "It was the concerted action of the employer group that finally drove the teaching profession to a realization that if they were to train students for an office, they must train them in the qualities to be found in an office." --- 1 Mildred Klaus, "A Study of Erasing in Typewriting," *Journal of Business Education*, XI, April, 1936, p. 21. The question today seems to be, "When to introduce erasing" rather than "What to do to keep students from erasing". Regarding the time that erasing should be introduced Klaus states as follows: "The knowledge of how to use an eraser must be given early enough to allow the student to become proficient in its use. This means that such information and practice should be injected into the course during the first semester, or at the latest, during the early part of the second semester."¹ Harms, Director of Business Education, Capital University, Columbus, Ohio, would introduce erasing at a slightly later stage--probably the third semester. He states thus: "Erasing should be taught effectively at the proper time--when students are required to hand in mailable copy. In the early stages of typing it would be a waste of time to bother to make erasures. When the student begins to type long paragraphs and when the emphasis shifts to usable copy, the situation calls for the proper use of the eraser."² While there seems to be some disagreement between the two authorities as to the exact time that erasing should be introduced, there is definite agreement on two points. The two authorities are in agreement that students should be allowed to erase and that erasing should be introduced not later than the end of the third term. With these two criteria in mind let us look at an analysis of erasing procedures practiced in our schools in Manitoba. ¹Loc. cit., p. 21. ²H. Harms, op. cit., p. 89. Table XIX shows that 41.69% of the teachers teach erasing during the third term; while 16.63% of the teachers teach erasing for the first time during the fourth term. While the authorities cited in the foregoing quotations might agree that the introduction of erasing in the fourth term is too late, as a whole, Table XIX appears to present no great discrepancy with regard to erasing practices advocated by typing authorities. While all the teachers allow their students to erase, it would be interesting to find out how many teachers allow their students to actually practice erasing on their work by drilling them. All teachers should not only teach their students the skill of erasing, but allow them to practice it so that they may become proficient at it. Teachers of typing should review their position on erasing, and if they do not give their students an opportunity to practice erasing, they should provide for such opportunities along with a personal deStudents should be shown the "filing" method of erasing, where the student uses an eraser just as a carpenter files his saw—in one direction only. Students should be told to first take their carriage over to one side so that the eraser crumbs will not fall into the mechanism of the machine. All students should be in possession of two erasers—one hard eraser for erasing an error on the original copy, and a soft eraser for erasing an error made on the duplicate copy or copies. Students should also be shown how the erased part of the copy may be typed over without making the deleted error too obvious. **Special Class Drills** Typing is not solely the striking of letters. There are many operations which can be done more or less mechanically but which, if done rapidly and efficiently, can speed up production. Teachers should drill their students on these operations in order to eliminate useless movements. In addition each drill should be timed to provide more motivation for the students. An example of a partly mechanical operation is the addressing of envelopes which is a routine operation of any typist and also an important one. An office typist is often required to type hundreds of envelopes in one day. If the operation has been reduced to an efficient system, much time will be saved. As an example of time saving methods the teacher may use two different methods of addressing envelopes. The usual method of feeding envelopes into the machine by placing the envelopes between the platen and the paper table may first be illustrated before the class. To show how to eliminate many of the motions in addressing envelopes the teacher may then use the "back feeding" method. The first envelope is put in the typewriter in the regular way. The rest of the envelopes are placed behind the first envelope one at a time. The cylinder knob is turned back so that the envelope is in position to be addressed. The third envelope is then placed behind the top edge of the second envelope and the cylinder knob is turned back again. Teachers can get many useful tips on time saving motions by consulting many of the booklets offered free of charge by many of the typewriter companies. Many films on typing have suggestions as to how motions in typing may be saved. Table XX shows the number of teachers giving special drills. The number of teachers timing the special drills is also shown. --- 1 As an example see Tips to Typists which can be obtained free of charge from L.C. Smith & Corona Typewriters, Inc., Syracuse I, New York. ### Table XX **TEACHERS GIVING SPECIAL DRILLS** | Type of Drill | No. of Teachers Giving Drill | No. of Teachers Timing Drill | |-------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------| | Insertion of paper | 63 | 14 | | Return of Carriage | 69 | No response | | Changing Sheets of Paper | 54 | 10 | | Erasures | 42 | No response | | Addressing Envelopes | 54 | " | | Stuffing Envelopes | 21 | 5 | It would appear that the majority of the phases of work connected with typing receive enough emphasis with regard to drill. The stuffing of envelopes which receives the attention of only 21 teachers is the most neglected. However, while the majority of teachers report that they give special drills, only a few of them make any effort to time these drills. ### Individual Differences As in any other school work typing teachers are continually confronted with the important problem of individual differences in performance. Teachers and administrators have been devoting much thought to the problem of individual differences in abilities of students. Every experienced teacher of typewriting has faced the problem of what to do with the bright pupil, who usually finishes the assigned work ahead of the others; and with the dull pupil. The teacher generally attempts to gauge the amount of instruction by the abilities of the average pupil, but even when this is done, the bright pupil always gets through before the rest of the class and the dull pupil is still working when the rest have finished. In Manitoba teachers are doing many and varied things to cope with the situation. Table XXI shows what is being done most frequently to provide for the apt typing students who are in the same class as the slow dull ones. **TABLE XXI** METHODS USED TO PROVIDE FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AMONG APT STUDENTS | Method | Total | % of Total Sample | |---------------------------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Type for School or Other Teachers | 63 | 87.5 | | Let Student Proceed with Next Assignment | 66 | 91.67 | | Type Material of Their Own | 36 | 50 | | Study for Another Class | 6 | 8.34 | | Excused to Study Hall | 6 | 8.34 | | Additional Assignments | No Response | | Nothing is done | No Response | | Unanswered | 3 | 4.16 | It is encouraging to find that all teachers who answered the questionnaire make some attempt to cope with individual differences in attainment. It is also encouraging to find that only 8.34% of the teachers excuse the students to the study hall since this method would be a convenient way for the teacher to cope with that student's brightness at the expense of the student himself. In reality this practice is an admission of failure on the part of the teacher. The practices most often used in coping with individual differences are: (1) Let the bright student proceed with the next assignment (2) Let the bright student do typing for the school or for the teachers and (3) Let the bright student type material of her own. However, while all the teachers are trying to cope with individual differences in one way or another, the practices carried on have little scientific foundation. For instance Blackstone and Smith find that the practice of allowing the bright students to proceed at their own rate is not sound pedagogy. They state as follows: "The practice of allowing the student to go on to the next assignment in the book is the "Individual-instruction" method rather commonly used in business colleges. Several difficulties arise when this method is tried in high school. In the first place, a bright student would finish all of the required work for the semester before the term ended. If he then went to the next semester's work, he would think he should have credit for that extra work, but school administrators are usually loath to grant fractional credit. Another disadvantage is that if a particularly difficult point is involved, the teacher must explain that point to each student as he reaches it; thus as many individual explanations must be given as there are students in the class. A third difficulty is that the students soon reach so many different stages of the course that it is impossible to hold class recitation."1 Blackstone and Smith also point out that there are disadvantages to using the other two methods listed as being frequently used by teachers. For instance the same students as a rule are asked to do extra typing for the school or for the teachers. Hence they are the only ones getting this type of experience. A few reservations are needed with regard to using the method of additional assignments to cope with the more talented students. This method may be put to good advantage if the "contract plan" is followed. This procedure is based on the variable assignment technique used by the Dalton plan, the Winnetka plan and others. This plan is explained in detail as follows: "The plan involves (1) the determination of the minimum essentials of each unit of instruction, and (2) provision of enough time in order that even the dull pupils may so master these minimum essentials that they can go on to the next unit understandingly, and they may attain at least the minimum standards of office requirements. Those pupils who finish only the minimum essentials are given a grade of D if the work is done satisfactorily. (3) To obtain a C grade, the pupil must, in addition to completing the minimum essentials, perform those other tasks included in the unit being taught which are needed by the one who is merely able to hold her job. (4) For a B grade, in addition to the requirements for the C, further materials --- 1 E. G. Blackstone and S. L. Smith, op. cit., p. 262. of enrichment character in the unit are required; (5) and for an A, still more enrichment and investigational materials are expected."1 This method may be used to good advantage since the students will proceed to the next unit by themselves if they wish to receive a higher grade. Another good feature of this method is that all students are employed. While the poor students are finishing the minimum essentials, the average students progress to the exercises required for the C grade, and the brighter students busy themselves doing the requirements for the B grade. Error Analysis and Error Charts Every teacher must teach accuracy regardless of whether she stresses accuracy first or speed first or follows the findings of the latest research i.e.; stressing speed along with accuracy. Helping students reduce errors is a problem that is very close to most typing teachers. A classification of errors will often enable the student to see the types of errors he is making. At the same time students and teachers can see at a glance which errors are made most frequently and a remedial program may be so planned that an attempt will be made to eliminate, or at least reduce, many of the errors committed most frequently. 1 Ibid., p. 263. Probably the most common procedure for the teacher in attempting to treat errors is to check the student's papers and to make a notation of the number of errors made, although sometimes this checking is done by the student himself. When the number of errors becomes too great, the teacher admonishes the student, telling him to be more careful, occasionally suggesting that he write more slowly, but ordinarily failing entirely to get at the root of the difficulty because neither she nor the student know precisely where it is. As already stated the alert teacher analyzes the errors made by students and then conducts a remedial program based on the error-analysis findings. The need for error-analysis is therefore a very important part of the teacher's task. Blackstone and Smith point out the importance of having the teacher make this important survey. They state as follows: "The modern teacher, instead of merely urging the student to be more accurate, begins to analyze the mistakes the student has made. Perhaps she discovers that the pupil is continually striking the letter r for the letter t, and that most of his errors are on that particular reach. She calls the student's attention to his difficulty; gives him drills that will enable him to learn to differentiate between the two reaches; and can probably effect great improvement in the student's accuracy. Until the teacher does discover the pupil's habitual fault and does make adequate provision for overcoming the difficulty, however, little improvement or progress may be expected." Since we have established that an analysis of --- 1 Ibid., p. 352. errors is essential if we are to locate the particular areas of difficulty, we must now find some systematic method of analyzing these errors. There are many types of error-analysis charts on the market but perhaps the most helpful is the one produced by L.C. Smith & Corona Typewriters of Canada Ltd.\(^1\) This chart provides a means of listing the letters that were typed opposite the letters that should have been typed. James Crawford points out the advantage of using error-analysis charts. He states: "1. They force the student to do accurate proofreading by requiring specific information to be classified and recorded. 2. They provide a clear visual record of the typist's control and show him, in compact form the exact nature and quantity of the errors being made. 3. They provide cumulative records which may be used for purposes of analysis, comparison, or as the basis of selecting remedial materials and procedures."\(^2\) Since it is undoubtedly of more value to the student to analyze his own errors than to have the teacher do it for him, an attempt was made to discover how many teachers have their students analyze their own errors. Table XXII shows the results of the teachers' answers to this question. --- \(^1\)See Appendix C for a sample. These charts may be obtained free of charge from the Winnipeg branch of the L.C. Smith & Corona Typewriters or by writing direct to the Educational Division of the Company in Syracuse, New York. \(^2\)James Crawford, "Your Typing Question," The Balance Sheet, XXVIII, September, 1946, p. 26. TABLE XXII SHOWING WHETHER AN ATTEMPT IS MADE BY STUDENT TO CLASSIFY HIS TYPING ERRORS | Attempt Made by Student | Total | % of Total Sample | |-------------------------|-------|-------------------| | No Attempt Made by Student | 60 | 83.3 | | Unanswered ............... | 3 | 4.2 | Only 12.5% of the teachers have their students analyze their own errors. Yet 66.67% of the teachers stated they carried out remedial exercises with the types of errors made by the students being used as a guide. Presumably then, many teachers analyze the students' errors by themselves and then ask the students to carry out certain drills. This type of practice would not appear to be sound pedagogy. If the student does not see the exact purpose of the drill he is asked to do, it is doubtful if the drill will have fulfilled its purpose—that of eliminating specific errors. If the teacher's preference to analyze the students' errors by herself is done with some specific reason in mind, then she should explain to the student precisely why he is asked to carry out a certain remedial exercise before he undertakes it. Table XXIII shows the extent to which remedial practices are carried out by teachers with types of errors made by students being used as a guide. TABLE XXIII REMEDIAL PRACTICES CARRIED OUT BY TEACHERS WITH TYPES OF ERRORS MADE BY STUDENTS BEING USED AS A GUIDE | Total | % of Total Sample | |-------|------------------| | 48 | 66.67 | | 15 | 20.83 | | 9 | 12.5 | We see that the majority of teachers, 66.67%, carry out remedial practices with the types of errors made by students being used as a guide. The most important point to consider here is that student as well as teacher know the types of errors that have been committed. Teaching Composition at the Machine Teaching students to compose at the typewriter is an important part of any student's training. Indicating the importance of this type of practice, Blackstone and Smith state: "Any person who uses the typewriter for personal, home, social, or school use will use it largely for typing the thoughts he wishes to express, for there is not much that he will desire to copy. In the business office, there may be more typing of the copying nature, but there too a considerable part of one's typing activities will involve expression of one's ideas. Therefore it would appear reasonable that all students should be taught to compose at the typewriter, for writing the material in longhand, correcting it, and then copying it on the typewriter is slow and inefficient." 1E. G. Blackstone and S.L. Smith, op. Cit., p. 158. The teachers filling the questionnaire out were asked whether composition at the machine was taught to their class and they were also asked which of a series of methods were used. Table XXIV shows the tabulated results. **TABLE XXIV** **METHODS USED TO TEACH COMPOSITION AT THE MACHINE** | Method Used | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Questions dictated; answers typed | 6 | 8.33 | | Words dictated; answers typed by writing definitions | No response | | Themes or paragraphs typed | No response | | Letters composed and typed without copy | 15 | 20.83 | | Unanswered | 54 | 75 | We note that the teachers are putting very little emphasis on composition at the machine. Studebaker provides us with some ideas as to how composition may be taught at the machine. She states: "Accordingly, we are putting more and more stress on dictation and composition at the machine. At first, ask the students simple questions that can be answered with one word, "Is it raining?" and have them type the answer. Have them write the names of other students in the room (or in their row). Give the first two lines of a well-known rhyme, have them compose concluding lines." Since research shows that composing directly on --- 1 Alice Studebaker, "My Typing Teacher Was Wrong?" *Commercial Education*, XXVII, May, 1942, p. 51. 2 Nellie L. Merrick, What Shall We Do About Written Expression? *Journal of Business Education*, March, 1939 p. 17. the typewriter materially improves the fluency and accuracy of written expression; and the development of skill in composing on the typewriter is considerably aided by the frequent use of direct dictation, it behooves teachers to give this aspect of training some serious consideration and incorporate this practice into their teaching procedure. The student's ability to compose at the machine could be another means of grading the student. Since the grading system in this province is not very satisfactory to typing teachers, as revealed in Chapter V, composition at the typewriter should receive special attention. CHAPTER V GRADING Introduction Satisfactory grading systems have long been sought by teachers and especially by typing teachers. According to Table XXVI students in Manitoba are, in the main, graded on the basis of speed and accuracy. Most of the teachers who grade the students on the basis of accuracy are forced to mark the students' papers. Marking papers is one of the nightmares of teaching typewriting. At one extreme, some teachers attempt to check each page typed. The outcomes of this effort are often lowered vitality, less time devoted to individual students, failing eyesight, and the constant accumulation of papers to be graded. This effort is caused by an erroneous conception of the duty of a teacher. At the other extreme are a few teachers who shift to students the entire burden of checking papers. This practice is sound in theory; students should be held responsible for discovering their own errors and for accurately marking their papers. This requirement is one of the demands of business. However, since grades are determined to a large extent by the accuracy of the work, the incentive for the student to find all the errors is slightly less in fact than in theory. Somewhere between these two extremes there must be a way of handling papers that more nearly conforms to the sane conception of the function of teacher and, at the same time, provides a close check on the productive ability of each student. It was found that many teachers are not satisfied with the grading system they are using. The fact that only 25% of them are satisfied indicates that this area needs considerable attention. **TABLE XXV** **TEACHERS' REACTIONS TO THEIR OWN GRADING SYSTEMS** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Are Satisfied | 18 | 25 | | Are Not Satisfied | 45 | 62.5 | | Unanswered | 9 | 12.5 | It is perhaps no accident that the teachers who stated that they were satisfied with their grading system were, in the main, those who had taught typing for a period of three years or less. Perhaps these teachers have not become well enough acquainted with what is required of a sound grading system. **Relative Weight Assigned by Teacher to Different Aspects of Typing** A wide variation was found in the percentage values that the teachers give to various phases of typing. The questionnaire contained ten items which the teachers were asked to weight according to percentage. Table XXVI reveals a very wide range. **TABLE XXVI** **RANGE IN PERCENTAGE VALUES GIVEN TO VARIOUS ASPECTS OF TYPING** | Component Parts | Range in % | Mode in % | |----------------------------------|-------------|-----------| | Speed | 30 - 60 | 60 | | Accuracy | 30 - 50 | 50 | | Attitude | 0 - 10 | 10 | | Average of daily work | 5 - 15 | 15 | | Posture | 0 - 50 | 50 | | Quantity of work done | 0 - 33 | 33 | | Class attendance | 0 - 5 | 5 | | Outside work completed | No response | | | Effort | 0 - 5 | 5 | | Speed in completing daily work | No response | | | Others | 0 - 20 | 20 | | Unanswered | (6) | | We note in general that speed and accuracy are given the main emphasis. However, the disturbing part of the survey is that while some schools give 60% of the emphasis on speed others place only 30% of the emphasis on this aspect of typing. Similarly, while some teachers place 50% of the emphasis on accuracy, others place only 30% of the emphasis on the absence or fewness of errors. The reason for this wide variation may be attributed to the fact that there is no standard method of grading in the province. Therefore what is needed is a uniform method of grading our students. The place to start is undoubtedly through informing teachers of the most satisfactory methods of grading. While complete uniformity can not be hoped for, some system whereby all the typing teachers place approximately the same value on the different aspects of typing should be worked out. Methods of Checking Work of Typing Students The teachers were asked to state what percentage of the papers were graded, checked in and disregarded. When a teacher has a large class it becomes a very large task indeed to grade all the papers. Yet according to Table XXVII, 61.1% of the teachers grade all the papers that are handed in. TABLE XXVII METHOD OF CHECKING STUDENTS' WORK | Method of Checking Work | PER CENT OF WORK CHECKED | |-------------------------|--------------------------| | | Up to 50% | 51% to 99% | 100% | | Grading | 1.38 | 20.83 | 61.1 | | Checking in | 11.12 | 52 | 72.22| | Disregarding | 11.12 | 52 | 16.6 | While 61.1% of the teachers make certain that every paper that is handed in is marked, many of these teachers indicated that they do not always hand back the marked papers to the students. Needless to say the students benefit very little from corrected papers which are not returned to them. It appears that one of the best systems of grading a student's work--a method which is not too hard on the teachers, and is beneficial to the student--is the method of grading papers by sampling. Blackstone and Smith state as follows regarding this method: "It is recommended that each student be required after the initial learning period has passed, to proofread all papers that are to be handed in for grading purposes, and to make the necessary corrections on them. To prevent students from being dishonest or careless in marking their errors, the teacher should sample a few papers from each." Klein points out that the question of students' papers has two aspects. Drill work, he states, need never be corrected by the teacher. As far as practical work is concerned, he agrees with Blackstone and Smith that it should be spot checked only so that the student will continually strive for perfection. Grading Systems The systems used in calculating grades on typing tests are fairly uniform. Most of the teachers, 93.4% --- 1 E. G. Blackstone and S. L. Smith, op. cit., p. 295. 2 A. E. Klein, "Fallacies in Teaching Typewriting," Business Education World, May, 1952, p. 310. of them, use the International Method\(^1\) of calculating the typing rate. This method only takes into account the speed and accuracy with which the student types. There is no consideration for other factors such as attitude, effort, and speed in completing daily work. Lloyd\(^2\) states that the teacher who grades her students on the basis of posture, carriage return and so on does so merely as a desperation measure. Hence the grading of tests used in this province, according to Lloyd, may be said to be fairly satisfactory. While 93.4% of the teachers use the International Method of measuring students' performance on tests, the performance of the students' work other than tests is graded in several different ways as already pointed out on page 62 of this study. The Contract Method of grading has already been discussed in some detail and as already stated has met with considerable success. It is suggested that teachers use this method. Lloyd cites a system of grading whereby "points" are assigned for various performances. He states as follows regarding this system: --- \(^1\) The number of strokes divided by five—to obtain the gross number of words typed—less ten words for each error typed divided by the number of minutes typed to obtain the net words per minute typed. \(^2\) A.C. Lloyd, "Ten Typewriting Questions," *American Business Education*, March, 1952, p. 196 "The most flexible grading system the writer has used with success is the assignment of "points" for various activities and production materials, with the scale of points relative to the level of the class, the standards of the school, and the exigencies of the moment. Grades may be based on the total points. Production exercises may involve points either on the basis of the number of minutes normally required to do them or, better, on the basis of three points for each letter of one hundred words or fewer which he typed with two or fewer errors; four points for letters of about 150 words; five points for letters of 200 or more words, and so on." While the foregoing method of grading may have many favorable aspects, it certainly is not the only grading system that can be used with success. One teacher filling in the questionnaire stated that ten marks are given for each exercise with two marks deducted for each error. She states that she has found this method a very good incentive for accuracy and speed. I.Q. and Final Grading While students are generally graded on the basis of speed and accuracy and sometimes on other factors such as posture and quantity of work done, the final grades of students are often influenced by the students' IQ rating. The correlation between IQ and typing ability has received much attention, and while it appears that there is little or no correlation between IQ and elementary typing ability, there is evidence to show that there is considerable correlation between IQ and more advanced typ- --- 1 Ibid., p. 197 ing where organization is necessary. Hardaway and Maier, in support of this theory, state thus: "When typewriting success was measured by speed tests and manipulative processes, the relationships with IQ's have been very low; but when the measure of achievement involved ability to arrange and produce usable work, the relationships tended to be significant."¹ Table XXVIII reveals that very few teachers in the province are using the IQ rating as a factor in the final grading of their students. Only 4.17% of the teachers make use of this method. TABLE XXVIII IQ AND FINAL GRADING IN TYPING | Total | % of Total Sample | |-------|-------------------| | Teachers Employing IQ Rating | 3 | 4.17 | | Teachers not Employing IQ Rating | 60 | 83.33 | | Unanswered | 9 | 12.5 | While the IQ can not be used as the sole determinant of students' grades in typing, nevertheless it does appear to have a place when student grades are being considered particularly, as already indicated, in the more advanced stages of typewriting. ¹ Mathilde Hardaway and Thomas B. Maier, *Tests and Measurements in Business Education*. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1952, p. 374. Hence teachers should make more use of IQ rating with regard to the promotion of their more advanced typing students. The Perfect-Copy Requirement The perfect-copy requirement is a direct outgrowth of the extreme stress upon accuracy. Since it has been indicated that extreme stress upon accuracy is not a good method of teaching typing, it follows that the perfect-copy requirement is now considered outmoded. Blackstone and Smith state as follows regarding the perfect-copy requirement: "The perfect-copy requirement is rapidly being abandoned by modern typewriting teachers. Those who have been handicapped by the perfect-copy requirement probably recall the strain under which they worked as they approached the end of a long, difficult exercise, and the disappointment--or disgust --when they made an error as they were nearly completing the exercise. Accordingly the perfect-copy requirement probably develops in students a fear of the typewriter, plus a dislike of the subject. Moreover, queerly enough, even students who are required to hand in perfect copies do not write perfectly in tests."1 What the teacher should do is not fail a pupil because he has made a few errors but praise him for having made progress. In this way the teacher may be able to lead the student toward the goal of perfect accuracy, without the development of fear, discouragement, and failure. 1E.G. Blackstone and S.L. Smith, op. cit., p. 247. Klein is in agreement with Blackstone and Smith that perfect-copy requirements is not good teaching. He states: "The teacher need not fear that a few incorrect responses, allowed to go uncorrected at the beginning of the course, will result in bad typing habits. In fact, we know from experience that the contrary is true; bad typing habits are very often the result of insisting on perfect copies. To achieve the goal of a perfect copy, the student is forced to type much below his normal rate, to develop a slow and hesitant touch, and to look or peek at the keys frequently...The student will make some errors no matter what the teacher insists on. Demanding perfect copies does not normally result in getting them; on the rare occasion when it does, the perfect copy is achieved at the expense of acquiring a high degree of typing skill." Elimination of incorrect responses is more important than elimination of errors since the first precedes the other. The real remedy is obvious--say nothing, or very little, about errors while students are learning locations. In fact, it might be a good idea to tell the students frankly that they are bound to make some errors while learning the key locations, but that they should pay more attention to correct technique and the errors will soon disappear. It may also be pointed out to the students that they will always make some errors and to meet this situation erasers are still being manufactured and sold to business offices. In this way some of the "tension" will be relieved and the students will be able to 1 A. E. Klein, op. cit., p. 311. pay more attention to correct stroking. The questionnaire reveals that 12.5% of the teachers insist on perfect copies before they can be handed in for correction. Two of the teachers stated that they sometimes demand perfect copies, while another one stated that perfect copies are demanded only when erasures are permitted. This last practice seems to be a very sensible one since there is no reason for students who are permitted to erase to hand in work containing errors. These students need not be under too much tension since they know that if they make an error they may use an eraser. At the same time the perfect-copy requirement ensures that they proofread their work. It should be stressed that proofreading is a very important part of every typist's duty. **TABLE XXIX** **PERFECT-COPY REQUIREMENTS** | Requirement | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Require Perfect Copies | 9 | 12.5 | | Do Not Require Perfect Copies | 60 | 83.33 | | Sometimes Require Perfect Copies | 3 | 4.17 | **Unsatisfactory Work** As in the case of academic work, the typing teacher is continually confronted with the student who does not receive a passing grade. Table XXX shows how teachers cope with students whose work is not satisfactory. **TABLE XXX** **HOW TYPING TEACHERS COPE WITH UNSATISFACTORY WORK** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Have Students Retype Work| 54 | 75 | | Do Nothing About it | 18 | 25 | While 75% of the teachers have their students retype unsatisfactory work, it would be interesting to find out how many of them make a definite attempt to discover why their students do not make a satisfactory grade. Teachers who have students who continually fail to make a passing grade should realize that these students make errors due to some definite difficulty. Teachers should realize that attention to inaccurate letter stroking is important, but the isolation of writing difficulties other than keyboard is just as important if specific practice is to be directed toward the improvement of a specific technique. The use of a technique check-sheet and of a writing-difficulties sheet will help students to locate their problems; then remedial practice may be specific in location. With this type of practice teachers may then hope to raise the caliber of their students' work so that it receives a passing grade more often. Quite often students may not receive a passing grade because of the types of tests used but this will be considered in the next chapter on tests. CHAPTER VI TESTS Introduction As a skill subject, typewriting emphasizes doing rather than knowing. Because of this emphasis, testing in typewriting should measure for the most part what the student can do rather than what he knows. It is conceivable that a student might know all the techniques involved in operating a typewriter, but might be unable to perform the techniques satisfactorily. The most satisfactory method for measuring ability to perform is probably through tests. Various forms of tests are usually given to the typing student. Perhaps the most common is a speed test. Speed tests have always been the most popular means of determining the student's ability to type, but there are other forms of tests as well. Of these the production test and the prognostic test are perhaps the best known and the most widely used. Speed Tests Teachers were asked to state when speed tests are first given. Despite the fact that the answer to this question is dependent to a large degree on the amount of time taken to "cover" the keyboard, which showed considerable variation as shown in Table XIV, a good deal of uniformity was found when the initial periods for speed testing were compared. Table XXXI shows the results of the teachers' answers to the question asking when speed tests are first given. **TABLE XXXI** **INTRODUCTION OF SPEED TESTS** | Time of Introduction | Total | % of Total Sample | |----------------------|-------|-------------------| | First Term | 33 | 45.83 | | Second Term | 33 | 45.83 | | Unanswered | 6 | 8.34 | All the teachers answering the questionnaire test their students prior to the Easter holidays of the second term. This means that speed tests are introduced fairly early in the course. There is a danger that too early testing may be detrimental to the students, since they may get discouraged due to their inability to perform well. By the end of the first term however, the students should have enough mastery of the typewriter to be able to undergo a speed test. The length of the speed test is also worthy of consideration. If the test is too long the test becomes one of endurance rather than of ability. Marion Lamb suggests that typewriting tests should be of short duration during the initial period of speed testing and gradually lengthened. to ten minutes. She states: "...the teacher starts with half-minute and one-minute tests so that all students have a chance to produce errorless copy. When most of the class (50 per cent to 75 per cent) can write without error for one minute, tests are lengthened to two minutes and upward gradually until the class can eventually take ten-minute tests." Hardaway and Maier are more specific as to the length of speed test to be given at any particular period. They state as follows: "Straight copy tests should be no longer than one minute during the first two months of learning, and five minutes during the remainder of the first semester. In the second semester, the length of the timed writings may be increased from five to ten minutes. There is little justification for giving straight copy tests for periods of time longer than ten minutes." In short Hardaway and Maier state that typing tests should range from two to five minutes in length during the latter part of the first term and from five to ten minutes from the second term on. Table XXXII shows the length of speed tests given by the typing teachers. **TABLE XXXII** LENGTH OF SPEED TESTS MOST FREQUENTLY GIVEN | Length of Test | NO. OF TEACHERS GIVING TEST DURING THE: | |----------------------|----------------------------------------| | | 1st Term | 2nd Term | 3rd Term | 4th Term | | No Test Given | 9 | | | | | 1 minute | 12 | 9 | | | | 3 minutes | 29 | 6 | | | | 5 minutes | 10 | 36 | 12 | 3 | | 10 minutes | 16 | 21 | 60 | 9 | | Over 11 minutes | | | | 3 | --- 1 M.M. Lamb, *op. cit.*, p. 41. 2 M. Hardaway and T.B. Maier, *op. cit.*, p. 172. The ten-minute test is the most frequently given. In comparison with Hardaway's and Maier's criterion for length of speed tests there is no gross lack of uniformity shown in Table XXXII. There appears to be little room for concern beyond the fact that 36.1% of the teachers use five-minute or longer tests during the first term and 12.5% of the teachers use longer than ten-minute tests. Production Tests For many years teachers of typewriting have used a straight copy typewriting test as a measure of typewriting ability. These tests were developed largely by typewriter companies for use in local and national contests as a means of publicizing typewriting. In order to make it possible for such tests to be given and scored easily, certain arbitrary rules were adopted, although they did not always follow the practices in business offices. Because of their lack of practical application in many cases, the straight copy tests must be supplemented by other tests if the student's ability to type in a practical situation is to be tested properly. One test which has been used with considerable success as a means of supplementing the straight copy test is the production test. Hardaway and Maier describe how a pupil's ability to perform many typewriting activities of a practical nature may be tested by means of a production test. They state as follows: "A production test requires that a student perform some task in an acceptable manner within a certain period of time. Production tests may be designed to occupy as short a period of time as five minutes, but more satisfactory production tests are designed to take from 15 to 30 minutes. In a typical production test a student is required to plan arrangement of material; to determine machine adjustments necessary to carry out the plan; to make corrections so that the final product is mailable; and to complete the job in the shortest possible time."¹ Table XXXIII shows the extent to which teachers across the province make use of production tests. **TABLE XXXIII** **PRODUCTION TESTING OF TYPING STUDENTS** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Production Tests Given | 24 | 33.33 | | Production Tests not Given | 33 | 45.83 | | Unanswered | 15 | 20.84 | The reader will note the large percentage of teachers, 45.84%, who do not test the production ability of their students. Of the teachers who do give production tests, many of them indicated that they were not too content with the particular manner in which they handle this aspect of testing. Many of the teachers indicated that they give production tests too rarely. Others indicated that while they give these tests, they do not --- ¹ M. Hardaway and T.B. Maier, *op. cit.*, p. 172. follow this practice often enough. The majority of teachers, 75%, stated the length of their production tests was usually forty minutes. A few however stated that this test took as much as two periods. According to Hardaway and Maier this length of time would in most cases be too long. Prognostic Testing Perhaps no testing has undergone as much experiment and discussion as has prognostic testing. The success of the prediction value of the tests is determined by the relationship between the aptitude test scores and the achievement test scores. This relationship is usually calculated statistically. The hypothesis set up whenever prediction tests are used, is that if the predictors are valid, students with high aptitude scores would do well on a typing achievement test. If the predictors are not valid then there is assumed to be little association between scores on the aptitude test and achievement test. An argument for a good selection program should be unnecessary. All teachers realize the value of having students taking courses which they are most suited for and most interested in. The benefits derived from the correct selection of subjects affect the teacher, the school, and most important of all--the student. There are certain times of the year when selection can be of maximum value. When students are entering the commercial course and are deciding the particular courses they should enrol in, their decision should be based on some measure of aptitude. While it has been established to some extent that there is some relationship between many of the predictive tests for typing, which are now on the market, and typing achievement, any prognosis of typing ability should be conducted with the utmost care. In the case of predicting the potential ability of a student as a typist on the basis of his IQ, Hardaway and Maier state: "When typewriting success was measured by speed tests and manipulative processes, the relationships with IQ's have been very low; but when the measure of achievement involved ability to arrange and produce usable work, the relationships tended to be significant." Hence we must know what particular aspect of typing ability we are testing. We must realize that where typing ability requires organization there will be a higher correlation with a prognostic test than where mere mechanical ability is mostly required. At the same time we must realize that a battery of predictive tests is better than one test. In addition other information such as previous school record may be used as a further indicat- 1 Ibid., p. 373. 2 Ibid., p. 374. ion of a student's ability as a potential typist. A word of caution is in order regarding placing too much stress on the predictive value of a prognostic test of typing ability. Much typing success may be dependent upon such factors as interest, effort, and work habits, which are factors that have not been measured accurately and which may change during the process of the typewriting course. Perhaps the best known method of discovering students' ability to type is through the use of an exploratory course in the eighth or ninth grade. This course could provide units of tryout in all fields of business education. Tonne\(^1\) states that in this way much valuable time which could be diverted to more advantageous pursuits could be salvaged annually in not requiring many young people to pursue courses for which they have little aptitude and are entirely unsuited. While several schools of the larger type are now planning to inaugurate a program of prognostic testing for potential typists, it would be interesting to see how many teachers are already using such predictive tests. Table XXXIV shows the results for Manitoba. --- \(^1\) Herbert A. Tonne, "Trends and Factors Affecting Curriculum Revision in Business Education," Fourteenth Yearbook of the Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, 1941, p. 35. The majority of teachers, 70.83%, do not use prognostic tests. Only 12.5% of the teachers make use of these tests. It is hoped that this number will increase before long. For the teachers who wish to use prognostic tests and do not know where to obtain them, the writer would refer them to the University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa or to the Psychological Corporation of New York, New York. There are several other sources from where prognostic tests or information about them may be obtained. This will be discussed in the next chapter. --- 1 The University of Minnesota, for instance, can give information regarding the "Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test." Information about the Minnesota Test for Clerical Workers" may also be obtained from this source. CHAPTER VII EQUIPMENT Introduction Thus far the study has been concerned with the best methods of producing the best typing students in the shortest possible time. This can not be done if the teacher has not the right kind of equipment and supplies at her disposal. This chapter is therefore concerned primarily with the physical equipment with which the teachers in Manitoba must work. Makes of Machines Used The study attempted to discover how many different types of machines are in use in any one classroom. A teacher having three or four different types of machines for the beginning students will have difficulty in explaining and teaching the manipulations of the various parts. After she has explained how to set margins on Typewriter A to some students, those students must sit quietly and listen while she explains to others how to set margins on Typewriters B, C, and D. Not only will the first group become restless, but confused as well, after having listened to four different explanations. Hayden, supports the theory that a teacher can do a better job of teaching beginning typewriting when there is only one make of machine in the room. He states: "It is much easier to teach beginning typewriting with one make of machine than it is to teach with two or more makes. To give instruction on how to insert paper, how to return the carriage, and how to perform the many other actions connected with typing, to a class using several different kinds of machines leads to confusion and inefficient teaching. On the other hand, a variety of machines presents no great difficulty to the instructor of an advanced class. Some schools which are large enough to maintain two typewriting rooms equip the beginning typewriting room with one make of machine but the advanced typewriting room with two or more makes of machines. The small high school maintaining but one room will do well to equip with only one kind of machine. In spite of the argument often heard that students should be familiarized with several makes of machines, the fact remains that a student who has learned to type well on one make of machine can adjust himself to using another make in a short time if it is necessary to do so when he takes a position."1 Thus it would appear that as far as the small high school is concerned, where there is only one typing room, such as that found in any high school in rural Manitoba that offers typing, one make of typewriter would be the most feasible. With one make of typewriter the machines would quite likely be serviced better since the typewriter company would have a larger interest in that particular school. Meehan stresses the importance of having only one make of machine if the best repair service is to be expected. He comments as follows: "Where different makes of typewriters have been used, as many repairmen representing as many different companies have made separate trips to each location to service their particular machines, whereas one repairman could have done the job in one trip if a single machine were in use. Also, psychologically, one can expect more outstanding repair service from --- 1C.K. Hayden, "The First Two Weeks of Typewriting," *The Balance Sheet*, March, 1953, p. 84. the company whose equipment is standardized."1 It would appear therefore that most of the smaller schools should use one make of typewriter only. If the teachers so desire they may purchase one machine of each other model so that students in advanced classes may be given some instruction on this machine. However, the recommendation that one kind of machine be adopted as standard is still endorsed. Table XXXV shows the number of different makes of machines used in the rural schools of Manitoba. **TABLE XXXV** NUMBER OF DIFFERENT MAKES OF MACHINES USED IN RURAL SCHOOLS OF MANITOBA | Number of Different Makes | Total | % of Total Sample | |---------------------------|-------|-------------------| | One | No response | | | Two | 4 | 36.36 | | Three | 7 | 63.64 | We see that all of the rural schools in the province who answered the questionnaire have at least two different makes of machines. The majority, 63.64%, have as many as three makes of machines. In accordance with what has already been pointed out as far as rural schools are concerned, where there is only one typing classroom and where repair --- 1 James R. Meehan, "Obtaining Adequate Facilities and Equipment," *Improvement of Business Education Practices*. The American Business Education Yearbook; Volume VIII, the National Business Teachers Association and the Eastern Business Teachers Association. New York: Niagara Frontier Publishing Company, 1951, p. 304. service is rather difficult to get, rural schools might do well to standardize one make of machine. As far as the city schools are concerned there appears to be little room for concern as to the number of different makes of machines that are used except where there is only one typing classroom in the school. Table XXXVI shows the number of different makes of machines used in urban schools of Manitoba. **TABLE XXXVI** NUMBER OF DIFFERENT MAKES OF MACHINES USED IN URBAN SCHOOLS OF MANITOBA | Number of Different Makes | Total | % of Total Sample | |---------------------------|-------|-------------------| | One | 3 | 27.27 | | Two | 2 | 18.19 | | Three | 3 | 27.27 | | Four | 3 | 27.27 | Frequency of Different Makes of Typewriters An attempt was made to discover the frequency of different makes of machines. It is interesting to note that 73.29% of the machines used in rural and urban schools are Underwoods. At the same time only .95% of the schools use Royals. The writer would like to point out that in the United States the Royal typewriter is used much more than either the Underwood or any other make of machine. Why then has the Underwood typewriter taken such a foothold in this province? The writer has experimented with all the different makes of typewriters and found that there is little difference in the amount of service that the typewriters give. It is suggested that the main reason for the Underwood typewriter taking such a foothold in our schools is due to two reasons. First the Underwood Company has taken a vital interest in getting its typewriters into educational institutions. Second and perhaps most important is that the Underwood Typewriter Company offers better services than the other companies do. This is borne out by the fact that 54% of the teachers answering the questionnaire stated that the best service was obtained from the Underwood Company. Blank Versus Open Keyboards For many years, typing without looking at the fingers, the keys or the machine, has been accepted as good typing technique. The reason for not looking at the machine has consistently been upheld on the basis that experienced typists seldom look at the machine. If they did, they would lose their place in the copy and then lose time trying to find their place again. However, ability to type by touch at the end of a course does not necessarily imply that students should not look at the keyboard. when learning to type. Table XV, page 35, reveals that 70.83% of the typing teachers insist that their students do not look at the keyboard. As already stated some of the teachers were most emphatic regarding the position that students should not be allowed to look at the keyboard. Many of them pointed out that in the past, students had not been allowed to look at the keyboard when typing. Frantic efforts have been made in the past to prevent students from looking at the fingers or keys. The most common attempts to prevent this type of "peeking" has been the introduction of the "blind" keyboard or blank keys. Table XXXVII shows the extent to which blank keyboards are used in our schools. **TABLE XXXVII** **TYPES OF KEYBOARDS USED IN SCHOOLS** | Type of keyboard | % of Total Sample | |------------------|-------------------| | Blank | 67.9 | | Lettered | 27.1 | | Unanswered | 5 | Table XXXVII shows that 67.9% of the keyboards are blank. Blackstone and Smith point out the futility of using blank keys to prevent students from looking at the keyboard. They state: "Blank keys, as most teachers are well aware, do not prevent students from looking. After a short time the student can tell, even with blank keys, which key is which. For instance he may be about to type the word become. He knows that he frequently strikes the y for the b, so he may look at the blank keys and be perfectly able to tell which is the y, and which is the b, and to succeed in striking the b because he has looked. Blanked keys do not prevent this."1 The unreasonableness of having blank keyboards is all the more evident when it is brought to our attention that when students have mastered the new reaches they will have little inclination to keep on looking at the keys. The current opinion is then to equip our typewriters with lettered keyboards because they make it easier for the learner to get a clear mental picture of the location of each new key--the direction and distance of each new reach. This point of view is endorsed by most of the authorities in the field of typewriting. One such authority, Dr. Hamden Forkner, Head of Department of Business Education, Teachers College, Columbia University states: We need to ask ourselves, for example, whether it is best to use blank keys in teaching typewriting rather than open keyboards, because we now know that the best way to teach key-finger location is to have the student refer directly to the keyboard rather than to use a round-about method. His responses are more rapid for he learns faster. It may be that some of those boys and girls whom we failed in typewriting when we used blank keyboards would have passed under --- 1 E.G. Blackstone and S.L. Smith, op. cit., p. 125. the methods that we now know are better."1 Albert C. Fries in a review of summarized research in typewriting states that blank keys are out of place in a modern training program. At the same time he gives his approval to students looking at the keyboard when new reaches are being learned. He states as follows: "Blank keys are inferior to the use of visible keyboards at which the student may look temporarily while learning the locations and reaches."2 Thus with respect to open versus closed keyboards we may conclude that open keyboards are desirable. Open keyboards are especially desirable in view of the fact that research supports the theory that students learn faster on lettered keyboards if they can look at the key reaches when they are first being learned. Pica Versus Elite Type Machines called pica are those with a "10 pitch" and type ten spaces to a horizontal inch. Generally speaking, this is "the big type" machine. Although type faces of many different sizes may be used on these machines, they are known as pica if they space ten to the inch. Elite machines are those with a "12 pitch" and space twelve characters to a horizontal inch. This is --- 1H.L. Forkner, *Dictaphone Educational Forum*. New York: Dictaphone Corporation, 1952, p. 2. 2A.C. Fries, "Some Contributions of Research to the Teaching of Typewriting," *Improved Methods of Teaching Business Subjects*. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Co., 1945, Monograph 63, p. 29. the "small type" machine. For special purposes, there are many other pitches. Typewriters may be obtained that space 7, 8, 10, 12 and 15 spaces to the inch—or any other number—if the customer wishes to pay for a custom-built machine. The 10-pitch pica and the 12-pitch elite are universal. Many business firms purchase the "pica" typewriter. However, there are many firms who use both types of machines, and some firms who use only the elite typewriter. Since the market for which students are training, perhaps, should be the controlling factor, then clearly schools should possess typewriters with both elite and pica type. The importance of schools having both kinds of typewriters is emphasized by one author thus: "When a school orders new machines, its decision about pica versus elite is of considerable moment. Students who develop "placement judgment" on pica machines have relearning to do when they are required to use elite machines in offices; the reverse is, of course, also true." Since it has been established to some degree that both elite and pica typewriters should be used in schools, we shall now survey the situation in the classrooms of our province. Table XXXVIII shows that the pica typewriter comprises 94.5% of the typewriters used. Many schools have no elite typewriters. In accordance with what has already been discussed there should be machines with elite type in every school. The number of service men would not increase --- 1. "Pica vs. Elite Typewriter Type—1951," Business Education World. May, 1952, p. 72. with the purchase of one or more of these machines since all typewriters—pica or elite—are sold by all typewriter companies. If it is not possible for a school to obtain several typewriters with elite type, it is suggested that at least one such typewriter be purchased. The students could be "rotated" so that each one of them will have production experience on both kinds of typewriters. **TABLE XXXVIII** **FREQUENCY OF ELITE AND PICA TYPEWRITERS IN SCHOOLS** | Type of Machine | % of Total Sample | |-----------------|-------------------| | Pica Type | 94.5 | | Elite Type | .5 | | Unanswered | 5 | **Noiseless Typewriters** Noiseless typewriters were introduced about thirty years ago as a result of the American public becoming more and more "noise conscious". The noiseless machines were very much in demand for a while and it was expected that the sales statistics of the two kinds of machines—noiseless and standard—would be reversed within a few years after they were placed on the market. Such a phenomenal growth however did not occur. Many of the typewriter companies themselves never did advocate the noiseless typewriter. It was found that the typewriter was unsuitable for office work in the main because it was not built sturdily enough and efforts to improve this aspect of the machine failed. Furthermore such researchers as Nordgren\(^1\) discovered that the noise of a typewriter is probably not so distracting as it is commonly thought. Book\(^2\) notes for instance that in E. Newmann's experiment children did better work in a noisy classroom than when they worked in a place where there was complete silence. **Electric Typewriters** Increasingly, electric typewriters are being used in business offices; nobody knows what percentage of office typewriters is electric because the percentage is increasing at such a quick rate. Two recent samplings\(^3\) indicate that in the United States about 17 per cent of all the typewriters are now electric. While there is reason to believe that the percentage of electric typewriters in Canada is not quite so high as it is in the United States, it is increasing steadily. This increase in the purchase of the electric typewriter indicates the growing importance of this typewriter and should be considered by those in charge of purchasing machines. --- \(^1\) L. L. Nordgren, "An Experimental Comparison of Beginning Students Writing on Standard and Noiseless Typewriters," Unpublished Master's thesis, Leland Stanford University, Stanford, 1931, p. 24. \(^2\) W.F. Book, *op. cit.*, p. 47. \(^3\) E.L. Popham, "Physical Equipment and Room Atmosphere," *Enriched Learning in Business Education*. New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1953, p. 26. There is also considerable evidence that students can learn to type faster if they learn on an electric machine. In addition there is also evidence that electric typewriters provide motivation for the students. Ewing states: "Teachers of typewriting, certainly need not hesitate in recommending electric machines. There is no need for a change in teaching methods. Electric machines--1, 2, or 15--can be taught with outstanding success in the same classroom with the manual machines. Motivation reaches a new high."¹ At present there are few electric typewriters in Manitoba schools. One factor for this absence might be the difference in cost between this machine and a manual one.² However, in view of the fact that many places of employment now have electric typewriters, all schools should try and purchase at least one electric machine. Degree of Use of the Typewriter It has just been mentioned that one of the reasons for schools not purchasing the electric typewriter is at least partly due to the larger purchase price of this machine as compared with the manual. In view of the fact that school costs are steadily mounting and are receiving considerable attention from taxpayers, school authorities should use every means available to keep the cost of train- --- ¹ Priscilla Ewing, "Results of Teaching Electric Typing: Greater Speed and Greater Accuracy," *Business Education World*, May, 1951, p. 437. ² The cost to schools of a manual machine is about $150.00 while that for an electric machine is about $300.00. ing each student as low as possible. One way to keep costs in the typing room down would be to have as many students per machine as possible as long as the efficiency of the instruction is not reduced. Table XXXIX shows the use to which schools put their typewriters. TABLE XXXIX STUDENTS PER TYPEWRITER IN MANITOBA SCHOOLS | Students per Machine | % of Total Sample | |----------------------|-------------------| | .5 - 1.5 | 10 | | 1.6 - 2.5 | 20 | | 2.6 - 3.5 | 51 | | 3.6 - 4.5 | 9.1 | | 4.6 and over | 9.1 | The majority of schools have 2.6 to 3.5 students using one machine. Ten per cent of the schools have as few as .5 to 1.5 students per machine. Needless to say the larger schools make more efficient use of their typewriters than do smaller schools. Hence we may state that it costs more to train a typing student in the smaller schools than it does to train him in the large urban schools. Typing Tables and Chairs There seems to be one best typing position in relation to the height of the writing surface--the hands and arms of the typist should be in the same relative slant as the typewriter keyboard. On a standard manual typewriter, that slant is approximately 30 degrees.\(^1\) Figures 1 and 2 show graphically why typewriter desks should be of the proper height. Figure 1 shows a typist at a desk that is too low—the slant of the forearms and that of the keyboard is not the same as it is in Figure 2. Adjustments should be made in the typists' chairs and desks to permit correct posture while sitting at the typewriter. Otherwise, students will never learn the best typing position. Correct placement of the typewriter on the correct-height writing surface is so important that it should not be overlooked. There seems to be no uniform height applicable to all typists as far as the correct elevation of desks is concerned. The height of the desk depends on the needs of each individual, based on the length of the arm, length of the torso, length of limbs, etc. In general, however, we may say that writing surfaces varying from 26 inches to, and including, 31 inches in height should be satisfactory for the majority of the students. Should the table seem to be too low for a pupil, adjustments should be made immediately. The importance of correct typewriter height can not be overstressed especially in view of the fact that studies \(^1\) "Pica vs. Flite Typewriter Type--1951," *Business Education World*. May, 1952, p. 445. Figure 1. Showing desk level of improper height--forearm is not parallel with slant of keyboard. Figure 2. Desk level of proper height--slant of forearm is the same as slant of keyboard. reveal that less fatigue, improved "clawing" strokes and greater leverage on the keys (effected by having a shorter shoulder distance) result from correct typewriter desk height. At the same time errors are reduced and production is increased. The largest single study in connection with typewriter height was undertaken by the Agriculture Department of the United States Civil Service. The importance of the findings of the study are stressed by Dr. Earl P. Strong who was associated with the training division of the United States Civil Service Commission. He states as follows with regard to the findings of the study: "Improved typing technique was made possible by placing the typewriters high enough so that the typists' forearms were parallel to the slant of the keyboards or at about a 30 degree angle."¹ A good test of correct typewriter height is to position a typist at the machine, have her put her hands on the home row, and stand off and look at her from the side. Correct position is attained when her arms and hands are in the same relative slant as the typewriter keyboard. As already stated with a person of average height using a standard typewriter, this slant of the forearms will be approximately 30 degrees or the same as the slant of the typewriter keyboard. Not only must typewriter desks be of the proper height, but also the chairs. When the chair is too low, ¹Earl P. Strong, *A Study of Typewriter Height*. New York: The Society for the Advancement of Management, 1944, p. 3. the typist's legs become tired; to relieve this tiredness, she wraps her legs around the chair legs or sits with one leg under her. If the chair is too high, blood circulation is cut off by the weight of the legs on the chair edge--also causing fatigue and tiredness. The requirements for the right type of chair are stated as follows: "The chair seat should be approximately 16 by 18 inches in size and should be about 18 inches from the floor. The back rest should be curved to fit the typist's back. The wood should be light oak or blond maple to match the typewriting tables."¹ Since we have established with some degree of definiteness that it is most important that all schools adjust the height of the typing desks and chairs to suit the individual needs of students, it would be interesting to note to what extent desks and chairs are adjusted in the schools of Manitoba. Table XI reveals the results. **TABLE XI** SCHOOLS WHICH ADJUST HEIGHTS OF TYPING TABLES AND CHAIRS | | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Do Make Adjustment.....| 18 | 25 | | Do not Make Adjustment.| 54 | 75 | There are only 25% of the schools that make adjustments of the height of the typing tables and chairs to the needs of the students. Surely school administrators and ¹ "Pica vs. Elite Typewriter Type--1951," op. cit., May, 1952, p. 446. teachers should remedy this neglect of the typing student. Since adjustable equipment is comparatively expensive to buy, many schools find it necessary to improvise adjustments. Blocks of varying height can be put under the table legs to obtain the required height. Blocks are very inexpensive and can be put under table legs by anyone who can use a hammer and saw. Similarly if table legs are too long, a few tables may be lowered by sawing the legs so that the height of the desk is satisfactory. The legs of chairs may also be built up by means of blocks or sawed off a certain amount according to the needs of the students. In this way the typing room will be equipped with desks and chairs of varying height. Demonstration Stand Demonstration stands for the teacher's use when teaching typewriting are too seldom found in the classroom. Could it possible be that the teacher types so poorly that she cannot demonstrate her skill? There is a place for demonstration stands in every school where typewriting is taught. From the very first day, the teacher should use the demonstration stand to show how to typewrite; most teachers merely tell students how it is done. This should seldom be the case. The demonstration stand in the classroom is a justifiable expenditure of money, and it is a great aid to the teacher in demonstrating techniques of good typewriting. Hayden points out why a demonstration stand is so essential in every classroom. He states: "The demonstration stand can be used to good advantage in teaching typing. It is so much easier and more effective to show just how to do something than it is merely to tell how to do it. The old adage certainly applies: "A picture is worth a thousand words." Demonstrations simplify the teaching job. For example, when one is learning to drive an automobile it would be much easier to learn if an automobile were available to show how to turn on the ignition switch, how to use the clutch, and how to use the accelerator than it would be if the learner were removed from the situation. By using the demonstration stand in the typing class we get the students to imitate--one of the first things young children learn is to imitate others." Table IXL reveals that 79.17% of the teachers have access to a demonstration stand. However we note that a few of the larger schools in the city of Winnipeg are without demonstration stands. Perhaps the lack of a demonstration stand in many classrooms is not due so much to the cost\(^2\) as it is to the teacher's lack of knowledge of its usefulness. **TABLE IXL** FREQUENCY OF DEMONSTRATION STANDS IN TYPING CLASSROOMS | Total | % of Total Sample | |-------|-------------------| | Demonstration Stand Available.. 57 | 79.17 | | Demonstration Stand not Available ............... 12 | 16.16 | | Unanswered ......................... 3 | 4.16 | \(^1\)C. Hayden, "The First Two Weeks of Typewriting," *The Balance Sheet*, March, 1953, p. 253. \(^2\)Average cost is approximately Sixty-Five Dollars. A good demonstration table is needed so that students may see and hear the teacher execute the techniques she is trying to teach. In order to make such techniques visible, the demonstration table should be high enough so that the teacher may operate the machine from a standing position. If the demonstration table can be on a swivel, so that it may be revolved, it will be an advantage. If the demonstration stand has castors, the table may be moved about the room to the most advantageous points. Since teachers may be changed, or several may use the same room and they may vary in height, the demonstration stand should be adjustable in height. Many of the demonstration stands now on the market have all the desirable features listed above. Copyholders Typists in offices generally use copyholders of some kind. In schools, the students are often required to read their copy from books lying flat on the desks. A full period of such copying is thought to have a detrimental effect on the eyes. Some teachers refuse to use copyholders because they are difficult to store out of sight when not in use, because they may be easily knocked off the desk and cause a clatter, or because the teacher is unaware that reading from the difficult flat position is harmful to the eyes. Blackstone and Smith comment as follows: "In schools, students often are required to read their copy from books lying flat on the desks, which is believed to be detrimental to the students' eyes."¹ Table VIII. shows the frequency of copyholders in the typing classrooms. ### TABLE VIII. **FREQUENCY OF COPYHOLDERS IN TYPING CLASSROOMS** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Have copyholders.......| 12 | 16.67 | | Do not Have Copyholders.| 57 | 79.17 | | Unanswered.............| 3 | 4.16 | The majority of classrooms, 79.17%, do not use copyholders, while 16.67% do use them. Since copyholders may be made in the school manual training shops, there is little reason why copyholders should not be provided for each student. The provision of copyholders would help him maintain good posture during the entire typewriting period and lessen eye strain considerably. There are several types of copyholders on the market. Perhaps the most familiar one used in offices is the "line-a-time" which is attached to the back of the machine. Another type provides a slanting surface at one side of the machine. Neither copyholder is satisfactory. Blackstone and Smith is describing an ideal copyholder state as fol- ¹ E. G. Blackstone and S. L. Smith, *op. cit.*, p. 71. Correct reading position requires that the copy be held directly in front of the eyes, at a slight angle, at a distance of about 15 inches from the eyes.\textsuperscript{1} The copyholder that stands behind the machine is defective because it is too far away, and because it is perpendicular rather than slanted. Blackstone and Smith\textsuperscript{2} further suggest that in order to meet ideal conditions, a copyholder should be placed about three inches above the roller. However, the authors point out that any copyholder is better than none at all. An inexpensive type of copyholder may be made by the student himself. Two small blocks of wood may be fastened to the desk top at a distance of ten or twelve inches. Each end of a string is first tied to a block. The covers of the book should be just inside the blocks to prevent the book from slipping. The typing book is bent backward so that the covers form a triangle with the table top. Wall Charts When blank keys are used, the teacher often uses a large wall chart showing the letters in order to teach the locations and reaches. It is commonly assumed that, from this chart, the student will be able to transfer a mental picture to the keyboard. Blackstone and Smith are \textsuperscript{1}\textit{Ibid.}, p. 70. \textsuperscript{2}\textit{Ibid.}, p. 71. of the opinion that wall charts are of little use for this purpose. They state: "The chart is much larger than the keyboard of the machine; the letters on it look as if they were two or three inches wide; and the distances between look as if they were several inches. Furthermore, the chart gives the impression that the keys are on the same level, although they are not."¹ Klein believes that one of the fallacies in the teaching of typing is the use of the keyboard chart. He states as follows: "The student using a chart, whether it be one at his desk or the large one in front of the typing classroom, frequently does not try to remember the key locations, it takes him much longer to accomplish this with the chart than it does without it. A totally unnecessary step is added to the learning process. Instead of thinking directly of the key locations, the student must first find the key on the chart and then determine its position on the keyboard."² Hence not only does Klein think that the keyboard chart is of little use, he also thinks that it prolongs the learning process. In short it would appear that teachers would be better without the keyboard chart than with it. Since the use of the keyboard chart has gone hand in hand with the use of blank keys, we may expect a large percentage of the schools to have these charts on the walls of their typing classrooms. Table VIII reveals the results of the questionnaire. ¹ Ibid., p. 39 ² A. E. Klein, op. cit., Business Education World, October, 1951, p. 184. TABLE VIII USE OF KEYBOARD CHARTS IN TYPING CLASSROOMS | Total | % of Total Sample | |-------|-------------------| | Schools Using Keyboard Charts | 72 | 100 | | Schools Not Using Keyboard Charts | No response | We see that 100% of the schools make use of the keyboard chart. Perhaps if more schools concentrated on the purchase of typewriters with open keyboards the extensive use of the wall chart for purposes of learning the keyboard would gradually disappear. Class Bulletin Board Among the devices that can be made to contribute much to the spirit and morale that is desired by typing students, is the bulletin board. The class bulletin board must not be confused with an announcement bulletin board such as is ordinarily found in a school hallway. The class bulletin board may carry news items, praise for worthy students and even something humorous. Students should be urged to bring in cartoons, articles pertaining to typewriting, and pictures of new developments in typewriter equipment. The bulletin board should not be drab or dull and items which are of little or no interest to students should not be placed on it merely to occupy space. The items should be changed frequently. Walters and Nolan have some interesting comments on the class bulletin board. They state: "The material on the class bulletin board should apply to a definite lesson or unit of work, for a board covered with a hodgepodge of pictures and news items has little value. Since the material applies to one definite lesson, the bulletin board must necessarily be changed frequently. Indeed, nothing is less attractive or less valuable than the dust-covered items that are sometimes kept on bulletin boards for weeks at a time." Since bulletin boards in typing classrooms have a positive value, all schools should have them. Table VII reveals the number of classrooms having such bulletin boards. **TABLE VII** FREQUENCY OF BULLETIN BOARDS IN TYPING CLASSROOMS | | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Do Have Bulletin Board | 66 | 91.67 | | Do not Have Bulletin Board | 6 | 8.33 | While 91.67% of the classrooms have bulletin boards, it would be interesting to see how many of them are of actual benefit to the students. If bulletin boards are drab, dull or uninteresting they are of little use. Bulletin boards should be a focal point of interest. The items on it may be obtained by the teacher, by individual students, or by committees who are appointed to prepare the bulletin board for various units of work. Included among the materials used may be pictures, --- I R.G. Walters and C.A. Nolan, *op. cit.*, p. 214. post cards, small maps, small graphs, diagrams and charts. These materials should be posted on the bulletin board in an orderly fashion and should be changed frequently. Table VI shows the frequency with which material on bulletin boards is changed in the various typing classrooms. **TABLE VI** FREQUENCY WITH WHICH MATERIAL IS CHANGED ON CLASS BULLETIN BOARDS IN TYPING CLASSROOMS | Material Changed | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------|-------|-------------------| | Daily | 9 | 12.5 | | Weekly | 9 | 12.5 | | Occasionally | 45 | 62.51 | | Seldom | 3 | 4.16 | | Never | | No response | | Unanswered | 6 | 8.33 | The majority of teachers, 62.51%, change the material on the bulletin boards occasionally. Only 12.5% of the teachers change the material daily. It is doubtful if the students who have the material on their class bulletin board changed occasionally derive as much benefit from this visual aid as do those who read bulletins on which material is changed daily. **Timing Devices** Another equipment necessity that is very important, if tests and drills are to be given properly, is a timing device such as a stop watch or interval timer. No typing room should be without a timing device. Harms states as follows regarding timing devices: "A timing device promotes efficiency, helps build speed, and enables the teacher to use her time to good advantage."1 Table IVL shows the extent to which timing devices are available to typing teachers. **TABLE IVL** **AVAILABILITY OF TIMING DEVICES IN TYPING CLASSROOMS** | Type of Timing Device | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Interval Timer.................| 72 | 100 | | Stop Watch.....................| 9 | 12.5 | | Clock with Second Hand.........| 6 | 8.33 | | Clock without Second Hand......| No response | All of the teachers reported that they have an interval timer. Nine teachers reported that they also have a stop watch. Six teachers reported that they have a clock with a second hand. The interval timer is of most benefit in a typing classroom since the required length of time may be set and the teacher may do something else in the meantime. If a stop watch is used the teacher has to watch the seconds go by. However, any device is better than none at all. **Progress Charts** Student progress charts help to record the con- --- 1 H. Harms, *pp. eit.*, p. 74. tinuous progress of a student. It is helpful in encouraging and challenging him to want to learn, as well as to indicate possible reasons why progress may not be satisfactory. The recognition of the two different, although closely related, goals in the learning to type process--speed and accuracy--should be indicated in student progress charts.\(^1\) Class progress charts as well as individual progress charts may be kept. Class progress charts should be prominently displayed while individual student progress charts should be kept by the student. Causey points out the benefits of a progress chart as follows: "The charts show the student the degree of progress he has made in speed. Progress charts have been found to be successful in motivating students to accomplish the two related goals in learning to type process--speed and accuracy."\(^2\) Knowledge of progress, then, is one of the basic motivating forces in education. The student is continually asking himself, "How am I doing?" Indication of a student's knowledge of progress has a definite bearing on his learning. Since a student's progress may be indicated by means of a progress chart as already indicated it would be interesting to see to what degree progress charts are used in the typing classrooms. Table III shows the results. --- \(^1\) A progress chart conveniently set out for indicating speed and accuracy may be obtained free of charge from Educational Division, R.C. Allen Business Machines, Grand Rapids, Michigan, U.S.A. \(^2\) F. Causey, *op. cit.*, p. 72. TABLE IIII USE MADE OF PROGRESS CHARTS IN TYPING CLASSROOMS | | Total | % of Total Sample | |--------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Progress Charts Used | 36 | 50 | | Progress Charts Not Used | 33 | 45.83 | | Unanswered | 3 | 4.17 | Exactly one half of the teachers answering the questionnaire use progress charts. As already stated the student likes to know how he is progressing and therefore there should be a progress chart in every typing room. In addition individual students may keep such record. Teachers should continually strive to have the best equipment possible. If the physical equipment is conducive to learning, then unsuccessful typists, which we shall consider in the next chapter, will be kept at a minimum. CHAPTER VII WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT UNSUCCESSFUL TYPISTS? Introduction A critical study of this nature would hardly be complete if some attention were not given to the unsuccessful typing student. Such students are found in most classes. This chapter will attempt to give some clues, in addition to those already offered, as to how a large percentage of these students can become successful typists. At the same time it should be realized that if the suggestions offered will help the unsuccessful typist be successful, then these suggestions should also help to make the good typist a better one. It is the contention of many authorities in the field of typewriting that any normal person can learn to type at a normal rate. At the same time these authorities state that if we are going to train students to be successful typists we as teachers must know at least the major milestones on the road to good typing. Some of these milestones are motivation, drill and remedial work, and goals. Goals The teacher should make certain that the learner has a clear understanding of the goals in typewriting. It is the goal which determines the organization of the performance as a whole. As learning proceeds, the goal and the means of attaining it becomes more explicit. Teachers were asked whether or not specific outcomes or goals were planned. Table III shows the results of their answers. **TABLE III** **PLANNING OF GOALS IN TYPING CLASSROOMS** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |------------------------|-------|-------------------| | Do Plan Goals......... | 63 | 87.5 | | Do not Plan Goals..... | 3 | 4.16 | | Unanswered............ | 6 | 8.34 | Most of the teachers, 87.5%, plan specific goals or objectives, while 4.16% of them do not. Wherever possible the goals should be worked out by the teacher and the student. The best results are obtained if the student plans the goals to be attained. In this connection Price states: "Standards throughout the learning process as well as at the end are more easily achieved if the student is permitted to select his own goal. Giving the student an overview of what must be accomplished at the end of the week, or even setting day-by-day standard attainments, lessens drudgery and makes it possible for the typewriting period to be a pleasant as well as a profitable one." Many of the teachers indicated that they plan the goals in consultation with students. Some indicated that they let the students plan the goals by themselves. This type of practice is most desirable and provides excellent --- R.G. Price, "Testing and Grading in Typewriting," *Improved Methods of Teaching the Business Subjects*. Monograph 63. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Co., 1945, p.43. motivation for typing students. Of course, in most cases the students will need the direction of the teacher in planning their own outcomes. If a student plans his own goal he will feel that he has contributed something to his own welfare. The importance of the student knowing what his goal is and the importance of him having an active part in it is commented on as follows: "The student should not only have a clear goal in mind for each practice effort--the goal should be his. He should have picked it himself, and he should know why it is appropriate to him. His goal may be one shared in common by his classmates, but it must be specifically appropriate to him. One of the basic activities of the typewriting teacher is to train students to select correct practice goals." This would mean that students would have specific practice goals for each moment's work. The goals should not be "hope I do better" or "hope I get a perfect copy" kind of general goal; rather, some specific goal—"I am going to type a little slower and smoother," "I am going to push my speed up a bit" or "I am going to slacken my speed pushing and see if I can write this line with good control." Motivation It has already been intimated that motivation is a desirable quality on the part of typing students. If the students are properly motivated i.e., have considerable interest in the course, they will likely do well. There are numerous ways in which the astute teacher 1. "Round Table," *Business Education World*, April, 1953, p. 204. can supply motivation for the students. Display of progress, material rewards, competition, recognition of outstanding achievement and getting students interested in competing for certificates and awards are only a few ways in which motivation devices may be used by the typing teacher. Teachers answering the questionnaire were asked what motivation devices they used. In general this question was poorly answered, the majority of teachers stating that typing students need no motivation. It is very likely that teachers who answered the question in this manner would find that they make use of many motivation devices. The results of the questionnaire are shown in Table II. **TABLE II** **MOTIVATION DEVICES USED BY TYPING TEACHERS** | Type of Motivation Used | Frequency | |------------------------------------------|-----------| | Little or no Motivation Needed .......... | 46 | | Progress Charts | 21 | | Material Reward | 9 | | Recognition of Good Work | 9 | | Competition | 6 | | Games | 6 | | Recommendation for Job | 3 | | Others | 3 | | Unanswered | 12 | Table IIII shows that 50% of the teachers use progress charts but only six teachers, 8.33%, state that they use these charts as a motivating device. It appears that the full use to which a progress chart may be put is not clear to many teachers. The teachers who are aware of the motivating devices they use were found to employ only those devices which are highly desirable. For instance, in no case did a teacher state that punishment was used as a motivating device. Use of Progress Charts.-Reference has already been made to progress charts. These charts show graphically the rate of a student's progress, and can be used very effectively if the teacher has instilled in the mind of the student an intense desire to reach a definite goal. Since knowledge of progress is one of the basic motivating forces in education,\(^1\) any progress chart which indicates student progress, will have a definite bearing on student learning. Every typing classroom should have a progress chart displayed on the wall. The fact that only twenty-one teachers use progress charts as a means of motivating their class, shows that much more use can be made of this device. Material Rewards as a Motivating Device.-During recent years much has been said and written in business education about the danger and the inadvisability of using extrinsic motivating devices such as rewards. Commenting on this Harms states: \(^1\)H. Harms, *op. cit.*, p. 37. "The author suggests that the teacher use any device that gets the best results, that makes the class interesting, and that does not take away from the job at hand. All other things being equal, if more and better learning results because of this device, then the device is legitimate."¹ It would appear that the nine teachers who stated that they use rewards as a motivating device are using the right kind of incentive to obtain the much needed motivation. The reward need not be elaborate. A smile, a "That's fine," a few well-chosen words on a returned paper, a certificate, or any symbol of appreciation will usually suffice. Most of the typewriter companies² offer awards of one type or another to indicate that a student has reached a certain typing speed. These awards are inexpensive and at the same time serve as a motivation. Competition as a Motivating Device.--Competition has received the same taboo given extrinsic awards. However, Harms states as follows regarding the use of competition as a motivating device: "If competition were entirely eliminated, it would deprive the business teacher of another excellent motivation device for skill building. Competition furnishes a powerful drive and as long as free enterprise is the basis of American democracy, the intelligent use of this device in learning is justifiable."³ ¹Ibid., p. 38. ²The Underwood Typewriter Company, for instance, offers awards--both certificates and/or pins--on the basis of work completed as follows: a. First award - 40-49 net words per minute typed b. Second award - 50-59 net words per minute typed, and so on. ³H. Harms, op. cit., p. 41. Six of the teachers use competition as a motivating device. Some of them stated that their competitions were in the form of tests, having one half of the class compete against the other half in typing contests. A few stated that they have students competing for various awards. Recognition of Achievement as a Motivating Device.—Perhaps the most important motivating device is the recognition of pupil achievement. Teachers should not only recognize those pupils who are typing exceptionally well, but a little recognition in the form of a favorable comment or a bonus in marks should be given the student who is showing progress. It would appear that in our present school system we recognize mostly outstanding achievement; in most cases forgetting about the mediocre student. Little do teachers realize that the students who are doing the worst typing in most cases need most recognition. Commenting on this aspect Hayden states: "Everybody wants to be recognized as an individual no matter what his level of learning. Teachers should remember this point because there is a tendency to commend only those in the higher bracket. Those students in the lower bracket need encouragement most because they so seldom receive it." Of the nine teachers who state that they use recognition of achievement as a motivating device, it would be interesting to know just how many of them recognize any --- 1 C.K. Hayden, *op. cit.*, p. 294. improvement in work of students other than those who are in the top bracket. Other motivating devices.-We have not dealt with every form of motivating device that might be used in the classroom--they are legion. Some of these devices such as conducive atmosphere, the importance of students being successful if they are going to succeed and other devices can only be mentioned here in passing. The Use of Drill Drill has been used very extensively in typing for two purposes. First, drill has been utilized for purposes of building the pupil's skill at typing. Second, drill has been used as a remedial technique. If drill is to be used to raise the level of a student's skill, it must be used in such a manner that the purpose of the drill is known not only to the teacher, but to the student as well. A knowledge of expected outcomes, therefore, is a powerful factor in the acquisition of skill. Use of drill for skill building.-It was but a short time ago that educators believed that "practice makes perfect"--repetition being the fundamental law of skill building. Commenting on the fact that mere use of repetition is not a technique for building skill, Rowe states: "As educational psychology developed, the law of exercise was "repealed" and it was shown that repetition per se was of little value and would not develop correct habits. It may be maintained however, that purposeful repetition is the fundamental of skill building."\(^1\) Thus we see that there must be a goal for every drill. If the purpose of the drill is the improvement of the reach-stroke of \(x\), for example, students should type words using the letter \(x\), and type on the letter level in order to give attention to the reach and the stroke. If the practice is for the purpose of forcing speed, words, phrases, etcetera, they should be typed on the word level. Use of drill for remedial purposes.-Drill is very often used for remedial purposes. In many cases the results have not been too gratifying. Teachers too often assume that if a student is making errors, practice of the letters that are being incorrectly struck, will bring results. Unfortunately such assumptions are not sound. Drill as a remedial technique must be focused on the cause of the errors rather than on the errors themselves. In 1947 Gemmell made the following comment concerning the need for a more scientific approach to error analysis: "A more scientific approach to error analysis might --- \(^1\)John L. Rowe, "How and When to Use Drills in Typing," *Business Education World*, May, 1952, p. 383. be made through a study of letter combinations frequently mistyped. For example, it might be extremely profitable to segregate the words in which the letter e is mis-typed to study the letter sequences of those words, and to identify the particular letter combinations which frequently result in errors. A similar procedure could be used for other troublesome errors.\textsuperscript{1} In general, previous error studies were based on the assumption that one key was struck for another without regard to all possible causes of errors. More recently attention has been focused on the strokes preceding and succeeding the stroke on which the error occurs. In this way a study is made of error patterns. \textbf{Remedial Work} Remedial work has already been mentioned. It has also been mentioned that drill, if used correctly, may be used as a remedial technique. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the cause of errors may be due to factors other than the mere striking of one letter for another. In many cases this type of error may be remedied\textsuperscript{2} by having the student sit properly at the machine or by correct manipulation of each part of the typewriter. Another remedial technique for typewriting errors that has received considerable thought and experimentation, is the insistence upon the typist to not read too far ahead in the copy. Showing why specific habits are essential to \textsuperscript{1}James Gemmell, "Courses of Study in Typewriting," The Changing Business Education Curriculum, Fourth Yearbook of the American Business Education Association, IV, Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1947, p. 326. \textsuperscript{2}M. M. Lamb, \textit{op. cit.}, p. 33. reading for typewriting, Fuller states in part: "The typist should not attempt to read too far ahead in the copy. For efficient typewriting the law of contiguity requires the signals as close to the reaction as possible. A certain time interval is necessary to give a proper cue (probably one second); but beyond this time interval, looking ahead in the copy is likely to cause errors. Reading of the point where copy needs to be supplied to the hand may lead to anticipatory responses, which will result in the intrusion of later items in the present series."¹ From the foregoing passage it would appear that if reading errors are present consistently in a pupil's work, more careful and systematic reading should be required with full attention given to the copy. It is not the purpose of this study to give all the remedial techniques for the different types of typing errors that are committed. No research worker knows all the remedial techniques nor is it possible to have all the answers as to how different errors may be remedied. Every teacher should conduct some experimental study in order to prove or disprove a theory. Only by doing this can the instructor eliminate bad practices and increase the possibility of fulfillment of her objective. Vocational and Personal Uses of Typewriting The typing teacher is confronted periodically with the student who wants to learn typing for his personal use. Such students are not interested, as a rule, in achieving the height of performance in typing. As a rule these stud- ¹ Donald C. Fuller, "Reading for Typewriting," The Journal of Business Education, November, 1943, p. 11. ents are not interested in the typing course offered which has as its goal the utilization of typing for business and professional purposes. Since these students are interested in only one phase of typewriting--that of the actual manipulation of the machine, and little more--they often present a problem to the teacher who teaches typing. The question therefore arises as to whether or not there is justification for the teaching of two parallel courses. The vocational course is taught from the point of view of its use for business or professional purposes, as in the occupation of a stenographer or typist. The personal-use course is taught from the point of view of its usefulness in personal or social correspondence. Another question that arises is whether the content of these two courses is sufficiently different to warrant the teaching of two separate courses. There is some agreement among educators\(^2\) that it is difficult to obtain both personal-use and vocational objectives from the same course and that it should not be attempted. Musial\(^3\) states that because it is quite conceivable that the time will come when every school pupil will be expected to take typewriting, just as today each pupil --- 1 Such students would not be interested in the typing of various business forms such as bills of lading, invoices, profit and loss statements, etc., which are a vital part of the professional typist's work. 2 Sister Mary Generose Musial, "Trends in the Teaching of Typewriting," Master's thesis, DePaul University, Chicago, 1945, p. 11. 3 Ibid., p. 12. is expected to take reading, and because these pupils will not be interested in vocational typing, a personal-use course will have a place in our schools before long. As a matter of fact many of the larger schools are now offering such a course. Hayden\(^1\) is of the opinion that during the first semester the content of both the vocational and personal-use typing courses should be the same. However, from the second semester on, the courses should vary. Of course in smaller schools it is practically impossible to offer two courses in one subject because of the physical limitations. Perhaps the best that teachers can do in the smaller schools is to give more individual attention to the two groups of students who wish to learn typing for two separate reasons. The efficiency to be attained by these students in the personal-use course has also received some consideration. Barnhart\(^2\) suggests that the acquisition of a degree of proficiency sufficient to enable the typist to write personal letters and manuscripts accurately at a rate superior to longhand—possibly twenty to twenty-five words a minute on straight copy—is sufficient. Having established that there is a need for the teaching of both the vocational typing and the personal- --- 1 C.K. Hayden, *op. cit.*, p. 88. 2 Helen Reynolds, "Typewriting—A Subject to be Taught," *National Education Association Addresses and Proceedings*. Washington, D.C.: The National Education Association, 1930. p. 289. use typing course, it would be interesting to see to what extent this theory has been put into practice in the schools of this province. In the first place there are no exclusive vocational typing classes or personal-use typing classes in any of the schools of the province. Teachers were asked to state whether any attempt is made to differentiate between personal-use and vocational typing. Table L shows the results. **TABLE L** **TEACHERS' DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN PERSONAL-USE AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING** | | Total | % of Total Sample | |----------------------|-------|-------------------| | Do Differentiate.....| 27 | 37.5 | | Do Not Differentiate.| 39 | 54.17 | | Unanswered...........| 6 | 8.33 | Table L reveals that approximately thirty-seven per cent of the teachers differentiate between the two typing courses. Most of the teachers in the larger urban schools indicated that they make this distinction. However, there is no reason why these schools should not have separate classes for the two courses. As already suggested the content of each course should be planned with the ultimate objective of the potential typists in mind. Through differentiation of courses many of the students who formerly were not doing satisfactory work, will work with a renewed vigour because the purpose of their endeavours is clearly before them. Typewriting Teaching Difficulties Teachers were asked to list in 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 order of difficulty the five typewriting teaching difficulties that troubled them most. It may be assumed that the teaching difficulties of teachers will give us several clues as to why the majority of unsatisfactory achievers do not do better. Table LI shows how teachers replied to this question. TABLE LI TYPEWRITING TEACHING DIFFICULTIES | Type of Difficulty | Frequency | |---------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Keeping Eyes off the Keyboard | 21 | | Accuracy Before Speed | 16 | | Incorrect Fingering | 16 | | 'Falling' Wrists | 9 | | Students Getting Discouraged | 7 | | Insufficient Production Problems in Text | 7 | | Incorrect Carriage Return | 7 | | Posture | 6 | | Incorrect Use of Shift Key | 4 | | Typeovers | 4 | | Others | 10 | | Unanswered | 27 | Table LI shows a great variation in the answers. Twenty-seven teachers did not answer this question. It is interesting to note that the number one difficulty, that of keeping students' eyes off the keyboard, according to previous consideration given in this study, is no problem at all. It is only when advanced students continue to look at the keyboard indiscriminantly that this matter should receive attention. The other areas of difficulty mentioned appear to be legitimate ones and perhaps more research studies should be directed in this direction. It is only through the untiring efforts of teachers of experience that their teaching difficulties can be lessened. At the same time as teaching difficulties are minimized a solution to the problem of unsatisfactory performance on the part of the student is often found. Improvement of Typing Instruction No progressive teacher is content to say that typing instruction in the province is satisfactory. The height of perfection is perhaps never reached in teaching any subject. However, some standard can be maintained. According to this study we as typing teachers in Manitoba have not as yet reached this standard. Perhaps no one is to blame for this state of affairs particularly in view of the newness of the course in this province. However we should be acquainted with the different areas where improvement can be made and wherever possible try to bring about this change either directly through our classrooms or indirectly by informing educational authorities of any changes that should be brought about. Teachers were asked how typewriting instruction could be improved. This question was poorly answered with twenty-one teachers abstaining from answering. The answers received, however, were many and varied as shown in Table LII. **TABLE LII** **SUGGESTIONS AS TO HOW TYPEWRITING INSTRUCTION CAN BE IMPROVED** | Type of Improvement Suggested | Frequency | |--------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Smaller Classes | 10 | | A Better Business Teacher Training Program | 6 | | A Definite Testing Program | 5 | | Adjustment of Typing Desks | 4 | | Selection of Typing Students | 4 | | Newer Typewriters | 4 | | Employment of Teachers with Successful Business Experience | 3 | | Teaching the "Business College Way" | 3 | | Establishment of a Model Office in School | 3 | | Longer Periods | 3 | | Eliminate Home-Work Dodgers from Typing Class | 1 | | Others | 13 | | Unanswered | 21 | 1The average typing class consists of 25.5 pupils. The suggestions of greatest frequency are for smaller classes and a better business teacher training program. It is only as the result of continual suggestions from teachers and parents and other interested groups that typing instruction is likely to improve. With the improvement of instruction the number of unsuccessful students in typing classes can be minimized. We shall now turn to the conclusions based on the findings in this study. The conclusions drawn are as objective as possible in nature being based largely on the teachers' answers to the questionnaire. CHAPTER VIII CONCLUSIONS Qualifications of Teachers In general the qualifications of teachers were found to be rather unsatisfactory. Almost one quarter of the teachers, 23.6%, are without degrees; 37.59% of them are without business experience of any kind; and 37.5% of the teachers have had no commercial methods training. In almost every instance teachers do not do enough professional reading. Many of them have never read a professional book or magazine. Teaching of Subject Matter Objectives and lesson plans are not given enough attention. Teachers do not give enough demonstrations of various typing skills. Neither do they have enough skilled visitors demonstrating correct typing techniques. In the presentation of the keyboard approximately 72% of the teachers take too long to present the letters of the alphabet. Far too many teachers are concerned too much about students "peeking" at the keyboard. Speed versus accuracy receives considerable attention and since most teachers place equal emphasis on both there is little room for concern here. In the presentation of a new problem too many teachers dictate the method to be used in the solution of the problem. Teachers should realize that such "spoon-feeding" minimizes the opportunity for student initiative. The use of the phonograph is resorted to by 25% of the teachers for means of developing rhythmical typing. Research shows that the use of the phonograph for developing rhythm is of little or no benefit. Erasers are too often discouraged by the teachers. Perhaps this practice is not warranted during the first semester of typing, but from the beginning of the second term on, erasing should not only be encouraged, but the correct method of erasing should be shown. Special class drills such as the insertion of paper into the machine and the return of the carriage do not receive enough attention. Furthermore, drills of this nature which are given are seldom timed. Many different methods are used to cope with individual differences. While some of the methods used may not be too sound, it is encouraging to see that some attempt is being made in most cases to reconcile individual differences which are found in all classes. Although considerable error analysis is done, very few teachers let their students make their own error analysis. Remedial practices which are carried out by 66.66% of the teachers would be more effective if both the teacher and the student knew the latter's type of errors. Composition is not taught enough at the machine. If the accuracy of written expression is to be improved, composition at the machine must be resorted to by more teachers. Grading The majority of teachers, 62.5%, are not satisfied with their own grading system. Teachers also vary as to the relative weight assigned to different aspects of typing. In checking students' work some teachers go to the unnecessary trouble of checking every paper instead of spot checking the work. Little emphasis is placed on IQ with regard to final grading. This slight emphasis on IQs is in line with the findings of many authorities in the typewriting field. It has been found that IQ is only one of the many factors that determine typing performance. It was found that 12.5% of the teachers still require perfect copies. If these teachers concentrated more on correct technique than on errorless copies, they would undoubtedly receive better results from their typing class. Perfect copies may be asked for where erasing is allowed. Tests The length and time of introduction of timed writings (formerly called speed tests) was found to be satisfactory. Production tests do not receive enough attention and there is evidence to indicate that teachers do not know what a production test should consist of. Prognostic testing has taken practically no foothold in the province. While prognosis in typing has been introduced fairly recently, there is some attempt being made at the Winnipeg Technical Vocational School by Miss Rorke to use some of the latest prognostic tests which have been found to correlate highly with achievement. Miss Rorke's pioneering in the field of prognostic testing of potential typists should be closely followed by all teachers. Equipment Equipment in the main has been found to be rather unsatisfactory. Most of the typing desks are not adjustable. Some schools have three standard heights of desks. This triple height of desks, which is much cheaper than purchasing adjustable desks, is fairly satisfactory in that it accommodates most of the students. There are several other unsatisfactory features of the equipment which is less serious in nature. Too many typewriters are closed, wall charts are used, there are too few elite typewriters and scarcely any electric typewriters in our schools. Several rooms are not equipped with a demonstration stand and far too few typing classrooms have copyholders. In several cases teachers do not make enough use of class bulletin boards; neither are they changed often enough. Progress charts are not used at all in many schools and hence a device which could be used to increase motivation is overlooked. Unsuccessful Students Several suggestions have been made as to what the teacher can do about the unsuccessful student. The teacher must ensure that the student knows the goal to be achieved. In addition, the student must be sufficiently motivated to achieve the desired goal. Rewards may be used as a motivating device. Drill must be used for a specific purpose only, and the student must know the purpose of the drill. Remedial work can be carried out only after the teacher and the student know the type of errors that have been committed and the causes of the commission of these errors. If vocational and personal-use typing were both taught, it is possible that many student difficulties would be eliminated since students wishing to learn typing for personal use are not interested in much of the content of a vocational course. Very few teachers differentiate between the two courses. It was thought that a list of teachers' difficulties would reveal the causes of unsatisfactory work on the part of the students. The type of teaching difficulties found varied considerably. It was interesting to note that the most prominent difficulty was to keep students' eyes off the keyboard—which is really not a difficulty at all. The reader will realize that the study presents a rather unsatisfactory picture of typing instruction in the province. However, it was the writer's intention to make an objective study of the typing program and the facts presented in this study are those which he found. Many suggestions were received from teachers as to how the typing program may be improved. Many of these suggestions along with other suggestions which the writer has put forth himself are contained in the next chapter which concerns itself with recommendations. CHAPTER IX RECOMMENDATIONS As a result of the study certain conclusions have been drawn regarding the typing program offered in the high schools of the province. The recommendations, based on the findings, are divided into two categories as follows: (1) Recommendations to the Department of Education and (2) Recommendations to the teacher. In addition, a few areas are indicated in which further study may be done. A. Recommendations to the Department of Education The following recommendations are made to the Department of Education because it is felt that, directly or indirectly, the Department is in the best position to put the following suggestions into operation. It is therefore recommended that the Department of Education: (1) Establish a methods course for business teachers. This course could be given at the Faculty of Education. A new methods course has recently been established at the Faculty for Home Economic teachers. There is no reason why a similar course could not be established for commercial teachers. (2) Have the Department of Education Library stock its shelves with at least two copies of the most widely accepted business education textbooks. These books could be loaned to business teachers for a specific period on the same basis as the textbooks in the library at present are being loaned out. (3) Make a definite attempt to attract teachers into the commercial field with higher academic, professional and business experience qualifications. While this recommendation may be made to any educational group, it is felt that the teachers in business education and consequently those teaching typing, are less qualified than teachers of academic subjects. (4) Effect a prognostic program for potential typists consisting of an integrated aptitude test battery which separately measures the student's different abilities and provides norms for the several tests based on the same populations. The Differential Aptitude Tests which have been developed to meet these qualifications are recommended for use in such a program. A similar program is already carried out at the end of Grade IX to measure intelligence, reading ability, etc. (5) Make a study of various grading systems and make certain recommendations to typing teachers. B. Recommendations to the Teacher The following recommendations are made to the teacher because it is felt that she is in a position to directly or indirectly bring about the following suggestions into being. The recommendations to the teacher are subdivided into two groups. I. The recommendations in this group may be carried out directly by the teacher. It is recommended that the teacher: (1) Try to improve her academic, professional and business experience qualifications. It has already been pointed out why there is particular concern about the qualifications of the typing teacher. (2) Pay attention to developing accuracy along with speed since it is relatively easy to develop a high rate of typing per se. (3) Allow erasing and also begin to teach the proper method of erasing as soon as the student's work is begun to be graded for accuracy. (4) Discard the use of keyboard wall charts as a means of substitution for the keyboard. Such a chart is unrealistic and only prolongs learning. (5) Maintain an attractive bulletin board with the type of material which creates interest as it instructs. Students should be utilized in keeping the bulletin board up to date. (6) Post a progress chart in a conspicuous place in the typing classroom. Individual progress charts may also be kept by the students. Teachers should develop a thorough understanding of skill building processes so that phenomena such as the plateau in the learning curve may be explained (on a comprehensible level) to the students. II. The following recommendations may be carried out as a result of suggestions from the teacher. It is recommended that the teacher: (1) Persuade the school board to buy "open keyboard" typewriters whenever new typewriters are being purchased. Recent studies have shown that students can learn to type effectively quicker on a lettered keyboard. (2) Have the desks adjusted to suit the needs of the students. In most instances the caretaker can put blocks under those desks which need raising, and saw off a part of the legs on the desks that are too high. As a rule, however, desks are more often too low than too high. (3) Encourage the purchase of more elite typewriters for instructional purposes. Since it may or may not be advantageous for the students to use elite typewriters depending on the nature of typewriting work to be performed, schools should have both types of machines available. In addition trained operators should know the advantages and disadvantages of each type of machine and use it accordingly. (4) Encourage the purchase of at least one electric typewriter. It has been proved that pupils not only learn to type in a shorter period of time on the electric machine, but their fingering is more likely to be correct since it is not necessary to push the keys far down before electrical contact is made. Hence the need for the "tiger-snatch" is self-emphatic on an electric typewriter. (5) Have every student analyze his errors and then work out a solution for the remedy of these errors in consultation with the student. Remedial work should be carried out only after the student knows the purpose of the corrective technique he is asked to do. (6) Use various devices for motivation purposes. The use of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards is recommended. Rewards however should not be overemphasized. (7) Demonstrate special drills such as the return of the carriage. Have class drills on the mechanical operations of the typewriter. These drills should be timed. (8) Persuade the school board to buy the best equipment possible whenever purchase of new equipment is being considered. A low-priced desk for instance will not last long in a typing classroom since it is not built to withstand rough treatment which it is bound to receive sooner or later. It is recommended that the following areas be given further study: (1) The payment of a "special qualifications allowance" to typing teachers. Typing teachers to be well qualified for their position must of necessity have had longer training than academic teachers. This practice is already being followed in many rural areas and is certainly a drawing card. It may be pointed out that since the Federal Government assumes one-third of the burden for technical education, there is no reason why some material inducement can not be paid to typing teachers whose qualifications warrant the extra remuneration. (2) The establishment of a system whereby potential business teachers could obtain actual business experience. BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Blackstone, E.G., and Sofrona L. Smith, *Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting*. Second Edition. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952. 464 pp. Book, William F., *The Psychology of Skill*. New York: Gregg Publishing Company, 1925. 185 pp. Clem, Jane E., *The Technique of Teaching Typewriting*. Chicago: The Gregg Publishing Company, 1929. 235 pp. DuFrain, Viola, *The Practicability of Emphasizing Speed Before Accuracy in Elementary Typewriting*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945. 74 pp. Dvorak, August et al., *Typewriting Behavior*. New York: American Book Company, 1936. 507 pp. Hardaway, Mathilde and Thomas B. Maier, *Tests and Measurements in Business Education*. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1952. 425 pp. Harms, Harm, *Methods in Vocational Business Education*. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1949. 321 pp. Lamb, Marion M., *Your First Year of Teaching Typewriting*. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1947. 291 pp. Walters, R.G. and C.A. Nolan, *Principles and Problems of Business Education*. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1950. 446 pp. Weller, Chas. E., *The Early History of the Typewriter*. La Porte, Indiana: Chase and Shepherd, 1918. 87 pp. Viteles, Morris, *Industrial Psychology*. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1932. 500 pp. PERIODICAL ARTICLES Ewing, Priscilla, "Results of Teaching Electric Typing: Greater Speed and Greater Accuracy," *Business Education World*, May, 1951. Fuller, Donald, C., "Reading for Typewriting," *The Journal of Business Education*, May, 1944. Hayden, Carlos K., "The First Two Weeks of Typewriting," *The Balance Sheet*, March, 1953. Klaus, Mildred, "A Study of Erasing in Typewriting," *The Journal Of Business Education*, XI, April, 1936. Klein, A.E., "Fallacies in Teaching Typewriting," *Business Education World*, October, November and December, 1951 Klein, A.E., "Fallacies in Teaching Typewriting," *Business Education World*, May, 1952. Lloyd, Alan C., "Ten Typewriting Questions," *American Business Education*, March, 1952. Merrick, Nellie L., "What Shall We Do About Written Expression?," *The Journal of Business Education*, March, 1939. __________, "Pica Versus Elite Typewriter Type--1951," *Business Education World*, May, 1952. Rahe, Harves, "Teaching the Typewriter Keyboard," *The Journal of Business Education*, May, 1952. __________, "Round Table," *Business Education World*, April, 1953. Rowe, John L., "How and When to Use Drills in Typing," *Business Education World*, March, 1952. Shilt, Bernard H., "Taking Inventory," *Journal of Business Education*, April, 1946. Studebaker, Alice, "My Typing Teacher Was Wrong?" *Commercial Education*, XXVII, May, 1942. **PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS** Strong, Earl P., *A Study of Typewriter Height*. New York: The Society for the Advancement of Management, 1944, 14pp. Blackler, William H., "Attaining Objectives Through Effective Use of Teaching Devices," *Appraising Business Education*, The American Education Yearbook, III. New York: University Bookstore: The Eastern Commercial Teachers Association and the National Business Teachers Association, 1946. 323 pp. Gemmell, James, "Course of Study in Typewriting," *The Changing Business Education Curriculum*, Fourth Yearbook of the American Business Education Association, IV, Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1947. 350 pp. Meehan, James R., "Obtaining Adequate Facilities and Equipment," *Improvement of Business Education Practices*, Eighth Yearbook of the American Business Association, VIII, New York: Niagara Frontier Publishing Company, 1951. 381 pp. Moorman, John H. and Hugh C. Maxwell, "Supervision in Local Schools," *Administration and Supervision of Business Education*, Ninth Yearbook of the American Business Association, IX, Des Moines, Iowa: Wallace-Homestead Company, 1952. 386 pp. Popham, Estelle L., "Physical Equipment and Room Atmosphere," *Enriched Learning in Business Education*, Tenth Yearbook of the American Business Association, X, Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1953. Tonne, Herbert A., "Trends and Factors Affecting Curriculum Revision in Business Education," *Fourteenth Yearbook of the Eastern Commercial Teachers Association*. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, 1941. 324 pp. **UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS** Avey, Ruth Irene, "A Study of the History of Typewriting in the United States." Unpublished Master's thesis, the Ohio State University, Columbus, 1942. 95 pp. Causey, Frances, "A Study of Teaching Aids and Devices as Applied to the Teaching of Typewriting." Unpublished Master's thesis, Florida State University, Tallahassee, 1951. 57 pp. McDermott, Mary S., "An Experimental Study of the Use of Rhythm in Learning Typewriting." Unpublished Master's thesis, Catholic University of America, Melbourne, Kentucky, 1938. 75 pp. Musial, Sister Mary Generose, "Trends in the Teaching of Typewriting." Unpublished Master's thesis, DePaul University, Chicago; 1945. 76 pp. Nordgren, Lily M., "An Experimental Comparison of Beginning Students Writing on Standard and Noiseless Typewriters." Unpublished Master's thesis, Leland Stanford University, Stanford, California, 1931. 55 pp. Rahe, Harves, "Review of Research in Typewriting, A Classification and Summary of Studies Prior to 1949," Doctor's thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1950. MONOGRAPHS Fries, Albert C., "Some Contributions of Research to the Teacher of Typewriting," *Improved Methods of Teaching the Business Subjects*, ed. by Ray G. Price, Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1945. Monograph 63. Gress, John J., *Teaching Difficulties of Beginning Business Teachers*, Monograph 78. Chicago: South-Western Publishing Company, 1952. Price, Ray G., "Some Contributions of Research to the Teacher of Typewriting," *Improved Methods of Teaching the Business Subjects*, ed. by Ray G. Price, Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1945, Monograph 63. MISCELLANEOUS Forkner, H.L., *Dictaphone Educational Forum*. New York: Dictaphone Corporation, 1952. *Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education and Industrial Training.* (Sessional Papers-No. 3). Winnipeg: King's Printer, 1912. Reynolds, Helen, "Typewriting--A Subject to be Taught," *National Education Association Addresses and Proceedings*. Washington, D.C.: The National Education Association, 1930. APPENDIX A A SAMPLE OF TYPEWRITING QUESTIONNAIRE Carman, Manitoba September 3rd, 1953 Dear Fellow Teacher: Enclosed herewith is a questionnaire for the purpose of determining the status of the teaching of typewriting in the high schools of Manitoba. The data will be compiled and will be presented to the Faculty of Education at the University of Manitoba in the form of a Master's thesis. It would be greatly appreciated if you would fill in the questionnaire and mail it in the enclosed self-addressed envelope. Please bear in mind that the answers you give will be kept in confidence. Yours truly, Stanley K. Futch Commercial Teacher Carman Collegiate QUESTIONNAIRE CHECK LIST ON TYPING METHODS Estimated required time to check: 20 to 30 minutes. (Note: If none of the answers given to certain questions fit your particular situation, either omit those questions or turn to the back of the page and write in the answer you wish to give. In checking the answers keep in mind that the information you give will be treated confidentially. No attempt whatsoever will be made to find out what method any one teacher is using. Please be as accurate as possible. School_________________________ Date______________ Name of teacher answering the questionnaire (Optional)_________________ EQUIPMENT: 1. How many typewriters are available to the students?_______ 2. What is the average age of these typewriters?______________ 3. How often have typewriters been replaced in the past?_________ 4. Are the typewriters serviced often enough?_______ 5. Which typewriter company gives the best service in your opinion 6. State the number of the following makes of typewriters found in your classroom: Underwood__________ Remington__________ Royal__________ L. C. Smith_________ Others (Specify)_____ 7. How many typewriters with pica type (ten characters to the inch) have you?______; How many elite type typewriters (Twelve characters to the inch) have you?_______ 8. How many of the typewriters have "closed" (blank keyboards)______ 9. How many of the typewriters have "open" (lettered keyboards)______ 10. How many noiseless typewriters are there in your classroom?______ 11. Are keyboard shields used in the teaching of 'touch' typing?______ 12. Are tables adjusted to the height of the students?_____. If so, how?____________________________________________________ 13. Are the chairs adjusted to the height of the students?__________ 14. Is there a demonstration stand in the classroom?_______ 15. Do students use copyholders?________________ 16. Is a wall chart showing the keyboard used?_______ 17. Is there a bulletin board in the room?_______ 18. If so, is the material on it changed Daily______, Weekly______, Occasionally______, Seldom____Never____ QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHER: 19. How much training have you had in the following fields? Typing________ Methods of teaching commercial subjects________ Academic training (Grade XI, XII, 1st year university etc.)______ Do you hold a degree(s)?_____ If so, please specify the degree or degrees held Faculty of Education________ 20. How many years have you been teaching typing?_______ Other subjects 21. What type of teaching certificate do you hold?________ 22. How fast do you type?_______ net words per minute. QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHER: (Continued) 23. How much business and work experience have you had? List type of job and months experience at each job. | Type of job | Months experience | |-------------|-------------------| | | | 24. Name any books on the theory of teaching typing which have been read by you within the past two years? 25. List any current professional literature on commercial education which is available to you. (Examples are "The Balance Sheet", "Business Education World" etc.,). Please check the ones, if any, from which you get real help. METHODS OF TEACHING: 26. Are students allowed to type on the first day of their regular class period? 27. Is the typing class period divided up for purposes of demonstrations, warm-up exercises, speed tests, etc? 28. If the period is divided into parts, write in the approximate number of minutes devoted to each part under each term. | 1st Term | 2nd Term | 3rd Term | 4th Term | |----------|----------|----------|----------| | Practice on drills | Assignment of lesson | Work on assignment | Warm-up exercises | Other | 29. Is composition at the machine taught to the class? 30. If so, are any of the following methods used? - Questions dictated; answers typed - Words dictated: answers typed by writing definitions of the dictated words - Themes or paragraphs typed - Letters composed and typed without copy - State others 31. Are erasures permitted on daily assignments? 32. If so, when is the correct method of erasure first taught? 33. Do you teach typewriting according to the way you yourself were taught? 34. Do your students type to music? 35. Is the whole keyboard presented to the students at once? 36. In the teaching of typewriting which of the following do you emphasize: - Speed only - Accuracy only - Speed with accuracy with equal emphasis on each - Speed with accuracy but with emphasis on accuracy - Speed with accuracy but with emphasis on speed 37. Are students allowed to look at the keyboard when typing? 38. Check any of the following upon which timed drills are given. Check twice the ones upon which timed drills are given. - Insertion of paper - Return of carriage - Changing sheets of paper - Addressing envelopes - Stuffing envelopes - Erasures METHODS OF TEACHING: (Continued) 39. Do you give your students drills on the keyboard? ______ If so, do your drills have a definite purpose known to you and to the students? 40. Are students required to make an analysis of their errors on "Error Charts"? 41. Are remedial practices carried out with the types of errors made by the students being used as a guide? 42. Are students required to keep progress charts? 43. Is the progress of students posted in a conspicuous place? 44. Are other typewriters in the room in use when you are giving instructions to a part of the class? 45. Are perfect copies required before they can be handed in? 46. Are specific objectives (outcomes) planned? 47. If so, at what intervals are these objectives planned? ______ weekly, ______ Daily, ______ Monthly, Every six months 48. Are written lesson plans made? 49. Are they revised frequently after being tested in use? 50. Are these lesson plans followed closely in the class instruction? 51. Are students required to mark their own errors on Daily work? ______, Speed tests? ______ 52. If students are required to mark their own errors, are mistakes which they do not mark more heavily penalized than the marked ones? 53. What methods or techniques do you use to obtain student motivation? 54. Do you make any attempt to reconcile individual differences? 55. Check any of the following practices used to cope with students in which cases bright students are found in the same class as slow, dull ones. ______ Creation of a separate class for the bright students ______ Additional assignments for the bright students ______ Let the bright students proceed at their own rate ______ Let the bright students type material of their own ______ Allow them to study for another class ______ Allow them to do typing for the school or other teachers ______ Excuse them to go to the study hall ______ Nothing is done 56. In the presentation of a new problem (e.g. changing of ribbon or stencilling), which of the following methods is used? ______ Students are told which method to use ______ Students are left to work out the problem for themselves ______ Students are given various methods from which to choose ______ Students are given the goal and certain cues as to the correct procedure 57. How many weeks are required to present the keyboard (not including the top row or number row)? ______ weeks 58. Which of the following are demonstrated personally before the class? ______ Posture at the machine ______ Insertion of paper ______ Changing the ribbon ______ Carriage return ______ Operation of the machine ______ Rhythmical typing ______ Writing of the class drills METHODS OF TEACHING: (Continued) 59. Are demonstrations given in class by others such as _______ former students _______ experts _______ skilled class members 60. Are motion pictures shown of expert typists? _______ 61. Do you teach the direct or indirect key reaches? _______ (1) GRADING: 62. State approximate percentage value given to each of the following which you use in your grading system: _______ % grade on speed _______ % quantity of work done _______ % grade on accuracy _______ % class attendance _______ % attitude _______ % outside work completed _______ % average of daily work _______ % effort _______ % posture _______ % speed in completing daily work _______ % other (state) work 63. Are students required to retype daily work which does not receive a passing grade? _______ 64. Are you satisfied with your grading system? _______ 65. About what percentage of the papers are Graded _______, Checked in _______, Disregarded _______ 66. Are all of the papers which are graded returned to the class? _______ 67. Are the I.Q.'s of the students taken into consideration in figuring the term grades? _______ 68. Are certain types of errors penalized more heavily than others (for example: a transposition might count as a smaller penalty than an error in spelling.)? _______ 69. Is the contract method of work and grading used? (Contract method means that each unit of work has several assignments ranging in difficulty from easy to difficult. The brighter the student the more assignments he will do.) _______ 70. What method do you use in calculating the words per minute typed by a student? ____________________________________________________________ (2) TESTING: 71. Are prognostic tests used to predict success in typing? _______ 72. When are speed tests first given? _________________________________ 73. What length of speed test is most commonly given during the First term _______; Second term _______; Third term _______; Fourth term _______ 74. How are speed tests timed? Stop watch _______; Clock with second hand ________, Interval timer ________; Clock without second hand _______ 75. Are production tests (timed tests on skills other than straight copy--i.e. rough draft, setting up letter forms, P & L statements, outlines, etc.) given? If so, how often? What is the average length of these tests? ____________________________ MISCELLANEOUS: 76. How many students are regularly enrolled in the high school? _______ 77. How many students are enrolled in typing? Boys ______, Girls _______ 78. What is the average length of a typing class period? ________________ 79. What is the student capacity of your typing classroom? ________________ 80. May students leave their desks without permission? ____________________ MISCELLANEOUS: (Continued) 81. Do you receive extra remuneration for being a commercial teacher? 82. Has your principal ever taken a course in typing? 83. What disciplinary measures do you use in the typing room? 84. What other subjects do you teach in addition to typing? 85. Please list the five typing teaching difficulties that have troubled you most. List in 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 order of difficulty. 1. ___________________________ 2. ___________________________ 3. ___________________________ 4. ___________________________ 5. ___________________________ 86. Is your typing classroom noise-conditioned? 87. In your opinion how could typing instruction in high schools be improved? 88. Do you make any attempt to differentiate between personal-use and vocational typing? 89. Do you believe that learning to typewrite is strictly "mechanical"? 90. Would like to read the thesis after it has been compiled? If so, where may it be sent to you? APPENDIX B A LIST OF THE MORE COMMON BUSINESS EDUCATION PERIODICALS BUSINESS EDUCATION PERIODICALS American Business Education. H.G. Enterline, ed. Joint Publication Commission of the Eastern Business Education Association. Box 962, Newark 1, New Jersey. Balance Sheet. W. Harmon Wilson, ed. South-Western Publishing Company, 634 Broadway, Cincinnati 2, Ohio. Business Education Observer. New Jersey Business Education Association. Mrs. Elizabeth T. Van Derveer, ed. New Jersey State Teachers College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey. Business Education Outlook. James B. Palmer, ed. Ginn and Company, Box N, Back Bay Station, Boston 17, Massachusetts. Business Education World. Alan C. Lloyd, ed. Gregg Publishing Company, 330 West 42 Street, New York 18, New York. Business School Executive. J. S. Noffsinger, ed. 2601 Sixteenth Street, NW., Washington 9, D.C. Business Teacher. Alan C. Lloyd, ed. Gregg Publishing Company, 330 West 42 Street, New York 18, New York. Dictaphone Educational Forum. Katherine Comstock, ed. Educational Division, Dictaphone Corporation, 750 Graybar Building, New York 17, New York. Journal of Business Education. Herbert A. Tonne, ed. Trethaway Publishing Company, Inc., 512 Brooks Building, Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania. National Business Education Quarterly. Jessie Graham and M. Fred Tidwell, eds, 1201 Sixteenth Street, NW., Washington. National Association of Business Teacher-Training Institutions. Stephen J. Turille, ed. Madison College, Harrisonburg, Virginia. Ohio Business Teacher. Ohio Business Teacher's Association. J. Marshall Hanna, ed. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Pitmanite. Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons (Canada) Ltd., 381-3 Church Street, Toronto. Review of Business Education. Bulletin of Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College. Robert A. Lowry, ed. Oklahoma A. and M. College, Stillwater, Oklahoma. Today's Secretary. Alan C. Lloyd, ed. Gregg Publishing Company, 330 West 42 Street, New York 18, New York. Tri-State Business Educator. George W. Anderson, ed. 235 Collins Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Typewriting News. South-Western Publishing Company, 634 Broadway, Cincinnati 2, Ohio United Business Education Associated Forum. Hollis P. Guy, exec. ed., 1201 Sixteenth Street, NW., Washington 6, D.C. Virginia Business Educational Bulletin. Business Education Service, Vocational Division, State Department of Education, Richmond 16, Virginia. APPENDIX C A SAMPLE OF ONE TYPE OF ERROR-ANALYSIS SHEET | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Read across the page: "a" was struck for "h" times; for "e" times, etc. Name of Pupil ____________________________ Class ________ Date __________ A: was struck for B: was struck for C: was struck for D: was struck for E: was struck for F: was struck for G: was struck for H: was struck for I: was struck for J: was struck for K: was struck for L: was struck for M: was struck for N: was struck for O: was struck for P: was struck for Q: was struck for R: was struck for S: was struck for T: was struck for U: was struck for V: was struck for W: was struck for X: was struck for Y: was struck for Z: was struck for ? was struck for * was struck for " was struck for ? was struck for Compliments of ____________________________ MANIPULATION ERRORS Imperfect Left Margin_____________________ Faulty Shifting__________________________ Faulty Paragraphing_____________________ Imperfect Spacing: Between Words_________________________ Between Letters________________________ Between Lines___________________________ MENTAL ERRORS Transposition: Letters (List each transposition) Words_________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ Doubling Wrong Letter___________________ Omissions: Letters________________________________ Words__________________________________ Phrases________________________________ Lines___________________________________ Make special note of failure to print where space has been left________________________ Additions: Letters________________________________ Words__________________________________ SPECIAL CHARACTERS In the column beneath the correct stroke, fill in the incorrect letter or character which was struck for the special character. | n | # | $ | % | — | & | ' | ( ) | * | € | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|-----|---|---| | | | | | | | | | | |
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RARE AUDUBON ENGRAVINGS ON VIEW AT NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART FOR FIRST TIME SINCE 1961 WASHINGTON, D. C. May 29, 1984. John James Audubon: The Birds of America, an exhibition of approximately thirty rare color engravings, goes on view October 14, 1984 through January 13, 1985 in the Gallery's West Building Ground Floor Galleries. The exhibition marks the 200th anniversary of the artist's birth. The works have been selected from Audubon's Double Elephant Folio, so called because of its unusually large size. Executed between 1827 and 1838, the folio consists of 435 prints measuring 39½ inches x 26 inches. It is in the Gallery's permanent collection and is one of only two such complete sets of prints that have never been bound. The other complete, unbound folio is in the Darwin Museum in Moscow. The Gallery's set was a gift in 1946 by Mrs. Walter Belknap James of New York, in memory of her husband Dr. Walter B. James and his brother Norman James. The exhibition has been organized by Carlotta J. Owens, assistant curator in the Gallery's Department of Prints and Drawings. Ms. Owens has written the exhibition brochure as well. The creation and publication of these bird prints was due to the determination, energy and talent of John James Audubon, scientist, ornithologist and artist, who traveled extensively in this country and abroad and endured many hardships to fulfill his dream—to record every species of North American bird. Birds at this time were usually drawn in profile from stuffed models, and appeared flat. Audubon, however, was the first artist to work exclusively from nature, showing birds in realistic poses, life-size, and in their natural habitats. An avid hunter, Audubon shot no fewer than one hundred birds a day which he then meticulously drew, frequently in watercolor. In many instances, several birds of one species are included in one engraving; thus there are 489 different species represented in the Double Elephant Folio. In addition, Audubon published *The Ornithological Biography* (1831-1839) composed of five volumes which describe the habits of birds in this country. To support himself and his family during the production of this enormous portfolio, Audubon sought commissions for his paintings here and abroad. At the same time, he was seeking subscribers for the publication of the bird prints. While people in this country were less than enthusiastic, the British were very excited about the large size of the prints, and as a result, over three hundred individuals, including royalty and nobility, became his original subscribers. The technique of color lithography was not yet in widespread use, and Audubon's bird pictures were engraved and then hand colored. Audubon collaborated with several engravers. W. H. Lizars printed the first ten plates in Edinburgh, but production was interrupted by a colorists' strike. Reluctantly Audubon found another engraver, Robert Havell, Jr., who became Audubon's indispensable collaborator. Among the works on view which Havell printed is *Goshawk and Cooper's Hawk*. It is particularly interesting because it shows Audubon's development as an artist---the Goshawk having been executed in 1809 and the Cooper's Hawk later in 1830. It was not unusual for Audubon to rely on other artists to fill in the backgrounds for his paintings and Havell did both the composition and the entire landscape of this print. Audubon portrayed birds in tranquil moments and in moments of terror, too. One such example, *Virginian Partridge*, depicts eighteen bobwhites (males and females with their young) being attacked by a young red-shouldered hawk. Another dramatic print is the well known *Mockingbird* that shows a rattlesnake about to strike a nest of young mockingbirds in a tree. Painted while the artist lived in New Orleans, Audubon drew from a rattlesnake which he had killed. At times scientists questioned the positions of some of Audubon's subjects. In this case, they claimed that rattlesnakes do not climb trees. It was later determined that indeed Audubon's depiction of the snake in the tree is accurate. Also on view will be the engraving of a watercolor executed in 1838, *The American Flamingo*, a species first seen by Audubon in the Florida Keys. The work was in an exhibition of Audubon drawings in Edinburgh, brought the artist great acclaim there, and proved important in attracting subscribers. *The Carolina Parakeet* portrays a bird that has been extinct since 1914. Ironically, Audubon, the great hunter who so immensely enjoyed the sport was, in his later years, aware of the need for environmental conservation and protection of America's endangered wildlife---a cause which today is synonymous with Audubon's name. Audubon was blind when he died at the age of sixty-six in 1851. Three other exhibitions which focus on nineteenth-century America on paper also open on October 14, 1984: *Thomas Moran's Watercolors of Yellowstone*, *American Naive Watercolors and Drawings* and *Index of American Design*. END FOR FURTHER INFORMATION or photographs contact Katherine Warwick, Assistant to the Director (Information Officer), or Carolyn Amiot, Information Office, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 20565 (202) 842-6353.
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Article Title: Windmill and Pump Irrigation on the Great Plains 1890-1910 Full Citation: A Bower Sageser, “Windmill and Pump Irrigation on the Great Plains 1890-1910,” *Nebraska History* 48 (1967): 107-118 URL of article: [http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1967Irrigation.pdf](http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1967Irrigation.pdf) Date: 2/04/2016 Article Summary: Irrigation made agricultural production possible in Great Plains areas receiving less than twenty inches of rainfall per year. Dry years created a demand for irrigation in areas farther east. Cataloging Information: Homemade Windmills: Jumbo, Merry-go-round, Battle-ax, Holland (Dutch), Mock Turbines, Giant Turbines Factory-Made Mills: Dempster, Gause, Aeromotor Pump Types: plunger (piston), vacuum, rotary, centrifugal Manufacturers of Windmills/Pumps: Fairbanks-Morse, Thomson-Lewis, International Harvester, Dempster, Witte and Morris Machine Works Nebraska Photographs / Images: a windmill plant in operation (Lucius M Wilcox, *Irrigation Farming*, 1907); irrigating pond and reconstructed mill near Ashland*; Battle-Ax mill in Dawson County*; Battle-Ax mill near Overton that cost $1.50 to construct*; large Jumbo mill used to irrigate Cushman Park Gardens, Lincoln*; a windmill irrigated farm garden in Chase County *E H Barbour photograph, US Geological Survey Tables: A: rates of pumping for the machine-made mill (from a 1962 article by E W Golding), B: irrigation farming estimates made in 1907 (Lucius M Wilcox, *Irrigation Farming*) WINDMILL AND PUMP IRRIGATION ON THE GREAT PLAINS 1890-1910 BY A. BOWER SAGESER WALTER Prescott Webb speaking at Lincoln, Nebraska, in 1953 said that: "The windmill was like a flag marking the spot where a small victory had been won in the fight for water in an arid land."¹ When the dry years of the 1880's and 1890's struck the Great Plains, this mechanical device was put to work to irrigate the arid land. One of the earliest modern irrigation projects in Kansas was built in 1870 by soldiers at Fort Wallace on the Smoky Hill River to irrigate the fort's lawns and four acres of vegetables. A similar project was developed later by the soldiers at Fort Sidney, Nebraska.² Examples of windmill and pump irrigation plants can be found in the 1870's and the 1880's. By 1881, in Kansas, a slogan was developed for farms that could not be reached --- ¹ Walter Prescott Webb, "The Story of Some Prairie Inventions," Nebraska History, (December, 1953), p. 232. ² William C. Brady, "Kansas Pioneers in Irrigation," Reclamation Era, XXXIV, 109-112; First Biennial Report, Nebraska State Board of Irrigation, 1895-96, pp. 10-12. Dr. A. Bower Sageser, Professor of History at Kansas State University, delivered this paper at The Western History Association meeting in El Paso, Texas on October 14, 1966. by a stream or brook calling for "a windmill and a pond on every farm."³ Mother Nature might neglect to send the rains, but she had left vast reservoirs of underground water that might be utilized for irrigation if tapped by man. In a few areas farmers had drilled artesian wells which flowed freely, but in most cases the well had to be pumped by wind or other power. Interest in irrigation in dry years rose like the barometer on a clear day. By 1892, after crop failures spread over the Great Plains, interest was revived and it took on the characteristics of a crusade which continued until late 1896 with the return of the rains. In plain fact, the farmer could not succeed in some areas of the Great Plains without resorting to irrigation. There were numerous forces at work which stimulated this new interest. Drought, population exodus, low prices, tax rates as well as railroad rates, unemployment and many others kept up the desire for better irrigation practices. By this time, Francis H. Newell's surveys of water resources in the United States had been made and Secretary of Agriculture Jeremiah M. Rusk showed great interest in the survey of possible underflow and artesian waters.⁴ Irrigation associations at local, state and national levels were formed and frequent meetings held. The general press and numerous periodicals gave ample space to the problems and new methods of irrigation. Especially valuable were periodicals devoted entirely to the cause of irrigation, as Joseph L. Bristow's *Irrigation Farmer* and William Smythe's *Irrigation Age*. To areas receiving less than 20 inches of rainfall per year, and not properly distributed during the late growing season, irrigation became the life and salvation. Dry years --- ³ *Topeka Commonwealth*, September 7, 1881; May 23, 1882. ⁴ See Francis H. Newell's *Report on Agriculture by Irrigation in the Western Part of the United States*, published as part of the *Eleventh Census of the U. S.*, 1890; Richard J. Hinton's *Progress Report on Irrigation in the U. S.* prepared under the direction of the Secretary of Agriculture (Washington, 1891). pushed the areas needing irrigation eastward. The growing interest in this new type of farming can be seen in the private applications for the use of water from Nebraska's streams and rivers. Nebraskans adopted their first general irrigation law in 1889. Prior to 1895, some 1000 claims were recorded. Under a second law of 1895, six hundred ninety-four applications were made in a single year. The rains returned in 1896 and 1897, and the number of applications was greatly reduced. By 1904, the State Board of Irrigation was cancelling undeveloped claims at the rate of 150 per year. Judge J. S. Emery, a national lecturer on irrigation, described the Kansas interest in 1894, writing that, "Kansas has her head and tail up, and irrigation is a go." The years of 1890-1896 might be called the experimental years for the use of the windmill in irrigation. It was during these years that the factory and homemade mills were put to work. Some farmers made more from a single mill than their neighbors were able to make on 160 acres. Others produced more foodstuffs on one acre than on the remaining quarter section. In the Platte River and Arkansas River valleys the settlers were fortunate to find that the underground water (usually called underflow) could be reached with shallow wells only 8 to 30 feet in depth. Here a mill, even of low efficiency, could easily be applied to irrigate a few acres of land and produce a variety of crops. Some commercial mills were developed, but there was a genuine industrial lag in this area until around 1898, and they were expensive for the times. The editor of the *Irrigation Age* admonished the farmer, "if you can't buy one, make one." The farmer, accustomed to developing farm machines to fit his particular need, turned to the homemade mill. Erwin H. Barbour, a distinguished Nebraska geologist, found seven main classes of these mills. --- 5 *Fourth Biennial Report, Nebraska State Board of Irrigation, 1901-02*, p. 222; *Irrigation Age*, VIII, 4 (January, 1885). 6 Webb, op. cit., pp. 242-243; *First Biennial Report, Nebraska State Board of Irrigation, 1895-96*, p. 10. 7 *Irrigation Age*, XI, 15-16 (January, 1897). and twenty varieties in his study in 1898.\textsuperscript{8} With scrap material from the farm, lumber, castings and bearings from discarded farm machines, iron rods, canvas and even tin cans, the farmer designed his own source of power. The costs ranged from $1.50 upwards. Farmers not only used this type of mill for pumping water, but also for other sources of power as grinding and operating farm tools, even tools in the blacksmith shop. In some cases the homemade mill was a necessity, but it frequently became a convenience and a luxury, built by well-to-do farmers. It was not unusual to find three or four of these mills pumping water in a single pasture. Today, the federal government subsidizes the farmer for the costs of such wells to keep the cattle from wearing off the fat in a long trek to a water source. The editor of the \textit{Kansas Farmer} wrote on May 28, 1908: “Like the sod house the Jumbo windmill was useful for its day, but for the average farmer that day has long since passed.” This mill had become a “has been” of pioneer times. The names of the homemade mill, soon spread across the frontier, included Jumbos (medium giant and screw), Merry-go-round (including mounted and unmounted forms), Battle-Ax mills with two to eight battle axes, Holland or Dutch mills, Mock turbines closely resembling shop made mills with 4, 6, 8-20, 50 fans, and Giant Turbines, some vaneless, reconstructed turbines with or without rudders.\textsuperscript{9} For upland farms with deeper wells the factory-made mill was more efficient. These were widely used in the eastern Great Plains area. When the Kansas Irrigation Board developed twenty experimental wells in western Kansas in 1895-1896, only one was powered by a ten horsepower gasoline engine furnished by the Fairbanks Morse Company. Nineteen were pumped initially by windmills.\textsuperscript{10} \textsuperscript{8} Erwin H. Barbour, “The Homemade Windmills of Nebraska,” Article V in \textit{Bulletin of the U. S. Agricultural Experiment Station of Nebraska}, XI (1899). \textsuperscript{9} \textit{Ibid}, p. 11. \textsuperscript{10} A. Bower Sageser, “Editor Bristow and the Great Plains Irrigation Revival of the 1890’s,” \textit{Journal of the West}, III, 86-87. Some wells could not be pumped continuously with the large mills used by the state. Finney County in 1894 had over 100 pumping plants, mostly wind-powered.\(^{11}\) By 1910, many types of factory-made mills were for sale. Irrigation boards and state agricultural colleges were still urging their use. The leaders were the Dempster, the Gause, the Aeromotor; others were the Ideal, Crane, Fairbanks-Morse, Double-Header-Challenger, Cyclone, Eclipse, Woodmansee, Carlyle, Halladay, Corcoran, Althouse, Gem, Perkins, Stover and Buchanan. Most of these could be found among the county fair exhibits.\(^{12}\) The farmer could make his homemade mill, but he was never freed completely from factory or shopmade equipment for his irrigation plant. Several firms manufactured sandpoints, but on occasion the farmer made his own or improved upon the machine made point. This consisted of a sickle knife welded on the end of a perforated pipe with the pipe wrapped with screen. Almost always the farmer purchased a cylinder and valves that were factory made. He was likewise dependent on the itinerant well driller to put down his well at a cost of 50c to $1.50 a foot. No matter how good a mill the farmer built or bought, it was not in itself a satisfactory system unless a reservoir was built. Water piped directly to the crop land sank in too rapidly. The reservoir enabled the farmer to deliver water to a much larger area. Here the science of reservoir building developed quickly. With the reservoirs, the mill could run day and night and when the water was turned on to the soil it moved more rapidly. Many reservoirs, 60 feet wide and 100 feet long, were located on higher ground. Retaining walls ranged from three to five feet in height. In order to check water seepage some walls were 8 to 12 feet wide at the bottom and the inside lined with clay or brush to check wave erosion. Some reservoirs ranged from one to three acres. The bottom of the reservoir was com- \(^{11}\) *Ibid.*, p. 82. \(^{12}\) Names of mills were gathered from advertisements of the time. pacted to make the soil less porous. Often the earthen floor was covered with water and horses or cattle were driven around on the floor through a regular loblolly until the area was firmly packed. Usually a clay tile or wooden pipe was used as an outlet. Some farmers practiced winter irrigation. Others stored ice from the pond for summer use. A few stocked the reservoirs with fish.\textsuperscript{13} In most cases, areas irrigated by the windmill ranged from two to five acres. I. L. Diesem at Garden City irrigated fifteen acres during the summer of 1894 from two reservoirs. An eight inch pump was powered by a fourteen foot mill which produced 4,400 barrels of water per day. One reservoir was eighty feet wide and one hundred fifty feet long; the other was sixty by one hundred feet. Diesem had eight acres in orchard and produced garden vegetables and berries on the remainder of the fifteen acre tract. Not far from Diesem’s farm, D. M. Frost had twenty acres of vegetables irrigated by two windmills. One mill was a standard make, the other an “over-shot” or “Great Mogul.” He claimed the latter with a reservoir was the cheapest.\textsuperscript{14} Estimates on pumping capacity and acres irrigated were often over-optimistic. The following table, A, shows rates of pumping for the machine made mill.\textsuperscript{15} \begin{table}[h] \centering \begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline Wind speed & 6 ft. mill & 10 ft. mill & 14 ft. mill \\ in m.p.h. & gal. per hr. & gal. per hr. & gal. per hr. \\ \hline 7 & 25 & 72 & 138 \\ 10 & 75 & 200 & 400 \\ 16 & 306 & 860 & 1660 \\ 20 & 594 & 1660 & 3200 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \caption{TABLE A} \end{table} \textsuperscript{13} \textit{Irrigation Age}, XVII, 72-73; Sageser, “Editor Bristow and the Great Plains Irrigation Revival of the 1890’s,” \textit{Journal of the West}, III, 84. \textsuperscript{14} \textit{Ibid}, p. 85. \textsuperscript{15} E. W. Golding, “Water Pumping and Electricity From Windmills,” \textit{Agriculture}, LXIX, 23 (April, 1962). Another estimate by A. E. Wright and A. B. Collins in \textit{United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin}, No. 158, 1905, pp. 585-594, shows 6 eight foot mills irrigating 2.1 acres; 11 ten foot mills irrigating 4.1 acres, 13 twelve foot mills irrigating 5.8 acres (each) in the Garden City, Kansas, area. A windmill plant in operation. From Lucius M. Wilcox, *Irrigation Farming* (N. Y., 1907). Irrigating pond and reconstructed mill near Ashland, Nebraska. Battle-ax mill in Dawson County, Nebraska, This battle-ax mill near Overton, Nebraska cost $1.50 to construct. Large jumbo mill used to irrigate Cushman Park gardens, Lincoln, Nebraska. A windmill irrigated farm garden in Chase County Nebraska. Table B shows Wilcox's estimates made in 1907. The acreage is no doubt too high.\(^{16}\) The extent of the use of the windmill is difficult to determine. Estimates vary and were no doubt too high. Nebraska, Kansas and eastern Colorado were leaders in the use of the underground resources. One estimate in 1898 credits Nebraska with 2000 private systems using the windmill. Records kept in 1904 on the performance of 72 windmills at Garden City ranged from one fourth an acre to seven acres. There had been no single crop failure in the previous ten years where a windmill provided mois- \(^{16}\) Table reproduced from Lucius M. Wilcox, *Irrigation Farming* (New York, 1907) p. 364. ture.\textsuperscript{17} Writers frequently spoke of the mill as a prime mover, which enabled the farmer to succeed. Much had been gained in this experimental era. Dry lands which could not be reached by streams and canals were irrigated. Crop yields had been doubled and at times quadrupled. Crops were diversified. It was great news when a farmer at Ord, Nebraska, produced 105 bushels of barley to an acre. The diet of farm families was greatly improved. At least one enthusiast predicted that irrigation would do away with patent medicine and M.D.'s.\textsuperscript{18} For some farmers the mill had been a means of survival. Moreover, its use had generated dreams of a new Utopia, stimulated state experiment stations, the adoption of state paid irrigation engineers, and the passage of better state irrigation codes. More was learned of the supply of underground water. Old superstitions on the harmful effect of ground water on crops were destroyed. Experiments with the windmill were to continue. In Kansas, $125,000 a year was appropriated as late as 1915 for windmill experiments and six western counties bought 160 acre tracts and donated them for the state experiments. But the windmill did not bring large scale irrigation. It was not until bigger pumps, deeper wells, and new sources of power were put into use that well irrigation really flourished. Then, and only then, could the farmer irrigate forty to eighty acre tracts from a well. The years 1897 to 1910 might well be called the years of adolescence for pump irrigation. By 1910, irrigation by larger capacity pumps was a flourishing business, both for the farmer and the manufacturer. Deeper and more productive wells could be de- \textsuperscript{17} \textit{Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1905}, p. 431. This report estimates 750,000 acres irrigated by wells. This included irrigation for rice. Some 200,000 acres of this total were in California. \textsuperscript{18} \textit{Irrigation Age}, XIII, 428-29; \textit{Sixth Biennial Report of the Commission of Forestry and Irrigation} (Kansas, 1898) pp. 47 ff. E. D. Wheeler wrote that irrigation "will give a healthful appetite for fresh fruits and vegetables, and at the same time ruin the patent medicine business and drive doctors to change their business or leave the country." veloped. Many irrigators used 6 to 36 inch well casings and it was not unusual to find wells 200 feet in depth. Pumps were powered by engines ranging from 2 to 400 horsepower. The engines were fueled by gasoline, distillate, and steam. A few pumps were driven by compressed air, and by 1910 electric motors were in use on many irrigation systems.\textsuperscript{19} Four distinct types of pumps were manufactured: the plunger or piston, the vacuum, the rotary, and the centrifugal. In a few wells, lakes and reservoirs a chain-bucket elevator was used. On occasion, the hydraulic ram was put to use. The centrifugal pump, freed from the use of valves that might stick, was the most efficient. A good propeller or centrifugal pump delivered from 400 to 6000 gallons per minute. An abundant supply of underground water enabled the new pumps to flow continuously.\textsuperscript{20} This eliminated the reservoir which was so necessary for irrigation by windmill. Many of the leading manufacturers of windmills turned to the production of engines and pumps. Fairbanks-Morse, Thomson-Lewis, International Harvester, Dempster, Witte, and Morris Machine Works all produced engines and pumps. Other pumps were the Van Wie, Newell & Murphy, Victor Turbine, Jeffry Chain and Bucket Pump, Link-Belt Water Wheel, and the Tubular-Propeller Pump pioneered by A. T. Ames at Galt, California. This last pump produced 20,000 gallons per hour, using a 12-inch bored well 200 feet deep.\textsuperscript{21} These power driven pumps \textsuperscript{19} Putnam E. Bates wrote in the \textit{Scientific American} for May 24, 1913: “So it is seen that scientific agriculture, irrigation and electricity have formed a powerful combination.” (vol. 108, p. 279). \textsuperscript{20} Lucius M. Wilcox, \textit{Irrigation Farming} (New York, 1907) p. 3 ff. gives detailed descriptions on the types of pumps in use. See also John G. Haney, \textit{U.S.D.A. Office of Experiment Stations}, Bulletin, 158, pp. 567-583 on “Irrigation Experiments at Fort Hays, Kansas, 1903-1904.” An English work is also valuable, written by Sir Handbury Brown, \textit{Irrigation: Its Principles and Practices as a Branch of Engineering} (New York, 1912). \textsuperscript{21} Company names compiled from current literature. The Ames pump is described in \textit{Irrigation Age}, XIX, 84-85 (November, 1903). were not always used with large casing wells. In some areas the farmer drove several sand points, usually $1\frac{1}{2}$ to 2 inches in diameter, several yards apart and connected these smaller wells above the ground with a large pipe attached to a pump. Several of these systems are in use in the Arkansas River valley today. Many examples of new plants can be found. At Garden City, located in Finney County, Kansas, the United States Sugar and Land Company irrigated 3,500 acres, using a 400 hp. engine to run a 350 kilowatt generator. Through 20 miles of electric line, fourteen pumping plants were operated each with a capacity of 1800 to 2000 gallons per minute. In 1911, Finney County, Kansas, had 6500 acres of land irrigated by centrifugal pumps which were powered by gasoline or distillate. With the pumps as with the windmill, the river valley farms were the first to be irrigated.\(^{22}\) While the United States census reports for 1910 on the use of wells for irrigation are not complete, some trends can be seen. By 1909, 13,738,485 acres of land were under some form of irrigation. In the seventeen arid and semi-arid states there were 14,558 wells being pumped, irrigating 477,625 acres. This total does not include the use of pumps for streams, lakes or reservoirs. In Kansas today, 72 per cent of the land irrigated is watered by the use of pumps. The pumping capacity of the 14,558 wells was 9,918,775 gallons per minute. In 1909, the five leading states in the number of pumped wells, in order, were California, Kansas, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. This report did not include the wells in Texas that were used to irrigate rice. The greatest use of wells was east of the Continental Divide and in southern California. Wyoming reported 3 pumped wells, Utah 27, Montana 10, Colorado 121, Idaho 24, Nebraska 66, and Oklahoma 69. The total \(^{22}\) J. C. Mohler, "Driven to Tap," *Country Gentleman*, LXXVII, p. 6 ff.; *Eighteenth Biennial Report of the State Board of Agriculture, Kansas, 1911-1912*, XXIII, 64 ff. acreage in these states was not large.\textsuperscript{23} Deep wells and big pumps were costly. The irrigator had to be a man of fair means or of good credit to pay from $12.00 to $25.00 per acre for his plant. It was easy to invest $1000 to $3000 in a project, and land values soared where deep well irrigation was possible. The impact of the big pump and deep well was much the same as the windmill. The more productive wells freed the farmer from the interstate rivalry over the use of the streams. There was more diversification of crops and more experiments at state and national levels. For example, the national government provided one experiment for the production of tea.\textsuperscript{24} Technology had responded to meet almost every need of the irrigation farmer. Some farmers looked upon irrigation as a lazy man's way. The irrigator could just provide the water and let it run. Experience showed that this was not true. Irrigation became "a way of life," and it was hard work.\textsuperscript{25} Francis H. Newell had stressed that the "ideal" was forty acres in the irrigated country. But he also added that the irrigated country was no place for the poor farmer. According to Newell, the man who goes to the irrigated country "must use his brains in all his farming."\textsuperscript{26} There was an extensive amount of published information for the irrigation farmer by 1910. Of course, there was always the academic argument in the arid lands between those who favored farming by water and those who supported "dry farming" or "horse-leg irrigation" because water was conserved by tillage.\textsuperscript{27} \textsuperscript{23} Material compiled from \textit{Thirteenth Census of the United States, Agriculture}; W. H. Olin, \textit{American Irrigation Farming} (Chicago, 1913) p. 326; Arthur Hooker, ed., \textit{Official Proceedings of the Nineteenth National Irrigation Congress} (Chicago, 1912) p. 37. \textsuperscript{24} For the tea project see \textit{Irrigation Age}, XIV, 31. \textsuperscript{25} Carl Frederick Kraenzel, \textit{Great Plains in Transition} (Norman, 1955), p. 260-263. \textsuperscript{26} \textit{Irrigation Age}, XXVI, 638 ff. \textsuperscript{27} \textit{Nebraska History}, XXIV, 286, gives name of "horse-leg." By 1910, a farmer knew the real value of well irrigation. The system would be extended throughout the land wherever a supply of underground water could be found. With adequate finance the farmer could always escape the effects of the droughts through well irrigation. Authors of the U.S.D.A. Experiment Station bulletins for the period of 1908-1910 still referred to pump irrigation being in or just past its infancy. But all predicted that pumping plants would reclaim much arid land in the future.\textsuperscript{28} Certainly, the irrigator of the past two decades owes much to the experiments which took place from 1890 to 1910. So influential was this new way of life that the natives in their moments of relaxation often ordered "Ditch and Bourbon" from their favorite bar-keeper. \textsuperscript{28} E. W. Beach and P. J. Preston, \textit{Irrigation in Colorado}, Bulletin 218, pp. 30-35; V. L. Sullivan, \textit{Irrigation in New Mexico}, Bulletin 215, p. 41; Don H. Bark, \textit{Irrigation in Kansas}, Bulletin 211, p. 27.
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Jews in Holland, themselves in danger, rescued hundreds of Allied fliers from Gestapo MAASTRICHT, Holland, Oct. 4. (JTA) — Three-fourths of the 140,000 Jews who resided in Holland before the German occupation were deported to "unknown destinations" by the Gestapo, a correspondent of the Jewish Telegraphic Agency arriving here today established. About 80,000 of them had resided in the Netherlands for generations. Although in great danger, Jews in Holland actively participated in hiding Allied airmen, securing false identity documents for them and helping them to cross into Belgium en route to England, the correspondent was told. Some of the airmen were sheltered in places which served as hideouts for Jews evading deportation from Holland. In this way hundreds of Allied airmen were saved from the Gestapo. The Jews in Holland received a much rougher deal from the Nazis than even the Jews of Belgium or France. Only the fact that the Gestapo men accepted bribes saved some of them. The Germans even provided "Aryan" identity documents for Jews who were in a position to pay well for them. The hunt for Jews in Holland was intensified last year. Twice each week cattle cars crowded with Jews left for Poland from the Westerbork camp where they were held for deportation. The Germans first took all the property of the interned Jews, including jewelry and insurance policies. They then informed them that only those who would agree to be sterilized would be exempted from deportation. Only a few elderly men agreed. Of the five hundred Jews who lived in Maastricht before the war, the correspondent found only six families who escaped deportation, due to the fact that they were safely hidden by non-Jewish neighbors. The 100-year-old local synagogue was used by the Germans as a warehouse. The Holy Scrolls were all saved, however, having been hidden in the vault of a local bank. Members of Jewish body in Belgium arrested on charge of collaboration with Nazis LIEGE, Belgium, Oct. 4. (JTA) — Jewish members of the Association of Jews in Belgium formed by the Germans during the occupation and headed by the Chief Rabbi are now being arrested by leaders of the Independence Front and the Maquis movement and held for investigation, a correspondent of the Jewish Telegraphic Agency learned today upon his arrival here. Some of them are charged with collaborating with the German occupation authorities. It was estimated here today that at least 35,000 Jews were deported from Belgium. Among them were members of the Association of Jews in Belgium. The Chief Rabbi, who was the head of the organization, was arrested and had his beard cut off by the Gestapo in the concentration camp where he was held. The guards also forced him to wash the latrines. He was freed by the arrival of the Allied troops. The cantor of the Liege synagogue was hidden for two years by a local Catholic priest who also secreted six other Jews, giving up his own bed. The cantor's wife and child were hidden in a convent. Nearly every Belgian clergyman helped to hide Jews, the JTA correspondent was told. LAST WARSAW BROADCAST URGES JEWS IN OCCUPIED POLAND TO REMAIN COURAGEOUS JERUSALEM, Oct. 4. (JTA) -- A last-minute appeal to Jews in the still-occupied part of Poland urging them not to lose faith "because the day of liberation is near" was broadcast from Warsaw before the patriots in the city were forced to surrender yesterday to the Germans after sixty-three days of fighting. The appeal, made by a Polish announcer in behalf of the Jews who were fighting in the ranks of the patriots, warned Polish traitors against handing over Jews to the Gestapo. "Those betraying our Jewish citizens are Poland's Enemy No. 1," he declared. The broadcast concluded with the prayer of "Iskor" offered for the fallen Jews in Hebrew by a member of the Jewish underground movement. It was heard in Tel Aviv by the Hebrew newspaper Davar. JEWS IN BULGARIA IN DESPERATE NEED; FIND IT DIFFICULT TO RE-ENTER ECONOMIC LIFE SOFIA, Oct. 4. (JTA) -- Despite the restoration of rights to Jews in Bulgaria, their situation is desperate as a result of the fact that they were uprooted and eliminated from economic life for a long time, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency correspondent here established. At present, Jews in Sofia are deprived of practically all means of existence. The stream of Jews returning to their homes in Sofia is increasing daily, but the majority of them do not even have money to pay their fare. They are oppressed by the fact that they have no place to live and find it difficult to start a new existence. Health conditions among the Jews present a grave problem. Many of them are suffering from malaria and tuberculosis. The Jewish hospital in Sofia was destroyed and it is difficult to find a Jewish doctor. A Russian soldier who escaped from a prison camp in Serbia and reached Sofia today reported that in the city of Nish he saw several thousand Hungarian Jews doing slave labor in the mines. PALESTINE GOVERNMENT REFUSES TO HOUSE HOMELESS JEWS IN HOUSES OF GERMAN INTERNEES TEL AVIV, Oct. 4. (JTA) -- The Palestine Government has notified the municipality of Tel Aviv that it is not inclined to convert houses of Palestine Germans interned as enemy aliens into homes for homeless Jewish immigrants, the Arab press reports today. The suggestion that the Jewish refugees be housed in homes of interned German residents came from the municipality of Tel Aviv, the report says. It concerned chiefly the German settlement of Sarona which is situated on the outskirts of Tel Aviv. However, the interned Germans of Sarona notified the Palestine Government that they were opposed to having their dwellings used as homes for refugees. Upon receiving the protest of the internees, the District Commissioner informed Mayor Rokach of its contents, adding that "the Palestine Government will not consider robbing the houses of the Sarona Germans" since it expects them to return to their homes after the war, the leading Arab newspaper Adifa states. WHOLESALE ARREST OF ALL JEWS IN SLOVAKIA ORDERED BY GERMAN MILITARY COMMANDER LONDON, Oct. 4. (JTA) -- The wholesale arrest of all Jews remaining in the German-occupied part of Slovakia has been ordered by the commander of the German troops there, it was learned here today by the Czechoslovak Government. HIDDEN JEWISH CHILDREN BEING REUNITED WITH PARENTS IN FRANCE; MANY OTHERS ORPHANED PARIS, Oct. 4. (JTA) -- One of the bravest epics of the war and the German occupation is being revealed in Paris as the first of thousands of hidden Jewish children are being reunited with the parents from whom they were separated in order to save them from deportation. The details of the greatest human rescue set-up since the American underground railway of pre-Civil War days are just now coming to light. Catholic priests and Protestants aided Jews in placing half of the Jewish children in Paris in the countryside with friendly Frenchmen or spiriting them out of the country. After July, 1942, when the Germans suddenly swooped down on the Jewish quarter of Paris and arrested 20,000 women and children, the remaining Jews began the underground task of hiding youngsters. While many families managed, individually, to place their children with French families, three organizations undertook mass placement. They were the OSE - the Jewish Health Society - the Federation of Jewish Societies and the Zionist Youth Organization. Dr. Eugene Minkowski, president of the OSE, directed much of this risky campaign. In two years the OSE hid 600 children in northern France and 2,500 in the southern part of the country. A similar job was undertaken by Mme. Rebecca Youchnovsky, who was in charge of the Paris office of the Federation of Jewish Societies, while her husband, Dr. Aaron Youchnovsky conducted a dispensary there. The Federation placed 700 children. Jewish Women Toured Country Secretly Checking on Care of Children Together with the OSE it carried on a never-ending detailed check-up which would do honor to the most elaborate New York social service agency. Yet everything was done in enforced secrecy, every contact was carried on through intermediaries. The records of the children, with their false names and the key to their identities was kept secret in the home of Mme. Paulette Karnovsky, whose husband Alex was killed during the battle for Paris. Mme. Karnovsky and a group of women - including non-Jews - travelled throughout the country for a monthly check-up on the condition of the children. The committee even managed to send toys to the youngsters. The foster families were paid in advance, monthly, for caring for the child. The average payment ranged around 900 francs, and was made through devious channels. The money was often hidden in the bottom of a shopping basket or carried by a third party. Several women were arrested while doing this work, but everything was carried out to the last painstaking detail. Several young women members of the Zionist youth group were captured and executed by the Gestapo while engaged in guiding groups of children to safety. In addition to those hidden by the OSE and the Federation, about 800 were placed in French homes through the efforts of Mme. Juliette Stern, who worked in the Union Generale de Juifs de France, a German-organized agency. Frequently the Gestapo deported adults leaving the children behind to be placed in institutions. With the cooperation of women leaders of Catholic and Protestant organizations, Mme. Stern was able to spirit the 800 children out of the German institutions using various devices. Two Catholic priests named Father Chaillet and Father Du Vaux were also very active in this work. Du Vaux, himself, placed 400 children and secured medical aid for many expectant mothers. He secured funds from bankers and other wealthy Frenchmen. Of the 400 children about 60 have already been reunited with their parents. Dr. Minkowski told the Jewish Telegraphic Agency correspondent that he believes that about half the hidden children will eventually be returned to their families, but that provision will have to be made for the others. Many of these are children who were so young when their parents were deported that they have no knowledge of them, while most have been orphaned. Minkowski said that the children without families will require considerable assistance and appealed for aid from abroad. At the same time, he paid tribute to the Joint Distribution Committee, whose funds, he said, had financed ninety percent of the child rescue work. INTERFAITH INSTITUTES ON JUDAISM PLANNED BY UNION OF AMERICAN HEBREW CONGREGATIONS CINCINNATI, Oct. 4. (JTA) -- Christian religious leaders and teachers soon will be in position to obtain authentic knowledge about Judaism through attendance at Interfaith Institutes on Judaism, arranged by the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, in cooperation with the Central Conference of American Rabbis, it was announced here today by Rabbi Maurice N. Eisendrath, director of the UAHC. The Institutes will have the following purposes: 1. To spread authentic knowledge of Jewish beliefs and practices; 2. To replace lack of information and misinformation concerning Judaism by facts and authoritative history; 3. To foster sympathetic understanding based on knowledge and appreciation of the Jewish faith and people; 4. To emphasize the common origins and ideals inherent in both Judaism and Christianity. ZOA HEAD URGES ALLIED STATEMENT SUPPORTING JEWISH COMMONWEALTH IN PALESTINE NEW YORK, Oct. 4. (JTA) -- A declaration by the Allied powers endorsing the proposal for the establishment of Palestine as a Jewish Commonwealth was urged today by Dr. Israel Goldstein, president of the Zionist Organization of America. With victory for the United Nations assured, now is the proper time for issuance of such a statement, Dr. Goldstein declared. Speaking at a press conference devoted to the forthcoming annual conference of the ZOA, which will open on Oct. 11 at the St. Charles Hotel in Atlantic City, Dr. Goldstein stressed the necessity for American Jews to give economic assistance to the Jewish community of Palestine since "political guarantees alone will not build Palestine." He announced that the ZOA plans to raise $1,000,000 within the next three years for the establishment in Palestine of a colony bearing its name. JUDGE PROSKAUER PAYS TRIBUTE TO GOVERNOR SMITH AS "BEST OF CITIZENS" NEW YORK, Oct. 4. (JTA) -- Alfred E. Smith was hailed today as the "truest of friends and the best of citizens" in a statement issued on the occasion of his death by Judge Joseph M. Proskauer, president of the American Jewish Committee, and long-time friend and associate of the former Governor. Judge Proskauer said, "Governor Smith was the best and wisest man I ever knew. In all my years of close association with him I never knew him to act except from the highest of motives. That is why he was the truest of friends and the greatest of citizens." THE CONTENTS OF THIS BULLETIN ARE NOT FOR PUBLICATION WITHOUT SPECIAL AUTHORIZATION
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MICROFILM DIVIDER OMB/RECORDS MANAGEMENT DIVISION SFN 2053 (2/85) 5M ROLL NUMBER DESCRIPTION 1013 2005 HOUSE APPROPRIATIONS HB 1013 Rep. Ken Svedjan, Chairman thanked Ms Sharp for her presentation and noted that OMB’s budget will be reviewed by the new Government Performance Committee and will be the jump start for this committee. Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead of the Department of Public Instruction gave introductory information regarding the department (handout #3-3 (attached). (Meter #24.3) Ms Bonnie Miller reviewed the distributed spreadsheet that listed the requested information concerning the variances between the 2003-05 budget and the requests for 2005-07. (handout #3-5, attached). Ms Miller explained an adjustment of $105,000 due to a “carry over” in grant funds from the state. The major variance noted was a shortfall in federal spending authority. Ms Miller continued by discussing the goals and objections of the department in the next biennium and reviewed the performance measurements that were already in place. Mr. Rocklyn Cofer from the School for the Deaf reviewed the variances and goals and objectives for the school as described in handout #3-6 (attached). (meter Tape #1, Side B, #1) All variance numbers listed on page 2 of handout should be listed as negative numbers, meaning they were moneys not spent. Mr. Cofer explained that the school was not eligible for E-Rate funds since the school is considered a state agency as well as a school. This concern that will be dealt with in more detail during the subcommittee hearings. Ms Carmen Grove Suminski from the School for the Blind reviewed the variances within the school’s proposed budget and explained their goals and objectives as doing more with less. (meter # Tape #1, Side B, #17.0) Need for center-based services is increasing. Ms Suminski described their “carry over” authority within the general funds and their special funds. They are becoming too dependent on their special funds and are requesting that more appropriations be made to the general fund so they do not use all of their special funds. Ms Doris Ott from the State Library distributed handout #3-7 (attached) (meter Tape #1, Side B, #25.5) and discussed their need for additional funds in the next biennium in order to add to the online library resources, provide state aid to public libraries regarding materials and technology, and to increase employee salaries. Mr. Dale Frink for the State Water Commission distributed handout #3-8 (attached) and discussed the goals and objectives of the Commission. (meter Tape #1, Side B, #29.6) Variances between 2003-05 and 2005-07 were detailed on page 2 of handout. Discussion ensued regarding the issue on bonding authority within state agencies and information regarding who has the authority to bond and what other agencies also have issued bonds that are still outstanding was requested of the Legislative Council. Also requested was information regarding the history of how the Legislature was involved in deciding what projects were contracted in these instances. Specific dollar information regarding the Water Commission will come to the subcommittee hearing regarding HB1153. Ms Brenda Weisz spoke on behalf of Human Services. (meter Tape #2, Side A, #14) (meter Tape #2, Side A, #13) Ms Weisz distributed written testimony from Ms Carol Olson, Director of Human Services (handout #3-9a) and asked that all representatives please read this on their own as she reviewed handout #3-9 (attached) discussing variances and goals and objectives. Ms Weisz noted that most of the variances come from 3 emergency actions approved in March of 2004 for $18.3 million. These changes concern Food Stamps, Child Welfare, and LIHEAP (Fuel Assistance) and are specified on page 2 of handout. Ms Weisz gave further explanations of Basic Minutes: Chairman Martinson opened the hearing on HB1013. Vision Services/School for the Blind - Carmen Grove Suminski, Superintendent of the NDVS/SB spoke in favor of HB1013. NDVS/SB mission statement: To function as a statewide comprehensive resource and to work cooperatively with related agencies in providing a full range of services to all persons who are blind or visually impaired. She stated that they have responded to statewide needs and have not been apprehensive of making changes. She presented data to illustrate a significant increase in the number of persons receiving services, and yet with less appropriated general fund dollars. (See attachment A1013). Tami Purcell, Business Manager of NDVS/SB provided fiscal data. “It is imperative that the committee understand how stretched the NDVS/SB resources currently are. We are under-funded.” NDVS/SB lost General Funds during the 2001 Legislative Assembly in the amount of $150,017. For 2003-05, NDVS/SB, no longer receives funding from the IPAT Project. (Federal funds). The two primary sources of Special Fund revenue are rental income and land department income. Tami Purcell explained the optional request justification (see attachment A1013). They include utilities, salaries, repairs, travel, air conditioning south wing, equipment, education wing addition. She highlighted a request for temporary salaries ($22,000) for house parents. Carmen Grove Suminski explained the education wind addition, showing the committee an architects drawing of the proposed addition. She discussed “The Store” Fund. This revolving account was established by legislation in 1999. The mission of this store is to provide the consumers of North Dakota, who are blind or visually impaired faster and easier access to items they may require for independent living. Carmen Grove Suminski presented a budget summary. NDVS/SB requested seven optional packages with the 2005-07 budget request. The Governor’s Office included all but $22,000 of temporary salaries for house parents, and an education wing addition, $1,107,887. Trend is that need for services will continue to increase. Population of the state is aging; thus adult vision needs will continue to increase. In order to maintain our current leveling of programming, it is imperative that the Executive Recommendation remain and that the additional temporary salaries of $22,000 be included in the 2005-07 budget. Rep. Aarsvold: What alternatives do you have in place if the $22,000 for house parents is not made available? Carmen Grove Suminski: NDVS/SB would not be able to operate at the current level and would have to decrease center based programs. Major schedule changes would have to be implemented. Rep. Wald: Can you give me a breakdown of rental income revenue and land development revenue? How much is from each source? Carmen Grove Suminski: Land development income varies from bienumin to bienenumum. Tami Purcell: Rental land to UND and Grand Forks Public schools - $355,000. Transfer from land department $242,000. Rep. Wald: Looking at optional request, excluding Education wing addition for $1.1 million, all are funded with a yes except salaries and where you show partial and my calculation show that is a difference of $3,750 less than you requested. Am I right? Tami Purcell: In the Governor's budget were salaries increases 4+3 and health insurance and that makes up that difference. Rep. Wald: That's in there. OMB: Of that optional request of $82,000 we funded the Braille instructor $58,000 and when you add on to that the 4+3 and the healthy insurance increase it comes out to the $60,218 that Tami refers to. Carmen Grove Suminski present several personal testimonies from clients of NDVS/SB, past and present supporting HB1013. School for the Deaf - Eric Lysne, business manager School for the Deaf: (See attachment B1013) The school is an education facility established for the education of children with severe to profound hearing loss who are residents of North Dakota. One ut-of-state student are accepted on a tuition basis. School for the Deaf is seeking to expand its mission to include services to the adult population, depending on HB1013. With the declining population in the school, a Blue Ribbon task force formed in 2003 recommended to expand the adult programs, expand outreach services with more programming, lease of used space, for example we did extensive remodeling this summer and now the Headstart program rents the space. Majority of our space is now occupied. For 2005-07 the school presented a 100% general fund budget request. (See attachment B1013). In addition the school presented an optional adjustment request to complete a facility improvement project. State Library - Doris Ott, State Librarian of North Dakota: (See attached written testimony C1013) I’m here today in support of HB1013, the 2005-2007 appropriation for the North Dakota State Library. Services in State Library budget: leadership and library development - our partnership with Online Dakota Information Network (ODIN), Central Dakota Cooperating Libraries (CDCL) and the North Central Library Authority has resulted in adding thirty-five libraries to the statewide online library catalog; reference and interlibrary loan services; training and technical assistance; services to state agencies; disability services; Library Vision 2010 grants; state aide to public libraries; online magazines, newspapers, and reference services; staff - with currently no graduate library programs in North Dakota we are forced to recruit out-of-state, a costly process. When we are successful in our recruiting efforts, they usually stay two to three years and then move to higher salaries in other states. North Dakota state employees have not had a raise in two years. We need to adequately compensate the employees we already have instead of constantly recruiting and training new ones. Chairman Martinson: When purchasing and financing from the Gale Group and ProQuest, do they pay you? How does that work? Doris Ott: At the present time we have a ratio, a formula set up for all libraries in the state. The academic libraries are paying 60%, the public libraries are paying 20% and school libraries are paying 20%. The ODIN office is acting as the fiscal agent and the state library is working closely with the ODIN office to do the billing, keeping track of who had paid, etc. Does that answer your question? Chairman Martinson: Yes, it does. Another question. Do you have to have a code word to access the site? Doris Ott: Yes, you have to have the bar code number to access the online resources. Resources can’t always be opened to the world because they cost money. By authenticating our users to the vendors, we can say only North Dakotans will be using these resources. Chairman Martinson: Does the State Library have access codes? This is a great program, I would like the access codes to share with my colleagues. Please pay attention to the Internet because there is a vast difference between just going on Google versus going to the sites that are here. Doris Ott: I’d be glad to supply you with a state library card, which is all you need to access them. Rep. Wald: Do you have a spreadsheet for your budget? Doris Ott: That is reflected on the cover sheet we handed out last week. What we are asking for is a base budget of $4,657,025, $200,000 online, $55,693 additional for state aide to public libraries. Chairman Martinson: Last year you had a demonstration using a Google search and a search through the Gale Group or ProQuest? Could we do that again to show my colleagues the difference between a Google search versus a search on the Gale Group or ProQuest? Doris Ott: Yes Chairman Martinson: We can talk about this later. We probably won’t pass on this bill now. State Grants to External Organizations & Associations - Bonnie Miller, Fiscal Director for DPI: (See attachment G1013) On handout, starting with row 12, the department has eight entities that are funded with state money. They are Governor’s School, LEAD Consortium, Teacher Center Network, FINDET, North Dakota Museum Funds, North Dakota Museum of Art, Northern Plains Writing Project, Red River Writing Project and National Board Certification. Those funds are appropriated to the department and flows through the departments budget. We will address six of these later because their funding in our optional package. I want to refer you now to Teacher Center Network. Funding is in place, no additional funds requested. FINDET funding is in place, no additional funds requested. Special Education - Bob Rutten, Director of Special Education at DPI, spoke about history of special education in the state of North Dakota. Before there was a federal law to provide education for special needs children there were limited options. In the 1970s enacted the National Special Education Law to ensure that all children with disabilities would receive a free and appropriate education. Today North Dakota serves the highest number of children with disabilities in the mainstream classrooms in the nation. Now we must ensure that these children are not only in the classroom but also have access to the same curriculum so that they can become full members of our society. In the last 20 years the overall enrollment in North Dakota schools had declined 34% but the number of children receive special services has increased 24% in that same time period. That is why we are requesting an increase in the state funding for special education. Currently funding for special education in comes from federal, state and local funding. Federal funding has increased but state funding has remained flat. Local sources are the greatest source of funding for special education. The budget proposed by the DPI is an attempt to help the local school districts by increasing the amount of funding for special education. **Rep. Wald:** Can you give us a breakdown of the federal, state and local funds for special ed? **Bob Rutten:** Currently 18.5% to 19% of funding of special education. 25% of that the state sees, locally has seen the highest. **Rep. Wald:** How much is federal? What can we count on for the next biennium? **Bob Rutten:** $22,000,000. **Rep. Gulleson:** Is there still a shortage of instructors in special ed and also is there some type of incentive program such as tuition relief? **Bob Rutten:** Yes, the DPI does administer a traineeship program whereby we offer scholarships up to $1500 per individual to go back to school to become a special education teacher. Federal funds are used for that. **Rep. Aarsvold:** Increase in share of population that requires special needs. How do you account for that - more aggressive diagnosis, some social problems impacting those numbers? **Bob Rutten:** We are conducting a study with North Dakota Center for People With Disabilities to try and answer those questions. One factor could be the high survival rate of premature infants. Over 50% of these children require some sort of special needs in school. Conjecture about other causes. Speech pathology, children with health issues, children with learning disabilities, and emotional disturbance - the fastest growing, and a large number of children with autism are some areas are on the rise in our state. OMB: Just a note about the funding. The $52,000,000 line item in their bill is all general funds. The $22,000,000 in federal funds is part of their other grant funds. Just what to make that clear to the committee. Optional Adjustments - Bonnie Miller: Page three of the handout (See attachment G1013). Line item number three is the LEAD Center. Governor does support the increase of $21,500 mostly due to increase cost of training teachers. North Dakota Museum of Art asks for an increase of $125,000 to be used for an outreach program. That was granted in the Governor’s recommendation. Governor’s School, Northern Plains Writing Project and Education Standards and Practices Board all requested increases which were included in the Governor’s recommendation. Lengthy narratives are provided in handout for each optional adjustment. Doug Johnson, North Dakota Council of Educational Leaders: Any question about the LEAD Center? Chairman Martinson: We will have a subcommittee on this bill so probably not into it enough yet to ask questions. Bonnie Miller: Janet Welk is here from the Education Standards and Practices Board to talk about the additional $10,000 request. Janet Welk explained additional funds request. (See attachment G1013). Standards-Based Assessments - Gary Gallagher, Director of Standards and Achievements within the DPI here to explain State Assessment Program’s additional request for funds. (See attachment H1013). ORS Conversion - Doug McCrory, MIS Director with the DPI (See attachment I1013). Here to talk about the ORS adjustment, online reporting system used to collect data from the public schools. We are looking to convert and enhance the current system VB6 to a .net, because Visual Basic 6.0 will no longer be supported starting March 2008. **Joint Powers Agreements - Tom Decker, with DPI:** There is a bill going through to rework the mechanism and operations of Joint Powers Agreements which we initiated last time that contains an appropriation of $3,000,000. We see that at the present time as the minimum amount of funding to carry forth the goals of Joint Powers Organizations. Not sure how that fits with the $2,000,000 line here. **Chairman Martinson:** I, too, am a little confused with that. You have $2,000,000 in your budget? **Tom Decker:** $3,000,000. $2,000,000 in the Governor’s budget. **Chairman Martinson:** Where’s the other bill? Who put that in? **Tom Decker:** It doesn’t have a number yet. Went over spreadsheet and maps in attached handout. Discussed benefits to Joint Powers Agreement. Eight large school districts in North Dakota have over one half of the school population, 198 districts have the other half. All school districts are declining – the eight large school districts as a slow rate with the other 198 at a significantly faster rate. The disparity between the eight large districts and the 198 smaller districts organizational capability is growing. Districts can’t afford individually these higher levels of specialty so they need to work collaboratively to share the costs. Joint Powers Organizations meet these needs. This is a grassroots development that school districts started on their own. Chairman Martinson: What do you use the money for? How do you help the JPAs? Why do you need more money is schools are going to get together to coordinate and share their resources? Tom Decker: Some of the money, maybe the majority of the money needed to support these collective efforts of school districts to help themselves will come from the local school districts fund. We at the state level have an interest in supporting this as a solution to the disparity we face. Significant differential from one place to another as to what students have access to and what they can be offered. These collective efforts are staffed by volunteers need to have a permanent staffing to begin systematically organize the deliver of services all districts need. Chairman Martinson: Do you have a breakdown of the $2,000,000? Tom Decker: $3,000,000 actually. We want to provide incentive dollars for staffing - about $125,000 per JAP staffing and we are anticipating 2 more. About ¼ million dollars per biennium. Chairman Martinson: When we get into subcommittee we will want specifics. Rep. Wald: Roughrider was the first one in the state? Tom Decker: No, Minot was. It is a very small area. Roughrider is the first one of the scale we think they should be. Rep. Wald: Did they get any start up money out west? Tom Decker: Last time Senate appropriations of $250,000 that provide $50,000 per eligible unit. Dickinson did get or in the process of getting that $50,000. Was on reimbursement last time. Rep. Wald: They went ahead and started on the basis that they needed to share resources rather than seed money coming from the state. I don’t think that was their motivation. Bonnie Miller: I can. Some of it is in the handout (Attachment G1013), right after the spreadsheet. Chairman Martinson: We will move this to a subcommittee. Thank you for going through a lot of material quickly and concisely. Hearing closed. Minutes: Chairman Martinson opened hearing on HB1013. I’ve handout a sheet on the reduction to the Governor's budget (See attached A1013) on HB1013. Any discussion? Rep. Wald I move that we amend HB1013 per your handout. Vice Chairman Brusegaard Second. Rep. Aarsvold I do have reservations about what I perceive to be pretty severe cuts to foundation aid. I think we all realize that will have to be made up locally. That is my primary concern. The $7,400,000 is a pretty significant reduction. Vice Chairman Brusegaard I’m definitely not going to call Rep. Aarsvold wrong on that one. The other reductions are all in an attempt to maximize dollars in foundation aid. It still is in an increase of $15,000,000 for foundation aid over the last biennium. That’s why the other cuts were made - to reduce the impact on foundation aid. Roll call vote on amendments. VOTE: 5 YES and 1 NO with 0 absent. Amendment passed. Vice Chairman Brusegaard I move Do Pass As Amended on HB1013. Rep. Rennerfeldt Second. VOTE: 6 YES and 0 NO with 0 absent. DO PASS AS AMENDED. Vice Chairman Brusegaard will carry to full committee. Chairman Martinson closed hearing on HB1013. Chairman Martinson reconvened hearing on HB1013. Vice Chairman Brusegaard I move to reconsider our actions by which we put a Do Pass recommendation on HB1013. Rep. Rennerfeldt Second. VOICE VOTE motion to reconsider the DO PASS recommendation passed. Vice Chairman Brusegaard I move we reconsider our actions by which we amended HB1013. Rep. Gulleson Second VOICE VOTE motion to reconsider our actions by which we amended HB1013 passed. Meeting adjourned. Minutes: Chairman Martinson opened meeting on HB1013. Handed out a sheet with some proposed reductions in the DPI budget. Please add one additional to this. Deduct $1.3 million from the transportation line. The balance of what’s left after the deduction of the $1.3 million, split that and send half of that to foundation aid and keep the other in transportation. The transportation money, about $34 million, deduct $1.3 million from that. Then the balance that is left, half stays in transportation and half of it goes to foundation aid. Rep. Aarsvold Why the double transaction - out of transportation and back into transportation? Is there some language that discusses that? Chairman Martinson Reduce the transportation payments by $1.3 million. Put half of what’s left into foundation aid. Rep. Aarsvold $17 million addition to foundation aid? Chairman Martinson That’s right. Rep. Wald I move all the amendments. Rep. Rennerfeldt Second. Rep. Aarsvold I’ll have a tough time supporting this for obvious reasons. It’s going to be very difficult for my rural schools to operate transportation systems when you start cutting $17 million. As a consequence I can not vote for the amendments. VOTE ON AMENDMENTS: 3 YES and 2 NO with 1 absent DO PASS AMENDMENTS. Roxanne Just to clarify amendments for HB1013. In addition to what is listed here, $275,000 in regards to English language learners. Should we include that? Chairman Martinson We should talk about that and have a motion. I had talked to them about that in appropriations this morning when we killed the other bill, to amend this bill to put $275,000 in for English language testing. Rep. Wald Move to further amend the bill to include the English language learners, $275,000. Rep. Rennerfeldt Second. Voice Vote on amendment passed. Roxanne The next item on my sheet is the $148,800 for the Division of Independent Study for the North Dakota Studies text book. Chairman Martinson I thought we already do that. Roxanne I think we reconsidered that. Chairman Martinson We have already done that? Rep. Aarsvold I believe we reconsidered that and took off all the amendments. That is my recollection of the proceedings. If necessary I move that $148,800 be added in for the North Dakota Studies project. Rep. Rennerfeldt Second. Voice Vote on amendment passed. Roxanne I just have two more items. School for the Deaf. At one time in committee we had discussed removing some funding for their new outreach efforts. I’m not sure of the status of that bill in House Human Services. Chairman Martinson I thought we did that already. Roxanne We did but since we reconsidered our actions maybe we should a move to include that line. Chairman Martinson I thought we did all this. Robin (Clerk) Well, we did but we came back and reconsidered everything. Chairman Martinson Not that, the only thing we did the other day, we reconsidered the money, I believe. Roxanne If you feel comfortable, I’ll include it in the amendments. The amendment will also include the compensation adjustment. Chairman Martinson We will have Robin check the record to be sure but the only thing I believe we did when we reconsidered was to take the cuts off. Roxanne I guess I have one more. This morning you had mentioned to me... Chairman Martinson I had some members ask me to remove the part of the core that requires the superintendent to have a teaching certificate. Right now the Century Code requires the Superintendent of Public Instruction have a teaching certificate. Rep. Wald I move to eliminate the requirement that the Superintendent of Public Instruction have a teaching certificate. Rep. Rennerfeldt Second. Voice Vote on amendment passed. It was a 3 yes and 2 no vote with Rep. Aarsvold and Rep. Gulleson voting no and Rep. Wald, Rep. Rennerfeldt and Chairman Martinson voting yes. Rep. Wald I would like to entertain a motion to remove one position - assistant superintendent. It’s been open awhile. Rep. Rennerfeldt Second Rep. Rennerfeldt Mr. Chairman, we’ve had positions open far longer than July and I think it is only appropriate that every agency head have the opportunity to appoint an assistant. I think the Attorney General has made that clear on a couple of occasions that that was permissible and a desirable administrative structure. I hope that we defeat the amendment. Voice vote on amendment did not pass. It was a 2 yes and 3 no with Rep. Wald and Rep. Rennerfeldt voting yes and Chairman Martinson, Rep. Aarsvold and Rep. Gulleson voting no. Chairman Martinson Roxanne, can we just adopt amendments for HB1154 now or do we need to have another meeting? Roxanne I think we should have another meeting.. Rep. Wald Motion do pass as amended. Rep. Rennerfeldt Second. Rep. Aarsvold I certainly agree with many of the amendments proposed but the transportation issues is really burdensome to me. I will have trouble supporting that. For that reason I’ll be voting no. Chairman Martinson That is a legitimate concern. You will have an opportunity to ask for certain reports as it comes to committee. You can divide the amendments as it comes to the committee or the floor. VOTE: 3 YES and 2 NO with 1 absent. Vice Chairman Brusegaard will carry to the full committee. Rep. Ken Svedjan, Chairman opened the discussion on HB1013. Rep. Tom Brusegaard explained that this bill has an amendment #0109. The purpose of amendment is to reduce the general fund in excess of $6.3 million by reducing each line item but not too excessively. We tried saving as much money in the DPI budget as we could while putting as much money into foundation aid as we could so that the money went to the students instead of programs that have built up over the years that are not equalized in funding. We took $2.5 million out of supplemental payments because we felt it was not necessary to increase this because there are ways to address equity that didn’t require supplemental payments to account for the lowering of the deduct. We deleted the $500,000 for the re-organizational bonuses and $2 million for JPA incentives. Grants for $1.3 million decrease in the transportation line item. The total increase in foundation aid is $16 million over the Governor’s recommended budget. The intent is to take away money that is not equalized and put it into the foundation aid payments so the money appropriated goes to the students in the classroom. Rep. Tom Brusegaard moved to adopt amendment #0109 to HB1013. Rep. Bob Martinson seconded Rep. Mike Timm, Vice Chairman asked if we are increasing over the Governor’s budget by $16.7 million. Rep. Tom Brusegaard answered this was correct in per student payments, but that the overall budget is shrinking $.6.2 million general fund moneys. Rep. Ken Svedjan, Chairman commented that there was nothing mentioned about independent study, state library, school for the deaf, etc. Rep. Bob Martinson explained that the library was not changed beyond the salary adjustments. The school for the deaf had money for a program for outreach to people over the age of 21 that was deleted, we added about $148,000 to continuing education to allow them to publish a new textbook for 8th graders who are using a 22 year old civics textbook. (meter Tape #3, side B, #16.6) Rep. David Monson asked about section 12 on amendment. Rep. Bob Martinson answered that this eliminated the teacher’s certification requirement for the position of superintendent of public instruction. Rep. Joe Kroeber asked what the requirements for that position would be. Rep. Tom Brusegaard answered that they have to be elected. Rep. Al Carlson asked for clarification of the JPA moneys because this amendment takes the money out while Rep Kelsch’s bill had the money back in. Rep. Tom Brusegaard answered that the JPA money in Rep Kelsch’s bill came from the contingency dollars. Rep. Ole Aarsvold commented that the transportation issue was a real concern for him since the rural schools most in need of transportation are the schools that will be reduced most dramatically. Also, the amendment that removes the teacher’s certification from the superintendent position is a concern. It is not clear to me whether this requirement is statutory or constitutional, but the students ought to have the kind of professional leadership that they deserve. Rep. Tom Brusegaard answered that the transportation issue is a huge challenge and that it is not going to go away for students who are spread out in rural areas. There are other alternatives such as private transportation to certain drop off points or parents driving their kids to school. This conversation will need to continue. Rep. Jeff Delzer asked if the under the School for the Deaf the authority to do outreach was removed or just the money. Rep. Bob Martinson answered that authority for this was taken out in a Human Services bill so we removed the money. Rep. Jeff Delzer asked about the land rental money and vacant FTE positions money that was to be used for this program of outreach. (meter Tape #3, side B, #23.5) Rep. Bob Martinson explained that the committee removed the total dollars identified by DPI for outreach. Rep. David Monson asked there was discussion about school boards negotiating with parents to do transportation since the moneys were reduced. The school districts need flexibility in this because the way it stands now is that the parents need to drive the kids to school, but if the student drives themselves, then the parents do not get paid. Rep. Tom Brusegaard answered no, but that suggestions would be considered on any issue regarding alternatives for transportation. Rep. David Monson commented that it might be more easily accepted to take out the money if we then also negotiated with the families for alternative solutions. Rep. Joe Kroeber asked about the total increase to the general funds Rep. Tom Brusegaard answered that the total increase was around $23 million Rep. Ken Svedjan, Chairman called for a voice vote to adopt amendment #0109 to HB1013. Motion carried Rep. Tom Brusegaard moved a Do Pass As Amended motion to HB1013. Rep. Bob Martinson seconded Rep. Larry Bellew asked about the reasoning behind the increase to the superintendent of public instruction’s salary by 15% on page 8 of the original bill Ms Roxanne Woeste from legislative counsel answered that the amendment changes the statutory salary. As originally introduced, the bill increased the salary by the 4% and 4%. The amendment changes it to the 3% and 4%. Rep. Ole Aarsvold commented that in the last session we looked at the salaries of all state elected officials and set a schedule to bring them up to the agreed upon levels. This salary is a consequence to this schedule. Rep. Ken Svedjan, Chairman called for a roll call vote on the Do Pass As Amended motion for HB1013. Motion carried with a vote of 15 yea, 8 nea and 0 absences. Rep Brusegaard will carry the bill to the house floor. Rep. Ken Svedjan, Chairman closed the discussion on HB1013. 2005 HOUSE STANDING COMMITTEE ROLL CALL VOTES BILL/RESOLUTION NO. HB1013 House Appropriations Education and Environment Check here for Conference Committee Legislative Council Amendment Number Action Taken Do Pass As Amended Motion Made By Rep. Brusegaard Seconded By Rep. Rennerfeldt | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Chairman Martinson | X | | | Vice Chairman Brusegaard | X | X | | Rep. Rennerfeldt | X | | | Rep. Wald | X | | | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Rep. Aarsvold | X | | | Rep. Gulleson | X | | Total 6 (Yes) 0 No 0 Absent 0 Floor Assignment Brusegaard If the vote is on an amendment, briefly indicate intent: *This vote was reconsidered later in meeting!* 2005 HOUSE STANDING COMMITTEE ROLL CALL VOTES BILL/RESOLUTION NO. HB1013 House Appropriations Education and Environment ☐ Check here for Conference Committee Legislative Council Amendment Number Action Taken DO PASS on amendments Motion Made By Vice Chairman Brusegaard Seconded By | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Chairman Martinson | X | | | Vice Chairman Brusegaard | X | | | Rep. Rennerfeldt | X | | | Rep. Wald | X | | | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Rep. Aarsvold | X | | | Rep. Gulleson | | X | Total 6 (Yes) 5 No 1 Absent 0 Floor Assignment If the vote is on an amendment, briefly indicate intent: See attached handout A1013 for amendments LATER RECONVENE AND VOTED TO RECONSIDER AMENDMENTS. 2005 HOUSE STANDING COMMITTEE ROLL CALL VOTES BILL/RESOLUTION NO. HB1013 House Appropriations Education and Environment ☐ Check here for Conference Committee Legislative Council Amendment Number Action Taken DO PASS AS AMENDED Motion Made By Vice Chairman Brusegaard Seconded By Rep. Rennerfeldt | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Chairman Martinson | X | | | Vice Chairman Brusegaard | X | | | Rep. Rennerfeldt | X | | | Rep. Wald | X | | | Rep. Aarsvold | | X | | Rep. Gulleson | | X | Total 6 (Yes) 6 No 0 Absent 0 Floor Assignment Vice Chairman Brusegaard If the vote is on an amendment, briefly indicate intent: LATER RECONVENED AND VOTED TO RECONSIDER DO PASS AS AMENDED ON HB1013 2005 HOUSE STANDING COMMITTEE ROLL CALL VOTES BILL/RESOLUTION NO. HB1013 House Appropriations Education and Environment Check here for Conference Committee Legislative Council Amendment Number Action Taken DO PASS AS AMENDED Motion Made By Rep. Wald Seconded By Rep. Rennerfeldt | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Chairman Martinson | X | | | Vice Chairman Brusegaard | Absent | | | Rep. Rennerfeldt | X | | | Rep. Wald | X | | | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Rep. Aarsvold | | X | | Rep. Gulleson | | X | Total 6 (Yes) 3 No 2 Absent 1 Floor Assignment Vice Chairman Brusegaard If the vote is on an amendment, briefly indicate intent: PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO HOUSE BILL NO. 1013 Page 1, line 3, after the first semicolon insert "to provide an appropriation to the division of independent study;" Page 1, line 4, replace "section" with "sections 15.1-02-01 and" and after the second "the" insert "qualifications and the" Page 3, line 6, replace "780,156" with "742,596" Page 3, line 7, replace "1,834,485" with "2,109,485" Page 3, line 9, replace "22,773,769" with "21,473,769" Page 3, remove line 12 Page 3, line 14, replace "25,610,339" with "25,403,839" Page 3, after line 14, insert: "Reorganization bonuses (500,000)" Page 3, remove line 16 Page 3, line 18, replace "59,237,803" with "52,968,743" Page 3, line 19, replace "29,817,869" with "29,792,978" Page 3, line 20, replace "29,419,934" with "23,175,765" Page 3, line 23, replace "147,358" with "138,550" Page 3, line 26, replace "503,176" with "494,368" Page 3, line 27, replace "28,596" with "27,568" Page 3, line 28, replace "474,580" with "466,800" Page 4, line 1, replace "296,666" with "84,501" Page 4, line 2, replace "326,990" with "275,105" Page 4, line 4, replace "870,428" with "606,378" Page 4, line 5, replace "455,117" with "330,918" Page 4, line 6, replace "415,311" with "275,460" Page 4, line 9, replace "133,962" with "128,781" Page 4, line 12, replace "91,822" with "86,641" Page 4, line 13, replace "(321,848)" with "(323,317)" Page 4, line 14, replace "413,670" with "409,958" Page 4, line 15, replace "30,723,495" with "24,327,983" Page 4, line 16, replace "29,979,734" with "29,828,147" Page 4, line 17, replace "60,703,229" with "54,156,130" Page 4, line 27, replace "10,057,842" with "10,020,282" Page 4, line 28, replace "14,892,308" with "15,167,308" Page 4, line 29, replace "512,153,759" with "510,853,759" Page 5, line 1, replace "7,500,000" with "5,000,000" Page 5, line 3, replace "207,865,583" with "207,659,083" Page 5, remove lines 4 and 5 Page 5, line 7, replace "930,021,612" with "923,752,552" Page 5, line 8, replace "295,876,672" with "295,851,781" Page 5, line 9, replace "634,144,940" with "627,900,771" Page 5, line 12, replace "2,225,929" with "2,217,121" Page 5, line 15, replace "5,160,201" with "5,151,393" Page 5, line 16, replace "1,658,575" with "1,657,547" Page 5, line 17, replace "3,501,626" with "3,493,846" Page 5, line 20, replace "5,106,474" with "4,894,309" Page 5, line 21, replace "1,429,150" with "1,377,265" Page 5, line 23, replace "6,815,119" with "6,551,069" Page 5, line 24, replace "1,326,566" with "1,202,367" Page 5, line 25, replace "5,488,553" with "5,348,702" Page 5, line 28, replace "2,674,254" with "2,669,073" Page 5, line 31, replace "3,349,030" with "3,343,849" Page 6, line 1, replace "845,535" with "844,066" Page 6, line 2, replace "2,503,495" with "2,499,783" "SECTION 4. APPROPRIATION. There is appropriated out of any moneys in the general fund in the state treasury, not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $148,800, or so much of the sum as may be necessary, to the division of independent study for the purpose of developing, publishing, and distributing a North Dakota studies textbook and workbook for both grades four and eight, for the biennium beginning July 1, 2005, and ending June 30, 2007." Page 6, line 3, replace "645,638,614" with "639,391,902" Page 6, line 4, replace "299,707,348" with "299,555,761" Page 6, line 5, replace "945,345,962" with "938,947,663" Page 7, after line 28, insert: "SECTION 12. AMENDMENT. Section 15.1-02-01 of the North Dakota Century Code is amended and reenacted as follows: 15.1-02-01. Superintendent of public instruction - Qualifications. The qualified electors of this state shall elect a superintendent of public instruction at the appropriate general election. The superintendent must be at least twenty-five years of age on the day of the election; and have the qualifications of an elector for that office; and hold a valid North Dakota professional teaching license on the day of the election and at all times during the superintendent's term of office." Page 8, line 2, replace "eighty" with "seventy-nine", replace "five" with "seven", and replace "thirty-one" with "fifty-seven" Page 8, line 3, replace "may not exceed eighty-three" with "eighty-two" and replace "seven" with "nine" Page 8, line 4, replace "fifty-two" with "forty-seven" Renumber accordingly STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF AMENDMENT: House Bill No. 1013 - Summary of House Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |--------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | Department of Public Instruction | | | | | Total all funds | $930,021,612 | ($6,269,060) | $924,752,552 | | Less estimated income | 295,876,672 | (24,891) | 295,851,781 | | General fund | $634,144,940 | ($6,244,169) | $627,900,771 | | Division of Independent Study | | | | | Total all funds | $0 | $148,800 | $148,800 | | Less estimated income | | | | | General fund | $0 | $148,800 | $148,800 | | State Library | | | | | Total all funds | $5,160,201 | ($8,808) | $5,151,393 | | Less estimated income | 1,658,576 | (1,028) | 1,657,547 | | General fund | $3,501,626 | ($7,780) | $3,493,846 | | School for the Deaf | | | | | Total all funds | $6,815,119 | ($264,050) | $6,551,069 | | Less estimated income | 1,326,566 | (124,199) | 1,202,367 | | General fund | $5,488,553 | ($139,851) | $5,348,702 | North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind | Total all funds | $3,349,030 | ($5,181) | $3,343,849 | |-----------------|------------|----------|-------------| | Less estimated income | 845,535 | (1,469) | 844,066 | | General fund | 2,503,495 | (3,712) | 2,499,783 | Bill Total | Total all funds | $945,345,962 | ($6,308,299) | $938,947,663 | |-----------------|--------------|--------------|---------------| | Less estimated income | 299,707,348 | (151,587) | 299,555,761 | | General fund | 645,638,614 | ($6,246,712) | 639,391,902 | House Bill No. 1013 - Department of Public Instruction - House Action | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |------------------|---------------|---------------| | Salaries and wages | $10,057,842 | ($37,560) | $10,020,282 | | Operating expenses | 14,892,308 | 275,000 | 15,167,308 | | Grants - State school aid | 512,153,759 | (1,300,000) | 510,853,759 | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | 71,600,000 | | 71,600,000 | | Grants - Special education | 52,500,000 | | 52,500,000 | | Grants - Revenue supplement | 7,500,000 | (2,500,000) | 5,000,000 | | Grants - Teacher compensation | 50,912,120 | | 50,912,120 | | Grants - Other grants | 207,865,583 | (206,500) | 207,659,083 | | Reorganization bonuses | 500,000 | (500,000) | | | JPA incentives | 2,000,000 | (2,000,000) | | | National board certification | 40,000 | | 40,000 | Total all funds | $930,021,612 | ($6,269,060) | $923,752,552 | Less estimated income | 295,876,672 | (24,891) | 295,851,781 | General fund | 634,144,940 | ($6,244,169) | 627,900,771 | FTE | 92.75 | 0.00 | 92.75 | Dept. 201 - Department of Public Instruction - Detail of House Changes | PROVIDES FUNDING FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY STANDARDS AND TRANSPORTATION ASSESSMENTS | DECREASES FUNDING FOR TRANSPORTATION AID | REALLOCATES FUNDING FROM TRANSPORTATION AID TO OTHER STUDENT PAYMENTS | REMOVES THE FUNDING FOR REVENUE SUPPLEMENTAL PAYMENTS | INCREASE IN FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA LEAD CENTER | |-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($37,560) | | | | | | Operating expenses | | $275,000 | | | | | Grants - State school aid | | | | | | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | | | | | | | Grants - Special education | | | | | | | Grants - Revenue supplement | | | | | | | Grants - Teacher compensation | | | | | | | Grants - Other grants | | | | | | | Reorganization bonuses | | | | | | | JPA incentives | | | | | | | National board certification | | | | | | | Total all funds | ($37,560) | $275,000 | ($1,300,000) | $0 | ($2,500,000) | ($21,500) | | Less estimated income | (24,891) | | | | | | | General fund | ($12,669) | $275,000 | ($1,300,000) | $0 | ($2,500,000) | ($21,500) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | | REMOVES THE INCREASE IN FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA MUSEUM OF ART | DECREASES FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA GOVERNOR'S SCHOOL | REMOVES THE INCREASE IN FUNDING FOR THE NATIONAL WRITING PROJECTS | REMOVES FUNDING FOR REORGANIZATION BONUS PAYMENTS | REMOVES FUNDING FOR JPA INCENTIVES | TOTAL HOUSE CHANGES | |---------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($37,560) | | | | | | Operating expenses | 275,000 | | | | | | Grants - State school aid | (1,300,000) | | | | | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | | | | | | | Grants - Special education | | | | | | | Grants - Revenue supplement | | | | | | | Grants - Teacher compensation | | | | | | | Grants - Other grants | ($125,000) | ($20,000) | ($40,000) | ($500,000) | ($2,000,000) | ($6,269,060) | | Reorganization bonuses | | | | | | | | JPA incentives | | | | | | | | National board certification | | | | | | | | Total all funds | ($125,000) | ($20,000) | ($40,000) | ($500,000) | ($2,000,000) | ($6,244,169) | | Less estimated income | | | | | | | | General fund | ($125,000) | ($20,000) | ($40,000) | ($500,000) | ($2,000,000) | ($6,244,169) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1 This amendment provides funding of $275,000 from the general fund to develop standards for English language proficiency and to implement assessments that are aligned to the standards. 2 This amendment reduces funding for transportation aid payments by $1.3 million from the general fund, from $34.8 million to $33.5 million. 3 This amendment reallocates half of the funding proposed for transportation aid of $16,750,000 from transportation aid to funding for per student payments. The following is a summary of the proposed changes: | 2003-05 APPROPRIATION | 2005-07 EXECUTIVE BUDGET | 2005-07 HOUSE VERSION | INCREASE (DECREASE) COMPARED TO 2003-05 APPROPRIATION | INCREASE (DECREASE) COMPARED TO 2005-07 EXECUTIVE BUDGET | |-----------------------|--------------------------|-----------------------|------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------| | Per student payments | $453,929,990 | $476,703,759 | $22,773,769 | $22,773,769 | | Limited English proficient student payments | $650,000 | $650,000 | $0 | $0 | | Transportation | $34,800,000 | $34,800,000 | $0 | $0 | | Total | $489,379,990 | $512,153,759 | $22,773,769 | $22,773,769 | 4 This amendment reduces funding for revenue supplemental payments by $2,500,000 from the general fund, from $7,500,000 to $5,000,000, the same level of funding provided in the 2003-05 biennium. 5 This amendment removes the increase in funding of $21,500 from the general fund provided in the executive budget recommendation for the North Dakota LEAD Center. 6 This amendment removes the increase in funding of $125,000 from the general fund provided in the executive budget recommendation for the North Dakota Museum of Art's educational outreach initiative. 7 This amendment reduces funding for the North Dakota Governor's School by $20,000 from the general fund, from $270,000 to $250,000. The funding level of $250,000 represents an increase of $25,000 from the 2003-05 legislative appropriation of $225,000. 8 This amendment reduces the increase in funding of $40,000 from the general fund provided in the executive budget recommendation for the national writing projects. 9 This amendment removes the funding provided in the executive budget recommendation of $500,000 from the general fund for reorganization bonus payments. 10 This amendment removes the funding provided in the executive budget recommendation of $2,000,000 from the general fund for JPA incentives. This amendment also amends North Dakota Century Code Section 15.1-02-01 to remove the requirement that the Superintendent of Public Instruction hold a valid North Dakota professional teaching license. **House Bill No. 1013 - Division of Independent Study - House Action** | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |------------------|---------------|---------------| | North Dakota studies textbook proposal | $148,800 | $148,800 | | Total all funds | $0 | $148,800 | $148,800 | | Less estimated income | | | | | General fund | $0 | $148,800 | $148,800 | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | **Dept. 202 - Division of Independent Study - Detail of House Changes** | ADDS FUNDING FOR A NORTH DAKOTA STUDIES TEXTBOOK PROPOSAL | TOTAL HOUSE CHANGES | |----------------------------------------------------------|---------------------| | North Dakota studies textbook proposal | $148,800 | $148,800 | | Total all funds | $148,800 | $148,800 | | Less estimated income | | | | General fund | $148,800 | $148,800 | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1 This amendment provides a $148,800 general fund appropriation to the Division of Independent Study for the purpose of developing, publishing, and distributing a North Dakota studies textbook and workbook for grades 4 and 8. ### House Bill No. 1013 - State Library - House Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |--------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | Salaries and wages | $2,225,929 | ($8,808) | $2,217,121 | | Operating expenses | 1,381,772 | | 1,381,772 | | Grants | 1,552,500 | | 1,552,500 | | **Total all funds** | **$5,160,201** | ($8,808) | **$5,151,393**| | Less estimated income | 1,658,575 | (1,028) | 1,657,547 | | General fund | 3,501,626 | ($7,780) | 3,493,846 | | FTE | 28.75 | 0.00 | 28.75 | ### Dept. 250 - State Library - Detail of House Changes | | REDUCES COMPENSATION PACKAGE TO 3/4 | TOTAL HOUSE CHANGES | |--------------------------|-------------------------------------|---------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($8,808) | ($8,808) | | Operating expenses | | | | Grants | | | | **Total all funds** | ($8,808) | ($8,808) | | Less estimated income | (1,028) | (1,028) | | General fund | ($7,780) | ($7,780) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | ### House Bill No. 1013 - School for the Deaf - House Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |--------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | Salaries and wages | $5,106,474 | ($212,165) | $4,894,309 | | Operating expenses | 1,429,150 | (51,885) | 1,377,265 | | Capital assets | 279,495 | | 279,495 | | **Total all funds** | **$6,815,119** | ($264,050) | **$6,551,069**| | Less estimated income | 1,326,566 | (124,199) | 1,202,367 | | General fund | 5,488,553 | ($139,851) | 5,348,702 | | FTE | 49.94 | (2.00) | 47.94 | ### Dept. 252 - School for the Deaf - Detail of House Changes | | REDUCES COMPENSATION PACKAGE TO 3/4 | REMOVES FUNDING RELATING TO NEW OUTREACH EFFORTS ¹ | TOTAL HOUSE CHANGES | |--------------------------|-------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|---------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($11,989) | ($200,176) | ($212,165) | | Operating expenses | | (51,885) | (51,885) | | Capital assets | | | | | **Total all funds** | ($11,989) | ($252,061) | ($264,050) | | Less estimated income | (772) | (123,427) | (124,199) | | General fund | ($11,217) | ($128,634) | ($139,851) | | FTE | 0.00 | (2.00) | (2.00) | ¹ This amendment removes funding totaling $252,061 relating to the school's new outreach efforts to individuals who are over 21 years of age, including funding of $200,176, of which $76,749 is from the general fund and $123,427 is from special funds for 2 FTE positions and $51,885 for operating expenses. ### House Bill No. 1013 - North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind - House Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |--------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | Salaries and wages | $2,674,254 | ($5,181) | $2,669,073 | | Operating expenses | 607,306 | | 607,306 | | Capital assets | 67,470 | | 67,470 | | **Total all funds** | **$3,349,030** | ($5,181) | **$3,343,849**| | Less estimated income | 845,535 | (1,469) | 844,066 | | General fund | 2,503,495 | ($3,712) | 2,499,783 | | Description | Reduces Compensation Package to 3/4 | Total House Changes | |-----------------------------|-------------------------------------|---------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($5,181) | ($5,181) | | Operating expenses | | | | Capital assets | | | | Total all funds | ($5,181) | ($5,181) | | Less estimated income | (1,469) | (1,469) | | General fund | ($3,712) | ($3,712) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2005 HOUSE STANDING COMMITTEE ROLL CALL VOTES BILL/RESOLUTION NO. HB1013 House Appropriations Education and Environment ☐ Check here for Conference Committee Legislative Council Amendment Number Action Taken DO PASS ON AMENDMENTS Motion Made By FW Seconded By ER | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Chairman Martinson | ✔ | | | Vice Chairman Brusegaard | absent | | | Rep. Rennerfeldt | ✔ | | | Rep. Wald | ✔ | | | Rep. Aarsvold | ✔ | | | Rep. Gulleson | ✔ | | Total 6 (Yes) 3 No 2 Absent 1 Floor Assignment If the vote is on an amendment, briefly indicate intent: YES 2005 HOUSE STANDING COMMITTEE ROLL CALL VOTES BILL/RESOLUTION NO. HB103 House Appropriations Education and Environment ☐ Check here for Conference Committee Legislative Council Amendment Number Action Taken Do Pass as amended Motion Made By FW Seconded By ER | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Chairman Martinson | | | | Vice Chairman Brusegaard | | | | Rep. Rennerfeldt | | | | Rep. Wald | | | | Representatives | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | Rep. Aarsvold | | | | Rep. Gulleson | | | Total 6 (Yes) 3 No 9 Absent 1 Floor Assignment Brusegaard If the vote is on an amendment, briefly indicate intent: 2005 HOUSE STANDING COMMITTEE ROLL CALL VOTES BILL/RESOLUTION NO. HB1013 House Appropriations - Full Committee Legislative Council Amendment Number 58036.0109 Action Taken DO PASS AS AMENDED Motion Made By Rep Brusegaard Seconded By Rep Martinson | Representatives | Yes | No | |----------------------------------|-----|----| | Rep. Ken Svedjan, Chairman | X | | | Rep. Mike Timm, Vice Chairman | X | | | Rep. Bob Martinson | X | | | Rep. Tom Brusegaard | X | | | Rep. Earl Rennerfeldt | X | | | Rep. Francis J. Wald | X | | | Rep. Ole Aarsvold | X | | | Rep. Pam Gulleson | X | | | Rep. Ron Carlisle | X | | | Rep. Keith Kempenich | X | | | Rep. Blair Thoreson | X | | | Rep. Joe Kroeber | | X | | Rep. Clark Williams | | X | | Rep. Al Carlson | | X | | Rep. Bob Skarphol | | X | | Rep. David Monson | | X | | Rep. Eliot Glassheim | | X | | Rep. Jeff Delzer | | X | | Rep. Chet Pollert | | X | | Rep. Larry Bellew | | X | | Rep. Alon C. Wieland | | X | | Rep. James Kerzman | | X | | Rep. Ralph Metcalf | | X | Total Yes 15 No 8 Absent 0 Floor Assignment Rep Brusegaard If the vote is on an amendment, briefly indicate intent: HB 1013: Appropriations Committee (Rep. Svedjan, Chairman) recommends AMENDMENTS AS FOLLOWS and when so amended, recommends DO PASS (15 YEAS, 8 NAYS, 0 ABSENT AND NOT VOTING). HB 1013 was placed on the Sixth order on the calendar. Page 1, line 3, after the first semicolon insert "to provide an appropriation to the division of independent study;" Page 1, line 4, replace "section" with "sections 15.1-02-01 and" and after the second "the" insert "qualifications and the" Page 3, line 6, replace "780,156" with "742,596" Page 3, line 7, replace "1,834,485" with "2,109,485" Page 3, line 9, replace "22,773,769" with "21,473,769" Page 3, remove line 12 Page 3, line 14, replace "25,610,339" with "25,403,839" Page 3, after line 14, insert: "Reorganization bonuses (500,000)" Page 3, remove line 16 Page 3, line 18, replace "59,237,803" with "52,968,743" Page 3, line 19, replace "29,817,869" with "29,792,978" Page 3, line 20, replace "29,419,934" with "23,175,765" Page 3, line 23, replace "147,358" with "138,550" Page 3, line 26, replace "503,176" with "494,368" Page 3, line 27, replace "28,596" with "27,568" Page 3, line 28, replace "474,580" with "466,800" Page 4, line 1, replace "296,666" with "84,501" Page 4, line 2, replace "326,990" with "275,105" Page 4, line 4, replace "870,428" with "606,378" Page 4, line 5, replace "455,117" with "330,918" Page 4, line 6, replace "415,311" with "275,460" Page 4, line 9, replace "133,962" with "128,781" Page 4, line 12, replace "91,822" with "86,641" Page 4, line 13, replace "(321,848)" with "(323,317)" Page 4, line 14, replace "413,670" with "409,958" Page 4, line 15, replace "30,723,495" with "24,327,983" Page 4, line 16, replace "29,979,734" with "29,828,147" Page 4, line 17, replace "60,703,229" with "54,156,130" Page 4, line 27, replace "10,057,842" with "10,020,282" Page 4, line 28, replace "14,892,308" with "15,167,308" Page 4, line 29, replace "512,153,759" with "510,853,759" Page 5, line 1, replace "7,500,000" with "5,000,000" Page 5, line 3, replace "207,865,583" with "207,659,083" Page 5, remove lines 4 and 5 Page 5, line 7, replace "930,021,612" with "923,752,552" Page 5, line 8, replace "295,876,672" with "295,851,781" Page 5, line 9, replace "634,144,940" with "627,900,771" Page 5, line 12, replace "2,225,929" with "2,217,121" Page 5, line 15, replace "5,160,201" with "5,151,393" Page 5, line 16, replace "1,658,575" with "1,657,547" Page 5, line 17, replace "3,501,626" with "3,493,846" Page 5, line 20, replace "5,106,474" with "4,894,309" Page 5, line 21, replace "1,429,150" with "1,377,265" Page 5, line 23, replace "6,815,119" with "6,551,069" Page 5, line 24, replace "1,326,566" with "1,202,367" Page 5, line 25, replace "5,488,553" with "5,348,702" Page 5, line 28, replace "2,674,254" with "2,669,073" Page 5, line 31, replace "3,349,030" with "3,343,849" Page 6, line 1, replace "845,535" with "844,066" Page 6, line 2, replace "2,503,495" with "2,499,783" Page 6, after line 2, insert: "SECTION 4. APPROPRIATION. There is appropriated out of any moneys in the general fund in the state treasury, not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $148,800, or so much of the sum as may be necessary, to the division of independent study for the purpose of developing, publishing, and distributing a North Dakota studies textbook and workbook for both grades four and eight, for the biennium beginning July 1, 2005, and ending June 30, 2007." Page 6, line 3, replace "645,638,614" with "639,391,902" Page 6, line 4, replace "299,707,348" with "299,555,761" Page 6, line 5, replace "945,345,962" with "938,947,663" Page 7, after line 28, insert: "SECTION 13. AMENDMENT. Section 15.1-02-01 of the North Dakota Century Code is amended and reenacted as follows: 15.1-02-01. Superintendent of public instruction - Qualifications. The qualified electors of this state shall elect a superintendent of public instruction at the appropriate general election. The superintendent must be at least twenty-five years of age on the day of the election; and have the qualifications of an elector for that office; and hold a valid North Dakota professional teaching license on the day of the election and at all times during the superintendent's term of office." Page 8, line 2, replace "eighty" with "seventy-nine", replace "five" with "seven", and replace "thirty-one" with "fifty-seven" Page 8, line 3, replace "may not exceed eighty-three" with "eighty-two", remove the overstrike over "nine", and remove "seven" Page 8, line 4, replace "fifty-two" with "forty-seven" Renumber accordingly STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF AMENDMENT: House Bill No. 1013 - Summary of House Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |--------------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | Department of Public Instruction| | | | | Total all funds | $930,021,612 | ($5,259,060) | $924,752,552 | | Less estimated income | 295,876,672 | (24,891) | 295,851,781 | | General fund | $634,144,940 | ($6,244,159) | $627,900,771 | | Division of Independent Study | | | | | Total all funds | $0 | $148,800 | $148,800 | | Less estimated income | | | | | General fund | $0 | $148,800 | $148,800 | | State Library | | | | | Total all funds | $5,160,201 | ($3,808) | $5,151,393 | | Less estimated income | 1,658,575 | (1,028) | 1,657,547 | | General fund | $3,501,526 | ($7,730) | $3,493,746 | | School for the Deaf | | | | | Total all funds | $6,815,119 | ($264,050) | $6,551,069 | | Less estimated income | 1,326,566 | (124,199) | 1,202,357 | | General fund | $5,488,553 | ($139,851) | $5,348,702 | | North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind | | | | | Total all funds | $3,349,030 | ($5,181) | $3,343,849 | | Less estimated income | 845,535 | (1,469) | 844,066 | | General fund | $2,503,495 | ($3,712) | $2,499,783 | Bill Total Total all funds $945,345,962 ($6,398,299) $938,947,663 House Bill No. 1013 - Department of Public Instruction - House Action | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |------------------|---------------|---------------| | Salaries and wages | $10,057,842 | ($37,560) | $10,020,282 | | Operating expenses | 14,892,308 | 275,000 | 15,167,308 | | Grants - State school aid | 51,633,759 | (1,300,000) | 50,333,759 | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | 71,600,000 | | 71,600,000 | | Grants - Special education | 52,500,000 | | 52,500,000 | | Grants - Revenue supplement | 7,500,000 | (2,500,000) | 5,000,000 | | Grants - Teacher compensation | 50,912,120 | | 50,912,120 | | Grants - Other grants | 207,865,583 | (206,500) | 207,659,083 | | Reorganization bonuses | 500,000 | (500,000) | | | JPA incentives | 2,000,000 | (2,000,000) | | | National board certification | 40,000 | | 40,000 | | **Total all funds** | **$930,021,612** | **($6,259,060)** | **$923,752,552** | | Less estimated income | 295,876,672 | (24,891) | 295,851,781 | | General fund | $634,144,940 | ($6,244,169) | $627,900,771 | | FTE | 92.75 | 0.00 | 92.75 | Dept. 201 - Department of Public Instruction - Detail of House Changes | REDUCES COMPENSATION PACKAGE TO 3/4 | PROVIDES FUNDING FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENTS 1 | FROM DECREASES FUNDING FOR TRANSPORTATION AID 2 | REALLOCATES FUNDING FROM TRANSPORTATION AID TO PER STUDENT PAYMENTS 3 | REMOVES THE FUNDING FOR REVENUE SUPPLEMENTARY PAYMENTS 4 | INCREASE IN FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA LEAD CENTER 5 | |------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($37,560) | $275,000 | ($1,300,000) | $0 | ($2,500,000) | ($21,500) | | Operating expenses | | | | | | | | Grants - State school aid | | | | | | | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | | | | | | | | Grants - Special education | | | | | | | | Grants - Revenue supplement | | | | | | | | Grants - Teacher compensation | | | | | | | | Grants - Other grants | | | | | | | | Reorganization bonuses | | | | | | | | JPA incentives | | | | | | | | National board certification | | | | | | | | **Total all funds** | **($37,560)** | **$275,000** | **($1,300,000)** | **$0** | **($2,500,000)** | **($21,500)** | | Less estimated income | (24,891) | | | | | | | General fund | ($12,669) | $275,000 | ($1,300,000) | $0 | ($2,500,000) | ($21,500) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | | REMOVES THE INCREASE IN FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA MUSEUM OF ART 6 | DECREASES FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA GOVERNOR'S SCHOOL 7 | REMOVES THE INCREASE IN FUNDING FOR THE NATIONAL WRITING PROJECTS 8 | REMOVES FUNDING FOR REORGANIZATION BONUS PAYMENTS 9 | REMOVES FUNDING FOR JPA INCENTIVES 10 | TOTAL HOUSE CHANGES | |---------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($37,560) | | | | | | Operating expenses | 275,000 | | | | | | Grants - State school aid | | | | | | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | | | | | | | Grants - Special education | | | | | | | Grants - Revenue supplement | | | | | | | Grants - Teacher compensation | | | | | | | Grants - Other grants | ($125,000) | ($20,000) | ($40,000) | ($500,000) | ($2,000,000) | ($6,269,060) | | Reorganization bonuses | | | | | | | | JPA incentives | | | | | | | | National board certification | | | | | | | | **Total all funds** | **($125,000)** | **($20,000)** | **($40,000)** | **($500,000)** | **($2,000,000)** | **($6,269,060)** | | Less estimated income | | | | | | (24,891) | (2) DESK, (3) COMM. 1 This amendment provides funding of $275,000 from the general fund to develop standards for English language proficiency and to implement assessments that are aligned to the standards. 2 This amendment reduces funding for transportation aid payments by $1.3 million from the general fund, from $34.8 million to $33.5 million. 3 This amendment reallocates half of the funding proposed for transportation aid of $16,750,000 from transportation aid to funding for per student payments. The following is a summary of the proposed changes: | | 2003-05 APPROPRIATION | 2005-07 EXECUTIVE BUDGET | 2005-07 HOUSE VERSION | INCREASE (DECREASE) COMPARED TO 2003-05 APPROPRIATION | INCREASE (DECREASE) COMPARED TO 2005-07 EXECUTIVE BUDGET | |----------------------|-----------------------|--------------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------| | Per student payments | $453,929,990 | $476,703,759 | $493,453,759 | $39,523,769 | $16,750,000 | | Limited English proficient student payments | $650,000 | $650,000 | $650,000 | | | | Transportation | $34,800,000 | $34,800,000 | $16,750,000 | $(18,050,000) | $(18,050,000) | | Total | $489,379,990 | $512,153,759 | $510,853,759 | $21,473,769 | $(1,300,000) | 4 This amendment reduces funding for revenue supplemental payments by $2,500,000 from the general fund, from $7,500,000 to $5,000,000, the same level of funding provided in the 2003-05 biennium. 5 This amendment removes the increase in funding of $21,500 from the general fund provided in the executive budget recommendation for the North Dakota LEAD Center. 6 This amendment removes the increase in funding of $125,000 from the general fund provided in the executive budget recommendation for the North Dakota Museum of Art's educational outreach initiative. 7 This amendment reduces funding for the North Dakota Governor's School by $20,000 from the general fund, from $270,000 to $250,000. The funding level of $250,000 represents an increase of $25,000 from the 2003-05 legislative appropriation of $225,000. 8 This amendment reduces the increase in funding of $40,000 from the general fund provided in the executive budget recommendation for the national writing projects. 9 This amendment removes the funding provided in the executive budget recommendation of $500,000 from the general fund for reorganization bonus payments. 10 This amendment removes the funding provided in the executive budget recommendation of $2,000,000 from the general fund for JPA incentives. This amendment also amends North Dakota Century Code Section 15.1-02-01 to remove the requirement that the Superintendent of Public Instruction hold a valid North Dakota professional teaching license. House Bill No. 1013 - Division of Independent Study - House Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |--------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | North Dakota studies textbook proposal | _______ | $148,800 | $148,800 | | Total all funds | $0 | $148,800 | $148,800 | | Less estimated income | _______ | | | | General fund | $0 | $148,800 | $148,800 | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | Dept. 202 - Division of Independent Study - Detail of House Changes ### House Bill No. 1013 - State Library - House Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |--------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | Salaries and wages | $2,225,929 | ($8,808) | $2,217,121 | | Operating expenses | 1,381,772 | | 1,381,772 | | Grants | 1,552,500 | | 1,552,500 | | **Total all funds** | **$5,160,201** | **($8,808)** | **$5,151,393**| | Less estimated income | 1,658,575 | (1,028) | 1,657,547 | | General fund | 3,501,626 | ($7,780) | 3,493,846 | | FTE | 28.75 | 0.00 | 28.75 | ### Dept. 250 - State Library - Detail of House Changes | | REDUCES COMPENSATION PACKAGE TO 3/4 | TOTAL HOUSE CHANGES | |--------------------------|-------------------------------------|---------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($8,808) | ($8,808) | | Operating expenses | | | | Grants | | | | **Total all funds** | **($8,808)** | **($8,808)** | | Less estimated income | (1,028) | (1,028) | | General fund | ($7,780) | ($7,780) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | ### House Bill No. 1013 - School for the Deaf - House Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |--------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | Salaries and wages | $5,106,474 | ($212,165) | $4,894,309 | | Operating expenses | 1,420,150 | (51,885) | 1,377,265 | | Capital assets | 279,495 | | 279,495 | | **Total all funds** | **$6,815,119** | **($264,050)**| **$6,551,069**| | Less estimated income | 1,326,566 | (124,199) | 1,202,367 | | General fund | 5,488,553 | ($139,851) | 5,348,702 | | FTE | 49.94 | (2.00) | 47.94 | ### Dept. 252 - School for the Deaf - Detail of House Changes | | REMOVES FUNDING | |--------------------------|-----------------| | (2) DESK, (3) COMM | | ### REPORT OF STANDING COMMITTEE (410) February 16, 2005 3:31 p.m. | | REDUCES COMPENSATION PACKAGE TO 3/4 | RELATING TO NEW OUTREACH EFFORTS ¹ | TOTAL HOUSE CHANGES | |------------------------|-------------------------------------|------------------------------------|---------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($11,989) | ($200,176) | ($212,165) | | Operating expenses | | ($51,885) | ($51,885) | | Capital assets | | | | | Total all funds | ($11,989) | ($252,061) | ($264,050) | | Less estimated income | (772) | (123,427) | (124,199) | | General fund | ($11,217) | ($128,634) | ($139,851) | | FTE | 0.00 | (2.00) | (2.00) | ¹ This amendment removes funding totaling $252,061 relating to the school's new outreach efforts to individuals who are over 21 years of age, including funding of $200,176, of which $76,749 is from the general fund and $123,427 is from special funds for 2 FTE positions and $51,885 for operating expenses. --- **House Bill No. 1013 - North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind - House Action** | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE CHANGES | HOUSE VERSION | |------------------------|------------------|---------------|---------------| | Salaries and wages | $2,674,254 | ($5,181) | $2,669,073 | | Operating expenses | 607,306 | | 607,306 | | Capital assets | 67,470 | | 67,470 | | Total all funds | $3,349,030 | ($5,181) | $3,343,849 | | Less estimated income | 845,535 | (1,469) | 844,066 | | General fund | $2,503,495 | ($3,712) | $2,499,783 | | FTE | 26.95 | 0.00 | 26.95 | --- **Dept. 253 - North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind - Detail of House Changes** | | REDUCES COMPENSATION PACKAGE TO 3/4 | TOTAL HOUSE CHANGES | |------------------------|-------------------------------------|---------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($5,181) | ($5,181) | | Operating expenses | | | | Capital assets | | | | Total all funds | ($5,181) | ($5,181) | | Less estimated income | (1,469) | (1,469) | | General fund | ($3,712) | ($3,712) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2005 SENATE APPROPRIATIONS HB 1013 Chairman Holmberg opened the discussion on HB 1013 with the distribution of amendments. Senator Kringstad moved approval of the amendment. Senator Bowman seconded. Senator Holmberg indicated the amendments include the standard reduction in health insurance, reduce funding for salary and wages, reduction in funding for operating expenses but the money for that is plowed back into the budget, Money from the Tuition apportionment and Grants for teacher compensation and put into state school aid plus an additional $5 million in that column. The next items were in the Governor’s budget, but removed by the house which included $20,000 for the Lead Center, restored an increase in funding for rural outreach for ND Museum of Art, restored funding for the Governor’s School, restored the increase in funding for the national writing projects, and added funds for adult education. The overall change was slightly under $5 million. The State Library change was the health insurance reduction. The school for the Deaf change was health insurance reduction and an amendment was added to study coordination of services across the state. The amendment adds $15 million dollars of spending authority to the Department to the current biennium and adds the emergency clause to that section because estimates were done so far ahead of the needs. The other change was the qualifications of the superintendents was changed back. The term civic education was added to the new publication of the North Dakota text book. Senator Mathern asked about money appropriated for English learners and an additional $275,000. The response was it was in the bill and the $275,000 was put back in the budget. A voice vote was taken on the amendment. The motion carried. Senator Tallackson moved a DO PASS AS AMENDED, Senator Andrist seconded. A roll call vote was taken resulting in 14 yes, 1 no, and 0 absent. The motion carried and Senator Holmberg will carry the bill. Chairman Holmberg closed the discussion on HB 1013. Minutes: Chairman Holmberg opened discussion of HB 1013. Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead, State Superintendent, Department of Public Instruction, appeared in support of HB 1013. Dr. Sanstad provided the committee with a brief overview of the agencies budget request, written testimony was provided see appendix I. Dr. Sanstad stated that it is very important that the state provides funding for special education services for students with disabilities by 20.2%. He then went on to make introductions for the following testifiers from the Department of Public Instruction. Statements of clarification were made regarding section 13 of the bill, and why the stein was added by the House. Joe Wesbey Executive Director of NDEA, appeared in support for the removal of Section 13. Sen. Grindberg: Does a Super Intended need liscenser to be a Superintendant? Mr. Wesbey: Yes. Dr. Sanstead: ND requires the highest teacher liscenser for uniform chiefs. For appointed chiefs the language has been taken out. Beverly Nealson, School Board Association, appeared in support of removing section 13 of HB 1013, stating that they prefer to have both an administrative background and education background requirement. Dr. Gaylan Becker, High School councilor, appeared in support of removing section 13 of HB 1013. Dr. Becker recommended that requirement be “highly qualified.” Written testimony was provided, see appendix II. Sen. Robinson: Salary must equal requirements of the position, correct. Dr. Becker: I agree, that it should be. Mary Wahl, ND Council of School Administrators appeared in support of removing section 13 for the bill, stating that they should require administrative experience as well as teacher licenser. Doris Ott, State Librarian appeared in support of HB 1013. Ms. Out supplied the committee with written testimony, see appendix III. Ms. Out spoke of their budget, she mentioned due to low salary they are experiencing a high turnover rate in their employees. Kellie Steffan and Larissa Heil, appeared in support of HB 1013. Written testimony was provided, which was read verbatim, see appendix IV. Marliene Anderson President ND library Association appeared in support of HB 1013. Written testimony was provided, see appendix V. Ms. Anderson read testimony verbatim. Sen. Mathern: Are there areas of meeting long range goals, where we are lacking in funding, which would hinder those goals. Ms. Anderson: The funding for salaries. Bonnie Miller, Fiscal Director Department of Public Instruction appeared in support of HB 1013. Ms. Miller made introductions for the following speakers. Rocklyn G. Cofer, Superintendent, ND School For the Deaf appeared in support of HB 1013. Written testimony was provided, see appendix VI. Mr. Cofer’s testimony included a report of outcomes/recommendations. In this report he mentioned, expansion of outreach services, legislation to expand into adult services, reduction of staff through attrition and retirement incentives/buyouts, consolidation of dorm spaces, consolidation of classroom spaces, lease of unused space, development of a fee schedule for facilities used, development of partnerships and collaborations with local agencies to share costs/staff, development of an energy management plan, and the budget request for the school. Sen Robinson: Why do you offer early retirements of qualified staff? Mr. Cofer: We do have a difficult time getting qualified staff, we need to offer incentives, I believe it is fair to our staff. Greg Gallager appeared in support of HB 1013. Mr. Gallager provided the committee with written testimony, which was attached to appendix II. Mr. Gallager spoke of priority number one, the $600,000 mentioned on page 15 of his testimony. Doug McCory, Department of Public Instruction, appeared in support of HB 1013. Mr. McCory spoke of priority number two, on page 15 of appendix II. Carmen Grove Suminsku appeared in support of HB 1013. Written testimony, which was read verbatim was provided see appendix VII. Tami Purcell appeared in support of HB 1013. Ms. Purcell spoke of page 5, of appendix VII and page 6 of Appendix VII. Sen. Trainer, District 15, appeared in support of ND school for the deaf, in HB 1013. No questions were asked of Sen. Trainer. Doug Johnson, ND LEAD Consortium appeared in support of HB 1013. Written testimony, which was read verbatim was provided see appendix VIII. Lonnie Haas, Director of ND Governor's School appeared in support of HB 1013. Written testimony was provided, see appendix IX. Mr. Haas spoke regarding the appropriation for the Arts and Theater portion of the school. Brainne Huber, Junior, Wishek High School appeared in support of HB 1013, the Arts and Theater portion of the school. Written testimony was provided see appendix X. Ms. Huber read excerpts of her testimony to the committee. Sen Andrist: Mr. Haas, is there an participation cost? Mr. Haas: Only cost is the transportation cost to get to the school, everything else is supported by the program. Dr. Robert Kibler, Northern Plains Writing Project appeared in support of HB 1013. Dr. Kibler, spoke of the governor’s budget makes up half of the funds that are needed. Janet Placek Welk, Executive Director (ESPB) appeared in support of HB 1013. Ms. Welk supplied the committee with written testimony, see appendix XI. Ms. Welk asked for $50,000 to be able to cover additional assessment fees, fees for processing, the fees of retakes candidate, and the stipend for those teachers that will complete the process successfully. Sen. Bowman: What does the teacher do after they are certified? Ms. Welk: Because of the process they go through, they are a different teacher. Sen. Bowman: Is this because a lack of the right curriculum in college? Ms. Welk: When they graduate, they are minimally qualified. Michele Vannote, Principle, Fargo, ND appeared in support of HB 1013. Ms. Vannote provided the committee with written testimony and it was signed by numerous educators, see appendix XII. Ms. Vannote stated that it is important to maintain line item of $250,000, because the House killed HB 1373. Ms. Vannote also stated that they have not received adequate funding since 1973. Sen. Mathern: How many languages are represented in the 700 refugees you mentioned in your testimony? Ms. Vannote: About 27. Chairman Holmberg noted that the House also added money for a new textbook on ND History in the bill. No further questions were asked of Ms. Vannote. Chairman Holmberg closed meeting on HB 1013. 2005 SENATE STANDING COMMITTEE ROLL CALL VOTES BILL/RESOLUTION NO. SB 10/3 Senate SENATE APPROPRIATIONS Committee Check here for Conference Committee Legislative Council Amendment Number Action Taken Motion Made By TALL Seconded By ANDRIST Senators Yes No Senators Yes No CHAIRMAN HOLMBERG / SENATOR KRAUTER / VICE CHAIRMAN BOWMAN / SENATOR LINDAAS / VICE CHAIRMAN GRINDBERG / SENATOR MATHERN / SENATOR ANDRIST / SENATOR ROBINSON / SENATOR CHRISTMANN / SEN. TALLACKSON / SENATOR FISCHER / SENATOR KILZER / SENATOR KRINGSTAD / SENATOR SCHOBINGER / SENATOR THANE / Total (Yes) 14 No 1 Absent Floor Assignment Holmberg If the vote is on an amendment, briefly indicate intent: REPORT OF STANDING COMMITTEE HB 1013, as engrossed: Appropriations Committee (Sen. Holmberg, Chairman) recommends AMENDMENTS AS FOLLOWS and when so amended, recommends DO PASS (14 YEAS, 1 NAY, 0 ABSENT AND NOT VOTING). Engrossed HB 1013 was placed on the Sixth order on the calendar. Page 1, line 4, replace the first "and" with "to provide for a legislative council study;" and replace "sections" with "section" Page 1, line 5, remove "15.1-02-01 and" and remove "the qualifications and" Page 1, line 6, after "instruction" insert "; and to declare an emergency" Page 3, line 8, replace "742,596" with "696,239" Page 3, line 9, replace "2,109,485" with "1,834,485" Page 3, line 11, replace "21,473,769" with "63,227,405" Page 3, line 12, replace "2,104,629" with "(19,375,371)" Page 3, line 14, replace "(941,880)" with "(16,215,516)" Page 3, line 15, replace "25,403,839" with "25,693,839" Page 3, line 19, replace "52,968,743" with "57,937,386" Page 3, line 20, replace "29,792,978" with "29,784,889" Page 3, line 21, replace "23,175,765" with "28,152,497" Page 3, line 24, replace "138,550" with "135,555" Page 3, line 27, replace "494,368" with "491,373" Page 3, line 28, replace "27,568" with "27,194" Page 3, line 29, replace "466,800" with "464,179" Page 4, line 1, replace "84,501" with "77,887" Page 4, line 4, replace "606,378" with "599,764" Page 4, line 5, replace "330,918" with "330,793" Page 4, line 6, replace "275,460" with "268,971" Page 4, line 9, replace "128,781" with "145,411" Page 4, line 12, replace "86,641" with "103,271" Page 4, line 13, replace "(323,317)" with "(323,935)" Page 4, line 14, replace "409,958" with "427,206" Page 4, line 15, replace "24,327,983" with "29,312,853" Page 4, line 16, replace "29,828,147" with "29,818,941" Page 4, line 17, replace "54,156,130" with "59,131,794" Page 4, line 27, replace "10,020,282" with "9,973,925" Page 4, line 28, replace "15,167,308" with "14,892,308" Page 4, line 29, replace "510,853,759" with "552,607,395" Page 4, line 30, replace "71,600,000" with "50,120,000" Page 5, line 2, replace "50,912,120" with "35,638,484" Page 5, line 3, replace "207,659,083" with "207,949,083" Page 5, line 5, replace "923,752,552" with "928,721,195" Page 5, line 6, replace "295,851,781" with "295,843,692" Page 5, line 7, replace "627,900,771" with "632,877,503" Page 5, line 10, replace "2,217,121" with "2,214,126" Page 5, line 13, replace "5,151,393" with "5,148,398" Page 5, line 14, replace "1,657,547" with "1,657,173" Page 5, line 15, replace "3,493,846" with "3,491,225" Page 5, line 18, replace "4,894,309" with "4,887,695" Page 5, line 21, replace "6,551,069" with "6,544,455" Page 5, line 22, replace "1,202,367" with "1,202,242" Page 5, line 23, replace "5,348,702" with "5,342,213" Page 5, line 26, replace "2,669,073" with "2,685,703" Page 5, line 29, replace "3,343,849" with "3,360,479" Page 5, line 30, replace "844,066" with "843,448" Page 5, line 31, replace "2,499,783" with "2,517,031" Page 6, line 4, after "workbook" insert "including civic education" Page 6, line 6, replace "639,391,902" with "644,376,772" Page 6, line 7, replace "299,555,761" with "299,546,555" Page 6, line 8, replace "938,947,663" with "943,923,327" Page 6, after line 8, insert: "SECTION 5. APPROPRIATION. There is appropriated from special funds derived from federal funds and other income the sum of $15,000,000, or so much of the sum as may be necessary, to the superintendent of public instruction for the purpose of providing grants for the period beginning with the effective date of this Act and ending June 30, 2005." Page 8, replace lines 3 through 10 with: "SECTION 14. LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL STUDY - SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF AND VISION SERVICES - SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND. The legislative council shall consider studying, during the 2005-06 interim, the potential for cooperative field service delivery between vision services - school for the blind and the school for the deaf. The legislative council shall report its findings and recommendations, together with any legislation required to implement the recommendations, to the sixtieth legislative assembly." Page 8, after line 17, insert: "SECTION 16. EMERGENCY. Section 5 of this Act is declared to be an emergency measure." Renumber accordingly STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF AMENDMENT: House Bill No. 1013 - Summary of Senate Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | SENATE CHANGES | SENATE VERSION | |--------------------------------|------------------|---------------|----------------|----------------| | Department of Public Instruction | | | | | | Total all funds | $930,021,612 | $923,752,552 | $4,968,643 | $928,721,195 | | Less estimated income | 295,876,672 | 295,851,781 | (8,089) | 295,843,692 | | General fund | $634,144,940 | $627,900,771 | $4,976,732 | $632,877,503 | | Division of Independent Study | | | | | | Total all funds | $0 | $148,800 | $0 | $148,800 | | Less estimated income | $0 | $148,800 | $0 | $148,800 | | General fund | $0 | $148,800 | $0 | $148,800 | | State Library | | | | | | Total all funds | $5,160,201 | $5,151,393 | ($2,995) | $5,148,398 | | Less estimated income | 1,658,576 | 1,657,547 | (1,024) | 1,657,173 | | General fund | $3,501,626 | $3,493,846 | ($2,521) | $3,491,225 | | School for the Deaf | | | | | | Total all funds | $6,815,119 | $6,551,069 | ($6,614) | $6,544,455 | | Less estimated income | 1,326,566 | 1,202,357 | (125) | 1,202,242 | | General fund | $5,488,553 | $5,348,702 | ($6,489) | $5,342,213 | | North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind | | | | | | Total all funds | $3,349,030 | $3,343,849 | $16,530 | $3,360,479 | | Less estimated income | 845,535 | 844,056 | (619) | 843,448 | | General fund | $2,503,495 | $2,499,783 | $17,248 | $2,517,031 | | Bill Total | | | | | | Total all funds | $945,345,982 | $938,947,669 | $4,975,664 | $943,923,327 | | Less estimated income | 299,707,346 | 299,555,761 | (9,296) | 299,546,555 | | General fund | $645,638,614 | $639,391,902 | $4,984,570 | $644,376,772 | House Bill No. 1013 - Department of Public Instruction - Senate Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | SENATE CHANGES | SENATE VERSION | |--------------------------------|------------------|---------------|----------------|----------------| | Salaries and wages | $10,057,842 | $10,020,282 | ($46,357) | $9,973,925 | ### REPORT OF STANDING COMMITTEE (410) March 31, 2005 8:10 a.m. | Description | 2004-05 | 2005-06 | Change | 2004-05 | |--------------------------------------------------|---------|---------|----------|---------| | Operating expenses | 14,892,308 | 15,167,308 | (275,000) | 14,892,308 | | Grants - State school aid | 512,153,759 | 510,853,759 | 41,753,636 | 552,607,395 | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | 71,600,000 | 71,600,000 | (21,480,000) | 50,120,000 | | Grants - Special education | 52,500,000 | 52,500,000 | | 52,500,000 | | Grants - Revenue supplement | 7,500,000 | 5,000,000 | | 5,000,000 | | Grants - Teacher compensation | 50,912,120 | 50,912,120 | (15,273,636) | 35,638,484 | | Grants - Other grants | 207,345,983 | 207,559,083 | 290,000 | 207,345,983 | | Reorganization bonuses | 500,000 | | | | | JPA incentives | 2,000,000 | | | | | National board certification | 40,000 | 40,000 | | 40,000 | **Total all funds** | $930,021,612 | $923,752,552 | $4,968,643 | $928,721,195 | **Less estimated income** | 295,876,672 | 295,851,781 | (8,089) | 295,843,692 | **General fund** | $634,144,940 | $627,900,771 | $4,976,732 | $632,877,503 | **FTE** | 92.75 | 92.75 | 0.00 | 92.75 | ### Dept. 201 - Department of Public Instruction - Detail of Senate Changes | Description | REDUCES RECOMMENDED FUNDING FOR HEALTH INSURANCE | REDUCES FUNDING FOR SALARIES AND WAGES | REDUCES FUNDING FOR OPERATING EXPENSES | REALLOCATES AND INCREASES FUNDING FOR STATE SCHOOL AID | RESTORES FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA LEAD CENTER | RESTORES THE INCREASE IN FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA MUSEUM OF ART | |--------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($11,357) | ($35,000) | ($275,000) | $41,753,636 | (21,480,000) | $125,000 | | Operating expenses | | | | $5,000,000 | $20,000 | $125,000 | | Grants - State school aid | | | | | | | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | | | | | | | | Grants - Special education | | | | | | | | Grants - Revenue supplement | | | | | | | | Grants - Teacher compensation | | | | | | | | Grants - Other grants | | | | | | | | Reorganization bonuses | | | | | | | | JPA incentives | | | | | | | | National board certification | | | | | | | **Total all funds** | ($11,357) | ($35,000) | ($275,000) | $5,000,000 | $20,000 | $125,000 | **Less estimated income** | (8,089) | | | | | | **General fund** | ($3,268) | ($35,000) | ($275,000) | $5,000,000 | $20,000 | $125,000 | **FTE** | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1 This amendment reduces funding for operating expenses by $275,000 from the general fund. 2 This amendment reallocates funding from tuition apportionment payments ($21,480,000) and teacher compensation payments ($15,273,636) to state school aid payments and increases funding from the general fund for state school aid payments. The following is a summary of the changes: | | 2005-07 EXECUTIVE BUDGET | 2005-07 HOUSE VERSION | 2005-07 SENATE VERSION | |--------------------------------|--------------------------|-----------------------|------------------------| | State school aid | | | | | Per student payments | $476,703,759 | $493,453,759 | $518,457,395 | | Limited English proficient | 650,000 | 650,000 | 650,000 | | student payments | | | | | Transportation aid payments | 34,800,000 | 16,750,000 | 33,500,000 | | Total state school aid | $512,153,759 | $510,853,759 | $528,607,395 | | Tuition apportionment | $71,800,000 | $71,800,000 | $50,120,000 | | Teacher compensation payments | 50,912,120 | 50,912,120 | 35,638,484 | | Total | $633,865,879 | $633,365,879 | $638,365,879 | 3 This amendment restores funding of $20,000 from the general fund for the North Dakota LEAD Center. The House removed the increase in funding of $21,500 from the general fund provided in the executive budget recommendation for the center. 4 This amendment restores funding of $125,000 from the general fund for the North Dakota Museum of Art educational outreach initiative. The House removed the increase in funding provided in the executive budget recommendation for the initiative. 5 This amendment restores funding of $20,000 from the general fund for the North Dakota Governor's School. The House decreased funding for the Governor's School by $20,000, from $270,000 to $250,000. 6 This amendment restores the funding of $40,000 from the general fund for the national writing projects. The House removed the increase in funding provided in the executive budget recommendation. 7 This amendment increases funding for adult education by $85,000, from $920,000 to $1,005,000. This amendment also: • Adds a section appropriating $15 million of special funds to the department for providing grants to school districts during the 2003-05 biennium. • Removes Section 13 of the engrossed bill amending North Dakota Century Code Section 15.1-02-01 relating to the qualification of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. House Bill No. 1013 - State Library - Senate Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | SENATE CHANGES | SENATE VERSION | |--------------------------------|------------------|---------------|----------------|----------------| | Salaries and wages | $2,225,929 | $2,217,121 | ($2,995) | $2,214,126 | | Operating expenses | 1,381,772 | 1,381,772 | | 1,381,772 | | Grants | 1,552,500 | 1,552,500 | | 1,552,500 | | Total all funds | $5,160,201 | $5,151,393 | ($2,995) | $5,148,398 | | Less estimated income | 1,658,575 | 1,657,547 | (374) | 1,657,173 | | General fund | $3,501,626 | $3,493,846 | ($2,621) | $3,491,225 | | FTE | 28.75 | 28.75 | 0.00 | 28.75 | Dept. 250 - State Library - Detail of Senate Changes | | REDUCES RECOMMENDED FUNDING FOR HEALTH INSURANCE | TOTAL SENATE CHANGES | |--------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|----------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($2,995) | ($2,995) | | Operating expenses | | | | Grants | | | | Total all funds | ($2,995) | ($2,995) | | Less estimated income | (374) | (374) | House Bill No. 1013 - School for the Deaf - Senate Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | SENATE CHANGES | SENATE VERSION | |------------------------|------------------|---------------|----------------|----------------| | Salaries and wages | $5,106,474 | $4,894,309 | ($6,614) | $4,887,695 | | Operating expenses | 1,429,150 | 1,377,255 | | 1,377,255 | | Capital assets | 279,495 | 279,495 | | 279,495 | | Total all funds | $6,815,119 | $6,551,069 | ($6,614) | $6,544,455 | | Less estimated income | 1,326,566 | 1,202,367 | (125) | 1,202,242 | | General fund | $5,488,553 | $5,348,702 | ($6,489) | $5,342,213 | | FTE | 49.94 | 47.94 | 0.00 | 47.94 | Dept. 252 - School for the Deaf - Detail of Senate Changes | | REDUCES RECOMMENDED FUNDING FOR HEALTH INSURANCE | TOTAL SENATE CHANGES | |------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|----------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($6,614) | ($6,614) | | Operating expenses | | | | Capital assets | | | | Total all funds | ($6,614) | ($6,614) | | Less estimated income | (125) | (125) | | General fund | ($6,489) | ($6,489) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | House Bill No. 1013 - North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind - Senate Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | SENATE CHANGES | SENATE VERSION | |------------------------|------------------|---------------|----------------|----------------| | Salaries and wages | $2,674,254 | $2,659,073 | $16,630 | $2,685,703 | | Operating expenses | 807,306 | 607,306 | | 607,306 | | Capital assets | 67,470 | 67,470 | | 67,470 | | Total all funds | $3,349,030 | $3,343,849 | $16,630 | $3,360,479 | | Less estimated Income | 845,535 | 844,066 | (518) | 843,448 | | General fund | $2,503,495 | $2,499,783 | $17,248 | $2,517,031 | | FTE | 26.95 | 26.95 | 0.00 | 26.95 | Dept. 253 - North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind - Detail of Senate Changes | | REDUCES RECOMMENDED FUNDING FOR HEALTH INSURANCE | INCREASES FUNDING FOR TEMPORARY SALARIES | TOTAL SENATE CHANGES | |------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|----------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($3,370) | $20,000 | $16,630 | | Operating expenses | | | | | Capital assets | | | | | Total all funds | ($3,370) | $20,000 | $16,630 | House Bill No. 1013 - Other Changes - Senate Action This amendment also adds a section providing for a Legislative Council study of the potential for cooperative field service delivery between North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind and the School for the Deaf. 2005 HOUSE APPROPRIATIONS CONFERENCE COMMITTEE HB 1013 Minutes: Chairman Brusegaard opened hearing on HB1013. Roll call was taken with all members present - Chairman Brusegaard, Rep. Martinson, Rep. Aarsvold, Sen. Holmberg, Sen. Kringstad and Sen. Robinson. Sen. Holmberg If you would like I could walk through what we did in the Senate. There were not many changes. There was $5 million added in and that was added in not through the discussions of this committee but actually in working with the education committee in 1154. These are the amendments starting on page 3 (See attached amendment 58036.0204). The department came to us and told us they are kind of in a quandary. They are going to be receiving up to $15 million of additional money from federal sources this biennium for Title I, Title II and they don’t have the spending authority. The question before us was do we give them that flexibility in this budget or do we make them go to the Emergency Commission in the Budget Section because a bunch of money is coming, maybe not $15 million. This money all goes out to schools. **Chairman Brusegaard** This $15 million additional federal dollars, that’s is addition to what they received in ‘03-‘05? **Sen. Holmberg** Right. **Chairman Brusegaard** Is this some we just missed in the House or didn’t we hear them? Did they learn of this after the House dealt with it? **Sen. Holmberg** My understanding was they learned of it after the House dealt with it. The next one, also on page three, is the Legislative Council study. Discussions about the role of the School of the Blind and School for the Deaf and the kind of outreach services that they have been looking at and looking forward to doing. We wanted to make sure that they were in conjunction with the School for the Blind and Vision Services because they already have a pretty extensive outreach program around the state. Section 5, that appropriation authority, is an emergency and we put the emergency clause in there. On page four we did the following: reduced the funding for health insurance by $3,000 general fund, the standard deduction; reduced funding for salaries and wages - this was not with approval of the department, they did not like this; reduced funding for operating expenses $275,000 that comes out of the $15 million line item; reallocate and increase funding for state school aid - those numbers are the numbers we plugged in after our education committee was done with the education bill; restorations from the Governor’s executive budget - the Governor recommended $22,500 for the Lead Center we rounded to $20,000, restored the funding for the ND Museum of Art that was in the Governor’s budget for $125,000, restored funding for the ND Governor’s School of $20,000 that was in the budget, restored funding for the National Writing Project which was in the budget. The next column is a financial item that was not in the Governor’s budget that we have received information about the problems of adult education in various sites across the nation. That funding had not been increased for a number of years and the fear that the federal government might withdraw some of their support, so we put the money, $5,000, into that. One other hooker in the bill. The textbook as of today is in this bill and the IT budget. The IT folks have all signed off so we should be able to remove that $148,000 from here. Their preference was in IT because that is their home now as far as their budget is concerned. We left it in, that was something you passed – we did not make a change on that line item. The State Library we did nothing. Let me back up, we did remove the section the House put in that dealt with the qualifications of the superintendent. You had passed the measure that the superintendent did not have to be a teacher and we removed that. The other item, the State Library, we make no changes except for the health. The School for the Deaf, we concluded the changes you had made and we made no additional changes. You had taken out a couple of FTEs, one federally funded. We did not restore them preferring the study to go forward. Under Vision Services we did add in $20,000 for funding for temporary salaries for the house parents for the summer. Chairman Brusegaard I did inform the School for the Deaf, the one position that was fully funded and has no state dollars involved, it is my intention, that position is restored. It makes no sense to tell hearing impaired folks that they can’t use money from the federal government. Sen. Holmberg I wonder if that motion wouldn’t pass on a vote of six to one? We were not hung up on it, wanted to get the study in there. Rep. Martinson Let’s have Roxanne put that on the amendment list right now. Chairman Brusegaard Sen. Robinson, would you just comment on the status of the textbook in the ITD budget. Sen. Robinson I think Sen. Holmberg described it correctly. It is in both this budget and ITD, 2021. We are working our way through 2021 and because the project will be coordinated through this division in an independent study and that budget is part of ITD. The committee felt it would be more appropriate to leave it there and remove the language from this particular proposal just for simplicity. Sen. Holmberg That budget, ITD and 1154 are probably a couple of the ones that will be around for quite some time. This one, I’m guessing, will have to be one of the last one’s because of some of the dollars here reflect what happens in 1154. I would have no trouble removing that but we would still have the bill in case something dramatic happens with the IT budget, then we can turn around and make sure it gets funded because there was no disagreement in the Senate about the textbook. Chairman Brusegaard All of you have been around long enough to understand the frustration of trying to come to a conclusion on a budget that funds a policy that is extensive and in progress until the last day. I’m not convinced that we have a lot more to talk about this morning until we get some things cleaned up in 1154. There is constant pressure from leadership to make sure conference committees meet. I will try and keep meeting scheduled where we met to a point to where we discuss something instead of just to keep leadership happy. But please keep in mind that does not always happen. Hearing on HB1013 adjourned. Minutes: Chairman Brusegaard opened hearing on HB1013. Roll call was taken with five members present and one member absent - Chairman Brusegaard, Rep. Martinson, Rep. Aarsvold, Sen. Kringstad and Sen. Robinson present and Sen. Holmberg absent. Chairman Brusegaard In a flash of inspiration shooting basketballs yesterday, I decided to start every committee meeting with the Special Olympics oath, "Let me win but if I can not win let me be brave in the attempt." Apologize after saying yesterday I would not call you in for no particular reason, I proceed to do precisely that. We are waiting for 1154, they have 15 of the 32 sections of that funding bill agreed upon. I would imagine it will be Tuesday or Wednesday before they reach full conclusion on that bill. Not quite sure we can do anything until they are done. Rep. Aarsvold I have some material I would like to distribute, if I might, for reflection over the weekend. (See attached handout #1-1013) It is a concern that has been expressed by a number of folks in the Adult Ed community. As you are probably aware, there are some rather implosing restrictions on funding from the federal level and the Senate in their deliberations did add $85,000. Nevertheless, I think if you would take a little time to review it this weekend, they would appreciate that, to make you aware of the problems they are facing. There are a number of programs that are in jeopardy if we don’t do something significant. **Rep. Martinson** I have a thought to give a little thought to this weekend. For the benefit of you senators, we did talked about this in our division, we talked about it in the Appropriations Committee and I’ve talked with this idea to both majority leaders but not minority leaders, all though Rep. Aarsvold is on our committee. That’s the need, during this interim, to really set up at Blue Ribbon type panel, maybe an education roundtable, for K-12 so really start to get a handle on the population, school financing and all the other issues related to secondary and elementary education. To do this maybe in Legislative Council where we really have handle on it ourselves, to make sure we are getting a gathering source for all the information. We are going to do the Higher Ed study and it was my thought that if we had a person that was the executive officer or coordinator of both of those projects. We really need to look at K-12 education in the longer term rather than just the two year period we go through. Next week I am going to bring in a proposal that we do some shifting of personnel and put somebody in the Legislative Council and coordinate a K-12 roundtable type program. **Sen. Robinson** Regarding adult ed., we talked about this extensively in our side and knew this was probably coming down the pipeline. I think it is time we address it and we can visit on your thought. Chairman Martinson Most people agree that the Higher Ed Roundtable has been successful. I think that type of a program where you get superintendents together, where you get school board members, get some teachers together, you get some community leaders together. I don’t think we can just keep going the same way and pretending that we don’t have a problem with population and funding. We need to get a handle on it. Something to think about over the weekend. Chairman Brusegaard Whether you like or dislike the effects of the Higher Education Roundtable, I think it changed the paradigm and the way we look at doing Higher Ed in the state. I think there definitely a need for that in K-12. Sen. Kringstad I served on the Higher Education Roundtable, as well as Rep. Martinson, I have witnessed what it had done to the legislators on it. It was amazing how it gives them a better perspective of what’s taking place. I think it is a really super idea to look at K-12. Chairman Brusegaard adjourned hearing on HB1013. Minutes: Chairman Brusegaard opened hearing on HB103. Roll call was taken and all members were present - Chairman Brusegaard, Rep. Martinson, Rep. Aarsvold, Sen. Holmberg, Sen. Kringstad and Sen. Robinson. Chairman Brusegaard I’ve distributed a memo from Bonnie Miller, Fiscal Director for DPI. They have concerns about a couple of sections of the bill. First three paragraphs detail concerns about transfer out of administrative General Fund funding by $310,000. (See attached handout #1-1013) Second part deals with their authority to spend federal money in this current biennium. Also received some communication from the School of the Deaf. Lori, would you like to discuss that? Lori Laschkewitsch (OMB) There was a full FTE and the funding removed from the School for the Deaf budget. However the position was a teaching position and was only a .75 FTE and so by taking a full FTE out of their budget, that actually took another .25 of another employee’s FTE out of the budget. They need restored to the budget .25 FTE however there is no funding associated with that because the funding was correct for that .75 FTE. Chairman Brusegaard So they took out funding for .75 FTE but took out the whole FTE? Lori Laschkewitsch (OMB) That’s correct. Sen. Holmberg Is that over and above or separate from that federal one? Chairman Brusegaard That’s correct. Sen. Holmberg, do you have any thoughts about the memo? Sen. Holmberg Clearly Section five was a guess number when they came to us about the $15 million. It was reasonable and the right thing to do to added it to the bill. I have no reason to believe it isn’t the $30 million. We might as well be a couple dollars above then actually, it only gives them authority to actually send it out to the schools. Rep. Aarsvold I had distributed information about Adult Education. It would appear that there will be a lose of about $400,000 in federal funds. I would hope that the committee would entertain looking at that issue and adding some additional state dollars. The Senate added $85,000 to state appropriation but will far be inadequate for meeting the needs we have out there at the moment. Chairman Brusegaard What would be adequate? Rep. Aarsvold $400,000 would be the desired amount. Some sites will be closed if funding is not provided. Would like to hear other comments from the committee on what would be workable. Chairman Brusegaard How many adult sites are there? Mr. Massey About 42 sites. Sen. Robinson About 2000 student in adult ed. Looking at a couple of hundred dollars per student. Great return on our investment. Sen. Holmberg Great program, very important. The Senate put in $85,000 into the program which was a huge increase over what happened in the past. If we found another $50,000 I would feel real comfortable and would do a lot of good for those folks. Chairman Brusegaard Once again, can’t do much until the education formula bill is done. Are there things we should be looking at and we are not? Sen. Holmberg Two other issues. I got an e-mail having to do with the administration of the ESL program. That was an inquiry…it ran about $43,000 or $44,000. Another issue was an initiative, the House went forward with the new North Dakota textbook, and this has nothing to do with the textbook. One area of education that has fallen by the wayside and is extremely critical is civic education in elementary and high school. I would like us to look at, perhaps, an additional grant to the Division of Independent Study for them to put together a program to revitalize. There is federal money available and private sector very interested in civic education. Chairman Brusegaard We will adjourn at this time. When we get together for next time we will try and nail down ESL. Maybe try and arrive at some number for adult learning and discuss a little further a civics initiative. Hearing on HB1013 closed. Minutes: Chairman Brusegaard opened hearing on HB1013. Roll call was taken and all members were present - Chairman Brusegaard, Chairman Martinson, Rep. Aarsvold, Sen. Holmberg, Sen. Kringstad and Sen. Robinson. Chairman Brusegaard Last time I asked Sen. Holmberg to bring some ESL figures. Sen. Holmberg I did some research and visited with Rep. Martinson and Rep. Hawkins. Those items that I mentioned yesterday, I did have Roxanne put into amendment form. Should I hand them out or wait? The $30 million, remember we put in $15 million for spending authority for federal money and it really should be $30 million. What we did here, was remove the $140,000 line itemed for North Dakota text book because that’s in SB2021 now. Provides funding authority vitalization of civic education initiative of $50,000 and increased funding for Adult Education by $50,000. Sen. Robinson I just came from SB2021, ITD. We’ve been told in that committee there’s been a decision that the textbook will remain in HB1013. Now that message comes to us yesterday and was reiterated again today. Chairman Brusegaard Sen. Holmberg, in discussions we’ve had on the House side, people seem to think that we should fund the textbook in DPI’s budget. Sen. Holmberg That is a very big change. Which means the people in 2021 want to spend $148,000. They can reduce and we can spend? It’s already in there. Sen. Robinson Rep. Monson, yesterday indicated, that the thought was to keep it in this budget because it is a $148,000 and it, at least from a perception standpoint, appears that we are putting more money into K-12. Sen. Holmberg That doesn’t mean at the appropriate time we want to come back and look at increased funding for Adult Education and those things. Chairman Brusegaard Did you have an appropriate number for Adult Education? Sen. Holmberg It was just out of a hat. Rep. Martinson Maybe it would make sense for IT to keep the book and we just use the other $145,000 for the other things we are talking about. So we would still have this huge increase. Sen. Holmberg It was never my intention as I looked at this $148,000 within this budget, that I was going to turn it over to Roxanne. Rep. Monson came to me and said we could take the money out of here earlier. Things change, we adapt. Chairman Brusegaard If do need to use that $148,000 for the book, then there is no doubt in my mind, that we should still feel free to do what we need to do for Adult Ed, civic study, etc. - within reason. Hearing adjourned on HB1013. Minutes: Chairman Brusegaard opened hearing on HB1013. Roll call was taken and all members were present - Chairman Brusegaard, Rep. Martinson, Rep. Gulleson, Sen. Andrist, Sen. Kringstad and Sen. Robinson. Chairman Brusegaard Top sheet I handed out, with the numbers on it (#1-1013), is a breakdown of where State School Aid and other major grants fit in as things sit right now. Proposals are on right and last biennium appropriations on the left. Sen. Robinson Handed out e-mail (#2-1013). Shared e-mail with Rep. Aarsvold this morning and Rep. Gulleson has brought on behalf of Rep. Aarsvold for the committee's review. Concern voiced here from Superintendent Koppelman of funding for ORS Conversion. I know the challenges of making any additions or changes of any substance at this eleventh hour. Sen. Holmberg Which line item was stripped and where exactly should I be looking? Sen. Robinson Rep. Aarsvold was of the opinion that is was not funded in the Governor’s budget. Roxanne (LC) Not exactly sure what funding we are talking about. Sen. Holmberg I don’t remember that at all and I carried the bill. Roxanne (LC) I think it was an optional package that was not funded by the governor’s budget or the House or Senate version. Chairman Brusegaard I’ve prepared a set of amendments .0207. If I get a motion I’d like to go through them. Rep. Martinson I will make the appropriate motion. Sen. Holmberg Second. Chairman Brusegaard Explained amendment 0207. Rep. Gulleson Is there, in another bill, a study regarding the No Child Left Behind and the state’s cost incurred or anything like that? Chairman Brusegaard Don’t recall anything like that. Sen. Holmberg Nothing that came through our committee. Roxanne (LC) Nothing comes to mind. Rep. Gulleson Maybe an additional sentence would be to look at those costs that have incurred at the State level due to the passage of No Child Left Behind. Chairman Martinson With your permission, Mr. Chairman, I would include that in my motion. Rep. Gulleson Second. Sen. Holmberg It looks like a pretty huge study, that is an area that can be done by another education because in the past we’ve had more than one education or one judiciary. Chairman Brusegaard I like that idea, putting that in there so they know it is a concern. Moving on, top of page four and five. We have restored $20,000 to the Lead Center, $25,000 for the Museum of Art, $135,000 for Adult Education, which we talked about. Note that two of the projects the Senate restored that the House cut are not in there. They are Governor’s School and the Writing Project - they would be left at current levels. Sen. Holmberg Both were items that were in the Governor’s Budget that we restored. We did not add any General Fund money to the grouping to accomplish that. I would be one to support addition of money to the Adult Education but I would not be party to taking it from these other two things. Chairman Brusegaard Not a really big sticking point, the extra money for the Governor’s School deals with a fine arts program. There are opportunities for students who excel in the fine arts are out there, North Dakota Honors Choir, International Music Camp. As we do things, like adding money for a civics program or adult education, it is always convenient when discussing things with my leadership to say we at least made an attempt to find programs out there that could perhaps help offset the increase in funding. One that I feel, although a good project, is a bit duplicative, in terms of opportunities like Honors Choir and Music Camp, I thought was a good place to start. Sen. Robinson I concur with Sen. Holmberg remarks concerning those two reductions. We have some strong feels in the Senate on both of those areas. Had some very compelling testimony from a young woman on the value of this program. Chairman Brusegaard Chair would entertain a motion to amend the amendment Rep. Martinson I would include those two projects would be included at the full level. Sen. Holmberg I have been on many conference committees and this is the only one I would have voted for an increase. Chairman Brusegaard On page six you will see the revitalizing civic education and I want to make sure the language for the textbook is in. That covers the projects we talked about briefly and numbers. Important numbers, for me, generally stem out of total school aid. You’ll note in ‘03-’05 increasing approximately $27 million in total school aid, 6% increase. Total funds goes from $666 million to $698 million, an increase of $32,496,000. Those numbers are reflected in the amendments before you. Sen. Robinson Just to be clear, normally this bill would not be acted on until after 1154. You’re suggesting even though 1154 has not concluded their work, that a decision made that we will fall within the figures that are represented on this spreadsheet? Chairman Brusegaard My intention is, I know these figures put me where I need to be with my leadership. My intention, if the committee passes these amendments, is to hold off signing the report until 1154 is taken care of. That will do two things, in we preclude us from having to meet again and it will give some direction to 1154. Rep. Martinson Before, Rep. Aarsvold talked to me, I’m not sure of all the details, but he said Sen. Holmberg about Adult Education. Has his concern been taken care of? Sen. Holmberg That is in here. Roxanne (LC) I think his concerns have been addressed in here. VOICE VOTE on adopting amendments carries. Sen. Holmberg I move a Do Pass As Amended. Rep. Martinson Second. VOTE 6 YES and 0 NO with 0 absent and not voting, DO PASS AS AMENDED. Chairman Brusegaard will carry to the floor. REPORT OF CONFERENCE COMMITTEE (ACCEDE/RECEDE) Bill Number: HB1013 (, as (re)engrossed): Date: 4-21-05 Your Conference Committee: House Appropriations For the Senate: YES / NO For the House: YES / NO here Sen. Holmberg ✓ Rep. Brusegaard ✓ here here Sen. Kringstad ✓ Rep. Martinson ✓ here here Sen. Robinson ✓ Rep. Gulleseon ✓ here recommends that the (SENATE/HOUSE) (ACCEDE to) (RECEDE from) the (Senate/House) amendments on (SJ/HJ) page(s) 1502 - 1507 , and place on the Seventh order. X, (adopt)(further) amendments as follows, and place HB1013 on the Seventh order: , having been unable to agree, recommends that the committee be discharged and a new committee be appointed. ((Re)Engrossed) HB1013 was placed on the Seventh order of business on the calendar. DATE: 4-21-05 CARRIER: Rep. Brusegaard LC NO. 58036 of amendment 0208 Emergency clause added or deleted Statement of purpose of amendment MOTION MADE BY: Sen. Holmberg SECONDED BY: Rep. Martinson VOTE COUNT 6 YES 0 NO 0 ABSENT Revised 4/1/05 REPORT OF CONFERENCE COMMITTEE HB 1013, as engrossed: Your conference committee (Sens. Holmberg, Kringstad, Robinson and Reps. Brusegaard, Martinson, Gulleson) recommends that the SENATE RECEDE from the Senate amendments on HJ pages 1502-1507, adopt amendments as follows, and place HB 1013 on the Seventh order: That the Senate recede from its amendments as printed on pages 1502-1507 of the House Journal and pages 1192-1197 of the Senate Journal and that Engrossed House Bill No. 1013 be amended as follows: Page 1, line 4, replace the first "and" with "to provide for a legislative council study; to provide a statement of legislative intent;" and replace "sections" with "section" Page 1, line 5, remove "15.1-02-01 and" and remove "the qualifications and" Page 1, line 6, after "instruction" insert "; and to declare an emergency" Page 3, line 8, replace "742,596" with "696,239" Page 3, line 9, replace "2,109,485" with "1,834,485" Page 3, line 11, replace "21,473,769" with "27,473,769" Page 3, line 15, replace "25,403,839" with "25,743,839" Page 3, line 19, replace "52,968,743" with "58,927,386" Page 3, line 20, replace "29,792,978" with "29,784,889" Page 3, line 21, replace "23,175,765" with "29,202,497" Page 3, line 24, replace "138,550" with "135,555" Page 3, line 27, replace "494,368" with "491,373" Page 3, line 28, replace "27,568" with "27,194" Page 3, line 29, replace "466,800" with "464,179" Page 4, line 1, replace "84,501" with "201,314" Page 4, line 4, replace "606,378" with "723,191" Page 4, line 5, replace "330,918" with "454,220" Page 4, line 6, replace "275,460" with "268,971" Page 4, line 9, replace "128,781" with "125,411" Page 4, line 12, replace "86,641" with "83,271" Page 4, line 13, replace "(323,317)" with "(323,935)" Page 4, line 14, replace "409,958" with "407,206" Page 4, line 15, replace "24,327,983" with "30,342,853" Page 4, line 16, replace "29,828,147" with "29,942,368" Page 4, line 17, replace "54,156,130" with "60,285,221" Page 4, line 27, replace "10,020,282" with "9,973,925" Page 4, line 28, replace "15,167,308" with "14,892,308" Page 4, line 29, replace "510,853,759" with "516,853,759" Page 5, line 3, replace "207,659,083" with "207,999,083" Page 5, line 5, replace "923,752,552" with "929,771,195" Page 5, line 6, replace "295,851,781" with "295,843,692" Page 5, line 7, replace "627,900,771" with "633,927,503" Page 5, line 10, replace "2,217,121" with "2,214,126" Page 5, line 13, replace "5,151,393" with "5,148,398" Page 5, line 14, replace "1,657,547" with "1,657,173" Page 5, line 15, replace "3,493,846" with "3,491,225" Page 5, line 18, replace "4,894,309" with "5,011,122" Page 5, line 21, replace "6,551,069" with "6,667,882" Page 5, line 22, replace "1,202,367" with "1,325,669" Page 5, line 23, replace "5,348,702" with "5,342,213" Page 5, line 26, replace "2,669,073" with "2,665,703" Page 5, line 29, replace "3,343,849" with "3,340,479" Page 5, line 30, replace "844,066" with "843,448" Page 5, line 31, replace "2,499,783" with "2,497,031" Page 6, line 4, after "workbook" insert "including civic education" Page 6, after line 5, insert: "SECTION 5. APPROPRIATION. There is appropriated out of any moneys in the general fund in the state treasury, not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $50,000, or so much of the sum as may be necessary, to the division of independent study for the purpose of revitalizing civic education, for the biennium beginning July 1, 2005, and ending June 30, 2007." Page 6, line 6, replace "639,391,902" with "645,456,772" Page 6, line 7, replace "299,555,761" with "299,669,982" Page 6, line 8, replace "938,947,663" with "945,126,754" Page 6, after line 8, insert: "SECTION 6. APPROPRIATION. There is appropriated from special funds derived from federal funds and other income the sum of $30,000,000, or so much of the sum as may be necessary, to the superintendent of public instruction for the purpose of providing grants for the period beginning with the effective date of this Act and ending June 30, 2005." Page 8, replace lines 3 through 10 with: "SECTION 15. LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL STUDY - SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF AND VISION SERVICES - SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND. The legislative council shall consider studying, during the 2005-06 interim, the potential for cooperative field service delivery between vision services - school for the blind and the school for the deaf. The legislative council shall report its findings and recommendations, together with any legislation required to implement the recommendations, to the sixtieth legislative assembly. SECTION 16. LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL STUDY - REPORT. The legislative council shall study, during the 2005-06 interim, the state's elementary and secondary education system, including key measurements of student progress, programs that address the state's competitiveness with other states, costs incurred by the state relating to implementing the No Child Left Behind Act, and the most effective means of using taxpayer dollars at the state and local levels to ensure the best possible education for the children of this state. The legislative council also shall evaluate effective programs; opportunities for achievement; and statutory, regulatory, and political barriers to success. The legislative council shall receive input from teachers; administrators; parents; students; local business and community leaders; representatives of higher education; and may use technology, curricular, and programmatic consultants, among others. The legislative council shall report its findings and recommendations, together with any legislation required to implement the recommendations, to the sixtieth legislative assembly. SECTION 17. LEGISLATIVE INTENT. It is the intent of the fifty-ninth legislative assembly that the department of public instruction not charge school districts for testing relating to the English language learner program." Page 8, line 15, after "seventy five" insert "and" Page 8, after line 17, insert: "SECTION 19. EMERGENCY. Section 6 of this Act is declared to be an emergency measure." Renumber accordingly STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF AMENDMENT: House Bill No. 1013 - Summary of Conference Committee Action | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE VERSION | SENATE VERSION | COMPARISON TO SENATE | |------------------|---------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|----------------|----------------------| | Department of Public Instruction | | | | | | | Total all funds | $930,021,612 | $923,752,552 | $6,018,643 (8,089) | $929,771,195 | $928,721,195 | $1,050,000 | | Less estimated income | 295,876,672 | 295,851,781 | 295,843,692 | 295,843,692 | | ## REPORT OF CONFERENCE COMMITTEE (420) April 22, 2005 9:49 a.m. | | General fund | $634,144,940 | $627,900,771 | $6,026,732 | $633,927,503 | $632,877,503 | $1,050,000 | |----------------------|--------------|--------------|--------------|------------|--------------|--------------|------------| | **Division of Independent Study** | | | | | | | | | Total all funds | $0 | $148,800 | $50,000 | $198,800 | $148,800 | $50,000 | | | Less estimated income| | $148,800 | $50,000 | $198,800 | $148,800 | $50,000 | | | General fund | $0 | $148,800 | $50,000 | $198,800 | $148,800 | $50,000 | | | **State Library** | | | | | | | | | Total all funds | $5,160,201 | $5,151,393 | ($2,995) | $5,148,398 | $5,148,398 | $0 | | | Less estimated income| 1,658,575 | 1,657,547 | (374) | 1,657,173 | 1,657,173 | $0 | | | General fund | $3,501,626 | $3,493,846 | ($2,521) | $3,491,225 | $3,491,225 | $0 | | | **School for the Deaf** | | | | | | | | | Total all funds | $6,815,119 | $6,551,069 | $116,813 | $6,667,882 | $6,544,455 | $123,427 | | | Less estimated income| 1,326,566 | 1,202,367 | 123,302 | 1,235,669 | 1,202,242 | $123,427 | | | General fund | $5,488,553 | $5,348,702 | ($6,489) | $5,342,213 | $5,342,213 | $0 | | | **Vision Services - School for the Blind** | | | | | | | | | Total all funds | $3,349,030 | $3,343,849 | ($3,370) | $3,340,479 | $3,360,479 | ($20,000) | | | Less estimated income| 845,535 | 844,066 | (518) | 843,448 | 843,448 | $0 | | | General fund | $2,503,495 | $2,499,783 | ($2,752) | $2,497,031 | $2,517,031 | ($20,000) | | | **Bill Total** | | | | | | | | | Total all funds | $945,245,062 | $938,947,662 | $5,179,091 | $945,126,754 | $942,923,327 | $1,203,427 | | | Less estimated income| 299,707,348 | 299,555,761 | 114,221 | 299,669,982 | 299,546,555 | $123,427 | | | General fund | $645,638,614 | $639,391,902 | $6,064,870 | $645,456,772 | $644,376,772 | $1,080,000 | | ### House Bill No. 1013 - Department of Public Instruction - Conference Committee Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE VERSION | SENATE VERSION | COMPARISON TO SENATE | |----------------------|------------------|---------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|----------------|----------------------| | Salaries and wages | $10,057,842 | $10,020,282 | ($46,357) | $9,973,925 | $9,973,925 | | | Operating expenses | 14,892,308 | 15,167,308 | (275,000) | 14,892,308 | 14,892,308 | | | Grants - State school aid | 512,153,759 | 510,853,759 | 6,000,000 | 516,853,759 | 552,607,395 | ($35,753,636) | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | 71,600,000 | 71,600,000 | | 71,600,000 | 50,120,000 | 21,480,000 | | Grants - Special education | 52,500,000 | 52,500,000 | | 52,500,000 | 52,500,000 | | | Grants - Revenue supplement | 7,500,000 | 5,000,000 | | 5,000,000 | 5,000,000 | | | Grants - Teacher compensation | 50,912,120 | 50,912,120 | | 50,912,120 | 35,638,484 | 15,273,636 | | Grants - Other grants | 207,865,583 | 207,659,083 | 340,000 | 207,999,083 | 207,949,083 | 50,000 | | Reorganization bonuses | 500,000 | | | | | | | JPA incentives | 2,000,000 | | | | | | | National board certification | 40,000 | 40,000 | | 40,000 | 40,000 | | | **Total all funds** | $930,021,612 | $923,752,552 | $6,018,643 | $929,771,195 | $928,721,195 | $1,050,000 | | Less estimated income | 295,876,672 | 295,851,781 | (8,089) | 295,843,692 | 295,843,692 | | | General fund | $634,144,940 | $627,900,771 | $6,026,732 | $633,927,503 | $632,877,503 | $1,050,000 | | FTE | 92.75 | 92.75 | 0.00 | 92.75 | 92.75 | 0.00 | ### Dept. 201 - Department of Public Instruction - Detail of Conference Committee Changes | | REDUCES RECOMMENDED FUNDING FOR HEALTH INSURANCE | REDUCES FUNDING FOR SALARIES AND WAGES | REDUCES FUNDING FOR OPERATING EXPENSES | INCREASES FUNDING FOR STATE SCHOOL AID | RESTORES FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA LEAD CENTER | RESTORES THE INCREASE IN FUNDING FOR THE NORTH DAKOTA MUSEUM OF ART | |----------------------|-------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|---------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($11,357) | ($35,000) | ($275,000) | $6,000,000 | $20,000 | $125,000 | | Operating expenses | | | | | | | | Grants - State school aid | | | | | | | | Grants - Tuition apportionment | | | | | | | | Grants - Special education | | | | | | | | Grants - Revenue supplement | | | | | | | | Grants - Teacher compensation | | | | | | | | Grants - Other grants | | | | | | | | Reorganization bonuses | | | | | | | | JPA incentives | | | | | | | | National board certification | | | | | | | | **Total all funds** | ($11,357) | ($35,000) | ($275,000) | $6,000,000 | $20,000 | $125,000 | (2) DESK, (2) COMM | Description | Executive Budget | House Version | Senate Version | Conference Committee Version | |---------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|---------------|----------------|-------------------------------| | State school aid | | | | | | Per student payments | $476,703,759 | $493,453,759 | $518,457,395 | $482,703,759 | | Limited English proficient student payments | 650,000 | 650,000 | 650,000 | 650,000 | | Transportation aid payments | 34,800,000 | 16,750,000 | | | | Total state school aid | $512,153,759 | $510,853,759 | $552,607,395 | $516,853,759 | | Tuition apportionment | 71,600,000 | 71,600,000 | 50,120,000 | 71,600,000 | | Teacher compensation payments | 50,912,120 | 50,912,120 | 35,638,484 | 50,912,120 | | Total | $634,665,879 | $633,365,879 | $638,365,879 | $639,365,879 | 1 This amendment reduces funding for salaries and wages by $35,000 from the general fund. This change was also made by the Senate. 2 This amendment reduces funding for operating expenses by $275,000 from the general fund. This change was also made by the Senate. 3 This amendment increases funding for state school aid by $6,000,000, from $510,853,759 as provided for by the House to $516,853,759. The Senate had reallocated funding from tuition apportionment payments ($21,480,000) and teacher compensation payments ($15,273,636) to state school aid payments and increased funding by $5,000,000 from the general fund for state school aid payments. The following is a summary of the funding for state school aid for the 2005-07 biennium. 4 This amendment restores funding of $20,000 from the general fund for the North Dakota LEAD Center. The House removed the increase in funding of $21,500 from the general fund provided in the executive budget recommendation for the center, and the Senate had restored funding of $20,000 from the general fund for the center. 5 This amendment restores funding of $125,000 from the general fund for the North Dakota Museum of Art educational outreach initiative. The House removed the increase in funding provided in the executive budget recommendation for the initiative, and the Senate had restored funding of $125,000 from the general fund for the initiative. 6 This amendment restores funding of $20,000 from the general fund for the North Dakota Governor's School. The House decreased funding for the Governor's School by $20,000, from $270,000 to $250,000, and the Senate had restored the funding for the school. 7 This amendment restores funding of $40,000 from the general fund for the national writing projects. The House removed the increase in funding provided in the executive budget recommendation for the projects, and the Senate had restored the funding for the projects. 8 This amendment increases funding for adult education by $135,000, from $920,000 to $1,055,000. The Senate had increased funding for adult education by $85,000 from the general fund to $1,005,000. The following is a summary of the funding from the general fund for adult education for the 2005-07 biennium. This amendment: - Adds a section appropriating $30 million of special funds to the department for providing grants to school districts during the 2003-05 biennium. The Senate had added a section appropriating $15 million of special funds for providing grants to school districts during the 2003-05 biennium. - Adds a section providing for a Legislative Council study of the state's elementary and secondary education system. This section was not added by the Senate. - Adds a section of legislative intent providing that the department shall not charge school districts for testing relating to the English language learner program. This section was not added by the Senate. - Removes Section 13 of the engrossed bill amending Section 15.1-02-01 relating to the qualification of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. This section was also removed by the Senate. **House Bill No. 1013 - Division of Independent Study - Conference Committee Action** | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE VERSION | SENATE VERSION | COMPARISON TO SENATE | |------------------|---------------|-------------------------------|------------------------------|----------------|----------------------| | North Dakota studies textbook proposal | $148,800 | $50,000 | $198,800 | $148,800 | $50,000 | | Civic education | | | | | | | Total all funds | $0 | $148,800 | $50,000 | $198,800 | $148,800 | $50,000 | | Less estimated income | | | | | | | General fund | $0 | $148,800 | $50,000 | $198,800 | $148,800 | $50,000 | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | **Dept. 202 - Division of Independent Study - Detail of Conference Committee Changes** | PROVIDES FUNDING FOR REVITALIZING CIVIC EDUCATION 1 | TOTAL CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | |-----------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------| | North Dakota studies textbook proposal | $50,000 | | Civic education | $50,000 | | Total all funds | $50,000 | | Less estimated income | | | | General fund | $50,000 | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1 This amendment provides a $50,000 general fund appropriation to the Division of Independent Study for revitalizing civic education. This funding was not provided by either the House or the Senate. **House Bill No. 1013 - State Library - Conference Committee Action** | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE VERSION | SENATE VERSION | COMPARISON TO SENATE | |------------------|---------------|-------------------------------|------------------------------|----------------|----------------------| | Salaries and wages | $2,225,929 | $2,217,121 | ($2,995) | $2,214,126 | $2,214,126 | ### REPORT OF CONFERENCE COMMITTEE (420) April 22, 2005 9:49 a.m. | | Operating expenses | Grants | Total all funds | Less estimated income | General fund | FTE | |----------------------|--------------------|--------|-----------------|-----------------------|--------------|-----| | | 1,381,772 | 1,552,500 | $5,160,201 | 1,658,575 | $3,501,526 | 28.75 | ### Dept. 250 - State Library - Detail of Conference Committee Changes | | REDUCES RECOMMENDED FUNDING FOR HEALTH INSURANCE | TOTAL CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | |----------------------|--------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($2,995) | ($2,995) | | Operating expenses | | | | Grants | | | | Total all funds | ($2,995) | ($2,995) | | Less estimated income| (374) | (374) | | General fund | ($2,621) | ($2,621) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | ### House Bill No. 1013 - School for the Deaf - Conference Committee Action | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE VERSION | SENATE VERSION | COMPARISON TO SENATE | |----------------------|------------------|---------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|----------------|----------------------| | Salaries and wages | $5,106,474 | $4,894,309 | $116,813 | $5,011,122 | $4,887,695 | $123,427 | | Operating expenses | 1,429,150 | 1,377,265 | 1,377,265 | 1,377,265 | 1,377,265 | | | Capital assets | 279,495 | 279,495 | 279,495 | 279,495 | 279,495 | | | Total all funds | $6,815,119 | $6,551,069 | $116,813 | $6,667,882 | $6,544,455 | $123,427 | | Less estimated income| 1,326,566 | 1,202,367 | 123,302 | 1,325,669 | 1,202,242 | 123,427 | | General fund | $5,488,553 | $5,348,702 | ($6,489) | $5,342,213 | $5,342,213 | $0 | | FTE | 49.94 | 47.94 | 1.25 | 49.19 | 47.94 | 1.25 | ### Dept. 252 - School for the Deaf - Detail of Conference Committee Changes | | REDUCES RECOMMENDED FUNDING FOR HEALTH INSURANCE | RESTORES FUNDING FOR FTE POSITION | RESTORES A PORTION OF AN FTE POSITION | TOTAL CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | |----------------------|--------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($6,614) | $123,427 | | $116,813 | | Operating expenses | | | | | | Capital assets | | | | | | Total all funds | ($6,614) | $123,427 | $0 | $116,813 | | Less estimated income| (125) | 123,427 | | 123,302 | | General fund | ($6,489) | $0 | $0 | ($6,489) | | FTE | 0.00 | 1.00 | 0.25 | 1.25 | 1. This amendment restores funding of $123,427 from special funds for 1 FTE position removed by the House. The Senate did not restore the funding for the position. 2. This amendment restores .25 of an FTE position that was inadvertently removed in the House amendments. ### House Bill No. 1013 - Vision Services - School for the Blind - Conference Committee Action ### REPORT OF CONFERENCE COMMITTEE (420) April 22, 2005 9:49 a.m. | | EXECUTIVE BUDGET | HOUSE VERSION | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | CONFERENCE COMMITTEE VERSION | SENATE VERSION | COMPARISON TO SENATE | |------------------------|------------------|---------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|----------------|----------------------| | Salaries and wages | $2,674,254 | $2,659,073 | ($3,370) | $2,665,703 | $2,685,703 | ($20,000) | | Operating expenses | 607,306 | 607,306 | | 607,306 | 607,306 | | | Capital assets | 67,470 | 67,470 | | 67,470 | 67,470 | | | **Total all funds** | **$3,349,030** | **$3,343,849**| **($3,370)** | **$3,340,479** | **$3,360,479** | **($20,000)** | | Less estimated income | 845,535 | 844,066 | (618) | 843,448 | 843,448 | | | General fund | 2,503,495 | 2,499,783 | (2,752) | 2,497,031 | 2,517,031 | (20,000) | | FTE | 26.95 | 26.95 | 0.00 | 26.95 | 26.95 | 0.00 | **Dept. 253 - Vision Services - School for the Blind - Detail of Conference Committee Changes** | | REDUCES RECOMMENDED FUNDING FOR HEALTH INSURANCE | TOTAL CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHANGES | |------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | ($3,370) | ($3,370) | | Operating expenses | | | | Capital assets | | | | **Total all funds** | ($3,370) | ($3,370) | | Less estimated income | (618) | (618) | | General fund | ($2,752) | ($2,752) | | FTE | 0.00 | 0.00 | This amendment does not provide funding of $20,000 from the general fund for temporary salaries and wages for Vision Services - School for the Blind as provided for by the Senate. **House Bill No. 1013 - Other Changes - Conference Committee Action** This amendment also adds a section providing for a Legislative Council study of the potential for cooperative field service delivery between Vision Services - School for the Blind and the School for the Deaf. This section was also added by the Senate. Engrossed HB 1013 was placed on the Seventh order of business on the calendar. 2005 TESTIMONY HB 1013 ## DEPARTMENT (201) PUBLIC INSTRUCTION ### Overview Presentation to the House Appropriations Committee **January 6, 2005** | Line Item | 2003-2005 Legislative Appropriation | 2003-2005 Estimated Expenditures | 2003-2005 Expenditures to Appropriation Variance | 2005-2007 Executive Recommendation | 2005-2007 Appropriation Variance | |-----------|------------------------------------|---------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|----------------------------------| | 1 | $9,277,686 | $9,179,714 | ($97,972) a | $10,057,842 | $780,156 a | | 2 | $13,057,823 | $13,057,823 | $0 | $14,892,308 | $1,834,485 b | | 3 | $15,000 | $0 | ($15,000) b | $0 | ($15,000) c | | 4 | $489,379,990 | $489,379,990 | $0 | $512,153,759 | $22,773,769 d | | 5 | $69,495,371 | $69,495,371 | $0 | $71,600,000 | $2,104,629 e | | 6 | $49,898,695 | $49,898,695 | $0 | $52,500,000 | $2,601,305 f | | 7 | $5,000,000 | $5,000,000 | $0 | $7,500,000 | $2,500,000 g | | 8 | $182,360,244 | $197,360,244 | $15,000,000 c | $207,865,583 | $25,505,339 h | | 9 | $51,854,000 | $51,854,000 | $0 | $50,912,120 | ($941,880) i | | 10 | $500,000 | $500,000 | $0 | $500,000 | $0 | | 11 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $2,000,000 | $2,000,000 j | | 12 | $50,000 | $50,000 | $0 | $0 | ($50,000) k | | 13 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $40,000 | $40,000 l | | 14 | **Total Line Items** | **$870,888,809** | **$885,775,837** | **$930,021,612** | **$59,132,803** | | 15 | **By Funding Source:** | | | | | | 16 | **General Fund** | **$604,830,006** | **$604,807,197** | **$634,144,940** | **$29,314,934** | | 17 | **Federal Funds** | **$194,449,408** | **$209,359,242** | **$222,161,411** | **$27,712,003** | | 18 | **Special Funds** | **$71,609,395** | **$71,609,395** | **$73,715,261** | **$2,105,866** | | 19 | **Total Funding Sources** | **$870,888,809** | **$885,775,834** | **$930,021,612** | **$59,132,803** | | 20 | 93.25 | 92.75 | -0.5 a | 92.75 | -0.5 | *1/6/2005 bjm* --- **Budget Comparison** (1) Explanation of major funding and FTE variances (Column 3) between the 2003-05 Legislative Appropriation and the 2003-05 Estimated Expenditures: a Transferred a .50 FTE to ITD funded with general funds ($20,534) and federal funds ($20,534). Salary and fringe benefit savings from vacant positions (general funds $2,275; federal funds $54,632) b Appropriation included federal spending authority for the purchase of two new servers. The transfer of the existing servers to ITD made the purchase unnecessary. c Additional federal spending authority is necessary in order to distribute the grant funds available to school districts under No Child Left Behind. (2) Explanation of Major Funding and FTE Variances (Column 5) for the 2005-07 Executive Recommendation to 2003-05 Legislative Appropriation: a Funding for employee salary increases (general fund $147,344; federal funds $301,943; special funds $369). Increase in federal funds to support an alternate assessment program, a federal programs monitoring program, and to restore a federally funded technology position. b Increase in federal program administrative funds. c Appropriation included federal spending authority for the purchase of two new servers. The transfer of the existing servers to ITD made the purchase unnecessary. d Increased state funding for per student state aid. e Additional special funds available for tuition apportionment. f Additional state dollars to fund special education programs. g Additional state funds for supplemental payments to districts. h Additional federal spending authority is necessary in order to distribute the grant funds available to school districts under No Child Left Behind. i Decrease in teacher compensation reimbursement dollars to school districts due to fewer teachers. j General funds to be used for incentives to districts participating in Joint Powers Agreements. k Decrease in state funding due to completion of the Data Development Analysis project. l General fund appropriation to the Education Standards and Practices Board. (3) Summary of Major Goals and Objectives and Related Performance Measurement Data for the 2005-07 Biennium: The Department of Public Instruction identified the following strategic plan goals for highest priority focus during the 2003-05 and 2005-07 Bienniums: To revamp the state's educational foundation aid formula. The department contracted with the firm Augenblich, Palaich and Associates to conduct a study of the adequacy of school funding in North Dakota. The firm, with broad stakeholder involvement, completed its study and presented the adequacy study and its implications for the redesign of a new educational foundation aid formula to the legislative Interim Education Committee in the spring of 2004. To implement a system of performance-based accreditation. The department maintained high involvement by stakeholders to further the development and refinement of a state-wide system of accountability to assist school districts in implementing a continuous improvement process and response to the federal No Child Left Behind statute. To establish/expand on-line services for data reporting. The department completed on-line reports for pupil membership; transportation; consolidated applications; fall calendar, spring calendar; open enrollment application; school vehicle inventory; adequate yearly progress district review; assessment; fall enrollment; and professional development. To recruit and/or retain quality agency staff members. The department examined comparable state and educational field salaries/benefits for hard to fill agency positions; restructured and redefined positions and functions to address evolving agency needs; employed a range of creative options to attract and/or maintain staff, including one-time bonuses; probationary increases; equity adjustments; workload adjustments; and market adjustments; adopted and implemented early departure policies and conducted exit interviews of departing staff members. Additional information pertaining to progress towards goal accomplishment is provided in the 2005-07 budget document. The budget document also includes goals and performance measures for the individual units within the department. Mr. Chairman and members of the committee: My name is Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead and I am the State Superintendent for the Department of Public Instruction. I am here to provide introductory information and an opening brief overview of our budget requests for the 2005-2007 biennium to the committee. Bonnie Miller, DPI fiscal officer, has prepared a concise overview document for each of you. I want to commend Bonnie and all staff for the excellent job of preparing the budget for this session. Bonnie will follow this presentation by covering this overview for you. She will be followed by the School for the Deaf, Vision Services/School for the Blind, and the State Library. I assure you that additional appropriations program information will be presented when scheduled for a detailed hearing at a later date. I believe it is important to state at the outset that this budget, as originally submitted to Governor Hoeven, proposed increasing the state funding for special education services for students with disabilities by $10,101,305 or 20.2%. You’ll note that the Executive Budget Recommendation increases state special education funding by only $2,601,305 million, or an increase of 5.2%. Much attention has been paid to the demographic challenges facing our state. As key policymakers, you are well-aware of the declining enrollment in the general education population in the public schools of North Dakota. However, this decrease in numbers is not the case for special education. The number of students who receive special education in the schools of our state continues to rise. This year over 14,000 North Dakota students are receiving special education and related services. That is why we are respectfully requesting your thoughtful consideration of the Department of Public Instruction’s original budget proposal for an increase in state funding for student special education payments to our school districts from $49,898,990 to $60,000,000. The department’s budget also included $12,000,000 for incentives to districts participating in Joint Powers Agreements (JPA) that increases educational opportunities for students. The Governor’s budget proposes $2,000,000. The JPA bill (which does not yet have a number) asks for $3,000,000. JPAs are the best vehicle available to assist all districts in achieving educational adequacy. Funds used for incentives would be distributed to participating districts for needed staffing and be provided on the basis of average daily membership services to students. JPAs not only provide school districts with a blueprint for increasing efficiency and improving curriculum, but also help to reduce the pressure on local property taxes. Cooperation and sharing among school districts multiplies resources and provides more and better education experiences for our children. Additionally, JPAs are a grass-roots phenomena in North Dakota and fit in with North Dakota’s history of local control. To help school districts further the effort, I request that you give careful thought to funding JPAs to the level of at least $3,000,000 as proposed in the JPA legislation. The department also requests a supplemental budget increase for the state assessment program of an additional $600,000. This increased allocation would raise the State’s funding level from the current $1,217,928 to a new level of $1,817,928. The department identified the need for this increased allocation within testimony and budget documentation during the 2003 legislative assembly. This increase is required for the State to maintain its share of the State Assessment Program, upon which all other federal title VI supplementary activities are linked. In addition, the department requests a supplemental budget increase for the expansion of the State’s academic assessment program beyond the current grades 3-8 and 11 to include grade 9. Various public school educators have requested that the State expand its accountability model to include a cohort assessment method that will complement the current federal adequate yearly progress process. The addition of a grade 9 assessment will allow for a more reliable vertical scale scoring system, thereby improving the quality of tracking cohort groups of students throughout their tenure in North Dakota public schools. Based on cost estimates provided by the State’s assessment contractor, the addition of a grade 9 assessment will total $1,200,000 for the 2005-07 biennium. Thank you for your time and attention to a most significant state budget at this early stage of committee deliberations. Bonnie Miller will now proceed with the general budget overview. Department 201 - Department of Public Instruction House Bill No. 1013 | | FTE Positions | General Fund | Other Funds | Total | |----------------------|---------------|--------------------|-------------------|----------------| | 2005-07 Executive Budget | 92.75 | $634,144,940 | $295,876,672 | $930,021,612 | | 2003-05 Legislative Appropriations | 92.75¹ | 604,765,006 | 266,058,803 | 870,823,809² | | Increase (Decrease) | 0.00 | $29,379,934 | $29,817,869 | $59,197,803 | ¹The number of FTE positions for the 2003-05 biennium has been adjusted to reflect the reduction and transfer of .5 of an FTE position relating to information technology services, including electronic mail, file and print server administration, data base administration, storage, application server, and hosting services from the Department of Public Instruction to the Information Technology Department as of November 1, 2003, provided for in Section 10 of House Bill No. 1505. ²The 2003-05 appropriation amounts include $40,000 appropriated from the general fund to the Education Standards and Practices Board for the purpose of procuring federal matching grants to provide for the national certification of teachers. The 2003-05 appropriation amounts do not include $105,000 of general fund carryover from the 2001-03 biennium. Agency Funding ![Agency Funding Graph] FTE Positions ![FTE Positions Graph] Executive Budget Highlights | Salaries and wages | General Fund | Other Funds | Total | |--------------------|--------------|-------------|-------| | 1. Includes funding to continue 2003-05 salary levels | ($84,232) | $260,581 | $176,349 | | 2. Includes the statutory changes necessary to increase the Superintendent's salary as follows: | | | | | Annual Salary Authorized by the 2003 Legislative Assembly | | | | | July 2003-June 2005 - $77,434 | | | | | Proposed Annual Salary Recommended in the 2005-07 Executive Budget | | | | | July 2005-June 2006 - $80,531 | | | | | July 2006-June 2007 - $83,752 | | | | | Operating expenses | | | | | 3. Increases operating expenses for ConnectND charges | $167,747 | | $167,747 | | 4. Decreases operating expenses to reflect savings associated with information technology functional consolidation required by House Bill No. 1505 (2003) | ($38,562) | | ($38,562) | | Item | Description | Current Year | Proposed Year | |------|-------------|--------------|---------------| | 5. | Removes funding provided in the 2003-05 biennium for the data envelopment analysis project | ($50,000) | ($50,000) | | 6. | Adjusts the funding source for expansion of the summer school monitoring program | $52,775 | ($52,725) | | 7. | Increases funding for a special education information technology project | $700,000 | $700,000 | | 8. | Increases funding for information technology data processing relating to child nutrition and food distribution | $10,250 | $10,250 | | 9. | Increases funding for information technology software and supplies relating to education improvement information | $995,000 | $995,000 | | 10. | Removes funding provided in the 2003-05 biennium for capital assets | ($15,000) | ($15,000) | | 11. | Increases funding for state school aid, including payment for limited English proficient students and transportation aid, by $22,773,769, from the 2003-05 legislative appropriation of $489,379,990 to $512,153,759 | $22,773,769 | $22,773,769 | | 12. | Decreases funding for teacher compensation payments by $941,880, from the 2003-05 legislative appropriation of $51,854,000 to $50,912,120, to properly reflect the level of funding needed to fund the current teachers at the current level of compensation payments | ($941,880) | ($941,880) | | 13. | Increases funding for special education grants by $2,601,305, from the 2003-05 legislative appropriation of $49,898,695 to $52,500,000 | $2,601,305 | $2,601,305 | | 14. | Increases funding for revenue supplemental payments by $2,500,000, from the 2003-05 legislative appropriation of $5,000,000 to $7,500,000 | $2,500,000 | $2,500,000 | | 15. | Increases funding for tuition apportionment payments by $2,104,629, from $69,495,371 to $71,600,000 | $2,104,629 | $2,104,629 | | 16. | Includes funding of $500,000 for reorganization bonus payments, the same level of funding provided for the 2003-05 biennium | $2,000,000 | $2,000,000 | | 17. | Provides funding of $2 million for providing incentives to districts participating in joint powers agreements that increase educational opportunities for students | $2,000,000 | $2,000,000 | | 18. | Increases funding for the North Dakota LEAD Center by $21,500, from $215,000 to $236,500 | $21,500 | $21,500 | | 19. | Increases funding for the North Dakota Museum of Art by $125,000, from $125,000 to $250,000, for the museum's educational outreach initiative | $125,000 | $125,000 | | 20. | Increases funding for the North Dakota Governor's School by $45,000, from $225,000 to $270,000, for creation of a school for the arts | $45,000 | $45,000 | | 21. | Increases funding for the Red River Valley Writing Project by $20,000, from $20,000 to $40,000 | $20,000 | $20,000 | | 22. | Increases funding for the Northern Plains Writing Project by $20,000, from $28,000 to $48,000 | $20,000 | $20,000 | | 23. | Increases federal funding for other grants by $25.3 million from $179.2 million to $204.5 million, including: | | | | | Title I basic grants | $9,834,306 | $9,834,306 | | | School health programs | $915,796 | $915,796 | | | Title V innovative programs | $1,757,228 | $1,757,228 | | | School renovation, IDEA, and technology | ($790,602) | ($790,602) | | | Title II teacher and principal training and recruiting | $3,820,642 | $3,820,642 | | | Special education - IDEA Part B and state improvement | $4,140,711 | $4,140,711 | | | 21st century community learning centers | $4,565,313 | $4,565,313 | | | Reading First | $924,294 | $924,294 | | | Other | $106,151 | $106,151 | | | Total | $25,273,839 | $25,273,839 | Major Related Legislation House Bill No. 1013 - Distribution of special education aid - Section 6 of House Bill No. 1013 provides legislative intent that the special education appropriation be distributed as follows: 1. $15,500,000 to reimburse school districts or special education units for excess costs incurred relating to contracts for students with disabilities ($2,500,000 more than the amount appropriated for the 2003-05 biennium). 2. $400,000 to reimburse school districts or special education units for gifted and talented programs (no change from the amount appropriated for the 2003-05 biennium). 3. $36,600,000 to distribute on a per student basis pursuant to North Dakota Century Code (NDCC) Section 15.1-27-10 ($101,305 more than the amount appropriated for the 2003-05 biennium). House Bill No. 1013 - Payments for limited English proficient students - Section 7 of House Bill No. 1013 provides that $650,000 of the amount appropriated for state school aid is for payments to school districts educating limited English proficient students as provided in NDCC Section 15.1-27-12. House Bill No. 1032 - Supplemental payments - This bill removes unrestricted federal revenue from the supplemental payment formula. House Bill No. 1033 - School district transportation payments - This bill requires that school district transportation payments be calculated using data envelopment analysis. House Bill No. 1038 - Advisory commission on the No Child Left Behind Act - This bill creates a 13-member advisory commission on the No Child Left Behind Act and continues the interim No Child Left Behind Committee through the 2005-06 interim. House Bill No. 1154 - Per student payments - This bill increases per student state school aid payments from $2,623 in 2004-05 to $2,726 in 2005-06 and $2,826 in 2006-07. House Bill No. 1154 - Weighting factors - The bill consolidates the school district size categories and increases the weighting factors so no factor is set below 1.0. House Bill No. 1154 - Teacher compensation - This bill continues the current level of teacher compensation payments of $1,000 for first-year teachers and $3,000 for second-year teachers and provides that each school district shall use an amount equal to at least 70 percent of all new money received for per student payments and tuition apportionment for the purpose of increasing the compensation paid to teachers. House Bill No. 1154 - Contingent state school aid distributions - This bill provides that any state school aid funds remaining unspent at the end of the 2003-05 biennium will be distributed as follows: 1. The first $900,000 for the purpose of providing reorganization bonuses pursuant to NDCC Section 15.1-12-11.1 and reorganization bonus advanced payments pursuant to NDCC Section 15.1-12-11.2. 2. Any remaining amount as additional per student payments. | 1 | FTE Employees | 93.25 | 92.75 | -0.5 | 92.75 | -0.5 | |---|---------------|-------|-------|------|-------|------| | | Operations: | | | | | | | 2 | Salaries & Wages | $9,277,686 | $9,277,686 | $0 | $10,057,842 | $780,156 | | 3 | Operating Expenses | $13,057,823 | $13,057,823 | $0 | $14,892,308 | $1,834,485 | | 4 | Capital Assets | $15,000 | $0 | ($15,000) | $0 | ($15,000) | | 5 | Total | $22,350,509 | $22,335,509 | ($15,000) | $24,950,150 | $2,599,641 | | | Funding Sources: | | | | | | | 6 | General Fund | $5,166,205 | $5,166,205 | $0 | $5,471,443 | $305,238 | | 7 | Federal Funds | $15,310,280 | $15,295,280 | ($15,000) | $17,603,446 | $2,293,166 | | 8 | Other Funds | $1,874,024 | $1,874,024 | $0 | $1,875,261 | $1,237 | | | Grants: State | | | | | | | 9 | Foundation Aid & Transportation | $489,379,990 | $489,379,990 | $0 | $512,153,759 | $22,773,769 | | 10 | Revenue Supplement | $5,000,000 | $5,000,000 | $0 | $7,500,000 | $2,500,000 | | 11 | Special Education | $49,898,695 | $49,898,695 | $0 | $52,500,000 | $2,601,305 | | 12 | Governor's School | $225,000 | $225,000 | $0 | $270,000 | $45,000 | | 13 | LEAD Consortium | $215,000 | $215,000 | $0 | $236,500 | $21,500 | | 14 | Teacher Center Network | $230,000 | $230,000 | $0 | $230,000 | $0 | | 15 | FINDET | $33,117 | $33,117 | $0 | $33,117 | $0 | | 16 | Adult Education Matching Funds | $920,000 | $920,000 | $0 | $920,000 | $0 | | 17 | School Lunch Matching Funds | $1,080,000 | $1,080,000 | $0 | $1,080,000 | $0 | | 18 | North Dakota Museum of Art | $125,000 | $125,000 | $0 | $250,000 | $125,000 | | 19 | Northern Plains Writing Project | $28,000 | $28,000 | $0 | $48,000 | $20,000 | | 20 | Red River Writing Project | $20,000 | $20,000 | $0 | $40,000 | $20,000 | | 21 | North Central Council of School Television | $105,000 | $105,000 | $0 | $0 | ($105,000) | | 22 | Total | $547,259,802 | $547,259,802 | $0 | $575,221,376 | $27,961,574 | 1/10/2005 bjm | | 2003-2005 LEGISLATIVE APPROPRIATION | 2003-2005 ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES | 2003-2005 EXPENDITURES TO APPROPRIATION VARIANCE | 2005-2007 EXECUTIVE RECOMMENDATION | 2005-2007 RECOMMENDATION TO 2003-2005 APPROPRIATION VARIANCE | |---|----------------------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | 23 | Federal | $179,139,127 | $179,139,127 | $0 | $204,557,965 | $25,418,838 | | 24 | Tuition Apportionment | $69,495,371 | $69,495,371 | $0 | $71,600,000 | $2,104,629 | | 25 | Displaced Homemakers | $240,000 | $240,000 | $0 | $240,000 | $0 | | 26 | Total | $69,735,371 | $69,735,371 | $0 | $71,840,000 | $2,104,629 | | 27 | General Fund | $547,259,802 | $547,259,802 | $0 | $575,221,376 | $27,961,574 | | 28 | Federal Funds | $179,139,127 | $179,139,127 | $0 | $204,557,965 | $25,418,838 | | 29 | Other Funds | $69,735,371 | $69,735,371 | $0 | $71,840,000 | $2,104,629 | | 30 | Teacher Compensation | $51,854,000 | $51,854,000 | $0 | $50,912,120 | ($941,880) | | 31 | JPA Incentives | $0 | $0 | $0 | $2,000,000 | $2,000,000 | | 32 | Reorganization Bonuses | $500,000 | $500,000 | $0 | $500,000 | $0 | | 33 | National Board Certification (ESPB) | $0 | $0 | $0 | $40,000 | $40,000 | | 34 | Data Envelopment Analysis | $50,000 | $50,000 | $0 | $0 | ($50,000) | | 35 | Total | $52,404,000 | $52,404,000 | $0 | $53,452,120 | $1,048,120 | | 36 | General Fund | $52,404,000 | $52,404,000 | $0 | $53,452,120 | $1,048,120 | | 37 | Federal Funds | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | | 38 | Other Funds | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | | 39 | Total | $870,888,809 | $870,873,809 | ($15,000) | $930,021,611 | $59,132,802 | 1/10/2 jm | Funding Sources: | 2003-2005 Legislative Appropriation | 2003-2005 Estimated Expenditures | 2003-2005 Expenditures to Appropriation Variance | 2005-2007 Executive Recommendation | 2005-2007 Recommendation to 2003-2005 Appropriation Variance | |------------------|-----------------------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | General Fund | $604,830,006 | $604,830,006 | $0 | $634,144,940 | $29,314,934 | | Federal Funds | $194,449,408 | $194,434,408 | ($15,000) | $222,161,411 | $27,712,003 | | Other Funds | $71,609,395 | $71,609,395 | $0 | $73,715,261 | $2,105,866 | | Total Funding Source | $870,888,809 | $870,873,809 | ($15,000) | $930,021,612 | $59,132,803 | 1/10/2005 bjm ## Assessment and Accountability Budget, FY 2002-09 ### NCLBA Impact on Core Assessments (Math, Reading, Science, LEP) #### North Dakota Department of Public Instruction | Activity | 2002-03 | 2003-04 | 2004-05 | 2005-06 | 2006-07 | 2007-08 | 2008-09 | 2009-10 | |-----------------------------------------------|-----------|-------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|---------------| | **NDSA Assessment** | 600,000 | 991,641 | 3,924,856 | 2,882,729 | 3,084,855 | 3,368,714 | 2,693,845 | New Bid | | **NDSA Alternate Assessment** | 50,000 | 70,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 | | **English Language Assessment** | N/A | N/A | N/A | 150,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 | | **Assessment Development** | N/A | N/A | 1,470,000 | 1,730,000 | 230,000 | 540,000 | 940,000 | New Bid | | **Assessment Accountability** | | | | | | | | | | Salaries | 25,000 | 100,000 | 130,000 | 220,000 | 220,000 | 230,000 | 230,000 | 230,000 | | Technical Advisors | 40,000 | 40,000 | 40,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | | Data Analysis | 30,000 | 36,000 | 40,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | | **Standards Development** | | | | | | | | | | Technical Assistance | 35,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 0 | 0 | 50,000 | 50,000 | | Drafting Committees | 35,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 50,000 | 0 | 0 | 35,000 | 125,000 | | **Accountability Data Analysis** | | | | | | | | | | ND Data Warehouse | 915,000 | 1,088,000 | 650,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 | | EduTech Support Services | 28,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | 60,000 | 60,000 | 75,000 | 75,000 | 75,000 | **Total** | | 1,758,000 | 2,525,641 | 6,604,856 | 5,892,729 | 4,494,855 | 5,113,714 | 4,923,845 | New Bid | **Cumulative Total** | | 1,708,000 | 4,233,641 | 10,838,497 | 16,731,226 | 21,226,081 | 26,339,795 | 31,263,640 | New Bid | ### Source | Source | 2002-03 | 2003-04 | 2004-05 | 2005-06 | 2006-07 | 2007-08 | 2008-09 | 2009-10 | |-----------------|-----------|-------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|---------------| | State | 600,000 | 600,000 | 600,000 | 900,000 | 900,000 | 1,200,000 | 1,200,000 | 1,200,000 | | Federal | 3,450,000 | 3,470,000 | 3,650,000 | 3,650,000 | 3,650,000 | 3,750,000 | 3,750,000 | 3,750,000 | | Total Revenue | 4,050,000 | 4,070,000 | 4,250,000 | 4,550,000 | 4,550,000 | 4,950,000 | 4,950,000 | 4,950,000 | | Cumulative Revenue | 4,000,000 | 8,070,000 | 12,320,000 | 16,870,000 | 21,420,000 | 26,370,000 | 31,320,000 | 36,270,000 | | PRIORITY | OPTIONAL ADJUSTMENT | FTE CHANGE | 2003-2005 APPROPRIATION | 2005-2007 REQUEST | 2005-2007 INCREASE | 2005-2007 RECOMMENDATION | |----------|--------------------------------------|------------|-------------------------|-------------------|--------------------|--------------------------| | 1 | State Assessment Program | 0.00 | $1,217,928 | $3,017,928 | $1,800,000 | $1,217,928 | | 2 | ORS CONVERSION | 0.00 | $0 | $175,000 | $175,000 | $0 | | 3 | North Dakota LEAD Center | 0.00 | $215,000 | $236,500 | $21,500 | $236,500 | | 4 | North Dakota Museum of Art | 0.00 | $125,000 | $250,000 | $125,000 | $250,000 | | 5 | Governor's School - Art Program | 0.00 | $225,000 | $270,000 | $45,000 | $270,000 | | 6 | Northern Plains Writing Project | 0.00 | $28,000 | $48,000 | $20,000 | $48,000 | | 7 | Education Standards and Practices Board | 0.00 | $40,000 | $50,000 | $10,000 | $40,000 | **TOTAL** | | 0.00 | $1,850,928 | $4,047,428 | $2,196,500 | $2,062,428 | | PRIORITY | OPTIONAL REQUEST | FTE CHANGE | 2003-2005 LEGISLATIVE APPROPRIATION | 2005-2007 OPTIONAL ADJUSTMENT | 2005-2007 DEPARTMENT REQUEST | 2005-2007 EXECUTIVE RECOMMENDATION | 2005-2007 HOUSE AMENDMENTS | |----------|------------------------------------------------------|------------|------------------------------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------| | 1 | State Assessment Program | 0.00 | $1,217,928 | $1,800,000 | $3,017,928 | $1,217,928 | $0 | | | Priority One - $600,000 | | | | | | | | | Priority Two - $1,200,000 | | | | | | | | 2 | Enterprise Architecture (EA) | 0.00 | $0 | $175,000 | $175,000 | $0 | $0 | | 3 | North Dakota LEAD Center | 0.00 | $215,000 | $21,500 | $236,500 | $236,500 | ($21,500) | | 4 | North Dakota Museum of Art | 0.00 | $125,000 | $125,000 | $250,000 | $250,000 | ($125,000) | | 5 | Governor's School - Art Program | 0.00 | $225,000 | $45,000 | $270,000 | $270,000 | ($20,000) | | 6 | Northern Plains Writing Project | 0.00 | $28,000 | $20,000 | $48,000 | $48,000 | ($20,000) | | 7 | Education Standards and Practices Board | 0.00 | $40,000 | $10,000 | $50,000 | $40,000 | $0 | | | SUBTOTAL | 0.00 | $1,850,928 | $2,196,500 | $4,047,428 | $2,062,428 | ($186,500) | | | Red River Valley Writing Project | 0.00 | $20,000 | $0 | $20,000 | $40,000 | ($20,000) | | | TOTAL | | $1,870,928 | $2,196,500 | $4,067,428 | $2,102,428 | ($206,500) | 1 The Governor's School submitted the $45,000 cost for the proposed Art Program to the Department but did not identify that amount as an annual cost. Thus, the biennial cost was understated by $45,000. Mr. Chairman and members of the committee: My name is Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead and I am the State Superintendent for the Department of Public Instruction. I am here to provide introductory information and a brief overview of our budget requests for the 2005-2007 biennium to the committee. Bonnie Miller, DPI fiscal officer, has prepared a concise overview document for each of you. I want to commend Bonnie and all staff for the excellent job of preparing the budget for this session. Due to the number of individuals present today who wish to testify, Bonnie’s request overview has been moved to the end of the agenda. If time permits, Bonnie will cover the administrative portion of our budget with you today. If not, she will review that portion of the request with the Senate subcommittee when scheduled for a hearing at a later date. We will begin by having Bonnie introduce the optional items in the Department’s budget. She will be followed by Greg Gallagher, Standards and Assessments Director and Doug McCrory, Management Information Systems Director who will address two of those optional items. Dr. Gary Gronberg, Assistant Superintendent will cover the special education budgetary request for your consideration. Tom Decker and Jerry Coleman will then briefly review Joint Powers Agreements and School State Aid, respectively. The budgets for the State Library, School for the Deaf, and the Division of Vision Services will follow the completion of the department’s presentation. Our presentation will conclude with testimony regarding funding for the ND Museum of Art, Governor’s School, Northern Plains and Red River Valley Writing Projects, ND LEAD Consortium, and National Teacher Certification. It is important to state at the outset that this budget, as submitted to Governor Hoeven, increased the state funding for special education services for students with disabilities by $10,101,305 or 20.2%. The Executive Budget Recommendation increases special education funding by $2,601,305 million, or 5.2%. Much attention has been paid to the demographic challenges facing our state. As key policymakers, you are well-aware of the declining enrollment in the general education population in the schools of North Dakota. However, this is not the case for special education. The number of students who receive special education in the schools of our state continues to rise. This year over 14,000 North Dakota students are receiving special education and related services. That is why we are respectfully requesting your thoughtful consideration of the Department of Public Instruction’s proposal for an increase in state funding for special education from $49,898,990 to $60,000,000. The Governor’s budget proposes $2,000,000 for Joint Powers Agreements (JPA). The JPA bill (Senate Bill 2168) asked for $3,000,000. The House appropriations committee reduced that to $2,000,000. JPAs are the best vehicle available to assist all districts in achieving educational adequacy. Funds provided for incentives would be distributed to participating districts for needed staffing and on the basis of average daily membership to provide services. JPAs not only provide school districts with a blueprint for increasing efficiency and improving curriculum, but also help to reduce the pressure on local property taxes. Cooperation and sharing among school districts multiplies resources and provides more and better education experiences for our children. Additionally, JPAs are a grass-roots phenomena in North Dakota and fit in with North Dakota’s history of local control. To help school districts further the effort, I request that you give careful thought to funding JPAs at least $3,000,000. The department also requests a supplemental budget increase for the state assessment program of an additional $600,000. This increased allocation would raise the State’s funding level from the current $1,217,928 to a new level of $1,817,928. The department identified the need for this increased allocation within testimony and budget documentation during the 2003 legislative assembly. This increase is required for the State to maintain its share of the State Assessment Program, upon which all other federal title VI supplementary activities are linked. Thank you for your time and attention to a most significant state budget at this early stage of committee deliberations. Web Resources: The DPI WEB site provides a convenient place to access information and publications related to North Dakota schools, as well links to other education information sites nationally. The educational directory, school district profiles and school finance facts publications are among the most popular and can be located in the resources section. The site address is www.dpi.state.nd.us. The following links are also good sources of information regarding school finance. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) http://nces.ed.gov/ National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL): Education Finance Database http://nces.ed.gov/ Making Money Matter: Financing America's Schools http://books.nap.edu/books/0309065283/html/ I believe it is the central role of education to help fill and expand the individual’s intellectual circle of being. Further, I believe it is the role of the state education agency to provide educational leadership, guidance and technical assistance; to advocate for adequate and equitable funding for our schools; and to insure a continuous educational improvement model is in place for all North Dakota schools and their students. Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead State Superintendent Headlines - Christa McAuliffe Fellowship Program - Office of Native American Ed Suggests Models of Culturally Convergent School Reform - Funding Available for Students Learning English as a Second Language | 1 | 2003-2005 LEGISLATIVE APPROPRIATION | 2 | 2003-2005 ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES | 3 | 2003-2005 EXPENDITURES TO APPROPRIATION VARIANCE | 4 | 2005-2007 EXECUTIVE RECOMMENDATION | 5 | 2005-2007 RECOMMENDATION TO 2003-2005 APPROPRIATION VARIANCE | 6 | 2005-2007 HOUSE AMENDMENTS | 7 | 2005-2007 RECOMMENDATION TO HOUSE AMENDMENTS VARIANCE | |---|----------------------------------|---|---------------------------------|---|-----------------------------------------------|---|---------------------------------------------|---|-----------------------------------------------|---|---------------------------------------------|---|---------------------------------------------| | 1 | FTE Employees | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | Salaries & Wages | $9,277,686 | $9,277,686 | $0 | $10,057,842 | $780,156 | $10,020,282 | ($37,560) | | 3 | Operating Expenses | $13,057,823 | $13,057,823 | $0 | $14,892,308 | $1,834,485 | $15,167,308 | $275,000 | | 4 | Capital Assets | $15,000 | $0 | ($15,000) | $0 | ($15,000) | $0 | $0 | | 5 | Total | $22,350,509 | $22,335,509 | ($15,000) | $24,950,150 | $2,599,641 | $25,187,590 | $237,440 | | 6 | General Fund | $5,166,205 | $5,166,205 | $0 | $5,471,443 | $305,238 | $5,733,774 | $262,331 | | 7 | Federal Funds | $15,310,280 | $15,295,280 | ($15,000) | $17,603,446 | $2,293,166 | $17,578,555 | ($24,891) | | 8 | Other Funds | $1,874,024 | $1,874,024 | $0 | $1,875,261 | $1,237 | $1,875,261 | $0 | | 9 | Foundation Aid & Transportation | $489,379,990 | $489,379,990 | $0 | $512,153,759 | $22,773,769 | $510,853,759 | ($1,300,000) | | 10 | Revenue Supplement | $5,000,000 | $5,000,000 | $0 | $7,500,000 | $2,500,000 | $5,000,000 | ($2,500,000) | | 11 | Special Education | $49,898,695 | $49,898,695 | $0 | $52,500,000 | $2,601,305 | $52,500,000 | $0 | | 12 | Governor's School | $225,000 | $225,000 | $0 | $270,000 | $45,000 | $250,000 | ($20,000) | | 13 | LEAD Consortium | $215,000 | $215,000 | $0 | $236,500 | $21,500 | $215,000 | ($21,500) | | 14 | Teacher Center Network | $230,000 | $230,000 | $0 | $230,000 | $0 | $230,000 | $0 | | 15 | FINDET | $33,117 | $33,117 | $0 | $33,117 | $0 | $33,117 | $0 | | 16 | Adult Education Matching Funds | $920,000 | $920,000 | $0 | $920,000 | $0 | $920,000 | $0 | | 17 | School Lunch Matching Funds | $1,080,000 | $1,080,000 | $0 | $1,080,000 | $0 | $1,080,000 | $0 | | 18 | North Dakota Museum of Art | $125,000 | $125,000 | $0 | $250,000 | $125,000 | $125,000 | ($125,000) | | 19 | Northern Plains Writing Project | $28,000 | $28,000 | $0 | $48,000 | $20,000 | $28,000 | ($20,000) | | 20 | Red River Writing Project | $20,000 | $20,000 | $0 | $40,000 | $20,000 | $20,000 | ($20,000) | | 21 | North Central Council of School Television | $105,000 | $105,000 | $0 | $0 | ($105,000) | $0 | $0 | | 22 | Total | $547,259,802 | $547,259,802 | $0 | $575,221,376 | $27,961,574 | $571,254,876 | ($4,006,500) | | 23 | Federal | $179,139,127 | $179,139,127 | $0 | $204,557,965 | $25,418,838 | $204,557,965 | $0 | | | 2003-2005 LEGISLATIVE APPROPRIATION | 2003-2005 ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES | 2003-2005 EXPENDITURES TO APPROPRIATION VARIANCE | 2005-2007 EXECUTIVE RECOMMENDATION | 2005-2007 RECOMMENDATION TO 2003-2005 APPROPRIATION VARIANCE | 2005-2007 HOUSE AMENDMENTS | 2005-2007 RECOMMENDATION TO HOUSE AMENDMENTS VARIANCE | |---|----------------------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------| | 24 | Tuition Apportionment | $69,495,371 | $69,495,371 | $0 | $71,600,000 | $2,104,629 | $71,600,000 | $0 | | 25 | Displaced Homemakers | $240,000 | $240,000 | $0 | $240,000 | $0 | $240,000 | $0 | | 26 | Total | $69,735,371 | $69,735,371 | $0 | $71,840,000 | $2,104,629 | $71,840,000 | $0 | | 27 | General Fund | $547,259,802 | $547,259,802 | $0 | $575,221,376 | $27,961,574 | $575,014,876 | ($206,500) | | 28 | Federal Funds | $179,139,127 | $179,139,127 | $0 | $204,557,985 | $25,418,858 | $204,557,985 | $0 | | 29 | Other Funds | $69,735,371 | $69,735,371 | $0 | $71,840,000 | $2,104,629 | $71,840,000 | $0 | | 30 | Teacher Compensation | $51,854,000 | $51,854,000 | $0 | $50,912,120 | ($941,880) | $50,912,120 | $0 | | 31 | JPA Incentives | $0 | $0 | $0 | $2,000,000 | $0 | ($2,000,000) | $0 | | 32 | Reorganization Bonuses | $500,000 | $500,000 | $0 | $500,000 | $0 | ($500,000) | $0 | | 33 | National Board Certification (ESPB) | $0 | $0 | $0 | $40,000 | $40,000 | $0 | $0 | | 34 | Data Envelopment Analysis | $50,000 | $50,000 | $0 | $0 | ($50,000) | $0 | $0 | | 35 | Total | $52,404,000 | $52,404,000 | $0 | $53,452,120 | $1,048,120 | $50,952,120 | ($2,500,000) | | 36 | General Fund | $52,404,000 | $52,404,000 | $0 | $53,452,120 | $1,048,120 | $50,952,120 | ($2,500,000) | | 37 | Federal Funds | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | | 38 | Other Funds | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | | 39 | Total | $870,888,809 | $870,873,809 | ($15,000) | $930,021,611 | $59,132,802 | $50,952,120 | ($2,500,000) | | 40 | General Fund | $604,830,006 | $604,830,006 | $0 | $634,144,940 | $29,314,934 | $627,900,771 | ($6,244,169) | | 41 | Federal Funds | $194,449,408 | $194,434,408 | ($15,000) | $222,161,411 | $27,712,003 | $222,136,520 | $24,891 | | 42 | Other Funds | $71,609,395 | $71,609,395 | $0 | $73,715,261 | $2,105,866 | $73,715,261 | $0 | | 43 | Total Funding Source | $870,888,809 | $870,873,809 | ($15,000) | $930,021,612 | $59,132,803 | $923,752,552 | ($6,219,278) | Memo To: Conference Committee From: Bonnie J. Miller, Fiscal Director Date: April 18, 2005 Re: House Bill No. 1013 The purpose of this memo is to provide the Conference Committee with additional clarification on two items. Specifically: Operating Expenses The Senate amendments reduced the Department's general fund administrative funding by $310,000 (i.e., $35,000 from the Salary line and $275,000 from the Operating line). Subsequently, $290,000 was transferred to Grants to provide additional funds for Adult Education and to restore funding for five flow-through entities. This reduction, along with the 2003-2005 reduction, to the Department's general fund administrative funding makes it difficult to provide the necessary services to the field. The Department does have federal administrative funds. However, these funds are earmarked for specific purposes and are to be used to support, not supplant, state funded activities. The Department's 2005-2007 budget request does include a substantial increase in federal administrative funding. This increase in funds is primarily from Title VI and represents the federal support for testing activities. In addition, Special Education is anticipating additional federal monies to be used to implement a state-wide Individual Education Plan (IEP). House Bill No. 1013, Section 5 As introduced during the Department's budget presentation to the House Appropriations Committee, the federal Grants authority included in the current budget is not sufficient to pay the anticipated grants to the school districts. The Senate amendment includes $15,000,000 in additional authority for this purpose. However, based on the recent projections of spending by the school districts, approximately $30,000,000 is necessary for the purpose of providing grants for the period ending June 30, 2005. Please note that although the Department knows the total amount of grants provided to the school districts, it is extremely difficult to estimate how much will be spent given that federal funds can be carried over. The Department's 2003-05 budget includes $182,360,244 in Grant authority. Currently, only $9,030,967 in authority remains to cover the remaining two weeks of April, May, and June spending by the School Districts. Thank you for your time and attention to these most significant matters. HB 1013 - GF Reductions Decreases the Gov's recommendation by: State School aid (Foundation aid) by $7,400,000 Special Ed by $1,000,000 Supplemental Payments by $1,000,000 Reorganization Bonuses by $500,000 (Eliminates this line item) LEAD Center by $21,500 Museum of Art by $125,000 Governor's School by $20,000 RRV Writing Project by $20,000 Northern Plains by $20,000 Total Reduction to Governors Budget $10,106,500 Division of Independent Study 148,800 School for the Deaf (128,634) Total HB 1013 ($10,086,334) HB 1019 - State Historical Society + 465,000 HB 1020 - Parker & Rec (117,461) 250,000 Place Order Elkhorn Ranch 160,000 Pt. Stevens (45) 000 Lake Sakakawea (55) 000 WSI - O - Chairman Holmberg and Members of the Senate Appropriations Committee: I am Dr. Gaylynn Becker High School Counselor and District Assessment Coordinator for New Salem and Hebron Public School Districts. I am here on my own personal time to testify against the amendment in House Bill 1013 that removes the requirement that the State Superintendent of Public Instruction be a licensed teacher in North Dakota. I ask that you withdraw this amendment to House Bill 1013 that was passed in the House. Instead of reducing the standards for the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, I recommend that the requirement be increased to that of being a "Highly Qualified" licensed teacher as is required for all of our teachers in North Dakota. Thank you. The Information Technology Department supports the Department of Public Instruction’s decision to upgrade applications developed in Microsoft Visual Basic version 6 to Microsoft’s .Net architecture. Microsoft will discontinue support for Visual Basic version 6 in 2008. Their long-term strategy is to support .Net architecture. .Net is a mature architecture that is backed by the North Dakota Enterprise Architecture process. It would be advantageous to do the upgrade in the near-term in order to keep the number of architectures supported by your staff to a minimum. STRATEGIES - To plan for the obsolescence of existing systems. - To develop contingency plans for the effective continuation of services in the event of a disaster. GOAL TWO Maintain core business processes to reduce the risk of potential disruption to critical services. INITIATIVES - Aging and Obsolete System Replacements — State agencies plan to replace the following systems: Integrated Tax System (ITS), Medicaid Management Information System (MMIS), Unemployment Insurance (UI), Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), Facility Maintenance, iTAG Institutional Offender Management System, Security Access, Roadway Information Management System (RIMS) Inventory Interface, Online Reporting System (ORS), Drivers License System and the North Dakota Legislative Council Systems. - Mainframe Migration — ITD plans to migrate the applications from the IBM mainframe to a current technology platform, saving time and money in administration and licensing fees. Applications migrated will continue to provide service without the need for redevelopment. - Upgrade Core Banking System — The Bank of North Dakota plans to upgrade its systems to provide improved services to its customers. - Upgrade Pavement Management System — The DOT plans to replace the dTIMS 6.0 pavement analysis software with a package that incorporates maintenance activities. - Develop a Second Data Center — ITD is planning a second data center to meet the availability needs of state government in the event of a major disaster at the Judicial Wing location. - Establish a Hot Site for Disaster Recovery — Workforce Safety and Insurance plans to establish a hot site for disaster recovery and business continuity. - Continuity of Government/Continuity of Operations (COG/COOP) — The COOP plans will be reviewed and adjusted as needed, until North Dakota has a workable recovery plan in place. These plans will need periodic review and updates to ensure they reflect the changing technology. - Enterprise Architecture — Cross agency teams will continue to monitor technology changes and establish plans for a smooth transition into the future. Product Family Life-Cycle Guidelines for Visual Basic 6.0 The Microsoft Visual Basic® 6.0 product family life-cycle guidelines provide advanced notification of planned changes regarding the availability of and support for the Visual Basic 6.0 family of products. This information will assist customers and partners with product planning and IT decisions. Visual Basic 6.0 Product Family Support Life Cycle (in years): Mainstream Extended Non-Supported The following support policy has been in effect since the release of Visual Studio .NET. Product Life-Cycle Phases Mainstream Phase - Standard support offerings are available for Visual Basic 6.0, such as Premier Support, free professional telephone and online incident support per warranty, paid professional telephone and online incident support, free critical updates (also known as a "HotFix" or a "QFE"), and free online self-help tools. For details and pricing guidelines for paid professional support, please visit the Microsoft Product Support Services Web site. - The Mainstream phase will be in effect for six years after the product's general availability date. Visual Basic 6.0 was generally available in January 1999. Mainstream support will end March 31, 2005. Extended Phase - Standard support offerings include Premier Support, paid telephone and online incident support, and free online self-help tools. - Critical Updates will be available for a fee. - Free telephone and online incident support will no longer be available. - The Extended phase will be in effect from seven to nine years after the product's general availability date. Extended Phase support begins in April 2005 and ends March 2008. Non-Supported Phase - Support will no longer be offered for Visual Basic 6.0 after nine years of general product availability. - Visual Basic 6.0 will no longer be supported starting March 2008. Robinson, Larry J. From: Dean A. Koppelman [email@example.com] Sent: Wednesday, April 20, 2005 10:46 AM To: Robinson, Larry J.; Mueller, Phil; Metcalf, Ralph E. Subject: Fw: Funding of ORS Conversion in HB1013 Good morning fellas: I thought you would be interested in seeing this email from our special ed director, Jabs. With all of the reporting we have to do as schools and as much as we've tried to improve that reporting through the on-line system, it seems to make sense to provide funding that Carol is referring to. Thanks for all of your help. Take care. Dean Koppelman ----- Original Message ----- From: "Carol Jabs" <firstname.lastname@example.org> To: <email@example.com>; <firstname.lastname@example.org>; <email@example.com>; <firstname.lastname@example.org>; <email@example.com> Sent: Wednesday, April 20, 2005 7:54 AM Subject: Funding of ORS Conversion in HB1013 > Good morning: > I received a message form a fellow director related to ORS Conversion funding. The following information was obtained from him. > Evidently, the money in DPI's budget to upgrade the ORS to .NET has been stripped from the appropriations. This was a line item 2 called "Enterprise Architecture, ORS Conversion" with a cost of $175,000. > There has been a statewide data collection advisory committee of the DPI that was formed when school districts expressed concerns regarding the "electronic" data collection efforts required by the legislature, the DPI and the Office of Career and Technical Education. This committee has worked for two years to make data collection efforts less painful for schools, but more valuable to those collecting the data. A significant piece of the long-term improvement to the collection process is the migration of the current system to a .NET architecture. > A couple of reasons the funding is needed as noted by the committee include: 1) The MISO Division has learned that starting in 2008, the current software they are using will no longer be supported. They need the funding to begin the conversion process. 2) The MISO Division has implemented this Data Advisory Committee to provide feedback on implementing the Online Reporting System. They will also use the funding to respond to the needs and suggestions made by the field (example: they are working to streamline data entry so a piece of data only needs to be entered one time. Historically, data has had to be entered 2 times for Title 1, 3 times for Special Education, 1 for Migrant, 4 for teacher compensation, etc.). > Senator Larry Robinson is on the conference committee assigned to this bill along with Sen. Ed. Krinstad, Sen. Ray Holmberg, Rep Tom Bruesgaard, Rep Bob Martinson and Rep. Ole Aarsvold. Carol This message has been scanned for viruses and Larry, As I understand it, the DPI budget had requested $175,000 to fund an upgrade to the ORS system. Currently school districts are limited by the current system. With the conversion, DPI would be able to address a number of needs presented by school districts. For example: The MISO Division has learned that starting in 2008, the current software they are using will no longer be supported. They need the funding to begin the conversion process. Funding is also needed to respond to the needs addressed by the statewide data collection advisory committee. For example: They are working to streamline data entry so that a piece of data only needs to be entered one time. Historically, data has had to be entered two times for Title 1, 3 times for special education, 1 time for Migrant, and 4 for teacher compensation. Please consider restoring the funding for the ORS Conversion. Carol. Members of the Conference Committee on HB 1013: I serve on a statewide data collection advisory committee of the Department of Public Instruction. This committee was formed after many school districts expressed concerns regarding the "electronic" data collection efforts required by the legislature, the Department of Public Instruction, and the Office of Career and Technical Education. We have worked very diligently over the past 2 years to make data collection efforts less painful for schools, but more valuable to those collecting data. A significant piece of the long-term improvement to the collection process is the migration of the current system to a .NET architecture. The DPI budget included a $175,000 request to fund these efforts, and was referred to as the "Enterprise Architecture, ORS Conversion" in HB 1013. As school districts, we are handicapped by the limitations of the current system. With the conversion to the .NET architecture, the Department of Public Instruction will be able to address a laundry list of needs that have been presented by school districts. The list gets longer each time we meet. Without the conversion, the difficulties that we are experiencing will continue. I understand that the dollars available are limited. I only wanted to provide you with a bit of the background on this issue and let you know that it is an initiative that was proposed as a joint effort between school districts and the Department of Public Instruction. Thank you for any consideration that you can give to funding the "Enterprise Architecture, ORS Conversion" line item in HB 1013. Sincerely, Mark Lemer Business Manager West Fargo Schools T: 701-356-2002 Members of the Conference Committee on HB 1013: I am a member of a statewide data collection advisory committee for the Department of Public Instruction. This committee was formed at the request of school districts, after many districts expressed concerns regarding the "electronic" data collection efforts required by the legislature, the Department of Public Instruction, the Dept. of Education and the Office of Career and Technical Education. We have met regularly over the past 2 years to make data collection efforts less painful for schools, but more valuable to those collecting data. A significant piece of the long-term improvement to the collection process is the migration of the current system to a .NET architecture. The DPI budget included a $175,000 request to fund these efforts, and was referred to as the "Enterprise Architecture, ORS Conversion" in HB 1013. As school districts, we spent extra time working within the architecture of the current system and we are handicapped by the limitations of that current system. With the conversion to the .NET architecture, the Department of Public Instruction will be able to address a laundry list of needs that have been presented by school districts. The list gets longer each time we meet. Without the conversion, the difficulties that we are experiencing will continue. I understand that the dollars available are limited. This is an initiative that was proposed as a joint effort between school districts and the Department of Public Instruction. It can make work for us, the end users, less time consuming and more meaningful. Thank you for any consideration that you can give to funding the "Enterprise Architecture, ORS Conversion" line item in HB 1013. Sincerely, Dan Huffman Asst. Supt Fargo Schools TO: House Appropriations Committee Education & Environmental Division FROM: Bonnie J. Miller, Fiscal Director DATE: January 12, 2005 Attached is the information requested by Representative Wald on January 11, 2005. Specifically: - A Department of Public Instruction organization report including a description of each administrative unit, unit employees, job class, and grade. If there are any questions, please contact me. My telephone number is 328-2346. I am pleased to be of assistance to the Committee. STATE SUPERINTENDENT Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead ................................................................. Grade 99 Executive Assistant: Lynette Norbeck .............................................. Grade 99 The superintendent is responsible for the supervision of the operation of the Department of Public Instruction, including the ND School for the Deaf, ND Vision Services/School for the Blind, and the State Library. The department assists in various roles including, but not limited to: acts as a resource and provides technical assistance to all school districts and related education organizations in North Dakota, implements statutes, regulations, policies and procedures, implements the provision of NDCC related to public school finance and organization, and provides technical assistance and administrative support to the State Board for Public School Education. MANAGEMENT COUNCIL State Superintendent: Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead Assistant Superintendent: Dr. Gary Gronberg Assistant Superintendent: G. David Massey Human Resource Director: Irish Linnertz Fiscal Management Director: Bonnie Miller The Management Council acts in a consultative capacity to the superintendent on issues of policy, procedure and operations, initiates strategic planning, insures consistency in the application of policy, including salary administration, and causes the creation of department work teams and/or committees to respond to department needs. The council is not involved in normal operating activities of individual units. The fiscal management director and the human resources director act in an advisory capacity to the Management Council. DIVISIONS Education Improvement Assistant Superintendent – Dr. Gary Gronberg .......................................................... Grade 16 Programs and activities assigned to Dr. Gronberg include: Standards and Achievement, including the state testing program; Special Education; School Approval and Accreditation, including education credentials; and Title I (Improving the Academic Achievement of the Disadvantaged). Education Support and Community Learning Assistant Superintendent – G. David Massey ................................................................ Grade 16 Programs and activities assigned to Dave Massey include: Community Learning Programs; Adult Education and Literacy, including GED testing programs; Child Nutrition and Food Distribution; Coordinated School Health; and Management Information Systems. ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS Adult Education and Community Learning This unit is responsible for the administration of Adult Education and Literacy; the Learn and Serve Grant; Title I Part B Even Start; and the 21st Century Community Learning Centers. Program Administrator: Dale Patrick ........................................................................... Grade 12 Administrative Assistant III: Jolli Marcellais ................................................................. Grade 8 Child Nutrition and Food Distribution This unit administers USDA child nutrition programs, nutrition education and training programs, and commodity assistance for schools, institutions, and low-income individuals. Director: Linda Glaser ................................................................................................ Grade 15 Assistant Director-Food Distribution: John Dasovick ................................................ Grade 13 Assistant Director-Nutrition Education and Training: Loris Freier ............................. Grade 13 Child Nutrition Specialist (.75 FTE): Deb Egeland .................................................... Grade 11 Child Nutrition Specialist (Mayville): Stacie Morowski ............................................. Grade 11 Administrative Officer: Marilyn Hoff .......................................................................... Grade 10 Program Administrator-Food Distribution: Melissa Anderson ..................................... Grade 9 Administrative Assistant II-Nutrition Programs: Carla Wardzinski ............................. Grade 7 Administrative Assistant II-Food Distribution: Lauri Nord ........................................ Grade 7 Coordinated School Health Programs This unit administers the Title IV Safe and Drug Free Schools Program and coordinates health education, including AIDS prevention. Director: Valerie Fischer ................................................................. Grade 15 Program Administrator-Professional Development/Curriculum/Safe & Drug Free: Drinda Olsen .............................................................................. Grade 12 Program Administrator-Data Manager/HIV/AIDS Education: Nicole Wright ........ Grade 12 Program Administrator-Safe & Drug Free/Nutrition & Physical Activity: Patrice S. Anderson .................................................................. Grade 13 Administrative Assistant III: Deb Pilon ................................................ Grade 8 Fiscal Management This unit is responsible for the preparation and submission of the biennial budget, department payroll, and the internal accounting system. Responsibilities include the preparation of financial statements and various fiscal reports, maintenance of the department budget, purchasing, grant and contract files, process and issuance of all payments, receipt of all revenue, and coordination of school districts and other subrecipient audits. The director coordinates agency risk management activities. Director: Bonnie Miller .................................................................. Grade 15 Foundation Aid: Addy Schmaltz ....................................................... Grade 10 Grant Administrator-Title Programs: Beverly Fischer ..................... Grade 14 Grant Administrator-State and Federal Programs: Laura Olson .......... Grade 14 Grant Administrator-Child Nutrition & Food Distribution: Stephanie Gullickson Grade 12 Purchasing/Office Services: Candy Tollefson .................................. Grade 10 Grants/Contracts Officer I (.50 FTE): Sebastian Lacher ................ Grade 10 Account/Budget Specialist II: Linda O'Shea .................................. Grade 10 Account/Budget Specialist I: Lisa Lee .......................................... Grade 8 Account Technician II: Pamela Whiteley ........................................ Grade 7 Administrative Assistant II: Sacha Spinks ....................................... Grade 7 Human Resources Management This unit manages human resources for the department, supervises general operations, and provides editorial services for internal programs. Director: Irish Linnertz ................................................................ Grade 14 Business Communications Specialist (.75 FTE): Kathy Dorgan .......... Grade 10 Human Resource Technician II: Linda Gibbins .............................. Grade 9 Receptionist (.75 FTE): Angela Voegele ....................................... Grade 5 Management Information Systems This unit provides information technology and data management services to state and local agencies, school personnel, and legislators. This includes administration and support of the local area network, hardware and software, and remote connections with school systems and local agencies; training for users; and coordinates with the ND Information Technology Department. This unit also provides application development and consulting services. Director: Doug McCrory ................................................................. Grade 15 Assistant Director: Dorice Miller .................................................. Grade 14 Programmer Analyst: Doris Tonne son ........................................... Grade 13 Programmer Analyst: Joleen Gross ............................................... Grade 13 Data Processing Coordinator: Judy Ortlip ..................................... Grade 12 Education Information Process Analyst: Dr. David Larson ............... Grade 13 Training Officer: Roxie Dietrich .................................................. Grade 10 Computer & Network Specialist: Robert LaFavor .......................... Grade 10 Research Analyst: Stephen Hiebert .............................................. Grade 12 Research Analyst: Don Kaiser ..................................................... Grade 10 Research Technician: Sherry Sayler ............................................ Grade 7 Research Technician: Brian Bucholz ............................................. Grade 7 Web Development/Programmer: Jamie Krous ................................ Grade 9 School Approval and Accreditation This unit assists K-12 schools in providing quality education; administers the accreditation program; reviews public and nonpublic schools for statutory compliance, including school calendar, fire safety, and curriculum; administers summer school programs; provides technical assistance for dual credit, home education, and education improvement; administers the issuance of credentials for administrators, counselors, library media personnel, and driver education personnel; administers the Title II D School Technology Grants Program; and coordinates state and federal monitoring processes. Director-Home Education/School Improvement/Dual Credit: Anita Decker .................. Grade 15 Assistant Director: Tricia Lang .................................................. Grade 13 Project Director-Ed Services Improvement Grant Monitor: Christopher Wing .......... Grade 13 Program Administrator-School Technology: Christopher Kalash ....................... Grade 12 Administrative Assistant III-Secondary: Mary Hayes .......................... Grade 8 Administrative Assistant III-Elementary: Annette Miller ....................... Grade 8 Administrative Assistant III: Patricia Mattern ................................ Grade 8 Administrative Assistant II: Paula McKay ...................................... Grade 7 Administrative Assistant II: Cheryl Moch ...................................... Grade 7 School Finance and Organization This unit is responsible for several major areas of activity. In the area of school district finance, the unit supervises the distribution of state aid and assists with the implementation of the uniform accounting system. In the area of school organization, the unit provides technical assistance to schools and school districts regarding annexation, reorganization, and dissolution procedures; provides support and technical assistance for open enrollment; supervises the school bus transportation program; approves school construction and manages school construction loan programs. This unit provides administrative support to the State Board for Public School Education. Director: Thomas Decker .................................................................Grade 15 Assistant Director-Finance: Jerry Coleman ........................................Grade 14 Administrative Assistant III: Alice Johnson ........................................Grade 8 Special Education This unit prescribes state and federal rules and regulations for special education and assists school districts in the development and administration of special education programs. Director: Robert Rutten .................................................................Grade 15 Assistant Director: Jeanette Kolberg ................................................Grade 14 Special Education Coordinators: Teresa Monicken .................................................................Grade 13 Dr. Guy McDonald ...............................................................Grade 14 John Porter .................................................................Grade 14 Doreen Strode .................................................................Grade 14 Nancy Skorheim ...............................................................Grade 14 Gerry Teevens .................................................................Grade 14 Office Manager: Michelle Souther ................................................Grade 7 Administrative Assistant I (.50 FTE): Colleen Schneider ................Grade 6 Administrative Assistant I (.50 FTE): Jean Foltz ........................Grade 6 Office Assistant III: Darla Van Vleet ........................................Grade 5 Standards and Achievement This unit is responsible for the overall administration of the department's education improvement efforts; the development of state content standards and assessments; administration of bilingual and language acquisition programs; administration of the statewide standardized achievement test program and National Assessment of Educational Progress testing; offers statewide professional development opportunities (Title II); and Innovative Programs (Title V). Director: Greg Gallagher .................................................................Grade 15 Assistant Director-State Testing: Jean Newborg ................................Grade 13 Assistant Director-Bilingual and Language Acquisition Programs: Mari Rasmussen Grade 13 Program Administrator-Events Coordinator: Patricia Laubach ........Grade 11 Program Administrator-Title II/Title V: Paula Gabel ......................Grade 10 Program Administrator-NAEP: Pauline Bjornson ........................Grade 12 Administrative Assistant II: Beverly Schatz ................................Grade 7 Administrative Assistant II: Heidi Bergland ................................Grade 7 Administrative Assistant II: Charlotte Kaseman ........................Grade 7 Title I This unit provides financial assistance to state and local educational agencies to meet the needs of educationally deprived, at-risk children. The goal of Title I is to provide instructional services and activities to meet the needs of disadvantaged children identified as failing or most at risk of failing the state's challenging performance standards. This includes programs for Migrant Education and Education of Homeless Children. The Reading First and the Comprehensive School Reform Programs are also coordinated through this unit. Director: Laurie Matzke ................................................................. Grade 15 Assistant Director-School-wide: Tanya Lunde-Neumiller .................. Grade 13 Assistant Director-Reading First: Gail Schauer ............................... Grade 13 Program Administrator-Migrant Education/Reading/Math Credential: Sandy Peterson ... Grade 10 Program Administrator-Homeless: Ann Ellefson ................................ Grade 12 Program Administrator-CSRD: Nita Wirtz ........................................ Grade 12 Fiscal Officer: Mary Neigum ......................................................... Grade 8 Administrative Assistant III: Missy Schiller ..................................... Grade 8 Administrative Assistant II: Patty Carmichael ................................... Grade 7 | FTE | Unit | Div | Name | Pos | Class | Gr | Cur Salary | Tmplncr | End Date | TotalSal | Annual Salary | Salary Range | DOH | Yrs | |-----|---------------|-----|-----------------|------|-------|----|--------------|---------|--------------|-----------|---------------|-------------|----------|-----| | 1.00| Administration| 1 | Sanstead, Wayne | 1249 | 9001 | 99 | $6,452.83 | $0.00 | | $6,452.83 | $77,433.96 | $0.00 | 1/2/1985 | 12 | | 1.00| Administration| 4 | VACANT-Linnertz, J | 1303 | 1619 | 16 | $6,022.00 | $0.00 | | $6,022.00 | $72,264.00 | $3,947.00 | | 0 | | 1.00| Administration| 1 | Norbeck, Lynette | 1290 | 9004 | 99 | $2,485.00 | $0.00 | | $2,485.00 | $29,820.00 | $0.00 | 11/7/1988 | 16 | | 1.00| Adult Ed & CL | 2 | Patrick, Dale | 1296 | 1603 | 12 | $3,060.00 | $0.00 | | $3,060.00 | $36,720.00 | $2,623.00 | 8/1/2002 | 2 | | 1.00| Adult Ed & CL | 2 | Marcellais, Jolli | 1307 | 0043 | 8 | $2,331.00 | $0.00 | | $2,331.00 | $27,972.00 | $1,775.00 | 7/1/1984 | 21 | | 1.00| Adult Ed & CL | 2 | Massey, Dave | 1314 | 1619 | 16 | $6,359.00 | $0.00 | | $6,359.00 | $76,308.00 | $3,947.00 | 8/20/1976 | 28 | | 0.00| Board Member | 0 | Remington, Darrel | 1349 | 9006 | 0 | $1,250.00 | $0.00 | | $1,250.00 | $15,000.00 | $0.00 | 5/13/1993 | 0 | | 0.00| Board Member | 0 | Lind, Jeff | 1349 | 9006 | 0 | $1,250.00 | $0.00 | | $1,250.00 | $15,000.00 | $0.00 | 10/1/2003 | 0 | | 0.00| Board Member | 0 | Wilhelmi, LeRitta | 1349 | 9006 | 0 | $1,250.00 | $0.00 | | $1,250.00 | $15,000.00 | $0.00 | 5/13/1993 | 0 | | 1.00| Child Nutrition| 2 | Glaser, Linda | 1271 | 1615 | 15 | $3,566.00 | $0.00 | | $3,566.00 | $42,792.00 | $3,566.00 | 1/1/1997 | .8 | | 1.00| Child Nutrition| 2 | Freier, Loris | 1265 | 1613 | 13 | $4,016.00 | $0.00 | | $4,016.00 | $48,192.00 | $2,907.00 | 9/19/1978 | 26 | | 1.00| Child Nutrition| 2 | Dasovick, John | 1275 | 1612 | 13 | $3,988.00 | $0.00 | | $3,988.00 | $47,856.00 | $2,907.00 | 11/1/1980 | 34 | | 0.50| Child Nutrition| 2 | Morowski, Stacie | 1319 | 1602 | 11 | $1,264.00 | $0.00 | | $1,264.00 | $15,168.00 | $2,364.00 | 11/24/2003 | 1 | | 1.00| Child Nutrition| 2 | VACANT-Jacobson, K | 1281 | 1603 | 12 | $2,854.00 | $0.00 | | $2,854.00 | $34,248.00 | $2,623.00 | | | | 0.25| Child Nutrition| 2 | Anderson, Pat | 1340 | 1604 | 13 | $771.00 | $0.00 | | $771.00 | $9,252.00 | $2,907.00 | 12/8/1997 | 7 | | 0.75| Child Nutrition| 2 | Egeland, Deb | 1279 | 1602 | 11 | $1,990.00 | $0.00 | | $1,990.00 | $23,880.00 | $2,364.00 | 11/24/1997 | 7 | | 1.00| Child Nutrition| 2 | Anderson, Melissa | 1323 | 0951 | 9 | $2,151.00 | $0.00 | | $2,151.00 | $25,812.00 | $1,956.00 | 5/14/2001 | 6 | | 1.00| Child Nutrition| 2 | Hoff, Marilyn | 1269 | 0912 | 10 | $2,345.00 | $0.00 | | $2,345.00 | $28,140.00 | $2,131.00 | 9/14/1998 | 6 | | 1.00 | Child Nutrition | Nord, Lauri | 1306 | 0042 | 7 | $1,839.00 | $0.00 | $1,839.00 | $22,068.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 1/1/2003 | 1 | | 1.00 | Child Nutrition | Wardzinski, Carla * | 1270 | 0042 | 7 | $1,860.00 | $300.00 | $2,160.00 | $22,320.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 10/6/1997 | 7 | | 1.00 | Child Nutrition | VACANT-Glaser, L | 1267 | 1603 | 12 | $3,006.00 | | | $36,072.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | | | 0.00 | Child Nutrition | TEMP-Schmitz, S | 1346 | 9032 | 0 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | 1/8/2005 | 0 | | 0.50 | Child Nutrition | Ortlip, Judy | 1336 | 0153 | 12 | $1,566.00 | $0.00 | $1,566.00 | $18,792.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 7/14/1980 | 34 | | 0.50 | Coord Sch Health | Spinks, Sacha | 1344 | 0042 | 7 | $897.50 | $0.00 | $897.50 | $10,770.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 12/30/2002 | 2 | | 1.00 | Coord Sch Health | Olsen, Drinda | 1338 | 1603 | 12 | $2,955.00 | $0.00 | $2,955.00 | $35,460.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 3/20/2000 | 4 | | 1.00 | Coord Sch Health | Wright, Nicole | 1337 | 1603 | 12 | $3,060.00 | $0.00 | $3,060.00 | $36,720.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 6/16/2003 | 2 | | 1.00 | Coord Sch Health | Pilon, Deborah | 1311 | 0043 | 8 | $2,208.00 | $0.00 | $2,208.00 | $26,496.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | 12/21/1992 | 12 | | 0.75 | Coord Sch Health | Anderson, Pat | 1340 | 1604 | 13 | $2,313.00 | $0.00 | $2,313.00 | $27,756.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | 12/8/1997 | 7 | | 1.00 | Coord Sch Health | Fischer, Valerie | 1312 | 1605 | 15 | $4,138.00 | $0.00 | $4,138.00 | $49,656.00 | $3,566.00 | $5,944.00 | 5/9/1994 | 10 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | Whiteley, Pamela | 1331 | 0212 | 7 | $1,719.00 | $0.00 | $1,719.00 | $20,628.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 12/6/2004 | 0 | | 0.50 | Fiscal | Spinks, Sacha | 1344 | 0042 | 7 | $897.50 | $0.00 | $897.50 | $10,770.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 12/30/2002 | 2 | | 0.50 | Fiscal | Lacher, Sebastian | 1333 | 0421 | 10 | $1,467.00 | $0.00 | $1,467.00 | $17,604.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 10/1/1965 | 39 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | Miller, Bonnie | 1258 | 0225 | 15 | $4,731.00 | $0.00 | $4,731.00 | $56,772.00 | $3,566.00 | $5,944.00 | 9/1/1999 | 15 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | Lee, Lisa | 1272 | 0221 | 8 | $1,970.00 | $0.00 | $1,970.00 | $23,640.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | 6/4/2001 | 3 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | O'Shea, Linda | 1257 | 0222 | 10 | $2,337.00 | $0.00 | $2,337.00 | $28,044.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 7/22/2002 | 2 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | Gullickson, Stephanie | 1268 | 0223 | 12 | $2,814.00 | $0.00 | $2,814.00 | $33,768.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 7/9/1992 | 14 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | Tollefson, Candice | 1278 | 0601 | 10 | $2,430.00 | $0.00 | $2,430.00 | $29,160.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 12/7/1992 | 12 | | 0.50 | Fiscal | VACANT-RIF'D- (Becher, | 1283 | 0032 | 4 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $1,213.00 | $2,021.00 | 0 | | Fiscal Year | Department | Employee Name | ID | Position | Salary | Benefits | Total | Date Hired | Years | |-------------|----------------|---------------------|------|----------|--------|----------|-------|------------|-------| | 1.00 | TEMP-Budget(Vacant) | | 1348 | 9036 | 99 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | 0 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | Fischer, Beverly | 1317 | 1618 | 14 | $3,705.00| $0.00 | $3,705.00 | $44,460.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | 11/24/1997 | 14 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | Olson, Laura J. | 1316 | 1618 | 14 | $3,318.00| $0.00 | $3,318.00 | $39,816.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | 7/14/2003 | 5 | | 1.00 | Fiscal | Schmaltz, Adeline | 1263 | 0912 | 10 | $2,964.00| $0.00 | $2,964.00 | $35,568.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 6/11/1973 | 30 | | 1.00 | Human Resources | Gibbins, Linda | 1250 | 0802 | 9 | $2,052.00| $0.00 | $2,052.00 | $24,624.00 | $1,956.00 | $3,260.00 | 7/22/2002 | 2 | | 0.75 | Human Resources | Voegele, Angela | 1252 | 0033 | 5 | $1,170.00| $0.00 | $1,170.00 | $14,040.00 | $1,334.00 | $2,224.00 | 11/8/2004 | 0 | | 0.75 | Human Resources | Dorgan, Kathy * | 1264 | 0820 | 10 | $1,789.00| $0.00 | $1,789.00 | $21,468.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 12/9/1996 | 8 | | 1.00 | Human Resources | Linnertz, Helen (Irish) | 1310 | 0805 | 14 | $5,081.00| $0.00 | $5,081.00 | $60,972.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | 7/6/1981 | 23 | | 1.00 | MIS | Krous, Jamie | 1292 | 0131 | 9 | $2,099.00| $0.00 | $2,099.00 | $25,188.00 | $1,956.00 | $3,260.00 | 12/8/2003 | 1 | | 1.00 | MIS | Dietrich, Roxie | 1293 | 0818 | 10 | $2,705.00| $0.00 | $2,705.00 | $32,460.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 6/24/1991 | 13 | | 1.00 | MIS | Hiebert, Stephen | 1332 | 0903 | 12 | $3,403.00| $0.00 | $3,403.00 | $40,836.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 9/1/1998 | 6 | | 1.00 | MIS | Tonneson, Doris | 1342 | 0143 | 13 | $3,771.00| $0.00 | $3,771.00 | $45,252.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | 11/1/1999 | 5 | | 1.00 | MIS | Miller, Dorice | 1259 | 0144 | 14 | $4,152.00| $0.00 | $4,152.00 | $49,824.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | 5/5/1997 | 14 | | 0.50 | MIS | Ortlip, Judy | 1336 | 0153 | 12 | $1,566.00| $0.00 | $1,566.00 | $18,792.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 7/14/1980 | 34 | | 1.00 | MIS | McCrory, Doug | 1262 | 0172 | 15 | $4,755.00| $0.00 | $4,755.00 | $57,060.00 | $3,566.00 | $5,944.00 | 7/1/1993 | 12 | | 1.00 | MIS | Bucholz, Brian | 1261 | 0900 | 7 | $2,056.00| $0.00 | $2,056.00 | $24,672.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 9/21/1989 | 15 | | 1.00 | MIS | Sayler, Sherry | 1260 | 0900 | 7 | $2,451.00| $0.00 | $2,451.00 | $29,412.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 7/8/1974 | 30 | | 1.00 | MIS | Kaiser, Don | 1280 | 0902 | 10 | $2,283.00| $0.00 | $2,283.00 | $27,396.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 5/17/2004 | 3 | | 1.00 | MIS | Larson, Dave * | 1329 | 0931 | 13 | $3,846.00| $0.00 | $3,846.00 | $46,152.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | 9/1/1997 | 9 | | Position | Name | ID | Dept | Salary | Hours | Rate | Gross | Net | FICA | Medicare | Other | Date | Age | |-------------------|--------------------|------|------|--------|-------|-------|-------|-----|------|----------|-------|----------|-----| | MIS | LaFavor, Robert | 1285 | | $2,283.00 | 10 | $27,396.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 1/22/2003 | 1 | | MIS | Gross, Joleen | 1334 | | $3,100.00 | 13 | $37,200.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | 9/24/2001 | 6 | | School A & A | Decker, Anita | 1318 | | $4,404.00 | 15 | $52,848.00 | $3,566.00 | $5,944.00 | 8/21/2000 | 12 | | School A & A | Kalash, Christopher| 1302 | | $2,128.00 | 12 | $25,536.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 3/8/2004 | 3 | | School A & A | Kaseman, Charlotte | 1256 | | $543.50 | 7 | $6,522.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 2/1/1979 | 25 | | School A & A | Hayes, Mary | 1304 | | $2,804.00 | 8 | $33,648.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | 1/4/1970 | 39 | | School A & A | Wing, Christopher | 1335 | | $3,113.00 | 13 | $37,356.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | 10/20/2004| 1 | | School A & A | Mattern, Patti | 1308 | | $1,116.50 | 8 | $13,398.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | 8/1/1988 | 16 | | School A & A | Moch, Cheryl * | 1327 | | $2,147.00 | 7 | $25,764.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 4/9/1990 | 14 | | School A & A | Lang, Tricia R. | 1326 | | $3,392.00 | 13 | $40,704.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | 9/2/2003 | 1 | | School A & A | McKay, Paula | 1294 | | $2,037.00 | 7 | $24,444.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 10/1/1992 | 20 | | School A & A | Miller, Annette * | 1301 | | $2,464.00 | 8 | $29,568.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | 2/15/1985 | 20 | | School Finance | Coleman, Jerry | 1274 | | $3,860.00 | 14 | $46,320.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | 9/18/1995 | 19 | | School Finance | Johnson, Alice | 1251 | | $2,090.00 | 8 | $25,080.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | 7/31/2003 | 1 | | School Finance | Decker, Tom | 1328 | | $5,312.00 | 15 | $63,744.00 | $3,566.00 | $5,944.00 | 12/1/1989 | 15 | | Special Education | Schneider, Colleen | 1322 | | $1,040.00 | 6 | $12,480.00 | $1,467.00 | $2,445.00 | 1/7/1991 | 16 | | Special Education | TEMP-Budget(Hoberg, M) | 1346 | | $0.00 | 99 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | 6/10/1997 | 0 | | Special Education | Souther, Michelle *| 1291 | | $2,331.00 | 7 | $27,972.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 7/8/1991 | 16 | | Special Education | Strode, Doreen * | 1287 | | $3,740.00 | 14 | $44,880.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | 7/15/2000 | 4 | | Special Education | Rutten, Robert | 1286 | | $4,562.00 | 15 | $54,744.00 | $3,566.00 | $5,944.00 | 9/12/1994 | 10 | | Position | Name | ID | Grade | Salary | Hours | Total Salary | Total Hours | Total Salary | Total Hours | |---------------------------|--------------------|------|-------|--------|-------|--------------|-------------|--------------|-------------| | Special Education | Skorheim, Nancy | 1300 | 1607 | $4,187.00 | 14 | $4,187.00 | $50,244.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | | Special Education | Van Vleet, Darla | 1313 | 0033 | $1,638.00 | 5 | $1,638.00 | $19,656.00 | $1,334.00 | $2,224.00 | | Special Education | McDonald, D. Guy | 1343 | 1607 | $3,645.00 | 14 | $3,645.00 | $43,740.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | | Special Education | Mattern, Patti | 1308 | 0043 | $1,116.50 | 8 | $1,116.50 | $13,398.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | | Special Education | Monicken, Teresa | 1341 | 1604 | $3,562.00 | 13 | $3,562.00 | $42,744.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | | Special Education | Kolberg, Jeanette | 1321 | 1607 | $4,046.00 | 14 | $4,046.00 | $48,552.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | | Special Education | Teevens, Geraldine | 1295 | 1607 | $3,645.00 | 14 | $3,645.00 | $43,740.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | | Special Education | Porter, John | 1288 | 1607 | $3,827.00 | 14 | $3,827.00 | $45,924.00 | $3,160.00 | $5,266.00 | | Special Education | Foltz, Jean | 1322 | 0041 | $878.00 | .6 | $878.00 | $10,536.00 | $1,467.00 | $2,445.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Kalash, Christopher| 1302 | 1603 | $709.00 | 12 | $709.00 | $8,508.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Laubach, Patricia | 1266 | 1602 | $3,707.00 | 11 | $3,707.00 | $44,484.00 | $2,364.00 | $3,940.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Newborg, Jean | 1325 | 1604 | $3,943.00 | 13 | $3,943.00 | $47,316.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Schatz, Beverly | 1276 | 0042 | $2,150.00 | 7 | $2,150.00 | $25,800.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Bergland, Heidi | 1324 | 0042 | $1,846.00 | 7 | $1,846.00 | $22,152.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Kaseman, Charlotte | 1256 | 0042 | $1,630.50 | 7 | $1,630.50 | $19,566.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Bjornson, Pauline | 1330 | 1603 | $3,303.00 | 12 | $3,303.00 | $39,636.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Gallagher, Greg | 1282 | 1605 | $4,285.00 | 15 | $4,285.00 | $51,420.00 | $3,566.00 | $5,944.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Gronberg, Gary | 1289 | 1619 | $6,319.00 | 16 | $6,319.00 | $75,828.00 | $3,947.00 | $6,579.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Ramussen, Mari | 1253 | 1604 | $3,831.00 | 13 | $3,831.00 | $45,972.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | | Standards & Achievement | Gabel, Paula | 1277 | 1601 | $2,598.00 | 10 | $2,598.00 | $31,176.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | | FTE | Title | Name | ID | Dept | Pos | Salary | Hours | Rate | Gross | Net | Adjusted | Date | Age | |-----|-------|-------------------|------|------|-----|--------|-------|-------|-------|-------|----------|---------|-----| | 1.00| Title I | VACANT-Bjornson, P | 1297 | 1603 | 12 | $0.00 | | | $0.00 | $0.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | | | 1.00| Title I | Neigum, Mary * | 1284 | 0911 | 8 | $2,545.00 | $0.00 | $2,545.00 | $30,540.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | 12/1/1975 | 29 | | 1.00| Title I | Matzke, Laurie | 1320 | 1605 | 15 | $4,455.00 | $0.00 | $4,455.00 | $53,460.00 | $3,566.00 | $5,944.00 | 9/8/1993 | 11 | | 1.00| Title I | VACANT-Mousel, M | 1309 | 0041 | 6 | $2,264.00 | $0.00 | $2,264.00 | $27,168.00 | $1,467.00 | $2,445.00 | | | | 1.00| Title I | Schauer, Gail | 1255 | 1604 | 13 | $3,846.00 | $0.00 | $3,846.00 | $46,152.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | 8/3/1998 | 6 | | 1.00| Title I | Lunde-Neumiller, Tanya | 1273 | 1604 | 13 | $3,473.00 | $0.00 | $3,473.00 | $41,676.00 | $2,907.00 | $4,845.00 | 3/2/1998 | 6 | | 1.00| Title I | Peterson, Sandra | 1315 | 1601 | 10 | $2,667.00 | $0.00 | $2,667.00 | $32,004.00 | $2,131.00 | $3,551.00 | 10/15/1987 | 17 | | 1.00| Title I | Carmichael, Patty | 1298 | 0042 | 7 | $2,001.00 | $0.00 | $2,001.00 | $24,012.00 | $1,614.00 | $2,690.00 | 5/2/1991 | 13 | | 1.00| Title I | Schiller, Melissa | 1299 | 0043 | 8 | $2,039.00 | $0.00 | $2,039.00 | $24,468.00 | $1,775.00 | $2,959.00 | 5/19/1997 | 7 | | 1.00| Title I | Ellefson, Ann | 1305 | 1603 | 12 | $3,060.00 | $0.00 | $3,060.00 | $36,720.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 7/22/2002 | 2 | | 0.00| Title I | TEMP-Olson, Jan | 1346 | 9032 | 99 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | $0.00 | 12/6/2004 | 0 | | 1.00| Title I | Wirtz, Nita | 1254 | 1603 | 12 | $2,871.00 | $0.00 | $2,871.00 | $34,452.00 | $2,623.00 | $4,371.00 | 6/6/2000 | 5 | 92.75 - Authorized FTEs 7-1-03 ( .50) - Transfer IT position 12-1-03 92.75 - Adjusted Authorization 12-1-03 The Superintendent, an Assistant Superintendent for the General Management Division, and an administrative assistant are included in the FTE count. The Superintendent is responsible for constitutional boards and functions, and the administration of the ND School for the Deaf, ND Division of Vision Services, and the State Library. Human Resources FTE 3.50 Unit personnel are responsible for personnel administration and internal operational functions, including: reception duties, internal mail distribution, and business communications. Fiscal Management FTE 10.0 Unit personnel are responsible for management of general administrative and fiscal functions, including the preparation and submission of the biennial budget, department payroll, internal accounting, preparation of financial statements and various fiscal reports; purchasing, maintenance of the department budget, grant and contract files, process and issuance of all payments, receipt of all revenue, coordination of school districts, and other sub-recipient audits. Grants Management positions, previously assigned to Special Ed, Child Nutrition, and Federal Title programs have been reorganized into the fiscal unit. The purchasing agent, previously assigned to office services in the HR unit, has been reassigned to the fiscal office. School Finance and Organization FTE 3.0 Unit personnel supervise the distribution of state aid, assist schools with the implementation of the uniform accounting system; provide technical assistance to schools and school districts regarding annexation, reorganization, and dissolution procedures; provide technical support and assistance on open enrollment; supervise the school bus transportation program; approve school construction and manage school construction loan programs; provide administrative support to the State Board for Public School Education; and collect and report teacher compensation data. This unit now rolls into the General Management budget. Title I FTE 10.0 This unit provides financial assistance to state and local educational agencies to meet the needs of educationally deprived, at-risk children. The goal of Title I is to provide instructional services and activities to meet the needs of disadvantaged children identified as failing or most at risk of failing the state’s challenging performance standards. Unit personnel are responsible for the overall administration of the department’s school improvement efforts; administration of Title VI and Title II grants to local districts to improve student achievement and provide professional development opportunities to teachers; the development and design of statewide content standards and assessments; and the administration of “No Child Left Behind,” new federal legislation. Language acquisition and programs for immigration are also administered through this unit. Staff members administer the statewide testing program and the new federal NAEP testing program. Unit personnel are responsible for assisting K-12 schools in providing quality education; administering a statewide accreditation program; reviewing public and nonpublic schools for statutory compliance; providing technical assistance to local education agencies regarding dual credit; and issuing credentials for administrators, counselors, library media, and driver education personnel. Education Technology positions supervise the granting of competitive federal funds to school districts. Federal Monitor coordinates state and federal monitoring of SEIP programs. Special Education personnel members provide special education and related services needed to make a free, appropriate public education available to all eligible children with one or more of 13 specified disabilities. Unit personnel provides information technology and data management services to state and local agencies, school personnel, and legislators. This includes administration and support of the local area network, hardware and software, and remote connections with school systems and local agencies; training for users; and coordinates with the ND Information Technology Department. This unit also provides application development and consulting services. Staff also conducts research and provides data analysis services. Unit personnel support the activities of Adult Education and Literacy, Even Start, 21st Century Learning Centers, and the Learn and Serve Grants. These grants support nine Even Start programs, fourteen 21st Century Learning Center community programs, one new Learn and Serve program, twenty GED testing sites, and twenty-two adult learning centers. Unit personnel members are responsible to help provide a safe and healthy learning environment for students and faculty. Unit personnel are responsible for the administration of 8 USDA child nutrition programs, nutrition education and training programs, and commodity assistance for schools, institutions, and low-income individuals. Food Distribution – Food Donation Program Food is available for distribution to qualifying agencies such as food banks, schools, child and adult care centers. USDA provides funding to DPI for storage and delivery of food products valued at approximately $6,000,000 per year. No cash grants are made to participating outlets. School Breakfast Funds are available to reimburse participating public and nonprofit private schools of high school grade or under for breakfast. The rates of reimbursement are adjusted on an annual basis. All participating schools must agree to supply free and reduced price meals to eligible students. National School Lunch Program Funds are available to reimburse participating, public and nonprofit private schools, of high school age or under, including residential child care institutions, for lunches. Schools may be reimbursed for meal supplements served to children enrolled in after school hour care programs. Special Milk Program for Children The objective is to encourage the consumption of milk by children. Participation is limited to agencies that serve children who do not have access to breakfast and lunch in school, and to summer camps. Child & Adult Care Food Program Funds are available to eligible institutions to reimburse costs in providing meals and snacks to children and adults participating in nonresidential day care. Generally, the program is limited to children 12 years old and younger in child care institutions. However, adult day care centers functionally impaired adults 18 years and older, and adults 60 years old or older, who are not serving residents of an institution, are eligible. Summer Food Service for Children Funds are available to eligible institutions to provide free meals to low-income children during the summer months and at other approved times, when area schools are closed for vacation. The program is for children 18 years and under, and children 18 years and under who participate in State approved programs for persons with disabilities. | CATALOG # | TITLE | US DEPT | |----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------| | 10.565 | Commodity Supplemental Food Program | Agriculture | | | Food distribution for individuals and households that meet income-eligibility guidelines. This is a program that provides nutritious commodities to supplement other foods available to participants, primarily the elderly. | | | 10.567 | Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations | Agriculture | | | Food distribution for Indian households living in a designated area near an Indian reservation. The area must be certified by local authorities as having inadequate income and resources. Administrative funds support warehousing transportation and other administrative costs at the tribal and state level. | | | 10.568 | Emergency Food Assistance Program | Agriculture | | | Funds are made available for the processing, storage and distribution cost incurred for providing food assistance to needy persons. | | | 10.574 | Team Nutrition Program | Education | | | Team Nutrition grants are to improve children’s lifelong eating and physical activity habits. Team Nutrition funds provide training and technical assistance to child nutrition foodservice personnel, nutrition education and curriculum for schools and child care facilities, and build school and community environments that support healthy eating and physical activity. | | | 84.002 | Adult Basic Education | Education | | | Funds are used to improve educational opportunities for out-of-school adults who are 16 years old and older or who are beyond the age of compulsory school attendance and who lack sufficient mastery of basic educational skills to enable them to function effectively in society and who have not graduated from secondary school. Special emphasis is given to programs of instruction in computational skills and in speaking, reading or writing English. Of the federal monies received 5% is awarded to DPI and 95% is distributed to Adult Learning Centers. Method for allocation of funds is based on a competitive application process. | | Title I Basic Grants Disadvantaged Children Meet High Standards Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act provides financial assistance to state and local educational agencies to meet the needs of the educationally deprived, at-risk children. The goal of Title I is to provide instructional services and activities to meet the needs of disadvantaged children identified as failing or most at risk of failing the state's challenging performance standards. Four percent of the state allocation must be set aside for schools that are identified as needing program improvement, of which 95% is distributed to school districts, and 5% may be used for administration. Five percent of the difference between the 2004-2005 and 2003-2004 Title I allocations may be used for awards to schools and/or teachers. States are allowed to withhold 1% or a flat amount of $400,000 for states declared a small state minimum for administrative purposes. The remaining amount is distributed to local school districts. The method for allocating funds to school districts is based on free and reduced meal counts, foster counts and census data. Also, funds are distributed to local school districts for neglected and delinquent students. The method for allocating funds for neglected students is based on free meal counts and enrollment. The method for allocating funds for delinquent students is based on a competitive application process. Title I Migrant Education Funds are used to support educational programs that address the needs of migratory children, ages 0 through 21. Of the funds received, 71 percent is distributed to school districts, 20 percent is for service agreements to provide health services to migrant students, to participate in consortia that benefit the migrant students, and to pay for a migrant database to count the migrant students that is required by the U.S. Department of Education. Nine percent of the funds is for administration. The method for allocation of funds is a weighted formula based on number of migrant students, needs of migrant students, statutory priority for service, and availability of other funds. Title I Neglected & Delinquent Children & Youth Funds are used to meet the special educational needs of children in institutions or community day school programs for neglected or delinquent children and youth in adult correctional institutions. Services must be used to supplement those normally provided with state funds. Funds are distributed to state agencies serving neglected and delinquent students. The method for allocation of funds is calculated by the U.S. Department of Education based on adjusted enrollment. 84.025 Services for Children with Deaf-Blindness Funds are used to provide technical assistance and support to parents, families and service providers of children with deaf-blindness. 84.027 Special Education Act (IDEA), Part B Funds are used by state and local educational agencies to help provide the special education and related services needed to make a free appropriate public education available to all eligible children with one or more in thirteen categories. In the most recent allocation an amount equal to 90.9% of the total grant amount was distributed to school districts based on the federal formula. Allocations are made to special education units based on 75% of the amount received for FFY 1999 plus 85% of the remaining amount available for distribution based on the relative number of children enrolled in elementary and secondary schools within the special education unit. Remaining 15% is allocated on the number of children in the unit eligible for free and reduced meals. 84.173 Special Education IDEA Preschool Program Funds are used by state and local educational agencies to help provide special education and related services to children with disabilities aged 3 years through 5 years a free appropriate public education. Allocations are made to special education units based on 75% of the amount received for fiscal year 1997 plus 85% of the remaining amount available for distribution based on the relative number of children enrolled in elementary and secondary schools within the special education unit. Remaining 15% is allocated on the number of children in the unit eligible for free and reduced meals. 84.184 Title IV Part A Community Service Grants Provides funds to local entities to carry out programs under which students expelled or suspended from school are required to perform community service. The entire amount is used for service contracts to carry out the goals of this program. 84.185 Byrd Scholarship Program Provides scholarships to outstanding high school seniors that show promise of continued academic achievement in an effort to recognize and promote student excellent and achievement. Annual scholarships of $1,500 are awarded to support a maximum of four years of study at an eligible institution of higher education. Funds are made available to school districts to establish, operate, and improve local programs of school drug and violence prevention and early interventions in elementary and secondary schools. The funds support programs that prevent violence in and around schools; prevent the illegal use of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs; involve parents and are coordinated with related federal, state, and community efforts and resources to foster a safe and drug-free learning environment that supports student academic achievement. Of the monies received 4% is used at the state level for technical assistance, 3% is awarded to DPI for administration and 93% is distributed to school districts. Method for allocation of funds is based on school enrollment and poverty levels as determined by Title I. The grant funds for this program are used to ensure that all homeless children and youth in the state have equal access to the same free, appropriate public education provided to other children and youth. The state educational agency provides services and sub grants to local educational agencies to ensure the removal or revision of policies that prove to be barriers to the enrollment, attendance, and success of homeless children and youth in schools. Of the monies received, 50% is distributed to school districts, 33% is awarded to local shelters and agencies serving homeless children, and 17% is for administration. The method for allocation of funds is based on a competitive application process. Funds are available to provide family-centered education projects. Even Start provides integrated programming in early childhood education, adult basic education, parenting education, and Parent and Child Time Together (PACT). This program helps parents become partners in the education of their children, helps children reach their full potential as learners and helps provide literacy training for parents. Of the monies received 94% is distributed to school districts, 3% is for technical assistance, and 3% is for administration. The method for allocation of funds is based on a competitive application process. The purpose of the Character Education grant from the Department of Education is to support, design and implement demonstration sites at selected LEA's. These sites share their projects with other interested LEA's at statewide conferences or by personal appointment. The State education agency provides technical and professional assistance to local educational agencies in program development, implementation of curriculum materials teacher training, and other activities related to character education. The 21st Century Community Learning Centers Program is to establish or expand community-learning centers that provide students with academic enrichment opportunities along with activities designed to complement the students' regular academic program. Community learning centers must also offer families of these students' literacy and related educational development. Centers provide a range of high-quality services to support student learning and development, including tutoring and mentoring, homework help, academic enrichment (such as hands-on science or technology programs), and community service opportunities, as well as music, arts, sports and cultural activities. Programs can be located in public elementary or secondary schools or other similarly accessible facilities. Centers must provide academic enrichment activities to students that attend high-poverty (at least 40% free or reduced lunch) or Title I school wide schools to help them meet state and local standards in core subjects especially reading, and mathematics. At the same time, centers help working parents by providing a safe environment for students when school is not in session. Funds are made available to assist local educational reform efforts that are consistent with and support statewide education reform efforts; to provide funding to implement promising educational reform programs and school improvement programs based on scientifically based research; to provide a continuing source of innovation and educational improvement, including support programs to provide library services and instructional and media materials; to meet the educational needs of all students, including at-risk youth; and to develop and implement education programs to improve school, student, and teacher performance, including advancement of hiring and retention incentives, support for professional development activities and reduction of class sizes. Of the monies received, 85% is distributed to school districts, 12.75% is for statewide education reform activities, and 2.25% is for administration. The method for allocation of funds is based on school enrollment, Title I low-income units, and geographic spar city. Grants are provided to school districts to improve student academic achievement through the use of technology in elementary and secondary schools, to assist every student in becoming technologically literate by the end of 8th grade, and to encourage the effective integration of technology resources and systems with professional development and curriculum development to promote research-based instructional methods that can be widely replicated. Of the monies received 95% is distributed to school districts, 2% is for statewide technical assistance programs, and 3% is for administration. Half of the amount available for school districts is distributed based on school enrollment and percentage of Title I allocations. The other half is distributed to school districts on a competitive application process. Funds are awarded to school districts to provide financial incentives to develop comprehensive school reforms, based upon scientifically based research and effective practices that include an emphasis on basic academics and parental involvement so that all children can meet challenging State academic content and achievement standards. Districts must complete an extensive application process and rigorous peer review. Of the monies received, 95% is allocated to schools, and 5% is for administration. The method of allocation of funds is based on a competitive application process. Funds are provided to eligible school districts to address the needs of rural, low-income schools for teacher recruitment and retention, teacher professional development, educational technology, parental involvement, or authorized activities under Title IV Part A, Title I Part A, or Title III. Of these monies, 95% is distributed to school districts, and 5% is for administration. The method of allocation is based on a competitive application process. Funds are available to school districts to improve the education of limited English proficient (LEP) children and youth by helping them learn English and meeting challenging state academic content and academic achievement standards. No Child Left Behind combined Emergency Immigrant and Bilingual programs under Improving America Schools Act into one program. Funds are made available to school districts and state agencies for higher education to support class size reduction and professional development activities to increase student academic achievement through strategies such as improving teacher and principal quality and increasing the number of highly qualified teachers in the classroom and highly qualified principals and assistant principals in schools. Local educational agencies and schools are held accountable for improvements in student academic achievement. Activities should provide sustained and intensive high-quality professional development that can help students achieve to high academic standards. Of the monies received, 95% is distributed to school districts; and 2-1/2% is for higher education projects, 2-1/2% is for statewide projects, and 1% is for administration. The method for allocation of funds is based on the previous year’s Title II Part A allocations and on school enrollment and Title I low-income units. Funds are provided to the state to supplement the development and implementation of statewide assessments that advance the state's uniform accountability system as required under the NCLBA. Appropriate activities supported with Title VI funds include the development and implementation of the following: state content standards; state achievement standards; state assessment replacement test items; state assessment validity studies; the expansion of the state assessment into grades 3-8 and 12 in math and reading/English language arts; the roll out of new science assessments; accountability reporting at the district and state level; and the analysis of student achievement and well being data. The state is to maintain its current funding commitments for the state assessment and its supporting reports. Provides funds to school districts that are impacted by refugee students. These funds may be used to assist refugee students in achieving academic success and English language proficiency through participation in after school tutoring and extracurricular activities. This program provides grants to local education agencies that experience large increases in their student populations due to immigration and refugee resettlement. The purpose of the School Health programs agreement with the Centers for Disease Control is to support the development and implementation of school health programs to prevent serious health problems for youth. Of the monies received, approximately 13% is distributed to Teacher Centers for providing statewide training programs. In addition, contractors are hired on a competitive application process to fulfill other objectives of this award. | Catalog # | Title | U.S. Dept. | Grants | Admin | |----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|--------------|-----------| | 10.553 | School Breakfast | Agriculture | 3,600,000 | | | 10.555 | National School Lunch Program | Agriculture | 28,701,872 | | | 10.556 | Special Milk Program for Children | Agriculture | 165,000 | | | 10.558 | Child & Adult Care Food Program | Agriculture | 18,208,598 | 229,180 | | 10.559 | Summer Food Service for Children | Agriculture | 1,335,000 | 55,000 | | 10.560 | State Administrative Expense for Child Nutrition | Agriculture | | 1,151,602 | | 10.567 | Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations | Agriculture | 1,179,457 | 604,305 | | 10.568 | Temporary Emergency Food Assistance | Agriculture | 140,000 | 130,000 | | 84.002 | Adult Basic Education | Education | 2,641,179 | 262,011 | | 84.007 | Title I, Part F Comprehensive School Reform | Education | 1,384,304 | 72,858 | | | Title I Basic Grants | | | | | 84.010 | Improving the Academic Achievement of the Disadvantaged | Education | 62,546,266 | 2,451,149 | | | Title I | | | | | 84.011 | Migrant Education | Education | 480,280 | 142,000 | | | Title I | | | | | 84.013 | Neglected & Delinquent Children & Youth | Education | 577,688 | | | 84.025 | Services for Children with Deaf - Blindness | Education | 174,614 | | | 84.027 | Special Education - IDEA, Part B & State Improvement Grant | Education | 32,387,677 | 2,353,506 | | 84.173 | Special Education - IDEA - Preschool Program | Education | 1,558,708 | 324,643 | | 84.184 | Safe & Drug Free Schools & Community Service Grants | Education | 3,411,322 | 258,480 | | | | | 250,000 | | | 84.185 | Byrd Scholarship Program | Education | 205,000 | | | Catalog # | Title | U.S. Dept. | Grants | Admin | |----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------|------------|----------| | 84.196 | Title I Education for Homeless Children | Education | 150,000 | 150,000 | | 84.213 | Title I Even Start Title IV | Education | 2,119,700 | 135,300 | | 84.287 | 21ST Century Community Learning Centers | Education | 5,669,042 | 152,270 | | 84.298 | Title V Innovative Programs Title II D | Education | 3,317,463 | 573,458 | | 84.318 | Enhancing Education Through Technology | Education | 6,286,628 | 307,516 | | 84.358 | Title VI Part B Rural and Low-Income Schools | Education | 167,576 | 8,548 | | 84.365 | Title III English Language Acquisition Title II Part A | Education | 650,000 | 301,246 | | 84.367 | Teacher and Principal Training and Recruiting | Education | 22,635,326 | 556,195 | | 84.369 | Title VI Part A State Assessment Program | Education | | 6,935,041| | 99.003 | Nat Coop Educational Statistics (NCES) | Education | | 64,122 | | 93.576 | Refugee Children School Impact Grant | HHS | 405,000 | 135,000 | | 93.938 | School Health Programs | Center for Disease | 1,269,796 | 576,863 | | 99.002 | Miscellaneous Indirect Costs | Ed. & Ag. | | 2,090,011| Total $201,617,496 $20,020,304 1 Estimated federal funding State School Aid The purpose of the foundation aid system is to provide a level of financial support for elementary and secondary education programs from state funds based on the educational cost per student. The educational cost per student is defined at NDCC 15.1-27. The state average cost was $6,384 in 2003-04. It includes regular programs, special education programs, vocational programs, federal programs and undistributed district-wide expenses. Expenditures not included are extracurricular activities, transportation, capital costs, debt service, tuition and assessments and food services. Educational support per student is established by the legislature. The base payment amount is set at $2,509 for 2003-2004 and $2,623 for 2004-2005. Beginning 2004-05, there are 210 public school districts in North Dakota. In 1985, there were 311 public school districts. The following table lists school districts by type. A high school district offers grades K-12. Elementary districts may offer grades through eight. One room rural districts have only one or two teachers for grades through eight. The nonoperating districts do not operate schools. They pay tuition to the districts these students are attending. | Type | Number | |-----------------------------|--------| | High School Districts | 164 | | Elementary Districts | 35 | | One Room Rural Districts | 7 | | Nonoperating districts | 4 | | North Dakot School Districts| 210 | North Dakota School Districts (2003-2004) Striking demographic changes we are facing: - A declining birth rate - An aging population - Rapid rural to urban migration - Out-migration of the state's youth - Overall reduction in the number of school districts - An increase in the number and percentage of students served by the 15 largest districts and a decrease in the number and percentage of students served in the remaining school districts - Projections that K-12 enrollment in and graduates from public high schools will substantially decline over the next fifteen years Public enrollment remained relatively stable from 1985-86 through 1995-96. However, beginning in 1995-96, a dramatic decline in school age children began to occur. In the fall of 1995 North Dakota had 118,565 public K-12 students. In the fall of 2004, the K-12 count was 99,421, a loss of almost 20,000 students (16%) in just ten years. These declines will continue. Birth rates have dropped steadily since 1982 and the outmigration from our rural areas continues. At present birth rates, today's public school population will fall below 95,000 by the 2008. North Dakota Births - Vital Statistics | Year | Births | |------|--------| | 1937 | 16,000 | | 1940 | 14,000 | | 1943 | 12,000 | | 1946 | 10,000 | | 1949 | 8,000 | | 1952 | 6,000 | | 1955 | 4,000 | | 1958 | 2,000 | | 1961 | | | 1964 | | | 1967 | | | 1970 | | | 1973 | | | 1976 | | | 1979 | | | 1982 | | | 1985 | | | 1988 | | | 1991 | | | 1994 | | | 1997 | | Department of Public Instruction page 2 January 6, 2005 School District Funding School districts fund their programs and services through local, county, state, and federal sources. In 1985, local sources provided approximately 35% of the total funding available for schools. In 2004 the local contribution rose to approximately 43%. As the graphic below illustrates, funding for K-12 education has become increasingly reliant on local sources (property tax). Local revenue is raised primarily from levies on property. Since property values vary greatly across districts, the state versus local share debate becomes an increasingly important equity concern for financing a uniform system of free public schools throughout the state. Disparities in current revenue per student are the result of variations in school district wealth. The range of funding per student, after eliminating both the high and low extremes is $5,143 to $8,810, over $3,600 per student (based on 2003-04 financial data). Public School General Fund Revenue History | Year | Local | County | State | Federal | Other | |------|---------|---------|----------|---------|---------| | 1995 | 219,936,170 | 6,688,209 | 244,200,928 | 55,056,311 | 5,161,923 | | 1996 | 235,159,404 | 6,980,973 | 254,466,423 | 55,086,440 | 4,893,470 | | 1997 | 248,438,314 | 8,072,343 | 260,649,726 | 62,039,032 | 6,095,749 | | 1998 | 283,560,983 | 7,204,005 | 274,547,873 | 69,815,960 | 5,312,167 | | 1999 | 281,643,836 | 8,823,010 | 279,576,308 | 76,637,955 | 5,009,687 | | 2000 | 290,852,105 | 8,385,834 | 294,723,948 | 80,210,981 | 5,530,335 | | 2001 | 304,546,207 | 9,821,448 | 292,669,581 | 85,823,141 | 5,433,825 | | 2002 | 315,573,484 | 8,615,083 | 305,325,384 | 90,495,339 | 5,721,063 | | 2003 | 326,975,627 | 9,922,316 | 323,074,240 | 103,819,724 | 6,960,848 | | 2004 | 338,291,719 | 9,731,050 | 329,330,694 | 110,071,064 | 7,016,432 | The table below was compiled from Department of Public Instruction enrollment, census, average daily membership, taxable valuation, mill levies, revenue and expenditure data. ### School Finance Facts At A Glance | Data | FY 00 | FY 01 | FY 02 | FY 03 | FY 04 | |-------------------------------------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------| | K Enrollment | 7,144 | 7,057 | 7,012 | 6,890 | 6,663 | | 1-6 Enrollment | 47,099 | 45,760 | 44,714 | 43,874 | 43,271 | | 7-8 Enrollment | 17,099 | 16,881 | 16,514 | 16,287 | 16,148 | | 9-12 Enrollment | 36,563 | 35,519 | 34,773 | 34,086 | 33,339 | | Total K-12 Enrollment | 108,094 | 105,217 | 103,013 | 101,137 | 99,421 | | 6-17 Census | 115,300 | 108,451 | 108,451 | 104,671 | 104,671 | | PK-12 Average Daily Membership | 113,541 | 110,710 | 107,823 | 105,512 | 103,923 | | Taxable Valuation | 1,297,625,450 | 1,363,908,126 | 1,421,821,998 | 1,468,087,318 | 1,532,751,262 | | Taxable Valuation Per Pupil | 11,254 | 12,576 | 13,110 | 14,026 | 14,644 | | General Fund Levy | 189 | 189 | 191 | 194 | 195 | | Total Levy | 218 | 218 | 218 | 222 | 224 | | Gen Fund Local Revenue | 290,852,105 | 304,546,207 | 315,573,484 | 326,795,627 | 338,291,719 | | Gen Fund County Revenue | 8,385,634 | 9,821,449 | 8,615,083 | 9,922,316 | 9,731,050 | | Gen Fund State Revenue | 294,723,948 | 292,669,581 | 305,325,384 | 323,074,240 | 329,330,694 | | Gen Fund Federal Revenue | 80,210,981 | 85,623,141 | 90,495,339 | 103,819,724 | 110,071,064 | | Gen Fund Other Revenue | 5,530,335 | 5,433,825 | 5,721,083 | 6,960,848 | 7,016,432 | | Gen Fund Total Revenue | 679,703,003 | 697,709,141 | 725,730,352 | 770,572,755 | 794,440,959 | | Instructional Expenditures | 559,241,723 | 583,393,794 | 598,408,518 | 639,391,896 | 663,407,740 | | Gen Fund Expenditures | 666,363,372 | 702,468,197 | 716,300,973 | 765,136,183 | 790,333,132 | | Gen Fund End Balance | 149,322,288 | 144,774,543 | 155,268,847 | 160,264,150 | 163,582,059 | | Cost of Ed Per Pupil (all districts) | 4,925 | 5,270 | 5,550 | 6,060 | 6,384 | | District Count | 231 | 223 | 222 | 217 | 210 | Source: NDDPI Finance Facts. Fiscal year relates to financial data. Enrollment and tax levy data are one year ahead. 2003-2005 State Aid To Schools Appropriation The 2003-2005 appropriation for state aid to schools was set at $666 million. Sixty-nine percent of this amount is distributed through a formula equalized on cost and property valuation differences among districts. Funding earmarked for transportation was block granted to school districts based on the funding they received the previous biennium. Teacher compensation is distributed based on fte teachers employed by the district. 75% of special education funding is distributed on average daily membership with the remainder set aside to reimburse districts for high cost students. Tuition apportionment is the interest and earnings from the Common Schools Trust Fund. These funds are distributed on a census of school age students residing in the district that is taken every odd-numbered year. Basic Foundation Aid Formula The basic foundation aid formula consists of a base pupil rate, an adjustment for cost differences based on grade levels and district size (calculated as weighted pupil units), and a deduction for minimum local effort based on district taxable valuation. **Basic Foundation Aid Formula** **Part One: Calculating gross entitlement** \[ \begin{align*} \text{Student membership} \times \text{Weighting factor} &= \text{Weighted pupil units (WPU)} \quad \leftarrow \text{adjusts for cost differences} \\ \text{WPU} \times \text{Base pupil payment} &= \text{Gross entitlement} \end{align*} \] **Part Two: Deductions from foundation aid entitlements** \[ \begin{align*} - \text{Mill deduct} & \quad \leftarrow \text{adjusts for local resources} \\ - \text{Other deductions} &= \text{Net entitlement} \end{align*} \] **Calculating weighted pupil units** The first part of the formula is concerned with the calculation of weighted pupil units. The objective is to provide additional funding to school districts based on need. This need is currently determined by multiplying a cost based weighting factor based on district size and class category. Weighted pupil units are calculated on prior year average daily membership (ADM) and the current year fall enrollment. The higher weighted units are used as the basis for foundation aid payments. The following describes some of the common terms and conditions associated with calculating weighted pupil units. **Average daily membership** Average daily membership (ADM) is education terminology for full time equivalent. ADM is based on a 180 day year. As an example, if a student was a member of a district for 90 days, ADM would be \(90/180\) or .50. ADM includes approved holidays, NDEA days, parent teacher conferences and absent days and cannot exceed 1.00 ADM for an individual student (\(180/180\) days). ADM is collected on the year end student membership reports due June 30th of each year. **Fall enrollment** Enrollment data is reported to the Department on the fall enrollment (MIS) reports in September of each year. School districts are to report the actual number of students that enrolled in their school district at the beginning of the school year. The count date is September 10th. School weighting factors The weighting factors for North Dakota’s foundation program are computed annually using the most recent five year educational expenditures and average daily membership data. Districts are divided into the following categories for purposes of applying weighting factors to enrollment and average daily membership. The table below shows the eleven categories of weighting factors for the 2004-2005 school year. | Category | 5 Year Avg. Cost of Education | Weighting Factor | Weighted Payment | |---------------------------------|-------------------------------|------------------|------------------| | Base | $ 5,254.49 | 1.0000 | $ 2,623.00 | | Preschool | $ 6,364.50 | 1.2112 | $ 3,176.98 | | Kindergarten | $ 3,337.19 | 0.6351 | $ 1,665.87 | | One room rural (Grades 1-8) | $ 7,403.86 | 1.4091 | $ 3,696.07 | | Grades 1-6 (less than 100) | $ 6,890.76 | 1.3114 | $ 3,439.80 | | Grades 1-6 (less than 100) | $ 4,944.47 | 0.9410 | $ 2,468.24 | | Grades 1-6 (less than 100) | $ 5,381.38 | 1.0241 | $ 2,686.21 | | Grades 7-8 | $ 5,124.01 | 0.9752 | $ 2,557.95 | | Grades 9-12 (less than 75) | $ 7,496.65 | 1.4267 | $ 3,742.23 | | Grades 9-12 (75-149) | $ 5,770.96 | 1.0983 | $ 2,880.84 | | Grades 9-12 (150-549) | $ 4,932.46 | 0.9387 | $ 2,462.21 | | Grades 9-12 (550 or more) | $ 5,245.56 | 0.9983 | $ 2,618.54 | Program guarantees The funding formula allows for certain enhancements or payment guarantees. These guarantees are: - Weighting factor categories - Changing enrollment - Small but necessary schools - Cooperating or reorganized districts - North Dakota students attending out of state Weighting factor categories There are three categories of elementary schools (grades one through six) and four categories of high schools (grades nine through twelve). A separate weighting factor is calculated for each of the categories. The law provides that a school district must receive at least as much in total payments as it would have received had it had the highest number of students in the next lowest category. For example, if a school district had average daily membership of 78 high school students, it would qualify for the second weighting factor for high school districts (75-149). The 2004-2005 factor for this category is 1.0983. 78 students x 1.0983 = 85.67 weighted pupil units. If the district had only 74 students (the highest number of students in the next lowest category), weighted pupil units would be 74 students x 1.4267 = 105.58. Therefore this district would be paid based on 105.58 weighted pupil units. In this case the school district is paid for 74 students at the next lower category, not the 78 students they actually had because it results in a higher payment. These students are termed "off formula" and is an important reconciling item in the Department's budgeting process. **Changing enrollment** School districts are paid on the higher of their fall enrollment (wpu) or the previous year average daily membership (wpu), whichever is greater. However in the subsequent year, the payment made is adjusted to actual average daily membership for that year, unless the previous year average daily membership is higher. This payment arrangement is designed to give districts one year to adjust to declining enrollments. It also provides money to districts with increasing enrollments (when fall enrollment is higher than the previous year average daily membership) at the time they are actually serving those students. A district's foundation aid payment basis is always at least the prior year's ADM. **Cooperating or reorganized school districts** Larger school districts, due to larger average class sizes, operate at a lower per pupil cost than smaller districts. This is reflected in the weighting factors assigned to elementary and high school districts based on district size. In order to not discourage districts from entering into cooperative agreements for the provision of educational services or from reorganizing with other districts, the foundation aid system guarantees that pupil payments will be at least as much as they would have been had they not cooperated or reorganized. This guarantee is for a four year period for cooperating districts and six years for reorganized districts. **Small but necessary schools** In recognition of the higher cost of operating schools in isolated areas, eligible school districts receive an adjustment to their weighting factors. Any school district with elementary enrollment of under 50 students with 15% or more of its enrollment living in an area identified as 15 or more radius miles from the next nearest elementary school are allowed an increase of 20% in their weighting factor for the first 15 students. Payment is guaranteed for 15 students. The school district with a high school enrollment of under 35 students with 15% or more of its enrollment living in an area identified as 20 or more radius miles from the next nearest high school are allowed an increase of 20% in their weighting factor for the first 20 students. Payment is guaranteed for 20 students. **ND students attending out-of-state schools** Foundation aid payment for students attending school in bordering states is made to the North Dakota school district they live in. The weighting factors for students attending school out of state are increased 20%. The per pupil payment for these students is made directly to the resident school district. **Deductions from foundation aid entitlements** In a given year, foundation aid payments have the following items that may be deducted from the gross entitlement (WPU x Base Payment). - Mill levy deduct - Excess fund balance - Non-accreditation - School approval - Prior year payment adjustment **Mill levy deduct - local tax base equalization** In North Dakota’s basic support program, there is a “deduct” of the revenue generated by a set number of mills times the taxable valuation of a given district. The number of mills was set by the legislature at 36 mills for 2004-05. The revenue generated by the deduct is used to increase the base per student foundation aid rate and is redistributed through the funding formula. In districts with relatively high taxable valuation per pupil, a larger amount of aid is subtracted from the district's gross entitlement. Conversely, a district with a lower taxable valuation per pupil will receive a relatively higher payment. The table shows the funding sources for two districts educating the same number of students but having different taxable valuations. District A receives less state aid than District B but can make up the difference with a lower mill levy. | | District A | District B | |----------------------|------------|------------| | Enrollment | 250 | 250 | | Taxable Valuation | 3,500,000 | 2,500,000 | | Taxable Valuation Per Pupil | 14,000 | 10,000 | | Base Payment | 2,000 | 2,000 | | Mill Deduct | 32 | 32 | | Gross Entitlement | 500,000 | 500,000 | | Mill Deduct Amount | 112,000 | 80,000 | | Net Foundation Aid | 388,000 | 420,000 | | Local Revenue | 612,000 | 580,000 | | District Budget | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | | Local Levy | 175 | 232 | Excess fund balance This deduct limits state aid to wealthy districts that maintain large ending fund balances. The amount that the unobligated general fund balance of a school district on the preceding June 30th is in excess of 50% of the actual expenditures, plus an additional $20,000 must be subtracted from the total of tuition apportionment, foundation aid, special education aid, and transportation aid for which a school district is eligible. Minimum levy deduct The 2003 Legislature passed legislation considering local general fund levy effort. Any amount levied below 140 general fund mills is deducted from state aid payments and is added to the amount available for distribution through the supplemental revenue formula. Non-accreditation School districts operating high schools that are not accredited are supported at the base payment amounts in the year they become unaccredited, but the weighting factors may not be applied. For the second year the high school remains unaccredited, the amount of aid the school district receives is reduced an additional $200 per student. For each successive year, the per student reduction is increased an additional $200. If the school becomes accredited, the school is entitled to payments for the entire school year in which the school becomes accredited. The deduction for school districts operating elementary schools that are not accredited begins the year after the school becomes unaccredited. State aid is reduced $200 per student times the number of students in the school. For each successive year, the per student reduction is increased an additional $200. As with the high schools, the school is entitled to payments for the entire school year in which the school becomes accredited. Prior year payment adjustments While school districts are paid in the current year based on the higher of the previous year average daily membership or current fall enrollment, an adjustment is made in the following year to the higher of actual average daily membership for the year or the previous year average daily membership, whichever is greater. Districts paid on enrollment last year are always subject to adjustment. Districts paid on ADM last year are adjusted only if actual ADM for the payment year was higher. Other foundation aid payments The foundation aid appropriation is also used to pay for state responsible and excess cost students, for eligible summer school programs and for district supervised home schooled students. Summer School Payment Approved summer school programs are eligible for foundation aid. In the past this has been for only high school programs, but the 1999 Legislative Assembly opened it up to remedial elementary programs. The proportionate payment made during the biennium for approved summer programs may not exceed one and one-half percent of the total amount appropriated by the Legislative Assembly for foundation aid and transportation aid during the biennium. In addition, 75% may be used for high school programs, 25% may be used for remedial elementary programs. Payments are also made for migrant summer school and extended year special education programs approved by the Department. State responsible and excess cost students A number of students are placed under NDCC 15-29 for purposes other than education. These students are typically placed in foster care homes or residential child care facilities by other government agencies such as the Division of Juvenile Services or County Social Services. The resident school district is liable for education and related costs for these students, however this liability is limited to the state average cost per day. The remainder of the cost is paid from funds appropriated for foundation aid. In cases where there are no legal parents or both parents have left the state, the entire amount is paid from foundation aid funds. Home-Based Instruction Supervised by District Home schooled students that are district supervised receive state aid at one half the base pupil payment rate. Weighting factors are applied based on district size the same as regular per pupil payments. Out of district special education students Students with disabilities who are receiving special education services must be deemed to be regularly enrolled in the school district of residence and must be included in the determination of payments from the state foundation aid program whether or not the students regularly attend school in the school or school district receiving the payments. Limited English Proficiency Students assessed eligible through a standardized test must be reported to the Department by December 1st of the school year. Districts receive a per student payment based on three assessment levels. The payment is made in May. Transportation Aid The reimbursement system based on mileage and students transported was repealed for the 2003-05 biennium. Transportation aid was block granted to schools based at the same amount each district received for the 2001-2003 biennium. Transportation payment to school districts are made at the same time as the foundation aid payment. The payment is based on the prior school year transportation reports. Tuition Apportionment Tuition apportionment money comes from the income generated from the investment of proceeds from the sale of school lands and from a portion of fines and penalties. The Land Department manages these funds for the state. The Land Department transfers income to a special fund for distribution. Tuition apportionment payments are made in September, November, January, March and May. It is paid based on a census of all children ages 6-17 year living in the school district. It includes both public and private students. The census is taken by the school districts in May of each odd-numbered year enumerating students under the age of eighteen as of August 31. The census is adjusted for open enrolled students. For each open enrolled student at September 10th, one is added to the admitting district and one is subtracted from the resident district. Special Education State funds are provided in three different categories. Special education funding is distributed on an average daily membership basis ($185 per ADM in 2004-05). These payments constitute approximately 75% of all special education funding provided by the state. A second category provides payments to school districts that incur excess costs for special education services. Districts are responsible for special education expenditures per student up to two and one-half times the state average of per-pupil expenditures. The state reimburses districts for 80% of the "excess costs." The third category relates to excess costs for students placed by state agencies or court order. In those instances, the district of residence is responsible for education and/or special education costs up to the state average of per-pupil expenditures and the state pays all education related costs beyond that amount. Teacher Compensation Reimbursement The teacher compensation reimbursement for maintaining the compensation level provided to teachers employed by the district during the 2002-03 school year was set at $3,000 for full-time equivalent teachers employed by the district as of September 15th of each school. Teachers in their first year of teaching are reimbursed at $1,000. Supplemental Equity Payment High school districts whose taxable valuation per student and cost of education per student are both below the statewide average are entitled to receive a supplemental payment. The sum of $5,000,000 was appropriated for supplemental payments for the 2003-05 biennium. | | 2003-05 Appropriation | 2005-07 Executive Budget | 2005-07 House Version | 2005-07 Senate Version (April 21, 2005) | 2005-07 Tentative Conference Committee Version | 2005-07 Conference Committee Version Increase (Decrease) Compared to 2003-05 Appropriation | 2005-07 Conference Committee Version Compared to 2005-07 Executive Budget | |--------------------------------|-----------------------|--------------------------|----------------------|----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **State school aid** | | | | | | | | | Per student payments | $453,929,990 | $476,703,759 | $493,453,759 | $518,457,395 \1 | $482,703,759 | $28,773,769 | $6,000,000 | | Limited English proficient | 650,000 | 650,000 | 650,000 | 650,000 | 650,000 | | | | student payments | | | | | | | | | Transportation payments | 34,800,000 | 34,800,000 | 18,750,000 | 33,500,000 | 33,500,000 | (1,300,000) | (1,300,000) | | Total state school aid | $489,379,990 | $512,153,759 | $510,853,759 | $552,807,395 | $516,853,759 | $27,473,769 | $4,700,000 | | **Other grants - General fund**| | | | | | | | | Teacher compensation payments | $51,854,000 | $50,912,120 | $50,912,120 | $35,638,484 | $50,912,120 | ($941,880) | | | Special education | 49,898,695 | 52,500,000 | 52,500,000 | 52,500,000 | 52,500,000 | 2,601,305 | | | Revenue supplemental payments | 5,000,000 | 7,500,000 | 5,000,000 | 5,000,000 | 5,000,000 | (2,500,000) | | | Reorganization bonuses | 500,000 | 500,000 | 759,000 \2 | 759,000 \2 | 759,000 \2 | 259,000 | 259,000 | | Joint powers agreement incentives | 2,000,000 | 2,000,000 | 2,000,000 \2 | 2,000,000 \2 | 2,000,000 \2 | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | | Total other grants - General | $107,252,695 | $113,412,120 | $108,412,120 | $95,897,484 | $110,171,120 | $2,918,425 | ($3,241,000) | | **Other grants - Other funds** | | | | | | | | | Tuition apportionment | 69,495,371 | 71,600,000 | 71,600,000 | 50,120,000 | 71,600,000 | $2,104,629 | | | **Total state school aid and | $666,128,056 | $697,165,879 | $690,865,879 | $698,624,879 | $698,624,879 | $32,496,823 | $1,459,000 | | other grants - All funds** | | | | | | | | | General fund | $596,632,685 | $625,565,879 | $619,265,879 | $627,024,879 | $627,024,879 | $30,392,194 | $1,459,000 | | Other funds | 69,495,371 | 71,600,000 | 71,600,000 | 71,600,000 | 71,600,000 | 2,104,629 | | | Total | $666,128,056 | $697,165,879 | $690,865,879 | $698,624,879 | $698,624,879 | $32,496,823 | $1,459,000 | \1 This amount includes funding of $496,977,395 from the general fund and $21,480,000 of funding from the state tuition fund. \2 This funding is appropriated in House Bill No. 1154. ND Joint Powers Agreements (2003-2004) as of July 01, 2004 Roughrider Ed Services Program Mid-Dakota Ed Council Missouri River Ed Coop Northeast Ed Services Coop Southeast Ed Services Coop The State of North Dakota Department of Public Instruction Office of School District Finance and Organization Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead, Superintendent 600 East Boulevard Avenue Dept 201 Bismarck, North Dakota 58505-0440 www.dpi.state.nd.us as of July 1, 2003 | JPA | NUMBER OF DISTRICTS | ENROLLMENT | SQUARE MILES | |------------------------------------------|---------------------|------------|--------------| | South Central Education Coop. (SCEC) | 16 | 5,701 | 5,296.6 | | Missouri River Ed. Coop. (MREC) | 27 | 15,589 | 7,739.53 | | Northeast Ed. Services Coop. (NESC) | 17 | 4,474 | 5,319.33 | | Roughrider Ed. Services Program (RESP) | 19 | 6,592 | 9,780.93 | | Mid-Dakota Ed. Council (MDEC) | 5 | 7,321 | 337.62 | | **JPA Totals** | **84** | **39,677** | **28,474.01**| | **State Totals** | **211** | **101,889**| **70,704** | | **Percent of State Totals** | **39.81%** | **38.94%** | **40.27%** | For additional information regarding JPAs see http://www.dpi.state.nd.us/finance/jtpower.shtm JPA DIRECTORY INFORMATION JPA Name: Northeast Education Service Cooperative (NESC) Lead Administrator: ElRoy Burkle Title: Superintendent School District: Border Central, Starkweather and Munich Work Phone: 701-697-5111; 701-292-4381; 701-682-5321 E-mail address: firstname.lastname@example.org Executive Director: Denise Wolf Title: Director Lake Area Career and Technical Center School District: Devils Lake Public Schools Work Phone: 701-662-7650 E-mail address: email@example.com Governing Board/President: Robyn Jacobson School District: Rock Lake (North Central) Phone: 701-266-5209 E-mail address: firstname.lastname@example.org Current Programs: | Program | Contact Person(s) | |----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | Technology Technical Asst Coord. | Doug Darling/Lake Region | | School Calendar | Allen Vetsch, LACTC | | Staff and Curriculum Development/Train. | Steve Swiontek/Devils Lake | | Library Acq & Specialist Svc. | Joel Braathen, Leeds | | | Myron Jury, Minnewauken | | | Bradley Webster, Rolette | | | Mark Lindahl, Cando | | Staff Retention and Recruitment | Daren Christianson, Rock Lake | | Grant Writing | Aryln Irion, Langdon | | | Elroy Burkle, Starkweather | | | Gailord Pelletier, Four Winds | | Textbook Acq. & Sharing | Keith Arneson, Adams/Edmore | | Integration of other partnership | Denise Wolf, LACTC | | | Myron Jury, Minnewauken | | | Larry Zavada, Wolford | | Transportation | Harold Berquist, Lakota | | | Tom Nitschke, Bisbee-Egeland | | Student Counseling | Denise Wolf, LACTC | | Distance Learning, common class reg. | Brenda Mitzel, Wolford | | Public Relations | Elroy Burkle, Starkweather, Munich and Border Central | | Common Curriculum, Dual Credit, AP | Bradley Webster, Rolette | | | Doug Darling/Lake Region | JPA Website: | District Name | Enrollment | Sq. Miles | |-----------------------|------------|-----------| | Adams #128 | 95 | 172.04 | | Bisbee-Egeland #2 | 85 | 340.13 | | Border Central #14 | 28 | 290 | | Devils Lake #1 | 1,866 | 472.63 | | Edmore #2 | 93 | 395.25 | | Ft. Totten #30 | 212 | 34 | | Lakota #66 | 257 | 401.19 | | Langdon Area #23 | 496 | 805 | | Leeds #6 | 196 | 384.75 | | Minnewaukan #5 | 144 | 230 | | Munich #19 | 117 | 277.13 | | North Central #28 | 69 | 257.25 | | Rolette #29 | 185 | 280.77 | | Southern 8 | 259 | 275 | | Starkweather #44 | 100 | 278 | | Warwick #29 | 214 | 230.69 | | Wolford #1 | 58 | 195.5 | | **TOTALS** | **4,474** | **5,319.33** | 17 Districts JPA DIRECTORY INFORMATION JPA Name: Roughrider Education Services Program (RESP) Lead Administrator: Dean Koppelman Title: Superintendent School District: Dickinson School District Work Phone: 701-456-0002 E-mail address: email@example.com Governing Board/President: Dean Rummel School District: Dickinson School District Phone: 701-456-6440 E-mail address: Current Programs: Staff Development/training Student Services Grant writing Curriculum development/standards Substitute teacher pool system Equipment sharing Dual Credit Advance placement Strategic planning process Technology technical assistance School calendar Class schedule School improvement Policies, forms and procedures Athletics purchasing Shared staff services Voc-tech Staff time market exchange Federal Title program application, documentation & admin. Food service administration Alternative high school services Counseling services Transportation, including purchased svc. Financial responsibilities Distance learning Summer school Textbook acquisitions and sharing Contact Person(s): JPA Website: | District Name | Enrollment | Sq. Miles | |---------------|------------|-----------| | Beach | 336 | 765 | | Bowman | 427 | 462 | Page 1 of 2 | District | 1985 | 1986 | |--------------------------|------|------| | Lone Tree | 45 | 243 | | Marmarth | 12 | 348 | | Billings Co. | 76 | 1,152.00 | | Central Elem. | 9 | 431 | | Sheets | 7 | 72 | | South Heart | 251 | 303.5 | | Belfield | 233 | 144 | | New England | 190 | 638.13 | | Scranton | 163 | 488.81 | | Killdeer | 403 | 856 | | Halliday | 34 | 315 | | Dickinson | 2,670| 498.13 | | Richardton-Taylor | 286 | 503.92 | | Hebron | 168 | 394 | | Glen Ullin | 212 | 425.75 | | Mott-Regent | 288 | 880 | | Hettinger | 355 | 860.94 | **TOTALS** 19 Districts | | 1985 | 1986 | |------|------|------| | | 6,165| 9780.93 | JPA DIRECTORY INFORMATION JPA Name: Mid-Dakota Education Council (MDEC) Lead Administrator: Dave Looyesen Title: Superintendent School District: Minot Public School District Work Phone: 701-857-4422 E-mail address: firstname.lastname@example.org Governing Board/President: Chuck Miller School District: Nedrose School District Phone: E-mail address: Current Programs: Contact Person(s): Shared school calendar Stared staff services, including principal Staff training - all Communication mechanisms Technology support services, inc. LAN Grant writing Transportation Title I, II, IV and VI services Daily school schedule Joint curriculum and class development Tuition funds administration Extracurricular activities Health insurance, incl dental coverage Special education services Library services Counseling services Payroll services Student data services Investment pooling services Drug-free-school programs Strategic planning Student services Elementary language programs Summer school programs Dual credit and advance placement prog. Gifted and talented programs Substitute teacher pool list and admin. JPA Website: | District Name | Enrollment | Sq. Miles | |---------------|------------|-----------| | Bell #10 | 151 | 42 | | Eureka #19 | 13 | 31 | Page 1 of 2 | District | Number of Students | Total Cost | |------------------|--------------------|------------| | Minot #1 | 6,753 | 68.31 | | Nedrose #4 | 253 | 32.18 | | S. Prairie #70 | 151 | 164.25 | | **TOTALS** | **7,321** | **337.62** | 5 Districts JPA DIRECTORY INFORMATION JPA Name: Missouri River Education Cooperative Lead Administrator: Martin Schock Title: Superintendent School District: Elgin/New Leipzig Work Phone: 701-584-2374 E-mail address: email@example.com Governing Board/President: Steven J. Resier School District: Washburn Phone: 701-462-3300 E-mail address: None available Current Programs: - Curriculum development, mapping, instruction & assessment - Summer School - Staff Development - Technology - Alternative School/Voc. Center - Medical Insurance - Group Purchasing - Transportation - Part-time staff - Consolidated Applications - Media Center - ESL - Mentoring - Title Programs - Counseling Services - Librarian - Nurses - Social Workers - Adult Learning Center - Speech Pathology - Finance Contact Person(s): - Wilfred Volesky, Chair - Wilfred Volesky, Chair - Bob Tollefson, Chair - John Jankowski - Karen Kautzman, Chair - Royal Lyson, Chair - Royal Lyson, Chair - Nike Ness/Karen Kautzman JPA Website: http://www.agree.org | District Name | Enrollment | Sq. Miles | |----------------------------|------------|-----------| | Apple Creek | 44 | 24 | | Beulah | 862 | 427 | | Bismarck | 10,370 | 198 | | Bismarck St. Mary's | | | | Bismarck State College | | | | Center | 250 | 463 | | Dodge | 36 | 104 | Page 1 of 2 | District | 1980 Population | 1982 Population | |--------------------------|-----------------|------------------| | Elgin/New Leipzig | 242 | 692 | | Flasher | 221 | 631.92 | | Garrison | 351 | 393.35 | | Golden Valley | 50 | 157 | | Hazen | 735 | 302.86 | | Little Heart | 25 | 85.06 | | Max | 170 | 337.8 | | Montefiore (Wilton) | 207 | 266.37 | | Napoleon | 236 | 552.09 | | New Salem | 373 | 415.69 | | Roosevelt | 113 | 471.11 | | Solen/Cannonball | 146 | 314.75 | | Stanton | 47 | 76 | | Steele-Dawson | 276 | 454.59 | | Sterling | 38 | 181.5 | | Sims | 34 | 188 | | Sweet Briar | 10 | 38.5 | | Turtle-Lake-Mercer | 191 | 522.25 | | Washburn | 336 | 244.2 | | Underwood | 226 | 199.39 | | **TOTALS** | **15,589** | **7,739.53** | 27 Districts JPA DIRECTORY INFORMATION JPA Name: South Central Education Cooperative Lead Administrator: James J. Dunnigan Title: Superintendent School District: Medina School District Work Phone: 701-486-3121 E-mail address: firstname.lastname@example.org Governing Board/President: Dwight Hofmann School District: Medina School District Phone: 701-486-3276 E-mail address: Current Programs: Staff Development Grant Development/Writing Joint Purchasing Curriculum Development/Mapping Equipment/Textbook Sharing Strategic Planning Legislative Interaction Duel Credit Courses Contact Person(s): To Be Determined TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD JPA Website: | District Name | Enrollment | Sq. Miles | |-----------------------|------------|-----------| | Fessenden-Bowdon | 225 | 561.69 | | Griggs Co Central | 335 | 422.89 | | Hope | 146 | 252.62 | | Jamestown | 2,477 | 473.56 | | Kensal | 61 | 169.5 | | Kulm | 136 | 496.5 | | Medina | 159 | 405.16 | | Montpelier | 99 | 216.5 | | Page | 126 | 212.75 | | Pingree-Buchanan | 155 | 335 | Page 1 of 2 | District | Number of Students | Total Cost | |--------------------------|--------------------|-------------| | Spiritwood | 7 | 75.25 | | Tappen | 105 | 265.75 | | Tuttle Pettibone | 49 | 257.94 | | Valley City | 1,205 | 357.94 | | Wimbledon-Courtnay | 152 | 289.75 | | **TOTALS** | **15 Districts** | **5,437** | **4,792.80** | The ND LEAD Center is requesting increased funding to offset costs of training provided for administrators and teachers in the area of Data Driven School Improvement, which addresses many of the challenges schools are facing to comply with No Child Left Behind. In addition to the current biennial appropriation of $215,000 of state general funds, an increase of $21,500 in general fund support is hereby requested. Testimony of Janet Placek Welk HB 1013 Good morning, Mister Chairman, members of the Appropriations Committee. For the record, I am Janet Placek Welk, executive director of the Education Standards and Practices Board and wish to testify in favor of HB 1013, Section 2, line 18, National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. The Governor’s budget includes $40,000 for the biennium for national certification for teachers of North Dakota. The Board provides these dollars to match with federal dollars to pay for the assessment process of national board. The fees for the national board assessment have gone up effective January 1, 2005. The applicant will be charged a $65.00 processing fee, retake candidates will be charged an additional $15.00 processing fee, and the actual assessment cost has gone up to $2500. This means less teachers in North Dakota will be able to apply for national certification. HB 1076, Section 5 includes the policy language for national certification. The Education Standards and Practices Board has asked for authority to provide funding for two teachers each year to retake portions of the national certification they did not achieve the first time and also for funding for stipends for those teachers that have successfully completed the assessment process and have become nationally certified. The Board is asking for a stipend of $1500 a year for four years or $6,000 per teacher. The Board believes national certification is a process that exemplifies the highest quality teaching ability of our teachers and would like to be able to provide this stipend for those teachers that achieve this high award. We are asking for $50,000 to be able to cover these additional assessment fees, fees for processing, the fees for retakes candidates, and the stipend for those teachers that will complete the process successfully. Thank you for your time and support of education. I would be happy to answer any questions at this time or at 328-9646. In addition to the current biennial appropriation of $40,000, the Education Standards and Practices Board (ESPB) requests an additional $10,000 in state general funds to support the National Board Certification Program. DPI Appropriation Education Standards and Practices Board $50,000 Assessment fees (ND pays 1/2 of assessment fee $2500 matched with federal dollars) 34 applications at $1250 $42,500 Stipend $1500 X 6 applications $9,000 Recertification $350 X 2 $700 Total $52,200 Special Education Services for Students with Disabilities Bob Rutten, Director of Special Education Before there was a federal law in America to ensure that children who had disabilities would receive an education, there were limited opportunities for them and their families. Public schools were generally not geared to educate students who had disabling conditions. There was no law requiring them to provide specialized education, and most schools excluded students who had cognitive, sensory, or physical disabilities. The State of North Dakota, like most other states, operated state residential schools for students who were deaf or blind. Many of these children had to leave their families just to get an education. There were also some private residential facilities where parents could send their children at considerable personal expense. However, for thousands of families in our state who had children with disabilities, public schools were not an option. In the 1970's the Congress of the United States became increasingly concerned with the treatment of children with disabilities in our country. Congress enacted the first landmark legislation to assure that all children who had disabilities in America would receive a free and appropriate public education. In the thirty years since the inception of our national special education law, parents and special educators fought to open the classroom doors for students with disabilities. North Dakotans took this very seriously. Now the U.S. Department of Education’s 24th Annual Report to Congress indicates that our state serves the highest percentage of students with disabilities in general education classrooms of all states in the country. This is an accomplishment for which the families, educators, legislators, and all citizens of North Dakota can be proud. The struggle for parents of students with disabilities and special education teachers and administrators now isn’t so much about getting these students into the classroom. It’s about assuring that they have access to the same curriculum and content standards as students who are nondisabled. Parents, special and general educators are working together to help students with disabilities become full members of our society. The expectation is not for these young people to remain dependent on others, but to become well-educated, independently employed, and to lead fulfilling lives in our communities. Much attention has been paid to the demographic challenges facing our state. As key policymakers, you are well-aware of the declining enrollment in the general education population in the schools of North Dakota. However, that is not the case for special education. The number of students who receive special education in the schools of our state continues to rise. This year over 14,000 North Dakota students are receiving special education and related services. That is why we are respectfully requesting your thoughtful consideration of the Department of Public Instruction’s proposal for an increase in state funding for special education. Currently the funding for special education comes from federal, state, and local sources. There has been a steady increase in federal funding for special education, and the newly reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Act includes statutory language for full funding of the IDEA by fiscal year 2011. However, state funding has remained fairly flat over the last few years while we’ve experienced an increase in the number of students in special education and increased costs associated with their education. Local sources of funding remain by far the greatest source of funding for special education. Local school districts have experienced higher than anticipated costs for students with disabilities placed by agencies, boarding care costs, and extended school year services. The budget proposed by the Department of Public Instruction is an attempt to help local school districts by increasing the amount of state support for special education. In the weeks ahead as you consider the needs of all the citizens of North Dakota, please keep in mind the great needs of students with disabilities, their families, and the schools of our state that serve this special population. Dear Representative Aarsvold, It was very nice to meet you last Wednesday evening at the NCI supper. It is nice to put a face with the voice!! Thank you for your interest in Adult Education. Adult Education is a necessary service for the adult residents of North Dakota. There are many adults who need literacy, basic skills, and GED preparation. There are also many who need to learn English as a second language and a lot of who need computer skills. Adult Education instructors do so very much with a modest amount to help serve our residents in academic need. I am concerned with the President's FY 2006 budget. This proposal cuts adult education by 64%. There is also the WIA Plus Consolidation Block granting also. Neither of these would be beneficial to our state. Would you consider writing Senator Conrad, Senator Dorgan, and Representative Pomeroy and ask them to help restore the adult education budget and also ask them to oppose the WIA Plus Consolidation? This would certainly help our cause. I understand that all our letters are starting to make an impact, but we have a long way to go yet. I believe I gave a copy of how this will affect North Dakota, but just in case I did not I will attach it to this email. If I can be of any help to you please contact me. I look forward to talking with you again. Thank you, Laurel Kaae Williston, ND President Bush’s FY 2006 Budget and the Impact On Adult Education and Family Literacy in North Dakota What are the proposed changes in the President’s FY 2006 Budget for adult education and family literacy (Title II of the Workforce Investment Act)? There are two proposed changes in the budget that President Bush just submitted to Congress that could dramatically affect adult education and family literacy programs in ND. 1. **Cut of nearly 64% in federal funding.** The budget is reduced from $569 million to $207 million for WIA Title II (adult education and family literacy). 2. **Potential consolidation with other funding streams into a block grant called the “WIA Plus Consolidated Grant Program.”** The governor of each state will have the option of consolidating adult education and family literacy with other “job training” programs administered by the U.S. Departments of Education, Agriculture, and Labor into a single job training block grant. The specific programs that could be consolidated are: - Adult education and family literacy (U.S. Department of Education) - Vocational rehabilitation (U.S. Department of Education) - Veterans Employment (U.S. Department of Labor) - Food Stamps Employment and Training (U.S. Department of Agriculture) - Trade Adjustment Assistance Training (U.S. Department of Labor) Participating states will “submit a single State Integration Plan and will report through a single system identified by the governor….Program-specific requirements will be minimized. However, drops in participant levels for targeted populations, such as individuals with disabilities, will not be allowed….States will develop strategies to meet increasingly rigorous performance standards each year, leading to a goal of 100 percent placement in employment of the workers trained each year with grant sources. As part of their State Integration Plan, states will be required to develop benchmarks to track annual yearly progress towards that goal.” What would be the impact of a 64% cut in funding? Adult education programs in ND State annually serve over 2000 educationally disadvantaged out-of-school youth and adults, age 16 and over who are out-of-school and lack a high school diploma or the equivalent. These are who are seeking to improve their lives and meet their adult responsibilities as parents, workers, and citizens. Programs enable parents to learn English, read to their children, and support their children’s success in school. They enable incarcerated youth and adults to transition into society and the workforce. Programs provide the literacy, English language proficiency, and/or high school equivalency diploma to obtain, retain, and advance in employment. The majority of students served are low income or working poor. Over 91% are of working age, under age 60. Adult education and family literacy in ND State is an effective program. It has met or exceeded federal performance targets every year, since the accountability system was created. A 64% cut would eliminate over 80% of the programs, affecting as many as 1500 students. This will occur at a time of overwhelming need: approximately 18-23% of North Dakotans do not have a high school diploma or the equivalent; the number of adults with limited English language proficiency is mushrooming; family literacy and health literacy programs are being developed to close the achievement gap for children in high need schools across the state. The immediate demand is great. Without advertising (only word of mouth), there are waiting lists of students who want services. The federal adult education and family Literacy funds have already been cut over the past two years and the programs in our state have absorbed the cuts and continue providing the same level of services. **What is the impact of the possible consolidation?** The WIA Plus Consolidated Grant program would be equally devastating. - The only guarantee would be that adults without a diploma or the equivalent are somehow served. There would be no requirement to provide literacy, English language instruction, or high school equivalency preparation. - The sole focus would be job placement—not educational gain or learning English, placement in postsecondary education, increasing a parent’s ability to help her child succeed in school, or attainment of a high school equivalency diploma. - The rich variety of programs (family literacy, GED preparation, English language proficiency, citizenship, parent education) would be eliminated. - The 100% job placement goal would be an overwhelming incentive to cream: to serve only those adults who are the most job ready, leaving the most disadvantaged behind. - Since program administration would shift out of the State Department of Public Instruction Education, strong connections with state adult education dollars and education efforts to close the achievement gap would be lost. - In ND, the Department of Public Instruction (NDDPI) is **not** governed or overseen by the Governor. NDDPI administers both the adult education and family literacy program and other family related programs, such as Even Start, 21st Century etc. In ND we elect the head of the agency. In this case Dr. Sanstead. The proposed WIA Plus Consolidation Grant conflicts with this governance structure, creating a separation of powers issue and difficult governance dilemmas for ND. **What is the solution?** 1. Restore funding to $529 million. 2. Oppose consolidation or at least modify the language so that: “In a State in which the State constitution places policymaking authority that is independent of the authority of the Governor in an entity or official with respect to the funds for adult education and family literacy authorized under Title II of the Workforce Investment Act and vocational rehabilitation services offered under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (29U.S.C. 701 et seq.), the determination with respect to consolidation will be made by the chief officer of the entity with such authority in consultation with the Governor.” STATE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY ASSESSMENT Current Status: $275,000 for English Language Proficiency Standards and Assessments The House of Representatives passed HB 1013 with amendments that include $275,000 for English Language Proficiency Standards and Assessments. This funding was added to the amendment due to legislative response to requests by school district personnel to fund the new standards-based English language proficiency test that has been developed and must be implemented by 2006 in North Dakota schools. This large-scale assessment of students limited in English language proficiency (LEP) is a requirement of No Child Left Behind and will provide consistent data on the number of students who are LEP, the number who are making progress toward reaching English proficiency, and the number who have attained English language proficiency. It is appropriate for the state to fund this test since the state also funds the statewide academic achievement assessment program. Funding for the new English language proficiency test was initially included in HB 1373, a bill that provided funding for the State English Language Learner Program along with funding to implement the new assessment. Though House Education unanimously recommended that the House pass the bill, House Appropriations recommended a “do not pass”, adding the $275,000 to HB 1015. More information on the North Dakota English Language Proficiency Assessment Project can be found on the DPI website at http://dpi.state.nd.us/bilingual/project.shtm. STATE ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNER PROGRAM Current Status of English Language Learner Program Funding: - Appropriation in HB 1013: $650,000 - Contingent Funding added to HB 1373: $300,000 - HB 1373 requesting $300,000 increase in service and $40,000 for administration, advisory committee, and technical assistance did not pass. Need: - Move $300,000 contingency funding to current biennium appropriation. - Appropriate $40,000 for administration, advisory committee, and technical assistance. HB 1013 includes $650,000 for services for school districts with English Language Learners. An increase in this funding of $300,000 would allow school districts to better serve this population of students. The current appropriation of $650,000 has not been increased since 2001. This program reimburses school districts on a pro-rated basis, according to student levels of proficiency. Currently, funding only covers an average of $194 per student, which is approximately 35% of actual costs of services. English Language Learners in North Dakota are at great risk for failure. HB 1373 contained an increase of $300,000 for these students. House Education Committee added $300,000 in Engrossed House Bill 1154 (lines 26 – 28) for “Contingency Payments” for school districts with English Language Learners, using moneys that remain at the end of the biennium. While this contingency funding will be welcomed, school districts cannot wait until the end of the biennium to provide necessary services for students. This $300,000 needs to be moved into the current appropriation. Chairman Holmberg and members of the committee: As members of a state advisory committee for the North Dakota State English Language Proficiency Assessment Program we ask that you maintain the line item for $275,000 for English Language Proficiency Standards and Assessments that was added to HB 1013 by House Appropriations Committee. This funding was added because HB 1373, which included funding for the test, was killed. Implementing a statewide, standards-based English language proficiency assessment system is a requirement of No Child Left Behind. The development costs were supported through a federal grant. The grant is completed and now the burden is on us to support the costs of implementing this test. This new assessment system represents a positive step for North Dakota in providing a rigorous, consistent tool, developed by North Dakota personnel, to show student growth and progress in attaining English language proficiency. Just as the state supports the costs of the statewide academic achievement assessment, it is important for the state to take on the responsibility of supporting costs for the statewide English language proficiency assessment. We also ask that you consider increasing the current funding of $650,000 in the budget for services for students limited in English language proficiency. HB 1373, which was killed, had included an increase of $300,000 for this program. Schools have not seen an increase in funding since 2001. House Education had the foresight to provide $300,000 in HB 1154 as contingency funding at the end of the biennium. Certainly those dollars, if they become available, will be used well. But, the possibility of funding at the end of the biennium does not change the fact that funding is needed at the present to meet current student needs for instruction. Our students are the future of North Dakota. We ask you to maintain the necessary funding of $275,000 for the English Language Proficiency Standards and Assessments and, if possible, increase the funding for services for English Language Learners from $650,000 to $950,000 for the 2005-2007 biennium. Thank you very much. | Name | City | |-----------------------------|-----------------------| | Zelma Peltier | Belcourt, ND 58316 | | Karen Desjardins | Belcourt, ND 58316 | | Jamie Moen | Larimore, ND 58251 | | Susan Koury | Cavalier ND 58220 | | Amy Walker | Grand Forks ND 58202 | | Rusty Lucas | Oakes, ND 58474 | | Patrice Nelson | Fargo, ND 58104 | | Donnie Sanders | Harwood, ND 58042 | | Lucy Fredericks | Twin Buttes, ND 58636 | | Michelle Vannote | West Fargo, N. Dakota | | Verlene Dvoracek | Fargo, N.Dak. 58103 | | Jayne Kizer | Harrison, ND 58540 | | Carrie Kazowski | Grand Forks N.D. 58201| | Vicki Thompson | Ft Totten, ND 58335 | | Molliah Yellow Bird | White Shield, ND 58775| The Division of Independent Study has long recognized the need to have one consolidated resource for the teaching of *North Dakota Studies* in the classrooms of the State. No comprehensive initiative to develop and publish a *North Dakota Studies* textbook has been undertaken since the publishing of Dr. Theodore Jelliff’s *North Dakota: A Living Legacy* text in 1983. Even this outdated text is out-of-print and no longer available. Clearly, there is a need to have a concise and modern resource to tell the story of North Dakota’s history, culture, and geography to the students of the State. The Division of Independent Study proposes to develop, publish, and distribute a modern and up-to-date textbook and workbook on *North Dakota Studies*. The textbook and workbook would be developed to meet curriculum needs at both Grades 4 and 8. Up to five copies of the textbook would be available free of charge to all elementary and middle school/junior high schools in the State. Additional copies of the textbook and accompanying workbook would be available at cost from the Division of Independent Study for the life of the documents. The Division further proposes to provide and maintain student/teacher online resources and online interactive teacher/learning activities to supplement and accompany the print materials for this project. Timeline for completion/delivery of all print and electronic resources for 4th Grade and 8th Grade *North Dakota Studies* is June 30, 2007. According to the Department of Public Instruction, the 2004 fall enrollment for all public, nonpublic, and BIA students in Grade 4 is 7724. The 2004 fall enrollment for all public, nonpublic, and BIA students in Grade 8 is 8703. As a result, this textbook, workbook, and resources would be available to approximately 16,000 North Dakota students each year. The *North Dakota Studies* textbooks/workbooks will be developed and aligned with North Dakota’s content standards for social studies at both Grades 4 and 8. Both the textbook and the online resources will include a section on civics education. **Anticipated Project Expenditures ---** | Expenditure | Request | |--------------------------------------------------|---------| | Authors/Writers/Project Coordinator | $63,800 | | Project Advisory Committee | $20,000 | | Online Resources/Activities Development | $20,000 | | Professional Development for Teachers, Summer 2007| $5,000 | | Printing/Publishing/Distribution | $40,000 | | **Total** | **$148,800** | The House Appropriations Committee and full House have voted to fund this important project for the students and citizens of North Dakota. It is my sincere hope that Senate Appropriations, and the full Senate, will concur. If you have questions, please feel free to contact me. Neil Howe, State Director North Dakota Division of Independent Study 701-231-6007 email@example.com The Northern Plains Writing Project (NPWP) is a Program Site with a Vision Since receiving renewed funding from both state and federal governments last year, NPWP has offered workshops and institutes that have been received by hundreds of teachers and students in North Dakota. Last year, we ran a Celebration of Language Arts Festival (COLA) at Minot State University, drawing nearly 150 students and teachers to participate in a day of language arts. Students played language games and wrote songs, poems, and stories. Teachers attended workshops in professional development, where they discussed theoretical works related to teaching and writing. Another COLA is being planned for next year. NPWP also attended the North Dakota Educators Association Annual Conference in Grand Forks, and both promoted the Invitational Summer institute and offered a professional development workshop to scores of state teachers in attendance. Similarly, NPWP has organized its staff, generated newsletters, and both promoted and ran its first Pre-Summer Institute and 5-week Summer Institute in better than 4 years. This year's Institute ended with an In-Service provided by all of the newly graduated Teacher Consultants at the August North Dakota Council of Teachers of English, held in Bismarck, ND, where scores of teachers attended a dozen mini-teaching demonstrations based on the work of the Institute. NPWP has also begun the process of re-connecting with the 11 Teacher Learning Centers located throughout the state, with the intention of offering workshops for state teachers through the Teacher Learning Centers. We also are developing a system of collaborations with district administrators to provide a variety of teacher in-service workshops throughout the state and throughout the year. To that end, we have developed a web-site that will soon have a growing data-base of all our Teacher Consultant workshops listed, so that those who need them can find them. We are also getting out into the state community in order to build our site and expand our services. We will attend the upcoming NDEA conference in Bismarck, offering a workshop and seminar to both university and K-12 teachers, in order to find out the ways in which our expectations of student writers and our methods of training them are both alike and different, with the intention of bridging the difference gap. We will also offer a workshop for administrators attending the same conference, and have scheduled seminars for local teaching groups, such as the Northwest North Dakota Chapter of the Phi Delta Kappa International professional fraternity of educators, the American Teacher Educators (ATE) and the two regional chapters of Delta Kappa Gamma, professional organizations for public school teachers in the region. We also run the state-wide writing contest for the North Dakota State Fair, and are seeking a variety of funding alliances that will bring even more federal dollars for education into North Dakota. Back at Minot State University, plans are in the works for us to offer both a Summer Institute and an Advanced Institute next year. The Advanced Institute will help serve another state need by ensuring that more of our K-12 teachers have advanced degrees. As you know, this is a critical need area for North Dakota. These things and more we intend to do, with the foundational goal of improving teaching and learning throughout the state—all of which cost money, and NPWP has not received a funding increase from the state in many, many years. $28,000 every two years does not go as far as it used to do, yet we need a funding level that will allow us to expand, not just hold our own. With the increase in National Writing Project responsibilities written into law through the "No Child Left Behind Act," there has come an increase in federal funding to state program sites such as NPWP. This year, for example, NPWP received $30,000 in match for the $14,000 in direct state support. Minot State University has, with great difficulty, helped make up the other $16000 in state support, through in-kind and tangible financial support, in order to make the 1 to 1 match required by NWP and the federal government. Yet next year, NPWP will be eligible for $43,000 in federal funds, so long as we can come up with matching state funds. MSU had an extraordinarily difficult time helping NPWP achieve the funding match of $16,000, and only state support through DPI will allow NPWP to take advantage of these federal dollars to improve education throughout the state. Further, NPWP has been all but promised even more federal funding as soon as we successfully implement teaching and learning workshops and seminars on North Dakotas reservations—a challenge that we are already planning to meet. There are also approximately $10,000 in additional federal funds for such programs as the "Rural Sites Network," and our "Celebration of Language Arts Festival," and we intend to seek those additional funds. As is true for the entire NPWP effort, however, expanding our program offerings to the Reservations and building exciting opportunities for state teachers and students requires funding and personnel with a drive to make good things happen. We definitely have the personnel with the drive, and together we are expanding our presence throughout the state, but desperately need more funds for K-16 workshops and seminars, tuition for Teacher Consultants to attend the Summer Institute and to offer in-service workshops throughout the state, for mailings and newsletters and brochures that will help create a network of teachers in-the-know about workshops and events important to their professional development, for Celebration of Language Arts Festivals that energize teachers and students alike with a love of learning, for speakers, meetings, travel, and secretarial services to grow NPWP—and growing NPWP is important because we intend to make it possible for all North Dakota teachers to improve what they do in the classrooms and within their own professional communities in a dynamic way, a way that will make a significant difference in the kind of education every North Dakotan receives. To the degree that education is the engine of economic growth for both individuals and communities alike throughout North Dakota, the state needs to properly fund NPWP, because we are a high octane fuel for such an engine, and quite frankly, considering the federal match and the varied programs we offer and will offer, NPWP offers North Dakota a lot of economic, cultural, and intellectual bang for its legislative buck. The truth is, we urgently need $20,000 in increased state funding for the biennium, but if we can get just half of that in this next budget cycle, you will be able to see what important work we can accomplish with those funds, so that increasing the amount in a following biennium will be an easy decision for DPI, and for state legislators. In addition to the current biennial appropriation of $28,000 of state general funds, an increase of $20,000 in general fund support for the Northern Plains Writing Project is hereby requested. The National Writing Project in North Dakota The National Writing Project (NWP), the nation’s premier professional development program for teachers who want to improve the quality of student writing and learning, has two sites in North Dakota. The Northern Plains Writing Project is in Minot; the Red River Valley Writing Project is in Grand Forks. How Much Federal Money Do Writing Project Sites Bring into North Dakota? Each site receives base funding of $43,000 in federal funds each year. These funds are used to support summer development programs for a core group of master teachers, who then conduct inservices for other North Dakota teachers during the school year. Each writing project site must match these federal funds and is eligible for numerous additional NWP grants beyond the $43,000 per site annual allotment. What Do Writing Project Sites Offer Teachers? NWP sites provide high quality professional development for teachers through a “teachers teaching teachers” model. Programs include summer institutes, school-year inservices, and programs that develop teacher leadership, encouraging teachers to remain in the profession and to continually hone their skills. Where are the Writing Project Teachers in North Dakota? Since its beginnings in 1999, the Red River Valley Writing Project has provided professional development for teachers in Bismarck, Belcourt, Cavalier, Crystal, Devils Lake, Fargo, Grafton, Grand Forks, Hoople, Larimore, Manvel, Mayville, Northwood, Rollette, and Thompson. After twenty-five years of service, there are scores of Northern Plains Writing Project teacher-consultants all over the state. How Do We Know Writing Project Programs Work for Students? The success of NWP’s “teachers teaching teachers” model has been verified by both Inverness Research, a private research firm, and the Academy of Educational Development (AED). A three-year AED study found that students taught by writing project teachers showed significant improvement in writing achievement over the course of the school year. In response to timed writing assessments, for example, 82 percent of third-graders and 85 percent of fourth-graders taught by writing project teachers reached adequate or strong achievement for effectiveness in persuasive writing. How Do Writing Project Sites Use State Funding? Both the Northern Plains and Red River Valley writing projects use state funding to expand their sites’ capacity, offering additional summer institutes, inservice programs, and workshops. How Do Writing Project Sites Support the Goals of No Child Left Behind? The NWP plays an important role in helping schools meet the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act. NWP is written into the legislation (Title II, Part C, Chapter C, Subpart 2) as a successful model of improving writing and learning in all grade levels, across all subjects. In addition, summer courses and other programs by writing project sites help teachers meet the new guidelines for “highly qualified” status. How Is the National Writing Project Funded? The National Writing Project is a grant program of the Office of Innovation and Improvement of the U.S. Department of Education. This office coordinates the provisions of No Child Left Behind that address public school choice and supplemental educational services. President Bush has requested a $2.45 million increase in the NWP budget for fiscal year 2005, to a total of $20.34 million. MISSION The mission of the National Writing Project (NWP) is to improve the teaching of writing and improve learning in the nation’s schools. Through its professional development model, the NWP recognizes the primary importance of teacher knowledge, expertise, and leadership. Every student deserves a highly skilled teacher of writing. To that end, each of the 185 NWP sites conducts an annual summer institute, attended by the most experienced teachers in the area. Together, these teachers prepare for leadership roles by demonstrating their most effective practices, studying research, and improving their knowledge of writing by writing themselves. After the institute, writing project teachers conduct project-sponsored programs in their own schools and in neighboring schools and districts. They attend to two purposes: developing teacher knowledge and leadership in their home communities and putting this knowledge and leadership to work to improve student achievement. RED RIVER VALLEY WRITING PROJECT University of North Dakota, Grand Forks The Red River Valley Writing Project (RRVWP) primarily serves eastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota. Summer Institute The Red River Valley Writing Project Summer Institute offers time to write—plus a stipend, books, materials, library privileges, and eligibility for four (4) graduate credits in English or Education. Participants are compensated for the cost of tuition. Inservices Teacher-consultants from the Red River Valley Writing Project offer program topics custom-designed to meet a school’s needs. Inservices can take several formats including after-school workshops and 15-hour programs offering one (1) credit from the UND department of continuing education. NORTHERN PLAINS WRITING PROJECT Minot State University, Minot The Northern Plains Writing Project (NPWP) primarily serves central and western North Dakota. Summer Institute & Inservices The Northern Plains Writing Project Summer Institute and Advanced Institute will be held July-August 2005 at Minot State University. Participants will receive free tuition for six (6) graduate credits. NPWP also offers inservice workshops for schools and other educational groups. CONTACT THE RRVWP. The Red River Valley Writing Project (RRVWP) accepts applications to its summer institute December 1 – April 15. The RRVWP also conducts inservices for area schools. Send applications and questions about the summer institute to: Kim Donehower, Director Red River Valley Writing Project Box 7209 Grand Forks, ND 58202 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Phone: 701.777.4162 For information on inservices through the RRVWP contact: Marci Glessner, Outreach Coordinator Department of Teaching and Learning University of North Dakota Phone: 701.777.3186 Email: email@example.com CONTACT THE NPWP. The Northern Plains Writing Project (NPWP) invite applications to its summer institute. The NPWP also offers inservices to area schools. Send applications and questions about the summer institute or questions about inservices to: Robert E. Kibler, Director Northern Plains Writing Project 229 Hartnett Hall West Minot State University 500 University Avenue West Minot, North Dakota 58707 Phone: 701.858.3876 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org If you were to ask high school students living in the Fargo area if they had enough opportunities to pursue their interests in the performing arts, the answer would have to be "yes." Fargo schools have expansive theater and music programs. Study in acting, dance and voice is available in a variety of private studios and with faculty at three colleges. The local community theatre is thriving, offering classes and ongoing performance opportunities. Each summer, Fargo students can take intensive instruction and choose from several performance opportunities at Trollwood Performing Arts School (TPAS). If, however, you were to ask the same question of students from a small North Dakota community or tribal reservation, the answer might be, "Some opportunities, yes. Enough opportunities? No." For while programs such as TPAS are open to all North Dakota students, few young people from outside the Fargo metropolitan area are able to attend because of the high tuition cost and a lack of housing facilities. And yet, the Fargo student and the rural student may have equal talent and the same drive to learn. Creation of a Governor's School in the Performing Arts (GSPA) would address this inequity in opportunity. The North Dakota State University (NDSU) Department of Theatre Arts has created an intensive performing arts experience for talented North Dakota students, regardless of geographical situation or financial status. In the summer of 2003, a pilot four-week program, called the North Dakota Arts Academy, was held, and the first full-fledged six-week program was held in the summer of 2004. The specifics of the proposed program are as follows: Up to twenty students—with interest in performance, theatrical design, and/or technical theatre—will be admitted to the program. The school will run for six weeks, concurrent with the mathematics, science and business school sessions of the Governor's School. The weekday schedule of activities for the first four weeks will be as follows: - Students begin the morning by attending a session on personal development and social issues with the other Governor's School students. - Performing arts students will then attend classes on dance and movement, dramatic literature, and theatre design and technology. - During the afternoon, students will work with theatre faculty members preparing and rehearsing a theatrical production and building costumes, scenery, and properties for the production. This production will be toured back to their home communities and across the state during the final week of the Governor's School session. - Following the evening meal on Monday, students will attend the evening session on ethics with the other Governor's School students. - Following the evening meal on Tuesday and Thursday, students will attend the evening arts activities with the other Governor's School students. During the fifth week, students will work intensively on completing their production. Touring will begin during the weekend between the fifth and sixth week of the school and culminate with performances at NDSU for the other Governor's School participants. The total cost of the GSPA is expected to be about $45,000 (based on a projected enrollment of twenty students). Expenses include salaries (Life & Learning classes, residence counselors, theatre instruction), dormitory housing, printed materials (scripts, posters, production programs), supplies (instructional, production, and office), and tour transportation and lodging. The GSPA is expected to have a positive influence on the youth of North Dakota in several ways. It will provide an opportunity to develop their artistic talents; strengthen their leadership, communication and collaborative skills; appreciate their own creativity; develop confidence and a positive self-image; and gain a greater appreciation of their world's diversity. Many young people interested in the arts have a hard time fitting in with their peers. One parent whose son attended an intensive performing arts summer program reported that it was such a positive experience because it helped her son see that there are other kids like him. This contact with kindred spirits is something students with high interest in the arts—especially youth from smaller communities—often say they miss in their home schools. And how often does a teen from a small North Dakota town or a native American reservation bump into someone who's acted on Broadway or toured with a professional dance company? At the GSPA they would not only meet professional artists, they would study with them on a daily basis. These faculty contacts may prove invaluable in a student's life for networking, career advice and letters of recommendation. Another benefit of the performing arts program is its ability to promote the entire Governor's School program. The GSPA students and the written material accompanying their performances are visible evidence of the Governor's School programs and their positive influence on the youth of the state. State general funds, in the amount of $45,000, are hereby requested for the proposed North Dakota Governor's School for the Arts. March 2, 2005 To the Appropriations Committee Members: The Performing Arts section is not only elemental but essential to the Governor’s School experience. A crippling (and God forbid, terminating) cut in funding for this program would be something of an abomination in that it would limit the beneficial diversity in Governor’s School participants, and it would steal the opportunity of a lifetime from North Dakota’s performing youth. One determining factor in my love for Governor’s School was its wide variety of experiences. There is something for everyone, “something” being anything from a friend, an adventure, a challenge, or at least a constructive summer. By eliminating the beloved Performing Arts discipline, that characteristic diversity would be limited. I firmly believe that the key to success (in school, in a career, in life) is first the chance to experience many new things, then find your true “calling.” The Performing Arts discipline is a much-needed breath of fresh air in the science- and math-congested atmosphere at Governor’s School. The Performing Arts division is beneficial not only to the other Governor’s School participants, but of course to North Dakota’s young performers themselves. I have stood witness to the immense positive effects this fantastic program has on the aesthetic teenagers of our great state. Many Performing Arts participants have claimed this program to be literally life-changing, helping to guide these students to the assurance that performance is something to which they want to devote their lives. The world needs art and Governor’s School does an extraordinary job in supplying and nurturing it. Please consider my concerns. I understand as well as anyone the importance of the Performing Arts division in Governor’s School, and I hope you’ve picked up some of that understanding. Thank you for your time. Brianne Huber Junior, Wishek High School Governor’s School of Math 2004 The Performing Arts program was an important part of my Governor's School experience. The diversity of the young adults who participate in the different programs makes the whole experience more eye-opening and influential. By removing the Arts program, the overall experience would not be as life-changing. It is essential to keep the Performing Arts a part of Governor's School in order to give the attendees an experience they surely will never forget. Certainly, the experience would be a wonderful one, but it would not be as full of an experience without the diversity provided by having four disciplines. Giving a greater choice in disciplines provides an opportunity for more young adults to attend. In no other place beside the Governor's School Performing Arts could these people come together and experience what true theatre production is all about. By cutting the funding for the Arts program, this great opportunity would be lost. I hope that you will take time to consider what kind of impact cutting out the Performing Arts Program would have, not only on the young performers in the state, but on Governor's School as a whole. Sincerely, Annie Wohl Attendee of Governor's School of Business 2004 To whom it may concern, The idea of cutting the funding for the North Dakota State Governors School of Performing Arts is not acceptable, and should not even be an issue to go over. The Performing arts program is vital to the success of Governor’s School. It not only brings in a whole new group of people who would never have gone otherwise, it also brings a greater feel and interest in the arts to North Dakota’s youth. It also brings a greater joy to the other students at Governor’s School because without the Arts people, who bring a completely different feel to Governor’s School, it would be a very boring and un-exciting place to be. This would cause the alumni to tell their friends not to go, because it’s not worth going to, which would cause fewer and fewer people to go. Without the added advertisement from the alumni to their friends there would not be enough people going. Then, the committee would have to close all of Gov. School, destroying a GREAT program that everyone should have the chance to experience. I was a part of the 2004 performing arts program. While I was there I met some of the greatest people I have ever known. In the few weeks that we were together I became closer to them then to people I have known my whole life. I also found out what a great campus NDSU has and what a great staff they have. Because of this I have decided to pursue my college education at NDSU, and hope to become a counselor for the performing arts program in the future. I know many others feel this way, too. Without the chance to go to Governor's School none of this could have happened. That is why I think that you should not consider cutting the arts program. It not only brings a greater program for people to enjoy, it also helps to show people what a great place NDSU is. Thank you, Lance Winther 2004 Arts Alumnus. 2 March 2004 To the Most Honorable Representatives of the North Dakota House Appropriations Committee: My name is Chad Mathis and I am a high school senior from Watford City. I am a 2004 Governor's School of Math alumnus. First of all, I would like to express my regret that I am unable to attend the hearing today. I write to you because I would request that you consider to continue funding to the ND Governor's School of Performing Arts. It is true that Performing Arts is the most recent discipline added to GS, and some may see it as the most expendable component, but I charge you to give it the support it requires to develop as much as its other three co-disciplines. The Arts have long been overlooked, and being a musician myself, I would like nothing better than to see North Dakota step up to the plate and encourage the creativity of its youth. I'm sure that some of your peers in the state legislature, or maybe even you yourselves are or have been involved in the Arts, and I ask you now to remember what you have gained from those experiences, and how they have enriched your lives. There are those involved in the Arts, just as in Academics, that excel and are leaders in their schools and communities. Those students should not be denied the wonderful opportunities that Governor's School has to offer to them, both as artists and as people. Thank you for your time and consideration. Sincerely, Chad E. Mathis From: Connor Mills <email@example.com> Sent: Wednesday, March 2, 2005 10:58 PM To: firstname.lastname@example.org Subject: RE: stop what you're doing and support gov school! Dear Mr. or Mrs. Representative, My name is Connor Mills, and I am a Junior at DesLacs-Burlington High School. This past summer I had the opportunity to attend North Dakota Governor's School, more specifically as a science student. It has come to my attention that there is a motion being considered that will cut funds from the arts program of Governor's School. I earnestly urge you to vote down this bill. It's hard to fully explain what Governor's School can and has meant to me and to all those with whom I attended. Consider, for an example, the very fact that I even learned of this bill. As soon as it came to the attention of one of us, we all knew about it through e-mails and phone calls. That's how close we have all become, and that's how important this issue is to us. I strongly recommend that you take every possible measure to prevent this budget cut from happening. I can only say that if you had gone, you would know precisely what I am talking about. Sincerely, Connor Mills The North Dakota Museum of Art is developing an educational outreach initiative to encourage and empower rural school children and their teachers to actively participate in learning through the arts. Specifically, the North Dakota Museum of Art proposes to organize and tour a series of exhibitions to the four quadrants of the State and then to engage rural schools in those four quadrants in an on-going relationship with the art in the exhibitions and the ideas that are integral to each show. The pilot exhibition, *Snow Country Prison: Interned in North Dakota*, opened in Bismarck at the United Tribes Technical College in October 2003 before moving to Grand Forks in February 2004, Moorhead in April, and Minot in August. The exhibition was used to teach the history of North Dakota and, given that the wall text in the exhibition contained haiku poems written by a Japanese internee while at Fort Lincoln, interactive television sessions were developed to teach haiku poetry. The interactive sessions either precede or follow actual visits to the exhibitions where the students are given guided tours by trained educators. Money for bussing from rural schools is provided by the project. Once an exhibition is organized, the Museum’s Education Director develops online teaching materials that meet the criteria for North Dakota curriculum standards. All of the exhibitions in the Rural School Initiative relate to North Dakota studies in some way and have strong humanities and social studies components. The teaching materials for each exhibition target specific grade levels. For example, *Snow Country Prison* was targeted to fourth and eighth graders in that North Dakota studies are included in their course load. After seeing the show, the students return to their classrooms to engage in further ancillary learning. Teachers at other grade levels are encouraged to examine the online teaching materials to determine if the program can also meet their curriculum needs. They are also encouraged to bring their students to the exhibitions and special tours are arranged for them. Following the *Snow Country Prison* tour, the Museum is developing programs around the major Lewis and Clark mapping exhibition, organized by the Library of Congress with funding from the federal government, that will be at the Museum in Grand Forks in the winter of 2004-05. Activities are being developed around mapping, journal keeping, and the scientific cataloging of North Dakota. Given the importance of this rare exhibition, schools are being encouraged to make day trips to Grand Forks—it opened in Washington, DC and will only tour to Omaha, Grand Forks, and Seattle. Other exhibitions in the planning stages to tour to other parts of the State include the video installation *Plains of Sweat Regret* which will tour to two sites in Western North Dakota where much of the filming was done. This will be followed by an extensive tour of an exhibition about Shelterbelts and our human relationship to trees--especially in North Dakota with its original vast treeless plains. Note: Because *Snow Country Prison* was the initial pilot exhibition, the educational components are developing as the tour progresses. In addition to the current biennial appropriation of $125,000 of state general funds, an increase of $125,000 in general fund support for the ND Museum of Art education outreach initiative is hereby requested. Department 250 - State Library House Bill No. 1013 | | FTE Positions | General Fund | Other Funds | Total | |----------------------|---------------|------------------|---------------|-------------| | 2005-07 Executive Budget | 28.75 | $3,501,626 | $1,658,575 | $5,160,201 | | 2003-05 Legislative Appropriations | 28.75 | 3,027,046 | 1,629,979 | 4,657,025 | | Increase (Decrease) | 0.00 | $474,580 | $28,596 | $503,176 | Agency Funding ![Graph showing agency funding over time] FTE Positions ![Graph showing FTE positions over time] Executive Budget Highlights 1. Increases operating expenses to provide funding for ConnectND charges - General Fund: $6,129 - Other Funds: $3,300 - Total: $9,429 2. Decreases operating expenses to reflect savings associated with the information technology functional consolidation required by North Dakota Century Code Section 54-59-22 - General Fund: ($9,304) - Other Funds: ($9,304) 3. Decreases general fund spending authority and increases other funds spending authority for operating expenses - General Fund: ($8,387) - Other Funds: $8,387 - Total: $0 4. Provides funding for the purchase of statewide licenses for online resources - General Fund: $200,000 - Other Funds: $200,000 5. Increases funding for state aid to public libraries by $155,693, from $844,307 to $1,000,000 - General Fund: $155,693 - Other Funds: $155,693 Major Related Legislation At this time, no major legislation has been introduced affecting this agency. Mister Chairman and Members of the Committee: My name is Doris Ott and I am State Librarian of North Dakota. I am here today in support of HB 1013, the 2005-2007 appropriation for the North Dakota State Library. Attached to your packets you will see today’s testimony and the form you requested that agencies complete. Inside your packets you will find additional testimony that expands on the testimony that I will be sharing with you today; information about the twenty-five year history of State Aid to Public Libraries; and a list of the 2003/2005 biennium’s Library Vision 2010 (LV2010) grants awarded. In the report you can see that we plan to utilize the 2003/2005 appropriation in full to deliver information and library services that were outlined in the last legislative session (and that are explained in the expanded testimony in your packets). We appreciate and look forward to continued support from you for the base level, basic services that we currently provide to librarians and citizens across the state. All of our FTE positions are filled. Beyond the current, base level services that the North Dakota State Library provides, we are requesting additional funding to support three important areas: 1. Online Library Resources $200,000 2. State Aid to Public Libraries $155,693 3. Employee salaries and benefits $147,358 **Online Library Resources.** The North Dakota State Library is requesting $200,000 in general fund money to support additional online resources for libraries and citizens throughout the state. As North Dakotans demand that more and more of their information be delivered online, we find that more online resources are needed. Last year North Dakotans performed 1,440,981 searches using the existing Online Library Resources. North Dakotans are using the Online Library Resources heavily and are clamoring for more. Additional online resources that are widely requested include health information, national issues in the form of opposing viewpoints (a great resource for students), test preparation aids (examples include GED, SAT, GRE, corrections officer exam), automotive information, and genealogy information. The expanded testimony in your packets beginning on page 17 covers this area in more detail. State Aid to Public Libraries. State Aid to Public Libraries is an excellent investment in local community services as well as in statewide services. The additional funding requested will be spent on materials that will serve local communities as well as citizens statewide through interlibrary loan; upgrading technology for local community libraries; and supporting additional service hours. Additional information is available addressing this area in your expanded testimony on page 13. Employee salaries and benefits. We fully support the 4 percent raises for each year and funding of health insurance premiums. This will help support fair and equitable compensation and benefits to our staff, and it will assist us in recruiting and retaining excellent employees. Additional comments relating to this area are on page 11 in the expanded testimony. I appreciate all of the support you have given to the libraries in the state. We look forward to meeting with the subcommittee to provide further information and to review the expanded testimony that has been provided in your packets. I will be happy to answer any questions that you have. ## Funding | 2003-05 Legislative Appropriation | 2003-05 Estimated Expenditures or Currently Filled FTE Positions | (1) Variance | 2005-07 Executive Recommendation | (2) 2005-07 Recommendation Change (Variance) to 2003-05 Legislative Appropriations | |----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Salaries and wages | 2,078,571 | 0 | 2,225,929 | 147,358 | | Operating expenses | 1,141,647 | 0 | 1,341,772 | 200,000 | | Equipment | 40,000 | 0 | 40,000 | 0 | | Capital assets | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Grants | 1,396,807 | 0 | 1,552,500 | 155,693 | | **Total** | **$4,657,025** | **0** | **$5,160,201** | **$503,176** | | General fund | $3,027,046 | 0 | $3,501,626 | $474,580 | | Federal funds | $1,538,127 | 0 | $1,566,723 | $28,596 | | Special funds | $91,852 | 0 | $91,852 | 0 | | **Total** | **$4,657,025** | **0** | **$5,160,201** | **$503,176** | | FTE | 28.75 | 0 | 28.75 | 0 | (1) Explanation of Major Funding and FTE Variances for the 2003-05 Legislative Appropriation to 2003-05 Current Estimates 1. NONE 2. 3. 4. 5. (2) Explanation of Major Funding and FTE Changes (Variances) for the 2005-07 Recommendation to 2003-05 Legislative Appropriations | FTE | General Fund | Federal and Special Funds | Total | |---------|--------------|---------------------------|---------| | 1. Online Library Resources | 0 | $200,000 | 0 | $200,000 | | 2. State Aid to Public Libraries | 0 | $155,693 | 0 | $155,693 | | 3. Employee Compensation/Health Ins. | 0 | $147,358 | 0 | $147,358 | | 4. | 5. Summary of Major Goals and Objectives and Related Performance Measurement Data for the 2005-07 Biennium (to the extent available) 1. Provide leadership and library development to public, school, and special libraries statewide. 2. Provide access to information for librarians and citizens throughout the state. 3. Deliver training and technical assistance to librarians, board members, and citizens. 4. Administer grants to public and school libraries, including state aid to public libraries, Library Vision 2010 (LV2010), and Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA). 5. Deliver information and library services in a specialized format to patrons who are vision impaired or who cannot hold a book. (Please see attached sheet with related performance measurement data.) RELATED PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT DATA FOR GOALS 1-5 LEADERSHIP Conduct focus groups biannually to retool library services delivered at the local and statewide level. Partner with ODIN (Online Dakota Information Network) and attend ODIN quarterly advisory council meetings to represent 35 small public and school libraries who are participants through the State Library. Secure statewide library contracts annually to reduce operating costs and provide services that are more economically delivered at a statewide level. Conduct surveys annually and biannually to measure customer satisfaction. Provide testimony biannually to legislators. Produce and distribute 6 issues annually of agency newsletter, “Flickertale.” ACCESS Deliver interlibrary loan requests with a two-day turnaround time. Answer requests for information within two days. Catalog new materials within one week so they are available online to all citizens in the state. Inform citizens of access by presenting at 10 booths per year. Expand access to information by adding 8-10 library’s collections per year to the statewide online library catalog. TRAINING AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE Provide timely and updated training to librarians, students, and communities on the use of online library resources and the statewide online library catalog. Develop and deliver continuing education workshops annually to librarians and trustees. To annually provide training scholarships to Master of Library Science candidates. GRANTS ADMINISTRATION Award grants annually on a competitive basis according to guidelines as outlined in LV2010 (Library Vision 2010), LSTA (Library Services and Technology Act), and by NDLCC (North Dakota Library Coordinating Council). Monitor grants quarterly for compliance and activity. Facilitate and administer Gates grants within the required time frame when they are available (2002, 2003, and 2004). SPECIALIZED FORMAT Contract with Prairie Public Radio annually to provide DRIS (Dakota Radio Information Services) radio reading services daily. Deliver talking books with a one-day turnaround to patrons who are visually impaired or who cannot hold a book. Provide large print books within one day to patrons who cannot read regular print. ## NORTH DAKOTA ### PUBLIC LIBRARY ### ANNUAL REPORT OF STATISTICS **JANUARY 2003 through DECEMBER 2003** North Dakota State Library 604 E. Boulevard Avenue - Dept. 250 Bismarck, ND 58505-0800 http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us ### Population Served - 30,000 and Over | GROUP | LIBRARY NAME | LOCAL | STATE | FEDERAL | OTHER | TOTAL | INCOME PER CAP. | |-------|-------------------------------------|---------|----------|---------|-------|-----------|-----------------| | I | FARGO PUBLIC LIBRARY | 1,686,095 | 57,875 | - | 72,462 | 1,816,432 | 20.05 | | I | BISMARCK VETERANS MEMORIAL PUBLIC LIBRARY | 1,252,426 | 45,388 | 21,936 | 97,739 | 1,417,489 | 20.42 | | I | GRAND FORKS PUBLIC LIBRARY | 797,796 | 45,039 | - | 309,673| 1,152,508 | 17.43 | | I | MINOT PUBLIC LIBRARY | 742,668 | 86,927 | 22,365 | 53,160 | 905,120 | 24.75 | | I | AVERAGE | 1,119,746 | 58,807 | - | 133,259| 1,322,887 | 20.66 | ### Population Served - 7,500 to 29,999 | GROUP | LIBRARY NAME | LOCAL | STATE | FEDERAL | OTHER | TOTAL | INCOME PER CAP. | |-------|-------------------------------------|---------|----------|---------|-------|-----------|-----------------| | II | CARNEGIE REGIONAL LIBRARY | 112,108 | 12,830 | - | 6,892 | 131,830 | 4.80 | | II | DICKINSON PUBLIC LIBRARY | 290,288 | 37,461 | - | 65,601| 393,350 | 16.72 | | II | WARD COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY | 159,831 | 21,936 | - | 2,802 | 184,569 | 8.30 | | II | WILLISTON COMMUNITY LIBRARY | 229,724 | 42,241 | - | 18,696| 290,661 | 14.71 | | II | MCLEAN-MERCER REGIONAL LIBRARY | 188,870 | 22,304 | - | 6,600 | 217,774 | 12.13 | | II | MANDAN PUBLIC LIBRARY | 221,006 | 214,315 | -24,902 | 17,792| 32,737 | 16.31 | | II | ALFRED DICKEY PUBLIC LIBRARY | 354,230 | 9,540 | - | 14,056| 377,826 | 24.33 | | II | WEST FARGO PUBLIC LIBRARY | 192,606 | 7,953 | - | 18,235| 218,794 | 14.64 | | II | LAKE REGION PUBLIC LIBRARY | 73,108 | 6,400 | 798 | 228,611| 308,917 | 25.60 | | II | VALLEY CITY BARNES COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY | 100,224 | 8,961 | - | 12,819| 122,004 | 10.36 | | II | MORTON COUNTY LIBRARY | 103,515 | 97,886 | 20,588 | 4,744 | 4,537 | 122,810 | 13.65 | | II | LEACH PUBLIC LIBRARY | 94,873 | 5,275 | - | 7,863 | 108,011 | 12.58 | | II | SOUTH CENTRAL AREA LIBRARY | 48,858 | 7,209 | - | 2,712 | 58,779 | 7.14 | | II | AVERAGE | 165,917 | 17,492 | - | 32,474| 216,005 | 13.94 | ### Population served - 2,000 to 7,499 | GROUP | LIBRARY NAME | LOCAL | STATE | FEDERAL | OTHER | TOTAL | INCOME PER CAP. | |-------|-------------------------------------|---------|----------|---------|-------|-----------|-----------------| | III | BOTTINEAU COUNTY LIBRARY | 95,921 | 13,986 | - | 4,486 | 114,393 | 16.00 | | III | STUTSMAN COUNTY LIBRARY | 103,647 | 10,952 | - | 7,557 | 122,156 | 19.14 | | III | MCKENZIE COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY | 60,274 | 26,079 | - | 2,336 | 88,689 | 15.46 | | III | CAVALIER COUNTY LIBRARY | 45,005 | 5,263 | - | 5,344 | 55,612 | 11.51 | | III | HEART OF AMERICA LIBRARY | 83,691 | 5,565 | - | 16,669| 105,925 | 22.66 | | III | SIOUX COUNTY LIBRARY | 6,167 | 4,894 | - | 36 | 11,097 | 2.74 | | III | BEULAH PUBLIC LIBRARY | 31,792 | 4,508 | - | 16,000| 52,300 | 15.55 | | III | GRIGGS COUNTY LIBRARY | 44,155 | 3,937 | - | 15,347| 63,439 | 23.04 | | III | KIDDER COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY | 50,318 | - | - | - | 50,318 | 18.28 | | III | ADAMS COUNTY LIBRARY | 18,212 | 4,815 | - | 6,578 | 29,605 | 10.77 | | III | HAZEN PUBLIC LIBRARY | 62,439 | 1,510 | - | 9,184 | 73,133 | 29.77 | | III | DIVIDE COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY | 37,525 | 7,693 | - | 953 | 46,171 | 20.22 | | III | CARRINGTON CITY LIBRARY | 22,423 | 1,207 | - | 2,097 | 25,727 | 11.34 | | III | LISBON PUBLIC LIBRARY | 20,087 | 1,220 | - | 16,769| 38,076 | 17.49 | | III | GOLDEN VALLEY COUNTY LIBRARY | 21,444 | 4,468 | - | 1,000 | 26,912 | 12.77 | | III | AVERAGE | 46,873 | 6,864 | - | 7,454 | 60,237 | 15.45 | Good afternoon, Chairman Bob Martison and the appropriations committee. I am Kellie Steffan, and I am Larissa Heil. We are from Velva and we represent the North Dakota High Schools and the high school students. We are here to inform you about the wonderful advantages of using the North Dakota State Library databases which the state library is asking continuing funding for. The North Dakota State Library website hosts online library resources. These databases are full of valuable reference materials. The materials include newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias, and books. They can be accessed quickly and easily. They are also accurate and up-to-date. This is a great asset for students in North Dakota. We can quickly view newspapers such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Chicago Sun-Times. We can also view many informative resources such as Time Magazine and US News and World Report. These newspapers and magazines would otherwise be very difficult to find in small town North Dakota. Resources such as these serve as a great tool for students when writing reports for school. Within the Online Library Resources there are 19,000 magazines, 81,000 resources, 8000 e-books, and 550 newspapers. The Online Library Resources are set up so they are very user friendly. Anyone from a young child in school to a senior citizen can understand how to use it. The first step to using the resources is to log on to the North Dakota State Library website: http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us. A bar code and password will be issued to you according to the library nearest you. These items must be entered into the username and password boxes. After that, you are entered into the vast databases full of resources. The resource that is chosen depends on the topic that is being searched for. For example, sixth graders in our school were beginning to work on their science projects. They used the eLibrary Elementary to search for various things. They typed in what they wanted and did a search. They brought up many valuable articles and even some great pictures. They could print it, send it to their email, or even recommend it to a friend. Another great resource is the Health and Wellness Resource Center. Using this resource you can find out information about the medical world by using the medical encyclopedia and the drug finder. Many adults find this very useful. Much of the research done in schools today is done on the internet. By using the resources found on the North Dakota State Library website, much of the junk found on websites such as Google and Yahoo is filtered out. The library needs your funding for these resources. Libraries can play a very important part in the economic development of a community—persons looking to move to a new place would like to have the same level of library resources as where they are leaving. The Online Library Resources are a good example of what people expect to find in a community. Without your support, many libraries will not be able to have it because they cannot afford it. These resources are very expensive but are very important to all of the students at our state’s libraries and schools. Small schools cannot afford these resources and will be forced to give them up if funding is not provided. Please show your support for the education and needs of today’s students. Libraries and students need efficient resources to do research. Some schools cannot afford these resources and are at risk of losing this important tool. Please show the students across the state that you believe in education and are willing to continue to fund this. Thank you, we appreciate it. TESTIMONY TO HOUSE APPROPRIATIONS COMMITTEE EDUCATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL DIVISION HOUSE BILL 1013 2005-2007 APPROPRIATION NORTH DAKOTA STATE LIBRARY JANUARY 10, 2005 Staff Without qualified, trained, and dedicated staff, none of the before mentioned services would be possible. The number of librarians retiring or leaving the profession is exceeding the number of people graduating from programs of library and information studies. More than 83,000 librarians in the country are projected to retire between 1990 and 2010, with about half of the library workforce expected to retire every 20 years. The supply of new professionals is further reduced by generally low salaries of librarians, the fact that there are no graduate library programs available in North Dakota, and the fact that North Dakota state employees have received no salary increase over the past two years. Consequently, recruiting professional librarians is a difficult job for the State Library. Because of no graduate library and information programs in North Dakota, we are forced to recruit from out-of-state – a costly process. When we are successful in our recruiting efforts, many stay only two or three years and then move on to higher salaries in other states – training is also a costly process. The Harvard Business Review tells us that it costs the average business six to seven times more to acquire a new customer than it does to retain an existing one. In my opinion, the same principal applies to recruiting and training new employees versus retaining existing staff. I cannot emphasize enough how important it is that we adequately compensate the employees we already have instead of constantly recruiting and training new ones. State Aid to Public Libraries Rural and small town libraries, those serving fewer than 25,000 people, make up 80 percent of all public library systems in the United States. In North Dakota, rural and small town libraries make up 96 percent of all public libraries. Public libraries in North Dakota provide an array of services similar to their larger counterparts, but they do so with fewer staff and often with modest budgets. In most cases, small libraries develop and maintain collections that include books, magazines, and audio/visual materials. They answer reference questions and/or help patrons find their own information, and they provide programming for their patrons—especially children. In more recent years, they offer their patrons access to computers and the Internet. Seventy-seven percent of North Dakota’s public libraries offer Internet access to their community and to tourists. Public libraries provide North Dakotans with accurate and reliable information through the use of books, magazines, audio/video materials, and electronic library resources. The public library is the place in all communities that is a primary resource for those seeking employment, considering a career change, and seeking information. North Dakotans visited their public libraries over 2,100,000 times in 2003. Information literacy is critical to success in today’s job market. Public libraries teach citizens how to critically evaluate information. Information smart citizens use the latest and best information to develop sound goals. They know when a book may be more helpful than a computer. They have learned from librarians how to find, evaluate, and use information in all forms. Information smart people know how to find quality information that will help them through family, medical, or job crises. According to one study, 70 percent of health and medical information found on the Internet is wrong or misleading. Today’s librarians can help patrons find the best source of information, whether it’s online or in a book or pamphlet. In order to assist patrons to find accurate and reliable information, public libraries must have the financial resources to either acquire or have access to the best sources of information. Helping businesses is the library’s role in community economic development. Economic development is the growth of business in a variety of ways. It can include activities to create wealth, generate rising real income, and increase employment. Without even realizing it, libraries have participated in these activities for decades with little fanfare. Economic development, like charity, begins at home. North Dakota communities are making efforts at economic development. In a knowledge-based economy, educated and skilled people provide the principle competitive edge. Those people are not simply reporting to work each day and doing what is laid out for them. Instead they are asking why, questioning procedures, and developing new methods. Change requires information that public libraries can supply, and having information available and getting it to those who need it are challenges librarians face. By strengthening our public libraries, North Dakota can be in a stronger position to attract and grow in offering the highest value location for businesses. The public library is actually one of the few municipal centers that returns money to the local economy. It does this in several ways. The library is often one of the few employers that hires students. Secondly, the library provides an opportunity for citizens to learn how to better earn a living. Most owners of a small business have, at one time or another, used the library to learn about a product or service that they might be able to sell or offer. Business reference services in libraries provide a valuable resource to business people and other professionals. In recent years, as the office/home business has proliferated, the library has become a place where people who cannot afford to rent office space or set up a home office conduct their work. The library offers work space. It provides access to office equipment, computers, photocopiers, and other resources. This is really nothing new. What is new is the number of people who view the library as their office. For a start-up, cash-strapped entrepreneur, the public library becomes the first step toward economic success. Why should libraries get scarce tax dollars, when there are such needs for health care, criminal justice, jobs, police, and fire protection? Libraries are part of the solution to many of these problems. Libraries help children and adults become liberated, productive citizens. They provide after school and other programs for children, adult literacy classes, job information centers, books, magazines, online library resources, and the expertise to assist people of all ages who use these resources to lead productive, satisfying lives. We are requesting that you support Governor Hoeven’s budget item that provides an increase of $155,693 for state aid to public libraries. This will be the first increase in state aid to public libraries since the 1991/1993 biennium. These funds would strengthen North Dakota’s public libraries as they work to strengthen North Dakota to compete in the expanding global market. January 10, 2005 To: HOUSE APPROPRIATIONS, EDUCATION & ENVIRONMENTAL DIVISION IN SUPPORT OF HB 1013 STATE LIBRARY PORTION By: TOM JONES, DIRECTOR BISMARCK PUBLIC LIBRARY Ph: 222-6403 email@example.com Chairman Martinson, Members of the Subcommittee: I speak in favor of funding State Aid for Public Libraries (NDCC54-24.2) (p5, line 14) and urge your support at the level included in the Governor’s budget. This state aid formula was first instituted by the 1979 Legislature and then funded at 1 million dollars. We are very pleased to see it funded again at the 1 million dollar level. Public Library state aid funding has been eroding in actual dollars since 1979. Inflation during this time has more than doubled. The cost of new books also has more than doubled, and the number being published has exploded. Then we talked of 40,000-50,000 titles/year; today, more than 150,000 are being published. And we have all the added needs (and expenses) for a variety of formats: regular print, large print, audio books, e-books, CDs, VHS, and DVDs, etc. Public libraries ride the tide of local tax fortunes, as do schools and other community support services. Bismarck Public Library, for example, is supported about $25/capita from all sources; Burleigh County services is about $12/capita. The national average for public libraries is now in excess of $32 per capita. Therefore, STATE AID DOLLARS DO MAKE A REAL DIFFERENCE. Some other key points: - Only about 10% of printed information is available on the Internet; - In order to share resources via interlibrary loan within state, at least one library in the state needs to purchase the material; with more than 150,000 titles being published; Bismarck PL is able to acquire only around 11,000; - Public libraries are very well used; last year our book circulation alone was up more than 3%. Internet, computer usage, up more than 20%. - Public libraries offer access for persons without computers at home or office; we regularly serve tourists and visitors adding to the positive ND impression. THANK YOU FOR CONSIDERATION. www.bismarcklibrary.org Bismarck Veterans Memorial Public Library Telephone: [701] 222-6410 • Fax: [701] 221-6854 • TDD: [701] 221-6848 Mister Chairman and Members of the Committee: My name is Doris Ott and I am State Librarian of North Dakota. I am here today in support of HB 1013, the 2005-2007 appropriation for the North Dakota State Library. The North Dakota State Library is a service agency for citizens and all types of libraries. Our product is access to information. We currently serve 90 public libraries, 500 school libraries, state government, and North Dakota citizens. We are an advisor to libraries and local government, a facilitator and coordinator for statewide services and new ideas, and a catalyst for the use of new technology in the delivery of information. The proposed executive budget recommendation maintains State Library services including funds to continue the Library Vision 2010 grant program; and includes funding for additional online resources and an 18 percent increase in State Aid to Public Libraries. Today, I have three goals: (1) to impress upon you how important libraries are to the educational process and the economic development of North Dakota communities; (2) to pique your interest in library issues; and (3) to inform you about the return you will receive on the dollars you invest in libraries. Even at a time when books can be ordered online relatively cheaply, information can be accessed through the Internet, and many bookstores function as libraries with cafes, libraries maintain an important role in the citizen’s daily life in their community. Traditionally, library patrons have come to the library looking for knowledge (or at least information), and looking for guidance in their searches by librarians who knew the secrets of traditional knowledge organization. The World Wide Web has changed the way the library works. While print materials are still the core of most reading collections, print resources are quickly becoming less used for ready-reference work or scientific work. What all of this means is that for many patrons, there is a perception that there is no longer any really compelling reason to visit the library in person, and that is a fundamental change that is affecting the traditional model of library service. None of this means that people don’t need the library and that they don’t use it – if you look at all modes of access, you’ll find that library resources are getting more use than ever. A study conducted by the Urban Libraries Council shows that 75.2 percent of Internet users also use the library, and 60.3 percent of library users also use the Internet. Browsing library stacks is still regarded as an important way to get information by three-fifths of college students. College students use hard copy and electronic sources in nearly equal proportions. But gate count and physical circulation statistics are no longer the best ways to measure library use. The library’s role as a building full of books and magazines, that patrons visit physically so they can fill their minds and index cards and tote bags, is being replaced by a new role: the library is now, and will increasingly be in the future, a portal that authenticated users pass through so they can get to information that is held and administered elsewhere. Their status as officially-recognized patrons of the library gives them access to more and higher-quality information than they could get otherwise. In the eyes of our patrons, one of the beautiful things about this new arrangement is that they don’t necessarily have to be physically present in the library in order to get the information they need. This adds the role of a broker to libraries as well as a physical distributor and central access point. Lots and lots of patrons now take advantage of remote access. This type of service is being delivered in most parts of the country. There remains a profound gap between the knowledge and skills most students learn in school and the knowledge and skills they need in typical 21st century communities and workplaces. Successful businesses are looking for employees who can adapt to changing needs, juggle multiple responsibilities, and make decisions on their own. According to Federal Reserve Board Chairman Alan Greenspan, “Workers in many occupations are being asked to strengthen their cognitive skills; basic credentials, by themselves, are not enough to ensure success in the workplace. Workers must be equipped not simply with technical know-how but also with the ability to create, analyze, and transform information and to interact effectively with others. Moreover, that learning will increasingly be a ‘lifelong activity.’” If North Dakota communities hope to produce globally competitive citizens and/or attract people and businesses to their cities, North Dakota needs to provide high quality library services so that the skills listed by Alan Greenspan can be attained. Librarians have always been known for their ability to help patrons locate obscure facts, gather relevant articles, or just find another book you’ll enjoy. Given the enormity and disorganization of the World Wide Web and the low quality of so much that it offers, librarians have tended to see that part of their jobs as becoming increasingly, not decreasingly, important. Even a casual observer of the world today realizes that human knowledge is increasing at an explosive rate. It is believed that human knowledge is now doubling every two to four years. As this knowledge is published or distributed on computer networks, additional pressure is placed on North Dakota libraries to either purchase it or provide their communities with expanded access and delivery services. Yet the cost of purchasing or providing information is rising at rates far in excess of the rate of inflation. Services In State Library Budget We are asking that you continue to support the base budget of the North Dakota State Library. Let me highlight some of the services included in the base budget. Leadership and Library Development The State Library’s Vision Statement “Leading the way in information opportunities,” and the first of our four goals “Serve as a leader in the library and information field,” help define our role in providing leadership and information opportunities in North Dakota. We partner with many library and information organizations to extend, improve, and develop information opportunities to citizens and librarians throughout the state. Our partnership with the Online Dakota Information Network (ODIN), the Central Dakota Cooperating Libraries (CDCL), and the North Central Library Authority has resulted in adding thirty-five libraries to the statewide online library catalog, many using the funds provided by Library Vision 2010. We have developed strong agreements with academic, school, public, and special libraries to loan materials to any citizen who asks for information. We work closely with the North Dakota Library Coordinating Council (NDLCC) in developing quality grant opportunities for school and public libraries. We cooperate with the North Dakota Library Association (NDLA) in providing continuing education opportunities to librarians. We have regional and national partnerships with the American Library Association (ALA) and the Mountain Plains Library Association (MPLA) to develop continuing educational opportunities for librarians. We partner with the ND Information Technology Department (ITD) to provide public libraries access to the Internet through the North Dakota Statewide Technology Access for Government and Education network (STAGEnet), and with filtering software. We provide workshops and continuing education opportunities for librarians, trustees, teachers, and educators in online access, planning, marketing, and library skills. These are delivered in multiple locations throughout the state. Our professional library staff provides technical assistance to librarians in all areas of librarianship, including becoming automated, reference, cataloging, marketing, funding, personnel, and information technology. **Reference and Interlibrary Loan Services** Coordinating the sharing of books and other library material is an important and well-used service of the State Library. The provision of library material has been and continues to be a vital service in resource-poor libraries and towns. In addition to providing material, the State Library’s critical role is to ensure that materials, whether located in the state or out-of-state, are accessible to every North Dakotan. Technology assists in this process. The development of services, including the addition of records to the statewide catalog, the availability of online resources such as full-text magazines, newspapers, and reference sources, and connectivity of service via the Internet, is making it more feasible and economical for libraries to request directly from the library that owns the material or from online resources. In working with the library community to deliver Library Vision 2010 services, direct borrowing continues to be facilitated by the State Library and contributing libraries. A North Dakota teacher said it well, "It gives us as teachers any material we need through the State Library." The interlibrary loan services of the State Library provide all teachers, as well as all North Dakota citizens, with access to virtually "any material they need." Items not owned by the State Library are borrowed from other North Dakota libraries or from out-of-state libraries. The North Dakota State Library processed 39,000 reference and interlibrary loan requests last year. **Training and Technical Assistance** Technology is a valuable tool; knowledge of its uses is imperative for the delivery of current and accurate information. The State Library has developed its staffing to reflect its commitment to provide excellent reference service and training opportunities to the librarians and citizens of the state. Providing library education and training opportunities remain a high priority. We currently have ten professional librarians that assist in local training. Training sessions are delivered by the staff of the North Dakota State Library to staff and students at North Dakota schools, North Dakota librarians, and North Dakota state employees. I'd like to share with you a quote from a school that was a recipient of the State Library's training program. "Our students have been able to do much of their research at home using the online access to materials from other libraries and the Online Library Resources. I know that they, in turn, have taught their parents how to use the system to find information they may want.” **Services to State Agencies** The publications of state agencies are an important source of information that document the history of state government and the state as a whole. The State Library’s State Document Depository Program ensures that publications intended for the citizens of the state are collected and cataloged, and that catalog is made accessible on the Internet. Since many state documents are now being published only in electronic form, the State Library is retrieving, storing, and cataloging the electronic documents. The catalog record of each document contains a link that enables citizens to view the entire document. The State Library has also worked with state agencies, such as the Water Commission and the Prevention Resource Center, to have their internal collections cataloged and maintained by the State Library to provide accessibility of their information and materials to all North Dakota citizens. Disability Services Senior citizens are an important and fast growing segment of the state’s population and the trend continues. The Disability Services Program provides talking books to over 2,000 vision or learning impaired residents and circulates over 68,000 talking books a year. The Dakota Radio Information Service, serving 475 people, provides local news, senior center activities, and lunch menus, as well as obituaries and grocery ads, which are broadcast daily and allow citizens with disabilities to remain attached to normal life. These services provide an invaluable service to the vision impaired by acting as their lifeline to the community. This program is run with the assistance of volunteers providing over five thousand hours of service per year. Plans include increasing outreach activities to further develop an awareness of and participation in this service. Library Vision 2010 Grants How should North Dakota libraries look by the year 2010? That is a question librarians asked themselves as they updated Library Vision 2004. The top priority of Library Vision 2010 continues to be to connect public, school, academic, and special libraries to the state’s library catalog. This project provides an automated catalog, circulation, and interlibrary loan capability to participating libraries. The statewide catalog is available to all North Dakota citizens seven days a week and twenty-four hours per day. The plan is working and it has had a positive impact on library services and citizen’s lives. Library Vision 2010 has also provided state funds to school and public libraries for Internet access grants. Library Vision 2010 is being used to add the records of individual libraries to the statewide library catalog. This means thousands of additional informational items have been made available to every citizen, either from a library or through their computer. Attachment A lists the grant awards that have been made utilizing Library Vision 2010 funds. I’d like to share a quote with you from a school-public library that became part of the statewide library catalog in 2000. “Our community is so small, that many people who would go to the library already did. Where I think we have increased traffic is from people going through town. We are situated right on the Canadian border. Between people going through the border and increased traffic due to Homeland Security, we have many people using our library who wouldn’t have used it before; mainly because we are technologically up-to-date. Based on a count kept by the city library, use has increased about 25 percent and use during the school day by students has increased about 150 percent simply because they can use the technology to search for materials.” Staff Without qualified, trained, and dedicated staff, none of the before mentioned services would be possible. The number of librarians retiring or leaving the profession is exceeding the number of people graduating from programs of library and information studies. More than 83,000 librarians in the country are projected to retire between 1990 and 2010, with about half of the library workforce expected to retire every 20 years. The supply of new professionals is further reduced by generally low salaries of librarians, the fact that there are no graduate library programs available in North Dakota, and the fact that North Dakota state employees have received no salary increase over the past two years. Consequently, recruiting professional librarians is a difficult job for the State Library. When we are successful in our recruiting efforts, many stay only two or three years and then move on to higher salaries in other states – training is also a costly process. The Harvard Business Review tells us that it costs the average business six to seven times more to acquire a new customer than it does to retain an existing one. In my opinion, the same principle applies to recruiting and training new employees versus retaining existing staff. Stephen R. Covey in *The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People* says, “The Seven Habits are habits of *effectiveness*. Because they are based on principles, they bring the maximum long-term beneficial results possible.” He uses Aesop’s fable “The Goose and the Golden Egg” as an example. “The Goose and the Golden Egg” is about a poor farmer who finds that his goose is laying golden eggs. Every morning the farmer gathers one golden egg from the goose and gradually becomes fabulously wealthy. As he grows rich, however, he grows impatient. In an attempt to get all the golden eggs in the goose at once, he cuts off its head and reaches inside, only to find nothing. Like the farmer we often emphasize short-term results (golden eggs) at the expense of long-term prosperity (the goose). If you forget to feed the golden goose, it stops producing golden eggs. I cannot emphasize enough how important it is that we adequately compensate the employees we already have. If North Dakota plans to produce golden eggs, the goose needs to be fed. State Aid to Public Libraries Rural and small town libraries, those serving fewer than 25,000 people, make up 80 percent of all public library systems in the United States. In North Dakota, rural and small town libraries make up 96 percent of all public libraries. Public libraries in North Dakota provide an array of services similar to their larger counterparts, but they do so with fewer staff and often with modest budgets. In most cases, small libraries develop and maintain collections that include books, magazines, and audio/visual materials. They answer reference questions and/or help patrons find their own information, and they provide programming for their patrons—especially children. In more recent years, they offer their patrons access to computers and the Internet. Seventy-seven percent of North Dakota’s public libraries offer Internet access to their community and to tourists. Public libraries provide North Dakotans with accurate and reliable information through the use of books, magazines, audio/video materials, and electronic library resources. Seattle’s “Starbucks on every corner” idea is successful because neighbors want a place to meet. Likewise, public libraries provide persons in the community with a place to gather and visit with their neighbors. The public library is the place in all communities that is a primary resource for those seeking employment, considering a career change, and seeking information. North Dakotans visited their public libraries over 2,100,000 times in 2003. Information literacy is critical to success in today’s job market. Public libraries teach citizens how to critically evaluate information. Information smart citizens use the latest and best information to develop sound goals. They know when a book may be more helpful than a computer. They have learned from librarians how to find, evaluate, and use information in all forms. Information smart people know how to find quality information that will help them through family, medical, or job crises. According to one study, 70 percent of health and medical information found on the Internet is wrong or misleading. Today’s librarians can help patrons find the best source of information, whether it’s online or in a book or pamphlet. In order to assist patrons with finding accurate and reliable information, public libraries must have the financial resources to either acquire or have access to the best sources of information. Helping businesses is the library’s role in community economic development. Economic development is the growth of business in a variety of ways. It can include activities to create wealth, generate rising real income, and increase employment. Without even realizing it, libraries have participated in these activities for decades with little fanfare. Economic development, like charity, begins at home. North Dakota communities are making efforts at economic development. In a knowledge-based economy, educated and skilled people provide the principle competitive edge. Those people are not simply reporting to work each day and doing what is laid out for them. Instead they are asking why, questioning procedures, and developing new methods. Change requires information that public libraries can supply, and having information available and getting it to those who need it are challenges librarians face. By strengthening our public libraries, North Dakota can be in a stronger position to attract and grow in offering the highest value location for businesses. The public library is actually one of the few municipal centers that returns money to the local economy. It does this in several ways. The library is often one of the few employers that hires students. Secondly, the library provides an opportunity for citizens to learn how to better earn a living. Most owners of a small business have, at one time or another, used the library to learn about a product or service that they might be able to sell or offer. Business reference services in libraries provide a valuable resource to business people and other professionals. In recent years, as the office/home business has proliferated, the library has become a place where people who cannot afford to rent office space or set up a home office conduct their work. The library offers work space. It provides access to office equipment, computers, photocopiers, and other resources. This is really nothing new. What is new is the number of people who view the library as their office. For a start-up, cash-strapped entrepreneur, the public library becomes the first step toward economic success. Why should libraries get scarce tax dollars, when there are such needs for health care, criminal justice, jobs, police, and fire protection? Libraries are part of the solution to many of these problems. Libraries help children and adults become liberated, productive citizens. They provide after school and other programs for children, adult literacy classes, job information centers, books, magazines, online library resources, and the expertise to assist people of all ages who use these resources to lead productive, satisfying lives. We are requesting that you support Governor Hoeven’s budget item that provides an increase of $155,693 for state aid to public libraries. This will be the first increase in state aid to public libraries since the 1991/1993 biennium. These funds would strengthen North Dakota’s public libraries as they work to strengthen North Dakota to compete in the expanding global market. The public library has been called “one of the seven sustainable wonders of the world.” The written wisdom of the world is at the fingertips for anyone with a library card. (See Attachment B.) **Online Magazines, Newspapers, and Reference Services** For democracy to flourish, citizens need free and open access to information. In today’s digital age, this includes access to information online. In the early days of the Internet, new technologies promised exactly that – abundant open access to an infinite array of resources. However, much online content is now restricted – treated as private rather than common property. The problem, as many librarians have found, is that patrons will often happily settle for mediocre or marginally relevant information if it can be found in a quick and intuitive way (and without asking a librarian) rather than to go to the effort that may be required to sift high-quality information from the chaff. The answer to this problem is probably not to be found in educating patrons. Instead, what librarians are really doing is putting our expertise to work making it so that our patrons can find high-quality information without having to ask for help. The North Dakota State Library is requesting $200,000 general fund money to support additional online resources for libraries and citizens throughout the state. As North Dakotans demand that more and more of their information be delivered online, we find that more Online Library Resources are needed. Presently, participating North Dakota libraries are purchasing and financing three online packages – Gale Group (resources for children), EBSCO (magazines, journals, and reference sources), and ProQuest (newspapers). Through these three packages, librarians, students, and individual citizens have direct, online access via the Internet to thousands of magazines, newspapers, and reference sources. Last year North Dakotans performed 1,440,981 searches using the existing Online Library Resources. North Dakotans are using the Online Library Resources heavily and are clamoring for more; especially for resources that cover specific subjects such as health, testing, literature, etc. Why do we need Online Library Resources? 1. There is a connection between what education is trying to do and what libraries are doing. The North Dakota Online Library Resources contract includes providing these resources to schools. According to a survey commissioned by the Ohio Educational Library Media Association, 99.4 percent of students in grades 3 to 12 believe school libraries and their services help them become better learners; 88.5 percent said the school library helps them get better grades on projects and assignments; 74.7 percent said it helps them with homework; and 92.4 percent said computers in the media center help improve their overall academic work. Our schools could not begin to individually purchase the resources that are available to them by participating in the joint purchasing venture used to purchase the Online Library Resources. 2. These online resources are indexed so desired information can be located in a matter of minutes. Locating the information on the Internet is more time consuming because you need to search individual Web sites. The online resources save time, are accurate, and can be accessed twenty-four hours per day, seven days a week from any computer with Internet access. 3. North Dakota has invested heavily in its technology infrastructure. Online Library Resources provide the “content” for our technology infrastructure. 4. Accuracy of information is vital and is guaranteed because editors check information for accuracy. 5. There is a great economy of scale if the Online Library Resources are purchased via a statewide contract. Consequently, we are requesting $200,000 to purchase additional online resources that will be delivered to every North Dakota citizen that wishes to use them. The Online Library Resources are used by citizens, students, faculty, and librarians. By using state dollars, it “levels the playing field” – it is a step toward diminishing the digital divide. Librarians want patrons to use our services, to drive us crazy with questions, to access our Online Library Resources and check out our materials, and keep us busy from morning to night, and even better, to be able to keep accessing and using our services after we have locked up the building and gone home. We ask that you support the $200,000 in the State Library optional budget that would pay for the additional Online Library Resources. I want to emphasize the need to appropriate new money for the online resources ($200,000) and additional State Aid to Public Libraries ($155,693). Taking dollars from existing library services and grants would weaken or destroy them. It might also jeopardize the cooperation that allowed library services to develop so well in the last several years. **Appreciation for Support** Through the budget process, we have the opportunity to think about how we do our work and how we deliver services to the citizens of our state. The goal is more than determining the right amount to spend, it is ensuring that money is spent on the right priorities and that we are achieving desired outcomes. We evaluate what is being spent, measure the results of that spending, and establish clear statewide priorities for allocating taxpayer dollars. We could ratchet down all spending, but that would only weaken programs, lowering services and performance everywhere. As you deliberate, know that in order to keep a strong educational system or be able to attract economic development to our communities, we need a strong library infrastructure to add content to our technology infrastructure. We live in an information-based economy. Libraries are the information providers. If we are to have globally competitive citizens, libraries need to be funded in such a way that they can keep pace with inflation and new technologies. It is the connection of people to knowledge that keeps us all going, despite economic ups and downs. Thank you for the support you have given to the State Library in the past and for your consideration today. I would be pleased to answer any questions. Library Vision 2010 Grants Awarded Biennium 2003-2005 Technology Beulah Public School Libraries $4,800 *Public access computers* Casselton Public Library $1,126 *Public access computers* Clara Lincoln Phelan Memorial Library $5,000 *Add a computer and upgrade a computer* Divide County Public Library $1,647 *Two new computers and a printer for public access* Dunseith High School $2,000 *Upgrade five computers for public access* Hettinger Public School Library $5,000 *Seven new computers for public access* Leeds Public School District $5,000 *Public access computers* Milnor Public School $4,302 *Public access computers* Walhalla Public School $4,825 *Public access computers* Participate in the Statewide Online Library Catalog Beulah Public School Libraries $27,702 Cavalier Public School Library $33,445 Rugby - Heart of America Library $24,655 Larimore Public School Library $13,469 Minot Public Schools – 7 Elementary Libraries $94,250 Underwood Public Library $7,522 SiteSearch Connection $2,757 Total for 2003-2005 Biennium $237,500 | City/County | FY 1980 | FY 1981 | FY 1982 | FY 1983 | FY 1984 | FY 1985 | FY 1986 | FY 1987 | FY 1988 | FY 1989 | 10 YR TOTAL | |-----------------------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|-------------| | ASHLEY CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | GOLDEN VALLEY COUNTY-Bee | 3,841 | 2,006 | 4,395 | 5,411 | 5,260 | 6,554 | 6,131 | 6,785 | 6,714 | 6,542 | 53,639 | | BEULAH CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | BISMARCK CITY | 69,794 | 27,693 | 43,667 | 48,387 | 47,043 | 45,241 | 46,549 | 43,261 | 42,818 | 41,718 | 456,171 | | BURLEIGH COUNTY-Bismarck | 11,102 | 14,333 | 13,382 | 13,008 | 12,510 | 12,130 | 11,185 | 11,070 | 10,786 | | 109,506 | | BOTTINEAU COUNTY-Bottineau | 15,199 | 7,970 | 12,550 | 12,783 | 15,531 | 14,936 | 14,482 | 13,355 | 10,574 | | 127,682 | | BOWMAN CITY | 1,544 | 1,038 | 1,626 | 1,502 | 1,460 | 1,755 | 1,701 | 1,569 | 1,242 | | 14,647 | | CARRINGTON CITY | 1,978 | 1,366 | 2,074 | 1,916 | 1,862 | 1,790 | 1,736 | 1,600 | 1,584 | | 17,450 | | CARSON CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | CASSELTON CITY | 2,228 | 776 | 1,304 | 1,205 | 1,171 | 1,126 | 1,091 | 1,007 | 996 | | 12,117 | | CAVALIER CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | COOPERSTOWN CITY | 969 | 1,027 | 1,186 | 921 | 1,108 | 1,075 | 991 | 981 | 956 | | 9,214 | | GRIGGS COUNTY-Cooperstown | 6,543 | 2,449 | 3,508 | 3,240 | 4,199 | 4,038 | 3,916 | 3,611 | 3,573 | | 38,558 | | DIVIDE COUNTY-Crosby | 11,064 | 5,781 | 7,848 | 7,249 | 7,046 | 6,775 | 6,572 | 6,058 | 7,495 | | 73,191 | | DEVILS LAKE CITY | 7,354 | 3,843 | 5,844 | 5,398 | 5,247 | 6,307 | 4,879 | 4,512 | 5,581 | | 54,403 | | RAMSEY COUNTY-Devils Lake | | | | | | | | | | | | | DICKINSON CITY | 15,620 | 6,528 | 12,506 | 14,040 | 13,647 | 16,404 | 15,906 | 14,668 | 11,614 | | 132,248 | | STARK COUNTY-Dickinson | | | | | | | | | | | | | BILLINGS COUNTY-Dickinson | | | | | | | | | | | | | DRAKE CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | EDGELEY CITY | 888 | 189 | 0 | 0 | 535 | 571 | 555 | 511 | 505 | | 4,247 | | LAMOURE COUNTY-Edgeley | 5,014 | 7,158 | 8,815 | 8,568 | 8,239 | 7,989 | 7,367 | 5,469 | 5,328 | | 63,947 | | LOGAN COUNTY-Edgeley | 18,848 | 4,833 | 6,673 | 6,164 | 5,991 | 5,762 | 5,586 | 5,151 | 5,098 | | 69,074 | | ELLENDALE CITY | 1,340 | 937 | 1,545 | 1,426 | 1,387 | 1,333 | 1,616 | 1,491 | 1,475 | | 13,987 | | ENDERLIN CITY | 1,624 | 572 | 824 | 1,013 | 1,004 | 1,159 | 1,124 | 1,037 | 1,026 | | 10,383 | | FARGO CITY | 69,769 | 36,452 | 60,181 | 55,583 | 54,028 | 51,958 | 50,014 | 46,456 | 55,158 | | 524,398 | | FLASHER CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | FORMAN CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | SIOUX COUNTY-Fort Yates | 7,741 | 3,522 | 4,452 | 5,275 | 7,192 | 4,605 | 5,258 | 3,416 | 3,861 | | 49,084 | | GACKLE CITY | 235 | 123 | 179 | 166 | 401 | 309 | 407 | 300 | 297 | | 2,807 | | GARRISON CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | GLEN ULLIN CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | GOODRICH CITY | | | | | | | | | | | | | GRAFTON CITY | 33,755 | 3,058 | 4,157 | 3,839 | 3,732 | 3,588 | 3,899 | 3,595 | 3,558 | | 66,648 | | WALSH COUNTY-Grafton | 3,933 | 5,758 | 5,318 | 5,169 | 4,971 | 4,996 | 4,608 | 4,560 | 4,443 | | 43,756 | | PEMBINA COUNTY-Grafton | 3,911 | 5,699 | 3,474 | 3,727 | 4,920 | 5,266 | 4,855 | 4,805 | 4,682 | | 41,339 | | NELSON COUNTY-Grafton | 2,868 | 4,008 | 3,702 | 3,598 | 3,460 | 3,356 | 3,094 | 3,062 | 2,984 | | 30,132 | | GRAND FORKS CITY | 63,114 | 33,364 | 51,553 | 47,574 | 46,282 | 44,509 | 42,172 | 39,796 | 39,388 | | 446,129 | | GRAND FORKS COUNTY-Grand | 7,828 | 16,309 | 15,231 | 20,446 | 19,662 | 19,008 | 17,580 | 17,400 | 16,953 | | 150,417 | | HANKINSON CITY | 1,125 | 588 | 770 | 840 | 1,021 | 981 | 761 | 702 | 868 | | 8,502 | | HARVEY CITY | 3,542 | 1,541 | 2,807 | 2,750 | 2,673 | 2,141 | 2,077 | 1,915 | 1,516 | | 22,439 | | HAZEN CITY | 176 | 172 | 464 | 1,715 | 1,976 | 2,272 | 2,204 | 2,540 | 2,514 | | 16,972 | | HEBRON CITY | 125 | 44 | 157 | 180 | 171 | 94 | 91 | 84 | 0 | | 1,104 | | ADAMS COUNTY-Hettinger | 8,777 | 4,586 | 8,372 | 6,186 | 7,516 | 7,228 | 7,008 | 6,463 | 6,396 | | 68,764 | | JAMESTOWN CITY | 15,385 | 8,038 | 12,785 | 11,808 | 17,216 | 16,556 | 16,054 | 14,804 | 14,652 | | 141,573 | | STUTSMAN COUNTY-Jamestown | 16,559 | 10,204 | 15,073 | 13,921 | 13,532 | 16,267 | 15,773 | 11,635 | 11,516 | | 138,506 | | KILLDEER CITY | 321 | 620 | 574 | 557 | 535 | 519 | 479 | 474 | 462 | | 4,541 | | LAKOTA CITY | 1,111 | 657 | 756 | 700 | 678 | 815 | 790 | 729 | 867 | | 7,807 | | LAMOURE CITY | 476 | 248 | 635 | 587 | 569 | 547 | 708 | 653 | 646 | | 5,699 | | LANGDON CITY | 1,807 | 862 | 605 | 560 | 543 | 522 | 507 | 467 | 462 | | 6,785 | | CAVALIER COUNTY-Langdon | 4,842 | 8,489 | 7,841 | 7,624 | 7,398 | 7,786 | 6,909 | 5,787 | 5,639 | | 62,315 | | LARIMORE CITY | 1,034 | 758 | 898 | 1,105 | 1,343 | 1,033 | 1,002 | 924 | 914 | | 9,902 | | City/County | FY 2000 | FY 2001 | FY 2002 | FY 2003 | FY 2004 | |-----------------------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| | ASHLEY CITY | 356 | 349 | 379 | 376 | 361 | | GOLDEN VALLEY COUNTY-Beach | 4,852 | 4,766 | 4,508 | 4,468 | 4297 | | BEULAH CITY | 2,274 | 2,233 | 2,031 | 2,014 | 1937 | | BISMARCK CITY | 33,297 | 32,702 | 35,791 | 35,475 | 34119 | | BURLEIGH COUNTY-Bismarck | 12,844 | 12,615 | 14,185 | 14,060 | 11269 | | BOTTINEAU COUNTY-Bottineau | 9,236 | 9,071 | 6,674 | 6,816 | 9544 | | BOWBELLS CITY | - | - | 859 | 130 | NOT ELG | | BOWMAN CITY | 981 | 963 | - | 852 | 819 | | MARGARET FRAASE - Buffalo | - | - | - | 89 | 88 | | CANDO CITY | 529 | 519 | 288 | 429 | 412 | | CARRINGTON CITY | 1,277 | 1,254 | 1,218 | 1,207 | 1393 | | CARSON CITY | 129 | - | Closed | - | - | | CASSELTON CITY | 722 | 709 | 797 | 790 | 760 | | CAVALIER CITY | 680 | 667 | 495 | 491 | 472 | | COOPERSTOWN CITY | 843 | 828 | 679 | 673 | 647 | | GRIGGS COUNTY-Cooperstown | 3,790 | 3,722 | 3,385 | 3,355 | 3226 | | DIVIDE COUNTY-Crosby | 6,354 | 6,240 | 5,661 | 5,611 | 5397 | | DEVILS LAKE CITY | 4,384 | 4,306 | 3,103 | 3,076 | 2958 | | RAMSEY COUNTY-Davis Lake | 3,660 | 3,595 | 3,472 | 3,442 | 3310 | | DICKINSON CITY | 10,882 | 10,687 | 10,319 | 10,228 | 9837 | | STARK COUNTY-Dickinson | 6,037 | 5,929 | 5,709 | 5,658 | 5442 | | BILLINGS COUNTY-Dickinson | 4,643 | 4,560 | 4,285 | 4,247 | 4085 | | DRAKE CITY | 83 | 80 | 105 | 103 | 99 | | EDGELEY CITY | 230 | 301 | 274 | 271 | 261 | | LAMOURÉ COUNTY-Edgeley | 3,739 | 3,672 | 3,345 | 3,316 | 3189 | | LOGAN COUNTY-Edgeley | 4,423 | 4,344 | 3,928 | 3,893 | 3744 | | ELLENDALE CITY | 1,013 | 995 | 837 | 830 | 798 | | ENDERLIN CITY | 662 | 651 | 611 | 605 | 582 | | FARGO CITY | 50,100 | 49,239 | 58,392 | 57,875 | 55665 | | FLASHER CITY | 215 | 175 | 153 | 182 | 175 | | FORMAN CITY | 396 | 324 | 272 | 323 | 259 | | SIOUX COUNTY-Fort Yates | 5,226 | 5,132 | 5,134 | 5,089 | 4894 | | GACKLE CITY | 304 | 299 | 290 | 214 | 209 | | GARRISON CITY | 517 | 508 | 566 | 561 | 540 | | GLEN ULLIN CITY | 209 | 205 | 186 | 121 | 117 | | GOODRICH CITY | 130 | 127 | 105 | 104 | 100 | | GRAFTON CITY | 2,865 | 2,814 | 1,940 | 1,923 | 1850 | | WALSH COUNTY-Grafton | - | 3,426 | 4,625 | 4,585 | 4409 | | PEMBINA COUNTY-Grafton | 3,321 | 3,262 | 3,026 | 3,000 | 2885 | | NELSON COUNTY-Grafton | 2,129 | 2,091 | 1,881 | 1,865 | 1793 | | GRAND FORKS CITY | 33,412 | 32,815 | 31,788 | 31,508 | 30303 | | GRAND FORKS COUNTY-Grand Forks | 19,231 | 18,887 | 15,454 | 15,318 | 14732 | | HANKINSON CITY | 585 | 575 | 568 | 563 | 542 | | HARVEY CITY | 1,020 | 1,002 | 855 | 1,059 | 1018 | | HATTON CITY | 180 | 177 | 152 | 151 | DIDN'T APPLY | | HAZEN CITY | 1,905 | 1,871 | 1,584 | 1,570 | 1510 | | HEBRON CITY | 600 | 590 | 518 | 428 | 494 | | ADAMS COUNTY-Hettinger | 5,489 | 5,391 | 4,858 | 4,815 | 3860 | | JAMESTOWN CITY | 10,526 | 10,338 | 10,007 | 9,919 | 9540 | | STUTSMAN COUNTY-Jamestown | 10,205 | 10,023 | 9,574 | 11,388 | 10952 | | KILLDEER CITY | 488 | 479 | 460 | 456 | 438 | | KINDRED CITY | - | - | - | - | 189 | | LAKOTA CITY | 607 | 596 | 504 | 499 | 480 | | LAMOURÉ CITY | 437 | 429 | 406 | 402 | 387 | | LANGDON CITY | - | - | - | - | - | | CAVALIER COUNTY-Langdon | 4,605 | 4,523 | 3,993 | 5,277 | 5075 | | LARIMORE CITY | 660 | 648 | 616 | 610 | 587 | | City/County | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | |-----------------------------------|------|------|------|------|------| | LEEDS CITY | 306 | 300 | 199 | 247 | 190 | | LEONARD CITY | 105 | 137 | 110 | 109 | DIDN'T APPLY | | LIDGERWOOD CITY | 540 | 531 | 397 | 499 | 480 | | LINTON CITY | 953 | 936 | 852 | 844 | 812 | | LISBON CITY | 1,226| 1,446| 1,231| 1,220| 1,174| | MADDOCK CITY | 252 | 247 | 214 | 212 | 204 | | MANDAN CITY | 10,260| 10,077| 10,775| 10,680| 10,272| | MORTON COUNTY-Mandan | 8,167| 8,022| 7,814| 9,681| 9311 | | MAX CITY | 136 | 133 | 119 | 118 | 114 | | MAYVILLE CITY | 1,414| 1,389| 1,259| 1,248| 1200 | | MILNOR CITY | 440 | 432 | 305 | 303 | 364 | | MINNEWAUKAN CITY | 226 | 266 | 205 | 170 | 195 | | MINOT CITY | 23,352| 22,935| 23,568| 23,360| 22467| | WARD COUNTY-Minot | 18,243| 17,917| 17,427| 13,819| 16613| | MOUNTRAIN COUNTY-Minot | - | 7,133| 6,757| 6,697| 6441 | | KENMARE CITY-Minot | 547 | 537 | 464 | 460 | 443 | | MOHALL CITY | 630 | 618 | 523 | 519 | 499 | | MOTT CITY | 689 | 677 | 521 | 516 | 496 | | NEW ENGLAND CITY | 374 | 367 | 238 | 298 | 284 | | NEW ROCKFORD CITY | 904 | 887 | 786 | 779 | 749 | | NEW TOWN CITY | 626 | 614 | 587 | 582 | 560 | | NORTHWOOD CITY | - | - | 309 | 306 | 393 | | OAKS CITY | 800 | 786 | 850 | 843 | 811 | | PARK RIVER CITY | 1,166| - | 825 | 817 | NOT ELG | | PARSHALL CITY | 638 | 626 | 632 | 627 | 603 | | PEMBINA CITY | 289 | 284 | 276 | 273 | 263 | | MCLEAN COUNTY-Riverdale | 12,333| 12,112| 13,371| 13,253| 12748| | MERCER COUNTY-Riverdale | 10,365| 10,180| 9,132| 9,052| 8706 | | ROLETTE CITY | 141 | 138 | 116 | 115 | 110 | | ROLLA CITY | 618 | 607 | 609 | 603 | 580 | | RUGBY CITY | 1,639| 1,609| 1,894| 1,878| 1806 | | PIERCE COUNTY-Rugby | 4,131| 4,869| 4,464| 3,687| 4255 | | STANLEY CITY | 772 | 759 | 687 | 681 | 655 | | STANTON CITY | 233 | 229 | 148 | 147 | 141 | | KIDDER COUNTY-Steele | 7,120| 6,992| 6,415| NOT ELIGIBLE | NOT ELG | | TURTLE LAKE CITY | 461 | 452 | 374 | 371 | 356 | | UNDERWOOD CITY | 550 | 540 | 436 | 432 | 416 | | VALLEY CITY | 4,035| 3,963| 3,666| 3,634| 3495 | | BARNES COUNTY-Valley City | 5,833| 5,728| 5,375| 5,327| 5124 | | VELVA CITY | 436 | 321 | 338 | 447 | 430 | | WAHPETON CITY | 5,146| 5,054| 5,534| 5,485| 5275 | | WALHALLA CITY | 510 | 375 | 341 | 563 | 650 | | WASHBURN CITY | 509 | 667 | 597 | 592 | 569 | | WATFORD CITY | - | - | - | - | - | | MCKENZIE COUNTY-Watford City | 13,938| 11,408| 12,872| 12,759| 12271| | WEST FARGO CITY | 6,822| 6,798| 8,024| 7,953| 7649 | | WILLISTON CITY | 8,877| 8,718| 8,463| 7,993| 7687 | | WILLIAMS COUNTY-Williston | 12,714| 12,487| 12,122| 11,537| 11096| | TIAOGA CITY-Williston | 854 | 848 | 824 | 719 | 691 | | WEST PLAINS-Williston | - | - | - | - | - | | WISHEK CITY | 660 | 518 | 482 | 478 | 460 | **TOTAL** 444,372 444,373 444,372 435,041 422,153 FROM: Lila Pedersen Chair, North Dakota Library Coordinating Council Director, UND Library of the Health Sciences HB1013 - Testimony before the North Dakota Senate March 3, 2005 I would like to concentrate my comments on advocating for full funding of $200,000 for online resources, as proposed in Governor's Hoeven's supplemental budget. As chair of the North Dakota Library Coordinating Council, I have witnessed the satisfaction of librarians across the state as their library users have benefited from the shared online catalog, the grants under the Library Vision 2010 program that have enabled them to upgrade technology, and the electronic resources that have been in place for the past several years. The offering of full-text materials in electronic format to users of school, public and academic libraries across North Dakota at this time is minimal. States such as Ohio and Minnesota have for several years funded electronic indexes, magazines and books for their residents. From the point of view of education and the future of North Dakota, investing in online resources will ensure that students grow up having access to high-quality information, well beyond what can be found in a search on Google. Students entering our colleges also will have developed the skills to search out this information. And as adults, they will be well-informed citizens. The paramount benefit to funding by the state of online magazines, indexes, books, and reference books, is that EVERYONE will have equal access. Children and adults in small towns and rural areas, which cannot support a full range of expensive library resources, either in print or electronic format, will not be excluded from access to high-quality information. They will have the same opportunity to obtain reliable and in-depth information as those people in the larger metropolitan areas. I urge you to help the citizens of North Dakota be informed citizens of the twenty-first century. Testimony of Charles Pace Relating to State Aid to Libraries Honorable Members of the Committee and Ladies and Gentleman, Thank you for giving me this opportunity to speak to you regarding the importance of state aid to libraries. I know you have many issues before you so I will strive to be brief. My purpose today is to support the Governor’s proposed budget which includes an increase of $155,693 in direct state assistance to libraries. As I’m sure you know many of the smaller libraries across the state receive a significant portion of their total funding in this way and even for those who don’t every increase in funding is a boon which allows us to more effectively serve the citizens of North Dakota. The greatest asset of any state or community is its people. The additional funding being proposed by the Governor will allow us to put more than 7700 books in the hands of children and adults across the state. A well read, well-educated populace is essential to the maintenance of our way of life and our democratic system of government. Increased state aid funds will help strengthen early childhood education and literacy programs throughout North Dakota. Most of us would agree that public libraries are of great benefit to our communities and enhance and strengthen our quality of life. However, there is another way of looking at the issue of library funding and that is in terms of its economic development impact. In my own experience I have seen numerous instances of individuals using the public library to help develop a business plan and launch their own company. I have also seen many people use both print and online resources to help them in their job search. I can think of at least three occasions upon which we had regular patrons who came into the library to conduct a job search. After a while they quit coming in so often and we then found out it was because they had found full-time employment using the resources of the public library. A study conducted a few years ago by Glen Holt (former director of the St. Louis Public Library) indicated that on average for every dollar of public funds invested in the library eleven dollars in both direct and indirect benefits are returned to the community. Investment in libraries pays off; it pays off in a better educated citizenry, in the incubation of small business, in helping people find jobs, and in a better quality of life. In some cases it pays off in direct investment as well. Recently, Kansas City Missouri opened a new main library downtown. Even before this building opened to the public it had already generated more than $18 million in adjacent residential and retail development. Therefore I urge the Honorable members of this committee to support the budget increase in state aid requested by Governor Hoeven. Thank you again for your time and I wish you all a very smooth-running and productive legislative session. Charles Pace Director Fargo Public Library March 3, 2005 To: SENATE APPROPRIATIONS COMMITTEE By: TOM JONES, DIRECTOR BISMARCK PUBLIC LIBRARY Ph: 222-6403 firstname.lastname@example.org Chairman Holmberg, Members of the Committee: I speak in favor of funding State Aid for Public Libraries (NDCC54-24.2) (p5, line 12) and urge your support at the level included in the Governor’s budget. This state aid formula was first instituted by the 1979 Legislature and then funded at 1 million dollars. We are very pleased to see it funded again at the 1 million dollar level. “Public Library state aid funding has been eroding in actual dollars since 1979. Inflation during this time has more than doubled. The cost of new books also has more than doubled, and the number being published has exploded. Then we talked of 40,000-50,000 titles/year; today, more than 150,000 are being published. And we have all the added needs (and expenses) for a variety of formats: regular print, large print, audio books, e-books, CDs, VHS, and DVDs, etc. Public libraries ride the tide of local tax fortunes, as do schools and other community support services. Bismarck Public Library, for example, is supported about $25/capita from all sources; Burleigh County provides about $12/capita. The national average for public libraries is now in excess of $32 per capita. Therefore, STATE AID DOLLARS DO MAKE A REAL DIFFERENCE. Some other key points: • Only about 10% of printed information is available on the Internet; • In order to share resources via interlibrary loan within state, at least one library in the state needs to purchase the material; with more than 150,000 titles being published; Bismarck PL is able to acquire only around 14,000 (all of our State Aid dollars assist with purchase of new materials); • Public libraries are very well used; last year our book circulation alone was up more than 10%. Internet, computer usage, up more than 15%. • Public libraries offer access for persons without computers at home or office; we regularly serve tourists and visitors adding to the positive ND impression. THANK YOU FOR CONSIDERATION. www.bismarcklibrary.org Bismarck Veterans Memorial Public Library Telephone: [701] 222-6410 • Fax: [701] 221-6854 • TDD: [701] 221-6848 Mr. Chairman and Members of the Committee: My name is Marlene Anderson. I am President of the North Dakota Library Association (NDLA) and a practicing librarian. This is my written testimony in favor of HB 1013, a bill for an act to provide an appropriation to defray expenses of the Department of Public Instruction, the School for the Deaf, North Dakota Vision Services – School for the Blind, and the State Library. My particular interest is in supporting the services and programs offered by the North Dakota State Library. As outlined in its goals and vision and mission statements, the State Library takes a lead role in providing services in our mostly rural state: - **Vision Statement:** Leading the way in information opportunities - **Mission Statement:** Provide access to information for North Dakota - **Goals:** - Serve as a leader in the library and information field - Develop access to information - Promote and advocate library awareness - Provide library and information services statewide The State Library is an essential link in meeting the information needs of all citizens of North Dakota. Citizens living in towns and counties that lack public libraries are especially reliant on the State Library. Among the many services it provides are: - **Document delivery and reference services** to put information into the hands of users whether or not their home library owns or subscribes to particular resources. Some 39,000 interlibrary loan and reference requests are handled by the State Library each year. Requests come from people from all walks of life, e.g., elementary, secondary, and college students working on their educational programs; individuals needing information about health concerns; business owners and entrepreneurs seeking information to develop sound business plans, devise marketing strategies, etc.; and farmers and ranchers who need information on things like pest control, specialty crops, and animal health. • **State Document Depository Program** to preserve and retain documents published by North Dakota state agencies. • **State Aid to Public Libraries** to help local libraries offer resources and services (e.g., Internet access) to their citizens. 82% of the 90 public libraries in North Dakota offer Internet access to the general public. • **Online Library Resources** to provide access (usually full-text) to thousands of magazines, newspapers, and reference materials. Although these materials are online, they should not be confused with free Internet resources. Publishers do not give this kind of information away so libraries subscribe to databases on behalf of their users. In 2003, North Dakota citizens used these online resources to perform 1,770,735 searches for information. • **Disability Services** to provide information to citizens with disabilities. 67,134 Talking Books were sent to print-impaired North Dakotans in 2003. • **Statewide Cataloging Services** to help smaller school and public libraries add their holdings to ODIN (Online Dakota Information Network). • **MINITEX** contract to purchase access to items owned by Minnesota and South Dakota libraries, provide staff training, and provide group purchasing services. I believe that one of the reasons our state and nation are strong and enjoy a high standard of living is because we recognize that an educated, literate society is essential in a free society. Libraries play a key role in creating and maintaining an educated, literate populace by providing information and services to all citizens. Your vote in support of HB1013 to fully fund the North Dakota State Library’s budget request is needed to enable the State Library to fulfill its vision, mission, and goals. Library Vision 2010 North Dakota Library Coordinating Council Through the statewide community of libraries all citizens of North Dakota will have convenient and timely access to information for education, work, and recreation. Doris Ott, State Librarian North Dakota State Library 604 East Boulevard Avenue - Dept. 250 Bismarck ND 58505-0800 A division of the Department of Public Instruction, Dr. Wayne Sanstead, Superintendent The North Dakota State Library does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability in employment or the provision of services. February 2005 Adopted November 15, 2002 Printed February 2005 North Dakota Library Coordinating Council Members Contributing to Library Vision 2010 Quincee Baker - disabled, economically disadvantaged, minority populations Phyllis Bratton - private higher education institution libraries Thomas Bremer - public higher education institution libraries (Chair) Michelle “Mickey” Butz - school libraries Jerry Kaup - public libraries (Vice Chair) Phyllis Kuno - private higher education institution libraries Ilene Larson - citizen-at-large LaDean Moen - Past President North Dakota Library Association Doris Ott - State Librarian Dennis Page - public libraries Lila Pedersen - special libraries Kaaren Pupino - President North Dakota Library Association Iris Swedlund - school libraries Cheryl Tollefson - public libraries Rita Traynor - citizen-at-large Introduction In October of 1995, in consultation with the State Library staff and the officers of North Dakota Library Association, Eric Sakariassen, Chair of the ND Governor's Advisory Council on Libraries, formed a Library Study Steering Committee to discuss concerns and issues within the state’s library community. The goal was to present a clear picture of where North Dakota library services stood at that time and how they might look in the future. From the beginning, committee participants took it upon themselves to go beyond these initial directives and defined a set of priorities in a planning document for statewide library services entitled *Library Vision 2004*. The committee met six times, sponsored four statewide open forums, two in Bismarck, one each in Minot and Carrington, and created as many as five working subcommittees in preparing recommendations. The resulting *Library Vision 2004* document became a recognized and accepted framework for local, regional, and statewide library planning efforts. *Library Vision 2004* stated objectives and recommendations to meet those objectives, for six interdependent priorities necessary in providing what was identified as essential library services in North Dakota in the year 2004 and beyond. The plan was designed to fit an eight-year time frame, spreading implementation across four legislative bienniums. *Library Vision 2004* recommendations improved North Dakota libraries and enhanced citizen access to information services in support of education, economic vitality, and life-long learning. The purpose of *Library Vision 2004* was to provide people with improved access to information in a welcoming environment where they could obtain the guidance of trained librarians. The proposal addressed problems which were serious and growing: the knowledge explosion, the increasing costs of information, declining financial resources for libraries, providing all citizens with access to networked information, advancing North Dakota’s competitiveness in the global society, and preparing North Dakota for its future. In tackling the difficult business of planning for the implementation of a statewide comprehensive database, recommendations were divided into three contributing elements. Each of these elements was necessary to building a complete library computer information network and each was dependent upon the others in making the plan function. First, and by far the most expensive element, was Internet connectivity. Connectivity served as the foundation for accessing the statewide comprehensive database and allowed for access to the whole extent of information and services available on the Internet. The plan built on the North Dakota Information Network infrastructure already in place by connecting public and school libraries to the system. This effort was well under way with the receipt of the Educational Telecommunications Council (ETC) grant for a network assessment and planning project. The second element in the plan was to connect existing databases through telecommunications software and hardware that would allow concurrent searching of multiple databases but would appear to the user as if all records accessed resided locally. The third element in the plan was to create or convert and load electronic records into existing library online catalogs. This was perhaps the second most costly part of implementing the statewide comprehensive database and also one whose cost was difficult to estimate until the total number of library holdings was known. Early in the committee discussions, the need to create a structure for the governance and administration of the shared responsibilities and efforts outside current structures operating in the state was identified. It was recognized that, in statewide coordination of a comprehensive database, Internet connectivity, statewide interlibrary loan, and document delivery, among other things, a way was needed to ensure participation without interfering in local governance of libraries. The consensus reached in how to achieve this goal took the form of a North Dakota Library Coordinating Council. The committee worked hard to avoid a top-down governance structure and opted instead for one with a participatory representation. The North Dakota Library Coordinating Council (NDLCC) was established July 1, 1997 (NDCC 54-24.4-01). The factors that affect library services in North Dakota are in a state of constant change and although *Library Vision 2004* has served its purpose well, NDLCC felt it was time to once again visit the topic and determine what revisions needed to be made to keep the document a viable and useful tool for the library community of North Dakota. NDLCC held a meeting in Carrington, ND, on March 7, 2002. At that meeting, NDLCC decided to continue a process of examination and revision that actually had been happening since *Library Vision 2004* first came into existence, and to create a new document to be called *Library Vision 2010*. North Dakota’s library community was invited to participate in “think tanks” held in Minot and Valley City. Approximately fifty people attended each session and both sessions demonstrated how interested and concerned the library community is about the future of the state’s libraries and librarians. Using creative ideas generated from these sessions and from the documents referenced at the end of this introduction, NDLCC created a rough draft of *Library Vision 2010*. This draft was widely distributed to the library community. NDLCC sought additional feedback via e-mail, the 2002 NDLA meeting in Fargo, and an additional meeting in Dickinson. NDLCC considered, evaluated, and incorporated this feedback into the final document. The North Dakota Library Coordinating Council accepted and adopted *Library Vision 2010* on November 15, 2002. **References** The following documents were used to develop *Library Vision 2010*: *Library Vision 2004* *North Dakota Century Code* North Dakota Library Coordinating Council Minutes Think Tank Session I, April 26, 2002; Minot Think Tank Session II, May 3, 2002; Valley City Priority #1 Create a statewide community of libraries working together to provide quality library services in North Dakota. Libraries must rely on cooperation and networking of all material, staff, and electronic resources to meet the information needs of North Dakota citizens. Twenty-first century libraries working together will enable North Dakotans to face the growing challenges of global interdependence and global competition; the ever-increasing information explosion; the continuing evolution in technology; and the increased need for lifelong learning, job retraining, and recreation. Objectives: Develop a comprehensive statewide online library catalog. Promote statewide resource sharing. Develop a statewide collection development policy. Promote networking among all types of libraries. Provide training to library staff and citizens in using information resources. Provide shared electronic resources accessible to all citizens in all locations. Promote the preservation of materials created by North Dakotans and about North Dakota. Recommendations: 1. Provide direct access to a comprehensive statewide online library catalog of standardized bibliographic records from all North Dakota libraries. A comprehensive statewide online library catalog is a single database or group of databases configured so that all North Dakota citizens can access the holdings of the state’s libraries with one seamless, unmediated search. 2. Maintain and enhance the hardware and software allowing concurrent searching of multiple online library catalogs. 3. Develop partnerships to realize economies of scale. 4. Support protocols for connectivity, communication, bibliographic format (MARC 21), document delivery, interlibrary loan equity, and Internet access. 5. Build on existing structures and networks to achieve Library Vision 2010. 6. Create and maintain an accessible North Dakota digital archive of historical and government documents, photographs, maps, newspapers, etc. 7. Foster collection development activities. 8. Promote training and education for library personnel and library users. Priority #2 Strengthen the North Dakota State Library in its role of coordinating and enriching library service in the state. The State Library proactively extends library services to meet the goals of Library Vision 2010 and makes all information resources accessible to North Dakota residents. Objectives: Assess the needs of constituents and adapt services and training to meet those needs. Lead in encouraging and assisting the development of library cooperative ventures (consortia, regional associations, partnerships, etc.) for resource sharing, upgrading of library services, and fiscal efficiency. Lead in the establishment of basic levels of North Dakota library service and develop standards and guidelines defining the libraries’ and citizens’ basic obligations. Foster communication and cooperation among all types of libraries in North Dakota. Recommendations: 1. Coordinate and lead library advocacy efforts within the state. 2. Facilitate the development of library services. 3. Strengthen the State Library’s role in training and educating library personnel and libraries’ governing entities statewide. 4. Assist local libraries in determining priorities for collection development and encourage collection specialization to reduce unnecessary duplication. 5. Request state funding for retrospective conversion of library bibliographic records for the statewide online library catalog. 6. Establish requirements for city, county, and school district support for participation in the statewide system. 7. Develop and implement a long-range strategic State Library plan based on constituent needs assessment. 8. Coordinate resource sharing. 9. Create and enhance web and other resources available specifically for ND libraries. 10. Secure optimum funding to support State Library programs. Priority #3 Support and strengthen library cooperative ventures (consortia, regional associations, partnerships, etc.) in their role of extending and improving library service in the state. *Library cooperative ventures will facilitate resource sharing, promote educational opportunities, and work together to achieve networking on a local, regional, and statewide level to meet the goals of Library Vision 2010.* **Objectives:** Assess the needs of member libraries and patrons and adapt services and training to meet those needs. Facilitate communication among libraries statewide. Ensure member libraries’ participation in collection development, resource sharing, information technology, and the statewide online library catalog. **Recommendations:** 1. Participate in the statewide interlibrary loan and document delivery system. 2. Assist the State Library in implementing statewide networking and the development of the statewide online library catalog. 3. Provide, in cooperation with the State Library, training and education to member libraries. 4. Encourage cooperative purchasing and collection development. 5. Secure funding to support library cooperative ventures in meeting the goals of *Library Vision 2010*. 6. Ensure libraries retain local control on all policies and practices, such as setting their own circulation loan periods, collection development decisions, and interlibrary loan policies. --- Priority #4 Assure equitable access to information resources and library services to individuals throughout the state. *Access to information and library services is of paramount importance to the individual and to society for survival in an information age.* **Objectives:** Provide library and information access and services for all citizens regardless of age, economic status, location, literacy level, ethnicity, or disability. Collaborate with local literacy educators and volunteer providers to develop and deliver services. **Recommendations:** 1. Maintain and enhance responsible Internet access to all libraries. 2. Provide ongoing training in Internet and other searching procedures to assure information competency and literacy. 3. Promote library collections and services available to special populations. 4. Encourage libraries to provide space for literacy tutoring and collections for adult readers and English as a second language. 5. Promote library-sponsored family literacy programs. Priority #5 Promote the services of libraries and librarians. Inform citizens of the important role that libraries and librarians play in the world of changing information needs. Funding programs and services for the common good must become a priority to maintain an informed citizenry. Objectives: Involve the people and governing bodies of North Dakota in advocating for the priorities, objectives, and recommendations outlined in Library Vision 2010. Create public awareness of the changing role of libraries and librarians in the information age. Emphasize the role of libraries as an integral part of the economic development of a viable community. Highlight the necessity of libraries for learning and recreation for all ages. Secure continuation funding from the state necessary to achieve Library Vision 2010 priorities. Recommendations: 1. Establish local public awareness campaigns to promote North Dakota libraries. 2. Promote competitive library staff salaries. 3. Promote the use of current standards and technologies. 4. Promote libraries, librarians, and library services and their important role in economic development. 5. Communicate the needs of libraries to governing bodies. 6. Seek full funding for the existing state aid formula to public libraries. 7. Provide necessary funding for Library Vision 2010. 8. Promote librarianship as a career. Priority #6 Coordinate statewide library services. The North Dakota Library Coordinating Council was established by the 1997 ND Legislature (NDCC 54-24.3-03 and NDCC 54-24.4) and represents all types of libraries and all areas of the state. Objective: The North Dakota Library Coordinating Council assists in planning, coordinating, evaluating, promoting, and implementing local, regional, and statewide library services (NDCC 54-24.4-05). Recommendations: 1. Assure representation from all regions of the state: public, academic, school, special libraries, State Library, and citizens-at-large. 2. Provide a mechanism for presenting a unified voice for state funding. 3. Provide a forum to enable the library community to plan for new issues affecting library and information services as they emerge. 4. Direct the distribution of funding for coordinated statewide library services administered by the State Library in accordance with legislative intents and the priorities of Library Vision 2010. 5. Facilitate the implementation of the statewide online library catalog. North Dakota Library Coordinating Council Members Quincee Baker (2001-present) - disabled, economically disadvantaged, minority populations Mary Bianco (1997-2000) - disabled, economically disadvantaged, minority populations Phyllis Bratton (1997-2002) - private higher education institution libraries Thomas Bremer (1998-present) - public higher education institution libraries (Chair) Michelle "Mickey" Butz (2000-2002) - school libraries Sally Dockter (2000-2001) - President North Dakota Library Association Celeste Ertelt (1997-2000) - special libraries Mike Jaugstetter (1997-2000) - State Librarian Marilyn Johnson (1999-2000) - President North Dakota Library Association Jerry Kaup (1997-2002) - public libraries Phyllis Kuno (2002-present) - private higher education institution libraries Barbara Knight (1998-1999) - President North Dakota Library Association Ellen Kotrba (1997-1998) - President North Dakota Library Association North Dakota Library Coordinating Council Members (cont.) Ilene Larson (2002-present) - citizen-at-large Joe Linnertz (2000-2001) - Acting State Librarian La Dean Moen (1997-2000) - school libraries La Dean Moen (2001-2002) - President North Dakota Library Association Doris Ott (2001-present) - State Librarian Dennis Page (1997-present) - public libraries Lila Pedersen (2000-present) - special libraries Kaaren Pupino (2002-present) - President North Dakota Library Association Bernnett Reinke (1997-1998) - public higher education institution libraries Iris Swedlund (2002-present) - school libraries Cheryl Tollefson- (2002-present) - public libraries Rita Traynor (1997-present) - citizen-at-large North Dakota State Library Established 1890 North Dakota State Library 604 E Boulevard Ave Bismarck ND 58505-0800 Administration .................. (701) 328-2492 Information Requests .......... (701) 328-4622 Toll-Free ........................ 1-800-472-2104 Disability Services ............. (701) 328-1408 Toll-Free ........................ 1-800-843-9948 TDD (local) ..................... (701) 328-4923 TDD (Toll-Free) ................ 1-800-892-8622 Fax ................................... (701) 328-2040 NDSL Web Page ... http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us Open Monday-Friday 8:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. Tours are available upon request Doris Ott State Librarian A division of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction Wayne G. Sanstead, Superintendent, The North Dakota State Library does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability in employment or the provision of services. January 2003 Goal: Serve as a leader in the library and information field - Provide professional opportunities - Create professional development for librarians and staff - Provide consultation and technical assistance to all libraries - Secure and administer supplemental, public, and private funds - Secure and administer funding to improve library services in North Dakota - Promote the library and information profession - Promote librarianship as a career - Provide leadership to library-related groups - Plan, organize, and coordinate opportunities for library improvements - Facilitate partnerships among libraries - Create opportunities for improved library and information services Goal: Develop access to information - Facilitate growth of the statewide catalog - Collect state documents in all formats and maintain a state document depository program - Develop partnerships that reduce costs Goal: Promote and advocate library awareness - Provide information on legislative issues - Disseminate legislative information that affects libraries - Promote and develop partnerships between libraries - Develop partnerships with other entities - Focus on a variety of ways to publicize North Dakota State Library services - Advocate the North Dakota State Library's mission to state government, citizens, and libraries - Assist other libraries with promotional activities Performance Measures To inform citizens of library services by sponsoring booths annually at various conferences, preparing timely press releases and public service announcements. To provide testimony to legislative committees as appropriate. To secure statewide library contracts at a reduced cost by creating partnerships with other states. To offer annual training sessions for librarians and citizens on the use of LaND online resources (including evaluation of the training). To offer continuing education workshops each year for library trustees and librarians. To annually award Library Vision 2010 and LSTA grant funds according to federal guidelines, North Dakota legislation, and guidelines set by the North Dakota Library Coordinating Council. To monitor grants quarterly to assure compliance. To award annual scholarships to Master of Library Science candidates. To sponsor biennial focus groups to gather information from librarians, trustees, and citizens of North Dakota. To conduct a customer satisfaction survey each year to measure impact on community activities and systemic development of programs that are awarded grants. To be responsive to patron needs by having two phones in the agency staffed continually between 8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. Monday through Friday, and returning telephone calls within one working day. To process patron interlibrary loan and reference requests within two working days of receipt with a fill rate of at least ninety percent. To provide accurate answers to all reference questions within two working days of receipt. To mail all outgoing items on the same day that they arrive in the mailroom. To complete cataloging of new items within one week of receipt by creating accurate cataloging records according to national standards. To retrieve, catalog, maintain, and provide access to all available documents published by North Dakota state agencies. To administer Library Vision 2010 grant funds with the purpose of expanding the online statewide library catalog. To conduct surveys each year to measure customer satisfaction regarding State Library services. To provide a radio reading service daily to visually impaired citizens. Who can use the services at the North Dakota State Library? Any citizen of North Dakota may use the library services if they have a State Library card or a card from another ODIN library. How do I get a State Library card? Call to request an application at 1-800-472-2104. Access the online application form on the State Library home page at http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us or stop by the library in person. How much will the services cost me? There is no charge for most of the services provided by the State Library. You may incur small return postage charges on materials if you are unable to return them to the library in person. How do I access State Library services? If you have an Internet connection, you are able to access the State Library home page which includes the State Library online catalog, magazines, newspapers, and reference books. http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us 1-800-472-2104 or (701) 328-4622 Visit us: 604 E Boulevard Ave Liberty Memorial Building Capitol Grounds Bismarck ND North Dakota State Library Administration ........................................... (701) 328-2492 Information Requests .................. (701) 328-4622 Toll-Free ............................................. 1-800-472-2104 Disability Services ......................... (701) 328-1408 Toll-Free ............................................. 1-800-843-9948 DRIS .................................................. (701) 328-4189 TDD (local) ........................................ (701) 328-4923 TDD (Toll-Free) ............................ 1-800-892-8622 Fax ...................................................... (701) 328-2040 NDSL Web Page http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us Open Monday-Friday 8:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. Tours are available upon request Doris Ott State Librarian A division of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction Wayne G. Sanstead, Superintendent The North Dakota State Library does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability in employment or the provision of services. September 2002 604 East Boulevard Ave. Dept. 250 Bismarck, ND 58505-0800 North Dakota State Library provides access to information to all North Dakota citizens. North Dakota State Librarian Doris Oit "This is an exciting time to be a librarian! We can reach people, places, and information easier than ever before. Our goal is to save the reader time by bringing our services to your home or office via the Internet." ~Libraries~ your key to the world Did You Know? - The State Library provides services to patrons in all 53 counties in North Dakota. - The State Library catalogs 7,000 titles per month for North Dakota libraries that are being added to the statewide online catalog. - Over 2000 patrons use the Talking Book and Dakota Radio Information Service. - The library has 263,461 items in its collection. - The library fills 200 interlibrary loan requests per day. - The library staff provides training to 1000 librarians and citizens each year. - The State Library awards $225,000 in grant money annually to school and public libraries to enhance library resources. - The library has 62,786 state documents in its collection. - The Talking Book Service mails out 300 talking books per day. - Volunteers donate 550 hours per month to library services. What can I get from the State Library? - Information - Reference Services - Interlibrary Loan Services - Training - Talking Book Service - Radio Reading Service - Leadership - Library Advocacy - Online Resources - Grants - Cataloging Services - Library Development - Government Information - Technical Assistance What are Online Library Resources? They are citations, abstracts, and full-text articles for thousands of magazines, newspapers, and reference resources. They include photos, graphs, and maps which are accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week via the Internet. Librarians, citizens, and students can download entire articles from any computer with Internet access. Who can access the online resources? Library card holders from any participating library can access these materials. How do I access the online resources? You can access the online resources through your participating library’s home page, or through the North Dakota State Library home page at http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us. Click on “LaND” (Online Library Resources). For details on accessing and using the databases, see the Searching Guide for North Dakota Library Resources: LaND at http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us/Publications/LandMan.pdf. Can I print a copy of an online article? Yes. The online resources provide a printer-friendly version of an online article. Is there a fee for using the online resources? No. The online resources are free to all North Dakota citizens, thanks to funding from participating North Dakota libraries. North Dakota State Library Established 1890 Administration..........................(701) 328-2492 Information Services ..............(701) 328-4622 Toll-Free...............................1-800-472-2104 Disability Services...................(701) 328-1408 Toll Free...............................1-800-843-9948 TDD (local)............................(701) 328-4923 TDD (toll-free).......................1-800-892-8622 Fax ........................................(701) 328-2040 NDSL Web Page ....http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us Open Monday-Friday 8:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. Training is available upon request 604 E. Boulevard Ave. Dept. 250 Bismarck, ND 58505-0800 Doris Ott State Librarian A division of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction Wayne G. Sanstead, Superintendent The North Dakota State Library does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability in employment or the provision of services. August 2004 Online Library Resources Kids InfoBits - Designed for grades K-5 - Includes current events, arts, sciences, sports, history, and more - More than 100 full-text magazines and over 2,500 searchable images Junior Edition - Resource for grades 5-9 - Thousands of newspaper articles and over 140 full-text popular magazines Junior Reference Collection - Targeted toward grades 5-9 - More than 7,000 articles from reference sources - Includes images, maps, flags, and seals Discovering Collection - Great for grades 5-12 - Covers literature, history, biography, science, and social studies - Contains 81,000 reference resources Student Edition - Research tool for grades 9-12 - Variety of topics from more than 400 full-text titles - Includes articles, images, maps, and reference books ProQuest Newspapers - Appeals to the general public, librarians, and professionals - Up-to-date articles from around the globe including back issues of prestigious newspapers - More than 550 regional, national, and international newspapers Academic Search Premier - Ideal for college students - Spans virtually every area of scholarly study - More than 8,000 journals—4,600 are full-text MasterFILE Premier - Designed for the general public - Updated daily with information on health, business, education, reference, and more - Over 2,000 full-text general periodicals - Includes over 86,000 biographies and 350 reference books Business Source Premier - Created for business people - World’s largest full-text business database - More than 8,500 full-text business journals and other sources for businesses and schools Regional Business News - Updated daily for business people - Incorporates over 60 business journals, newspapers, and newswires - Covers metropolitan and rural areas in the U.S. Professional Collection Online - Wide variety of topics for educators, administrators, and librarians - More than 300 full-text online journals Tutorials available at: http://ndsl.lib.state.nd.us/Training/Tutorials.html or to schedule training call 1-800-472-2104 or (701) 328-4622 The online library resources were used 1,770,735 times over the past year, thanks to funding from participating North Dakota libraries. Department 253 - North Dakota Vision Services - School for the Blind House Bill No. 1013 | | FTE Positions | General Fund | Other Funds | Total | |----------------------|---------------|------------------|---------------|-------------| | 2005-07 Executive Budget | 26.95 | $2,503,495 | $845,535 | $3,349,030 | | 2003-05 Legislative Appropriations | 27.00 | 2,089,825 | 1,167,383 | 3,257,208 | | Increase (Decrease) | (-0.05) | $413,670 | ($321,848) | $91,822 | Agency Funding ![Graph showing agency funding over time] FTE Positions ![Graph showing FTE positions over time] Executive Budget Highlights 1. Deletes .05 FTE position not requested by the agency - General Fund: $0 - Other Funds: $0 - Total: $0 2. Provides funding to fund the agency's teachers according to the 2005-07 salary schedule - General Fund: $131,541 - Other Funds: $0 - Total: $131,541 3. Provides additional salaries and wages funding for a .45 FTE braille instructor position - General Fund: $59,710 - Other Funds: $0 - Total: $59,710 4. Increases operating expenses to provide funding for ConnectND charges - General Fund: $5,553 - Other Funds: $3,123 - Total: $8,676 5. Reduces funding for operating expenses - General Fund: $129,349 - Other Funds: ($229,402) - Total: ($100,053) 6. Removes capital assets funding provided in the 2003-05 biennium - General Fund: ($18,233) - Other Funds: ($18,233) - Total: ($18,233) 7. Provides capital assets funding for the 2005-07 biennium, including $15,090 to replace carpet and roof cooling unit, $42,380 to replace air-conditioning for the second floor of the south wing unit, and $10,000 to purchase a refreshable braille display - General Fund: $42,380 - Other Funds: $25,090 - Total: $67,470 Major Related Legislation At this time, no major legislation has been introduced affecting this agency. Overview Presentation to the House Appropriations Committee January 6, 2005 By Carmen Grove Suminski, Superintendent North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind Mission: To function as a statewide comprehensive resource and to work cooperatively with related agencies in providing a full range of services to all persons who are blind or visually impaired, including those with multiple disabilities. - Agency has undergone significant transition and has responded to statewide needs - Agency remained in compliance with their mission transitioning from a small number of residential and days students to a huge statewide delivery system that is recognized nationally - Agency referred to as a “school with no walls” - Number of persons served continues to increase - Every service provided whether is at center based or at the local community is supporting to the student and/or adult making a difference in their lives - Agency not a traditional residential school for the blind (1994) or a total outreach program, but rather a combination model - Agency continually assesses what we are doing, how we can do it more efficiently and cost effectively through a comprehensive Strategic Plan - Agency recognizes “The National Agenda for the Education of Children and Youths with Visual Impairments, Including Those with Multiple Disabilities” as published by the American Foundation for the Blind - Agency is **doing more with less** - General Funds - 1991-03: $2,272,358 - 2003-2005: $2,089,825 - FTE’s - 1991-03: 35 - 2003-2005: 27 - Agency is **serving more persons** - 1993-94: 12 students in day programming - 1994-95: 5 students in day programming - 2001-03: 403 clients served in combination programming - 1993-95: 24 adults served - 2001-03: 174 adults served - 2000-01: 8 weeks of center based programming - 2004-05: 18 weeks of center based programming ### ND VISION SERVICE/SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND **Overview Presentation to the House Appropriations Committee** **January 6, 2005** | Line Item | 2003-2005 Legislative Appropriation | 2003-2005 Estimated Expenditures | 2003-2005 Expenditures to Appropriation Variance | 2005-2007 Executive Recommendation | 2005-2007 Recommendation to 2003-2005 Appropriation Variance | |-----------|-----------------------------------|---------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | Salaries & Wages | $2,540,292 | $2,491,874 | ($48,418) | $2,674,254 | $133,962 | | Operating Expenses | $698,683 | $621,533 | ($77,150) | $607,306 | ($91,377) | | Capital Assets | $18,233 | $18,233 | $0 | $67,470 | $49,237 | | **Total Line Items** | **$3,257,208** | **$3,131,640** | **($125,568)** | **$3,349,030** | **$91,822** | | Funding Source | 2003-2005 Legislative Appropriation | 2003-2005 Estimated Expenditures | 2003-2005 Expenditures to Appropriation Variance | 2005-2007 Executive Recommendation | 2005-2007 Recommendation to 2003-2005 Appropriation Variance | |----------------|-----------------------------------|---------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | General Fund | $2,089,825 | $2,089,825 | $0 | $2,503,495 | $413,670 | | Federal Funds | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | | Special Funds | $1,167,383 | $1,041,815 | ($125,568) | $845,535 | ($321,848) | | **Total Funding Sources** | **$3,257,208** | **$3,131,640** | **($125,568)** | **$3,349,030** | **$91,822** | **Total FTE** | 27 | 27 | 0 | 27 | 0 | --- (1) **Explanation of Major Funding and FTE Variances (Column 3) for the 2003-05 Legislative Appropriation to 2003-05 Estimated Expenditures:** - Salary savings due to retirement and staff changes. - Operating variance due to extra dollars budgeted for possible energy grant for 2003-05. An amount of $14,426 has been awarded. - As Center Base instruction has increased and Outreach Regional Offices have been established, travel cost have decreased. (2) **Explanation of Major Funding and FTE Variances (Column 5) for the 2005-07 Executive Recommendation to 2003-05 Legislative Appropriation:** - Salary change includes classified and teacher salary increases pursuant to the composite salary schedule developed by HRMS. - Operating line savings result from not budgeting for energy repairs, reduced IT Plan expenditures, educational supplies and reduced travel costs. - Capital Assets include a Refreshable Braille Display, carpet replacement, cooling unit for the roof, and air conditioning for the south wing of the building. During the 2001 Legislative Assembly, NDVS/SB General Funds were decreased by $150,017. At this time there was a surplus in Special Fund Carryover. The two primary sources of Special Funds revenue are rental income and land department revenue ($661,000 per biennium). The surplus in Special Fund Carryover is projected to be depleted by the end of 2007 thus resulting in the large variance in General Fund and Special Funds. (3) **Summary of Major Goals and Objectives and Related Performance Measurement Data for the 2005-07 Biennium:** - **Program Objective:** To provide services to people who are blind or visually impaired of all ages (birth to death). - The focus is to enable the individual to become independent in all aspects of his/her life. Highly accountable agency through the following means: - Organizational Study completed by Dr. Roger Womer on June 30, 2004 - Program evaluation surveys distributed during April and October with results tabulated and evaluated by the Evaluation and Vision Strategic Teams. - Full five-year NAC (National Accreditation Council for Agencies Serving the Blind and Visually Impaired) Accreditation Status for Programs and Services extends to June 30, 2007. - Continually developing additional Performance Measurements as it relates to our Strategic Planning Process (Strategic Teams include: Vocational/Technology, Evaluation, Visions, and Public Relations). North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind 701-795-2700 or 1-800-421-1181 Serving the Visually Impaired since 1908 Testimony to the House Appropriations Committee Education and Environmental Division by Carmen Grove Šuminski and Tami Purcell January 10, 2005 Class of 1935 State School for the Blind, Bathgate Center Based Programming 2004 NDVS/SB is a Division of the Department of Public Instruction National Accreditation Council ### NDVS/SB 2005-07 BUDGET REQUEST WITH HISTORICAL DATA | Line Item: | Expenditures 1999-2001 | Expenditures 2001-2003 | Appropriation 2003-2005 | Budget Request 2005-07 | Optional Request 2005-07 | Gov's Exec Budget 2005-07 | Var. from Gov's and Requested 2005-07 | |---------------------|------------------------|------------------------|--------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------------|----------------------------|--------------------------------------| | Salary | $2,162,718.00 | $2,489,390.00 | $2,540,292.00 | $2,512,893.00 | $82,218.00 | $2,674,254.00 | $79,143.00 | | Operating | $708,283.00 | $556,153.00 | $698,683.00 | $509,759.00 | $97,547.00 | $607,306.00 | - | | Capital Assets | $49,999.00 | $37,050.00 | $18,233.00 | $15,090.00 | $1,160,267.00 | $67,470.00 | $(1,107,887.00) | | **Total** | **$2,921,000.00** | **$3,082,593.00** | **$3,257,208.00** | **$3,037,742.00** | **$1,340,032.00** | **$3,349,030.00** | **$(1,028,744.00)** | #### Funding Sources: | Source | Expenditures 1999-2001 | Expenditures 2001-2003 | Appropriation 2003-2005 | Budget Request 2005-07 | Optional Request 2005-07 | Gov's Exec Budget 2005-07 | Var. from Gov's and Requested 2005-07 | |------------|------------------------|------------------------|--------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------------|----------------------------|--------------------------------------| | General | $2,190,817.00 | $2,101,390.00 | $2,089,825.00 | $2,226,919.00 | $1,330,032.00 | $2,503,495.00 | $(1,053,456.00) | | Federal | $50,526.00 | $32,040.00 | $32,040.00 | $32,040.00 | $32,040.00 | $32,040.00 | $0 | | Special | $679,657.00 | $949,163.00 | $1,167,383.00 | $810,823.00 | $10,000.00 | $845,535.00 | $24,712.00 | | **Total** | **$2,921,000.00** | **$3,082,593.00** | **$3,257,208.00** | **$3,037,742.00** | **$1,340,032.00** | **$3,349,030.00** | **$(1,028,744.00)** | FTEs: 28, 29, 27, 27, 27, 27, 27 NDVS/SB lost General Funds during the 2001 Legislative Assembly in the amount of $150,017. The Budget was submitted with a request for two additional FTE’s without additional funding. Budget Change #13 removed the FTE request and also removed general funding for NDVS/SB. For 2003-05, NDVS/SB no longer receives funding from the IPAT Project (Federal funds). The two primary sources of Special Fund revenue are rental income and land department income. It is projected that NDVS/SB will generate $660,823 for Special Funds during 2005-07. The two last biennia NDVS/SB has been dependent on the carryover balance for Special Funds. Estimated 07/01/2005 Carryover of $150,000 plus $660,823 Special Fund Income plus Exec. Adjustment $34,712 = $845,535. North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind 701-795-2700 or 1-800-421-1181 Serving the Visually Impaired since 1908 Testimony to the Senate Appropriations Committee by Carmen Grove Suminski and Tami Purcell March 3, 2005 Class of 1935 State School for the Blind, Bathgate Center Based Programming 2004 NDVS/SB is a Division of the Department of Public Instruction National Accreditation Council North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind History - 1908 - School for the Blind established in Bathgate (25 students enrolled) - 1961 - School for the Blind relocated to Grand Forks (Peak enrollment of 54 students; average enrollment of 32 students) - 1991 - Transfer of management responsibilities from the Director of Institutions to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction - 1994 - Residential program was discontinued via legislative intent - 1995 - Day classroom program was discontinued - 1996 - Major renovation completed converting the former residence into instructional centers and offices - 1997 - Legislation enabling a revolving account for The Store - 1998 - Major renovation completed converting the former pool building into 2 suites, 2 apartments, commons, and offices - 1999 - Braille Access Center began - 2001 - Legislation to officially change the name to North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind and to clarify language to serve persons of all ages Senator Ray Holmberg and Members of the Senate Appropriations Committee: My name is Carmen Grove Suminski. I am the current superintendent of the ND Vision Services/School for the Blind (NDVS/SB). Tami Purcell, Business Manager of NDVS/SB, and I will provide testimony relative to House Bill #1013. Mission of NDVS/SB: To function as a statewide comprehensive resource and to work cooperatively with related agencies in providing a full range of services to all persons who are blind or visually impaired. The above mission truly exemplifies what we do and is the basis of the services that we do provide. The historical page illustrates the significant transition that this agency has experienced from a traditional residential school, to an outreach program, and now to a combination program. We are truly “a school with no walls.” We have responded to statewide needs and have not been apprehensive of making changes. The data presented will illustrate a significant increase in the number of persons receiving, and yet with less appropriated general fund dollars. Highly accountable agency through several means including: - Organizational Study by Dr. Roger Worner, dated June 30, 2004 - Advisory Team comprised of consumers, parents, and related entities (i.e., local education agencies, vocational rehabilitation, UND) since 1994 - Program evaluation survey distributed during April and October and then evaluated by the Strategic Team - Full five-year accreditation through the National Accreditation Council for Agencies Serving the Blind and Visually Impaired - Currently developing performance measurements as it relates to our Strategic Planning Process (Strategic Teams include Vocational/Technology, Evaluation, Visions, and Public Relations) I am proud of the facility and staff expertise that exists in ND. We are a resource for the needs of persons who are blind or visually impaired and make a difference in the lives of each person we serve whether at center base or in their local communities. Parents, teachers, para-educators, counselors and all those who work with the visually impaired utilize our school as a training center. We are a demonstration site for the most current adaptive technology and aids. Tami Purcell will be providing fiscal data. It is imperative that you are aware how stretched our resources currently are. We are under-funded, and statewide needs of people who are blind or visually impaired continue to increase. A person who is blind or visually impaired needs to have the opportunity to learn the alternative skills (i.e., braille, orientation and mobility, daily living skills, vocational/career, adaptive technology, recreation/leisure) to ensure that they will be able to succeed. ## Client Services Data | Services Provided | 1999-2001 Biennium | 2001-2003 Biennium | 7/1/03 - 12/31/04 Biennium-to-date | |-------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|-----------------------------------| | **Clients Served (Unduplicated):** | | | | | Infants/Students | 260 | 403 | 289 | | Adults | 82 | 174 | 160 | | Total | 342 | 577 | 449 | | **Vision Resource Center:** | | | | | Items Circulated | 13,333 | *26,867 | 22,397 | | Talking Book Machines (quarterly) | 2,203 | 2,056 | 1,987 | | "Reaching Out" Newsletter (circulated quarterly) | 1,300 | 1,300 | 1,450 | | APH Federal Registry | 255 | 260 | 263 | | Store Sales | 833 | 448 | 306 | | Braille Access Center (pages) | 27,700 | 23,150 | 17,785 | | **Short-term Center Based Programs (Attendees):** | | | | | Specific Skills | 33 | 71 | 31 | | Compensatory Skills | 10 | 36 | 45 | | Adult Week | 0 | 24 | 15 | | **Evaluations, Consultations and Instructions (Duplicated):** | | | | | Consultations | 2,595 | 3,171 | 1,528 | | Evaluations | 462 | 442 | 226 | | Instruction | 4,533 | 4,529 | 3196 | | Summer Camps | 53 | 60 | 29 | | In-Service Training | 141 | 221 | 397 | *Variance in number (Visions Resource Center Items Circulated) reflects a change in data compilation.* ND Vision Services/School for the Blind Clients Served (Unduplicated) July 1, 2003, to December 31, 2004 Region 1 Infants/Students – 18 Adults – 6 Total: 24 Region 2 Infants/Students – 26 Adults – 21 Total: 47 Region 3 Infants/Students – 52 Adults – 13 Total: 65 Region 4 Infants/Students – 30 Adults – 44 Total: 74 Region 5 Infants/Students – 55 Adults – 24 Total: 79 Region 6 Infants/Students – 26 Adults – 8 Total: 34 Region 7 Infants/Students – 54 Adults – 17 Total: 71 Region 8 Infants/Students – 19 Adults – 15 Total: 34 Relocated/Out of State Infants/Students – 9 Adults – 12 Total: 21 Total Infants/Students Served: 289 Total Adults Served: 160 Total Persons Served: 449 NDVS/SB 2005-07 BUDGET REQUEST WITH HISTORICAL DATA | Line Item: | Expenditures 1999-2001 | Expenditures 2001-2003 | Appropriation 2003-2005 | Budget Request 2005-07 Plus Optionals | Gov's Exec Budget 2005-07 | Summary of House Action | Var. from Requested (6 - 4) | |---------------------|------------------------|------------------------|--------------------------|--------------------------------------|---------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------------| | Salary | $2,162,718.00 | $2,489,390.00 | $2,540,292.00 | $2,595,111.00 | $2,674,254.00 | $2,669,073.00 | $73,962.00 | | Operating | $708,283.00 | $556,153.00 | $698,683.00 | $607,306.00 | $607,306.00 | $607,306.00 | - | | Capital Assets | $49,999.00 | $37,050.00 | $18,233.00 | $1,175,357.00 | $67,470.00 | $67,470.00 | $(1,107,887.00) | | **Total** | **$2,921,000.00** | **$3,082,593.00** | **$3,257,208.00** | **$4,377,774.00** | **$3,349,030.00** | **$3,343,849.00** | **$(1,033,925.00)** | **Funding Sources:** | Source | Expenditures 1999-2001 | Expenditures 2001-2003 | Appropriation 2003-2005 | Budget Request 2005-07 Plus Optionals | Gov's Exec Budget 2005-07 | Summary of House Action | Var. from Requested (6 - 4) | |------------|------------------------|------------------------|--------------------------|--------------------------------------|---------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------------| | General | $2,190,817.00 | $2,101,390.00 | $2,089,825.00 | $3,556,951.00 | $2,503,495.00 | $2,499,783.00 | $(1,057,168.00) | | Federal | $50,526.00 | $32,040.00 | $1,167,383.00 | $820,823.00 | $845,535.00 | $844,066.00 | $23,243.00 | | Special | $679,657.00 | $949,163.00 | $1,167,383.00 | $820,823.00 | $845,535.00 | $844,066.00 | $23,243.00 | | **Total** | **$2,921,000.00** | **$3,082,593.00** | **$3,257,208.00** | **$4,377,774.00** | **$3,349,030.00** | **$3,343,849.00** | **$(1,033,925.00)** | FTE 28 29 27 27 27 27 27 NDVS/SB lost General Funds during the 2001 Legislative Assembly in the amount of $150,017. The Budget was submitted with a request for two additional FTE’s without additional funding. Budget Change #13 removed the FTE request and also removed general funding for NDVS/SB. For 2003-05, NDVS/SB no longer receives funding from the IPAT Project (Federal funds). The Base Budget request includes: | Category | Amount | Source | |------------|------------|------------| | Salaries | $2,512,893.00 | General | | Operating | $509,759.00 | Federal | | Capital Assets | $15,090.00 | Special | | **Total** | **$3,037,742.00** | **Total** | **$3,037,742.00** | The two primary sources of Special Fund revenue are rental income and land department income. It is projected that NDVS/SB will generate $660,823 for Special Funds during 2005-07. The two last biennia NDVS/SB has been dependent on the carryover balance for Special Funds. Estimated 07/01/2005 Carryover of $150,000 plus $660,823 Special Fund Income plus Exec. + House Adjustment $23,243 = $844,066. ### NDVS/SB 2005-07 Optional Request Justification | Request | Amount | Need | Funding Source | Included in Governor's/House Budget | |----------------------------------------------|----------|----------|----------------|------------------------------------| | 1 Utilities - Operating | $37,547 | Very High| General | Yes | | 2 Salaries | $82,218 | Very High| General | Partial | | 3 Repairs - Operating | $30,000 | Very High| General | Yes | | 4 Travel - Operating | $30,000 | High | General | Yes | | 5 Air Condition S Wing | $42,380 | High | General | Yes | | 6 Education Wing Addition Equip Refresh Braille | $1,107,887 | Medium | General | No | | 7 Display | $10,000 | High | Special | Yes | | **Total** | **$1,340,032** | | | | **Utilities:** General Funds have been cut in the last two biennia. Utilities are supplied by UND at cost except for water and natural gas. The requested optional package will ensure that NDSV/SB will be able to cover expenses for 2005-07. **Salaries:** This request includes temporary salaries ($22,000) for houseparents. The houseparents supervise children during non-instructional hours for approximately 16 weeks of center-based programming. The additional $60,218 is for funding for a Braille instructor at 50% time. There currently are two instructors that work less than full-time. The request does not include an additional FTE. The additional funding for the Braille instructor will meet the needs of center-based instruction. **Repairs:** The building is over 40 years old, and it is important that each biennium repairs are made to the building. NDVS has a long-range building plan that is updated twice a year. The request includes repairs that have been identified in the long-range plan: roof repairs, painting of classrooms, gymnasium, and outside soffits, replacing light fixtures in the West Wing, sidewalk repairs, window replacement, and plumbing repairs. **Travel:** This expense covers two very important areas: Travel expenses for teachers to travel for instruction to local schools and communities and travel costs for teachers for professional development. It is important that NDVS/SB be the leader in the state for vision services. **Air Conditioning South Wing:** This has been requested previously. This area is used year-round for offices. There is a potential fire hazard, as the current portable units are using 110-volt outlets and also results in a safety issue for staff to be installing and removing on an annual basis. **Equipment – Refreshable Braille Display:** Plans are to replace one display each biennium as the current displays were purchased in 1994-95. **Education Wing Addition:** New addition and remodeling. This would result in a new entrance structure, additional instructional and office space, and a center for trainings. See handout. North Dakota School for the Blind Proposed Addition and Remodel Building Floor Plan - Interior Renovation - Building Addition EAPC Architects Engineers A revolving account for "The Store" was established via legislation in 1999. The mission of this store is to provide the consumers of North Dakota, who are blind or visually impaired, faster and easier access to items that they may require for independent living. Items are shipped to the consumer, or they can be purchased at the school. These adaptive vision specific items include writing supplies, magnifiers, protective eye wear, clocks, calendars, kitchen devices, sewing aids, and games. BUDGET SUMMARY NDVS/SB requested seven Optional Packages with the 2005-07 budget request. The Governor’s House Budget included all but $22,000 of Temporary Salaries for house parents, and an education wing addition, $1,107,887. A. Need for services has increased, and NDVS/SB is doing more with less - Operating with less general fund dollars than 10 years ago - 1991-03: $2,272,358 - 2003-05: $2,089,825 - Operating with 8 less FTE’s than 10 years ago - 1991-03: 35 - 2003-05: 27 - Doing more service with less funding - 1993-94: 12 students in day programming (5 residential) - 1994-95: 5 students in day programming (0 residential) - 2001-03: 403 clients served in combination programming - 1993-95: 24 Adults - 2001-03: 174 Adults B. It is critical to maintain the current level of service As stated on page 65 of Dr. Worner’s Organizational Status Study, June 30, 2003, “It is the project consultant’s assessment, however, that the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind’s growth in clientele (both individuals and organizations requiring services) will outstrip the capabilities of the staff to continue to provide quality programs and services and, likely will result in greater staff turnover and emerging morale issues in the future. If this scenario were to unfold, the State of North Dakota – through under-funding and under-staff the organization – will have weakened a superlative organization of its own making. That would be tragic.” C. Trend is that need for services will continue to increase - Ages 0 to 3: 43 served in 2003-04 - Ages 4 to 6: 104 served in 2003-04 - Center based programming: (Currently 18 weeks) - 96 attendees in 1999-01 - 191 attendees in 2001-03 Population of the state is aging; thus, adult vision needs will continue to increase. In order to maintain our current level of programming, it is imperative that the Governor’s House Budget Recommendation remain and that the additional temporary salaries of $22,000 be included in the 2005-2007 budget. To whom it may concern, Hello my name is Matt Philipenko I was recently diagnosed with a rare eye disease called Stargardts. It has taken me for a whirl in my life that has woken me up from my sleep that I had been in for so long. After I was diagnosed with the disease I did not know what to do, I was upset and grieving over it at first. Then recently I went up to Vocational Rehab in Minot ND. The service was great. They let me know what my options were, I then made the choice to come to the NDVS/SB. I was uneasy at first with the staff but that was because I was scared that they did not know what I was going through. Then the first day was over I was at ease I met the staff and came to the conclusion that they were normal and very nice, some of them were visually impaired. The things I was introduced to at the School for the Blind were incredible. They made my life so much easier. I now can go about my life as if I didn’t have a vision problem. I now feel that I am just as capable of doing things that normal 20/20 vision people do in their daily, work, and home environment. In my conclusion I would like to say that my time at the NDVS/SB has been the best experience that I have ever received from any state agency. If I were to refer anyone to the School, I would not blink an eye. Thank you all for the most wonderful time that I have received anywhere. May God’s love warm all your hearts and bless your lives for the great job you all do in every aspect if this School. Sincerely, Matt Philipenko 3/25/04 The services I have received from North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind have been very helpful in my life. I have been visually impaired from birth, and people from Vision Services have been available at every stage of my development. I worked with a teacher of the visually impaired through my education, and this was a great help. Attending Specific Skills and summer programming at Vision Services was also very beneficial in my development. As I grew up, it was very beneficial for me to associate with other peers who were visually impaired to share common problems and concerns. This is one important benefit of center-based programming at Vision Services. I learned so much both from my peers and the staff at Vision Services. The staff has also been very helpful over the years. Being able to learn skills from people who are trained in the field is very beneficial as they are aware of the best practices and teaching techniques. As I have grown older and become more independent, it has been a comfort to know that the staff are just a phone call or e-mail away. I urge you to support the continued good work that North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind is doing. The work they do makes a difference in the lives of all students who are visually impaired or blind in North Dakota. Alexis Read January 7, 2005 Dear Senator Holmberg and Members of the Senate Appropriations Committee: Thank you legislators for your interest and continued support of the programs and services that are provided to children and adults through North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind. The opportunity to be present when your Committee conducts its tour of the facilities at Vision Services/School for the Blind on Thursday would be welcomed but schedule and distance are barriers that cannot be overcome. I speak not only for myself but also as President of the North Dakota Association of the Blind. My advocacy for the needs of people who experience blindness has been nurtured and developed through my involvement with the Association which is the largest and the oldest state organization of and for the Blind in North Dakota. We recognize and appreciate that the legislative interim affords your Committee an opportunity to gather information that the Legislature can use during its upcoming session. We wish to make it abundantly clear to you that it is our experience that the resources spent to support the programs and services of the School are worth every dollar that the state invests in this educational program. Please know too that the consumers of the services are appreciative and grateful for the services that the School is able to offer. We know it takes significant levels of resources to hire and retain the staff that are so vital to maintain excellent programs of service. Good programs also require that there be a significant investment of capital for equipment. Equipment, such as computers, are outmoded rather quickly given the pace of present day technological advances. Given these realities, the message I’d most like to convey to you is that we simply cannot expect to maintain excellence of educational services for blind children and adults if the budget that is allocated to North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind is decreased during each legislative session. Life skills such as mobility training with the use of the white cane, learning Braille and learning to use a computer without the advantage of sight are absolutely vital to those who must cope with blindness today. It is most notable too that the blindness skills training available at the School isn’t duplicated elsewhere in the state or in this region. I look forward to visiting with any member of the Committee or other member of the Legislature about my advocacy for the services offered at Vision Services/School for the Blind. Sincerely, Allan Peterson 7009 Horseshoe Bend, Fargo, ND 58104 Recently, Sally Kaufman received services from North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind (NDVS/SB). We are committed to providing the best possible services. To assist us in this process, please complete this survey and return it in the enclosed self-addressed envelope. Your responses will be reviewed and used to better meet statewide vision needs. Your allocation of time is truly appreciated. Thank you! Carmen Grove Suminski Superintendent, NDVS/SB Date 10-29-04 Type of Service: Braille Camps Date(s) Service: 6-18-04 | Question | Very Good | Good | Fair | Poor | N/A | |--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------|------|------|------|-----| | 1. Overall quality of service you received | ☒ | | | | | | 2. Timeliness of service provided | ☒ | | | | | | 3. Knowledge of staff | ☒ | | | | | | 4. Courtesy and respect shown to you | ☒ | | | | | | 5. Usefulness of information received (reports, etc) | ☒ | | | | | | 6. Usefulness of materials and equipment provided | ☒ | | | | | | 7. Coordination with schools/agencies | ☒ | | | | | | 8. Cooperation with family members | ☒ | | | | | | 9. Overall Satisfaction | ☒ | | | | | Did you recommend NDVS/SB services to others? Yes! What additional services would be helpful? I honestly can't think of any at this time, and when I have in the past, NDSB staff have come through with those services. Do you have any recommendations or additional comments/suggestions: Please allow our family to write letters of support if that is ever needed in order to maintain or build the current programs. How did you hear about us? When we enrolled our newly adopted daughter in preschool in 1998, her teacher contacted NDSB and services were made known to us before we even asked! If you would like more information, please contact Barb Brubakken at 800-421-1181 or 701-795-2721. (OPTIONAL) Name: Betty Jean Kauffman Phone number: 701-852-4957 Please return to: Deb Johnsen ND Vision Services/School for the Blind 500 Stanford Road Grand Forks, ND 58203-2799 Or email at: email@example.com Thank you for your time and input! NORTH DAKOTA VISION SERVICES/SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND ORGANIZATIONAL STATUS STUDY Prepared for Carmen Grove Suminski Superintendent North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind and Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead State Superintendent North Dakota Department of Public Instruction By Dr. Roger B. Worner Project Consultant Roger Worner Associates, Inc. Sartell, Minnesota June, 2003 # TABLE OF CONTENTS | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Chapter I: Design of the Study | 1 | | 1.0 Purpose of the Study | 1 | | 1.1 Need for the Study | 2 | | 1.2 Methodology | 4 | | 1.3 Geographic Setting | 6 | | 1.4 Questions of the Study | 9 | | 1.5 Assumptions | 10 | | 1.6 Role of Independent Third Party Neutral | 12 | | 1.7 Organization of the Study | 13 | | Chapter II: Findings | 15 | | 2.0 Introduction | 15 | | 2.1 Historical References | 15 | | 2.2 Enrollment/Clients | 17 | | 2.3 Finances | 22 | | 2.4 Organizational Configuration | 30 | | 2.5 Staffing | 35 | | 2.6 Programs and Services | 39 | | 2.7 Facilities | 45 | | 2.8 Collaboration/Cooperation | 47 | | 2.9 Marketing | 48 | | 2.10 Strategic Planning | 49 | | 2.11 Accreditation | 50 | | 2.12 Internal Organizational Ratings | 51 | | Chapter III: Conclusions, Alternatives, and Recommendations | 54 | | 3.0 Introduction | 54 | 3.1 Conclusions ................................................................. 55 3.2 Alternatives ............................................................... 65 3.3 Recommendations ......................................................... 65 3.0 Introduction The Organizational Status Study was conducted to establish a 2002-03 status profile of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind organization which could be used as a basis for further strategic planning, organizational self-improvement, and longitudinal organizational self-evaluation. The strategic goal for conducting the Organizational Status Study was to provide external third-party neutral assistance to the leadership of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind in order to enhance organizational effectiveness, efficiency, and cost/effectiveness in the delivery of programs and services to the State's blind and visually impaired pre-school, school-aged, and adult populations. The 2002-03 study was conducted to gather data, provide for its analysis, draw conclusions, identify alternatives (very limited), and tender recommendations to the State Superintendent of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction and the Superintendent of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind. The questions specified below provided direction to the Project Consultant during the conduct of the study and were intended to be addressed by the study: ♦ What is the current status of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind's enrollment/clients, finances, programs and services, staffing, facilities, and other organizational characteristics? ♦ What are the Project Consultant's conclusions about the current status of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind? ♦ What are the Project Consultant's alternatives to increase the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind's effectiveness, efficiency, and cost/effectiveness in the future? ♦ What recommendations does the Project Consultant tender to the Superintendent of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind and the State Superintendent of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction as preferred, cost/effective, qualitative directions for the organization to pursue to maintain or enhance the delivery of quality programs and services for the pre-school, school-aged, and adult populations served by the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind? 3.1 Conclusions The Project Consultant derived the following conclusions through the conduct of the Organizational Status Study: ♦ The organization's unduplicated clients in the 0-21 age category increased from 211 to 286 clients, a gain of +75 clients or +35.5%, between 1999-00 and 2002-03. ♦ The organization's unduplicated adult clients increased from 92 (1999-00) to 120 clients (2002-03), a net gain of +28 clients or +30.4%. ♦ The organization's unduplicated clients served between 1999-00 and 2002-03 increased from 303 to 388 clients, a net gain of +85 clients or +28.1%. ♦ From 1991-92 through 2002-03, the organization realized a 13-fold increase in unduplicated clients served in the 0-21 age category, an 8-fold increase in adult clients served, and a 12-fold increase in the total number of clients served. ♦ The number of pre-school, school-aged, and adult clients served (unduplicated) by the organization during the 1999-00/2002-03 span staggeringly exceeded the number of clients served during the 1991-92/1994-95 time span. ♦ The North Dakota State Legislature's intent to expand the number of blind and vision impaired North Dakotans served by the organization's staff, programs, and services through altering the organization's delivery model has been clearly fulfilled. ♦ The organization's total clients served (duplicated) increased from 837 in 1995-96 to 6,688 in 2002-03, a net gain of +5,851 clients served (duplicated) or +699%. ♦ The organization's consultations (duplicated) increased from 386 in 1995-96 to 2,391 in 2002-03, a net gain of +2,005 or +519.4%. ♦ The organization's evaluations (duplicated) increased from 190 in 1995-96 to 396 in 2002-03, a net gain of +206 evaluations or +108.4%. ♦ The organization's instructions (duplicated) increased from 261 in 1995-96 to 3,901 in 2002-03, a net gain of +3,640 instructions or +1,394.6%. ♦ The growth in the number of clients served by the organization – both unduplicated and duplicated counts – is truly remarkable and worthy of the highest level of commendation. ♦ Over the five biennia or ten fiscal years from 1991-93 through 2001-03, the organization's total expenditures increased by +$428,789 or +14.1%. ♦ The organization's average annual increase in expenditures amounted to a diminutive 1.41%/year between 1991-93 and 2001-03. ♦ The average annual increase in organizational expenditure over the ten year span of time from 1991-93 (base) through 2001-03 is particularly significant when considered in light of the dramatic increase in the number of clients served during the same span of time. ♦ The organization has demonstrated prudent and accountable fiscal management over the five biennia from 1991-93 through 2001-03. ♦ Despite less than inflationary increases in the organization's expenditure budget, programs and services have been maintained (in fact, increased), and clients served has substantially (and continuously) grown to record levels. ♦ In 1991-93, the organization expended $1,942,944 for salaries/wages/benefits. By 2001-03, salaries/wages/benefits amounted to $2,712,426, a ten year increase of +$769,482 or +39.6%. ♦ The organization's salaries/wages/benefits increased by an average annual rate of 3.96%/year, a figure that was within reasonable cost parameters during the period of nearly historic growth in the nation's economy. ♦ The organization has demonstrated prudence in accountability in maintaining salary/wage/benefit cost containment over the five biennia. from 1991-93 (base biennia) through 2001-03. ♦ The leadership of the organization is commended for its prudent fiscal management. ♦ The organization's General Fund revenue/appropriations declined from $2,272,358 in the 1991-93 biennium to $2,102,259 in the 2001-03 biennium, a decrease of -$170,099 or -7.5%. ♦ The organization's General Fund revenue appropriation from the State of North Dakota during the 2003-05 biennium will further decline by -$12,434 or -.6% from the 2001-03 General Fund revenue appropriation figure. ♦ The organization's General Fund revenue appropriation from the State of North Dakota has decreased in four successive biennia or eight successive years. ♦ The organization operates under the jurisdiction, direction, control, and management of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction and its State Superintendent. ♦ The organization's hierarchical structure is comparatively flat. ♦ The organization's structure is well defined and understandable, enhancing the flow of internal communication. ♦ The organization's Outreach Division is the largest programmatic and personnel component, allocating 16 full-time staff members to instruction, assessment, assessment/evaluation, consultation, in-service training/staff development, technical assistance, instructional technology, vocational preparedness, orientation and mobility, and related functions. ♦ The organization's Vision Resource Center is the second largest division with five employees. ♦ The organization's Superintendent has a reasonable "span of control" (number of individuals supervised). ♦ The organization's staff members have excellent grasps of their own job responsibilities and, as well, the job responsibilities of others. ♦ There is substantial evidence that the organization's staff members are highly goal-oriented, self-starting, and responsible to expectations placed on them by the Superintendent and division heads. ♦ The organizational configuration/structure functions successfully with high levels of productivity and accountability. ♦ The organization employed 30 staff members or 28.3 full-time equivalent members during the 2002-03 organizational year. ♦ The largest cadre of organizational staff members is found in the teaching ranks with 12 employees or 11.8 full-time equivalent staff members employed. ♦ The organization's staff has sufficiently diversified background, experience, training, and expertise to deliver the array of programs and services necessary to fulfill its statutory mandates and furnish assistance to service-providing organizations and families that is unduplicated by other organizations and, indeed, would be unavailable if the organization were not to exist. ♦ The organization's staff decreased from 35.0 full-time equivalents in 1992-93 to 28.3 full-time equivalents in 2002-03, a decline of -6.7 staff members or a -19.1%. ♦ The organization has experienced substantial personnel reductions between 1992-93 and 2002-03. The staff losses have occurred despite the fact that the organization's clientele and the breadth and scope of organizational programs and services have dramatically increased over the same span of time. ♦ It is predicted by the Project Consultant that the breadth, scope, and geographic span of the organization's programs, services, and clientele will outstrip the staff allocation and budgetary resources necessary for the organization to furnish qualitative services in the future. ♦ The organization provides a comprehensive array of programs and services. ♦ Center-based instructional programs and services include Compensatory Skills, Specific Skills, Summer Adventure, and Life Experiences Advance People (LEAP) Program. ♦ The organization operates the comprehensive Vision Resource Center, an all-purpose, multi-functional resource asset that serves the organization's professional staff, field-based outreach staff, public school district and non-public school staffs, special education cooperative staff, families, collaborative service-providing organizations, and blind and vision impaired clients/students. ♦ The organization operates a comprehensive Technology Center to provide assistance and information to those who are visually impaired and who wish to use technology to meet their needs at school, work, or home. ♦ The organization's mission, focuses, programs, and services do not duplicate those of other organizations in the State of North Dakota and are not matched in kind or quality by any other State agency, organization, or entity, either private or public. ♦ The organization's facility is comprised of 44,946 square feet of teaching/learning, support, office, residence, and rental/lease spaces. ♦ The organization's facility was constructed in 1959 and received subsequent additions in 1975 and 1977. ♦ The organization leases/rents building space to the Grand Forks School District, University of North Dakota, and the North Dakota University System, Higher Education Computer Network, Student Information System. Substantial revenue is generated by the organization through rental of its excess teaching/learning, support, and office spaces to the aforementioned entities. ♦ The organization's lease/rental rate is $8.50/square foot, effective July 1, 2003. ♦ The organization is a highly collaborative educational organization. ♦ The organization extensively markets its programs and services to North Dakota organizations which provide service to blind and vision-impaired students/clients throughout the State of North Dakota. ♦ The organization has developed (and maintains) a comprehensive strategic plan, including objectives and strategies. ♦ The organization has instituted continuous self-improvement processes and in April, 2002 underwent an extensive (and successful) accreditation process. ♦ The organization's staff rates the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind as a highly effective and qualitative organization. ♦ The State Superintendent of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction and his executive level administrative staff are highly supportive of the Superintendent of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind, her staff, and the organization's programs and services. The State Superintendent and his executive level staff meet with the Superintendent of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind on a quarterly basis, formally, and on numerous other occasions, informally, to discuss organizational progress, new organizational initiatives, organizational improvement efforts, legislative initiatives, and other matters of mutual interest to the Department and School. 3.2 Alternatives The North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind is an effective, efficient, and cost/effective organization. Its conversion from a center-based to an outreach-based/center-based (combination) model in the mid-1990's was a brilliant decision, largely responsible for increasing the school's cost/effectiveness and its staggering increase in clients (unduplicated or duplicated) served. The organization is perfectly suited to its current market niche. It is the Project Consultant's assessment, however, that the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind's growth in clientele (both individuals and organizations requiring services) will outstrip the capabilities of the staff to continue to provide quality programs and services and, likely, will result in greater staff turnover and emerging morale issues in the future. If this scenario were to unfold, the State of North Dakota – through under-funding and under-staffing the organization – will have weakened a superlative organization of its own making. That would be tragic. 3.3 Recommendations The Project Consultant tenders the following recommendations to the State Superintendent of the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction and the Superintendent of the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind: ♦ That increased funding be sought from the State of North Dakota Legislature to expand staffing, programs, and services to serve an increasing number of blind and visually impaired clients and related service-providing organizations. ♦ That the organization allocate additional time and resources for the entire staff (center-based and outreach-based) to engage in strategic and curricular planning. ♦ That the organization expand its marketing endeavors to increase general awareness of the quality programs and services delivered by the North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind. ♦ That the organization increase its exploration, adoption, and generalized usage of technology as a vehicle for enhancing learning and improving the quality of life of the blind and visually impaired. ♦ That the organization expand the breadth and scope of its efforts to further refine evaluations of its programs and services and, hence, increase organizational quality. It is with pride and total commitment that NDVS/SB continue to provide leadership and an array of highly specialized vision specific services. We have strengthened what we do best and will continually identify innovative and progressive ways to ensure that the persons who are blind or visually impaired residing in the state of North Dakota receive appropriate services based on their individualized needs. Carmen Grove Suminski Superintendent NDVS/SB is a Division of The Department of Public Instruction Dr. Wayne Sanstead, State Superintendent Serving the Visually Impaired Since 1908 500 Stanford Road Grand Forks, ND 58203 701-795-2700 1-800-421-1181 www.ndvisionservices.com Serving Visually Impaired Persons throughout the state of North Dakota REGION 1 & 2 Dianne Giessinger, Coordinator Minot State University 500 University Ave. West PO Box 202 Minot, ND 58707 701-858-4473 REGION 3 Linda Kraft, Coordinator 300 2nd Ave. NE Suite #208 Jamestown, ND 58401 701-253-3012 REGION 4 Katrina Wendel, Coordinator 500 Stanford Road Grand Forks, ND 58203 701-795-2716 REGION 5 Marie Topp, Coordinator SE Human Service Center 2624 9th Ave. SW Rm 232 Fargo, ND 58104 -298-4428 REGION 6 Lanna Slaby, Coordinator 300 2nd Ave. NE Suite #208 Jamestown, ND 58401 701-253-3012 REGION 7 & 8 Mary Verlinde, Coordinator 418 E. Broadway Ave. Suite #228 Bismarck, ND 58501 701-328-3986 History North Dakota's first School for the Blind was constructed in Bathgate for $24,197. In 1959 a bill was passed to relocate the school to Grand Forks, and the new education building and residence hall were opened in 1961. In 1995, renovation was completed consisting of outreach and administrative offices and centers in the vision specific areas including daily living skills, technology, vision resource, educational, and music. In 1998, additional renovation was done which includes two apartments, two suites, conference room, commons area, two offices, and instructional center. Our Mission To function as a statewide comprehensive resource center and to work cooperatively with related agencies in providing a full range of services to all persons who are blind or visually impaired, including those with multiple disabilities. Our Services North Dakota Vision Services/School for the Blind (NDVS/SB) provides regionalized outreach services and center based programming to persons of all ages; infants and their families, students and adults. Also available is information about services and products that can help in maintaining independence. Evaluations, Consultations, and Instruction: - Adaptive Technology - Braille and Braille Music - Daily Living Skills - Functional Vision Evaluations - Low Vision/Adaptive Techniques/Aids - Orientation and Mobility - Recreation/Leisure - Vocational/Career Education Housing is available for students and adults while participating in programming. Eligibility: Any individual with an impairment in vision, which even with correction, affects the individual's functional ability. How to Access Services: Contact the Regional Coordinator in your area or call NDVS/SB at 1-800-421-1181. Vision Resource Center - Consumer and Professional Library - American Printing House Quota Books and Materials - Talking Book Machine Lending Agency - Descriptive Videos - Toy/Adaptive Equipment Lending Library - Access to Information - The Store (adaptive aids for sale) - Braille Access Center Programs - Specific Skills - Compensatory Skills - LEAP - Summer Adventure - Independent Living - Adult Weeks Speakers Bureau Inservice Training Testimony for House Appropriations Committee Budget Hearing for H.B. 1013 January 6, 2005 Representative Ken Svedjan, Chairman and Members of the Committee Mr. Chairman, As a preface to the budget information, I want to talk briefly about a major undertaking by the North Dakota School for the Deaf this past year which helped to set the foundations for this budget request. A Blue Ribbon Task Force was appointed by Dr. Wayne Sanstead in the fall of 2003 to look at the recommendations put forward in a report by Dr. Roger Worner, “North Dakota School For The Deaf Organizational Status Follow-Up Study” commissioned by Dr. Sanstead. This Task Force sent the final report to Dr. Sanstead in July, 2004. Summary of Report Outcomes/Recommendations - Expansion of Outreach Services - Legislation to Expand Into Adult Services - Consolidation of Dorm Spaces - Consolidation of Classroom Spaces - Lease of Unused Space - Development of a Fee Schedule for Facilities Use - Reduction of Staff through Reclassification, Retirement, and or Attrition - Development of an Energy Management Plan - Development of Partnerships and Collaborations with Local Agencies to Share Costs/Staff Budget Summary The budget reflects the following: **Increases** - Salary and Wage- Salary increase and increased benefit costs for teachers and classified staff. - Operating Expenses- Inflation and higher energy costs and loss of E-rate - Capital Assets- Energy Contracting Plan **Decreases** - Federal Funds- Loss of grant dollars for the funding cycle for Deafblind Project and fewer dollars from Child Food and Nutrition due to fewer students. Thank you for the past legislative support for NDSD and with your continued support NDSD will serve the citizens of North Dakota with high quality programs and services. The North Dakota School for the Deaf is submitting the following budget summary page. Rocklyn Cofer, Superintendent | | 2003-05 Legislative Appropriation | 2003-05 Estimated Expenditures or Currently Filled FTE Positions | (1) Variance | 2005-07 Executive Recommendation | Change (Variance) to 2003-05 Legislative Appropriations | |----------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------| | Salaries & wages | 4,769,808 | 4,701,989 | (67,819) | 5,106,474 | 336,666 | | Operating expenses | 1,102,160 | 1,102,160 | 0 | 1,429,150 | 326,990 | | Capital assets | 72,723 | 59,809 | 12,914 | 279,495 | 206,772 | | **Total** | **5,944,691** | **5,863,958** | **80,733** | **6,815,119** | **870,428** | | General fund | 5,073,242 | 4,996,975 | 76,267 | 5,488,553 | 415,311 | | Federal funds | 366,130 | 361,664 | 4,466 | 274,087 | -92,043 | | Special funds | 505,319 | 505,319 | 0 | 1,052,479 | 547,160 | | **Total** | **5,944,691** | **5,863,958** | **80,733** | **6,815,119** | **870,428** | | FTE | 51.85 | 46.19 | 5.66 | 49.94 | -1.91 | *Lease + Reimbursements 200,000* *Carry Forward Balance* (1) Explanation of Major Funding and FTE Variances for the 2003-05 Legislative Appropriation to 2003-05 Current Estimates 1. Salaries - Savings due to vacant positions and turnover General Funds $63,353 Federal Funds $4,466 Total $67,819 2. Capital Assets - Parking lot expansion cost less than Anticipated 12,914 0 12,914 3. FTE - Less than estimated due to vacancies and unfunding of 1.91 FTE Psychologist (.83) Admin. Assistant (.83) Reduction of Custodian by (.25) (2) Explanation of Major Funding and FTE Changes (Variances) for the 2005-07 Recommendation to 2003-05 Appropriations 1. Salaries – Increase due to additional funding for teacher salary increases pursuant to the composite schedule for state teachers developed by Human Resource Management Services and for classified employees. Increase was offset somewhat due to unfunding of 1.91 FTE in 2005-07. 2. Operating Expenses – increase due to: 1) additional expenses from lease to Head Start. Special fund revenues increase due to lease of building and reimbursement of food, phones, and internet connections. 2) Contracting psychological services due to unfunding of Psychology position. 3) Loss of E-rate funding to cover internet connections. 3. Capital Assets – increase due to special fund authority to complete facility energy improvement project. Department 252 - School for the Deaf House Bill No. 1013 | | FTE Positions | General Fund | Other Funds | Total | |----------------------|---------------|----------------|-------------|-------------| | 2005-07 Executive Budget | 49.94 | $5,488,553 | $1,326,566 | $6,815,119 | | 2003-05 Legislative Appropriations | 51.85 | 5,073,242 | 871,449 | 5,944,691 | | Increase (Decrease) | (1.91) | $415,311 | $455,117 | $870,428 | Agency Funding ![Graph showing agency funding over time] FTE Positions ![Graph showing FTE positions over time] Executive Budget Highlights 1. Deletes 1.91 FTE positions not requested by the agency - General Fund: $(147,690) - Other Funds: $(149,975) - Total: $(147,690) 2. Provides funding to fund the agency's teachers according to the 2005-07 salary schedule - General Fund: $149,975 - Other Funds: $0 - Total: $149,975 3. Increases funding for operating expenses for ConnectND charges ($16,612) and the loss of e-rate funding ($38,280) - General Fund: $52,400 - Other Funds: $2,492 - Total: $54,892 4. Adjusts funding for operating expenses as follows: - Information technology - Data processing - $(19,023) - Travel - $97,802 - Information technology - Software and supplies - $32,648 - Professional services - $47,789 - Food and clothing - $54,642 - Information technology equipment under $5,000 - $52,034 - Other - $6,206 - General Fund: $57,746 - Other Funds: $214,352 - Total: $272,098 5. Removes one-time funding provided in the 2003-05 biennium for extraordinary repairs - General Fund: $(72,723) - Other Funds: $(72,723) - Total: $(72,723) 6. Provides capital assets funding of $279,495 for the 2005-07 biennium, including $36,645 for pool building roof repair, $10,000 for repair of roads and parking lots, and $232,850 for implementing facility enhancement measures - General Fund: $46,645 - Other Funds: $232,850 - Total: $279,495 Major Related Legislation At this time, no major legislation has been introduced affecting this agency. | | 2003-05 *Adjusted Legislative Appropriation | 2003-05 Estimated Expenditures or Currently Filled FTE Positions | Variance (1) | 2005-07 Executive Recommendation | Change (Variance) to 2003-05 Legislative Appropriations | |----------------------|---------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------| | Salaries & wages | 4,769,808 | 4,701,989 | 67,819 | 5,106,474 | 336,666 | | Operating expenses | 1,102,160 | 1,102,160 | 0 | 1,429,150 | 326,990 | | Capital assets | 72,723 | 59,809 | 12,914 | 279,495 | 206,772 | | **Total** | 5,944,691 | 5,863,958 | 80,733 | 6,815,119 | 870,428 | | **General fund** | 5,073,242 | 4,996,975 | 76,267 | 5,488,553 | 415,311 | | **Federal funds** | 366,130 | 361,664 | 4,466 | 274,087 | -92,043 | | **Special funds** | 505,319 | 505,319 | 0 | 1,052,479 | 547,160 | | **Total** | 5,944,691 | 5,863,958 | 80,733 | 6,815,119 | 870,428 | | **FTE** | 51.85 | 46.19 | 5.66 | 49.94 | -1.91 | * A line item transfer of $40,000 was made from Salaries & Wages to Capital Assets for expansion of the parking lot. North Dakota School for the Deaf Rocklyn G. Cofer, Superintendent Senate Appropriations Committee Ray Holmberg, Chairman 2005-07 Budget Hearing – HB 1013 March 3, 2005 “Looking back with pride, looking forward with confidence.” Serving deaf and hard of hearing children of North Dakota since 1890. Senator Holmberg and Members of the Senate Appropriations Committee: My name is Rocklyn Cofer. I am the Superintendent of the ND School for the Deaf (NDSD). I am here today to provide testimony relative to House Bill #1013. I want to begin today by talking about a recent study that was done regarding NDSD. Dr. Wayne G. Sanstead, State Superintendent of the ND Department of Public Instruction, commissioned the formation of a Blue Ribbon Task Force to study the status of NDSD and tender advisory recommendations to the State Superintendent for further consideration. The purpose was to “achieve consensus from the deaf community, Devils Lake community, and the NDSD staff on how to provide legislatively or constitutionally mandated services in a cost effective manner. Also to identify expanded services and propose legislation.” Given our changing demographics and cost/effectiveness, the primary need for and value of the Blue Ribbon Task Force was to explore alternatives, options, and opportunities in order to (a) expand the breadth and scope of services to North Dakota’s deaf and hard of hearing population and (b) in so doing, increase our cost/effectiveness. Both approaches are focused on maintaining our long-term viability and providing increasingly higher quality and expanded programs and services to a broader audience of deaf and hard of hearing pre-school, school-aged, and adult populations. The Blue Ribbon Task Force study was intended to involve a broad base of stakeholder organizations that are affiliated with and committed to serving North Dakota’s deaf and hard of hearing population. Please see page 3 of participating members. The final report was issued in late July last summer and consisted of the following— Summary of Report Outcomes/Recommendations: - Expansion of Outreach Services - Legislation to Expand Into Adult Services - Reduction of Staff through Attrition and Retirement Incentives/Buyouts - Consolidation of Dorm Spaces - Consolidation of Classroom Spaces - Lease of Unused Space - Development of a Fee Schedule for Facilities Use - Development of Partnerships and Collaborations with Local Agencies to Share Costs/Staff - Development of an Energy Management Plan A financial spreadsheet on page 4 provides information on our budget. In reference to the budget dollars as passed by the House, I'm requesting the following: I'm requesting that you restore the $123,427 federal fund authority for the Deafblind Services Project Coordinator which is 100% Federal Funds and unrelated to the Adult Services. I'm also requesting that you restore $76,749 general fund authority for the faculty position which we are targeting to use for the Adult Services position. Thank you for the past legislative support of NDSD and with your continued support NDSD will serve the citizens of North Dakota with high quality programs and services. Thank you. Rocklyn G. Cofer, Superintendent North Dakota School for the Deaf Blue Ribbon Panel Appointees (2003) Senator Jack Traynor, District 15 Representative Gene Nicholas, District 15 Representative Dennis Johnson, District 15 Dr. Wayne Sanstead, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Dr. Richard Kunkel, President, N.D. Board of Higher Education Dr. Sharon Etemad, President, Lake Region State College Mayor Fred Bott, Devils Lake City Commission Joe Belford, Ramsey County Commission Steve Swiontek, Superintendent, Devils Lake Public Schools Connie Hovendick, Director, Lake Region Special Education Unit Nancy Skorheim, Regional Coordinator, D.P.I. Special Education and Liaison for N.D. School for the Deaf Denise Wolf, Director, Lake Area Career and Technology Center Nancy Lundon, Regional Director for Vocational Rehabilitation Mark Hill, State Director for the N.D. Communications Services for the Deaf, Member of the Board of Directors for the N.D. Association for the Deaf Terry Wallace, Director, Devils Lake Park Board Greg Otis, Executive Director of Devils Lake Area Chamber of Commerce Julius Sayler, NDSD Parent, President of Devils Lake Outdoor Club for the Deaf, Board of Directors for the N.D. Friends of Deaf Children Foundation Carmen Suminski, Superintendent, N.D. School for the Blind/Vision Services Rocky Cofer, Superintendent, N.D. School for the Deaf Eric Lysne, Business Manager, N.D. School for the Deaf Carol Lybeck, Coordinator, Outreach/Parent Infant Program, N.D. School for the Deaf Dwight Keck, Director of Facilities, N.D. School for the Deaf Barb Duncan, Coordinator of Administrative Services, N.D. School for the Deaf Scott Craven, Director of Student Life, N.D. School for the Deaf Chuck Hawkins, Director of Food Service/Housekeeping, N.D. School for the Deaf Lilia Bakken, Coordinator of Communications Services and N.C.A. Steering Committee Co-Chair, N.D. School for the Deaf Darlene Schoenfish, Director of Health Services, N.D. School for the Deaf Kerry Olson-Rysavy, Technology Coordinator, N.D. School for the Deaf Colleen Sanford, Coordinator, N.D. Deafblind Services Project Mary Rutten, Instructor and N.C.A. Co-Chair, N.D. School for the Deaf Diane Rice, Instructor and Counselor, N.D. School for the Deaf Duane Knutson, NDSD Parent, Board Member at Large for the N.D. Ass’n. for the Deaf, and NDSD Staff Eileen Gray, Coordinator, Sign Language Interpreter Program at Lake Region State College Revised: 12/03 | | EXPENDITURES 1999-2001 | EXPENDITURES 2001-2003 | ORIGINAL APPROPRIATION BI 2003-2005 | GOV EXEC. BUDGET 2005-07 | HOUSE CHANGES | 2005-07 BUDGET AS PASSED BY THE HOUSE | REQUESTED AMENDMENTS | |----------------------|------------------------|------------------------|------------------------------------|--------------------------|---------------|-------------------------------------|---------------------| | Salaries & Wages | $4,258,412 | $4,585,615 | $4,809,808 | $5,106,474 | ($212,165) | $4,894,309 | $200,176 | | Operating | 1,021,139 | 1,058,463 | 1,102,160 | 1,429,150 | (51,885) | 1,377,265 | 0 | | Equip | 79,118 | 60,091 | | | | | | | Capital Assets | 62,761 | 67,000 | 32,723 | 279,495 | | 279,495 | 0 | | **TOTAL** | **$5,421,430** | **$5,769,169** | **$5,944,691** | **$6,815,119** | **($264,050)**| **$6,551,069** | **$200,176** | | General Funds | $4,697,192 | $5,001,131 | $5,073,242 | $5,488,553 | ($139,851) | $5,348,702 | $76,749 | | Federal Funds | 253,845 | 269,035 | 366,130 | 274,087 | (123,427) | 150,660 | 123,427 | | Special Funds | 470,393 | 499,003 | 505,319 | 1,052,479 | (772) | 1,051,707 | 0 | | **TOTAL** | **$5,421,430** | **$5,769,169** | **$5,944,691** | **$6,815,119** | **($264,050)**| **$6,551,069** | **$200,176** | | FTE | 53.93 | 53.10 | 51.85 | 49.94 | (2.00) | 47.94 | 2.00 | 1) Requesting restoration of $123,427 federal fund authority for Deafblind Services Project Coordinator Pos #1549 Asst Dir P/S Educ Prgrms 1.00 FTE (100% Federal Funds). 2) Requesting restoration of $76,749 general fund authority for outreach position for expanded adult services. Outreach Department and Parent-Infant Program Services Data July 1, 2004 to February 28, 2005 Services Provided Individuals Served: Infants and Toddlers 16 PIP Contacts (audiology appt., transitions, home visits, etc.) 175 Students 19 Indirect Services: Consultations (phone, email, etc.) 127 Connections newsletter 450 Direct Services: Audiological 45 Evaluations 3 Instruction 37 Summer Camps (31 in June 2004) In-Service Training 14 with 273 people Presentations 17 with 288 people Classes (# offered) 392 (# attending) 38 people Parent-Infant Program/Outreach Department | Department | Service Provided | Agency/Location | Frequency | Starting Date | Ending Date | City, (Service provided to) | Region | # Served | |-----------------|-----------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|---------------|--------------|-----------------------------|--------|----------| | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - NDSB Vision Services | Single (one time) | 9/30/2003 | 9/30/2003 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 4 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - Child & Family Services | Single (one time) | 10/3/2003 | 10/3/2003 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 12 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - Dept of Human Services | Single (one time) | 10/29/1933 | 10/20/2003 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 5 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - Dept of Human Services | Single (one time) | 12/5/2003 | 12/4/2003 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 5 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - NDSB Vision Services | Single (one time) | 1/13/2004 | 1/13/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 3 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - Dept of Commerce | Single (one time) | 1/26/2004 | 1/26/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 2 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - Ramsey Co Extension | Single (one time) | 1/30/2004 | 1/30/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 1 | | Technology | ASL II Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Daily | 1/13/2004 | 5/13/2004 | Willison | 2 | 8 | | Technology | ASL I Class via Video Conference | Students - High School | Daily | 1/27/1944 | 5/14/2004 | New Rockford | 3 | 3 | | Technology | ASL I Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Daily | 8/26/2003 | 12/18/2003 | Williston | 2 | 3 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 1/19/2004 | 5/3/2004 | Fargo | 5 | 6 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 1/14/2004 | 5/5/2004 | Grand Forks | 4 | 6 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 1/15/2004 | 5/20/2004 | Fargo | 5 | 5 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Organization - EduTech | Single (one time) | 2/5/2004 | 2/5/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 8 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Individual | Single (one time) | 2/10/2004 | 2/10/2004 | Leeds | 3 | 9 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Individual | Single (one time) | 2/24/2004 | 2/24/2004 | Drake | 4 | 6 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - NDSB Advisory Bd | Single (one time) | 4/6/2004 | 4/6/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 3 | | Technology | ASL Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Daily | 6/1/2004 | 7/1/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 4 | | Technology | ASL Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Daily | 7/6/2004 | 8/6/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 5 | | Technology | Conference Room | Agency - P&A | Single (one time) | 7/23/2004 | 7/23/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 4 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Public School Staff | Single (one time) | 8/3/2004 | 8/3/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Technology | Psy Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Weekly | 8/23/2004 | 12/17/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 16 | | Technology | Webinar Session | School Staff | Single (one time) | 8/18/2004 | 8/18/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 9 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 8/24/2004 | 12/7/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 8/25/2004 | 10/13/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 5 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 10/20/2004 | 12/15/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 8/26/2004 | 9/30/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Technology | ASL II English Class | Students - College | Weekly | 8/25/2004 | 12/7/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 9 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Family | Single (one time) | 9/3/2004 | 9/3/2004 | Fargo | 5 | 8 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Organization - NDATL | Single (one time) | 9/2/2004 | 9/2/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 4 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Organization - ND Tech Prep | Single (one time) | 9/7/2004 | 9/7/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 1 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Public School Staff | Single (one time) | 9/24/2004 | 9/24/2004 | Glenburn | 7 | 1 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - NDSB Vision Services | Single (one time) | 9/29/2004 | 9/29/2004 | Grand Forks | 4 | 3 | | Technology | Language & Auditory Tmg | Students - Elementary | Weekly | 10/7/2004 | 10/28/2004 | Cavalier | 4 | 1 | | Technology | Webinar Session | School Staff | Single (one time) | 9/9/2004 | 9/9/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Technology | WebEx | School Staff | Single (one time) | 10/12/2004 | 10/12/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 1 | | Technology | EduTech Training | Agency - NDSD | Single (one time) | 11/16/2004 | 11/16/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Technology | EduTech Training | Agency - NDSD | Single (one time) | 11/30/2004 | 11/30/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Agency - HSC | Single (one time) | 12/14/2004 | 12/14/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 1 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Organization - EduTech | Single (one time) | 12/16/2004 | 12/16/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 5 | | Technology | Conference Room | Organization - LR Skating Club | Single (one time) | 10/11/2004 | 10/11/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 15 | | Technology | Conference Room | Agency - Headstart | Monthly | 10/25/2004 | 12/13/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 20 | | Technology | ASL I Class via Video Conference | Students - HS/College | Daily | 8/24/2004 | 12/17/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 24 | | Department | Service Provided | Group Served | Frequency | Start Date | End Date | City (Service provided to) | Region | # Served | |------------|------------------|--------------|-----------|------------|----------------|----------------------------|--------|----------| | Technology | ASL I Class via Video Conference | Students - HS/College | Daily | 8/24/2004 | 12/17/2004 Devils Lake | 3 | 15 | | Technology | ASL I Class via Video Conference | Students - HS/College | Daily | 8/24/2004 | 12/17/2004 Multiple Locations | 3 | 17 | | Technology | ASL I Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Daily | 8/24/2004 | 12/17/2004 Multiple Locations | 3 | 10 | | Technology | Basic Sign via Video Conference | Individuals | Weekly | 9/7/2004 | 12/13/2004 Multiple Locations | 3 | 50 | | Technology | Video Conference Session - Orientation | Students - College | Single (one time) | 1/11/2005 | 1/11/2005 Bismarck | 7 | 16 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Students - High School | Single (one time) | 2/2/2005 | 2/2/2005 New Rockford | 3 | 8 | | Technology | Video Conference Session | Organization - NDATL | Single (one time) | 2/10/2005 | 2/10/2005 Multiple Locations | 3 | 4 | | Technology | Video Conference Session - Class | Agency - State Bar Assn | Single (one time) | 1/18/2005 | 2/18/2005 Multiple Locations | 3 | 8 | | Technology | Business Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Weekly | 1/12/2005 | 5/13/2005 Mayville | 6 | 21 | | Technology | Nursing Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 1/11/2005 | 5/12/2005 Multiple Locations | 2 | 8 | | Technology | Nursing Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Single (one time) | 1/26/2005 | 1/26/2005 Williston | 1 | 16 | | Technology | ASL II Class via Video Conference | Students - HS/College | Daily | 1/11/2005 | 5/26/2005 Multiple Locations | 3 | 15 | | Technology | ASL II via Video Conference | Students - HS/College | Daily | 1/11/2005 | 5/26/2005 Multiple Locations | 3 | 21 | | Technology | Basic ASL via Video Conference | Students - HS/College | Weekly | 1/11/2005 | 5/26/2005 Multiple Locations | 3 | 7 | | Technology | Nursing Class via Video Conference | Students - College | Single (one time) | 2/2/2005 | 2/2/2005 Williston | 1 | 16 | | Technology | ASL 202 via Video Conference | Students - College | Weekly | 1/11/2005 | 5/12/2005 Williston | 1 | 12 | | Technology | Nutrition & Health Class via Video Conference | Individual | Weekly | 1/10/2005 | 5/2/2005 Multiple Locations | 3 | 1 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 3/23/2005 | 5/4/2005 Multiple Locations | 3 | 5 | | Technology | Educ Class via Video Conference | Adults | Weekly | 1/12/2005 | 3/9/2005 Multiple Locations | 3 | 50 | | Department | Service Provided | For Whom | How Often? | Starting Date | Ending Date | City (Service provided to) | Region | # Served | |------------|------------------|---------|-----------|---------------|-------------|----------------------------|--------|----------| | Communications | ASL I class | Students - HS/College | Semester | 1/27/2004 | 5/13/2004 | New Rockford | 3 | 3 | | Communications | ASL II | Students - HS/College | Semester | 1/13/2004 | 5/13/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 48 | | Communications | ASL I | Students - High School | Semester | 1/13/2004 | 5/26/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 15 | | Communications | Basic Sign Class | Students - various ages | Weekly | 1/13/2004 | 3/16/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 25 | | Communications | Interpcel CPR | Agency | Single | 2/23/2004 | 2/23/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 7 | | Communications | Defensive Driving Interpreter | Agency | Single | 2/7/2004 | 2/7/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 4 | | Communications | Interpreter | Agency (4-H) | Single | 3/5/2004 | 3/5/2004 | Valley City | 6 | 3 | | Communications | Interpreter (Drug Use) | Agency | Single | 3/17/2004 | 3/17/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 9 | | Communications | ITP Outreach | Organization | Single | 3/22/2004 | 3/22/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 4 | | Communications | Interpreter Staff Training | Agency | Single | 3/25/2004 | 3/25/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Advertising/promoting Family Weekend | Organization | Weekly | 2/1/2004 | 3/26/2004 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 35 | | Communications | Interpreter Headstart | Agency | Monthly | 1/1/2004 | 5/1/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Interpreter Football Banquet | Agency | Single | 3/30/2004 | 3/30/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 4 | | Communications | Interpreter Career/Tech Advisory Board | Agency | Single | 4/6/2004 | 4/6/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 8 | | Communications | Interpreter Federal Review Committee/Headstart | Agency | Single | 4/7/2004 | 4/7/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 6 | | Communications | Interpreter & Committee Member Friend's Foundation | Organization | Single | 4/16/2004 | 4/16/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 6 | | Communications | Interpreter IEP | Agency | Single | 5/4/2004 | 5/4/2004 | New Rockford | 3 | 8 | | Communications | Interpreter Ramsey Housing Authority | Agency | Single | 5/7/2004 | 5/7/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Interpreter CMS Awards | Agency | Single | 5/17/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 5 | | Communications | Interpreter Field Trip Winnipeg CMS | Agency | Single | 5/18/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Interpreter ES | Individual | Single | 5/28/2004 | Fargo | 5 | 4 | | Communications | ASL I (Summer, 2004, 1st Semester) | Students - College | Daily | 6/1/2004 | 7/1/2004 | Multiple Locations | 1 | 9 | | Communications | ASL II (Summer, 2004, 2nd Semester) | Students - College | Daily | 7/6/2004 | 8/5/2004 | Multiple Locations | 1 | 9 | | Communications | Interpreter Food Prep | Agency | Daily | 6/1/2004 | 7/1/220 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Interpreter - Driver's Ed | Agency | Daily | 6/1/2004 | 6/14/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Basic Sign Class - DD Staff | Agency | Weekly | 6/8/2004 | 8/10/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 15 | | Communications | Interpreter - Human Service Center | Agency | Single | 6/23/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 5 | | Communications | Interpreter - 4th Corp | Agency | Single | 6/25/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 8 | | Communications | Interpreter - 4th Corp | Agency | Single | 7/1/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 8 | | Communications | Interpreter - Counseling | Agency | Single | 7/8/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Interpreter - Job Interview | Business/Workplace | Single | 7/12/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Department | Service Provided | Organization/Agency | For Whom | How Often? | Starting Date | Ending Date | City (Service provided to) | Region | # Served | |------------|------------------|---------------------|---------|------------|---------------|-------------|----------------------------|--------|----------| | Communications | Interpreter | Organization | Weekly | 7/19/2004 | 11/29/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 9 | | Communications | ASL I | Students - HS/College | Daily | 8/23/2004 | 5/27/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 64 | | Communications | Basic Sign Class | Students - various ages | Weekly | 9/7/2004 | 12/7/2004 | Multiple Locations | 0 | 40 | | Communications | Interpreter & Member, Friends Foundation | Organization | Single | 9/9/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 6 | | Communications | Interpreter - Ramsey Housing | Agency | Single | 9/20/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Communications | Interpreter - Field Trip to Sully's Hill | Students - Elementary | Single | 9/23/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 6 | | Communications | Speaker - Career Days | Agency | Single | 9/29/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 30 | | Communications | Interpreter - 4th Corp | Agency | Single | 9/27/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 6 | | Communications | Guest Speaker - Kiwanis | Organization | Single | 10/19/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 15 | | Communications | Interpreter - Program at LRSC | Students - Middle School | Single | 10/28/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 15 | | Communications | Interpreter - Coach BB Clinic | Agency | Single | 10/28/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Guest Speaker - MSU Students | Agency | Single | 10/29/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Interpreter - PT Conference | Agency | Single | 11/2/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 5 | | Communications | Interpreter - IEP Minnie H | Agency | Single | 11/3/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 5 | | Communications | Advisory Board Member - LRSC ITP | Agency | Single | 11/10/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 8 | | Communications | Interpreter - Headstart Staff meeting | Agency | Single | 11/11/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 4 | | Communications | Interpreter - PT meeting, Minnie H | Agency | Single | 12/13/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Communications | Guest Speaker - LR Corp. Nurses | Agency | Single | 11/4/2004 | Devils Lake | 3 | 12 | | Communications | Copy/mail sign video | Agency | Single | 12/27/2004 | Minot | 6 | | Communications | Mail video sign lessons | Family | Single | 1/4/2005 | Grand Forks | 3 | | Communications | Interpreter - funeral | Family | Single | 1/5/2005 | Jamestown | 2 | | Communications | Interpreter - Social Security | Agency | Single | 1/5/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Communications | Interpret - BB practice/games/DLHS | Students - High School | Daily | 11/22/2004 | 3/12/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 12 | | Communications | Referral to Rolewitz sign class | Individual | Single | 1/3/2005 | Fargo | 1 | | Communications | Basic American Sign Language - Spring 2005 | Students - various ages | Semester | 1/11/2005 | 4/19/2005 | Multiple Locations | 0 | 57 | | Communications | Interpreter Referral | Business/Workplace | Single | 1/12/2005 | Devils Lake | 0 | 2 | | Communications | Mail Harris Catalog to former parent/student | Family | Single | 1/31/2005 | Cole Harbor | 0 | 2 | | Communications | ASL II (Spring 2005 Semester) | Students - various ages | Semester | 1/11/2005 | 5/26/2005 | Multiple Locations | 3 | 54 | | Communications | ASL I (Spring 2005 Semester) | Students - High School | Semester | 1/11/2005 | 5/26/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 6 | | Communications | BB Game (Sophomore Team) | Students - High School | Single | 2/18/2005 | 2/18/2005 | Valley City | 0 | 15 | | Communications | Interpreter (Human Service Center) | Student - Middle School | Weekly | 2/1/2005 | 5/24/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 2 | | Department | Service Provided | For Whom | How Often? | Starting Date | Ending Date | City (Service provided to) | Region # | # Served | |-----------------|-----------------------------------|------------|------------|---------------|--------------|----------------------------|----------|----------| | Communications | Interpreter - LR Special Ed | Family | Single | 2/24/2005 | 2/24/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 8 | | Communications | Interpreter - Defensive Driving Course | Organization | Single | 2/25/2005 | 2/25/2005 | Devils Lake | 4 | 0 | | Communications | Interpreter - Lake Region Special Ed | Family | Single | 2/15/2005 | 2/25/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Consult - Lake Region State College | Agency | Single | 2/14/2005 | 2/14/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 4 | | Communications | Meth Presentation by Minot presenters | Students - High School | Single | 2/16/2005 | 2/16/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 12 | | Communications | Interpret - PT Conference | Family | Single | 2/10/2005 | 2/10/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 4 | | Communications | Interpret - PT Conference | Family | Single | 2/10/2005 | 2/10/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Interpret - BB game @ Dak.Prairie (9th grade) | School | Single | 2/3/2005 | 2/3/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 15 | | Communications | Interpret - ND Closeup Convention | Organization | Single | 2/14/2005 | 2/15/2005 | Bismarck | 0 | 3 | | Communications | Interpret - Parent's Night NDSD BB team | School | Single | 2/8/2005 | 2/8/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 12 | | Communications | Interpret - USDA Conference Call | Agency | Single | 2/10/2005 | 2/10/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 3 | | Communications | Interpret - bb practive/games | DLHS | bb season | 11/25/2004 | 2/26/2005 | Devils Lake | 3 | 15 | North Dakota School for the Deaf Geographical Distribution of Students/Families July 1, 2004 - NDSD (30 Students) - Parent-Infant Program/Outreach (18 Families) - PIP/Outreach Assessments/Consults/Inservices MISSION STATEMENT Through residential and day programming, the North Dakota School for the Deaf will provide optimum educational, social/emotional, and cultural experiences for deaf and hard of hearing children ages 0-21 and will serve as a resource center for outreach services for all North Dakota citizens. MAJOR GOALS Within the scope of local, state, and federal laws and regulations: - provide hearing impaired children of North Dakota with comprehensive services designed to promote communication skills, educational, vocational, and personal/social development. - develop individual abilities toward self-sufficiency in society. - provide services and training to parents of deaf and deafblind children so they can be informed, active participants in their children's educational process. - provide an outreach program which assists local educational agencies with assessments, evaluations, consultations, and resources. - serve as a state-wide resource center on deafness and deafblindness providing information, material, assistance, and referrals to many state agencies, health/medical organizations, parents, families, and a variety of other interested individuals and/or groups. - provide unduplicated services to adults who are deaf or hard of hearing through the NDSD Outreach Program such as consultations, evaluations, information, training, and educational services in the areas of auditory training, technology, assistive technology, life skills, recreation and so forth. PROGRAM The North Dakota School for the Deaf (NDSD) was established in 1890 by the North Dakota Constitution and is located in Devils Lake. NDSD is under the direction, control, and management of the Department of Public Instruction. The school is an educational facility established for the education of children with severe to profound hearing loss who are residents of North Dakota. Out-of-state students are accepted on a tuition basis. The North Dakota School for the Deaf is seeking to expand its mission to include the adult deaf population of the state through outreach programming which may be both direct and indirect services. This legislation has been introduced for consideration by the 59th Legislative Assembly. The North Dakota School for the Deaf uses specialized curriculum and teaching methods and a highly trained educational staff to deliver information directly to students using signed and oral communication as per the specific language needs of the child. The school provides comprehensive educational programming that covers a broad range of disciplines including traditional academics, vocational education, special studies, physical education, and art. Further educational and social opportunities for students are presented through the residential, extra-curricular, and recreational programs. Students also are able to learn about and experience Deaf Culture through activities with their deaf peers and with deaf adults in the community. The major emphasis in all programming at NDSD is the focus on receptive and expressive language acquisition with a hands-on/experiential approach to learning. NDSD is fully accredited with the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction, North Central Accreditation Commission on Accreditation and School Improvement, and the Conference of Educational Administrators Serving the Deaf. The residential program at the North Dakota School for the Deaf provides services that enable students who are deaf and hard of hearing to develop essential skills that will allow them to be productive citizens of our communities. We provide an environment where students can develop intellectually as well as emotionally and socially. Students learn and benefit from the trained staff, role models, and peers that are deaf in an environment that provides communication among individuals working at or attending our school. In this way, the NDSD residential learning environment enhances the students' incidental learning, cultural learning, and communication skills. The students' social needs are met and NDSD minimizes their feelings of isolation. A vital part of meeting the needs of our students in developing language and social skills is the opportunity to be involved in activities within the local community. Students are mainstreamed when appropriate with their hearing peers in classes offered at the Devils Lake Public Schools and Lake Area Career and Technology Center. Hearing students from the public schools are able to attend select classes at NDSD in a reverse mainstream program. American Sign Language classes are currently being offered throughout the day. Other opportunities open to NDSD students in the community include church activities, Scouting, 4H, Devils Lake Park Board recreation, dance, skating, and so forth. Holistic care--assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation--is provided to all students through the nursing process. Services provided include assessment and treatment of injuries and acute illnesses, health promotion and disease prevention, emergency care, and control of communicable diseases. NDSD supports a Parent-Infant Program for hearing impaired children from birth to three years of age. Through this program, children and their families from throughout North Dakota receive specialized instruction in the home that facilitates communication and language development, child development, auditory training, emotional support, and assistance in identifying resources in their area. Identification of hearing loss as close to birth as possible is a major goal of the program. To that end, NDSD does provide Otoacoustic Emissions (OAE) screening on campus for children ages 0-3. As an outreach/resource center for both deaf and deafblind, NDSD provides assessment, evaluation, and consultation services to local agencies. It also provides information, technical assistance, and referrals to many other state agencies, the medical and/or health agencies/professionals, and other groups. NDSD provides a variety of workshops and classes dealing with issues appropriate to the education of deaf and hard of hearing students. Through programming provided by the North Dakota School for the Deaf, hearing impaired students in North Dakota have the opportunity to grow intellectually, socially, and emotionally in a 24-hour language rich environment and acquire the necessary skills to integrate into society as productive citizens. PHILOSOPHY Through a caring, nurturing 24-hour residential and academic program, NDSD provides educational and social opportunities which advance all students to their fullest potential, emphasizes positive values and good health, and encourages all students to view learning as a life-long endeavor in an ever changing world. The primary emphasis of each child's program is the development of functional language that includes both expressive and receptive skills, speech, speech reading, manual communication (sign language and fingerspelling), reading, writing, and auditory processing. Each child's program stresses development of positive social and emotional attitudes, achievement in academic areas, vocational exploration, and development of life-long independent living skills. Through the cooperative efforts of the academic and residential living program, progress towards maximizing each child's potential will be made in: - the development of communication skills for interacting with both hearing and deaf members of society. - the development of skills in identifying problems, thinking effectively about them, and acting constructively in developing solutions. the development of positive attitudes about self and his/her deafness and their role in their families and society. - the productive use of leisure time such as the acquisition of a broad range of interests, appreciation of recreational reading, hobbies, games, physical skills, fine arts, and extra-curricular activities. - learning self-control in concert with society's standards and development of lasting values of self-esteem, honesty, truthfulness, and respect for authority. - the exploration of prevocational, vocational, and post secondary educational alternatives. **TRENDS IN EDUCATION OF THE DEAF** The National Association of the Deaf, the Conference of Educational Administrators Serving the Deaf, and the National Association of State Directors of Special Education are working on plans whereby each state will develop a comprehensive plan of action for services to deaf students. Based on the Commission on Education for the Deaf report and as part of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), deaf students should be placed according to individual factors and not the least restrictive environment (LRE) meaning closest to home. Emphasis also will be placed on the certification of specialized staff, programming, and communication. Consequently, the superintendent predicts that during the 2005-2007 biennium NDSD should have about 32 students on campus and 15 in the parent-infant program. Another trend NDSD is seeing involves a changing student population. A significant number of the students attending NDSD have more than just concerns about hearing to deal with. Fifty-three percent of our current student population has learning disabilities and secondary handicapping conditions that compound the academic challenges facing these students in their school programming. The staff has to move beyond traditional methods to find the best way to help these students learn. This again takes additional time and training. A significant trend in the education of deaf children is the incorporation of a Bilingual-Bicultural (Bi-Bi) philosophy of language, communication, and culture. This philosophy places emphasis on using American Sign Language (ASL) along with other sign systems for communication starting at a very young age. This would involve requiring all staff to improve their ASL skills along with additional training in deaf culture. Bi-Bi involves setting up sign language competencies for each job and developing an individual evaluation and training program to improve sign skills for each staff member. NDSD will continue to work toward this goal. Salary Administration Plans – A comprehensive salary administration plan for classified staff continues to be updated and utilized when the legislature provides funding. The NDSD teachers participate in the Combined Schools Advisory Council (CSAC). This past year, CSAC asked Human Resources Management Services to conduct a teacher salary survey of schools in North Dakota to provide information for a new Composite Salary Schedule for teachers. NDSD, as a member of CSAC, used this new salary schedule as a guide in developing the teacher salaries for the biennium. Strategic Plan - NDSD’s strategic plan as developed and implemented by its staff and administration is the foundation for budget and program decisions. This past year, as a recommendation in a study of NDSD by Dr. Roger Worner, a Blue Ribbon Task Force was appointed by Dr. Wayne Sanstead. This Task Force worked with NDSD staff in developing pro-active strategies to deal with the declining student enrollment. Strategies recommended by the Task Force for NDSD to include in its plan were to be more collaborative with other agencies, move into adult services through the legislative process, make better use of unused space, and reduce expenditures and staff where possible. Educational Programming – NDSD’s educational and dorm staff continued to refine the Reading, Writing, Daily Living, and Community Skills curriculum and the comprehensive Language Curriculum for preschool through 12th grade. NDSD developed and implemented a Career Development Curriculum. NDSD is in compliance with IDEA regulations. Communications Department – Advancements in technology have enhanced educational opportunities for students in ND. As a member of a consortium of technology-ready high schools, the North Dakota School for the Deaf has implemented interactive teleconference network (IVN) courses in order to provide unique educational opportunities for students in the state. NDSD provides IVN outreach courses in American Sign Language I and II via teleconference instruction. During 2004-2005, twenty-five students from the following schools enrolled in IVN ASL classes at NDSD: Medina, McClusky, Rugby, Tappen, Fessenden-Bowden, Williston and Adams-Edmore. The teleconference technology has also provided the opportunity for families of students attending NDSD to learn sign language as well. The first evening IVN class in Basic American Sign Language was provided during the fall semester of 2004 with linked sites to Garrison High School, Hillsboro High School and Valley City State University. Families and friends of students attending NDSD were able to learn to communicate using sign language. More than forty students were enrolled in these classes. The IVN classes have been successful thus far and NDSD plans to expand IVN course offerings next school year (2005-2006). Each student mainstreamed into a public school class requires a sign language interpreter in order to access the information being presented by the teacher. The Communications Department provides interpreter services for students who have enrolled in educational programs at Devils Lake High School, Lake Area Career and Technical Center, and Central Middle School. If, in order to succeed, the deaf students also require the use of additional support services such as note-taking and/or tutoring services then arrangements for those services are made through the Communications Department. For students who are deaf, mainstreaming into the public school environment is easier if they are able to communicate with public school students who are able to use sign language. In an effort to alleviate the communication barriers, NDSD provides a ‘reverse mainstream’ opportunity in which hearing students from local public schools may choose to enroll in American Sign Language (ASL) as an elective course. The ASL classes have been well attended by students from the public schools! During the 2003-2004 school term, there were more than fifty students enrolled in ASL classes at NDSD. During 2004-2005, the number of students enrolled in ASL classes increased to sixty-five. Many educational films being used in public school classrooms are not closed-captioned (scripted) for deaf students. When films are used in a classroom without captions, deaf students need to rely on an interpreter to sign what’s being said or be given a copy of the script to pre-read. The Communications Department has obtained captioning equipment and software that encodes captions onto un-captioned films. With financial grant awards, several staff members from the Communications Department have been trained to use the software and have been transcribing and captioning educational films for deaf and hard-of-hearing students enrolled in the state’s public schools. To date, more than 100 educational videotapes have been captioned for schools/educators in North Dakota. All students, including those who are deaf or hard of hearing, have rights to educational and extra-curricular opportunities provided by public schools. However, in order for deaf students to understand what is taking place, they must be provided with sign language interpreters who have the skill necessary to provide the information. A shortage of skilled, certified interpreters exists in North Dakota. In an effort to alleviate the interpreter shortage, staff members from the North Dakota School for the Deaf and Lake Region State College are co-sponsoring an educational program called the American Sign Language and Interpreter Studies (ASL&IS) program. The ASL&IS program is designed for college students who are interested in a career as sign language interpreters and who have a desire to work with individuals who are deaf. NDSD provides classroom and extra-curricular practicum sites and supervision for the student/intern interpreters. Resident Living – Residential staff continued to develop the behavior learning and levels of responsibility program, dormitory shop project, and backpack reading program. A Community Integration Vocational Development Program was implemented for NDSD students 14 years and older. This program gave the student trainees functional training to develop on-the-job skills, the opportunity to deal with people outside the home and school environment, and the self-confidence and experience to pursue gainful employment after leaving NDSD. The students did their training with local businesses. Dormitory staff participated in the sign language evaluation and improvement program. They also provided language development, independent living skills, and leisure activities for dorm students. Health Services – Holistic care was provided to students. NDSD continued to provide services/programs regarding Universal Precautions/Bloodborne Pathogens, CPR, First Aid, dental care, visual care, prevention of communicable diseases, and so forth. Grants were written in which $1,200 was obtained to promote healthy nutrition and an Automated External Defibrillator was obtained for emergency care within the school. Outreach/Parent-Infant Program – Regional Outreach/PIP staff are located in Fargo, Minot, Bismarck, and Devils Lake, allowing NDSD to better provide effective and consistent support statewide. The outreach staff provided educational and support services to special education units, local school districts, Head Start Programs, daycare programs, Early Intervention Programs, Vocational Rehab, Senior Centers, and other agencies serving deaf and hard of hearing students. The outreach staff provided direct services, on-site and via video conferencing; professional development opportunities; E.A.C.H. classes; sign language classes, consultations; IEP involvement; workshops; inservices; demonstrations; and modeling in the areas of impact of hearing loss, deafness, language development, communication, speech/speech reading, classroom amplification, classroom strategies and management, and appropriate teaching materials. Consultations and support were provided to professionals, parents, and other interested individuals for effective educational programming, accommodations, modifications, special services, and information needed to address the specialized needs. Comprehensive assessment services—speech, language, educational, audiological, social/emotional, and so forth—also were provided to students with hearing loss and deafblindness. The NDSD Outreach Department worked with Minot State University to provide teaching staff for their Deaf Education Program. The Parent-Infant Program provided services to eighteen families of deaf/hard of hearing children. The NDSD Connections, an informational paper, was published. Information pamphlets, videotapes, books, assistive devices information, and teaching materials were made available upon request. A staff person in each office was available to answer questions or make referrals. Summer camps were planned. The camps were made available to and utilized by students from across the state. NDSD received regular requests for audiological services via OAE hearing screenings for infants, hard to screen individuals, as well as the hearing evaluations of school age students during the assessment process. Deafblind Services Project – This federally funded project provides technical assistance and support to families, teachers, and other service providers of infants, toddlers, and youth who are deafblind or at risk for deafblindness in the state of North Dakota. Technical assistance has been in the form of information, identification, training and workshops, consultation services, development of new service delivery procedures and strategies, and the building of partnerships between the various agencies serving individuals who are deafblind. The project also has a resource lending library that has informational material, resource books, curricula, modules, video-tapes, journals, and other educational material. The project served up to 43 students this past biennium. Technology – The North Dakota School for the Deaf continues to integrate and improve technology throughout the entire campus including the educational, residential and business areas. NDSD, as a state agency, submitted its IT Plan to the state and, as a K-12 school, submitted a plan to the Educational Technology Council (ETC). These plans are reviewed and updated as goals are reached and needs are identified. Recent accomplishments include: (1) Installation and implementation of a Captioning Center providing the service of captioning VHS videos for schools, families, and so forth, working with the deaf and hard of hearing. (2) In collaboration with the Information Technology Department (ITD) staff, updated and met compliancy web accessibility issues on its web site. (3) Installation and implementation of a second IVN room due to an increase of IVN requests for classes/meetings and in collaboration of services with Lake Region State College. (4) Completion of network and phone connection wiring as a result of major renovation projects around campus. (5) Upgraded all workstations on the LAN to Windows 2000 Professional and/or Windows XP. Risk Management Program – NDSD recently submitted the Continuity of Operations Plan to the Division of Emergency Management. The purpose of the plan is to establish a business continuity/disaster recovery plan if an event would impact its ability to function. The school’s Risk Management Workers Compensation Program continues to be followed and includes training of new staff and annual retraining of incumbent staff. NDSD also participates in the Risk Management Fund Program. This qualifies the school for premium reductions. Physical Plant – Six big, unsafe cottonwood trees were removed from the playground area. More than 100 trees were planted on the campus grounds, and the exterior of the apartment house was painted. The audit of campus buildings was completed for the energy conservation plan. The Facility Use Committee was assembled to plan for future use of the buildings and grounds. NDSD planned and implemented remodeling to move the educational classrooms from the Spear (school) Building to the west end of the top floor and main floor of the Smith (administration) Building. Head Start and the Early Explorers Programs are leasing the Spear Building except for two rooms in the basement level that are reserved for closed captioning use. The south parking lot was expanded to accommodate more than 30 additional vehicles. A security camera digital recorder was purchased and installed. A new swimming pool cover was purchased. NDSD continues to lease unused office space to Protection & Advocacy and is leasing the superintendent’s residence and two apartments in the apartment building to staff members. NDSD also rents 900 square feet of space in the vocational building to Lake Region School of Martial Arts. MAJOR PROBLEMS FACING THE SCHOOL Recruitment of qualified staff such as teachers, interpreters, dorm counselors, nurses, and so forth, continues to be one of the greatest challenges due to the special communications requirements needed to work with deaf children. Once hired, the challenges involve planning and the provision of the ongoing professional development and training needed to bring new staff up to speed on, and veteran staff abreast of, issues and methods which are critical to the education of deaf students locally, at the state level, and very importantly, on a national level. This requires staff involvement on a regular basis on local, state, regional, and national level conferences and training opportunities. Salaries for staff with special certification/expertise/skills working with the hearing impaired, fluent sign language skills, knowledge of deaf culture, and so forth, is barely minimal and not competitive enough to draw people with these skills to Devils Lake, North Dakota, and keep them here. NDSD recruits on a nationwide basis given no special or very limited numbers of professionals with specialized training in North Dakota. The recruitment process is difficult and often, potential candidates look elsewhere when informed of starting salary. Devils Lake does not offer many, if any, post graduate classes for professionals to continue their education or to maintain licensure. Consequently, people may need to commute to Grand Forks, Fargo, or Minot for these opportunities or look out-of-state. Professional Development continues to be an issue for NDSD. The development of staff expertise necessary for the growth and maintenance of the specialized skills to work with deaf children is a must. This expertise includes upgrading sign skills and understanding deaf culture, development of educational and professional skills in the methodology and techniques for delivery of curricular material to deaf children, to develop skills in the use of technology for the delivery of curricular material to deaf children, and also to develop skills in the use of technology for the delivery of student and staff information. NDSD is optimistic that with the development of a system of video conferencing in North Dakota this will be a way to receive and deliver classes to our staff. Families’ needs – Added to the considerable stresses that families experience, parents and families of deaf children face the formidable challenge of accepting, adapting to, and dealing with their child’s deafness. Assisting them early in this process and consistently being there through their child’s development and all of the related and complicated social and educational issues is critical. This requires a strong outreach/parent-infant component and adequate linkage with community and state service agencies. Technology – NDSD has a technology plan that will help address many of the historical disadvantages created for the deaf people by the widespread use of the telephone and to overcome the curriculum and professional development limitations created by a low enrollment. Additional hardware, software, and technical assistance to discover and to employ existing technology for students and staff are important. The advent of internet communication has enabled the deaf to open doors of communication not available before. The development of skills in the area of computer/technology is a high priority for the staff and students. Video conferencing and video relay are now significant technologies that enable deaf individuals to communicate in sign language through the internet. Outreach – Responding to NDSD’s expanded resource center responsibilities requires additional outreach services such as evaluations, consultations, inservice training, and interpreting related training, evaluation, and referral. Adequate response requires input and involvement of many NDSD professionals who provide direct services to NDSD students all day, every day during the school term. Addition of adult services will require the NDSD outreach staff and others to get training in services to adult populations. STATUS OF CURRENT APPROPRIATION An adjustment to the 2003-05 appropriation was a line item transfer of $40,000 from Salaries & Wages to the Capital Assets line for expansion of the parking lot. The 2003-05 appropriation appears adequate. Expenditures to date are within budget estimates. A deficiency is not anticipated. Salaries & Wages represent 80% of the current appropriation and the school's most important resource—its specialized staff. Developing and retaining its professional staff is a top priority at NDSD. The school appreciates the additional funding to place teachers on the 2003-05 composite salary schedule developed by the Human Resource Management Services and continued funding for temporary help. A teacher and a cook position were unfunded in this biennium. The school has experienced several extended vacancies during the biennium (special needs and art teachers). A national shortage of professionals with specialized training to serve deaf students exists and recruitment to North Dakota remains difficult. Other current vacancies include: dorm counselor, houseparent, deafblind project coordinator, custodian, administrative assistant, and psychologist. As outreach/adult services evolve, a determination will be made on the status of vacant positions relevant to personnel needs. Operating Expenses represent 18.5% of the current appropriation. Major costs are the Weekend Transportation Program (motor pool mileage, air charter, miscellaneous travel), utilities, food, data processing and telecommunications. Capital Assets represent 1.2% of the current appropriation. Current project is scheduled for completion by the end of the biennium. The School for the Deaf, its staff, students, and parents are grateful to the Governor, legislators and taxpayers of North Dakota for their unfailing support received during its more than 114 years of providing quality educational services to deaf students. For 2005-07 the school presented a 100% general fund budget request in accordance with executive guidelines. In addition, the school presented an optional adjustment request to complete a facility improvement project. The budget request was for $6,358,907—a 7.0% increase from the current appropriation. The special funds appropriation request increased due to the associated costs involved with the rental of a building to Head Start. Salaries & Wages – The 2.4% increase reflects an additional appropriation for teacher salary increases pursuant to the composite schedule for state teachers developed by Human Resource Management Services. This was offset somewhat by the elimination of a psychologist and administrative assistant positions. A custodian position was also reduced by .25 FTE. Operating Expenses – The 29.7% increase reflects the increased IT and food expenditures due to a lease to Head Start. These increased costs will be offset by the increase in special funds revenue. This also reflects increased costs for professional services due to contracting of psychology services as a result of eliminating that position. Capital Assets – A 35.9% decrease from the current appropriation. The request is for replacement of the pool building roof and road repairs. 2005-07 OPTIONAL ADJUSTMENTS Capital Assets - $232,850 requested for campus-wide facility energy improvement measures. 2005-07 EXECUTIVE RECOMMENDATION The school appreciates the funding of $149,975 to place contracted staff on the proper step and lane of the 2005-07 composite salary schedule as developed by Human Resources Management Services and the compensation package. The school also appreciates the special fund authority of $232,850 for energy facility improvement projects. "Hearing loss is the least of his worries" and other misconceptions about the role of hearing in children with multiple disabilities. By: Holly Pedersen, M.S. CED, North Dakota School for the Deaf Parent-Infant & Outreach Programs (2004) With help from Brady Ness, Au.D./CCC-A, MedCenter One Audiologist Hearing loss has often been called the "hidden disability" because it may not be as observable as other disabilities. But, the impact of hearing loss, no matter how mild, cannot be underestimated for any child. Sometimes, when children are born with multiple disabilities, it is logical for hearing to "be put on the back burner" while other, more urgent issues are addressed. Unfortunately, all too often this "hidden" disability remains on the back of the stove for a variety of reasons. This article serves to help clarify some common misconceptions related to hearing loss in children who have multiple disabilities with the ultimate goal being to assist these children in using all learning avenues to the maximum extent possible. "The question of hearing loss can wait until other issues have been resolved" Certainly, many children born with multiple disabilities have urgent and complex medical needs, which require immediate attention. Informed decisions made by the child's family and Physician on these matters must be respected. The efficacy of early identification of hearing loss in all children must also be understood. With the advent of Universal Newborn Hearing Screening, much research has been conducted about whether or not early identification and intervention for children with hearing loss makes a difference. The work of Dr. Christine Yoshinaga-Itano, University of Colorado at Boulder, and others has found that identification and intervention for hearing loss before 6 months of age has significant benefits to language development. This research has received much attention and has lead to this timeline being the standard of care. While it has not received as much publicity, Yoshinaga-Itano's research also suggests that this early identification benefit extends to children with additional disabilities. Consider the following: ![Graph showing mean total language quotient scores at 31 to 36 months by age of identification of hearing loss and cognition.] (Yoshinaga-Itano, Sedley, Coulter & Mehl, 1998) Clearly, all children deserve the opportunity to make the best use possible of their hearing. "A functional hearing evaluation is the same as an Audiological evaluation" It is widely accepted that a functional hearing evaluation is considered best practice for children who have (or may have) deafblindness (and) multiple disabilities. However, just what constitutes a functional hearing evaluation is not as easily agreed upon. In general, a functional hearing evaluation involves gathering observational information about how a child uses her hearing in her environment: Does the child show an awareness of sounds? What types of sounds does the child most often respond to? How does the child respond? How do different sounds and different situations affect the child’s response? Can the child recognize different sounds? Does he locate certain sounds in his environment? etc. Functional hearing evaluation protocols range from simple to sophisticated depending on the capabilities of the child. This type of information can be extremely helpful in planning communication/educational programming; however, it should not stand alone as an assessment of hearing. The necessity of regular involvement, input and evaluation(s) from an Audiologist must not be overlooked. It is possible for children with multiple disabilities to have “normal” hearing on Audiological measures and yet, functionally, not respond to sound normally. It is also possible for a child to demonstrate responses to a variety of sounds in his environment and still have a significant hearing loss. In either case, knowing if the peripheral system is normal must be determined as soon as possible. If the Audiologist identifies a conductive hearing loss, sometimes this type of hearing loss can be medically or surgically corrected. If a sensorineural hearing loss is present, the Audiologist may recommend amplification and/or other assistive listening technology that can significantly improve the child’s potential for using his/her residual hearing. The functional hearing evaluation of a child after the fitting and consistent use of amplification can look very different than before. "Children who have multiple disabilities are too difficult to test – most often, conclusive results cannot be obtained" An Audiologist has several types of procedures at his/her disposal to assess the hearing capabilities of an individual of any age. The type(s) of measures used can depend upon various factors such as time, age, visual acuity, motor skills and cognitive ability. Audiological evaluations can include both objective tests (the test is not dependent on the child to indicate his/her response) and subjective tests (the child’s behaviors under controlled conditions are observed as a measure of hearing). A brief and simplified overview of some common Audiological procedures includes: Tympanometry is not a test of hearing, but of middle ear function. It can help identify the presence of an ear infection or anatomical problems. This involves a small probe inserted in the child’s ear while the device measures such things as eardrum mobility, ear canal volume and pressure. OAE (otoacoustic emissions) is an objective measure that helps determine hearing acuity. It is most often used to screen the hearing of newborns, but can be used for any age. This procedure is based on the fact that a healthy cochlea emits an “echo” in response to hearing a sound. During an OAE, a small probe is inserted in the child’s ear and a computer records the presence or absence of this echo. An OAE does not hurt the child, in fact it is best if the child is sleeping, still and quiet. Under such conditions, an OAE can take as little as 5 minutes to complete. ABR (auditory brainstem response) is also an objective measure that can help assess a child’s peripheral hearing system by recording brainwaves during the presentation of sounds. This test is not painful to the child – small electrodes are pasted to the child’s head, a probe is inserted in the ear and the computer records the child’s brainwaves as sounds are introduced. A child must be still and quiet for an ABR to be completed. Since ABR takes longer (1-2 hours) to complete than an OAE, a child may not stay asleep for the entire procedure. Sometimes, the child’s Physician may recommend sedation; however, this may be an area of caution for many children with significant health concerns. Behavioral Testing consists of several techniques that examine the child’s responses to sounds under controlled conditions in a sound booth. The Audiologist may be able to gather reliable auditory responses by observing the child’s behavior in this situation. Clearly, the team (including the Audiologist) must work together to consider the unique characteristics of each child to determine what combination of procedures is most appropriate. Assessing the hearing of children with multiple disabilities certainly presents challenges and often requires more than one attempt. But, with continued teamwork it can be done. Any information that helps the team better understand a child’s hearing can be important in planning appropriate and effective intervention. In many cases it is appropriate for the Audiologist to be a permanent team member to monitor a child’s hearing (hearing loss can fluctuate or progress), their amplification and to provide input to the team regarding these issues. “If it appears that a child with multiple disabilities is not likely to develop spoken language to express herself, or use it as her primary mode of receiving information, the role of hearing is not relevant” There are several reasons to include auditory training (teaching the child to make the best possible use of her hearing) as part of a program for children even when the goal is not spoken language. Often, even small amounts of useable hearing can supplement alternate communication modes in the following ways: Attachment/Bonding “Relationships are the basis of all communication” is a theme in early intervention. Many parents of children who have multiple disabilities indicate concerns related to bonding with their baby: “Does my baby even know who I am?” commented one mother. Amplification use and auditory training can help some children learn to recognize the voices of their family members and even show preference for Mom’s or Dad’s voice over others’. These early responses are powerful factors for the family and can lay the foundation for future positive interactions. Increased awareness of their environment For children with limited sensory input (and) multiple disabilities, the world can be a scary place. Feeling secure enough to explore one’s environment, being aware of objects and people and their proximity, and knowing what’s happening now and what will happen next are all issues on which successful interactions depend. For some children, learning how to perceive and recognize sounds and voices in their environment can assist with comfort and result in improved attention and communicative interactions. **Safety** Learning to recognize sounds in one’s environment is an important part of orientation and mobility. Even gross discriminations of environmental sounds such as traffic, smoke alarms, or animals can assist with personal safety and locomotion. **Pleasure** Experiencing sound for pleasure is an activity many of us enjoy. This can be especially true for children who may have limited sensory input. An activity involving sound does not always have to be a means to an end; it can be an end in itself! All children have unique strengths and needs and all children deserve the chance to explore all potential avenues to learning. We never know unless we try!... If you have questions related to hearing loss in your child/student, please contact the NDSD Outreach Specialist in your region listed below. Our Audiologist provides free hearing screenings for children up to age 3. We can help with Audiological referrals and provide support and information to families and service providers regarding strategies for helping your child/student learn to use his residual hearing. | Name | Location | Contact Information | |-----------------------|-------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | Holly Pedersen | Minot | 858-3357 v/tty | | | | firstname.lastname@example.org | | Carol Lybeck | Devils Lake | 662-9000 | | | | email@example.com | | Linda Ehlers | Fargo | 239-7116 | | | | firstname.lastname@example.org | | Tami Iszler | Bismarck | 328-3987 | | | | email@example.com | North Dakota School for the Deaf is a resource on hearing loss As a state agency and as a center of expertise on deafness, the North Dakota School for the Deaf has a responsibility to serve all citizens of the state of North Dakota. North Dakota School for the Deaf serves in its traditional role of service provider to deaf and hard of hearing students plus as a resource center on deafness. North Dakota School for the Deaf offers printed and professional resources in a variety of areas related to deafness. Resources include: **Material Resources:** - Brochures - Professional library - Video tapes - Depository of Captioned Videos for the Deaf - National publications - Vertical file on various issues related to hearing loss - Curriculums - Captioning Program **Parent Services:** - Regional parent contacts - Family Learning Vacation - Parent-Infant Program **Public Information:** - Speakers bureau - Tours of NDSD - In-services - Deaf Awareness Program **Summer Camp Programs:** - 7 to 12 years old - 13 to 18 years old **Sign Language/Interpreting:** - Interpreter referral - Regional sign language classes - Materials: printed and video - Workshops for interpreters **Consultation/Assessments:** - Audiology - Psychology - Speech and Language - Sign Language - Classroom/Teacher modification - Developing an appropriate IEP/IFSP **Alerting and Communication Devices:** - Devices for demonstrative purposes - Materials on companies and products - General information brochures **Adult Education Programs:** - Workshops - Printed materials and classes for late-deafened adults - Information on state and national services for adults with hearing loss Contact the regional outreach office near you for more information: **North Dakota School for the Deaf** **Northeast:** (Coordinator) 1401 College Drive Devils Lake, North Dakota 58301 (701) 662-9011 **Southeast:** 1621 South University Dr. #210 Fargo, North Dakota 58103 (701) 239-7116 **Southwest:** 418 East Broadway, Suite 228 Bismarck, North Dakota 58501 (701) 328-3987 **Northwest** Memorial Hall 500 University Avenue West Minot, North Dakota 58707 (701) 858-3357 The North Dakota School for the Deaf sponsors two week-long summer camps in June for children who are deaf or hard of hearing from across the state. The first camp is geared for children and their siblings ages 7—12 years old. The second camp is for campers age 13-18 years old. This year, the first camp stayed at Lake Metigoshe Retreat Center and ventured across the Canadian border for a day to visit the International Peace Gardens and Spruce Woods Provincial Park. The older camp was based at Cooperstown Bible Camp and they had the opportunity to try their skills at high ropes. The NDDSP is housed at the North Dakota School for the Deaf in Devils Lake. You may reach the Project Mail, phone, FAX, email, or on the website. Please contact us for more information or to be added to our mailing list. Contact Information: Rocklyn Cofer, State Dir. 1401 College Drive Devils Lake, ND 58301 701-662-9000 877-630-6214 701-662-9009 (FAX) Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Website: www.state.nd.us/deaflblind This project is supported by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). Opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the position of the U.S. Dept. of Education. What is NDDSP? The North Dakota Deafblind Services Project (NDDSP) is a federally funded free resource designed to enhance the provision of services for children and young adults, birth through age 21, who are deafblind. The Mission of the NDDSP is to improve the education and services for children with deafblindness and their families in North Dakota. Who Qualifies for Services? - Individuals who have a mild to severe hearing and vision impairment that require adaptations or modifications - Individuals who have a diagnosis which places them at risk for developing a hearing and vision impairment - Individuals with multiple disabilities who may demonstrate inconsistent responses during evaluations or in the natural environment - Individuals who have been diagnosed as deaf and blind (deafblindness does not need to be the primary disability) What Can The Project Do For You? The NDDSP provides technical assistance and training to families and service providers. Members of the Statewide Technical Assistance Team provide the technical assistance. Each region of the state has identified team members. The NDDSP equips families, local educators and other professionals with the knowledge and skills needed to improve child outcomes through offering: - On-site observations - Program consultations - Workshops/conferences - In-services - Resource library materials - Assistance in identification - Newsletter and project mailings - Community resource referrals - Deafblind registry data - Links to other families What is Deafblindness? Deafblindness is the combination of a hearing and vision loss. The loss may range from a mild impairment to profound deafness and low vision to total blindness. Deafblindness is also known as dual sensory impairment. Who Benefits from Services? - Individuals who have a hearing and vision loss - Parents and family members - Educational personnel - Personnel from state and community agencies - Other care providers Comprehensive Assessment Services for Children with Hearing Loss To make a referral or for more information please contact the Outreach Specialist in your area: Carol Lybeck 1401 College Drive Devils Lake, ND 58301-1596 Phone 701-662-9000 Holly Pedersen Memorial Hall, Room 142 500 University Ave. W. Minot, ND 58707 Phone 701-858-3357 Tami Iszler 418 East Broadway, Suite 228 Bismarck, ND 58501 Phone 701-328-3987 Linda Ehlers 1621 S. University Dr., Suite 210 Fargo, ND 58103 Phone: 701-239-7116 "One of the most crucial elements in the design and selection of a program or placement for a student who is deaf or hard of hearing is a complete and accurate assessment" -NASDSE Education Service Guidelines The Outreach Department of the North Dakota School for the Deaf provides comprehensive assessment services for children with hearing losses. This assessment assists school teams. As part of this process, assistance in using assessment information to make educational decisions for children who are deaf or hard of hearing also is available. Why Should You Call Us? "The law requires that individuals involved in testing be trained in or have certification in the area of hearing impairment...." - the child’s home school team would like assistance in evaluating the total impact of the child’s hearing loss and/or how to plan for future programming needs. - the child is in need of a thorough evaluation of language skills including oral, written and signed communication, speech and use of residual hearing and how these impact academic functioning. - people working with the child are in need of additional strategies or ideas What Are The Steps In An Assessment? 1) Information gathering/pre-assessment meeting 2) Assessment 3) Information sharing/results meeting 4) IEP Who Can Receive An Evaluation? Any child between the ages of birth through 21 with a diagnosed hearing loss and a need for more specific educationally based information can receive an evaluation. Anyone can request assistance by contacting the one of the Outreach Specialists listed on the back. What Is The Cost? The Outreach Department provides comprehensive assessment assistance at NO COST to families or agencies. Referral sources are responsible to arrange transportation, lodging and/or meals as necessary. What Specialists Are Available? - Child’s home school team - Audiologist - Early Childhood Teacher of the Deaf/Hard of Hearing - School Age Teacher of the Deaf/Hard of Hearing - School Psychologist - Interpreter Services - Input from Individuals Who are Deaf/Hard of Hearing *Additional specialties may be consulted to meet the needs of each individual child. Parent-Infant Program "The outreach program through NDSD is wonderful because the team member works right in the child's home where they are most comfortable. This makes the child a lot more willing to learn as well as giving the parents plenty of opportunity to participate and learn as well." Kim Miller, Fargo, ND The Parent/Infant Program has been a very valuable program for our family. It has provided us with countless resources on hearing impairment, put us in contact with other parents of hearing impaired children, provided valuable one on one training, and given us hope, support and encouragement in our struggle to deal with the issues and concerns that come with raising children who are hearing impaired. Our boys have gotten a great start thanks to the Parent/Infant Program." Dorothy Pribula, Milnor, ND Sponsored by Outreach Services North Dakota School for the Deaf Serving all of North Dakota A Statewide Home Visitation Program for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children (Birth to Three Years Old) and Their Families Please direct referrals and questions to the Parent-Infant Program Specialist in your area: (Coordinator) 1401 College Drive Devils Lake, ND 58301-1596 Phone: 701-662-9000 Minot Memorial Hall, Room 388 500 University Avenue West Minot, ND 58707 Phone: 701-858-3357 Bismarck 418 East Broadway, Suite 228 Bismarck, ND 58501 Phone: 701-328-3987 Fargo 1621 S. University Dr., Suite 210 Fargo, ND 58103 Phone: 701-239-7116 The North Dakota School for the Deaf does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, or disability in its programs, activities, or employment. This program operates in cooperation with the Infant Development Programs of North Dakota. Program Description The North Dakota Parent-Infant Program for deaf and hard of hearing children from birth to three years old and their families is a home-based program. It is family centered and is individualized to the family's needs and the child's learning style. Through home visits, information is shared with the family on topics such as how to encourage communication, language, and listening skills through naturally occurring home activities. Frequency of home visits is determined on an individual basis. Initial confirmation of hearing loss is made by an audiologist. Both formal and informal assessments are done at regular intervals. An Individual Family Service Plan is designed with the parents and other involved professionals to assist in meeting the needs of the child and the family. Parents are crucial members of the professional team. Additional Services - Parent groups - Resource Library - Family Learning Referrals Referrals can be made by family members, audiologists, physicians, school districts, speech and language centers, or other agencies. Requirements - Suspected hearing loss - Birth to three years of age - Residency in the State of North Dakota Admission will be determined on the basis of evaluations conducted by a certified audiologist, Parent-Infant Program staff, and other professionals as deemed necessary. Program Goals - Identification of deaf and hard of hearing children as close to birth as possible. - Provision of emotional support to the family in order to encourage a positive attitude toward developing their child's individual potential. - Provision to the family, through home visits, a curriculum that facilitates communication and language development, child development, auditory training and ideas for learning activities/games, etc. - Encouragement of parent advocacy. - Assistance in identifying other resources in the home and state communities. Use this checklist to observe your child’s responses to sounds: Birth to 3 months: your child is startled by loud sounds and is soothed by your voice. Birth to 6 months: your child turns his/her eyes and head to see where a sound is coming from, responds to your voice and enjoys noise-making toys. 6 to 10 months: your child responds to his/her name, the ring of a telephone, and understands simple words such as “no” and “bye-bye”. 10 to 15 months: your child can point to or look at familiar people or objects when asked to do so, and can imitate simple words and sounds. 15 to 18 months: your child understands and follows simple directions and first words are emerging. By the age of two: your child will be using ten or more words and his/her vocabulary will increase considerably into phrases and simple sentences by the age of three. CHOOSE YOUR FUTURE North Dakota School for the Deaf with the cooperation of local participating business are helping students gain training and experience in the workplace to enhance the students opportunities for future employment. Community Integration/Vocational Development Program DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION DR. WAYNE G. SANSTEAD, SUPERINTENDENT NORTH DAKOTA SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF 1400 COLLEGE DRIVE DEVILS LAKE, ND 58301 PHONE: 701-662-9000 Fax: 701-662-9009 Web Page: www.discovernd.com/ndsd 701-662-9000 The primary goal of the Community Integration/Vocational Development Program is to assist individuals in gaining the skills and experience needed to obtain a paid position in the workforce. This individualized program focuses on working with the person’s interests and abilities and matching them with an employment opportunity. North Dakota School for the Deaf provides vocational experience and training to students 14 years of age and older. Nine week programs with participating businesses in the community allow students to understand and experience the work environment and acquire job skills for the future. BENEFITS TO STUDENTS: - Training to develop job skills - Experience environments outside school and home - Gain experience to pursue employment after graduation - Assessments to show progress - Builds confidence and self-esteem - Work Training Certificate BENEFITS TO EMPLOYERS - Community Service - Job Coach/Trainer supervises student - No wages incurred by student or Job Coach - Student not entitled to job after training - Regular employees not displaced
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Green Prefect Programme Handbook Primary 4-6 School Name: Class: Name: School Year: About this Handbook This handbook provides best practices in environmental aspects, useful environmental checklists and suggestions for environmental promotion activities to help you carry out your monitoring duties and promote environmental messages. You can also share your ‘smart ideas’ for protecting the environment and green living. Contents P.2 Chapter 1 - Introduction P.11 Chapter 2 - Roles & Responsibilities P.13 Chapter 3 - Greening Your School P.17 Chapter 4 - Best Practices & Environmental Checklists P.31 Chapter 5 - Environmental Promotion Activities P.36 Chapter 6 - Programme Evaluation P.42 Chapter 7 - More Information Objectives • To enhance environmental performance of the participating schools • To develop a group of energetic and resourceful Green Prefects (GPs) with deeper understanding of environmental issues and act as models for their peers • To enhance students’ environmental awareness and build up green habits on campus Programme Timeline - **Online Briefing Sessions** - **Training Workshops** (First-come, first-served) - **Inter-school Achievement Sharing Sessions** (First-come, first-served) - **Monitoring** (At least once a month) - **Interim Review** - **Final Review** Timeline: - **OCT** - **NOV-MAY** - **JAN-FEB** - **FEB** - **JUN** - **JUL** Environmental Problems in Hong Kong Hong Kong, like many developed places, faces a range of environmental challenges related to its rapid economic and population growth. Issues such as climate change, air pollution, waste management, and plastic pollution have become increasingly pressing. **Climate Change** Climate change is a global environmental threat caused mainly by human activities, which emit excessive greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide. They trap heat in the Earth, leading to a rise in global temperature. In Hong Kong, there are more hot days and nights recorded: ![Yearly Total of Very Hot Days in Hong Kong](image) *Days with daily maximum temperature ≥ 33.0 degree Celsius (°C) Also, heavy precipitation/rainfall is being more frequent in Hong Kong as well: - **Extended Learning:** - Climate change video - Scan or click the QR code Waste Problem Waste is another significant concern considering its contribution to around 8% of Hong Kong’s total greenhouse gas emissions. Also, the large amount of waste generated is rapidly depleting our limited landfill capacity. Among the waste generated in Hong Kong, most of it is food waste, plastics and paper (which we could minimise!). Composition of MSW disposed of at landfills in percentages in 2022 - Food Waste: 30% - Plastics: 21% - Paper: 20% - Others: 25% - Metals: 2% - Glass: 2% Total disposed quantity: 4.06 million tonnes (~270,000 double-decker buses) Note: Others include yard waste, textiles, wood, household hazardous wastes, bulky items and miscellaneous waste materials. Source: Monitoring of Solid Waste in Hong Kong 2022 Carbon Footprint “Carbon” in “carbon footprint” refers to carbon dioxide, which is the primary greenhouse gas contributing to climate change. The “carbon footprint” is a measure of the impact we have in terms of the greenhouse gases we produced from home, transportation, and daily life. Carbon footprint includes both direct and indirect carbon emissions: Direct emissions refer to carbon dioxide released directly from the source, like burning fossil fuel in power plants for electricity generation. Indirect emissions refer to the carbon dioxide generated and released into the atmosphere due to the activities or products we use. For example, a new clothes we bought does not emit carbon dioxide by itself. However, the production process has actually generated a lot of carbon emission, which is considered indirect emission! Therefore, it is necessary for us to adopt more sustainable practices across the key areas outlined in the Handbook to help mitigate climate change and conserve the environment. How do environmental problems affect our daily lives? **Damage to Infrastructure** More frequent extreme rainfall will increase the risks of floods and landslides which can damage building and roads. **Food Security** Under frequent extreme weather events, production of local food will reduce, leading to a higher risk of food shortage and increased food prices. **Health Risks** The increase in the number of very hot days causes more heat-related, allergic and vector-borne diseases. **Sea level** The meltwater from glacier flowing into the ocean leads to a rise in sea levels, causing people who are living in coastal areas to lose their homes. Projection of sea level rise in Hong Kong Scan or click the QR code Take a moment to think about something you could do to help mitigate the environmental problems. Write or draw your idea below: **Fighting Environmental Problems Together** Conserving the environment is everyone’s responsibility. We should work together to mitigate climate change by practising low-carbon living to reduce our carbon footprint. As a GP, you play an important role in school by leading your peers to build up green habits on campus through monitoring their environmental behaviours and being a role model for your schoolmates. Low Carbon Living Calculator In our daily lives, huge amounts of carbon dioxide are emitted into the atmosphere due to resource and energy consumption. To mitigate climate change, it is important for us to understand our carbon footprint and adopt more environmentally friendly behaviours in order to help reduce carbon emissions. “Low Carbon Living Calculator” helps you assess your carbon emissions in respect of clothing, food, living and travel in the past year. You are encouraged to complete the calculation with your family members too. Tips for practising low-carbon living: - Turn off lights and electronics when not in use. - Use both sides of paper. - Recycle paper, plastic, and other materials properly. - Use reusable containers and water bottles. - Use stairways instead of lifts. - Walk, bike, or take public transportation to school. - Wear light, open the windows and use fans instead of air conditioners. - Set the temperature of air conditioners at 24 - 26 °C. - Turn off the tap while brushing your teeth or using soap. - Take shorter showers. - Eat more fruits, vegetables, and plant-based foods. - Purchase organic products. - Hang clothes to dry instead of using the dryer. - Donate or repurpose old clothes, toys, and household items. - Join low-carbon local tours, such as visiting the country parks and the Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark. Are you ready to begin your low-carbon journey? Let’s see how well you perform in the environmental areas and improve the areas where you can reduce your carbon footprint, so as to be the model for your peers! Take a moment to reflect on your green behaviours in the past month and complete the self-reflection checklist below: | Item | Reflection Date | 11 | 12 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |------|-----------------|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | 1 | Turn off lights and electronic appliances when not in use. | | | | | | | | | 2 | Use both sides of paper. | | | | | | | | | 3 | Recycle paper, plastic, and other materials properly. | | | | | | | | | 4 | Use reusable containers. | | | | | | | | | 5 | Use a reusable water bottle. | | | | | | | | | 6 | Use stairways instead of lifts. | | | | | | | | | 7 | Walk, bike, or take public transportation to school when possible. | | | | | | | | | 8 | Wear light, open the windows and use fans instead of air conditioners. | | | | | | | | | 9 | Set the temperature of air conditioners at 24 - 26°C. | | | | | | | | | Item | Reflection Date | |------|-----------------| | 10 | Keep windows and doors closed when the air conditioner is turned on and use curtains or blinds to block sunlight. | | 11 | Turn off the tap while brushing your teeth or using soap. | | 12 | Take shorter showers. | | 13 | Eat more fruits, vegetables, and plant-based foods. | | 14 | Choose organic products. | | 15 | Hang clothes to dry instead of using the dryer. | | 16 | Donate or repurpose unwanted clothes, toys, and household items. | Small changes can have a significant cumulative effect!! **EXCELLENT!** >12 "Achieved" items **GOOD** 8–12 "Achieved" items **NEED IMPROVEMENT** <8 "Achieved" items Chapter 2 Roles & Responsibilities What are the roles & responsibilities of GPs? Recommended Structure of the GP Group* **Teacher Advisor** **Head GPs (1-2 in school)** - To assist Teacher Advisor to manage the group and organise environmental activities - To be the spokesperson of the group **School GPs (1-2 per class)** - To monitor peers’ environmental behaviours as well as school’s environmental performance with the aid of environmental checklists - To act as role models for their peers in practising green living - To encourage their peers to build up green habits on campus - To follow instructions from the Head GPs *Schools can adjust the structure of the GP Group based on their school-based circumstances.* How to become a GP? Examples of Appointment Methods*: • Students sign up voluntarily, and then the Teacher Advisor selects and appoints students who are passionate about environmental protection. • Each class teacher nominates not more than two School GPs for his/her class or assigns existing monitors/prefects to undertake the duties. • Teacher Advisor assigns student members of the Environmental Protection Club to undertake the duties. • Each school can assign not more than two Head GPs, usually from more senior classes. • GPs of senior levels can pair up with those of junior levels to assist the latter in performing their monitoring duties. Recommended Commendation Methods*: • All GPs will receive a “Certificate of Appreciation” from the school, while GPs with excellent performance will be awarded with an “Outstanding Award” as recognition. Welcome to join the GP Group! *Schools can adjust the structure, ways of appointment and commendation methods of the GP Group based on their school-based circumstances. Chapter 3 Greening Your School What are the important environmental aspects? **Energy Conservation** Did you know that most of our electricity comes from fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas? They are non-renewable and limited resources. When they are burnt for power generation, a large amount of greenhouse gases is emitted and this contributes to climate change. For schools, air conditioning and lighting systems consume the most electricity. Therefore, we should use them more appropriately on campus to conserve and utilise energy more efficiently. **Water Conservation** Water is the source of life and we need fresh water for drinking, bathing and household cleaning. However, most water resources on Earth are saltwater that cannot be used directly, and less than 1% of the total water supply is fresh water, which is available for usage. In Hong Kong, we consume 150 litres of fresh water per day on average, which is 40 litres more than the global average. Therefore, it is important for us to change our lifestyles that involve high water usage and establish good water conservation habits to ease the water crisis. Waste Avoidance & Reduction Cities generate several types of solid waste every day, including waste from households, as well as commercial and industrial activities. On average, people in Hong Kong generate **1.51 kg of waste per day**, which is higher than that of neighbouring cities like Taipei and Tokyo. To solve the waste problem in Hong Kong, we need to practise “Dump Less, Save More, Recycle Right” actively. Source: Monitoring of Solid Waste in Hong Kong 2022; Department of Environmental Protection, Taipei City Government; and Ministry of the Environment, Japan Useful Learning Materials Scan or click the QR code 8 Types of Recyclables: - Plastics - Glass - Waste Paper - Regulated Electrical Equipment (REE) - Small Electrical Appliances - Fluorescent Lamps and Tubes - Rechargeable Batteries - Metals | Material | Instructions | |---------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Paper | Please tear off plastic tape, remove non-paper materials and keep dry. | | Plastic bottles| Please rinse before recycling. | | Metal | Please remove labels and rinse before recycling. | | Beverage cartons | Remove straws and plastic wrappings, cut a corner, rinse and dry, flatten, recycle. | **Guess it!** Which of the following cannot be recycled currently? - a) Styrofoam - b) Photographs - c) Bubble wrap - d) Digital cameras - e) Chip bags - f) Thermal paper - g) Silicon rubber Hints: find answers from Home Recycling One Stop Shop Scan or click the QR code Answers: b, e, f, g In Hong Kong, over 40% of its land is designated as country parks, which serve as important habitats for wildlife. Apart from the countryside, a variety of plants, insects and birds can also be found within the urban areas. As members of nature, we have the responsibility to protect the natural environment and its wildlife. You can actively learn about the flora and fauna on your campus and promote campus greening to enhance biodiversity in your school and its surroundings. Areas of Hong Kong country parks: ~40% Clean Indoor Air The quality of indoor air is directly related to our health and it is important as we spend most of our time indoors. Clean indoor air not only helps prevent the spread of diseases but also enhances our ability to learn. Therefore, it is necessary for us to maintain good indoor air quality. Chapter 4 Best Practices & Environmental Checklists How to monitor? | Frequency | At least once a month (November – May) (a total of 7 months in the school year) | |-----------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Role | Teacher Advisor | | | • Discuss with GP Group to formulate best practices for each environmental aspect | | | GP Group | | | • Design the inspection schedule and keep it confidential for surprise checks | | | • Use the environmental checklists to monitor students’ environmental behaviours and the school’s environmental performance regularly | * The Teacher Advisor can adjust the monitoring methods and frequency according to the actual circumstances. For example, the Teacher Advisor or Head GPs may arrange School GPs to inspect each class/floor regularly, or monitor and promote a designated environmental aspect each month. How to use the environmental checklists? • The environmental checklists provided in this chapter are for reference only. Teacher Advisor can revise the environmental checklists according to the school setting by adding, modifying or deleting non-applicable items. • The “Environmental Checklists” and “Programme Evaluation Record” (editable) in Microsoft Word and PDF formats have been uploaded to the Schools Go Green website for schools to use. Schools Go Green website Scan or click the QR code Example • Input the year and date of checking • Fill in the status for each checklist item Achieved: ✓ Not yet achieved: ✗ | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| | Date | 01/11/2024 | 02/12/2024 | 06/01/2024 | 10/02/2024 | 03/03/2024 | 07/04/2024 | 02/05/2024 | | Energy Conservation | E1. Turn off lights, computers, and other electrical equipment (e.g. projectors, microphone boxes, etc.) when not in use. | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | | | E2. Open windows and doors and use fans to improve air flow when the outdoor temperature is below 25°C and the outdoor air quality is good. | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | What are the best practices for each environmental aspect and how to monitor? Best practices and recommended monitoring methods for five important environmental aspects are listed below to assist the GP Group in performing the monitoring duties. | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | E1. Turn off lights, computers, and other electrical equipment (e.g. projectors, microphone boxes, etc.) when not in use. | • When the classroom/special room is unoccupied, check if the lights have been turned off. • When there are no teachers conducting classes, check if computers and other electrical equipment (e.g. projector, microphone box, etc.) have been turned off. | | E2. Open windows and doors and use fans to improve air flow when the outdoor temperature is below 25°C and the outdoor air quality is good. | • Check the Hong Kong Observatory (HKO)’s forecast for maximum temperature and the Environmental Protection Department (EPD)’s Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) in the morning based on the school’s location. • If the maximum temperature of the forecast is below 25°C and AQHI is low, observe whether windows are open and/or fans are used. | **Tips:** - Install a thermometer in the school’s covered playground for easy checking of outdoor temperature. - Place the thermometers away from direct sunlight and rain. HKO’s Weather forecast Scan or click the QR code EPD’s AQHI Scan or click the QR code | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |---------------|-----------------------------| | E3. Maintain the temperature of air conditioners in your classroom within the temperature range set under the school policy. | • Read the temperature displayed on the classroom thermometer and check if the temperature of the air conditioners in the classroom is maintained within the range set by the school policy. | | **Tips:** | | | • Install thermometer in the classroom for easy checking of indoor temperature. | | | • Set and maintain the average indoor temperature between 24°C and 26°C. | | | • If additional cooling is needed, for example, after Physical Education classes, use fans to enhance air circulation instead of lowering the air conditioning temperature. | | | E4. When leaving the classroom, turn off fans and air conditioners that are not in use. | • When there are no classmates in the classroom/special room, check if fans and air conditioners have been turned off. | | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | Date | | | | | | | | E1. Turn off lights, computers and other electrical equipment (e.g. projectors, microphone boxes, etc.) when not in use. E2. Open windows and doors and use fans to improve air flow when the outdoor temperature is below 25°C and the outdoor air quality is good. E3. Maintain the temperature of air conditioners in your classroom within the temperature range set under the school policy. E4. When leaving the classroom, turn off fans and air conditioners that are not in use. E5. Other practice: | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | W1. Turn off the water tap and/or drinking fountain after use. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | **Tips:** | | | • If the school has installed infrared automatic sensing water taps, this item can be omitted. | | | W2. When soaping hand, turn off the water tap/move hands away from the tap (applicable to schools with infrared automatic sensing water taps installed). | | | W3. Do not overwater the plants (applicable to schools that have plotted plants in the classrooms or along the corridors). | • Monitor classmates’ plant watering habits and check if there is too much water at the bottom of the plants. | ## Water Conservation Checklist | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | Date | | | | | | | | **W1.** Turn off the water tap and/or drinking fountain after use. **W2.** When soaping hands, turn off the water tap/move hands away from the tap (applicable to schools with infrared automatic sensing taps installed). **W3.** Do not overwater the plants (applicable to schools that have plotted plants in the classrooms or along the corridors). **W4.** Other practice: ## Waste Avoidance & Reduction | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |---------------|-----------------------------| | **Food Waste** | | | R1. Do not produce a significant quantity of leftovers. | • Randomly select 5 students during lunch break to check if there are any leftovers in their lunchboxes. If no leftovers are found in 4 out of the 5 lunchboxes, it can be considered as not generating a significant quantity of leftovers. | | **Tips:** | | | • Leftovers refer to discarded edible food, such as food wasted due to picky eating. | | | • Schools are recommended to implement on-site meal portioning to allow flexible control over the amount of food served to students. | | | R2. Separate the food waste from lunchboxes, cutlery and/or containers to facilitate food waste recycling, if any. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour in food waste separation and recycling for 10 minutes during lunch break. | | **Tips:** | | | • Food waste refers to inedible food materials that are discarded, such as bones and peels. | | | • Schools are recommended to set up food waste collection bins and install composters to convert food waste into compost for campus gardening. | | | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | R3. Use handkerchiefs/towels to replace paper towels. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | • Randomly select 5 classmates to check if they have the habit of bringing their own handkerchief/towel. | | R4. Put one-side-used paper into the appropriate collection box. | • Check the one-side-used paper collection box and observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | Tips: | • Schools are recommended to set up collection boxes for one-side-used paper and double-side-used waste paper separately to facilitate students’ reuse of one-side-used paper. | | R5. Use both sides of the paper and put double-side-used waste paper into the recycling bin. | • Check the double-side-used waste paper recycling bin and observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | R6. Bring your own water bottle. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | • Conduct surprise checks to count and record the number of students who have brought their own reusable water bottles to school in each class on a given day. | | R7. Stop buying bottled water and/or drinks. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | • Randomly select 5 students to check if they have bought bottled water and/or drinks. | | R8. Drink without plastic straw or use reusable straws when necessary. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | • Randomly select 5 students to check if they have used plastic straws. | | R9. Use reusable meal boxes, cups, bowls and cutlery (such as spoons, forks, etc.) at school. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during lunch break. | | • Conduct surprise checks to count and record the number of students who have brought reusable utensils to school in each class on a given day. | | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |---------------|-----------------------------| | R10. Use recyclables to make decorative items at school events (such as parties, sports days, picnics, outings, fun fairs, open days, etc.). | • Observe decorative items of classmates/classrooms at school events. | | R11. Practise clean recycling. | • Observe classmates’ behaviour for 10 minutes during recess/lunch break. | | **Tips:** • Recyclables (such as waste paper, metal cans, plastics and beverage cartons) should be cleaned and free from impurities before being placed in the appropriate recycling bins. • For example, remove staples and tape from waste paper, empty and clean the metal cans, plastic bottles and beverage cartons (tetra pak). | • Check whether the recyclable items are placed in the appropriate recycling bins and are cleaned and free from impurities. | Clean Recycling Guidelines Scan or click the QR code | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | Date | | | | | | | | ### Food Waste - **R1.** Do not produce a significant quantity of leftovers. - **R2.** Separate the food waste from lunchboxes, cutlery and/or containers to facilitate food waste recycling, if any. ### Paper - **R3.** Use handkerchiefs/towels to replace paper towels. - **R4.** Put one-side-used paper into the appropriate collection box. - **R5.** Use both sides of paper and put double-side-used waste paper into the recycling bin. ### Plastics - **R6.** Bring your own water bottle. - **R7.** Stop buying bottled water and/or drinks. - **R8.** Drink without plastic straw or use reusable straws when necessary. - **R9.** Use reusable meal boxes, cups, bowls and cutlery (such as spoons, forks, etc.) at school. ### Reuse & Recycle - **R10.** Use recyclables to make decorative items at school events (such as parties, sports days, picnics, outings, fun fairs, open days, etc.). - **R11.** Practise clean recycling. - **R12.** Other practice: | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | G1. Grow and look after plants in the classroom / along the corridor / green area / organic farm, if any. | • Develop a duty record, take care of the plants regularly and check their growth status. | | G2. Use organic fertilisers (such as compost) as appropriate. | • Develop a duty record to check if organic fertilisers have been used when taking care of the plants on campus. | | G3. Record the diversity of plants and animals (the number of species) on campus regularly. | • Develop a duty record and a biodiversity record sheet to record the species found on the campus. | | **Tips:** | | | Use this to help identify the species! | | | iNaturalist | | | G4. Practise “Leave No Trace” during school outings (e.g. school picnics, visits to country parks/geoparks, etc.). | • Observe classmates’ behaviour (e.g. use reusable water bottle and lunchbox, “Take Your Litter Home”) before leaving the countryside. | | **Tips:** | | | • Leave No Trace aims to reduce the negative impacts of humans on the natural environment. | | | • Remember to: | | | 1. “Take Your Litter Home” | | | 2. Leave what you find | | | 3. Respect wildlife | | | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | Date | | | | | | | | G1. Grow and look after plants in the classroom / along the corridor / green area / organic farm, if any. G2. Use organic fertilisers (such as compost) as appropriate. G3. Record the diversity of plants and animals (the number of species) on campus regularly. G4. Practise “Leave No Trace” during school outings (e.g. school picnics, visits to country parks/geoparks, etc.). G5. Other practice: | Best Practice | Monitoring Method (Example) | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | A1. Keep the rubbish bin in the classroom clean and covered with a lid properly after use. | • Observe the rubbish bin in your classroom during recess/lunch break and check if it is clean without strong smells and properly covered. | | A2. Keep the food waste collection bins and/or composters on campus clean and ensure the lids are tightly closed after use, if any. | • Check the food waste collection bins and/or composters during lunch break to ensure they are clean and properly covered. | | Tips: | • Place the food waste collection bins and composting machines in well-ventilated areas on campus. | | A3. Turn on the air purifier in the classroom when needed, if any. | • Check if the air purifier in the classroom is turned on before the morning class starts. When the classroom is unoccupied, check if the air purifier is turned off to conserve energy. | | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | Date | | | | | | | | A1. Keep the rubbish bin in the classroom clean and covered with a lid properly after use. A2. Keep the food waste collection bins and/or composters on campus clean and ensure the lids are tightly closed after use, if any. A3. Turn on the air purifier in the classroom when needed, if any. A4. Other practice: Chapter 5 – Environmental Promotion Activities How to engage your peers, school members, parents and/or community? The GP Group is encouraged to organise different types of environmental promotion activities to encourage students, school members, parents and/or community to adopt environmental behaviours. For example: | Activities | Publicity | |------------|-----------| | **For the School** | | | • Sharing via morning announcements, assemblies, classroom presentations, etc. | • Posters/bulletin boards | | • Drama | • Slogans | | • Sharing on campus TV or radio | • Green tip labels | | • Environmental talk/sharing | • Environmental promotional videos | | • Inter-class competitions/quiz contests | • Environmental information booths | | • Green idea competitions | • Newsletters of the school/alumni associations/parent-teacher associations | | • Themed Environmental Day/Week | • Social media platforms | | • Decorating bulletin boards/campus with eco-friendly materials | | | • Co-organising environmental activities with alumni associations/ parent-teacher associations | | | **For the Community** | | | • Green community events | • Open day exhibitions | | • Inter-school competitions | • Social media platforms | | | | *School website* *School’s newsletters* When conducting these activities, you can consider: - Budget and resources (How to effectively utilise resources from different parties) - Environmental aspects (general or specific) - Frequency (once or regularly) - Location (indoor or outdoor) - Scale (individual class or whole school) **How to attract students to join our activities?** Introduce **incentives / competitive elements** (such as providing rewards or organising inter-class competitions). Schools can also inquire about the available environmental education activities for the GP Group and/or students of different grades through the Environmental Campaign Committee’s programme – “GreenLink - Environmental Education Support Programme (GreenLink - EESP)”. The Contractor of GreenLink – EESP will provide options for environmental education activities matching the needs of your school and assist you with the applications for the activities. Details of GreenLink - EESP ![QR Code](image-url) How to organise environmental promotion activities? Here are some examples which help the Teacher Advisor and the GP Group to plan and organise environmental promotion activities on campus. Promotion Activity for All Environmental Aspects (Example 1) | Activity Name | Green Campus Exploration | |---------------|--------------------------| | Date | 4-6 November | | Time | 12:30-13:00 (Lunchtime) | | Venue | Environmental facilities on campus | | Aim | • To raise students’ awareness towards the concept of green campus and familiarise them with the environmental facilities on campus • Learn the proper use of the environmental facilities | | Participants | All students and school staff | | Content | • The activity will take place during lunchtime for three consecutive days for students to participate in it voluntarily • Students will use a treasure map to discover various environmental facilities within the school, such as the environmental corner, recycling bins, composting machines, water dispensers, flow controllers for water taps, thermometers, green spaces, etc. • School GPs will station at each environmental facility to introduce the environmental concepts behind, such as waste reduction at source and clean recycling, and demonstrate the proper way to use the facility • After listening to the School GPs’ introduction, students will complete a quiz game based on the map | | Responsibilities | • The GP Group to prepare the introduction materials and the treasure map worksheet • The GP Group to promote the activity • The Teacher Advisor to create an activity schedule for different classes • The Head GPs to create a duty roster and arrange School GPs to provide on-site assistance | | Activity Name | One Class, One Plant - Cultivating a Green Campus Together (Photo-taking competition and exhibition) | |---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Date | 18 March – 15 April | | Venue | Designated planting area within the school campus | | Aim | • To foster students’ observation and care for plant growth • To enhance collaboration between teachers and students to maintain the school’s green environment • To enhance student’s and teacher knowledge on ecology | | Participants | All students and school staff | | Content | • Teacher Advisor will come up with a list of recommended plants with the GP Group • The GP Group will learn about plant caring tips of the recommended plants • Class teacher will discuss with the class to select a type of plant with the assistance and advice from the GP Group • Class teacher and class representatives will procure the selected plant species for each class and develop a duty roster of the class • Classmate will learn about the plant caring tips of the selected plant from the GP Group • Each class will be responsible for planting and caring for their assigned plant in the designated area • Students will regularly water, weed, observe and record the plant’s growth • Teacher Advisor and GPs will provide guidance to help students identify the plant’s growth needs • Students are encouraged to submit a captioned photo of the plant(s) to join the photo-taking competition • After the event, a “One Class, One Plant” exhibition will be organised at school. GPs and all classes will share the results of the activity and the Teacher Advisor will announce the result of the photo-taking competition during the exhibition. | | Responsibilities | • The GP Group will be responsible for the overall activity planning and coordination • The Teacher Advisor and the GP Group to provide the necessary resources, such as planting tools and soil • Class teachers and class representatives to guide their respective classes in the planting and maintenance activities • Class teachers to decide the content of the sharing with their respective classes • The GP Group to support the activity’s promotion and recognition components | | Activity Name | Swap Party | |---------------|------------| | Date | 25 April (Post-examination activity) | | Time | Whole day | | Venue | Covered playground | | Aim | • To promote the culture of recycling, reusing and donation • To teach the concepts of "over-consumption," "swapping," and "resource sharing" and encourage students and school staff to fully utilise their goods to avoid wastage | | Participants | All students and school staff | | Content | • The GP Group will collaborate with the Parent-teacher Association to set up a swap booth where school members can donate old or unused items they no longer need and in exchange for goods they need • Donated items can be stationery, books, toys, clothing, accessories, etc. • Any remaining goods after the event will be re-donated to families who are in need in the community • GPs will design display boards to promote messages such as cherishing our resources and reusing instead of buying • After the event, School GPs and Head GP will share the results with the whole school and/or the community | | Responsibilities | • The GP Group to prepare swapping guidelines, posters and display boards • The GP Group to promote the activity • The Head GP to create a duty roster and arrange School GPs to provide on-site assistance • The Teacher Advisor to contact representatives of the Parent-teacher Association and social welfare organisations to re-donate the remaining goods | Chapter 6 Programme Evaluation Why is it necessary to conduct programme evaluation? • To assess school’s performance in each environmental aspect • To understand students’ environmental behaviours and come up with corresponding improvement measures • To identify environmental aspects that need to be improved • To enhance the effectiveness of the promotion activities organised and the programme * Suggested evaluation period: During the mid-term (around February) & at the end (around June) of the programme How to conduct programme evaluation? 1. Data Analysis • School GPs and Head GPs are responsible for collecting the completed environmental checklists and submitting the recorded data to the Teacher Advisor. • The Teacher Advisor conducts a half-yearly evaluation on each checklist item. The suggested evaluation method and corresponding level of achievement are illustrated as follows: Achievement rate of the item and corresponding level (over the period of 7 months) - **EXCELLENT!** - 80% or above - **GOOD** - 50% - 80% - **NEED IMPROVEMENT** - Less than 50% Example: | Monitoring | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |------------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| | Date | 01/11/2024 | 02/12/2024 | 06/01/2025 | 10/02/2025 | 03/03/2025 | 07/04/2025 | 02/05/2025 | | Energy Conservation | E1. Turn off lights, air conditioners and other electrical equipment (e.g. computers, projector, microphone box, etc.) when not in use. | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Achievement rate of the item: \( \frac{4 \text{ times of "Achieved"}}{7 \text{ times of monitoring}} \times 100\% = 57\% \) 2. Group Evaluation - After completing the data analysis, the GP Group can hold a meeting to review the performance of the school in each environmental aspect based on the achievement level of each checklist item. - The Group identifies environmental aspects that need to be improved, discusses how to improve students’ environmental behaviours and brainstorms improvement solutions. 3. Result Announcement - The GP Group can report the programme results to all students and commend classes with excellent environmental performance. - The GP Group can also share their experiences and insights gained from participating in the programme through morning broadcasts, assemblies or classroom presentations. - The Teacher Advisor can share the results of the annual GP programme with the school management and teachers. - Based on the programme results, the school can incorporate improvement recommendations into the Annual School Plan and the 3-year School Development Plan. 4. Setting New Goals - The GP Group can use the year-end environmental performance as a basis for developing goals and plans for the next school year. Which environmental aspect does your school perform the best? Please put a “✓” next to the environmental aspect that your school has performed the best (choose one only). - [ ] Energy Conservation - [ ] Water Conservation - [ ] Waste Avoidance & Reduction - [ ] Greening, Nature Conservation & Biodiversity - [ ] Clean Indoor Air What have you done? Measures and/or activities that have helped my school achieve the best environmental aspect: (You can write or draw here) Which environmental aspect does your school need to improve? Please put a “✓” for the environmental aspect that needs to be improved most. - [ ] Energy Conservation - [ ] Water Conservation - [ ] Waste Avoidance & Reduction - [ ] Greening, Nature Conservation & Biodiversity - [ ] Clean Indoor Air How to improve the selected aspect? Suggestions: (Examples: Set up a green corner at school, more promotion at school, collect rainwater for gardening, etc.) (You can write or draw here) What are the targets and plans for the next school year? Targets: (You can write or draw here) Plans: (You can write or draw here) What have you learnt from this programme? (You can write or draw here) In this programme, I have learnt...... I felt...... The most memorable part is ## Chapter 7 More Information ### Energy Conservation | Relevant websites | | |-------------------|----------------------------------| | Energyland by Electrical and Mechanical Services Department | https://www.emsd.gov.hk/energyland/en/home/index.html | | Hong Kong Energy Efficiency Net by Electrical and Mechanical Services Department | https://ee.emsd.gov.hk/english/index.html | | Hong Kong Renewable Energy Net by Electrical and Mechanical Services Department | https://re.emsd.gov.hk/english/index.html | | Carbon Neutral@HK by Environment and Ecology Bureau | https://cnsd.gov.hk/en/ | | Visits | | |--------|----------------------------------| | Education Path at the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department | https://www.emsd.gov.hk/en/about_us/public_education/guided_tour_on_education_path/index.html | | kNOW Carbon House | https://www.knowcarbonhouse.hk/en | | CIC-Zero Carbon Park | http://zcp.cic.hk/eng/home | | Jockey Club Museum of Climate Change | https://www.mocc.cuhk.edu.hk/en-gb/ | | CLP Power Low Carbon Energy Education Centre | https://www.cityu.edu.hk/lowcarbon/index.aspx | ### Water Conservation | Relevant websites | | |-------------------|----------------------------------| | Water Conservation by Water Supplies Department | https://www.waterconservation.gov.hk/en/home/index.html | | Visit | | |-------|----------------------------------| | H2OPE Centre | https://www.h2opecentre.gov.hk/en/home/index.html | ### Clean Indoor Air **Relevant websites** | Website | URL | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Indoor Air Quality Information Centre by Environmental Protection Department | https://www.iaq.gov.hk/en/home/ | ### Waste Avoidance & Reduction **Relevant websites** | Website | URL | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Hong Kong Waste Reduction Website by Environmental Protection Department | https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/en/index.htm | | Food Wise Hong Kong Campaign by Environmental Protection Department | https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/en-hk/waste-reduction-programme/food-wise-hong-kong-campaign | | Green Lunch by Environmental Protection Department | https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/en-hk/waste-reduction-programme/green-lunch | **Visits** | Visit | URL | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | GREEN@COMMUNITY | https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/en-hk/waste-reduction-programme/greencommunity | | EcoPark | https://www.ecopark.com.hk/en/index.aspx | | O-PARK1 [Organic Resources Recovery Centre] | https://www.opark.gov.hk/en/index.php | | T·Park | https://www.tpark.hk/en/ | | WEEE·PARK [Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Treatment and Recycling Facility] | https://weee.com.hk/ | | Y·PARK | https://www.ypark.hk/en/ | ## Greening, Nature Conservation & Biodiversity ### Relevant websites | Website | URL | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Greening Knowledge by Leisure and Cultural Services Department | https://www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/green/education/greeningknowledge.html | | Hong Kong Biodiversity Information Hub by Agriculture, Fisheries and | https://bih.gov.hk/en/home/index.html | | Conservation Department | | | Hong Kong Plant Database – Hong Kong Herbarium by Agriculture, | https://www.herbarium.gov.hk/en/hk-plant-database/index.html | | Fisheries and Conservation Department | | | iNaturalist | https://www.inaturalist.org/ | ### Visits | Visit | URL | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Green Education and Resource Centre | https://www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/green/gerc/index.html | | Enjoy Hiking | https://www.hiking.gov.hk/ | | Lai Chi Wo | https://www.geopark.gov.hk/en/discover/attractions/lai-chi-wo | | Country Parks and Special Areas in Hong Kong by Agriculture, | https://www.afcd.gov.hk/english/country/cou_lea/the_facts.html | | Fisheries and Conservation Department | | | Volcano Discovery Centre | https://volcanodiscoverycentre.hk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2:intro&catid=8&lang=en&Itemid=113 | | Hong Kong Geopark | https://www.geopark.gov.hk/en | | The Hong Kong Biodiversity Museum | https://www.hkbiodiversitymuseum.org/ | ### Green Schools #### Relevant websites | Website | URL | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Schools Go Green by Environmental Campaign Committee | https://school.ecc.org.hk/en/index.html | | GreenLink - Environmental Education Support Programme by Environmental | https://www.greenlinkeesp.com.hk/en/ | | Campaign Committee | | | Green Schools 2.0 by Environment and Ecology Bureau | https://www.eeb.gov.hk/en/green-schools-2.html | | Guide to Low Carbon Schools by Environment and Ecology Bureau | https://cnsd.gov.hk/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/EPD_CA_Guidebook_Schools_Eng.pdf | | Hong Kong Green School Guide by Hong Kong Green Building Council | https://www.hkgbc.org.hk/eng/engagement/guidebooks/green-school-guide/index.jsp | Facebook & Instagram ECC1990 ECF1994 Clean Shorelines Hong Kong Country Parks Big Waster Witty Bear Water Save Dave Mr. B Nature Classroom Enquiries Environmental Campaign Committee Secretariat Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Hotline: 2835 1738 Technical consultant – Business Environment Council Limited Email: email@example.com Hotline: 9301 0140 Note Note Edition: 2024.10
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Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), public schools must provide a free appropriate public education (FAPE) to all eligible children with disabilities. To do so, schools are required to develop Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) that identify the child’s educational goals and needs, including the need for accommodations and/or assistive technology (AT) devices and services. **UNDERSTAND THE IEP PROCESS** The process of developing a student’s IEP may differ from one school system to another. However, every school must contact parents in writing to request consent and invite the parent to all IEP meetings. The initial IEP evaluation must be conducted within 60 days of receiving consent. Remember that parents are a child’s most effective advocate. Use the time before the meeting to prepare. It may be helpful to talk with other parents who have IEP experience and to look online for family-friendly resources. CTD is one such source and can point you to others. **ATTEND THE IEP MEETING** The IEP team should have one or more family members and teachers who are familiar with the child’s strengths and challenges. The team may also include a school administrator or counselor. At least one team member should be knowledgeable about assistive technology options. In addition to the formal notes being taken, parents should take their own notes and keep good records of the entire process. Insist that consideration of AT devices and services be included in the IEP process. If the term “assistive technology” is not a separate section on the IEP form, look for terms such as “accommodations, supports, program modifications or supplementary aids and services.” These are places where AT devices and services can be identified. **APPROVE THE IEP** If you agree with the educational plan, approve the IEP and services will begin. Parents do have the right to disagree with the school’s decisions, including those concerning AT. Put all concerns in writing and then ask for a meeting to try to resolve disagreements. **REVIEW THE IEP ANNUALLY** Each student’s IEP must be reviewed at least once a year. Make necessary revisions to the IEP according to the child’s progress. Remember to allow “growth” in a child’s assistive technology tools, as children often exceed initial expectations. Learn about AT choices. Many are not specialized devices, but programs that run on widely available mobile devices. Assistive technology can be an invaluable aid to your child, allowing them to participate more fully with their peers and achieve their learning goals!
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A THOUSAND MILE JOURNEY STARTS WITH ONE STEP: DIZI MUSICIAN AND EDUCATOR TIM LIU Interview by Rebecca Quigley Tim Liu was born in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, and has been teaching traditional Chinese flute for over 20 years. During his childhood overseas he was awarded the prestigious Best Musician Award in the Golden Lion Bamboo Flute Solo Contest, and was a member of the Taipei City Chinese Classical Orchestra. Principal flutist of the Chinese Music Ensemble of New York from 1983 to 1992, Tim is now recognized as one of the outstanding masters of dizi in this country. More information about his instruments, educational packages, and Lyricbord-label recordings can be found at his website, www.2measures.com. This interview was conducted via email in late October. As a shakuhachi player, I was particularly interested to hear about the evolution of dizi, along with its construction and performance techniques. In Concert Tim Liu, dizi LiQun Li, yangqin (Chinese hammered dulcimer) BaoLi Zhang, erhu Sunday, January 21, 2007, 5:30 pm Yamaha Piano Salon, 689 Fifth Avenue (entrance between Fifth and Madison on 54th Street) Yang Bien Chuay Ma .................Wei Shen Dzowng ("Grain Delivery Man") (1969) (b. 1940) Zhe Goo Fay .........................Hunan folk tune ("Flight of the Zhe Goo Bird") arr. Loo Chuen Ling (b. 1921) The General's Command ..........Sichuan Yangqin folk tune re-arr. Shean Zhu Fua Soung Yeo Chu ("Village Utopia") .............Tsai Jing Ming (1958) (b. 1939) Streams of Sorrow ..................Shandong Folk Tune Spring Comes to Xiang River ............Ning Bao Sung (1977) (b. 1943) Journey to Gu-Su ......................Jian Shen Wei (1962) (b. 1924) The Horseman's New Song .............Jien Guong Ee (1960) (1944–2000) Program subject to change. REBECCA QUIGLEY: Let's begin with the history of your instrument. When is the earliest known reference to dizi in Chinese history? (Cont'd on page 4) Ergonomic Fluting by David Wechsler I wanted to talk about posture and related occupational illnesses on the flute this month. We are all athletes of the hands and lips, and as such an area subject to injury. The flute is a very asymmetrically held instrument, and because of this players can be susceptible to little niggling performance aches and pains, that over time can become real chronic problems. Couple that with the absolutely essential use of the computer for everyone these days and your arms don’t get very much of a rest. I have been acutely aware of posture issues for about 25 years. Every time I ever had a small pain doing anything on the flute, I immediately went to work in a kind of self biofeedback mode, and tracked down the problem, then successfully corrected it. Of course the Alexander and Feldenkrais methods are excellent tools to help relaxation, posture, and body awareness. Here are some of my helpful hints for playing and prolonging flute playing. The first thing one must do when holding a flute is to realize that the very position of your hands can cause problems. If you turn in too much, you kink your right wrist. If you turn out too much, you exaggerate the curve of same. Neither is good. You must find a hand position that gives the best possible gentle curve with the least amount of kinking or stretching. This is easily accomplished by just turning your head joint in or out until the position feels good on your right wrist. It takes a little getting used to, but is easy. For arms, your upper body from the waist must point at a slight angle to the left from that of your legs. This has the effect of moving your arms closer to the center of your body, and correcting some of the unequal weight distribution of your arms and putting them closer to the center. This also removes a great deal of pull from your left shoulder. The flute should be angled down slightly, not straight out parallel to the floor. Also be aware of keeping your arms naturally hanging down against your body, not in an exaggerated elbows up position, or the opposite, pushing your elbows against your sides. There is no need for either, and an elbow up does nothing for breath even though you may feel that it does. Players must learn to support the instrument and your arms without any added tension to your neck and shoulders. I am an advocate of young players playing for longer periods of time on a chair with arms, until they are strong enough to support the flute for longer periods. Even older players should do that if they get tired. One must also be careful not to sit slouched. This presses down on your belly muscles, which are the entire support system of your breathing. Always sit (and stand!) up straight. A great example for carriage (the really old fashioned word for posture) is to watch ballet dancers in their rest position before they begin dancing. They are all standing erect, yet relaxed, understanding the responsibility of being a calm vertebrate. For your face, the only muscular contraction should be that of your embouchure. The rest of your face should be like a really good Texas Hold ‘Em player or a Botox injectionee—no expression. You must be careful not to do strenuous exercises or work unless you are used to it. You can hurt your arms that way. The dangers of tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome are real. If you use a computer a lot, you must watch the angle of your arms in relation to the keyboard. A minor thing to correct, yet a major cause of damage. I am a righty, and for most of my life my left hand has gotten away with doing little. When I began to have tension in my right arm at the computer, I started mousing with my left hand. At first I was a spaz, but now I am better than with my right hand. I now lead with my left, doing basic everyday tasks as a lefty, to more equally distribute the workload. Of course however, there’s no substitute for being ambidextrous. I would love to be ambidextrous. Why, I’d cut off my right arm to be ambidextrous! Ba-dump-pa. I hope you find these little suggestions helpful, so you can concentrate on music, not pain. Member Profile Sue Carlson NYFC member since 2006 Newsletter Layout/Production editor since 2006 Employment: Manager of digital production for the book publisher W.W. Norton & Company, and freelance flutist. A recent recital/performance: A busy November 2006: two performances of *Madama Butterfly* with the Brooklyn-based Regina Opera Company; soloist for the same group's International Opera and Song Festival, playing "The Swiss Sheperd"; and a performance with her woodwind quintet, Viva Voce, in Staten Island. Career highlight(s): As a flutist: principal in the Knoxville (TN) Symphony following graduate school, then years as a freelancer with many different NY-area orchestras including American Ballet Theatre. Performances with the Sylvan Winds, a 1988 performance at the Library of Congress with the Galliard Wind Quintet (when she and the oboist, Judith Dansker, were both about nine months pregnant), and lots of chamber music with her current quintet. At Norton: getting a "top secret" security clearance and then doing the layout/typesetting of the 9/11 Commission Report in one straight 56-hour period in July 2004 to make a press run on Saturday for books in the store on Thursday. Current flute(s): A commercial model Powell from the 1980s that she loves for its big, rich sound, and a Jeff Weissman piccolo selected for the same reason. Influential flute teachers: Her first teacher, Alexander LeSueur, a former Kincaid student, who was teaching nearby at Western Carolina University; later, Philip Dunigan at the North Carolina School of the Arts (from whom she learned the real meat and potatoes of flute playing), Samuel Baron (at SUNY Stony Brook), Tom Nyfenger, and Trudy Kane. High school: Sylva-Webster High School in Sylva, NC (where she spent many, many hours with the Golden Eagles marching band until "getting it right"). Degrees: BM (North Carolina School of the Arts, 1977); MM (SUNY Stony Brook, 1978). Most notable and/or personally satisfying accomplishment(s): Raising her two kids and seeing them turn into "really great people"; regaining her health after some scary medical troubles. She says, "Although I love music with a borderline religious devotion, the music business is not where I want to be. I feel lucky to have found a career that challenges my brain every day and still leaves me enough energy to play." Favorite practice routines: Practicing is not Sue's favorite thing. But to warm up the lips she still does a series of arpeggios and scales Philip Dunigan taught her years ago, a routine she also finds helpful for agility and intonation. Other interests: Volunteering at the Regina Opera (the family company, co-founded by her sister-in-law), where her children perform with the chorus, and her husband runs the sound system; reclaiming her inner jock with a now-seven-year-old routine of swimming (currently 3 miles per week), yoga, ballet and Pilates; and improving her photo retouching skills (despite the fact that this sounds a lot like what she does at her day job). Advice for NYFC members: Sue says, "I generally try to steer clear of giving people advice . . . unless you're a family member, then look out!" FLUTE HAPPENINGS FREE to current NYFC members, this section lists upcoming performances by members; flute-related contests, auditions, and masterclasses organized/sponsored by members; and brief descriptions of members' new recordings, sheet music, and books. Send submissions to the Newsletter Editor. JANUARY '07 Thursday 7:00 pm **JAN 18** Duo Del Norte with **SHARON LEVIN**, flute, and Gene Pino, guitar, performing a mix of baroque, classical, Latin and popular music including chorobins by Abreu and others, Ecuadorian mestizo music, Faure's *Pavane* and Chopin's Variations on a Theme by Rossini. - The Westport Arts Center, 51 Riverside Avenue, Westport, CT. * Admission: $20. * Info, call Sharon Levin at 203-557-3973. Saturday 5:30 pm **JAN 20** **ELISE CARTER**, flute, with Lin Li, piano, Dave Calkins, guitar, and Matthew Demerritt, saxophone, in a recital of works by Burton, C.P.E. Bach, Reinecke, Schocker and others. - Weill Recital Hall, 154 West 57th Street, NYC. * Admission: $25 (through Elise Carter at 973-851-5455 or box office on day of performance). Sunday 8:00 pm **JAN 28** "Second Viennese Roots and Shoots," a program of seminal music of the early 20th century with reverberations in today's hearts and ears, by the Da Capo Chamber Players with **PATRICIA SPENCER**, flute. Works by Arnold Schoenberg (arr. Webbern), Hanna Eisler, Alban Berg, George Perle, Milton Babbitt, and a world premiere by Kati Agocs. - Merkin Concert Hall 129 West 67th Street, NYC. * Admission: $20 general, $10 students/seniors. * Box office 212-501-3350 or visit www.dacapochamberplayers.org. FEBRUARY '07 Sunday 2:00 pm **FEB 11** Duo Del Norte with **SHARON LEVIN**, flute, and Gene Pino, guitar, in the same program as January 18. - Westport Public Library, Arnold Bernhard Plaza, 20 Jesup Road, Westport, CT. * Admission is free. * Info, call 203-291-4840 or visit www.westportlibrary.org. Flute Happenings Deadlines | Issue | Deadline | Mail date* | |-------------|------------|------------| | February 2007 | 01/11/07 | 02/08/07 | | March 2007 | 02/06/07 | 03/06/07 | | April 2007 | 03/15/07 | 04/12/07 | | May 2007 | 03/29/07 | 04/26/0 | *Projected Tim Liu (cont’d from page 1) TIM LIU: There are two schools of thought about where dizi originated. Official documents show that dizi was brought back from somewhere west of China by Emperor Wudi’s messenger, Zhang Qian, in 119 BCE. But the discovery of older flutes in several ancient tombs show that the Chinese played bone and bamboo flutes long before. Some examples: a flute was found in a tomb from the Eastern Han dynasty (206 BCE–9 CE) with an extra hole, perhaps for pasting a membrane; two bamboo flutes were found in a tomb dated to 168 BCE; and more than thirty 9,000-year old flutes (made from the wing bones of the red-crowned crane) with five or seven holes were found in the village of Jiahu (Central Yellow River Valley). Despite some experimental dizi (11-hole flutes, half-note flutes, or adapting Western-style mechanical keys for temporary notes), six-hole dizi are still the popular choice of most dizi players. Dizi have basically been the same since the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368 CE). RQ: Let’s talk about your background. Can you tell us about your earliest musical studies? TL: I think I am the first musician among my relatives. My parents like to sing and I think that is all the musical background I got from my family. Around age 12, my school was looking for students to participate in a newly formed Chinese Classical Ensemble. What attracted me to join was that we wouldn’t have to go to daily morning and afternoon cleaning, and flag-raising and lowering ceremonies, plus I would be able to get close to some cute girls! Erhu [a long-necked two-string fiddle that is played with a bow] was my assigned instrument, but I loved the sound of dizi. I got good at it and after a half-year of practice, won myself a fourth place award at the city musical competition (Yes, there were more than four kids in the competition!). Seeing my name printed in the newspaper was a bigger deal than a useless paper certificate. At that time, you had to take a city-wide test to fight for high school seats, which were limited. Most families saved up money for their kid to go to “after school study” to prepare for that important test. My parents gave me money too, but I hid it under the sink and went out to practice when it was time to go to those classes. While the others studied, I practiced dizi at the park, in the dark, where nobody would bother me, because people believed that playing dizi at night attracted ghosts. I was not afraid of that nonsense, but do remember mosquitoes in the summer, cold winds in the winter and a few “reality shows” in the darkness of the park, if you know what I mean. RQ: At what moment did you know you would pursue music for a living? TL: It may have been those two slaps on the face from my Dad, after I told him I got accepted, and was leaving home to go to music school! I am not quite sure if those two slaps strengthened my mind to pursue music for a living or not, but after he spent all his money to send me to music school [there was no way] I could change my mind. I did not link music playing with money until I got into a professional music ensemble and realized how much money I could make by playing music and teaching private students. RQ: What was it like to win the Best Musician Award in the Golden Lion Bamboo Flute Solo Contest in 1981? TL: I was in the Army serving my mandatory two years at the time of competition. I asked my dizi teacher for guidance about entering the competition, and he suggested that I not, because the association sponsoring that competition was from another music school and students from my school might not be treated fairly. I thought about it for a few seconds, decided I didn’t have anything to lose, and signed up for the competition. I asked my captain in the Army for a day off to go to the competition. Jokingly, he told me, “If you don’t win the competition, don’t come back to see me.” You should have seen his face when I showed him my name printed in the newspaper to prove that I had actually won. I got five “Honorable Wild Vacation Days,” and a reward of $10,000. I had never had that much money in my life before, and it was a good foundation for a young soloist. That helped me get into the only professional Chinese music ensemble in Taiwan at that time. It turns out that it was a very fair competition after all! RQ: When and why did you arrive in the United States? TL: In 1982 or 1983, after my two years’ service in the Army and one year in the Taipei Municipal Chinese Music Orchestra (the only professional Chinese Music Ensemble in Taiwan at that time), I said good-bye to the members of the orchestra, my two girlfriends, private students, and packed my bags. I arrived in the US with exactly $3 in my pocket, which I paid to the luggage carrier who was so eager to take care of my luggage. They were my last $3—I did not know I would have to pay this friendly person to help me! My parents had saved up enough money to open their own Chinese restaurant in Spotswood, NJ. Being the oldest son, I could not say no to my “duty,” but had to help my parents who had supported me all these years. I started my duty the day I arrived to the US, going right into the kitchen directly from JFK Airport. Two months later, I wrote letters back to my two girlfriends, along the lines of, “Forget about me, don’t wait, go find someone else while you are still young. Christopher Columbus was wrong, it’s hopeless here, very tired, Tim Liu (cont’d on page 6) Ensemble Program Update and Next Meeting by Annette Baron, NYFC Ensembles Coordinator The second ensemble get-together for the 2006-7 season was held on Sunday, December 10th in NJ. The five participants, representing a range of levels, benefited greatly from working together and learning from each other. For two hours, the group played through a variety of popular, classical, and novel choir pieces and talked about flute manufacturers, fingering issues, phrasing, tone, breathing, blending, and technique. NYFC members Gwen Glaz, Hal Archer, Vanessa Levario, Diane Lynch, and Annette Baron participated in the December 10 ensembles get-together in NJ. NEXT ENSEMBLES GET-TOGETHER February 4, 2007 Sunday 2:00 - 4:00 pm The next ensembles get-together will be in Brooklyn (Park Slope), at the home of Julia Porter, 463 17th Street, Apt. #9. Please RSVP to Annette Baron. Annette Baron NYFC Ensembles Coordinator New York Flute Club Email: email@example.com Phone: 973-244-0992 FLUTE HAPPENINGS FEBRUARY '07 FEB 11 Sunday 4:00 pm The Kaiser Woodwind Quintet with LAURA KAREL GEORGE, flute, will perform a world premiere of NJ-composer Louis Gordon’s “Movements,” compositions by Leon Karel and Franz Danzi, Ronald Roseman’s Renaissance Suite, and transcriptions of music by Gershwin, Respighi, and Cervantes. • St. Cassian Roman Catholic Church, 187 Bellevue Avenue, Upper Montclair, NJ. • Admission: $15 suggested donation. • Info, call 973-744-2850. FEB 11 Sunday 8:30 p.m. Flutist MICHAEL PARLOFF and friends will perform music of Schulhoff (Sonata for flute and piano), Debussy (Chansons de Bilitis), Schubert (“Trockne Blumen” Variations, Op. 160), Bach (Sonata in G Minor, BWV1001), and Jongen (Concert à cinq for flute, string trio, and harp, Op. 71). • Weill Recital Hall, 154 West 57th Street, NYC. • Admission: $35 general; $15 students/seniors. • Info, call MidAmerica Productions at 212 259-4699 or email firstname.lastname@example.org. FEB 14 Wednesday 7:00-9:00 PM “Swinging on a Star,” a masterclass by Paul Robison featuring love songs and melodies, TBA. • Diller-Quaile School of Music, 24 East 95th Street, NYC. • Admission (auditors): $30 general, $15 students. • Info, call Heather Holden at 212-369-1484 x26, or email email@example.com. New Date for May Ensembles Concert and Annual Meeting Sunday, May 20, 2007 Greenwich House 46 Barrow Street, NYC Concert at 6:00 pm with NYFC annual meeting at 5:30 pm. need sleep, good-bye.” They must have thought that because I was a restaurant owner’s son I was having a good life in the US, and had decided it was the time to dump them. But that was not the truth. I did not see hope at that moment and thought I was doing them a favor. **RQ: Did something happen after that to change your mind and make you want to stay in the US?** TL: I did not change my mind. I believed once I left Taiwan, my music career would be over, that as the oldest son I felt it was my turn to contribute and my duty to help the family. My heart told me that it was the right thing to do and I followed it. I am glad I made that decision. More than a few times I wondered if maybe I would be happier, become famous, or make more money if I had stayed in Taiwan, but because I followed my heart, I had peace in my mind and knew everything would be all right in the future. **RQ: Can you talk about your experiences during the nine years you performed with the Chinese Music Ensemble of New York?** TL: The Ensemble was founded by Mr. Tran-Nien Zhang with four other members. Mr. Zhang was friends with my erhu teacher back in Taiwan. When I joined the group in 1982, there were only one or two formally-trained musicians, but their musical style was very rich, and I hungrily absorbed from each player’s style like a starving baby. I discovered some beautiful music from these amateur players and got to perform many famous dizi solo pieces that were not allowed to be played in Taiwan at that time because it was considered to be “promoting communist culture.” Later, when more professional performers joined the ensemble, it enriched and expanded my music style even more. I remember when Baoli Zhang had just joined the ensemble playing erhu, his playing made me think, “That is the way it should be.” **RQ: What have been your experiences with the Western flute?** TL: I tried it once, but didn’t have any special feeling about it. I am sure learning more would open up my world and advance my dizi playing, but when you are in love with someone, you don’t even want to look at others. The thought of the benefits of playing flute only entered my mind for a few seconds. It’s OK, I can only handle one lover at a time, and I know my limitations. **RQ: How do you balance your performing career with your business?** TL: I keep reminding myself that I want both, and that I can have it all. My daytime job in sales allows me to arrange my own hours and my time is spent between my two sons, my job, practice, performances and my web business (www.2Measures.com). I get up around 7 am and rarely hit the bed before 1 am. I realize this is not a good thing for my health, but you only live once and I only have 24 hours per day, so what can I do? **RQ: How did your business come into existence?** TL: I got calls from a few professional woodwind players [see sidebar discussion with one of them, David Weiss], especially after the Broadway shows *Miss Saigon* and *The Lion King* opened. I was busy with my daytime job, practice, performances and my newborn first son, so I just didn’t have the time to give private lessons. But the demand of people wanting to learn how to play dizi kept coming up, and finally, I stayed up to 5 am for more than a few nights to put my first program together. Based on my teaching experiences, I’ve tried my best to make the program as clear as possible. I then offer my full support via email and any form of communication possible. To me, it’s a joy to receive recordings from participants, to share their progress, and to get asked for my opinion of their playing. After the program was made, I called Carol Wincenc for [feedback]. She told me she loved the program and was nice enough to give me her endorsement to help me promote it. Along with her endorsement, and those of Dave Weiss and Paula Chan Bing, I distributed my program through www.shakuhachi.com, the website of Monty Levenson, a wonderful shakuhachi maker out in California. I set up my own website after I produced my other two dizi programs on DVD. **RQ: How were your instructional packages How to Play the Dizi and 2 Measures at a Time™ influenced by your experiences as a teacher?** TL: I find that most students only absorb 50% of what I teach them during lessons, and after the lesson, most students forget 50% of what they absorbed. (Perhaps because I am not a very good teacher? Or maybe they are not very good students?) Then, when they practice at home, they practice the wrong way without knowing it and waste lots of their money and my valuable time. I told myself, what if they could follow and practice with me every two measures at a time, every time? Would they practice the “right way” and get better results within a much shorter time? Sure they will! I think this method is not only limited to dizi. **RQ: The 2 Measures at a Time™ method was inspired by an old Chinese proverb. . . .** TL: Yes, “A thousand mile journey starts with one small step.” A destination a thousand miles away seemed impossible in old China, but with an experienced guide by your side, a thousand-mile journey can be achieved by taking one small step at a time. This applies to learning dizi as well. The 2 Measures at a Time™ method is based on the natural learning process of imitation and repetition. You can go at your own pace, repeat each individual lesson as many times as you wish, and get feedback from me by email. The program comes with a dizi, dizi accessories (membrane, membrane glue, and tassel), the CD, and my book, so participants can start to learn and enjoy this wonderful instrument the minute they open the package. RQ: Let’s talk about the construction of dizi and how it differs from the Western flute. Can you describe the mokong (the hole between the embouchure and the finger holes) and the dimo membrane that covers it? Why is the dimo selection and pasting ability so important to the sound of dizi? TL: Compared to the modern Western flute, dizi have a very simple construction. On the upper side of the bamboo tube it has one embouchure hole, one membrane hole, six fingering holes, and two holes to balance/correct the pitch. On the underside of the bamboo, there are another two holes at the end to balance/correct the pitch and from which some people hang tassel decorations. A special feature of dizi is the mokong. This membrane hole was invented by Liu Xi during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). The mokong is located in-between the embouchure hole and fingering holes, and is covered by a thin membrane called the dimo. When the dizi is played, the dimo vibrates and produces a very special crisp sound. The inventor called his new instrument Chi Sing Guang or the “seven stars tube” (six finger holes plus one membrane hole equals seven) and said the reason for his invention was to “help produce a better sound.” The dimo is very sensitive to moisture and the temperature of the environment. Dizi players adjust it from time to time to get the best sound we can and when we cannot get the sound to our liking we have to change it. Dizi players are very picky about the quality of the dimo; how it should be pasted and how loose or tight it is adjusted. I once ran into a so-called “woodwind specialist” who proudly told me that he pasted Saran Wrap™ on the membrane hole, and was able to leave it on for years. What does that say about his talents if he cannot recognize the difference in sound between Saran Wrap™ and a real membrane? RQ: What other modern flute techniques, like circular breathing, flutter-tonguing, multiphonics and harmonics, are used on dizi? TL: Dizi techniques can be categorized into three kinds: blowing, fingering and tonguing. Long and even breathing is fundamental. Dizi players also use circular breathing, and a variety of vibrato types and timbres. Fingering techniques include trills, glissandi, tremoli, portamenti, and half-holing, among others. The basic tonguing techniques are flutter-tonguing and different kinds of staccati such as single-, double-, and triple-tonguing. The use and combination of these techniques depends on the styles (folk, silk and bamboo, or operatic), schools (Southern or Northern) and regions (Shangshi province or Hebei province) of dizi repertoire. However, contemporary conservatory-trained performers are generally required to integrate all these techniques so that modern composers can freely apply these techniques according to their specific needs. RQ: You have recorded several albums. Can you tell us about the challenges you faced in the recording studio with dizi? TL: In the recording room usually the air is very dry. This slows down the dimo’s vibration, making the dizi sound muffled. The same thing happens on the concert hall stage, especially on a brightly lit stage. A humidifier in the recording room will usually take care of the dryness problem, but on the stage we rely on our experience to paste the dimo looser than usual, then count on the brightly lit stage’s higher temperature and dryer air to bring the dimo down to the right tightness. Most of time it works, but when we paste it too loose, and the dimo does not come back to the right tightness in time, we are in serious trouble, because it is very hard to blow out high notes when the dimo is too loose. That happened to me once on stage and is a recurring nightmare—it is time for your entrance and no sound comes out of your instrument! RQ: Have you composed works for dizi? Will any of your compositions be featured in the concert? TL: I have written a few songs and an ensemble piece, but none for dizi. There are still too many lovely dizi pieces out there that I haven’t had time to play yet. Maybe after my two young sons move out of the house, I will have a chance to give it a try! □ Rebecca Quigley is a Westchester-based freelance flutist, teacher, and shakuhachi player. RQ and TL thank Mary Ann Lach (Mrs. Tim Liu) for her help in straightening out the nuances of TL’s English. DAVID WEISS PUTS DIZI TECHNOLOGY TO WORK ON BROADWAY REBECCA QUIGLEY: When you met Tim Liu, did you already have a personal interest in the dizi and Chinese music, or did you need an instrument for a job? DAVID WEISS: I’ve always been interested in world music, beginning with East Indian and Japanese music. I first met Tim in 1991, through a friend. I found his instruments suitable for working with a western ensemble; after I retuned them a bit, I bought them to work on *Miss Saigon*, for which I had just been hired, but also because I concluded they could work for me in many different ways. Tim imports his dizi from both Shanghai and Beijing, my instruments are about 15 years old. RQ: Let’s talk about the mechanics of your instruments. What pitch is your dizi tuned to? DW: Because dizi have no keys—and have just six fingerholes—it is necessary to use different instruments depending on which key you are in. Chinese musicians carry instrument cases with 12 flutes, because it is essential to have a flute in each key. This sounds expensive, but I could have purchased a new flute headjoint for what I’ve paid for all my flutes from Tim. The range of each instrument is about two octaves. The lowest one I have starts on F# above middle C; the highest is a fifth up from a piccolo. RQ: The bamboo on my shakuhachi requires constant attention to prevent cracking in drier climates like New York. Do you have to take extra steps to protect your dizi? DW: Like shakuhachi, dizi are made of bamboo, and have tone holes and interior bores evened out by hand. But the dizi is bound at several intervals by wire, and this really helps prolong the life of the bamboo. Repairs and patches are possible in the bamboo with epoxy, and “pining”. I rub oil into the bamboo three to four times each winter, a technique also used by shakuhachi players. I’ve found playing around New York that the halls are dry, but not too dry, and the older the instrument the more they seem to adjust to our climate. RQ: How did you get your start playing on Broadway? DW: In 1983 I got a call from a music contractor who needed a flute player for a Broadway production of the Shakespeare play *All’s Well That Ends Well*. Andrew Iolya, who had been my teacher at the Manhattan School of Music, recommended me for the job. The show closed after about two months, but my name got around, and I started subbing for other musicians. I slowly started getting more shows of my own. I’ve worked on over 50 productions, between shows of my own and subbing. These days, I split my time between the theater and the recording studio. RQ: Tell us about how and when you use the dizi in *The Lion King*. Was it written in the score, or did you suggest the instrument for its timbre? DW: I was hired to play for *The Lion King* because they wanted someone who could play flute, piccolo, panpipes, and all sorts of “ethnic flutes” (I hate that term, but that’s another story.). The idea was to jointly create the part, as I brought an extensive knowledge of these unusual instruments, and the distinctive colors they have. The composers were willing to go anywhere in the world musically to get “the sound” that worked. I play 13 instruments in the show. Three of them are dizi I purchased from Tim. One is a high F sopranino Dizi. The other two are pitched in B major, a minor third lower than a piccolo. One utilizes dimo paper, the membrane that gives the dizi such a distinctive sound. The other sounds like a standard wood flute. The dizi were not originally part of *The Lion King* score. I brought them into the mix. The beauty of Tim’s instruments is their malleability—if you play them without “Chinese” ornamentation, they can work in almost any ensemble, and not sound Chinese. RQ: What scene(s) does it appear in? Can you also briefly talk about the other flutes you use in the show? DW: The song “Can You Feel The Love Tonight” features the two B instruBuilding a relaxation habit into one’s flute technique is one of the cornerstones of learning the instrument—others including, of course, a deep artistic involvement with the world of music, a tireless search for your own creative voice, a constant curiosity and excitement about understanding/shaping/hearing more in the repertoire (and not just flute repertoire!). The importance of the relaxation cornerstone is sometimes underestimated. We all want to play ever faster, louder, tongue at the speed of light—we imagine technique-building as the development and strengthening of certain muscles and muscular memory patterns. But for maximum efficiency and effectiveness (and thus maximum fun!), the habit of loosening and releasing needs to be an integral part of all technical workouts. Below are listed a few relaxation methods I have found helpful in my own playing and teaching. “No-fault” Practicing An important first thought: if you are experiencing tension, don’t imagine that you are somehow at fault. In many cases, almost the opposite is true: the fact that you feel the musical excitement, that you care about the sound that comes out of the flute, leads you to put out special effort which can take the form of physical clenching. Most of us (probably 99% of the people I have worked with or taught) need to develop methods to counteract this. The tension slows the learning process and makes performances into daunting, high-pressure events instead of enjoyable challenges, opportunities to communicate your artistic vision. A “no-fault” approach to practicing can be step one. When you play a wrong note (or wrong rhythm, or out of tune note, or wrong dynamic, etc.), rather than saying “Oh, how stupid I am, that’s wrong, it should be an F#” (for example), try simply saying “Oops—next time I’ll be sure to play an F# at that spot” (or the correct rhythm, or a louder crescendo, or whatever is needed). This simple change keeps your level of observation high, and omits the tension-producing part about “how stupid” the error was. Everyone makes errors. The trick is to deal with them intelligently and with a “loosening” approach to fixing them. Singing Singing a phrase or a tricky spot can be a helpful way of learning it—away from the flute. This eliminates the fingering and tone production part and lets you relax and focus just on the musical shape and rhythm. It is also helpful to say just the rhythm (not worrying about the pitches) and vice versa—sing just the pitches and no rhythm. And here’s a surprise: it actually doesn’t matter if your voice won’t “go” to the pitches you’re learning—the process of trying to get it to go there will still help your flute playing! Every breath is a special opportunity for relaxation We all know that, in order to develop smooth and quick finger technique, we need to practice slowly. But how often we forget to apply the same wisdom to the development of breathing technique! This is partly because of our wonderful Andersen etudes, which for the most part leave little or no time for breaths, even between phrases. Our repertoire is also chock-full of fabulous pieces (the Bach Sonatas!) that require quick and hopefully quiet breaths.* Therefore in order to build a habit of relaxation with every breath, we must start by simply taking the extra time that is needed for a relaxed breath. Try this for a week: for at least half of your practice time on an Andersen study, put a quarter rest, with a fermata over it, at the end of every phrase. (Then take it away and breathe quickly for the other half of the time.) Do the same for your scales—put a nice fermata over every breathing spot. Two years ago I was privileged to play on the same concert (at an NFA Convention), with the superb flutist Paul Edmund-Davies, first flutist with the London Philharmonia Orchestra. In addition to hearing his wonderful performance and rehearsals of the John Harbison concerto, I heard part of his pre-concert warm-up: he was playing Taffanel & Gaubert #4, and he was taking several beats for every breath! Here’s something else to try: play your scales until you are almost but not quite out of breath, then, instead of breathing immediately, exhale a little more and at the same time relax your jaw, throat, shoulder and breathing muscles. This could result in your next breath simply coming in as a reflex, which would be terrific. But even if the little extra “puff and release” does not happen to trigger a reflexive breath, it is still a good relaxation habit and will improve your sound. (Needless to say, as with developing speed of fingers, after slow practice one must also go fast—but with a looser feeling!) “Paint the ceiling”** Intersperse your flute practice with various relaxing physical stretches. One of my favorites is “paint the ceiling,” a series of arm circles. Put the flute somewhere safe. Let your right arm fall limply at your side and then spread your fingers into a big wide open hand. Rotate your hand clockwise, pointing your thumb away from you and back, perhaps even toward the wall behind you. Imagine your widespread hand is a paint brush, and, with **This exercise came from a wonderful class I attended in “Semioikinesis,” taught by Marc Bassis. For more information, see: http://www.semiokinesis.org/mski/Accueil.html. * This short article will not describe the mechanics of breathing technique (that would be a different article!). a big arm circle from way behind you to way above, you are painting first the wall behind you and then the ceiling with the center of your palm. Let your gaze follow your hand, and pause at the highest point of the arc, with your fingers still spread wide and your palm facing straight up. This will feel a little uncomfortable, as you are stretching your hand, wrist, forearm, and shoulder muscles. After a few seconds of holding the stretch, relax your hand and let your arm “flop” down in the forward curve of your circle. Repeat with your left arm; do both sides, alternately, five to ten times. Try inhaling on the upward part of the arc, and exhaling on the downward “flop,” and ask yourself if that gives you even more relaxation. **Thought-practicing** This simple technique not only promotes relaxation but also speeds up the learning process. After you have played a “tough spot” several times, instead of actually playing it, imagine it as clearly as possible in your head: sing it silently to yourself, imagining each fingering change, no matter how slowly. Don’t move your fingers—just imagine the movements. And don’t be shocked if it takes several seconds to imagine a finger change that you can already manage easily on the flute. This process brings the essence of the fingering (or the big slur, or the pitch/dynamic control, or whatever you’re working on) into a different level of consciousness and helps you shed some of the extra, tension-related motions that you might be adding when you actually play. In an insightful article,*** Betty Bang Mather reported on an experiment in “thought-practicing” by basketball players. Team A practiced as usual, shooting baskets and making passes, team B sat on the benches and imagined what if felt like to shoot baskets and make passes; and team C did a combination. The team that improved the most was team C. And the team that made the second most improvement was team B—after only sitting on the benches and “thought-practicing.” *** Betty Bang Mather, “Playing the Flute with Your Whole Brain” *The Flutist Quarterly*, Vol. XV No. 4, Fall 1990. Tonguing workouts In the same way that swimming or running can contribute to relaxation and smooth muscle coordination, a moderately strenuous tonguing workout can help relax your tongue and throat. Depending on your level, this workout could be some tongued scales, an Andersen tonguing etude, Saint-Saëns “Volière” (or perhaps Marco Granados’s fun “Hibiee-Jibiees” joropo etude!). Intersperse your workout with resting moments (maybe with some relaxed breathing exercises) and keep focusing on loosening and “floating” all the jaw, neck, and occipital musculature. Make sure to incorporate nice long relaxed breaths into your workout, especially at the beginning. (As you get into it, you may find that your breaths naturally get quicker while still keeping relaxed.) Also make sure not to overdo it. Experiment with different time periods (10–15 minutes, up to 45) and figure out what works for you. A helpful secret—it doesn’t have to be daily! For developing both speed and relaxation, a tonguing workout four or five times a week is sometimes even better than daily. Play slower This is so obvious you’ll think I’m insulting you—nevertheless, each year at auditions I am amazed at how many young players play too fast for themselves, sacrificing relaxation, tone color, phrasing and notes in the process. At least half of your practice time on difficult passages should be slow (and singing), building relaxation into the phrase at each of several different slow tempos. Furthermore, the fast practice can be in short spurts, interspersed with rests, for the same reason. “Bell for awareness” A certain ebb and flow of tension and release are part of the learning process. By going a little bit beyond your limit, in speed, softness, tonguing, or whatever, you’ll experience more relaxation in the next day’s session. A student once told me she had attended a meditation retreat where a “bell for awareness” was rung at random intervals. When they heard the bell, they would each take a moment to check in on their breathing, balance, and spiritual connection with their activity. After they had completed the retreat, their teacher suggested they use a bell we all hear everyday as a continuing “bell for awareness”—namely the telephone. Personally, I have to admit I have not been able to learn to loosen and relax and do a little breathing exercise whenever I hear the phone. (Probably I need to attend this retreat!) Nevertheless, you may be able to find a signal, for yourself, that helps you develop a habit of regular “checking in” on your breathing, balance, relaxation, and spiritual connection. Conclusion This brief outline of methods is far from exhaustive. Your teacher will have many good methods, some tailored for your particular habits. Watch for a planned list of recommended further reading. A champion of new music, flutist Patricia Spencer (www.patriciaspencerflute.com) is well known for her performances, solo and chamber recordings, and commissioning of present-day composers. She is a member of the Da Capo Chamber Players and on the faculty of Bard College and Hofstra University. ©2006 P. Spencer UPDATE ON NEW YORK FLUTE FAIR 2007: STAR TRACK, SETTING YOUR COURSE Katherine Fink, Flute Fair Chair Date: Saturday, March 10, 2007 Venue: Union Theological Seminary International soloist and teacher Carol Wincenc inspires a day of career planning with stellar performances, master-classes and lectures, including a world premiere by illustrious composer Paul Schoenfield. Teachers, future stars and star gazers will enjoy this view from the top. Please check www.nyfluteclub.org for detailed information and updates. MASTERCLASS with CAROL WINCENC Those interested in participating in the masterclass should send a one-page resume and good quality recording (tape or CD) with two contrasting movements or works which you intend to perform at the class (standard flute or piccolo repertoire, no avant-garde). Advanced high school level and beyond are preferred. Please send materials by February 1, 2007 to: Jeanne Wilson 2600 Netherland Avenue, Apt. 425 Riverdale, NY 10463 firstname.lastname@example.org ATTENTION ALL ENSEMBLE TEACHERS! Please contact Stefani Starin at email@example.com by February 1, 2007 if you are interested in having your student ensemble perform at NY Flute Fair 2007 on Saturday March 10 at 2 pm. Any ensemble of three or more students (ages up to 18) is eligible. Maximum 10 minutes for each group. NEW YORK FLUTE CLUB ANNUAL COMPETITION The preliminary auditions will be held at the Kaplan space on March 9, 2007 with final auditions at the Flute Fair on March 10. Winners will perform at the Yamaha Piano Salon on April 29. Eligible age is 18–27, applications must be post-marked by February 10. See www.nyfluteclub.org for details and application. Happy New Year! The first Club event for 2007 will be a concert by the dizi performer and educator Tim Liu, followed by a dizi Q&A session and a post-concert dinner in Chinatown. Rebecca Quigley’s interview left me impressed with Tim’s good humor, his childhood dedication to music (how many junior high students do you know who would skip high school entrance exam coaching sessions to practice the flute in the park?), and expertise in dizi pedagogy. Rebecca also had some questions for a Broadway practitioner of the dizi, David Weiss (see sidebar on p. 4). This month we have two self-help articles on the closely related topics of ergonomic fluting (Dave Wechsler’s “From the President,” p. 2) and mindful relaxation (Pat Spencer on p. 9). We also have some updates from Kathy Fink on Flute Fair 2007 (note that several planned events have early February deadlines for participants) from Annette Baron on the ensembles program. Sue Carlson, the NYFC Newsletter’s new layout/production editor, is this month’s Member Profile subject. First a freelance flutist and now a graphic production manager for a book company, she is probably the only one of our subjects who can claim a family opera company to volunteer with. Makes me wish I had a family opera company, but it is probably not an endeavor for the faint-hearted! Anyway, all for now. See you soon. Best regards, Katherine Saenger (firstname.lastname@example.org)
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The Maya civilization flourished in Mesoamerica from about 2000 BCE to 1500 CE, with their most significant period being from 250 to 900 CE. The Maya were known for their advanced agricultural techniques, which allowed them to cultivate a wide variety of crops, including maize, beans, squash, and chili peppers. They also developed a complex system of irrigation canals to manage water resources effectively. One of the most remarkable aspects of Maya culture was their architectural prowess. They built impressive structures such as pyramids, temples, palaces, and observatories. The most famous example is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, which stands at an impressive height of 34 meters (112 feet). This pyramid was not only a religious site but also served as a symbol of the Maya's power and authority. In addition to their architectural achievements, the Maya were skilled astronomers and mathematicians. They developed a sophisticated calendar system that allowed them to predict solar eclipses and other celestial events accurately. Their understanding of astronomy was so advanced that they could even calculate the length of a year with remarkable precision. The Maya also had a rich artistic tradition, with intricate carvings and paintings adorning many of their buildings. These works often depicted scenes from their mythology and daily life, providing valuable insights into their beliefs and customs. Despite their many accomplishments, the Maya civilization eventually declined around 900 CE. The reasons for this decline are still debated among historians, but it is believed to have been caused by a combination of factors including environmental changes, social unrest, and external pressures from neighboring cultures. Today, the ruins of ancient Maya cities attract tourists from all over the world who come to admire the beauty and complexity of these lost civilizations. The Maya legacy continues to inspire and fascinate people today, reminding us of the incredible achievements of our ancestors and the importance of preserving our cultural heritage. The ancient city of Tikal, located in what is now Guatemala, was one of the largest and most important cities in the Maya civilization. It was built on a series of hills and was surrounded by a moat. The city was known for its impressive architecture, including temples, palaces, and ball courts. The people of Tikal lived in large stone houses and were skilled farmers who grew corn, beans, and squash. They also traded with other Maya cities and had a complex social structure. The city was abandoned around 900 AD, but its ruins are still an important archaeological site today. The ancient civilization of the Maya is one of the most fascinating and mysterious in the world. Their intricate stone carvings, elaborate temples, and sophisticated calendar system have captivated scholars and enthusiasts for centuries. This coloring page offers a glimpse into their rich cultural heritage, inviting you to explore the beauty and complexity of their art through the act of coloring. The Maya civilization flourished in Mesoamerica from the 3rd century BCE to the 16th century CE, primarily in what is now southern Mexico, northern Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Honduras and El Salvador. The Maya created a complex society with advanced architecture, mathematics, and astronomy. Their art often depicted deities and rulers, and their writing system was one of the few fully developed writing systems in the ancient world. One of the most significant aspects of Maya culture was their belief in a cyclical view of time, which influenced their calendar system. The Maya calendar consisted of several cycles, including the Haab' (a solar year of 365 days) and the Tzolk'in (a ritual calendar of 260 days). These calendars were used for both practical purposes, such as agricultural planning, and for religious ceremonies. The Maya also had a sophisticated understanding of mathematics and astronomy. They developed a base-20 number system, which is still evident in modern-day Mayan numerals. They were skilled astronomers, and their observations of celestial events allowed them to create accurate calendars and predict eclipses. In terms of art, the Maya produced intricate carvings, paintings, and sculptures that often depicted deities, rulers, and everyday life. Their art was highly stylized and symbolic, reflecting their deep spiritual beliefs and cultural values. The collapse of the Classic Maya civilization around the 9th century CE remains a topic of much debate among archaeologists and historians. It is believed that a combination of factors, including environmental changes, social unrest, and internal conflicts, contributed to the decline of the Maya civilization. Despite this, the legacy of the Maya continues to inspire and fascinate people around the world, with their rich history and culture still being studied and celebrated today. The ancient civilization of the Maya is one of the most fascinating and mysterious in the world. Their intricate stone carvings, elaborate temples, and sophisticated calendar system have captivated scholars and enthusiasts alike for centuries. This coloring page offers a glimpse into their rich cultural heritage, featuring some of their most iconic symbols and structures. As you color, you'll be transported back in time to explore the wonders of the Maya civilization. The ancient city of Tikal, hidden in the dense jungle of Guatemala, is a testament to the architectural prowess and cultural richness of the Maya civilization. The intricate stone structures, including the towering pyramids and elaborate temples, stand as silent witnesses to the once-thriving civilization that once called this place home. The ruins, now overgrown with vegetation, offer a glimpse into the past, inviting visitors to explore the mysteries of this lost world. The woman is kneading dough on a flat stone, preparing it for cooking. Mayan Temple Coloring page for adults. This is a very complex coloring page, with many details to color. It represents a Mayan temple. Ape and baby coloring page Ape and baby coloring page Toucan Coloring Pages Toucans are large, colorful birds native to the tropical forests of Central and South America. They are known for their large beaks, which can be brightly colored and often contain a large throat pouch. Toucans are excellent climbers and spend most of their time in trees. They feed on fruits, insects, and small animals. Here are some toucan coloring pages for you to enjoy! Axolotl
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A quick guide to interface between kindergarten and primary education Curriculum Development Institute, Education Bureau 2021 Contents Foreword P.2 Three Questions about Interface between Kindergarten and Primary Education P.4 Learning Modes of Children at Kindergartens P.6 - Learning by doing: Learning through play - Kindergarten education curriculum Measures to Facilitate Smooth Interface between Kindergarten and Primary Education P.10 - Learning environment - Curriculum and pedagogy - Learning assessment - Social skills - Emotions - Home-school collaboration Advice for Teachers and Parents P.18 Conclusion P.20 Reference Materials and Useful Websites P.22 Parents and educators at kindergartens and primary schools are concerned about how to facilitate children’s interface between kindergarten and primary education. Some scholars suggest that such interface not only involves changes in “venue” and “role”, but the facilitating measures should also focus on the continuity of children’s learning experiences. In the early days of their primary school life, children may feel excited yet anxious about the new environment, role and learning mode that they are not familiar with. It is imperative that schools and parents work together to help children find the joy and confidence in adapting to the new learning mode and environment, and take care of their physical and psychological needs. With such support, children will then become more prepared for challenges, and more capable of building the foundation for all-round development. In view of the latest developments in kindergarten education curriculum and social trends, the Curriculum Development Institute has updated this booklet to advise stakeholders of the proper ways to help children proceed to another phase of learning through gradual adaptation and integration in light of their growth and development, learning needs, interests and abilities. **Why is it necessary to facilitate the interface between kindergarten and primary education?** Smooth progression from kindergartens to primary schools is not just about the preparedness for knowledge acquisition. What matters more is sustaining children’s interests in learning, curiosity for knowledge, and an active attitude and good habits for learning, as well as developing the courage to overcome difficulties. Such qualities in learning facilitate children to cope with challenges that come with primary schooling. 1. What are the roles of kindergartens and primary schools? The kindergarten education curriculum places emphasis on children’s development of self-confidence, an interest in learning, inquisitiveness, positive values and attitudes, good living habits and healthy lifestyles, which are all contributing factors to a foundation for lifelong learning. Kindergarten teachers should neither advance nor incorporate the contents of the primary school curriculum into their teaching lest children’s interests and motivation in learning and self-confidence be damaged. With the focus on children’s developmental needs, primary schools should provide Primary One students with patient guidance to familiarise them with the new environment and learning requirements, and sustain their confidence and interests in learning. Primary school teachers may introduce tasks appropriate to children’s learning pace into the primary school curriculum, so as to enable their gradual adaptation to primary schooling. 2. How long is the settling-in period? Every child develops at a varied pace and the duration of settling-in varies from child to child. Both kindergartens and primary schools are expected to, in light of the diversity and varying needs of children, make appropriate measures and support available to ensure smooth interface between kindergarten and primary education. Parents are advised to keep a closer watch on the needs and emotional changes of their children and give them encouragement and support. 3. Who can be of help? Close collaboration and quadrupartite efforts of kindergartens, primary schools, families and communities are needed to facilitate children’s smooth interface between kindergarten and primary education. Parents are advised to keep a closer watch on the needs and emotional changes of their children and give them encouragement and support. Close communication and collaboration between kindergartens and primary schools are indispensable for enabling children’s smooth progression to Primary One. The concept of “school readiness” was first introduced by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in the 1990s, stressing the importance of readiness of parents, schools and children to smooth interface between kindergarten and primary education. Learning by doing; Learning through play • Children are curious and interested in exploration. They learn through their life experiences, sensory stimulation and interesting activities. • Children’s learning should align with their development, so they are not able to acquire knowledge and skills that are way beyond their abilities. They also build on their prior experiences to construct knowledge. • A safe, comfortable, enjoyable and challenging environment is conducive to children’s learning. • Children love to play- Learning through play, being a feature of children’s learning, enables children to: * engage in active and effective learning on their own initiative in a relaxing and pleasurable setting, * use language, mathematics, senses and prior experiences in play, and develop creativity, problem-solving skills and versatility; * use their gross and fine motor skills and develop eye-hand coordination ability, and * express emotions, build self-confidence, and develop social skills. • In free play activities, children could select tools, materials, ways to play and playmates according to their preferences, abilities and life experiences. In this way, play can be of more fun, and children can fully express their feelings and explore things around. The curriculum at the kindergarten level is not subject-based. Instead, an integrated approach is adopted to connect the contents across six learning areas and integrate “learning” with “development”, so as to achieve the objectives of promoting children’s development and learning. Through learning and experiences across different areas, children are able to construct knowledge and concepts relevant to everyday life, acquire basic skills, and develop positive values and attitudes, thereby achieving a balanced development in the five domains of ethics, intellect, physique, social skills and aesthetics. **Values and Attitudes** - **Behavioural tendencies, such as:** - friendliness - perseverance - respect - courtesy - honesty - acceptance - compliance with rules - responsibility - empathy **Basic Skills** - Basic skills for learning and life, such as: - self-management - sociability - communication - creativity **Understanding of the world around us** - Children acquire knowledge through memorisation or comprehension of facts and information. - Emphasis is put on children’s real-life experiences, interests and comprehension abilities. Note: Details are set out in the Kindergarten Education Curriculum Guide published for use in KGs, KGsumCCCs and schools with KG classes in 2017. Suggested measures: induction activities • Arrangements could be made for kindergarteners to visit primary schools or partake in induction activities. • Kindergartens may introduce students to the campus environment and learning modes of primary schools by using stories, photos, videos, simulation games, etc. Primary One students need to accustom themselves to the new school environment with larger space and a wider range of facilities. Suggested measures: induction activities • A variety of orientation activities, such as games and experiential programmes may be organised so that newly-admitted Primary One students and their parents could learn more about the school environment, teachers, routines, etc., and a student-staff bond could initially be formed. • Schools may arrange senior students to assist newly-admitted Primary One students. Instead of offering lessons by subject, kindergartens design integrated learning activities under chosen themes for children to learn through play. Suggested measures: professional exchange among teachers - Professional exchange activities, such as mutual visits and lesson observation, may be arranged for kindergarten and primary school teachers, so that they could learn more about one another’s curriculum and teaching modes. Suggested measures: curriculum and pedagogical arrangements - Interesting and real-life exploratory activities could be conducted to enhance children’s creativity and problem-solving skills, and arouse their curiosity and learning interests. - Diversified reading activities could be organised to foster children’s reading interest and habit. - Kindergartens are advised to prudently use information technology as a teaching aid only, and draw parents’ attention to the Department of Health’s advice that children aged between two and six should be discouraged from using electronic screen devices for long durations, so as to minimise the potential health risk, such as damage to children’s eyesight. Apart from adopting the subject-based mode, the primary school curriculum also provides cross-curricular learning activities. Compared to kindergartens, it covers learning contents of greater breadth and depth. Primary One students are expected to stay focused in a longer duration and become more able to think systematically, read text with more words and expand their vocabulary. Suggested measures: curriculum and pedagogical arrangements - To cater for the diverse learning needs and abilities of Primary One students, schools may make flexible arrangements in relation to teaching contents and schedules, and conduct cross-curricular, reading or exploratory activities on a regular or thematic basis, with the aim of sustaining students’ curiosity about learning. - Different sorts of learning activities, such as games, role-play, group-based collaboration and hands-on tasks, could be organised to sustain students’ interests and motivation in learning. - Relaxing learning activities could be offered in the afternoon session of full-day schools to develop students’ mental well-being. - Schools may prudently adjust the daily homework load, and offer tutorial lessons as far as practicable to assist Primary One students with their homework. Besides, schools should be discouraged from giving Primary One students excessive copying exercises and being too harsh on their handwriting. In an authentic learning environment, kindergarten teachers assess children’s development and performance in learning comprehensively through continuous observation. In primary schools, apart from diversified formative assessment that comprises use of questions, observation and homework, there is also summative assessment in the form of written tests, examinations, etc. Primary One students need to familiarise themselves with the assessment requirements and answering modes of each subject. While parents may have different expectations for children who have proceeded to the primary level, parents should acknowledge children having their needs to adapt to the academic requirements according to their own pace. **Suggested measures** - **Kindergarten** - To facilitate parents to choose a suitable primary school for their children, kindergarten teachers should observe, document and analyse children’s learning situation and progress on a continuous basis, and communicate to parents their children’s learning characteristics and development status in a timely manner. - **Primary School** - During the first semester of the first school term, the number of written assessments such as dictations, tests and examinations for Primary One students should be kept to the possible minimum, and a wide diversity of assessment modes including verbal presentation, etc. should be adopted to showcase students’ learning outcomes. Feedback can be provided to promote assessment for learning. - Schools may refer to the learning portfolios of kindergarten graduates in order to gain a better understanding of the students’ abilities to cater for learner diversity. --- Primary One students usually come from different kindergartens. They need to make new friends, meet new teachers, find their place among peers and seek others’ acceptance in order to establish a positive self-image. **Suggested measures** - **Kindergarten** - Kindergartens may organise collaborative activities to foster children’s social development and provide opportunities for them to learn the right skills in introducing themselves and speaking to teachers and peers, so that children will feel more confident about making friends with new schoolmates. - **Primary School** - Schools may create a warm and interesting classroom environment and atmosphere, and use games and other means to enable students to get acquainted with their class and school teachers, etc., and hence develop a greater sense of security and belonging. - Schools may provide students with more opportunities to interact and collaborate with teachers and peers by organising various activities. Emotions Mom, my teacher praised me today! Whole-person Development Primary School Measures to Facilitate Smooth Interface between Kindergarten and Primary Education Home-school collaboration Kindergarten Suggested measures - Kindergartens may express care and support to children. Kindergartens may encourage children to brave the new environment and share with children authentic examples, so as to ease children’s stress and anxiety about proceeding to Primary One. - Kindergartens are expected to take heed of parents’ views and provide parents and students with appropriate support. Primary School Suggested measures - Schools should keep in view the emotional status of newly-admitted students and give them a listening ear, so as to heighten their sense of belonging. - An emotional support network may be set up among peers to encourage newly-admitted students to seek help when necessary. - While it is advisable to enhance students’ sense of accomplishment and self-confidence by acknowledging and commending their efforts, schools need to identify areas for development and offer guidance and support accordingly. Kindergarten Suggested measures - Parents’ meetings may be arranged, with experts, primary school teachers, alumni or their parents elucidating the situation in primary schools, as well as the developmental changes and learning needs of children. Such sharing is more useful than simply recommending a particular school. - Kindergartens may encourage parents to visit primary schools or partake in induction activities with their children. - Kindergartens may explain to parents the importance of holding reasonable expectations for their children, and the key to selecting a suitable primary school according to their children’s learning style, interests and abilities. Primary School Suggested measures - A collaborative group may be set up under Parent-Teacher Association to provide parents with pointers on how to support the learning of Primary One students through regular communication with parents, and engage parents in lesson observations, school activities, voluntary service, etc. These endeavours enable parents to know better how well their children are learning and adapting to school life, and thus reasonably adjust their demands and expectations for their children. - Professionals may be invited to enlighten parents about children’s psychological and physical development and offer suggestions on safeguarding their physical and mental well-being. For kindergarten teachers: Kindergarten education aims at helping children develop self-confidence, an interest in learning and inquisitiveness. Teachers should not advance the primary school curriculum to kindergarten education or require students to learn things covered by the primary school curriculum. For example, kindergarteners should not be asked to write complicated Chinese characters with many strokes or do calculation exercises that involve complicated steps. Such excessive boosting only undermines children’s interests and motivation in learning. For primary school teachers: Teachers have to grasp the baseline and starting point of each student and adhere to the principle of “student-orientedness”. They should respect and appreciate the learning diversity among Primary One students and design a curriculum appropriate to students’ learning and developmental pace, thereby tailoring learning and teaching strategies to personal needs. For parents: In everyday life, parents may let their children take care of themselves and share some of the household chores for the sake of developing their self-care abilities little by little. To choose a suitable school for children, parents need to have a better understanding of their children’s learning interests, abilities and attributes. Besides, parents have to maintain close communication with schools so that they could know what challenges their children are facing, how well they are settling in, and what emotional changes they may be experiencing. Parents and schools should joint hands to make concerted efforts in this regard. Parents may visit the website of Smart Parent Net (https://www.parent.edu.hk) for more information. Smooth Transition From Kindergarten To Primary School To facilitate smooth interface between kindergarten and primary education, stakeholders need to understand children’s developmental pace, respect learner diversity, and implement a broad spectrum of measures that cover learning environment, curriculum and pedagogy, learning assessment, social skills, emotions, home-school collaboration, etc. Kindergarten teachers’ positive encouragement, primary school teachers’ patient guidance, and parents’ loving support are all instrumental in helping children adapt to primary school life happily, confidently and successfully. Reference Materials and Useful Websites: Kindergarten Education Curriculum Guide (2017) Basic Education Curriculum Guide – To Sustain, Deepen and Focus on Learning to Learn (Primary 1 – 6) (2014) Curriculum Resources / Reference Materials Seminars and Workshops Sm@rt e-Team (Teachers) (2018) Interface between Kindergartens and Primary Schools: Message from Primary School Principals Does your 0–5 years old children need electronic screen products? (2019) Reference Materials and Useful Websites: “Joyful and Balanced Development for Young Children Education” Short Film Series: Interface between Kindergarten and Primary One Knowing More About Children’s Learning — Parents’ Pamphlet Smart Parent Net Acknowledgements Committee on Early Childhood Education, Curriculum Development Council An electronic version of this booklet Any feedback or enquiry may be directed to: Kindergarten and Primary Section, Curriculum Development Institute, Education Bureau Telephone number: 2892 5821 Email address: email@example.com Three children running in a field of sunflowers.
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A forest road takes you to the foot of Lulep Iksják, which has a twin mountain: Alep Iksják. Lulep means eastern in Sámi, and Alep western. Both peaks boast stunning views and a welcoming nature. **Directions:** Drive towards Norra Bergnäs, 20 km from Arjeplog. Turn left at an open single-bar gate. It’s the first gravel road you get to, approximately 500 m after a road sign for Rebackudden. Watch out for sharp stones on the forest road. After 5.5 km you’ll see a small timber bridge across the road ditch to your left; park on the right. **Height:** 801 m.a.s.l. The twin peak Alep Iksják is 789 m.a.s.l. **Distance to the top:** 2.2 km **Hiking:** Easy and intermediate. Recommended for children. **Equipment:** Boots/rubber boots recommended as parts are marshland. A map and compass can come in handy. **Path:** There is a well-marked trail to a marsh, about 1 km. After that you hike upwards to the left, in a south-easterly direction. **View:** Across Hornavan with its mountain archipelago. In clear weather you can see the border mountains to the west. **Shelter:** There is none. If strong winds are blowing you can seek shelter next to large boulders. By the slope, in the soft terrain, is a good spot for a picnic. **Reserve:** Hornavan-Sádvajaure old-growth mountain forest reserve expands to the north. The reserve’s fauna is rich, and natural forests, south-west facing slopes and chalk areas have great botanical value. The unexploited forest ecosystem is a unique area in Europe. The forest mainly consists of sparse, low-growth pine forest with large elements of mountain birch. The age spread is marked, but an older generation of 200-450 year-old pines dominates. Iksják’s peaks are located in an area mainly visited by hunters, berry pickers and a few hikers. Ståkke Sámi association carry out reindeer husbandry in the vicinity. **Animals:** Wildlife is rich, but it can be difficult to spot animals during a hike. There’s elk, reindeer, fox and smaller rodents. Very rarely sighted are lynx, wolverine and bear. **Birds:** There are golden eagles and rough-legged buzzards in the area, but more commonly seen are Siberian jay, golden plover and dotterel. Other species found to a greater or lesser extent are mountain finch, bluethroat, willow grouse, redpoll, willow warbler, redstart and redwing. Near the top of Alep Iksják there is a so-called ‘laying hen’, a boulder perched on three smaller rocks. Artwork courtesy of the inland ice. Plenty of twin flowers, *Linnaea borealis*, grow on the moss-clad slopes in metre-long tendrils. It was Carl Linnaeus’s favourite flower and he was often portrayed with a twin flower in his hand. It was also featured on his coat of arms. View of Arjeplog and Hornavan from Lulep Iksják. **Flowers:** In early summer you can see kingcup and globeflower – often near wetlands. On the mountain slopes you can spot yellow mountain saxifrage, pin cushion plant, purple mountain saxifrage, hairy lousewort, Arctic yellow violet, alpine bistort, snow gentian, purple mountain heather, twinflower and Lapland lousewort. In late summer, the statuesque northern wolfsbane and alpine sow-thistle take over. **Lulep Iksják is an easy peak for all ages to climb. It takes 45 to 90 minutes to walk up.** The area around the top is full of exciting formations. The inland ice melted, carved through and polished the mountain chain with enormous power. There is a steep side to Lulep Iksják that is constantly changing. It’s known as frost blasting, common in cold regions and high mountain ranges. Water penetrates cracks that expand as it freezes into ice. When water freezes, it becomes nine percent ‘bigger’. If you were to take a picture of the mountain top now, and another one in fifty years’ time, you would probably see the change. Vegetation changes character too. What happens over a longer period of time is unclear, but some forecasts predict that the tree line will move upwards and the proportion of bare mountain regions will decrease as a result of a changing climate. At the same time, other factors such as grazing, nutritional value and previous land use have an important impact on trees and forest spread. **Sources:** Arjeplognytt.se 1 July, 2012 interview with geologist Lena Kjällgren and Piteå-Tidningen, Bertil Sundkvist 13 September, 2010. **Further reading:** www.lansstyrelsen.se/norrbotten and the Institute for Subarctic Landscape Research, INSARC: www.recallingthepast.se --- **A glimpse of history:** The area just north of Lulep and Alep Iksják was controversial in the late 1970s. LKAB wanted to start mining there, extracting uranium for the nuclear industry. But no mine was opened. After an extensive debate and a referendum in Arjeplog municipality the proposal was mothballed. The exploration stopped 125 metres into the mountain and was later filled with water. The mining area, called Pleutajokk, was covered with soil. LKAB shut the project down when the potential buyer of the uranium, the Swedish nuclear fuel supply, found that Swedish uranium from Pleutajokk would be too expensive. Thirty years later, traces of the exploration are still visible. Sediment ponds remain, covered in grass and birch bush. In the mining area some blocks are visible. There are visible traces of mineral collectors who have knocked chunks off the disputed area in Pleuta. Pipes from drill holes are sticking up in places. When the uranium was discovered and investigated people started calling the road to Pleutajokk ‘Uranium Road’. These days the name is official. --- **What does the right of public access mean?** The main rule of the unique right of public access is **do not disturb** – **do not destroy**. Please keep the following in mind: - You are allowed to hike almost anywhere, but not on plots and plantations, and around private residences. - Use provided fireplaces when making fires, if possible, and never light a fire when it is dry or very windy. You are not allowed to use fallen trees for fuel, or cut down trees or shrubs, or remove twigs, branches or bark from living trees. - You are not allowed to hunt, disturb, capture or harm animals, their young, their nests or their eggs. Dogs are not allowed off leash from 1 March until 20 August, when animals have their young. Dogs must be prevented from running loose in areas with game and reindeer. - Show particular respect to reindeer husbandry in the mountains and forests near Arjeplog. Experience reindeer from a distance. Respect reindeer herders’ working space and privacy near dwellings and reindeer enclosures. If you are caught up in a reindeer herding, keep away and try to make as little noise as possible until the herd has moved on. - You are allowed to pick wild flowers, berries and mushrooms, but first check which plants are protected. Specific rules apply in reserves and national parks specific. It is not allowed to chip or knock stones out of place, or carve your name onto stone slabs. You may take a few smaller, loose stones. - If you see any rubbish – please pick it up! Source: www.naturvardsverket.se. You can download the brochure “Protected species of plants and animals in Sweden” (2012). --- **Natura 2000** Natura 2000 is a network for Europe’s most valuable habitats. In Arjeplog municipality there are 22 areas, including Akkelis, Björknäs, Daita, Granberget, Hornavan-Sadvjaure, Laisdalen Valley, Laisalven River, Långsjön-Gåbrek, Markberget, Nimtek, Pieljekaise, Pite River, Råkäive, Ramanj, Ståkke-Bårgå, Sulitelma, Tjejgvelas, Tjälmejaure, Udtja, Veddek and the Yraf delta.
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Northeastern University Library Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from Boston Library Consortium Member Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/highpressuretea00alba • THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE: AN EXPOSITION OF ITS COMPARATIVE MERITS, AND AN ESSAY TOWARDS AN IMPROVED SYSTEM OF CONSTRUCTION, Adapted especially to secure Safety and Economy in its Use. BY DR. ERNST ALBAN, PRACTICAL MACHINE MAKER, PLAU, MECKLENBURG. Translated from the German, with Notes, BY WILLIAM POLE, C.E., FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY; ASSOCIATE OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. WITH TWENTY-EIGHT PLATES, ENGRAVED BY MR. GLADWIN. London: JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN. M.DCCC.XLVIII. PRINTED BY HUGHES AND ROBINSON, KING'S HEAD COURT, GOUGH SQUARE. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. It is possible that the first impression of the English reader, on perusing the title-page of this work, may be that of surprise at being referred to the writings of a foreigner, and to the results of foreign experience, for information on a subject so essentially English as that of the Steam Engine. England is, it will be said, not only the birth-place of this machine, but the country in which it has gained all the progressive development that has fitted it for its present magnificent sphere of usefulness;—the English have been the inventors and improvers, and are par excellence the manufacturers of the Steam Engine;—and, it may be asked, is it consistent with our national honour to be sent to another country for information on a subject allowed, almost by common consent, to be peculiarly and exclusively our own? This inquiry is natural enough, but it has a very simple and satisfactory answer. The Steam Engine is not a machine whose principles of construction and action are invariable: it admits of many modifications; or rather we should say, the properties of steam may be made use of by many diversified methods to obtain the desired result,—the production of mechanical power; and therefore if it can be shown that any one of these, which offers the prospect of advantage in its application, has been neglected by ourselves as a nation, we need not be surprised if our neighbours should step in before us upon the untrodden path, nor in such case need we be ashamed of receiving instruction from them, as they have been accustomed to receive it from us, but in a much greater measure, heretofore. Now it cannot be denied that from the time of Newcomen down to a very late period, the attention of the English has been almost exclusively directed to that modification of the Steam Engine which depends for its source of power principally upon the condensability of steam, namely, the low-pressure condensing engine, in which a very moderate elasticity is used. The other great class, comprising that variety of engine which owes its efficiency to the elasticity of the steam,—the high-pressure engine,—was, a very few years ago, scarcely known among us in comparison. While we have found the condensing engine studied carefully, treated of most voluminously, and manufactured by wholesale, we have deplored the neglect which the high-pressure engine has suffered;—we have looked in vain for information upon it; and we have scarcely been able to point to a solitary specimen deserving the name of an economical producer of steam power. Surely then, while we have done so little with this variety of the machine, we need not scruple to attend to the investigations, and to profit by the experience, of those who have done more; and it is on this ground attention is invited to the following pages. It must be admitted that there are two varieties of the High-pressure Engine to which these remarks do not exactly apply; namely, the Locomotive and the Cornish Pumping Engine. These have, of late years, excited so much attention, and so much energy, industry, and talent have been devoted to their improvement, that we may safely leave them in their present hands. Each is, in fact, so completely a machine sui generis,—so distinct from the ordinary engine, as to require for itself independent treatment and special discussion. There is, however, as everybody knows, a large and most useful class of engines, manufactured in great numbers for driving machinery and other technical purposes, and known in commerce perhaps more generally than any other kind by the name of High-pressure Engines. For example, a party requiring an engine for driving machinery in a situation where water was scarce, would not dream of ordering either a Cornish or a locomotive engine, but would purchase a simple non-condensing high-pressure engine of the kind ordinarily known under the name. It is this large class of engines which have been so much neglected; and although the present work contains much matter applicable to all engines in which high-pressure steam is used, and indeed also to the steam engine generally, its principal object appears to be to bring into notice and to improve the class above named,—the commercial High-pressure Engine. It must startle English Engineers not a little to be told that the high-pressure engine is both safer and more economical in its use than the low-pressure condensing one; yet such is the declaration of our Author, who, according to his own showing, appears to have devoted more attention to the high-pressure engine than perhaps any other Engineer now in practice. On this account, if for no other, the work now laid before the public is worthy of a careful and impartial examination. The claim the Author puts forward to consideration as an authority, on the matter he treats of, may be gathered from the following extract from his Preface. He says, "For the course of now about thirty years have I uninterruptedly laboured in the field of knowledge offered by the steam engine, and for the far greater part of that time my attention has been directed to the high-pressure variety. I have erected a considerable number of engines of this description, of various sizes, and from all these I have gained opportunities of gradually carrying out into actual practice the results of my experiments and observations. I have also had the advantage of a two years' residence in England, where the opportunity was afforded me of observing and experimenting upon hundreds of steam engines, of the most diversified kinds, and applied to the greatest variety of purposes: and more than all, I have found by experience that my endeavours to accomplish the improvement of the high-pressure engine have had a constantly increasing success. On these grounds I have reason to hope that I may not be considered incompetent to the task I have undertaken, and that my statements and reasonings may be received with confidence." But these grounds for such an estimation of the Author's qualifications for his work are scarcely necessary; the book itself furnishes ample internal evidence in its own favour. We are at no loss to discover that the Author has had much practical acquaintance with his subject;—that he has improved to the utmost advantage all the opportunities of observation and investigation which his practice has afforded him;—that he has taken much pains to make himself master of whatever has been previously done or written by others;—and that he has brought to bear on his task a sound practical judgment, an acute and comprehensive habit of observation, a close and forcible method of reasoning,—and, above all, a candid and unbiassed mind, anxious to discover the truth, and never ashamed to confess a past error, or to change a previously expressed opinion, when such a course has been dictated to him by the results of subsequent experience and investigation. The ample and copious discussion given to every point of importance upon which difference of opinion exists, or which is complicated in its nature and difficult of decision, and the honest endeavour to present impartially the whole view of both sides of a disputed question, testify not only the extent of the Author's information, but the careful and impartial manner in which he has endeavoured to deduce correct conclusions from the knowledge he has gained, and his evident anxiety to put his readers in full possession of the reasons which have guided him to his decision. The First Part of the work, it will be perceived, treats of the High-pressure Engine generally. After a few articles of introductory matter, the Author proceeds, first, to examine the principal objections brought against the high-pressure engine, dwelling more particularly on that one which has proved the greatest obstacle hitherto to its more general use; namely, its alleged danger. The various causes tending to produce explosions of steam engine boilers are discussed at length, and proof produced, both from reasoning and from experience, that low-pressure boilers are not less liable to such destructive accidents than high-pressure, if only proper care is used in the construction of the latter. The errors often committed in the manufacture of vessels for the generation of high-pressure steam are pointed out, and many excellent remarks and considerations in regard to boiler and furnace arrangements in general will be found under this head. After noticing other objections as to economy, &c., the Author goes on, secondly, to show the peculiar advantages possessed by the high-pressure engine,—as, simplicity, compactness, cheapness, lightness, conveniences of various kinds in working, and particularly economy of fuel. He then proceeds to enter into the detail of his subject, and to investigate at considerable length the circumstances to be taken into consideration in the construction of high-pressure engines. The Second Part treats of the Boiler and its appurtenances, and the Furnace. It contains the discussion of these important subjects generally, and a full description of two kinds of boilers used by the Author for his high-pressure engines. The Third Part is devoted to the Engine, for the general arrangement of which the oscillating plan appears to be preferred, its advantages being stated at length, and objections to it answered. The cylinder, piston, valves, and other parts of the engine pass under review, and the Author's opinions are further illustrated by a description of his own engines. The descriptions in Parts II. and III. are in minute detail, and contain the developement of the views to which the Author has been led as to the methods of construction best adapted to secure the ends proposed; namely, safety and economy in the use of the high-pressure engine. The Fourth Part contains general remarks on the economical results of the working of the improved high-pressure engines as regards their consumption of fuel, with examples;—on the dimensions and proportions of the engine;—on its application to machinery of various kinds;—and on the use of the waste steam. The Plates attached to the work, comprising upwards of a hundred figures, not only serve as copious illustrations of the Text, but also furnish complete working drawings of engines and boilers in full and elaborate detail,—sufficient to direct any ordinary mechanical engineer in the manufacture of the machines themselves. It may be gathered from what is above stated that the object of the work is three-fold: first, to bring forward the merits of the high-pressure engine; secondly, to give the views of the Author as to the best means of overcoming the objections to the system, and securing the two great desiderata, safety and economy in its use; and thirdly, to exhibit these views embodied in the practical form of engines actually made, in which the desired requirements are confidently stated to have been attained. The merits of the high-pressure system require no elaborate disquisition. If a simple cylinder, 8 inches in diameter, can be made to do as much work as can be done on another plan by one twice the size, encumbered with costly and complicated condensing provisions into the bargain, we shall not require much persuading to prefer the former, provided that it bring no disadvantage in its train,—provided, in short, that it is as safe and as economical as its rival. Here, therefore, comes the question: Can we make the high-pressure engine equal in these respects to the ordinary condensing engine;—can we free it from the danger and extravagance generally supposed to be inseparable from the system? How far our Author has succeeded in determining this, the readers of the book must decide. But it is by no means necessary to the character of the work for usefulness, that we admit the Author to have proved all his points. I believe there are many Engineers of equal experience and authority with himself who will differ from him in some of his opinions; but there are few who may not benefit by his practical, experienced, and well-digested views. The book has a merit independent altogether of the high-pressure discussion, in that it contains (as a glance through the Table of Contents will show) much matter applicable alike to all kinds of engines: it exhibits, throughout, an example of the application of thought and consideration to mechanical details, which is too little followed in works of the kind, but which must tell home to the practical man, even when perhaps the conclusions arrived at may fail to convince him. The Author comes before us in a plain honest way, not as a patentee seeking profit, or an enthusiast thirsting for fame,—not with wild fancies, novel projects, or visionary schemes,—but offering to the public the results of his long experience, down to the smallest minutiae, without fee or reward. He does not appear even open to the charge of an attempt to bring work to his own manufactory, for his descriptions are so full and explicit that any workman of ordinary intelligence and capabilities may manufacture for himself from them. Indeed this has actually been done: engines and boilers have been made in many instances by other foreign Engineers from the descriptions in the original work, and have been found fully to answer the good qualities predicted of them; and I have reason to believe that the improvements will, ere long, be tested in this country also. Some few passages in this work may seem too critical upon English Engineers; and it may happen that our Author has occasionally not been well informed as to the merits of the cases he criticises; but it must not be inferred that because some faults of English Engineers have been noticed, therefore their high position has been at all disputed. The fame of English Engineering is not such as need fear criticism; but we must recollect that our faults as well as our merits are open to the view of the world, and until we are prepared to declare ourselves infallible, our over sensitiveness would be only an imitation of the ostrich, who buries her head in the sand, and straightway fancies herself invisible. I have only a word or two to add as to my share in the present publication. The translation of a work of this kind, whose object is to convey technical information, ought, I conceive, to be undertaken in a somewhat different manner from that of writings whose principal value lies in their literary merit. In the latter the rendering must be as close as the nature of the two languages will permit, or the work becomes, in fact, more the Translator's than the Author's: but with the former, where the purpose is to present correctly the matter of the book independently of the manner, the object of the Translator must be to seize upon the ideas intended to be conveyed, and to put them in such a dress as will be most adapted to the technical character and language of the subject treated of, without much regard to the style of phraseology of the original. In the endeavour to accomplish this, I have not hesitated to take occasionally some liberties in the translation, sometimes departing widely from the literal rendering, but always keeping in view the more perfect adaptation of the Author's meaning to the ideas and language of English engineering science. I have used my own discretion in omitting such matter as seemed to me wanting in novelty or connection with the subject, and have in general much shortened the descriptive portions of the work, believing I was writing for those who did not need such minute detail as is given in the foreign copy. The original is enriched with a great number of references; but as these are mostly to foreign works, I have omitted the greater part, as of little use to the English reader. I have, I think, somewhat improved the arrangement of the work, by dividing off the matter in a more systematic manner than the Author has done, and by numbering the Articles. I have also added a synoptical Table of Contents, which presents at one view a general idea of the subject matter of the Treatise, and by means of which, reference to any particular item is rendered more easy. The Plates have been carefully revised, and several errors, existing in the originals, have been corrected. Much of the credit of the improvement in this particular is due to the engraver, Mr. Gladwin. I am somewhat proud to say that the Translation has been approved by the Author himself, as well as by others who have had the best opportunities of critically comparing it with the original, and the best ability to judge of its scientific character. The part first published has been adopted by no mean tribunal, the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania,* as a standard authority on the subject of the High-pressure Engine. The original work was published in Germany in 1843, and the First Part, and part of the Second, appeared in English at the commencement of 1847. It is due to the Publisher that I should apologize for the delay in the completion, caused by failure of health in a distant clime, and a consequent protracted journey: I have gained, however, thereby, the opportunity of visiting the Author's manufactory, of examining his engines, and of making myself more thoroughly acquainted with his views. I trust that the latter portion of the Translation has gained sufficient by this to compensate for the delay of its appearance. I cannot do better than close this introduction with the following modest passages from the Author's Preface: "In the midst of urgent business and continual interruption, I write the present Treatise upon the High-pressure Engine, * See 'Mechanic's Magazine,' No. 1250. with a view to general utility;—may its imperfections be pardoned for the sake of the good object at which I aim. The field of High-pressure Engines is yet so uncultivated, and the state of our knowledge and experience is yet so imperfect with reference to the merits or demerits of these machines, now taking such an important part in the intercourse of the world, that every voice raised on the subject deserves attention, especially if it proceed from those who have not merely become acquainted with Steam Engines behind the study table, but have had practically to do with them, and have been actively engaged in their construction and improvement. I confess willingly that my voice has but little weight; but my hope is, nevertheless, that it may find a sympathising ear. "If my work has great and numerous defects, I hope it contains much that is worthy of notice, and calculated to be generally useful. And so can I say, with the modest author of the Book of Maccabees,— 'And if I have done well, and fitting the story, it is that which I desired; but if slenderly and meanly, it is that which I could attain unto. 'For as it is hurtful to drink wine or water alone; and as wine mingled with water is pleasant and delighteth the taste; even so speech finely framed delighteth the ears of them that read the story. 'And here shall be an end.'" William Pole. London, June, 1848. CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTION. 1. Advantages of the steam engine ........................................ 1 2. Little knowledge existing as to the most advantageous method of employing steam as a moving power ............... ib. 3. Want of experimental information as to the comparative value of the different modifications of the steam engine: causes of this .................................................. 2 4. The high-pressure engine hitherto much neglected .................. 5 5. Objects and design of the present work ................................. 7 6. A standard form of engine not recommended: the construction must be adapted to circumstances ................................. 9 ON THE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE GENERALLY. 7. Probable early origin of the high-pressure engine ................... 11 8. Early neglect of the high-pressure engine: Oliver Evans its first introducer in modern times ............................... ib. 9. Low state of knowledge and opinion in the present day, in regard to the high-pressure engine: causes of this .................. 13 EXAMINATION OF THE PRINCIPAL OBJECTIONS BROUGHT AGAINST THE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 10. First objection.—The danger alleged to attend its use ............ 14 11. The engine itself not exposed to danger: the boiler only to be considered in regard to this objection ............................. 15 ADVANTAGES OF THE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 33. Attention invited to the advantages of the high-pressure engine 48 34. First advantage.—Simplicity, lightness, compactness, cheapness 49 35. Second advantage.—Diminished loss by prejudicial resistances 51 36. Third advantage.—Condensing water not required ib. 37. Fourth advantage.—Leakage at the joints more easily discovered ib. 38. Fifth advantage.—Blowing through at starting unnecessary 52 39. Sixth advantage.—The power of the high-pressure engine may be temporarily augmented at any time with great facility ib. 40. Seventh advantage.—Facility for examining the state of the piston packing 53 41. Eighth advantage.—Greater economy of fuel. First, in the generation of the steam 54 42. Secondly, in its application in the engine: and this on various grounds which are explained and enlarged upon 55 43. Importance of directing attention to the economical improvement of the engine, considered apart from the boiler 61 PART II. ON THE BOILER AND ITS APPENDAGES: AND THE FURNACE. 44. On the degree of pressure most advantageous to be used 64 45. This should not be lower than 8 or 10 atmospheres 65 46. The Author’s own experience on the point, and upon his engines generally 67 47. Doubts existing as to the practicability of using such a high pressure: answered 68 48. Division of this part of the work 69 ## THE BOILER. | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | 49. Difficulties of the subject—defects of the ordinary boilers | 69 | | 50. The great principle upon which high-pressure boilers should be constructed | 70 | | 51. Tubular boilers: their advantages and defects | 71 | | 52. Conditions which a tubular boiler ought to fulfil, in order to insure safety | 73 | | 53. General requisites in the construction of good tubular boilers | 74 | | 54. The receiving vessels or separators | 75 | | 55. The generating tubes—these should form the weakest part of the boiler—reasons for this rule | 76 | | 56. Most suitable dimensions and proportions for the tubes | 78 | | 57. Position of the tubes in the furnace—horizontal preferable to vertical | 80 | | 58. Degree in which the tubes should be filled. Steam production within them | 81 | | 59. Long tubes of small diameter particularly objectionable | ib. | | 60. The pressure an important element in the consideration of tubular boilers | 82 | | 61. Precaution to be observed when getting up the steam | ib. | | 62. Proportions of water surface | 83 | | 63. Importance of cleaning boilers—chemical means | ib. | | 64. Preventive means—potatoes | 84 | | 65. Charcoal—clay—tallow—metallic balls—separators—vegetable matter—salts | 86 | | 66. These preventives seldom necessary for high-pressure engines | 87 | | 67. Water content | 88 | | 68. Steam space | 90 | | 69. Heated surface | 91 | | 70. Rules for the heating surface and fire-grate | 93 | | 71. Artificial means of increasing the evaporative power of boilers | 95 | | 72. On the dimensions and strength of boilers | ib. | 73. What material is most suitable for boilers 98 THE FEEDING APPARATUS. 74. Its great importance 100 75. Substitutes for the feed-pump—their defects 101 76. The force-pump—its advantages; and the defects most common in its construction 103 THE SAFETY APPARATUS. 77. Safety-valves—their most common defects 105 78. Sticking of the safety-valve 106 79. Description of safety-valve best adapted for high-pressure boilers 107 80. Other safety apparatus—importance of employing careful engine attendants 108 81. Safety-valves with pistons 109 82. Thermometers 110 PRESSURE GAUGES. 83. The manometer ib. WATER GAUGES AND REGULATORS. 84. Gauge-cocks—their imperfections 111 85. Glass tubes 112 86. Floats 113 87. Evils of self-acting apparatus for regulating the feed 114 PROVING OF BOILERS. 88. On the proving of boilers 115 DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTHOR'S IMPROVED BOILERS. 89. The Author's improved boilers 116 I. DESCRIPTION OF THE BOILER FOR SMALL ENGINES. 90. General description 117 91. Method of joining the cylinder plates 119 92. Method of stopping leaks 120 | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | 93. Covers to the cylinders | 122 | | 94. Water connecting tube | 124 | | 95. Connecting tubes between the cylinders | 125 | | 96. Steam collecting pipe | 126 | | 97. The double cone joint | 127 | | 98. Area of the steam-pipe | 129 | | 99. The safety-valve | ib | | 100. Water gauge | 131 | | 101. General remarks upon the fixing and action of this description of boiler | 133 | | 102. Feeding apparatus—general arrangement | 135 | | 103. Feed-pump | 136 | | 104. Feed water | 138 | | 105. Valves of the feed-pump | 139 | | 106. Proportions of the feed-pump | 141 | | 107. Packing of the feed-pump | ib | | 108. Precautions against the return of the hot water from the boiler to the feed-pump | 142 | | 109. Supply and filtration of the feed water | 143 | | 110. Plunger-pumps | 144 | | 111. Steam gauge | 145 | **II. DESCRIPTION OF A LARGER BOILER.** | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | 112. Difficult conditions to be supplied by this boiler | 146 | | 113. The principal parts of which this boiler consists | 147 | | 114. General description—the generating tubes | ib | | 115. the hearts | 149 | | 116. the separators and receivers | 153 | | 117. action of the boiler | 155 | | 118. Details of the tubes | 156 | | 119. hearts | 158 | | 120. separators and receivers | 160 | | 121. Modifications for different degrees of power | 161 | | 122. This boiler fulfils all required conditions, particularly as regards safety | 162 | | 123. On the cleaning | 163 | | 124. Other advantages of this boiler | 165 | 125. Applicability to marine purposes .......................... 166 126. What is to be understood by heating surface in these boilers ......................................................... 167 THE FURNACE. 127. Importance of the furnace—objects to be attained ........ 168 128. Is there advantage in placing the fire within the boiler, or are furnaces of masonry preferable? ....................... ib. 129. General construction of the masonry .......................... 171 130. Height requisite for the chimney;—the smoke nuisance ................................................................. 173 131. Cross area of the chimney ........................................ 176 132. The ash-pit ...................................................... 177 133. The fire-grate and bars .......................................... 179 134. Distance between the grate and the boiler ................... 181 135. Mode of firing: importance of having a good stoker: furnace-feeding and smoke-burning machines .................. 182 136. The flues ....................................................... 185 137. On the degree of draft;—slow and quick combustion ......... 188 138. The fire-doors .................................................. 190 DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTHOR'S FURNACES. 139. Furnace of the smaller boiler ................................. 191 140. Air register for ash-pit ........................................ 196 141. Furnace of the larger boiler .................................... 198 142. Necessity of placing the engine and boiler in separate rooms ................................................................. 204 PART III. ON THE ENGINE. 143. Importance of directing attention to the improvement of the engine ......................................................... 206 144. The oscillating cylinder preferred by the Author .......... ib. 145. Its invention and introduction into use ........................ 207 146. Objections to the oscillating engine. First. The alleged evil consequences of setting so large a mass in motion 208 147. Second.—Unequal wear 211 148. Third.—Great friction of the trunnions ib. 149. Fourth.—Irregularity of the motion 213 150. Advantages of the oscillating engine. First. Simplicity ib. 151. Second.—Facility of manufacture 214 152. Third.—Compactness ib. 153. Fourth.—Lightness ib. 154. Fifth.—Portability ib. 155. Sixth.—Cheapness 215 156. Seventh.—More simple in management ib. 157. Eighth.—Less friction ib. 158. Ninth.—Less consumption of grease 216 159. Tenth.—Requires less repair ib. 160. Eleventh.—Favourable position of the parts for observation ib. 161. Twelfth.—Piston-rod requires no guiding 217 162. Thirteenth.—Direct transmission of the force ib. 163. Oscillating cylinders more suitable for high-pressure than low-pressure engines ib. THE STEAM CYLINDER. 164. The material 218 165. Position of the steam openings 219 166. The covers ib. 167. The stuffing-box ib. 168. The steam-jacket 220 THE PISTON. 169. Metallic pistons unsuitable for high-pressure engines 221 170. Objections to them. First. Difficulty of boring the cylinder sufficiently true 222 171. Second.—Pistons themselves difficult to make 223 172. Third.—Alter their condition under heat ib. 173. Fourth.—Deteriorate in working 224 174. Fifth.—Their parts often stick fast together . 224 175. Sixth.—Cause much more friction . ib. 176. Seventh.—Springs lose their elasticity . 225 177. Eighth.—Pressure of the steam on the segments above and below ib. 178. Ninth.—Or from the inside or outside ib. 179. Tenth.—Proportions of the parts change by wear . 226 180. Eleventh.—Often comprise too many joints, which do not remain steam-tight ib. 181. Twelfth.—Wear the cylinder unequally ib. 182. Thirteenth.—Are often constructed of unsuitable metal ib. 183. These difficulties are greater the higher the pressure used . 227 184. Advantages of hemp packing. First. It remains steam-tight under great pressure ib. 185. Second.—With very small friction . 228 186. Third.—Is more durable than is generally supposed . 229 187. Manner of preparing the packing . 230 188. Necessity of good tallow for lubrication . 231 ON THE LENGTH OF STROKE. 189. Comparison of the advantages of long and short strokes: preference given by the Author to a short stroke and quick motion . 232 190. On single-acting engines for rotary motion . 234 ON THE VALVES. 191. Description of the two great classes of valves . ib. 192. Stalk-valves have many practical inconveniences . 235 193. First.—Require complicated gearing . 236 194. Second.—Are difficult to open, and subject to great strains from the steam pressure ib. 195. Third.—Soon become leaky, from several causes . 237 196. Slides more suitable for high-pressure engines . 238 197. But not piston valves, or cocks . 239 198. Slide valves require very simple gearing ib. 199. Objection to them on account of the friction: answered . . . 239 STEAM AND EDUCTION PASSAGES. 200. Their dimensions: excellence of Watt’s rules . . . 240 EXPANSION. 201. Degree of expansion most advantageous to be used: the Author adheres to Oliver Evans’s practice, cutting off the steam at one-third the stroke . . . 241 CONDENSER. 202. The condenser only applicable to high-pressure engines under certain circumstances . . . 243 203. What these circumstances are . . . ib. DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTHOR’S ENGINES. 204. Normal form of the engine . . . 244 205. The framing—its construction . . . ib. 206. Plummer-blocks for the trunnions and the crankshaft . . . 246 207. The cylinder . . . 247 208. The casing . . . 248 209. The cover and stuffing-box . . . ib. 210. The piston . . . 250 211. Method of packing . . . 251 212. The lubrication . . . 253 213. Variation in construction of the piston . . . 254 214. The trunnion frame . . . 255 215. The valve apparatus;—its general position . . . 256 216. Upper cylinder cover: valve face . . . ib. 217. Eduction-pipe and communications . . . 258 218. The slide and slide-box . . . 259 219. Machinery for giving motion to the valve . . . 260 220. Expansion slide and box . . . 261 221. Steam-pipe and communications . . . 262 222. Operation of the valve apparatus . . . 263 246. Oscillating engine with the main shaft above the cylinder .......................... 283 247. Engine with a fixed cylinder and connecting-rod ......................... 284 248. Engine for driving a vertical shaft ........................................... 285 249. Single-acting pumping engine .................................................. 286 250. Arrangement for marine engines .............................................. 287 ON THE USE OF THE WASTE STEAM FROM THE ENGINE. 251. This constitutes one great advantage of the high-pressure engine ............... 288 252. Objection answered ............................................................. 289 253. General arrangement ............................................................ ib. 254. Particular applications of the steam ........................................ 290 255. Prove all things; hold fast that which is good .......................... 291 INDEX .................................................................................................. 292 LIST OF PLATES. I.—Elevations of Boiler for Small Engines. II.—Sections of do. III.—Do. do. IV.—Details of Boiler and Safety-Valve. V.—Do. Water Gauge and Joints. VI.—Feed Apparatus. VII.—Elevation of Boiler for Large Engines. VIII.—Sections of do. IX.—Details of do. X.—Do. do. XI.—Boiler for Thirty-Horse Engine. XII.—Front Elevation of Engine (Frontispiece). XIII.—Side do. do. XIV.—Section of do. XV.—Do. do. XVI.—Details of do. XVII.—Do. do. XVIII. to XXI. Do. do. XXII.—Modification of the Oscillating Engine. XXIII.—Engine with a Fixed Cylinder. XXIV.—Engine for Driving a Vertical Shaft with Corn-Mill attached. XXV.—Single-Acting Pumping Engine. XXVI.—Do. do. Direct action. XXVII.—Oscillating Engines for a Steam Vessel. XXVIII.—Modification of the Oscillating Engine. INTRODUCTION. 1. It would be superfluous here to attempt to enumerate the benefits which the steam engine has conferred upon mankind. It is matter of universal knowledge that all branches of industry have, since its introduction into use, made most important advances through its aid; and every day's experience shows it constantly extending its beneficial influence to new and important purposes, and lending its powerful assistance to the further advance of civilization. When we consider what the introduction of the steam engine has already done, we have the less difficulty in anticipating that this invention may yet be destined to achieve objects of whose magnitude and importance we can at present form but a faint idea. 2. On this account, it is greatly to be wondered at that such a noble invention has not been brought to a higher grade of perfection. When it is considered what multitudes of labourers have been working in the field of its improvement;—what variety of points in the system the improvers have directed their attention to;—what manifold opinions have been advanced;—and how many thousand means have been tried to gain the desired end;—it must appear astounding that all these efforts have produced so little real knowledge with respect to the great desideratum,—the most suitable and appropriate means of employing steam as a moving power,—and have left the question, at what point to commence improvement in order to arrive at the greatest degree of perfection, still undecided. 3. Yet more inexplicable, however, is the fact, that among all that has been done, we find such a want of experimental information as to the comparative value of the different known modifications of the machine by which the power of steam is made available; so few comparative experiments conducted in a scientific and impartial manner, which might tend to award to one system or another its relative degree of superiority, and so to lead to a determinate conclusion respecting this important element of the problem. Up to the present time we find only a few scattered experiments undertaken by isolated individuals or by industrial associations; but this little does not suffice, and we can only hope to arrive fully at the wished-for object when the question is made a national one, and when a national purse will be available in order to secure a set of investigations, of proper extent, and made with a degree of care, leisure, and philosophical knowledge, commensurate with the importance of the design. The labours of those isolated individuals who have given their attention to the subject, have been frequently restricted to theoretical reasonings and calculations, which, often being biassed by prejudice, party spirit, or egotism, or as frequently proceeding from untenable hypotheses, have not only failed in the desired object, but have tended yet further to increase the range of existing error: and when the labours of such have been of an experimental kind, they have generally had too limited a character, and have stood too wide apart, to throw much light upon the matter, or lead to any satisfactory general conclusions. Isolated individuals are seldom possessed of the proper means for the perfect attainment of their well-intentioned ends; while those who have the best opportunities and capabilities for the work, are usually withheld by the want of leisure, or other adverse circumstances, from prosecuting to a successful result the designs they might otherwise willingly undertake. The machine maker, careful for the most part after his own pecuniary advantage and the interests of his trade, frequently sacrifices to these objects the cause of science: the simplification of machinery tends to lessen the amount of his work and to diminish the number of its admirers, inasmuch as complicated looking machines more readily attract the attention of the purchaser than those of a more simple and less imposing appearance.\(^1\) Moreover, the search \(^1\) This remark may probably be just in more cases than it is unjust; but we have among our British manufacturing engineers many brilliant exceptions. The mere mention of the names of Maudslay and Field, Rennie, Miller, Fairbairn, and others of similar character, would show that the spirit of investigation is not always damped by such considerations as those mentioned in the text. The following extract from 'A Treatise on the Cornish Engine,' by the translator of this work, bears closely on the point insisted on.—Tr. "It is necessary to say something of the relations which subsist between the mining adventurer, the engineer, and the manufacturer of machinery in Cornwall, as their respective positions are somewhat peculiar, and different to those which obtain in the rest of the kingdom; and to this peculiarity may be traced much of the opportunity of improvement which has been afforded. "In London and in the country generally, parties who require steam engines after truth is beset with so many difficulties, and yet oftentimes the discovery, when made, appears so simple and of so little merit, as to offer but small inducement to are accustomed to apply for them directly to the manufacturers, who thus become the designers as well as the makers of the engines; or if a civil engineer intervene, it is usually only to the general arrangement of the works that he directs his attention, leaving the details of the construction of the engine to the manufacturer, as before. The management of the engine, when erected, is intrusted (except in the cases of large works where a managing engineer is specially engaged) generally to the engine-man, or to parties having but little claim to the acquirements necessary for its skilful and economical performance. "But in Cornwall things are otherwise arranged. There is a class of men, known by the name of engineers, who have no connection at all with the manufacturers, and whose sole and proper occupation it is to take charge of the steam engines upon the mines, and to design and superintend the manufacture of new ones, when such are required. The manufacturers do not pretend to be engineers, and would on no account undertake to supply engines,* except through the intervention and under the direction of some of the engineers. "Thus every mine has its engineer, who has absolute command over the management of the engine upon the works, and to whom the credit or discredit which may arise from the working of the engine consequently belongs. If alterations or new engines are called for, the designs are made by the engineer of the mine, who procures estimates of them from the manufacturer, and superintends the due execution of the works. "The advantages arising from this separation of the offices of the engineer and manufacturer are too important to be overlooked. "A manufacturer has generally too much to attend to in the arrangements of his workshop to be able to devote much time to consider the improvement and watch the working of the engines he makes; and the matters which of necessity engage his daily attention are generally of too pressing and harassing a nature to allow of much study being given to the principles of what he is doing. Hence (although we know there are many honourable exceptions to this rule) we find that too frequently manufacturers are content to imitate the examples of those who have preceded them, and that what alterations are * I.e. for the mining districts: it is not uncommon for the manufacturers to undertake contracts on their own responsibility for other parts of the kingdom, or for abroad. those who would seek for themselves; while in occasional instances the impediments of party feeling, a fear to deviate from the beaten track, or a bigoted attachment to some favourite principle in fashion at the time, all tend to discourage the hope of a speedy attainment of the desirable end by private and isolated endeavours. Notwithstanding these discouragements, however, it is yet the bounden duty of all individuals to record and publish what they are able to contribute to the general stock of information, as by so doing they will at any rate furnish a collection of facts which may be of essential service in future investigations. 4. No one will dispute that heretofore too little has been done with the High-pressure Engine to determine made, are only such as are suggested by the necessity of the case, and adopted often without due consideration. "But in Cornwall the engineers are able to devote their whole attention to the improvement of the engine, unharassed by the cares of the manufactory, and are ever alive to the consideration of all circumstances connected with its action which can influence its duty: they have opportunities of trying experiments with a view to improvement, which it would generally be impossible for a manufacturer to undertake; and when they find these successful, they have the power to extend their application and see the effect of their working. "Another circumstance which is also very favourable to the execution of the plans of improvement projected by the engineer is, that models are not generally charged for by the manufacturers. The expense of patterns is often a great barrier to the progress of improvement, by enhancing the cost of experiments on a large scale; but in Cornwall this does not operate, for (unless in particular cases which form exceptions to the general rule) this expense is borne by the manufacturers, and the engineers are free to make what alterations or experiments they please, without any direct charge being made for the necessary models. "There can be no doubt that to this state of things is owing much of the improvement which has been made in the Cornish engine;—more perhaps than to any other cause, with the exception of the introduction of the duty reports." its true value and place among the range of varieties of the steam engine. Its discussion, up to the present time, has been mixed up with so many diversified opinions, and replete with so much that is erroneous, unscientific, and contradictory, that it has only served to perplex the matter more and more, and to disgust the industrial community at large. The subject is beset with so many wants,—is yet so loosely treated in its philosophical bearings, and its practical application so imperfectly understood,—that experiments and researches of even the most ordinary character need no apology for their publication. The English have in a great measure assisted in bringing this form of engine into discredit, if not by open attacks, yet through the bad construction and arrangement of their engines;² and it would have stood a chance of again passing into oblivion, had not the French, at a late date, bestirred themselves to prevent its downfall by examining and making known its advantages, and by a series of gradual improvements in its construction. America and France remain the only supports of the system; while in Germany but little interest has been excited in its favour, and its defenders have been, in Anglican fashion, openly opposed and condemned. The high-pressure engine has generally been conceded only a very limited field of application, and considered as only applicable to a certain range of objects. The late introduction of railways, and the great interest excited by them in all quarters, seem, however, now about to place the principle of the high-pressure engine in a ² This remark is a little tinged with the usual prejudice of the author against England; but we must confess it is not altogether devoid of truth.—Tr. higher point of view. It is generally found, that a subject which has lain for a time dormant, has on its revival been taken up with greater zeal than before; and thus it is we now find that in England, so long exclusively the country of the Watt engine, the high-pressure plan is occupying the attention of engineers, and furnishing employment for the workshops throughout the land. The locomotive engine is now the watchword; information on the subject rises in value, and improvements and alterations succeed each other with unwonted rapidity. Thus England appears again about to become the mart for the high-pressure engine, and all now look to that enlightened nation for the perfect dispersion of the obscurity in which the subject has heretofore been enveloped. 5. The principal object of this my work will be to make known a series of experiments and observations undertaken by me; partly on engines which I have constructed for various establishments, partly on two which have been working daily under my own eyes;—to specify the researches that have occupied me uninterruptedly for a long term of years, with their unsuccessful as well as their successful results;—and to exhibit the train of ideas in reference to the improvement of the machine, which I have deduced from the whole. My objects have been, in the first place, to lessen, or rather entirely to remove, the dangers supposed to attend the use of high-pressure steam; and, secondly, to discover a plan of construction on the simplest possible principles, which should always correspond with, and be adapted to, the work to be done by the engine. In order to make myself intelligible to those classes who are not skilled in the higher branches of physical and mathematical science, I have avoided as much as possible all calculations of a complex nature and of doubtful utility, especially such as are based on simple hypotheses, and not upon positive truth. I well know the danger of treading on such uncertain ground, and I have therefore restricted myself to drawing simple conclusions from simple experiments, and to forming, from these conclusions, simple rules for practice. If these do not always bear the stamp of high mathematical rigour, I dare assert that they are not of the less practical value, for I have never known them to fail in the whole of my experience as a manufacturer of high-pressure engines. And who would presume, after all, to deduce leading rules from theory in the present imperfect state of physical knowledge as applied to the steam engine? Mathematics can do nothing until a correct observation of nature paves the way for its application; and of what use are pages filled with algebraical formulæ, if after all we must, in order to go securely, adapt our results to our circumstances, which comes, in fact, to nothing but working ad libitum? While I have occupied myself with the actual construction of steam engines, I have always found, that if a sound judgment is brought to the task, but little calculation is necessary in order to accomplish a wished-for end. I have scarcely ever made engines similar to each other, but all for different purposes; I have had a manifold variety of circumstances to deal with, and not unfrequently difficulties to overcome which have led me out of the accustomed track; but I have ever found myself able to attain the most desirable results by the most simple means. 6. I hold it to be positively injudicious to recommend a certain form and construction of the high-pressure engine as an invariable standard. To a practised engine-maker a hundred different varieties ought to be at hand. He will, if he works wisely, strive to adapt these with practical skill to the purposes for which the engine is destined, and in all cases will endeavour to secure to the utmost extent the simplicity of the whole; for simplicity not only lessens the cost of construction, but makes the work more durable,—saves a considerable load of resistance,—increases the useful effect,—economizes fuel,—and tends to show to advantage the desirable properties of this kind of engine. Such an engineer will have the credit of stepping beyond the ordinary routine, and of elevating the profession of which he is a member. I shall hereafter have occasion to show, that in order to attain the utmost simplicity, the general principles, as well as the details, of the high-pressure engine, may bear similar modifications without disadvantage; and I shall give designs of suitable arrangements for some of the most useful purposes to which steam engines are applied.\(^3\) \(^3\) I have often been surprised to find how little attention is paid to this point in England. I have constantly seen there the most absurd combinations of engine and machinery: for example, one of the most common is that of working pumps by a rotatory engine. Here a rectilineal motion is first changed into a circular one, in order to be converted into a rectilineal one back again! In steam flour-mills we see engines at a distance from the machinery, and burdened with cumbersome fly-wheels, when by proper arrangements the momentum of the stones might render but small ones necessary, or in many cases might dispense with them altogether. Perhaps some of the English engineers adopt the vulgar error that a fly-wheel increases the power of the engine! But more of this hereafter. [This allegation is, we must confess, but too true. When a manufacturer has made what is called “a set of patterns” for an engine, he is but too apt to make that form of engine serve for all possible sorts of purposes, without much attention to the propriety of the adaptation. This saves him expense, and gives him extra work in making the necessary connecting machinery. Some excuse may be found for using a rotatory engine for pumps, inasmuch as a steadiness of motion is thereby attained which it would be difficult to secure with small engines working rectilineally. With regard to the last paragraph of the note, we are sorry to add that the scientific and engineering literature of our country shows but too many instances where persons may be found to propagate and defend the doctrine of either gain or loss by the flywheel, or of loss by the crank or connecting-rod, or in short any other absurdity. Let us hope that the light of science is now so far spreading amongst us that these blots on our philosophical character may soon only be matters of history.—Tr.] PART I. ON THE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE GENERALLY. 7. If we are to believe the accounts on record, that the first idea of the steam engine was suggested to the Marquis of Worcester by the blowing out of a cork from a flask of water which he had placed in too strong a heat, it is not easy to conceive how this accident could have led to the invention of engines working by condensation, which are mentioned in history as the first existing, and which Captain Savery brought into actual use. It seems much more probable that the result of the suggestion must have been a high-pressure engine, in the same manner as, at a later date, the bursting of a gun-barrel by steam, suggested to Oliver Evans the first idea of using high-pressure steam in his engines. 8. It is still more inexplicable that the high-pressure engine came so late into the field, and that nearly a whole century elapsed before this most simple method of applying the power of steam was brought prominently into notice.\(^1\) The attention was confined almost ex- \(^1\) The explanation of this may probably be found in the fact, that it was so difficult in early days to make vessels and joints sufficiently strong to withstand clusively to the production of a vacuum by condensation, in order to make use of the atmospheric pressure, or of steam of very low elasticity. A multitude of inventions have been called into being with reference to this plan, and it cannot be denied that great advances have been made in its improvement; so that the later built engines on this principle have become most perfect machines, and their application has in consequence been greatly extended. The names of a host of inventors have become illustrious in this field of discovery. The knowledge of the physics of steam has made much progress, and the general view of the subject has become much enlightened; yet no one, for so long a time, has dared to venture out of the beaten track, and to strike out for himself a new and successful path of exertion. To Oliver Evans was it reserved to show the true value of a long-known principle, and to establish thereon a new and more simple method of applying the power of steam; a method that will hereafter be greatly amplified, and will remain an eternal memorial to its introducer. The long delay of this revival affords a remarkable example of truths often shown by experience, namely, that the most plain and simple discoveries are generally reached through a labyrinth of complexities, and that even master minds are not free from the influence of habit and routine. It is true that previously to the labours of Evans, Papin and Leupold had made use of high-pressure steam, and the latter proposed a real high-pressure engine in his *Theatrum Machinarum*; but the practical application the high pressure. Savery, we know, experienced much inconvenience from this cause, and this it was indeed which principally prevented his engines from sustaining their ground.—Tr. of the power was neglected, or at least we hear nothing more of the matter. Whether Oliver Evans was or was not aware of these suggestions is uncertain; but be this as it may, at all events he made the first actual high-pressure engine: his labours were crowned with success; and he showed clearly the great advantages to be derived from the plan. Indeed, to such perfection did he bring it, that Trevithick and Vivian, who came after him, followed but clumsily in his wake, and do not deserve the title of either inventors or improvers of the high-pressure engine, which the English are so anxious to award to them.\(^2\) When it is considered under what unfavourable circumstances Oliver Evans worked, his merit must be much enhanced; and all the attempts made to lessen his fame, only show that he is neither understood nor equalled by his detractors. 9. The high-pressure engine is, however, in the present day, but little understood, and the great designs of its inventors but little appreciated: this is to be ascribed to the fact that its principles have never yet received the attention they deserve, although they have now been known forty years. Engines on this plan are treated as if already condemned: their advantages are generally doubted, or conceded only in a slight degree, and for certain applications; an outcry is made as to the great \(^2\) I give this as the author gives it, but not without protesting against the conclusion in the absence of proof in its favour. Unfortunately I am unable to procure data as to what Oliver Evans actually did, but the matter should be investigated, and I cordially recommend it to those able to take it up. Dr. Alban, when he mentions only Papin and Leupold, seems to forget that Savery’s engines were, in the true sense of the word, *high-pressure* engines.—Tr. danger with which their use is attended; and some of the opponents of the system have even gone so far as to insist that legislative interference ought to be exercised to limit their use. Other objections are, that they are less economical in fuel, are more subject to wear and tear, and require more lubrication than low-pressure engines; with other evils of a similar character. That some of these charges are occasionally well founded, cannot be denied; but it can be shown that the machines are liable to them only when unskilfully made; and that when constructed on proper principles, they are not only as free from objection as low-pressure engines, but in many respects are much superior to them. Now what are the defects which high-pressure engines have hitherto laboured under? How are these to be remedied in their future construction? and what principles must be followed in order to secure the manifold advantages which the system possesses? I will endeavour to answer these queries, as far as lies in my power, in the following pages; but previously I will give a closer examination of the objections brought against the use of the high-pressure engine. From such an examination will more naturally flow a developement of the principles which should be adopted in order to remove these objections, and to insure the advantages that may be obtained by a proper construction of the engine and a suitable application of the steam. EXAMINATION OF THE PRINCIPAL OBJECTIONS BROUGHT AGAINST THE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 10. First Objection.—This is the danger alleged to attend its use. It is asserted that vessels wherein highpressure steam is generated and contained, must be more liable to burst than such as are used for low-pressure. This proposition seems intelligible and self-evident, and it attracts at first sight the attention of those who are unskilled in such matters; yet it is only true in a qualified sense. Before, however, I proceed to investigate it more closely, I will venture to appeal to experience for the best evidence as to its value, and to inquire whether high-pressure boilers have been found more liable to explosion than low-pressure. 11. No instances occur in the history of the steam engine where a destructive explosion has happened to the engine itself, even those worked to the highest pressure. The steam cylinder, and valve-boxes, the only parts of the engine exposed to the action of the steam, have always been found, even with a small thickness of metal, secure and durable. This is to be ascribed to the circumstance that these vessels are not exposed to any destructive agency, except the friction of the piston and valves, and this being nearly harmless, they remain in a constant state of safety without deterioration. The boiler or steam generator of the engine is the only organ exposed to mischief, and with this alone destructive explosions are found to occur. Who then will assert that only high-pressure boilers are subject to danger, and that low-pressure ones are secure? Such an opinion would be at variance alike with theory and experience, for we may consider, 3 A late destructive accident with one of Messrs. Samuda's engines was of this nature, caused by the giving way of the steam-pipe at one of its joints. Such accidents are very rare.—Tr. 12. (a.) Every boiler may become supercharged with steam when the quantity drawn off is less than the quantity generated, and when the safety-valves, in consequence of imperfections in their action or condition, do not properly perform their duty. Therefore, in so far as similar safety apparatus are used for both high and low-pressure boilers, they must be liable to similar interruptions in their working. Experience has shown this very often, and it has been found that even the vertical open-mouthed feed-pipes of low-pressure boilers, which act as escape-pipes when the boiler pressure is too great, (these are wanting in marine engines,) are not always secure.\(^4\) If then an overfilling of the boiler with steam is equally possible in both high and low-pressure engines, both are liable to danger from this source; as the strength of the metal is adapted to the working pressure, and therefore the proper elasticity for which the vessel is constructed must be exceeded when such an occurrence happens. But there is an advantage on the side of the high-pressure engine, for the elasticity must be increased in a much higher ratio than with the low-pressure engine, before it overcomes the pressure at which the boiler is proved (usually three times the working elasticity); and therefore a much longer time will elapse before absolute danger arises. For example, in a boiler working at eight atmospheres, it will take a much greater lapse of time for the pressure to rise to twenty-four atmospheres, than it would to reach 12 lbs. per square inch in a boiler working at 4 lbs.; and these would be the points at which danger may be supposed \(^4\) Vide Dingler’s ‘Polytechnische Journal,’ vol. xv. page 142. to arise in the respective cases.\textsuperscript{5} This gives a key to the experience of late times, that as great a proportionate number of low as of high-pressure boilers have exploded, as well in England as in America and France; and that among the latest instances, the accidents with the former have reached an alarming extent. 13. (b.) All boilers alike become gradually deteriorated by the working of destructive agencies upon them, particularly through the constant action of the fire without and the water within; so that the thickness of the metal may become gradually diminished, and at last reach a point at which danger may arrive. The worst of this evil is that the progress of the deterioration cannot be properly estimated, in consequence of many unfavourable circumstances that often happen, without either the knowledge or the fault of the person who has charge of the machine, and which are variable in the amount of their action, being more injurious at one time than at another. Such may be the following: (1.) The overheating of certain parts of the boiler by the water standing at too low a level. Upon these places the metal, especially if iron, becomes speedily oxydized,\textsuperscript{6} this effect taking place on both sides, from the action of the fire on the outside and of the water \textsuperscript{5} M. Arago notices this in the ‘Echo du Monde savant,’ No. 484. He characterizes the fear of high-pressure boilers as mere prejudice. \textsuperscript{6} Iron, long exposed to the action of fire, loses its fibrous texture, and becomes brittle and crystalline. Löwe found that wrought iron, long exposed at a red heat to steam, became crystalline, and that even the heat alone produced this effect without the application of moisture. It is not easy to find the cause of this phenomenon in any chemical property of iron; but be it what it may, the fact is undoubted, and results in a weakening of the tenacity and cohesive force of the metal. in the inside, the latter arising from the decomposition of the steam by the incandescent iron, and the consequent attraction of the oxygen to the metal. (2.) Too great an accumulation, either general or partial, of scale or earthy sediment in the boiler. These substances being bad conductors of heat, prevent, when in large quantities, the proper distribution of caloric to the water, or at least injuriously retard its transmission. The heat of the metal then increases to too great an extent, and may frequently rise to incandescence. Sometimes it happens that the layers of deposit arrange themselves in such wise as to leave interstices to which the water cannot penetrate: now if any of the adjacent portions become cracked, the water will suddenly find its way upon the hot metal, and will cause a local explosion, thereby loosening the scale not only from the part previously affected, but for a considerable distance round, and consequently increasing the contact of the water with the heated metal. This produces a rumbling commotion in the water, which, if the incandescent spot be large, may be in the highest degree injurious to the structure of the boiler. The steam thus suddenly formed augments the pressure, and hence again increased danger may ensue, particularly as the spot overheated will have been rendered more susceptible of damage. It has often been remarked that explosions were immediately preceded by the rumbling noise alluded to above. The high-pressure engine has in this respect also an advantage over the low-pressure, in that the sediment, when the elasticity is great, seldom attaches itself firmly to the sides of the boiler, but collects in a loose state, and is easily removed. (3.) Damage to the boiler-plate by careless cleaning. Whoever has watched the process of cleaning ordinary boilers, and observed the forcible knocking, hammering, and chiselling of the foul plates;—whoever has remarked, to what ignorant and awkward men this work is intrusted, often without any superintendence;—and considers how the plates, perhaps already damaged by the fire, must in addition suffer from such violent handling;—will bear me out when I assign this process as frequently one of the principal causes of a speedy destruction of the boiler. (4.) An unequal expansion between the several parts of the boiler, whereby damage often occurs, especially at the angles of the vessel. Those boilers which are constructed with fire-tubes or flues running through them are more especially exposed to this danger. Such tubes usually lie but a short depth below the water level, and therefore if the water falls short they soon become more heated than the external case of the boiler, and by the consequent greater degree of expansion, an injurious straining of the joints must necessarily ensue. The rents have been usually found at these joints when boilers of such a make have exploded. But experience shows how little these destructive agencies have been heretofore attended to or remarked even by skilful parties; and we learn how difficult it is to discover their action or progress even when the attention is specially directed to them. We have instances where boilers have exploded immediately after examination, such as that of the American steam boat *Aetna*, and others of both high and low pressure. 14. (c.) Referring again to the possible accident of the falling of the water below its proper level, and the consequent incandescence of some part of the iron, we may remark that this heated portion of metal will, if at a sufficiently high temperature, generate hydrogen gas by the decomposition of the watery vapour. Hydrogen so produced has been long supposed to play an important part in steam boiler accidents, as it is conjectured it may inflame and explode inside the boiler. However, it must be recollected, that in order to produce this effect, the entrance of atmospheric air is absolutely necessary, and it is very difficult to conceive how air can enter in such quantity as to form an explosive compound with a large volume of hydrogen. The amount of air which may enter with the feed water is too insignificant to be taken into consideration, and an entrance of air through the usual safety-valves and openings of the boiler is only possible with low-pressure engines, but impossible with high-pressure ones for obvious reasons. With the former it may frequently happen, that during the working of the engine the pressure may sink below that of the atmosphere, and in this case air would easily enter, while with the high-pressure engine no such effect can ensue. But it is difficult to understand how any considerable quantity of hydrogen can accumulate in the boiler, since this gas, being specifically much lighter than the aqueous vapour, will naturally ascend to the top of the vessel, where the discharge-pipes are situated, and will thus be drawn with the steam to the engine before any great accumulation can take place. Moreover, it is very uncertain whether a gas 7 Most engines have what is called a "vacuum-valve" for this very purpose.—Tr. mixed with watery vapour would ignite at all; but be this as it may, the hydrogen gas theory is very problematical, and of late has been much more controverted than defended. A more modern explanation of the occurrence of explosions from shortness of water in the boiler, is more probable, and more in accordance with our physical knowledge. It is founded on the supposition that the glowing metal may be suddenly covered again with water, whereby a great and instantaneous generation of steam would ensue,\(^8\) in such quantity that none of the customary safety apparatus would avail for its timely discharge. It is easy to understand how the glowing plates may be suddenly re-covered with water: it may happen through a sudden diminution of the pressure in the boiler; or by too great an opening of the safety-valve; or by a suddenly increased demand for steam in the engine; either of which would cause the water in the boiler to start into a state of increased ebullition,\(^9\) and consequently to flow over the plates. This view is corroborated by the occurrence of explosions immediately after the opening of the safety- \(^8\) Both iron and copper generate, when red-hot, a large quantity of steam: 10 lbs. of copper, heated sufficiently to glow in the dark, convert, according to Adam Hall, 1 lb. of water into steam, which under ordinary atmospheric pressure will occupy about 27 cubic feet. According to Marestier, 4 lbs. of red-hot iron convert 1 lb. of water into steam. Professor Johnson, of Philadelphia, found that iron at a white heat repelled the water, and that 9 lbs. of iron, at a dull red glow, scarcely visible by daylight, converted 1 lb. of water into steam. He also remarked that cast iron generated more steam than hammered iron, in the proportion of 9 to 8\(\frac{1}{2}\). \(^9\) It has been found that by a sudden removal of the pressure in a boiler, by opening the safety-valve with the hand, the water rises in the form of a cone towards the opening, and falls suddenly back when it is closed. This would inevitably cause the re-covering of the plates with water. valve, when the low level of the water has been remarked, and an attempt has been made to relieve the boiler from the pressure of the steam within; or when a diminished velocity of the engine has previously denoted a diminution of pressure.\textsuperscript{10} 15. Boilers which are fitted with imperfect water gauges or feed apparatus, are particularly liable to the evils of a partial exposure of the fire surface, and unfortunately these defects are but too common, particularly with high-pressure engines. The same liability to danger is also incurred where internal fire-tubes are inserted, or where the water space is too flat and confined, and is exposed in an injudicious manner to the flues. When tubes are introduced, they seldom lie deep enough under the water level, and are therefore soon left uncovered by an accidental slight depression of the latter; and if the water chambers are too confined, the water will be often driven out during violent ebullition. Marine and locomotive boilers are particularly liable to this. A steam boat boiler which burst at Hull (an account of the accident, with a description of the appearance of the boiler after the explosion, will be found in the ‘Civil Engineer and Architect’s Journal,’ August, 1838, p. 283) furnishes an example of such an improper make. Both imperfections were united in its construction, and the collapsed fire-tubes showed that the metal of these parts had been overheated in consequence of the water being driven out of the too contracted surrounding chambers, and that by such overheating the parts were weakened, and at last suddenly \textsuperscript{10} Explosions have frequently happened after the first few strokes of the engine,—a strong corroboration of the hypothesis in the text.—Tr. gave way to the pressure. It is much to be regretted that marine boilers are usually subject to the evil of too confined and too shallow a water space; because the ship’s motion renders them particularly liable to the exposure of the fire-tubes: the use of sails increases the mischief, for when the ship has lain over on one side for some time, her righting or careening will throw the water back upon any portions of the metal that may have become overheated, and thus danger may ensue in proportion to the length of time the parts have been exposed and the degree of exposure.\(^{11}\) Hence we find the majority of explosions occur on board steam boats, and proportionately but few on shore. Now since all marine boilers, as well for low as high pressure, are liable, if injudiciously constructed, to similar dangers of the kind we have named above, no conclusion to the prejudice of high-pressure engines can be drawn from such accidents. Indeed of late years a general comparison has been in favour of the high-pressure system.\(^{12}\) One reason why low-pressure boilers must, under the evils above mentioned, be less secure than high-pressure, is \(^{11}\) The motion of the water in the large box-shaped boilers, so much in use for marine engines, entails also danger from the concussion of so great a mass set in violent motion; which often tends to damage portions of the boiler, and loosen the rivets and other joints connected with it. \(^{12}\) Vide ‘Echo du Monde savant,’ No. 24, p. 178. Up to the year 1834, only twenty explosions had occurred in America with high-pressure engines, while thirty-two had happened with low-pressure; and it is well known how common the high-pressure engine is in that country, particularly in the Western States. At a later date, the proprietors of steam boats in North America have stated, in a memorial to Congress, that since the more general introduction of high-pressure steam, the number of accidents has not only not increased, but become lessened in an extraordinary degree. that in the former the ebullition is much more violent, and the water thereby more liable to be expelled, whereas under a great elasticity the bubbles of steam generated take a smaller volume, the ebullition goes on more quietly, and therefore the danger is lessened. The common chest form of low-pressure boilers with straight sides tends to increase the liability to the exposure of parts heated by the fire, especially if furnished with internal flues, as is generally the case with marine boilers. The large flat surfaces easily bulge out by an increased pressure within, and the consequent augmentation of cubical content causes a sinking of the water surface; after which the restoration of the elasticity to its original degree may throw back the water over the spots it formerly left, and thus the source of danger is at hand. 16. It will be in place here to refer to and examine some other hypotheses brought forward to account for the explosion of steam boilers: these will moreover serve to establish the point I have in view, viz., that the high-pressure system is not less safe than the low-pressure. To these hypotheses belong, first, that of Jacob Perkins. It has been long known that steam may be charged with an excess of free caloric,\(^{13}\) when the space in which it is contained is heated from without. This may often happen when the water surface in a boiler is too low, and the metal becomes consequently incandescent in certain places. The water present does not impede this effect, because, being a bad conductor, the heat is transmitted by it very \(^{13}\) Instances are on record where, by this means, fir has been inflamed when laid on the top of a boiler, and lead joints in the engine melted. I have often found tin soldered joints in the steam-pipe melted by overheated steam. slowly downwards. Mr. Perkins finds that such overheated steam gains but very little in elasticity; but when water is scattered among it, and thereby becomes intimately commingled with it, (which may happen by an unusual ebullition,) the free caloric of the steam may be suddenly imparted to the water, and so may generate instantaneously steam of great elasticity in such quantity as cannot be carried off by the ordinary means of escape; and this may cause an explosion of the boiler. This hypothesis is approved by many writers, but, for my own part, I cannot clearly see its force: for— (1.) Should not the overheated steam escape into the engine as fast as it is created? and would it not produce such destructive effects upon the working parts as would cause immediate attention? (2.) I do not understand how, with regular firing, the water could become so scattered among the steam as to produce the effect described. A sudden diminution of the pressure to a sufficient extent to cause a violent increase of ebullition, would be perceived by the action of the engine. The feed-pipe is always below the water level, and therefore it could not proceed from this source. And would it be so difficult for the heat to be distributed through the surface of the water, which is in constant commotion? (3.) Some of my experiments with a steam generator made in London seem to tell against this doctrine. I have, by stopping the injection of water, kept the enclosed steam in contact with a metallic surface at a temperature of 800° Fahr., and yet no symptoms of an explosion appeared when the water was re-introduced; indeed a long-continued injection was necessary before enough pressure could be obtained to set the engine to work again. If overheated steam attains so little consequent increase of pressure, how is it that when the water falls too low in the boiler the velocity of the engine generally accelerates? I have often remarked this to be the case. (4.) It is scarcely probable that the small quantity of steam contained in a boiler can distribute so much heat as is supposed, since it is only the free caloric which comes in question. Mr. Thomas Earle ('Reper-tory of Patent Inventions,' Suppl. Jan. 1832, page 424) calculates that this could not be enough to generate steam in any dangerous quantity.\(^{14}\) 17. A second hypothesis is that of Mr. Philip Taylor (Phil. Mag. N.S. No. II., p. 126). This appears to refer more to a forcible ejection of the boiler from its seating than to the actual explosion of the boiler itself. When by the closing of the chimney damper a quantity of coal gas is suffered to accumulate in the furnace, it may happen that by the opening of the fire door, or by other means, such a portion of atmospheric air may be admitted as will form an explosive compound by mixing with the gas; and if the fire openings are not large enough to allow of the sudden discharge, the boiler will probably be thrown from its seat. The occurrence of such explosions in badly constructed furnaces is by no means uncommon, but it is so easy a matter to provide against them by proceeding on proper principles, that they need not be further enlarged upon here. \(^{14}\) The particulars of this and other calculations to the same purpose are given by the Author in a note.—Tr. 18. Thirdly, Signor Morosi maintains the extraordinary theory, that the explosion of boilers proceeds not so much from the pressure of the steam within, as from a retrocession of the steam at the moment when the piston is at its point of rest at the top or bottom of the cylinder. The whole force of the steam, he asserts, is stopped in its motion, strikes back forcibly into the boiler, like the water in the hydraulic ram, and impinges as would a solid body on the boiler plates. According to his calculations, the impinging force is equal to that of a column of water which has the surface of the boiler for its base, and pressure and velocity equal to those of the steam. The effect of this in producing explosion he likens to well-known accidents occurring with pipes to convey fluids, and he proposes many ways of avoiding the evil; but I think my own opinion of the theory, and probably that of most practical men, will justify me in omitting them here. 19. Fourthly, The electric phenomena exhibited in the discharge of high-pressure steam have lately been called to the assistance of the discussion of the question of explosions. It is suggested for consideration whether such may not take place through a great generation and sudden discharge of electric fluid, or, so to speak, by an electric shock. MM. Jobard and Tassin support this theory, and adduce in its favour the explosion of a boiler at Vieux Valesse, which exhibited no signs of the causes of explosion generally assigned. It appears to me, however, that the hypothesis hitherto rests upon too uncertain grounds to be admitted; and I conceive we ought to post- \footnote{15 'Echo du Monde savant,' 1841. No. 601.} pone allowing it a place among the causes of evil until it is more certainly proved, lest we should only increase the unfounded apprehension of danger, and thus bring undeserved discredit on a good cause. 20. It must be conceded that formerly high-pressure engines were subject to more accidents, in proportion to their number, than low-pressure; but this consideration is overborne by the fact that of later years a beneficial change has taken place in favour of the high-pressure system. I have already given my opinion that the cause of the danger was always to be found in the injudicious construction of the vessels, and not in the system itself. The idea of high-pressure steam is only a relative one, and only has reference to the comparative strength of the vessel against which the pressure is exerted. For example, the force of high-pressure steam against a vessel of small dimensions, is not greater than that of low-pressure steam against a proportionately larger vessel. In every boiler, steam of too high an elasticity for its proportionate strength may be generated when the precautions against such an accident are neglected; but it is possible to make vessels for steam of the highest pressure of such construction that they can suffer but little from it, and therefore have the advantage over the cumbersome boilers used for low pressure. The argument that high-pressure boilers will burst sooner than low-pressure, loses all its force except on the supposition that both are of equal size and equal thickness of metal. Hereafter, when describing my own boilers, I shall enter more fully upon this consideration: suffice it now to say that both kinds of boilers may be put on a perfect equality, under ordinary circumstances, as regards their safety; but that danger first arises when the steam considerably exceeds its proper elasticity; and that in this regard a high-pressure boiler may be constructed with a greater probability of safety than one of the other kind, if proper consideration and knowledge be brought to bear in the design. It cannot be doubted that an overstrained low-pressure boiler becomes, so to speak, a high-pressure one, and must, *caeteris paribus*, be ranked with the latter in all considerations of the consequences of accident; since what is wanting in pressure is fully compensated by its great size and the great mass of its contents. Experience has never shown that the damage arising from high-pressure explosions has exceeded that from low-pressure, and late instances have rather tended to throw the weight of evidence on the other side. I will now endeavour to point out what are the principal and fundamental errors in the construction of high-pressure boilers, which have led in so many instances to their destruction: these I consider to be the following: 21. First. Many high-pressure boilers are constructed of cast iron.\(^{16}\) This is a rotten and brittle material, which, when large and thick vessels are cast from it without the greatest precautions in the operation, is very apt to become blistered and hollow, and to leave, on cooling, large air spaces invisible from the outside, but exceedingly destructive to the strength of the casting. Moreover it is \(^{16}\) I have seen many such in England, especially in old engines: they consist of great cylinders of 3 or 4 feet in diameter, and 6 to 10 feet long, with internal fire-tubes. very difficult to cast large vessels of perfectly even thickness in all parts; and if they are not so, they are liable to damage when exposed to heat, from the unequal expansion and contraction of the metal, and the irregularity of changes of temperature in the different parts. It is obvious also, that when such vessels do explode, the consequences must be frightful: they resemble bombs, and the massive fragments detached seldom fail to carry destruction wherever they fly. On the contrary, forged hammered or rolled iron, as generally used for boilers, in the shape of thick plates, is strong and tenacious, and by a proper calculation of its strength may be made to offer a great resistance to the steam: it is not so liable to sudden fracture as cast iron, but usually at first gives way locally, and shows defects that bring to notice the imperfect state of the boiler, and enable timely repair to be applied. Copper is more tough and less liable to crack than iron, and is a most excellent material for high-pressure boilers: it has, however, a less cohesive power,\(^{17}\) and therefore a greater thickness of metal is necessary to produce an equal strength; but since copper boilers never fly in pieces in case of explosion, it is not necessary to be too scrupulous in regard to this point. Even when the metal is thin, especially if the diameter is not great, the use of copper removes all danger of destructive explosion, since at most only a simple tearing asunder of the metal will ensue. But more of this subject farther on. It was formerly thought that boilers of hammered iron plate possessed the advantage above ascribed to copper; \(^{17}\) According to Guyton Morveau, in the ratio of 302 to 549. but later experience has shown that they are not entirely free from the liability to burst into pieces. Of course the greater or less degree in which the danger exists depends in a great measure upon the quality of the iron, and the nature of the bursting force. 22. Secondly, The form of boilers is not always the best. They ought for many reasons to be cylindrical, and, when large, to have spherical ends. This form withstands best the internal pressure, because the strain is equal on all points of the circumference. It is well known how often this rule is neglected in the manufacture of high-pressure boilers. Trevithick's original large cast iron boilers were indeed cylindrical, but the ends were flat, and without any secure fastenings. The same may be said of Oliver Evans's boilers, which had moreover the defect of internal fire-tubes, a fault also possessed by the boilers of the great Cornish pumping engines. Of late the plan of flat chambers, consisting of plates tied together at many points by strong bolts, has been tried; and Mr. Walter Hancock has taken a patent for such as applied to locomotive carriages, which he finds advantageous. Occasionally we see fire-tubes of a prismoidal form introduced into high-pressure boilers,—a plan fraught with the greatest danger. I have already spoken of the disadvantages attending the use of internal fire-tubes in general. 23. Thirdly, The boilers are of too large a size. The greater the content of a boiler, the greater surface it must offer to the pressure of the steam, and the greater danger it must be subject to. This truth is so self-evident, that it is incomprehensible how it should be so universally neglected. The size of many boilers at present in use is truly astounding. I have not unfrequently seen them as large as 5 or 6 feet in diameter. Such boilers ought indeed to be named *exploders*, and the legislative restriction\(^{18}\) as to the amount of pressure to be used with them is, as far as it goes, a salutary measure. Still better would the law stand if it began at the other end, and limited the size of the vessels instead of the elasticity of the steam within them; for such an enactment would be free from the objection of discouraging the use of high-pressure steam, now promising so much advantage to industry. We can scarcely hope, however, for the full realization of our wishes in this respect, unless a bold and enlarged view is taken of the system; for, as I shall hereafter show, the high-pressure engine cannot be made to display its advantages with steam under about six atmospheres' pressure. A compulsory enactment restricting the size of the generating vessels would tend much towards promoting the use of steam of such high pressures, and, by producing a necessity for acquaintance with the working of the engine, would undoubtedly further its real improvement. It is indeed customary to give to boilers of great size a proportionate thickness of metal, but this helps the case very little; for experience has shown that thick plates, especially if of cast metal, are more liable to crack by the action of the fire than thin ones; inasmuch as the temperature of their two sides, exposed respectively to the fire without and the water within, does not quickly assimilate; whereby unequal expansion and contraction ensues. It is moreover a difficult matter to determine \(^{18}\) Probably a German one. I know of no such law in England.—Tr. what the proper strength ought to be in proportion to the diameter and the pressure, and there is great difference of opinion among those who have given their attention to this point. It must also be noticed, that thick vessels tend more to retard the transmission of heat to the water than thin ones, although this fact seems often to have escaped the notice of engineers. 24. Fourthly, on account of the great size of the high-pressure boilers generally made, the steam and water space in them is mostly too large and too little separated, and does not bear any consistent proportion to the dimensions of the cylinder. The great quantities of steam and water tend to produce frightful consequences in case of explosion; the former by its great pressure and sudden expansion; the latter by its instantaneous conversion into steam by the removal of the pressure; as all the free caloric beyond the boiling point is spontaneously applied to the formation of new vapour.\(^{19}\) 25. Fifthly, boilers are not generally provided to a sufficient extent with safety apparatus; and such as are employed are too often improperly constructed, and kept in bad order. I have seen many examples of their defects. It is scarcely to be believed, that many of the original Trevithick boilers were not provided with safety-valves at all! The regulations which have been promulgated in many countries, with reference to the examination of safety-valves and their preservation under cover, have a useful tendency, but, as I shall hereafter show, they often \(^{19}\) This is further enlarged upon and explained by the Author.—Tr. fail in their object; since many accidental derangements may happen without the knowledge and in spite of the care of the attendants, and indeed may frequently occur immediately after the examination, and thus all watchfulness may be thrown away. The ordinary gauges for the pressure or temperature of the steam are only useful if constantly observed, and yet how seldom are they noticed by the majority of engine attendants. Certain contrivances have been invented which should ring a bell, or open a valve, or perform some such precautionary measure when the elasticity has risen to a certain height; but these only add complexity to a system which ought to be in the highest degree simple; and moreover, many of such contrivances are only applicable to low-pressure steam. Metallic plugs, fusible at a low temperature, have been revived of late years, and their use is prescribed and regulated in France by law. But these are open to many objections: they often become dangerously softened before they reach the temperature at which they are destined to give way; and they only serve at best but as indices for the temperature of the steam, and as preventives against its overheating. Thus in case of a partial overheating of the metal of the boiler, and consequent surcharge of the steam with caloric, one of these plugs would become rather a disadvantage than otherwise, as it would, by its melting and allowing the steam to rush out, cause such a violent ebullition by the diminution of the pressure, as would probably bring about the very explosion it was the object of the precaution to prevent. 26. Second Objection against the High-pressure Engine. This is, that in the use of high-pressure steam much heat is wasted, and therefore a greater expenditure of fuel is required than for low-pressure. Although the fallacy of this opinion has been most fully shown in America, and later in France, by the most convincing and incontrovertible facts, the objection is still laid great stress on, especially in England, where the use of locomotive engines has, by their great consumption of fuel, rather increased than lessened the prejudice against the principle. The little that is said in its favour has but a remote chance of being attended to among such objections, and even the late extraordinary performances of the Cornish engines have either been disbelieved, or, where received in a better spirit, have produced but a trifling interest in favour of the use of high-pressure steam. I will now give the statements which have formed the grounds of the objection alluded to, and investigate whether these are or are not of sufficient weight to render the allegation of serious import; and in so doing I shall principally call experience to my aid. 27. First. It is said that in heating any high-pressure steam generator, much heat must necessarily escape unused out of the furnace, since no heated currents which are below the temperature of the generator itself and its contents can give off heat to them. Now I have found by experience that the evaporation of fluids will often draw off so much heat from bodies with which they are in contact, that these bodies may attain a very low temperature. Examples of this may be found in the cold experienced by the hand when volatile fluids are placed upon it;—by the conversion of water into ice by the evaporation of ether in vacuo;—by the cooling of water in earthen vessels through moistening the outside;—and lastly, by the experiment of placing the hand at the bottom of a vessel of boiling water just removed from the fire, when almost the whole of the heat will appear to be drawn off by the ebullition. These results seem to suggest the question whether the evaporating fluid may not bring the surrounding bodies, from which it draws its supply of caloric, down to a lower temperature than itself, and thus allow more heat to be withdrawn from the gases in the furnace than the objection supposes. But it has also been found by experience that steam has been raised at a pressure of two atmospheres in one of Perkins’s boilers, while the hand might be held in the smoke current passing off into the chimney; and I have myself seen the same thing. I have frequently placed my hand in the exit-flue of my boilers, and held it there some time without feeling more than a supportable and not disagreeable warmth; yet, however, it is a singular circumstance, and one which at present I cannot satisfactorily explain, that the thermometer showed, when placed in this current, a temperature equal to that of the steam in the boiler.\(^{20}\) It has been asserted that a current heated as high as 400° Fahr. is necessary in order to produce a sufficient draught in the chimney, but my experience has shown me that a much less temperature will answer the purpose; and if this assertion were true it would evidently get rid of the objection we are considering, since low-pressure engines must then be subject to a \(^{20}\) It is well known to those who have had to do with the warming and ventilating of buildings, that a current of air of high temperature produces a very deceptive effect upon any part of the human body exposed to it.—Tr. greater waste than high-pressure, in order to secure the draught in the furnace. It cannot be denied that in too many instances this loss does take place with both kinds of engines; but I shall hereafter find occasion to show how this arises, and to prove that it is unnecessary under a proper system of management and construction.\textsuperscript{21} M. Christian, of Paris, to whom we owe many of the latest researches in the theory of steam, found that equal quantities of water were evaporated in equal times, by the same fire, under various pressures and temperatures.\textsuperscript{22} Now since the mechanical effect of a given quantity of water as steam when used to produce power varies in value according to the pressure, and always gives the advantage to steam of \textit{high} pressure, so is it clear that in proportion to the power obtained there is not only no loss, but rather a gain in the economy of fuel.\textsuperscript{23} I have often \textsuperscript{21} The best answer to this objection has been overlooked by the Author. It is found in the fact that such arrangements of the boiler and heating surface may and ought to be made, that the portions of the current impinging \textit{last} upon the boiler before escaping into the chimney, may act upon the \textit{coolest} portions of the water, namely, such as are newly introduced by the feed. This is admirably managed in the Cornish boilers: as see ‘Treatise on the Cornish Engine’ by the Translator, Arts. 129 to 131.—Tr. \textsuperscript{22} And so did Watt long before him. The Author gives in a long note the opinions of various writers on the disputed point of the quantity of heat in steam; but as the discussion is well known in England, I have not transcribed his remarks. He vouches from his own experiments to the correctness of that view of the case which is, I believe, most generally received in England;—that the \textit{sum} of the sensible and latent heats is \textit{constant} at all pressures, and equal to $650^\circ$ centigrade.—Tr. \textsuperscript{23} I have investigated this point in the beginning of the third part of my work on the Cornish Engine, where my object is to show that the use of high-pressure steam, \textit{per se}, is one of the causes of the great economy of that engine. This is demonstrated very clearly by a simple form of algebraical expression for the relation between the density and the pressure of the steam, and also by a practical arithmetical example.—Tr. remarked that my engines worked with the least consumption of fuel when I had the throttle-valve least open, and consequently raised the pressure in the boiler higher than usual; and although the expansive working of the steam in the cylinder might be advantageous, this was not sufficient to explain the whole gain: we may at least draw the conclusion that an increase of pressure did not produce any disadvantage in such a case. It will generally be found that an engine works more economically when fully loaded than when working under power, and this is again in favour of the more economical generation of steam of high elasticity. But certain experiments which I have made with a generator obtained in England for steam of very great elasticity, have shown in the most positive and unequivocal manner the fallacy of the objection; for I have been able to convert, with one pound of coal, 8 to 10 lbs. of ice-cold water into steam of from 600 lbs. to 800 lbs. pressure per square inch. During the evaporation there was so little heat passing away, that even after a long use of the apparatus I have scarcely found the 9-inch walls of the chimney warm: and I have now engines at work that lose very little; I have indeed found that the waste heat applied to the feed water in a vessel of extended surface, would not raise it up to $40^\circ$ Reaumur. With respect to the use of a blast in the furnace of high-pressure generators, I am inclined to think it an advantage, inasmuch as it tends to produce a more perfect combustion than when the fire is allowed to burn slowly. Too little attention is paid to secure this end in ordinary cases, and frequently a great deal of trouble is taken to remove an evil that has its source in a different cause from those to which the remedies are applied. The most important principle upon which improvement in the furnace can be based has been shown by Herr Wagenmann. The smoke can only be completely burned by causing the perfect mixture of the gases over the furnace before an abstraction of heat takes place by contact with the comparatively cold surfaces of the boiler. If the current is allowed to cool, and to be mixed with a quantity of cold atmospheric air, admitted through other openings than the interstices of the fire, it is next to impossible that perfect combustion can take place. It is especially disadvantageous in this respect to have the furnace placed inside the boiler, a practice which, on account of its convenience, and its requiring no masonry, is usually adopted on board steam vessels. It is supposed to be an economical plan, because the heat which is in other cases expended on the brick-work, in this arrangement goes to heat the boiler; but the idea of its economy is a mistaken one, for the cooling of the fire currents against the sides of the boiler before perfect combustion has taken place causes more loss than the absence of the brick-work causes gain. The frightful clouds of smoke which pour from most of our steamers justify the explanation we have given of their almost universal want of economy. M. Balcourt has put on record a very remarkable observation, made on a steam engine erected at New Orleans. He found that it would only do half its work when the fire-grate was raised six inches above its customary level. This is quite explicable on the hypothesis, that in the higher position the gases came in contact with the then nearer surface of the boiler before they were perfectly consumed; whereby they lost the heat necessary for their incandescence, and imperfect combustion was the consequence. It has been lately attempted to prevent loss of heat from the furnace of a boiler, either by passing the feed water through vessels exposed to the exit current, or by dividing the boiler into several parts which are acted upon by the heat in turn, the feed water being introduced into the last of the course. Both these plans have the advantage that the smoke current acts last upon the coolest water, and thereby affords the best chance of all the available heat being withdrawn.\(^{24}\) Another important circumstance in favour of such arrangements is that the feed-pump may work with cold water, which obviates many evils constantly liable to arise when this important apparatus is made to work in hot water. 28. Secondly. Another argument made use of to support the objection that the high-pressure engine is not economical in fuel is derived from the great loss of radiant heat which these engines are said to suffer. Inasmuch as this loss from the surface of a heated body is greater as the surface is hotter; and inasmuch as many of the high-pressure boilers commonly constructed expose more surface to the outer atmosphere than they do to the fire, the argument must be admitted to have some force, especially as we so often see locomotive engines exposed carelessly to the weather. But it is easily shown that proper care in the construction and arrangements will remove the objection; and as I shall have ample occasion to enlarge \(^{24}\) Here we are again irresistibly reminded of the Cornish arrangements.—Tr. upon this in a future part of the work, I shall say no more of it in this place. 29. Thirdly, another cause of waste of heat is said to be, that in consequence of the great pressure, there is more leakage of steam at the piston and joints of the engine, than with low pressure. This objection also depends, as to its value, entirely upon the state of the machine, and has no weight if the engine is well constructed and kept in good repair. It cannot, however, be said, unfortunately, that later engines have improved in this respect; and this, I think, is to be ascribed principally to the descriptions of pistons that have been introduced in late days, and that have often proved the reverse of improvements. Experiments of this kind are always useful in the search after truth; but we may profit by the experience already gained with the condensing engine, and we can never be at a loss for a perfectly tight piston if we adhere to the old hemp packing, and adapt it in a suitable manner to the wants of the high-pressure engine. As to the other joints, they present no difficulty but what may easily be surmounted by using the proper materials in a proper manner. And fortunately in the high-pressure engine we have to do with joints of much smaller dimensions, and therefore of much easier management than with low-pressure. My recommendation of the return to hemp pistons may, perhaps, at first sight appear a retrograde step, but I think it will be justified by what I shall hereafter advance, and that experience will corroborate all I assert in its favour. In the search after truth we often find ourselves compelled to relinquish what we have erroneously considered as better because it is novel, and to return to older and more long-tried plans. 30. Third Objection against the High-pressure Engine. This is, that it does not realize the advantages of the vacuum obtained in condensing engines. If it could be shown that this vacuum was formed and maintained in low-pressure engines without sacrifice of power, the objection would have more weight; but experience tells us that partly through imperfect condensation, partly through the working of the air and cold water pumps, and from other causes of the same description, the useful effect of low-pressure engines is reduced from about 17 lbs. per square inch absolute pressure upon the piston, to about seven, as made available in power obtained; so that the use of condensation only in reality offers a gain of from $4\frac{1}{2}$ to 5 lbs. per square inch, or one-third of the atmospheric pressure. It must then be admitted, that such a comparatively small gain is more than compensated by the advantages peculiar to the high-pressure engine; such, for example, as the greatly diminished prejudicial resistance; the simpler construction and smaller size in proportion to the power; the absence of so many pumps, pump-rods, and other machinery; the smaller mass to be set and kept in motion; the smaller proportionate diameter of the cylinder; the consequent diminution of friction of the piston, &c., &c. The objection loses in weight as we use steam of higher pressure, and at seven or eight atmospheres is scarcely to --- 25 Modern engines have much more real power than this: 7 lbs. per square inch is used for the nominal power, which is generally much under what is actually performed. The argument, however, is good as far as it goes.—Tr. be considered, because the surface of the piston becomes proportionately less as the elasticity is increased, and therefore the loss of the vacuum is less to be felt; while the advantages of the system are increased by such increase of elasticity. When the pressure used is too low, for example, only two or three atmospheres, as is most common, the loss may be important, and the advantages of the high-pressure system are not sufficiently developed to cover it. For instance, an engine of 10-horse power at two atmospheres' pressure, will require about twice as much steam as a condensing one of the same power: it must be of about the same dimensions, and by the want of a vacuum must be supplied with steam of a double elasticity to produce the same effect. Here, therefore, a power of ten horses will be sacrificed by the want of the vacuum; that is, as much as the whole power of the engine. But if a pressure of eight or ten atmospheres be used, and the principle of expansion applied, the proportionate loss, by the sacrifice of the vacuum, will be scarcely equal to 2-horse power out of ten,—a loss of very trifling weight when compared with the advantages possessed by such an engine over a low-pressure one. Yet more in favour of the high-pressure engine would the comparison be if we could substitute steam of sixteen atmospheres for that of eight; but unfortunately, through practical difficulties in the working of the machinery, our limits of available elasticity are at present too confined. 31. Fourth Objection against the High-pressure Engine. This is, that a greater consumption of oil and grease is required for lubrication of the piston, piston-rod, and valve apparatus, than for engines of low pressure. This objection is sometimes enhanced by the assertion, that the grease becomes volatilized at the temperature of steam of very high pressure. Now since fat, animal as well as vegetable, only boils at a temperature of $220^\circ$ Reaumur ($527^\circ$ Fahrenheit), and moreover does not, like water, volatilize at a heat under that of ebullition, it can scarcely be conceived how any loss can take place by volatilization in engines working up to eight or ten atmospheres, where only about half the above-named heat exists; and this pressure I never recommend to be exceeded. Experience has never shown the justice of the assertion, if we except a case mentioned by Mr. Perkins, where the grease (equal parts of good olive oil and Russia tallow) used for the piston was said to become partially decomposed; but this was under a much higher pressure than eight or ten atmospheres; and I must say in opposition, that I have never observed such a result when working up to forty atmospheres; but rather that an unusually small portion of grease, not the eighth part of what is necessary for low-pressure engines, was required. I account for the loss of grease, when it exists, by waste merely, and not by evaporation or decomposition. The oleaginous particles become intimately mixed with the particles of water that lodge upon the sides of the cylinder, and are then blown away with the steam in its exit from the engine. This is the reason why the water which collects in the escape-pipes presents a milky or soapy appearance. It is a mistake to imagine that the black indurating substance that impure grease often leaves in the cylinder, and which is often so injurious both to the packing and the metal, arises from the decomposition of the fatty matter; for this substance is nothing more than an induration of the fleshy particles left in impure tallow. It has been attempted to purify the tallow by the use of sulphuric acid in the melting, but this process frequently leaves free acid among the grease, which is very destructive to the parts of the engine. According to my experience, a high-pressure engine requires much less lubrication for the packings of the piston and piston-rod than a low-pressure one. If it is once shown that the grease neither evaporates nor decomposes under the temperature, it is easily proved that the consumption must be less, inasmuch as the rubbing surfaces are so much smaller, according to the power. If the proprietors of high-pressure engines complain of the consumption, it must be because the attendants waste the material. The milky appearance of the water in the exit-pipes is common with low-pressure as well as with high-pressure engines, and, as already remarked, furnishes a conclusion against the decomposition theory. 32. Fifth Objection.—This is, that the working parts of high-pressure engines are more subject to wear and tear, and, as a consequence, that the engines themselves are more liable to interruptions in their working from the necessity of repairs. This objection I can only allow to apply to those parts which are subject during their friction to an excessive degree of heat. But my experience has shown me, that with a pressure not exceeding eight to ten atmospheres the friction of such surfaces causes no disadvantage unless accompanied by too great an increase of pressure upon them; in such cases, for example, as the slide-valves when injudiciously constructed, and the axes of oscillating cylinders when the steam is made to pass through them to and from the cylinder. I have in my earlier writings shown how these rubbing heated surfaces might be got rid of,\textsuperscript{26} but the method is not without difficulty; and a longer practice in the manufacture of engines has convinced me that my former opinions required a change, and that the use of slide-valves was more convenient and more to be depended upon in many points of view than that of seat-valves. The latter are apt to be caused to leak by impurities in the grease,—by small portions of hemp from the packings of the pistons or stuffing-boxes,—or by other strange intruding bodies; and when this happens, great loss is occasioned, owing to the penetrating property of high-pressure steam, and the facility with which it will make its escape through the smallest openings. I do not deny that formerly I had much antipathy to slide-valves, principally because I at that time advocated the use of steam of a very high elasticity; but since I have been compelled, as an actual engine manufacturer, to adopt a cautious and secure line of practice, in order to be able to give the necessary guarantees for my work, I have devoted more attention generally to established and long-tried apparatus, and among them to the slide-valve; and in order to induce more certainty in the action of this essential organ, I have reduced and regulated the pressure under which my engines ordinarily work. I have been well satisfied with the results of my proceeding in this matter; for while I have realized in an ample measure the advantages of the high-pressure engine, I have avoided the inconveniences and \textsuperscript{26} Principally by the substitution of \textit{seat-valves} for the \textit{slide}.—Tr. difficulties which in certain cases attach to the use of steam of very great elasticity. It is inconceivable how the apparatus for transmitting the motion of the piston of a high-pressure engine to the machinery can be more subject to destruction, in regard to the durability of its joints, than in a low-pressure. If the power of each be the same, the machinery must have in each case equal strength: the stress to which it is subject is the same (or rather is less in the high-pressure engine, on account of the diminished prejudicial resistance, and consequently diminished total pressure required), and there is no reason whatever why any required strength may not be given to these parts; so that if there should be apprehension from the unequal action of the piston when expansion is used, the strength may be increased at pleasure. Can the gradually diminishing force of the steam of an expanding engine do more mischief than the great shock which must occur in low-pressure engines, owing to their increased resistance? Then every one knows what sudden concussions are produced throughout the machinery of a condensing engine at the moment when the air-pump discharges its contents, at which instant the whole pressure of the atmosphere is suddenly thrown upon the area of the pump. This shock is generally so forcible as to cause the whole machine to tremble, and to make itself heard for a long distance. Such a shock must undeniably tend to produce more damage to the moving parts than any cause which can be inherent in the high-pressure engine, whose simplicity and compactness are such as to give every facility for the attainment of the greatest security in its action, and the utmost durability in its mechanical arrangements. It must, however, be confessed, that the construction of the high-pressure engine as usually adopted in England, has tended to bring discredit on the principle in regard to the durability of the machines. It has been frequently the practice, in order to gain an agreeable appearance and form, to fall into the great error of adopting the same proportions of the parts to each other as are used for the low-pressure engine: if these are regulated, as has often been done, by the diameter of the cylinder, according to the low-pressure calculations, the whole must of necessity be too weak, and subject to untimely destruction. The English have been much too negligent in their treatment of high-pressure engines, and thence it is that we cannot take their examples for our guidance with this machine, as we are wont to do with their low-pressure engines.\footnote{This allegation is but too commonly true, or at least is not without good foundation. Such mistakes may be traced in the majority of cases to the (miscalled) \textit{practical} method of working, so often approved and recommended by ignorant men. It has been too much the fashion to decry the study of \textit{principles}, and to trust to what is called the “rule of thumb” line of practice, derived from experience \textit{only}. This may answer very well of course while the party trusting to it confines his efforts to imitating what has been already done; but when any thing new has to be provided for, unless the Engineer has a knowledge of \textit{principles} to guide him, and a capability too of reasoning upon those principles, he has no alternative but to blunder on till he arrives by hazard at the desired result. This would matter but little to any except the party himself, if his trials were private; but unhappily in most cases the unfortunate public have to pay for the schooling of their Engineer, and to suffer from the blunders his ignorance has caused.—Tr.} \textbf{ADVANTAGES OF THE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.} 33. Having now answered some of the most weighty objections brought against the high-pressure engine, and having shown in the course of the investigation that this machine requires considerable modification from the existing methods of construction, in order to free it from its present defects; and having, moreover, referred to the possibility of effecting such beneficial changes;—I will now proceed to enumerate the peculiar advantages derivable from the use of this simple and valuable method of employing steam power; hoping thereby to turn the attention of future improvers as much as possible towards the laudable object of its yet more extended application. If what I have already said may contribute to turn these efforts in a right course, and to point out the most important principles from which improvement must proceed, I shall be amply repaid for the work I have undertaken; and I am the more induced to hope this may be the result, since it is upon the foundation here laid I have based the improvements which I myself have effected in the machine. 34. To the great advantages which high-pressure engines present over those of low pressure belong the following. First Advantage.—They are much more simple, and, in proportion to their power, are of much smaller size, and much less weight. They are therefore less costly in the first instance, and less expensive to maintain in action; they are more compact, and occupy less room. For the cylinder is much smaller in diameter for an equal power; the length of the stroke may be also generally less; and, since condensation is not required, the velocity of the piston may usually be greater, by which means many parts of the machinery, particularly the fly-wheel, may be diminished in weight and dimensions. It is obvious also, that much of the heavy apparatus of the condensing engine is altogether absent in the high-pressure one; such, for example, as the condenser with its appurtenances; the air-pump, the hot and cold water pumps, and all the complicated appendages necessary to attach these to the main beam of the engine. Moreover, all the troublesome and expensive arrangements for condensing water are dispensed with, such as cisterns, excavations, channels, and pipes, to convey the cold water to, and the waste water from, the machine. Many pistons and valves requiring constant watchfulness to keep them tight, are unnecessary in the high-pressure engine; and thus not only the trouble but the materials for packing and lubrication are saved. In the jointing of pipes much also is spared. The various parts are much less clumsy and awkward to manage, and therefore the engines are more portable, and their erection becomes much more convenient and easy. This latter qualification has caused their exclusive use for locomotives and steam carriages. It must, however, be remarked, that all the above-enumerated advantages apply to the engines alone, and do not always refer in the same degree to the boilers. The dimensions of these do not follow the smaller size of the cylinder in the same proportion; but still, as a smaller actual quantity of water is required to be evaporated, they have their advantages when properly constructed. In the unscientific arrangements heretofore generally adopted for the generation of high-pressure steam, the boilers have been most formidable objects of attention, requiring enormous strength and weight of metal, and the greatest trouble in manufacture; but these inconveniences may be much reduced, as I shall hereafter show, by a more suitable method of construction. 35. Second Advantage.—The high-pressure engine sustains much less loss from the friction and other prejudicial resistances inherent in the engine itself, than is the case with the condensing engine. The rubbing surfaces are neither so numerous nor so large; there are not so many bearings and journals; several pistons are absent, and those that do exist are smaller. The fly-wheel is of less weight, and therefore the friction of its bearings is less. The air and cold water pumps, which consume so much power in the condensing engine, are wanting. The only pistons in the high-pressure engine are the steam piston and the feed-pump, and the friction of these is very insignificant in proportion to the work done.\(^{28}\) 36. Third Advantage.—High-pressure engines do not require the constant large supply of cold water necessary for condensation. This, in many situations and under circumstances which often occur, is very difficult to be obtained; and even where it can be had, often requires extensive excavations, pipes and conduits, and frequently also apparatus for cooling the water discharged from the engine. All these arrangements increase to a very considerable extent the first outlay. Steam vessels also, which visit tropical climates, often find it difficult to obtain water sufficiently cold for efficient condensation. The advantages of the high-pressure engine in this respect have never hitherto been sufficiently estimated. 37. Fourth Advantage.—Although high-pressure engines \(^{28}\) Some paragraphs, which, in the original, follow here, I have incorporated with the eighth advantage.—Tr. demand, when a considerable elasticity is used, a greater degree of care and accuracy in the fitting of the joints, in order to make them steam-tight, they yet possess this great advantage, that leakage is sooner discovered in them than in low-pressure engines. In the former a failure, or aperture, however small, is at once betrayed, and can be immediately attended to; but with the latter, leakages, especially of air into the vacuous space, may continue for a great length of time without discovery. 38. Fifth Advantage.—In the high-pressure engine, the operation of blowing through at starting, by which both time and steam are lost, is not required. The pressure of air in the engine, at the commencement of its motion, is rather an advantage than otherwise, as when expanded by the heat, it serves to assist the motion. 39. Sixth Advantage.—The use of high-pressure steam allows, at any time when desired, a temporary augmentation of the usual power of the engine, without any other preparation or alteration than that of a slightly increased production of steam in the boiler. All the parts are constantly in readiness to receive, and to apply, a higher pressure of steam. It is, however, not so with the condensing engine. The condensation is only adapted for a certain quantity of steam each stroke, and if a larger amount were to be thrown in, the consequence would be an imperfect exhaustion of the cylinder, which would neutralize any attempt to increase the power of the engine by an augmented pressure of the steam. It is on this account that the high-pressure engine is invaluable for locomotive purposes. The advantages we are now insisting on may be best attained by making the boiler of such dimensions and strength as will suffice for an increased pressure of steam; and when this preparation is made, the ordinary working of the engine will be managed by a careful adjustment of the firing to a degree between maximum and minimum. Mr. Gurney proposed to use in the boilers of his locomotive carriages, steam of a high pressure, which was wire-drawn to two or three atmospheres in the engine by a diminution of the opening of the throttle-valve. When therefore he wished to increase the power of his engine, all he had to do was to open this valve a little wider, by which means he proposed to adapt his engine to overcome the ascent of hills. This plan of wire-drawing the steam is doubtless a favourable one in regard to economy. 40. Seventh Advantage.—High-pressure engines have also the great advantage, that the state of the packing of the piston, as to whether it is steam-tight, or to what extent leakage exists, may be easily discovered by the manner in which the steam blows out from the cylinder. In order to render this observation more convenient, I make a small opening in the discharge-tube, which is usually stopped with a wooden plug: when the stopper is withdrawn, the steam blows through the hole in the same manner as through the large tube itself, and can be observed accordingly. In low-pressure engines, it must be allowed that the greater or less heat of the condensed water gives an index of the same important condition, but this is neither so direct as the method just described, nor so much to be depended on; since the quantity or temperature of the injection water may often change, the former depending, in fact, constantly on the state of the vacuum. 41. Eighth Advantage.—The high-pressure engine is more economical in fuel. This advantage is developed partly in the generation of the high-pressure steam, partly in consequence of its more suitable application to its purpose in the machine itself. For the positive determination of the reality of this important but much doubted fact, we are indebted principally to the Americans and the French, who have paid more attention, theoretically and practically, to the high-pressure engine, than the English, and are therefore more competent judges in such a weighty matter. But the advantage is not only proved by experience, but is deducible also from theory. It has already been long known that the temperature and elasticity of aqueous vapour increased in a ratio favourable to the practical application of high-pressure steam; and therefore it has been conjectured, as now is shown to be the fact, that engines on this principle ought to be more economical than those of low pressure. I have already (Art. 27) alluded to the subject of the caloric in high and low-pressure steam, and I may add here, that if it is proved that the former contains most free caloric, this is an advantage, rather than the contrary, inasmuch as the greater or less elasticity of the vapour is not the effect of its density alone, but also of its expansion by the free caloric it contains. In this regard, the saving of latent heat in highly elastic steam undeniably outweighs the disadvantage of a greater necessary supply of free caloric. The expansion of high-pressure steam by its greater content of free caloric has been occasionally doubted; but its greater proportionate useful effect, even when separated from all other causes of advantage that can occur in the machine, speaks in favour of the hypothesis. My experience has shown me, that in considering the effect of high-pressure steam, something more than the density must be taken into account; and the fact of its exceedingly great subtilty and penetrating power, in which respect it is beyond comparison with any other highly compressed fluid, as air for example, confirms me in this opinion. It is usually considered that steam increases in volume by the addition of free caloric, in the same ratio as atmospheric air; that is (according to Bernouilli) about $\frac{1}{270} \left( \frac{1}{267} \right)$ of its original volume at freezing point, for each degree centigrade. But is not this proportion too small for high-pressure steam? My experiments, as well as those of others, lead me to think so, and I am of opinion, that if steam supercharged with free caloric could be used in an engine much economy would result. At present, however, such a plan could scarcely be tried without destruction to the packings and other working parts of the machine.\footnote{I do not quite see that the Author makes out his case conclusively in this Article; but I refer again to my own demonstration (see note to Art. 27) that the use of high-pressure steam, \textit{per se}, is advantageous in regard to economy.—Tr.} 42. Secondly, the peculiar economy of the high-pressure engine arises also from a more suitable application of the steam to its purpose in the engine itself: and this on the following grounds. (a.) The steam finds less resistance to its action in this engine; for on account of the great pressure, its motion to and from the cylinder is more free and rapid than in the low-pressure engine. In the latter the condensation proceeds gradually, and therefore at the commencement of the stroke the resistance to the piston is much greater than when the steam has had time to condense more perfectly.\(^{30}\) This defect, which in my opinion is one of the causes of the loss of useful effect in condensing engines, has, I think, been generally too much neglected, and I will therefore explain my meaning a little more fully. It is obvious that, in order to gain the full effect from the action of the steam upon the piston, the pressure opposed to its motion ought to be removed as quickly and as completely as possible, and therefore at the commencement of every stroke the steam remaining from the last one should be withdrawn with all possible rapidity. Now in the high-pressure engine this may be completely accomplished by the mere precaution of making the steam passages of sufficient size and allowing them to open quickly;\(^{31}\) but in the condensing \(^{30}\) We may again refer to the peculiar advantages of the Cornish engine, where the pause before the commencement of the stroke is especially adapted to the removal of the defect mentioned in the text,—a defect very generally existing in the ordinary Boulton and Watt engines. The lead often given to the slide-valve of rotating engines also contributes in some degree to mitigate the evil.—Tr. \(^{31}\) I have often remarked in my steam engines (where the steam makes its exit from the cylinder with a pressure of about three atmospheres) the singular circumstance that at the moment of the exit of the steam, a grease-valve on the cylinder, opening inwards, let in air; showing thereby that the pressure within at that moment was less than that of the atmosphere. I explain this by the inertia of the steam, which, being once set in violent motion, continues it somewhat beyond the point where the pressure becomes equal to that of the atmosphere. This circumstance gives a satisfactory answer engine there are several impediments in the way, which I will enumerate briefly. (1.) The valve motion is much too sluggish. The apparatus is generally worked by an eccentric on the fly-shaft, and the opening is only fully completed when the engine has made half its stroke. (2.) The exhaustion openings are usually made much too small in proportion to the size of the cylinder. I shall have occasion to speak further on this point. (3.) The communications with the condenser are also too confined, so that the steam cannot pass away with sufficient rapidity.\(^{32}\) (4.) By the ordinary method of injection the condensation is not effected instantaneously, but gradually, by reason that the quantity of water necessary to condense the cylinder-full of steam must occupy some considerable time in passing through the injection cock. Therefore there remains a counter-pressure against the piston, greatest at the commencement of the stroke, and gradually diminishing as more water is injected and the condensation becomes more perfect. It is attempted to improve this state of things by increasing the injection opening, but this entails the disadvantage of requiring a greater quantity of water to be supplied and withdrawn than is proportionate to the quantity of steam to be condensed. \(^{32}\) These three defects of course may be rectified. In an engine which I altered in these respects, I doubled the velocity by this means alone. I shall hereafter give rules for the best proportions. Thus may be explained, on the one hand, the imperfect vacuum observed in some engines; and on the other, the excess of the actual over the calculated quantity of condensing water necessary to be supplied. From these and other causes we find about one-half of the total power of the steam absorbed in the condensing engine: i.e. out of 17 lbs. total pressure, only about 7 lbs. are made available for useful effect; while with the high-pressure engine, when properly constructed, I can vouch by my own experience, that only one-fourth need be so consumed. Others have sometimes found the loss greater, but I believe they have always been misled by the use of engines of an inferior description. (b.) M. Christian, of Paris, has found by direct experiment,\(^{33}\) that the loss of power consequent upon increasing the velocity of the piston is proportionately much less in the high-pressure engine than in the low-pressure; and that the mechanical effect in respect to the higher velocity is increased to a greater extent as the pressure used is greater. This is corroborated by the well-known fact, that the piston of a high-pressure engine may be driven at a great velocity (250 to 300 feet per minute) without entailing the loss which always ensues when the velocity of the low-pressure engine exceeds about 200 feet per minute. (c.) The use of high-pressure steam allows the prin- \(^{33}\) Vide ‘Traité de Mechan. industrielle,’ by this Author, p. 345. His researches are very interesting, and I recommend them to attention. ciple of expansion to be carried to a greater extent than in the low-pressure engine, without requiring the dimensions of the cylinder to be considerably increased. By the application of this principle a most important saving is attained; but that it cannot be carried out efficiently with low-pressure steam, is shown by the fact, that the sagacious Watt could not work it to advantage, and that Woolf, who re-introduced it with success, used high-pressure steam in his engines. When the expansion principle is used with low-pressure steam, the effective pressure is so small that the cylinder must be greatly increased in size to give a certain power. To this cause may also be traced the failure of Hornblower's engines, which were expansion engines with low-pressure steam, and on which Woolf afterwards so much improved.\(^{34}\) (d.) The steam acts in a manner, so to speak, altogether positive, and is not robbed of all that valuable portion of heat which in the low-pressure engine is lost by condensation. On this account the steam, after passing from the engine, may be used again for a variety of purposes; such as for warming the feed water before it enters the boiler; for the purposes of cooking, heating buildings, drying, &c. In certain manufactories where large pans or boilers, drying apparatus, &c., require to be heated, the power of an engine may be obtained almost free of expense by adopting the plan above named.\(^{35}\) \(^{34}\) For a further illustration of these remarks, see 'Treatise on the Cornish Engine,' Arts. 40 to 46.—Tr. \(^{35}\) I have for the last twenty-five years directed my attention to this point, and have had the opportunity of contriving many uses, of greater or less (e.) There is not so great a degree of condensation in the cylinder. According to my idea, the views generally adopted on this subject hitherto have been entirely erroneous. It is given as a principle, that steam at a high temperature is more exposed to condensation than when at a lower degree of heat, since the transmission of caloric from one body to another is quicker as the difference between their temperatures is greater; but it has been overlooked, that in low-pressure engines there exists a circumstance which appears to me to be a greater cause of waste of heat, and which I will endeavour briefly to explain. In the low-pressure engine, the vapour in condensing gradually becomes attenuated before it finally leaves the cylinder, and by this attenuation it loses proportionately in temperature: further, the steam acquires by being thus cooled a tendency to rob the cylinder of the heat previously given to it by the steam newly admitted, and thereby to take into the condenser more free caloric than would naturally belong to its elasticity. That Watt, and subsequently Woolf, overlooked this circumstance, is shown by their use of the steam-jacket, by which this disadvantage was naturally increased. It has been often subject of astonishment why the quantity of water necessary for condensation should importance, for the waste steam from the high-pressure engine: these I shall hereafter notice. 36 We are yet much in the dark as to the precise nature and degree of the influence of the steam-jacket over the action of the steam within the cylinder of expanding engines; but it seems to be well ascertained that a casing of steam is absolutely necessary to the economical working of the Cornish engine. The experiments made upon it in Cornwall have just sufficed to establish this point, and no more.—Tr. always be found in practice greater than that given by calculation, and the error has generally been laid to the charge of leakage in the piston packing; but it seems to me that the fact is explained by the reason I have given. If then this abstraction of heat from the metal of the cylinder be allowed to exist, it is easily understood what a loss must be sustained by the newly entering steam which has to furnish the supply to compensate for such abstraction. When a steam-jacket is used, of course this loss falls upon the steam inside the jacket. But, it may be asked, does not a loss of a similar kind also exist in the high-pressure engine? Certainly; but it must be considered that the surface of the cylinder in this engine bears a much smaller proportion to the volume of the steam discharged; and that the exit is too rapid, and renewed too quickly, to allow of any considerable abstraction of heat, which must be a work of time. Besides, this loss is less noticeable in engines where expansion is used, and where the steam is applied to other purposes after it has been discharged from the engine. 43. Having now set forth the principal advantages of the high-pressure engine, I must finally say a few words for the purpose of correcting certain mistaken ideas which are very prevalent, even among enlightened and scientific men, in reference to the source whence economy of fuel in the machine should arise. It has been the general opinion that this source lay in the generation of the steam, and to this end have most of the later improvements been directed; while the engine itself and the principles of its construction have been thought to have but little influence in the matter.\textsuperscript{37} Now although I have certainly endeavoured to show that there is an undeniable advantage to be derived from the use of high-pressure steam, considered in respect to the economy of its production, and moreover that this advantage increases with the pressure employed; yet must I strongly protest against the erroneous idea, that the greatest improvement of the high-pressure engine is to be looked for in the more perfect arrangement of the apparatus for its generation. The advantages to be derived from the suitable application of the steam in the machine are to me so clear and obvious, that I have, in what I have done, had more respect to this point than to the economy of the boiler: it will, however, be found that in the details which I shall exhibit in the following pages, I have endeavoured to apply and carry out, to the utmost extent, all the principles of improvement I have hereinbefore laid down. \textsuperscript{37} It is worthy of remark, that nearly all modern inventions directed towards the improvement of the high-pressure engine, and particularly all those described in the latest English patents, have had reference to the boiler alone. This shows how little has been thought of the advantages which the engine itself may be made to afford. PART II. ON THE BOILER AND ITS APPENDAGES: AND THE FURNACE. ON THE BOILER AND ITS APPENDAGES: AND THE FURNACE. 44. I come now to my own high-pressure engines; to describe their peculiar construction; to explain the grounds upon which I have founded my choice of this construction; and to exhibit the plans I have adopted for generating and using high-pressure steam with economy. I shall endeavour to describe these machines and the apparatus belonging to them in as exact and complete a manner as possible; and shall also set forth their advantages with all the impartiality I can command. When in London, I believe I made use, in my engines, of steam of a higher pressure than had ever been employed before. Once I worked an engine, for the sake of experiment, to a pressure of 1000 lbs. on the square inch; and it was found that under this tremendous pressure, the engine itself remained perfectly firm and steam-tight in all its parts. On a subsequent examination, it appeared that the packing had become somewhat singed (gebräunt), and softer than usual;¹ nevertheless it retained the steam ¹ It is a general opinion that hemp packing is improper for a very high pressure, being destroyed by the great heat of the steam. When it is considered, however, that steam at the melting point of lead, at which temperature hemp is not destroyed, possesses an elasticity of nearly eighty atmospheres, the objection loses all force for such pressures as I have used. perfectly well. This engine was constructed peculiarly for a very great pressure. I firmly believe that these engines of great pressure would have produced useful results; but I conceived that the experience I had with them, was not based on sufficiently extended practice to determine a manufacturer in adopting them with security. The boilers, although they showed good results in experiment, were not perfected, and other generators for such a great elasticity were not at hand; nor would they, if procurable, have properly exemplified my plans of construction. Moreover, I had good grounds to fear that the public, already prejudiced against the high-pressure system, would oppose it so much the more as the steam used was of a higher elasticity than previously employed. Finally, I considered that to insure a proper care and attention to these engines would be a matter of greater difficulty than with those of a more moderate pressure; and that on this ground the convenience of their use would appear in some measure doubtful; and thereby an objection would be raised against them, which would require more time to remove than I had the opportunity of bestowing. 45. While, therefore, on these grounds I avoided the use of too great a pressure, I retained firmly the principle that the elasticity could not be reduced lower than eight or ten atmospheres, without relinquishing the advantages of the system. For— (a.) The loss of the vacuum would be felt so much the more, the lower the pressure became. (b.) The friction of the piston would be greater, by the use of a larger cylinder for the same power, and thus a greater prejudicial resistance would be sustained. Notwithstanding the improvements made in this part of the machine, the friction is still so great as to render it advisable not unnecessarily to increase its rubbing surface. (c.) The engines would, at a lower pressure, be larger, less portable, and more expensive. (d.) The principle of expansion could not be made use of to so great an extent, and to such advantage, with steam of a lower pressure. The steam leaving the cylinder would at the end of each stroke retain too little excess of pressure above the atmosphere, and therefore would blow out with too small a velocity, and leave behind an increased resistance to the piston. For example, steam of three atmospheres, expanded to three times its volume, would scarcely balance the atmosphere, and would thus have no tendency to blow out; while steam of two atmospheres similarly expanded, would sink so much under the atmospheric pressure, as to cause a very injurious counter-resistance to the piston from the entering air. Numerous experiments had convinced me of the great advantage of a rapid discharge of the steam from the working cylinder, and I resolved that this discharge must be at least effected with the elasticity of some atmospheres, to take place with proper rapidity, and produce the advantage I have before alluded to. It was also clear to me that the steam, before its departure from the cylinder, ought not to be so much reduced as to render the action too unequal, and thereby to require too large a fly-wheel. 46. In order to take a secure path in the fabrication of high-pressure engines, I conceived I could not do better than follow in the footsteps of Oliver Evans, and adopt as the normal for my future attempts, the pressure he had found to answer in his long and varied practice. Such a pressure had the advantage of allowing me to retain the use of several organs of the old engines, particularly the slide-valve, which presented peculiar advantages in use, and of whose superiority over the conical valve I was convinced by experience. Nevertheless with regard to the boilers of my engines, I strove to proceed upon more secure principles than Oliver Evans had done, and also to reduce the engine itself to a more simple and compendious construction and form, as well as to make its appearance more agreeable to the eye. I reduced the diameter of the boiler as much as I could without detriment to its evaporative power; and, in order to apply the power of the piston to the crank in the most secure and convenient manner and with the least loss, I gave the engine vibrating cylinders, in which last alteration I found it a difficult task to remove all the many defects consequent upon former arrangements of the kind. Fourteen years' experience has proved that I have succeeded in my endeavour to overcome the difficulties of my undertaking: daily have engines built upon these principles been working under my own observation; I have undertaken all necessary experiments and observations to enable me to decide accurately upon their advantages or disadvantages; and have spared no trouble, no exertion, no sacrifice, to improve their construction and make their results more perfect. Under all circumstances I have reduced the consumption of fuel, in comparison with lowpressure engines, by at least one-third, often one-half, and sometimes still more; a result which points out as satisfactory the pressure I have adopted. The condenser I only make use of under certain circumstances, and give it then an entirely new and peculiar arrangement. I do not recommend any fixed normal form or arrangement of the engine, but, as I have already stated, I would vary the construction according to the circumstances under which the engines are required, and to suit the places where they are to be erected. Nevertheless a certain form may be taken as most preferable, and this I shall fully and particularly describe. 47. Many manufacturers and others skilled in the science of steam are yet of opinion that it is impracticable to work engines to such a high pressure as eight or ten atmospheres. They seem, however, to have forgotten, or not to have known, that such engines are already in use, and have been worked for a length of time with advantage, without requiring those many subsequent alterations and frequent repairs, or incurring the great wear and tear, that have been brought as objections against them. At the present time a great number of such engines are at work in America; in manufactories, in locomotives, and in steam vessels, particularly those upon the Mississippi and the Ohio. If any one with these facts before him still remain incredulous, let him come to me and examine my engines. He will see the simplicity, the steadiness, and the safety of their construction;—their smooth, noiseless, equable, and powerful motion;—and he may satisfy himself of the great amount of the work they are doing. He may learn that their repairs only affect such parts as are common to all kinds of steam engines;—and that the attention and management requisite for them involve less application, trouble, and exertion, than engines of low pressure. His own observation will convince him that no greater quantity or intensity of firing is necessary for them, and that consequently their boilers are not more liable to deterioration. 48. In order to render the following portion of my work more clear and perspicuous, I shall treat separately of the several more important parts of the engine. Under each head I shall give introductory notices of the labours of previous inventors and improvers of the several parts; of the principles upon which they proceeded; of their errors; of the difficulties in the way of attaining perfection; of the requisites for a right treatment of the subject; and of the deductions I have drawn from my own experience, upon the best means of removing the difficulties and wants in the way. These will serve to introduce the details of the various improvements I have made. THE BOILER. 49. The boiler involves more difficulty in its treatment than any other organ of the steam engine, particularly when used for high pressure. We have proof enough of this in the fact that no boilers exist which satisfy all the conditions required from them. That I do not here exaggerate, will be allowed by every one who has studied the history of the steam engine, or who has himself devoted his attention to its construction or use. I have already entered upon the subject of the great defects of the old capacious boilers, and have shown that such apparatus, especially when they are of an angular, prismatic, or indeed any but a cylindrical form,—or even then if not made of wrought metal,—become the peculiar seat of danger in high-pressure engines. I have shown how all sorts of safety apparatus, as well for preventing too great a pressure, as for avoiding other sources of danger, are but uncertain in their operation, and not to be depended on while the objectionable form and size of the boiler itself remain; since so many fearful examples have shown that they are ineffectual in excluding danger, and are still more incapable of removing or mitigating it when it does arise. 50. And yet is this old monstrous form still used with great confidence; yet is it adopted by the great majority of engineers, and looked upon as the most suitable for the efficient generation of steam. All the frightful consequences of the explosions of vessels of this kind have failed in convincing those who employ them of their error; they have still followed the ancient track, and instead of striking at the root of the evil, have contented themselves with trusting, as their fathers did, to the superficial and imperfect safety arrangements so often relied on in vain. The many prizes and rewards offered by academies and scientific societies for the improvement of safety apparatus, show plainly how the true great principle of improvement has been neglected, and the only secure method of avoiding danger overlooked. This great principle, this sure method, is, so to construct the boiler that its explosion may not be dangerous. In all my researches and endeavours to improve the high-pressure boiler I have steadily kept this principle in view. 51. It is only lately that this condition has been somewhat approximated to by the invention and application of tubular boilers; but it would seem that these have been suggested rather by the necessity of providing, for many technical purposes, and particularly for steam carriages, boilers of less content and weight, than by the desire of removing or lessening danger from explosion. Tubes have that form which is most adapted to resist pressure—viz., the cylindrical. If then they are made of small diameter, of not too great thickness, and of suitable material, they may be made to carry out the before-named principle; i.e. they themselves, in case of their bursting, will not cause any dangerous consequences to the neighbouring persons or property. This is amply proved by experience. Unfortunately, however, there are no tubular boilers which satisfy all conditions required. We often hear the subject spoken of as one of little difficulty, easy of decision, and unencumbered with practical obstacles; but such is the language only of the prejudiced and the inexpe- 2 "Die Kessel so zu construiren, dass sie selbst bei einer erfolgenden Explosion keine Gefahr verbreiten." More literally, "So to construct the boilers, that they themselves, in case of an explosion ensuing, spread no danger."—Tr. 3 An instance is on record where the bursting of a connecting-pipe of scarcely 2 inches diameter, in a steamer, scalded to death in three minutes the engine attendant and two stokers, who could not escape from the engine-room in time. It is a great fault in the construction of steam boats, that the engine and boiler-rooms are not separated from each other, and that the access to both is usually inconvenient. rienced. To arrive at the truth, we must seek it with long-continued perseverance, and bring no small share of physical knowledge to our aid; for the subject is beset with perplexities on every side. It presents at every turn a thousand difficulties, a thousand dangers; and would we avoid a Scylla on the one hand, we find a Charybdis on the other. It becomes a most complex problem to construct a tubular boiler for a large supply of steam, by reason of the difficulty of arranging and connecting the great number of tubes it must contain, into one convenient whole. The modern English locomotive boilers cannot be legitimately called *tubular* boilers, because they fail altogether in the grand distinguishing quality of all such—namely, the small diameter of the generating apparatus. The tubes of these boilers are nothing more than a splitting up or subdivision of the ancient fire-tube of the Trevithick steam carriage boiler. From their great outer diameter, locomotive boilers do not avoid the evil of the old capacious form, and therefore do not diminish the objection to it. They have also a defect in the close proximity of the tubes to each other, whereby the water space between them is rendered too confined, and the heated tubes become liable to be laid bare of water. This circumstance gives the key to the well-known fact, that the tubes become so soon destroyed, or at least require constant repair, and to the mischief occasioned by their expansion, through their connection with the end plates of the cylindrical part of the boiler. It is evident that from the passage upwards of the steam formed among the lower tubes, the upper ones must be most liable to be uncovered with water; while these, being exposed to the hottest part of the fire current, are most likely to receive damage therefrom. The new boiler of M. Neukranz, which Mr. Penn, of Greenwich, usually adopts for steam vessels, is a better arrangement than that of the locomotives: in this, the tubes above the fire-place run across through the vertical fire channel in the interior of the boiler. These tubes are filled with water, have a greater diameter in proportion to their length, and embouche at both ends into the water space of the boiler. Unfortunately, however, these boilers, and all of similar construction, on account of their great circumference and content, are equally far removed from fulfilling the great object of the tubular system. 52. According to my opinion and experience, a tubular boiler ought to preserve, as much as possible, the tubular form in all its parts; or, at least, the larger portions ought to be cylindrical, and not of too great diameter, or should be so strongly made that the tubes should form the weakest part of the whole boiler. The tubes themselves should be of such diameter, and be constructed of such metal, that in case of their actual bursting, no dangerous explosion may ensue. This, however, is only possible when their thickness is so small, and the metal of such a kind, that bursting takes place by a comparatively small internal pressure, and is followed by only a ripping open of the tube, and not a scattering about of massive fragments. Under all circumstances, however, the tubes must be the sole generating vessels; they alone must receive the action of the fire, and be exposed to its destructive influence. All other and larger vessels, or parts connected with the tubes, should be most carefully protected from not only 4 'Gewerbblatt für Sachsen,' No. 49, p. 399. this but all other dangerous influences, in order that they may remain in their original proved condition of strength. Only such a tubular boiler as fulfils all these conditions can be called a safe one. In its use there is no further danger from high-pressure steam, and near it its owner may repose undisturbed by a care for the safety of life or property. 53. The requisites in the use of the tubes are the following:—They must be placed in such a position with regard to the furnace, that the flame may act upon them in the most favourable manner, and that the heat may be absorbed as completely as possible.—They must have such a proportion between their length and diameter, that neither the ebullition in them may become too violent, and the water be thereby ejected from them, nor that they be warped or made crooked by the heat.—They must properly convey away all the generated steam, and be regularly supplied with water.—They must be connected with the main part of the boiler in such a manner that in case of a rupture of one of them, the whole content of water and steam cannot suddenly and dangerously discharge itself.—They must lie so deep under the general water level of the boiler (in the receivers or separators) that some considerable sinking of the water may be allowed to take place without leaving any of them empty; and in case the latter effect should occur, such tubes must first be emptied as are least exposed to the heat of the furnace. Lastly, they must be connected with each other in such manner that no destructive expansion may be allowed to take place, and that all may be easily and conveniently cleansed of the earthy matters deposited in them. The enumeration of such requisite conditions shows us the weight of the difficulties I have before alluded to. I will proceed to set forth these requisites still further. 54. The larger portions of the boiler, or receiving vessels, may themselves consist of tubes of a larger diameter, or may form flat chambers, constructed of a strength to withstand a very high pressure (say 400 to 500 lbs. per square inch); this involves no difficulty.—The diameter of the receivers should not, where it can be avoided, exceed 16 inches, and they should be constructed of plate iron of at least \( \frac{3}{8} \) of an inch thick, securely and exactly riveted together into a cylindrical form.—When it is necessary that they should be capacious, their length should be increased and not their diameter beyond that specified, or their number should be greater.—Their covering lids (schlussdeckel) may be flat and of cast iron, but of considerable thickness (1\(\frac{1}{2}\) to 2 inches), and these must be connected to the cylinders securely, and in such a way that they may be easily taken off when cleaning is required.—They must, under all circumstances, be entirely removed from all strong action of the fire, and must at most be exposed only to such currents as have discharged the greatest portion of their heat against the generating tubes.—In order to preserve them from rust, their internal and external surfaces may be covered with several coats of oil-varnish (oelfirniss), and the coating renewed, at least on the inside, every year.—Since these receivers or larger parts of the boiler usually serve as separators, and as means of connection between the generating tubes, they must be perfectly adapted to fulfil these purposes. As separators, they must efficiently separate the steam from the water, so that none of the latter may penetrate into the working parts of the engine; and to this end the water surface in them must be of sufficient extent.—In order that the water may not rise to a dangerous height in them by violent ebullition in their tubes, their water space must bear a certain proportion to that of the tubes and the other parts of the boiler.—The steam room in them must also be proportioned to the content of the engine cylinder; so that the pressure may not be too much lessened by the discharge into the engine, and a foaming of the water thereby be caused. 55. The doctrine I hold that the tubes should form the weakest part of a tubular boiler, will, doubtless, at first sight appear to many of my readers a paradox, or at least a very hazardous rule, seeing that it is in the most glaring opposition to all former views on the subject, and sets all former theories on one side. But if the reasons I have to give in its favour be duly weighed, I trust it will be justified in the eyes of all discerning men. When this arrangement is adopted, the place where an explosion becomes possible is confined to those parts whose bursting is unattended by danger, and the rupture will take place before the steam has acquired such an excessive elasticity as to produce any very violent effects. Those who have witnessed the bursting of thin copper tubes will bear me witness that by this arrangement all desirable extent of security may be attained. The tubes become safety-valves, whose functions are perfected when a pressure double or triple the proper one arises in the boiler, and when all other safety apparatus forsake their duty. Thin copper plates and sacks have heretofore been recommended and used for safety arrangements. If it is objected that by the weakness of the tubes frequent accidents may occur, and that consequently the working of the machine may be often seriously impeded; I answer that a sufficient pressure to cause an explosion, even of these weakest parts, cannot frequently occur: it can only take place through the carelessness or wilful neglect of the machine attendant; and the ordinary safety apparatus are still at hand as far as they will succeed in preventing mischief. In one of my first engines, after many years' wear, the tubes became so much worn that ruptures were of frequent occurrence; yet these were attended with so little danger, that nothing was thought of them beyond the inconvenience of a few hours' stoppage of the engine for repair; and as I had a larger engine in course of erection, I did not think it worth while to renew the old boiler. If the tubes are so arranged, (as they were in my engine, and ought in all cases to be,) that a ruptured one can be replaced with facility and expedition, the objection I have alluded to loses all its weight. A boiler of this kind will possess thereby a great advantage over the common boiler, inasmuch as the latter, in case of explosion, not only is destructive to life and property, but also puts a stop, for a long period, to the work of the establishment. And to draw a parallel between the two cases, will any one assert that these old boilers, particularly for low-pressure engines, will bear a doubly or triply increased pressure with so little mischief as the rupture of one of my tubes would occasion? Is so sudden and dangerous an evaporation to be apprehended from thin tubes when they may accidentally become redhot, and afterwards be suddenly covered with water, as from the thick sides of a large boiler? and would not the thereby suddenly increased pressure be more likely to confine its effects to the tube, connected only by a small opening to the larger parts of the boiler? Is not the drying and overheating of the tubes less likely to occur when the receivers or separators are arranged as I have before indicated? and particularly, is not such an occurrence less to be feared in a steam vessel exposed to the motion of the sea? Tubes of small thickness have the advantage, that they generate more steam than surfaces of stouter metal; because the heat penetrates them more quickly. They are also not less durable, since the heat is less apt to accumulate and produce those destructive expansions and contractions to which, as I have before shown, thick boiler sides are so liable. I have already stated that the larger receivers or separators connected with the tubes must not, if they are expected to retain their state of security, be acted upon by the strong heat of the fire, the effect of which must be expended upon the tubes, the least dangerous parts of the whole. One of the greatest difficulties in the construction of effective tubular boilers consists in the proper arrangement of the tubes in the furnace, and of the connections between these and the other portions of the boiler, with a view to the most perfect evaporation, and the most complete facility for the discharge of the steam and the supply of water. 56. The most common error in the construction of tubular boilers, is, that the diameter of the tubes is made too small, and the length proportionately too great. This produces the following inconveniences. (a.) The tubes present, for their length and breadth, too little surface to the fire; and therefore are required to be greater in number for a certain evaporative power. (b.) Their connection becomes a matter of more difficulty. (c.) They are more liable to be choked up with dirt and deposit, and when they become so, are more difficult to clean. (d.) The discharge of steam from them is more apt to drive out the water and leave them dry, whereby they are exposed to speedy destruction by the fire. (e.) By offering impediment to the free and equal flow of the steam and water, they are liable to become warped or crooked, and otherwise injured by an unequal action of the heat. All these inconveniences are got rid of by giving the tubes a sufficiently large diameter; such as at least four inches. Tubes of this diameter are large enough to represent small boilers, which have a proper proportion of heating surface to their cubic content, and in which the water and steam space is so ample that the vapour may discharge itself without either carrying the water off with it, or at all hindering the proper supply. When tubes of such a diameter are made of suitable thickness of metal, no danger is to be apprehended from their bursting; for their steam and water content is of no considerable magnitude. The length of such tubes may be from sixteen to eighteen times their diameter. To make them longer would render them liable to the objections I have alluded to, and to other inconveniences I shall hereafter explain. A very important advantage of such tubes is the facility with which they may be cleaned. For this purpose they must be provided with suitable covers, capable of being removed with facility, to allow of the proper introduction of the cleaning instruments. The connection of the tubes with the other portions of the boiler must be made secure, and in such a manner as to admit of their being easily renewed when requisite, and to prevent a sudden discharge of the whole contents in case of a rupture. The manner of accomplishing this, I shall show when I come to describe my own boilers. 57. The method of placing the tubes in the furnace so as to obtain the greatest effect of the fire, has been the subject of much difference of opinion; the modern view, however, is, as generally received, that a vertical position is the least advantageous. The heated current strikes upon vertical tubes and surfaces too swiftly, and finds too little resistance to enable it to discharge its proper amount of caloric.\(^5\) If this is to be properly absorbed, the current must, in its draught through the furnace, strike as nearly as possible perpendicularly against the objects to be heated, and be so divided by them as to be compelled to vary its course. Many men of science have acknowledged this fact,\(^6\) and experience on all sides corroborates it. How this may be done, I shall hereafter show. Suffice it here \(^5\) In one of my engines I adopted first the horizontal and afterwards the vertical arrangement; but although the latter had 50 per cent. more surface than the former, it required 50 per cent. more fuel. \(^6\) Vide 'Seguier, Recueil industriel,' 1831, pp. 1, 89, 155. to say, that horizontal tubes are in this respect the more suitable, as well as possessing all the other qualifications of good evaporating vessels. This position is, in many respects, preferable to either the oblique or the vertical, as my own long experience has amply proved. So much for the conditions upon which tubular boilers should be constructed: I shall have more opportunity of exemplifying them further on. Meanwhile, I proceed to make some remarks upon tubular boilers in general. 58. Over-ebullition is least to be feared in tubes half filled, since in them the steam space is well separated from the water. There is, however, much difficulty in so arranging the supply of water, that when many tubes are used together, it shall be kept at the same height in all. My experience has shown me that this involves difficulties even in tubes of large diameter, and produces evils which are avoided by a different plan. Half-filled tubes give less evaporation than those entirely full, and therefore require, for the same steam supply, the whole apparatus to be of larger dimensions,—an objection often of great weight. The disadvantageous ebullition above alluded to, to which full tubes are more liable, is but little to be feared if the tubes are constructed of proper dimensions, and are laid in the furnace slightly on the incline, that the steam may have liberty to escape freely by its levity, as it becomes formed. 59. Many inventors of tubular boilers have recommended a long coil of tube of small diameter running in many windings through the furnace; receiving the water at its lower end, and discharging the steam at its upper. This plan is objectionable, not only on account of the great difficulty or almost impossibility of cleaning the tube, but because variations in the intensity of the fire, or in the regularity of the feed, will inevitably produce a drying of some portion of the tube, and its consequent injury by the fire. 60. Tubular boilers are seldom used for low-pressure steam. They are more particularly adapted for high-pressure, in that the latter acquires a much smaller volume, and is generated with a proportionately much less violent ebullition. The higher the pressure, the smaller are the bubbles of vapour, and the easier their transmission through the water. Hence a tubular boiler that might, under a low pressure, fail from the drying of its tubes, answers perfectly well when the pressure under which it worked is increased. From this it follows that the pressure has a considerable influence not only over the ratio between the cubic contents of the tubes and the receivers and separators, but also upon the diameter of the tubes themselves, and the size of the openings by which they are connected. 61. When, after a fire is lighted under a high-pressure boiler, the water first begins to boil, the steam is formed under a low but constantly increasing pressure; and under such circumstances, the volume of the steam produced, and the consequent ebullition, are much greater than when the full pressure is attained. From the consideration of this we gather the rule, that caution should be employed in firing while getting up the steam, especially when the tubes are small, or the proportion between them and the receivers unfavourable. If the fire is at first made too strong, the water will be driven out of the lower tubes, as will be evidenced by the rising and unsteadiness of the water level in the separators. When, however, the pressure has attained its proper height, the fire may be increased without fear, and the water will then resume its steady and accustomed level. 62. I have found that in the low-pressure boiler, the production of a cubic foot of steam per second requires a water surface of from 5 to 6 square feet, in order that it may be produced freely and without too violent ebullition: this supposes the steam to be evolved equally from every part of the surface. Here, therefore, is a datum for the proportions of the receivers of such tubular boilers as work with filled tubes; and we are compelled by this rule to give their water surface the greatest possible extent. Hence all upright receivers or separators whose length much exceeds their diameter, are objectionable, and on this ground many modern improvements on tubular boilers have failed. In steam vessels, however, the rule must be somewhat relaxed, as we have another element to take into consideration—namely, the motion of the ship, which has more influence on the level of the water in horizontal than in vertical separators.\(^7\) 63. The great defect of almost all tubular boilers is the difficulty of cleaning them. This objection applies to \(^7\) The Author here proceeds to comment on the boilers of Gurney, Gillman, Ogle and Summers, Maceroni, Squire, Dance, Hancock, and others. I have not thought it necessary to insert these remarks, as the boilers alluded to are so little used in England.—Tr. most of those boilers used for steam carriages on common roads, and all such inevitably contain the germ of their own destruction. This most important requirement is always difficult to be accomplished in tubular boilers, and especially in those that contain a large heating surface with a small cubical content, since it is generally impossible to open them fully in order to gain convenient access to the interior surfaces. It has been therefore often attempted to effect the cleansing by chemical instead of mechanical means; and the attempt was at first taken up with great enthusiasm, owing to the satisfactory results which it appeared to afford. But it has been a delusion. I myself have given these chemical means a fair trial, and have found them not only expensive, but untrustworthy, especially the much praised application of muriatic acid (salzsäure). I have found that the boiler-stone becomes thereby somewhat loosened, but never dissolved; and I have always had afterwards to scrape off and remove it. If the diluted acid is allowed to work longer to effect the more perfect solution, danger is incurred of the metal becoming corroded, especially in those spots where no deposit may lie: this danger is most to be apprehended with iron boilers. It should be considered that the boiler’s deposit consists not alone of lime, but of many other salts and substances, such as gypsum, &c., which resist the action of muriatic acid. 64. But little better success has attended the labours of those who have endeavoured, by means partly chemical, --- 8 Den Kesselstein etwas erweicht, aber nie ganz aufgelöst. partly mechanical, to prevent the accumulation of deposit in the boiler, and thus to render cleaning operations unnecessary. One of the oldest of these means is the introduction of potatoes into the water. Upon the quantity necessary different views are entertained.\(^9\) The action of this preventive is explained upon the supposition that the potatoes are converted by the boiling water into a slimy fluid (brei) which retains the precipitates finely suspended (as gum-arabic suspends the pigments in water colours), and allows them to be removed with it; it being a necessary condition that the water be occasionally drawn off. I have used potatoes under my own observation for eight years in all imaginable ways; sometimes in their natural state, sometimes peeled, and sometimes previously mashed into pulp; but I yet remain doubtful whether their use is attended with advantage or not. I have frequently found the deposit adhere as firmly with as without them, particularly in the connection tubes, where the ebullition has been considerable. It is so far certain, that where pure and soft feed water is at hand, their use is rather prejudicial than advantageous, as they tend to cause priming, and by passing into the engine render the hemp packings stiff and inelastic; besides which, they tend, especially when used whole and unpeeled, to block up narrow and confined parts of the boiler and its connections. In newly riveted vessels they may at first be useful in stopping small leaks in the joints, by gradually depositing and hardening therein. Also where the water is very hard or acidulated, potatoes may be of use in diminishing the destructive chemical \(^9\) According to Payen \(\frac{2}{100}\) of the weight of water are introduced into the boiler. action upon the metal. In these cases, or any others where advantage is thought to accrue from the plan, the potatoes should be peeled, in preference to using them in their natural state. It has been asserted that the use of potatoes would loosen boiler-stone already hardened upon the plates; but though I have taken great pains to prove the assertion by experiment, I have never succeeded. I at first imagined that the loose state in which I found the deposit in my boilers was owing to the application of this preventive; but, to my great satisfaction, I soon discovered that the result was produced as well without as with it, and since then I have never used potatoes where I could get soft feed water. 65. Charcoal powder has been recommended, but this, often renewed, would be expensive. Clay is also among the remedial substances named; but I cannot understand how the introduction of one earthy substance can prevent the deposit of another. Another method proposed to prevent the adherence of deposit is to cover the internal surface of the boiler with a coating of black lead and tallow. This, or indeed any oleaginous matter introduced into the boiler, is supposed to prevent the firm adherence of the deposit to its sides. Grains of metal, or small balls, are stated to act mechanically in keeping up a constant motion, and preventing the formation of hard deposit. Troughs, separators, and apparatus of various kinds, have also been introduced into boilers. And lately a patent has been obtained for an application of vegetable matters, such as dye-woods, turf, leaves of trees, &c., &c., for the same end. It has been also proposed to introduce certain salts in the feed water, whose acids will form easily soluble compounds with the earthy bases of the deposits, or whose presence will otherwise prevent incrustation.\textsuperscript{10} 66. Seldom, however, are any such preventives necessary for high-pressure engines. If the feed water is not very hard, a firmly incrusted deposit is but rarely found in their boilers. The earthy concretions generally collect in loose layers upon the bottom, or against the ends of the tubes: the layers consist usually of gravel-like masses, small and large pieces commingled, and they may be easily removed with a scraper. When the tubes are small, this must be frequently done; otherwise stoppages may be produced in the water passages. For this purpose I have so constructed my boilers that they may be most conveniently opened and cleaned from time to time. If it is wished still more to prevent the accumulation of this loose deposit, I recommend half a bucket of water to be drawn off occasionally, during the working of the boiler, when the water is at its highest level. This plan has the double advantage, that not only a great mass of the deposit in formation is blown off, but the water is prevented from attaining that state of saturation in which the hard precipitation begins. Where muddy or slimy, or salt water is used, this frequent blowing off is especially necessary.\textsuperscript{11} In my boilers the draw-off opening is situated as low as possible, and I find all the impurities and salts which collect at the bottom of the boiler are thereby easily removed. \textsuperscript{10} I have abbreviated this paragraph, since the Author's remarks upon these methods contain no information of importance. References to all his authorities are given in the original.—Tr. \textsuperscript{11} Messrs. Maudslay and Field's brine pumps act on this principle. 67. Although the amount of evaporation depends on the extent of the heating surface of the boiler, through which the heat of the fire is applied to the water; and although on this account a vessel with a small *water content* may be made to evaporate as great a quantity of water as one in which the same element is large, provided the amount of heating surface is the same in both;—yet it is a great mistake to reduce the cubic content of the vessel to the extent many inventors have done, imagining such an alteration to be advantageous. A small water content has indeed the good property of enabling the steam to be raised at first with a reduced loss of time and fuel; but it has a more important disadvantage in making the action of the boiler too irregular, and too much dependent on changes in the amount of the load on the engine, or in the intensity of the fire; besides rendering a greater degree of care and attention necessary in the management. I will explain this more at length. When a boiler is first set in action, the water gradually rises to the boiling point, and then begins to evolve steam of atmospheric pressure. The firing being continued, the vapour, unable to escape, begins to collect in the steam chamber, acquiring constantly a greater pressure and density; and the water assumes an increase of temperature corresponding to the density of the steam; for otherwise the evaporating process could not continue. The converse of this takes place when the pressure and temperature of the steam are reduced. I have before remarked that when the pressure upon the water in the boiler is lowered, a portion of the free caloric in the water will be employed to form steam; and this takes place whenever, by either an increased consumption of steam in the engine, or a reduced firing, the pressure in the boiler is lessened: evaporation will then continue till the temperature of the water assumes that corresponding with the pressure of the steam. Now the evaporation thus produced will be the more rapid, and last the longer, the greater the quantity of water in the boiler; and this water content thus tends to act as a provision against a too sudden diminution of pressure by a relaxed firing. On the other hand, the same provision also prevents too sudden an increase of pressure when the fire is increased; since steam of a higher elasticity cannot be generated before the whole volume of water has acquired the corresponding temperature; and this requires a longer time in proportion as the volume is greater. Thus boilers with a large water content work, for these reasons, much more regularly, even with a less regular firing; and the greater the volume, the greater the regularity. We must not, however, be led, on this account, always to give the greatest content possible, but must, as in so many other matters, adopt the golden mean between the extremes of irregularity on the one hand, and unnecessary waste of time, fuel, and material on the other. This mean is better arrived at by experience than by complicated calculations. In my own practice I have adopted the rule, founded on my own experiment and observation, that for every eight or ten square feet of heating surface, there should be allowed one cubic foot of water content. This rule is to be observed even in tubular boilers with small tubes, if they are provided with receivers or separators. How little this practice has been followed in the majority of tubular boilers, must be too obvious to need demonstration. 68. Of equal importance with the consideration of the water content of a boiler, is that of its steam space. It is wonderful to observe how contradictory are the rules laid down for guidance on this point. But since contradictory rules are useless, I pass them entirely over, and turn again to my own experience. High-pressure engines have on this head a great advantage over low-pressure, especially if they are worked expansively. They have a much less volume of cylinder to be filled, and since the steam space must bear a direct proportion to this, a less space is required for a given power as the pressure is greater and the steam used more expansively. The following considerations should lead us to a just determination of the proportion between the two. (a.) The steam space should be so large, that in the discharge from the boiler to the cylinder, the pressure in the former should not fall in any considerable degree, and the mercury in the manometer steam gauge should not exhibit any considerable fluctuation. I find this condition is fulfilled under all circumstances in my engines when the cubic content of the steam space is at a minimum twenty times as great as the space to be filled with steam in the cylinder. If it can be made greater, consistently with the other arrangements of the boiler, so much the better. (b.) The steam space should be capacious enough to prevent the danger of priming. The water in the boiler has always a tendency to rise immediately under the steam opening when the discharge takes place and the pressure is diminished; but I have found that the proportion of space I have above mentioned is sufficient to prevent this, especially if due care is taken that the steam opening is sufficiently elevated above the water level, and is situate over that portion of the water where the least ebullition is likely to take place; for instance, as far as possible removed from the débouchements of the tubes. How few of the modern tubular boilers conform to these requirements! \(^{12}\) 69. The present will be the most convenient place for introducing an investigation of the question,—what amount of heated surface (feuerberührungsfläche) is necessary for a certain power? On no point connected with steam engines has there been more error than on this. It is most remarkable to see the strange views which have been held respecting the sources of the evaporative power of the boiler, and, among these, one of the strangest is the idea that this power depends upon the water content or the water surface, irrespective of the amount of surface exposed to the fire. Rules based on these erroneous principles will be found in many English works on the steam engine. But the dimensions and proportions of high-pressure boilers seem to have been altogether involved in confusion. It has been imagined that because the engines themselves, or their cylinders, have been of less magnitude than for low-pressure engines of equal power, therefore the size of the boilers might also be proportionately diminished, and a less amount of heating surface might suffice. Thus we often find only about five square feet per horse-power \(^{12}\) The Author here, in the original, is very severe, and not without reason, upon the many fallacies published in England, some of them in an authoritative dress, upon this point.—Tr. allowed in such engines, and sometimes indeed less than this. Now although it is quite true that a high-pressure engine does require a less volume of steam in proportion to its effect, yet it by no means follows that the heating surface is to sustain the same proportionate diminution. If it is so diminished, no wonder that it is found requisite to increase immoderately the size of the furnace, and thus to introduce the most monstrous disproportion between this and the dimensions of the boiler. I have frequently seen one foot of fire allowed to four of heating surface; and have never met with an instance where a correct proportion was maintained. Errors of this kind are remedied by forcing the intensity of the fire, but this always involves a greater expenditure of fuel, and an increased wear and tear of the boiler and furnace. Is it possible that fuel can be economized under such circumstances? Is it not evident that the boiler and furnace-bars must under such a use be sooner destroyed than in low-pressure engines? And are not these errors thereby the cause of bringing the high-pressure system into unmerited obloquy? And yet is the matter so simple, its treatment so obvious. In order that a certain quantity of heat may be taken up, a certain amount of surface must be exposed; and this must be so much the greater, the less the difference between the temperatures of the boiler and the fire current. But this difference is obviously less in the high-pressure than in the low-pressure boiler, and therefore the former would appear to require a larger surface for a given power than the latter.\(^{13}\) Since, however, according to experiment, an equal heating surface, \(^{13}\) Watt allowed for his low-pressure engines 8 square feet to evaporate 1 cubic foot of water in one hour, producing one horse-power. But by far acted upon by an equal fire, will produce an equal amount of evaporation at all pressures, we obtain a rule that the fire surface should at least be equal at all pressures, for an equal quantity of water evaporated. When the surface is so arranged that the greatest possible amount of heat is abstracted by the boiler, this should be testified by the temperature of the current which escapes into the chimney being reduced to nearly that of the boiler; and the more the former exceeds the latter, so much the farther are the arrangements from perfection, and the greater the loss of heat and fuel.\(^{14}\) 70. The following are the rules I have been led to by my experience and researches: (a.) High-pressure boilers should have much greater surface exposed to the heated current than hitherto generally given them. For high as well as low pressures the allowance should be— For small engines of from one to six horse-power, 14 square feet per horse-power; the majority of low-pressure engines require \(1\frac{1}{2}\) to 2 cubic feet, and therefore Watt's rule agrees tolerably well with the one I have given further on. This great man followed always the path of experience,—the only direct road to knowledge; his active life was spent not in calculations but in the work of his laboratory. Watt appeared as a dazzling meteor whose brilliant ray illumined the darkness of his age. But his light is extinguished, and since his time its place has only been supplied by the dim tapers of his followers and imitators, whose dulness seems rather to recall the ancient darkness than to perpetuate or renew the splendour which his great spirit threw upon the world. [We beg to take an exception here in favour of the Cornish men.—Tr.] \(^{14}\) It is possible to make the smoke current pass off into the chimney at a temperature even lower than that of the steam in the boiler, and I believe this is common in Cornwall. See 'Treatise on the Cornish Engine,' Art. 130.—Tr. From six to twenty-five horse-power, 12 feet per horse-power; and From twenty-five upwards, 10 feet per horse-power. With these proportions a less surface of fire-grate than usual will suffice. I allow In engines under twenty-five horse-power, 1 square foot of grate for 14 feet of heated surface; In larger engines, 1 square foot to 16. Under these proportions I find that no more heat escapes into the chimney than is necessary to produce a moderate draught; the fuel is economized; and undue wear and tear prevented. (b.) The surfaces should be so placed in the furnace that the heated currents may be made, as much as possible, to impinge perpendicularly upon them. The heat is by this plan most quickly and completely absorbed, but it is not always free from difficulty in its application. The most advantageous arrangement is when the current strikes upwards in a zigzag direction among the tubes of a tubular boiler; so that after it has passed through the narrow spaces between the lowest range of tubes, it impinges upon the tubes themselves in the second range, placed immediately over the spaces in the former; and so on among the whole. The current is thus divided into thin sheets, whose heat is much more readily abstracted than in the large flues of the common boiler, where only the external part of the current is brought into immediate contact with the surfaces to be heated. The plan I have here recommended will be fully illustrated in the second form of boiler I shall hereafter more minutely describe. 71. Many improvers of boilers have tried means of increasing the evaporative power without giving a greater extent of heating surface; by introducing into the boiler pebbles, shavings, saw-dust, brass wire, shot, &c. I have found some of these actually increase the evaporation, in a degree generally depending on their conducting power. The heat appears to pass easily from the heated surfaces of the boiler to the loose metallic bodies, and to be distributed thus over an increased surface to the water.\(^{15}\) 72. I have now another question to consider which is of the greatest importance with high-pressure boilers—namely, how great their diameter should be. On this point also there is much error existing. We constantly find a diameter of 5 or 6 feet given to vessels intended to bear a pressure of 4 or 5 atmospheres; indeed a less diameter than 3 or 4 feet we seldom meet with; under 2 feet, never. Many rules exist for calculating the diameter and thickness of metal of boilers of various construction and material;\(^{16}\) but these do not touch the principal question,— \(^{15}\) Mr. Williams, of Liverpool, has lately taken out a patent for a new method of increasing the transmission of heat to vessels containing water or other fluids, by inserting metallic pegs or conductors through the portions of the vessel acted on by the fire; thus increasing the surface both inwardly and outwardly. I had at an earlier date attempted something similar, but found that the oxydation on the outside, and the deposit on the inside, frustrated all my attempts. [This invention, embodied however in a more comprehensive claim, forms the subject of a patent taken out about eight or ten years ago by Mr. John Sylvester, of London.—Tr.] \(^{16}\) One of the best treatises on this subject is that by Professor Johnson, of the Franklin Institute. It may be found in the ‘Repertory of Patent Inventions,’ January, 1832, p. 44. The formulæ seem, however, to me imperfect, how far we may increase the diameter consistently with safety. Nor indeed are such formulae necessary if we limit our boilers to a certain size, or confine them to a given diameter in all cases. Further, such rules are to a certain extent mischievous, in that many manufacturers may trust too implicitly to them, and fall into a dangerous confidence which may subsequently prove entirely misplaced. If we determine to retain the same size of vessel for all cases, the dimensions and thickness will be soon found by experience, without any great amount of trouble. According to my views, a satisfactory degree of safety may be obtained in two ways. Either (a.) By making the diameter as small and the thickness as great as possible; whereby the vessel is enabled to withstand a pressure very much greater than usual, and to remain secure even after considerable wear: or, (b.) By giving the vessel a small diameter, and only a small thickness of metal; such a thickness as will not allow the pressure to increase to too great a degree, and will in case of rupture spread the least possible danger. Experience alone can lead to a proper decision on this point. I shall hereafter describe two kinds of high-pressure boilers, both of which I have used with perfect success, and whose perfect safety has been practically proved. In the first, used for small engines only, I do not allow the diameter of the tubes (both are tubular boilers) to exceed 12 inches. It consists of two ranges of tubes, the upper 12 inches and the lower 8 inches diameter, and I find a thickness of $\frac{1}{4}$ inch amply strong inasmuch as they are calculated by the strength of bar iron, whereas the plate iron of boilers is generally so much inferior in cohesive strength. enough, whether the material be iron or copper: the latter being a weaker metal, would theoretically require a greater thickness than iron, but I find this, or even $\frac{3}{16}$ of an inch enough. I have proved that such plate will tear open without danger. In three instances, copper vessels of this construction have burst without doing the least damage; and in one of these cases I was standing opposite the fire-door and looking into the furnace at the time the accident occurred, but I did not receive the slightest injury.\footnote{This was with an engine of ten horse-power, erected by me at a paper manufactory at Bützow. I was called in by the foreman, on account of the engine having begun to slacken its speed. I found nothing the matter with the engine itself, but turned to the boiler, and immediately perceived that the float had considerably sunk. I quickly opened the fire-door, to check the combustion; and as I looked into the furnace to examine the intensity of the fire, the explosion took place. It was accompanied with a dull report in the furnace. A portion of the fuel and some steam and water crackled (\textit{prasseltten}) around me, but without hurting me; and after an examination I found a rent 2 feet long, and in one place 6 inches wide, in one of the lower tubes. Notwithstanding this explosion, not a stone of the furnace was displaced, not even in the thin division wall between the tubes. Both the other explosions I have named were equally harmless. One was in a large, the other in a small tube. Both were caused by a deficiency of water, and in both instances the fire-door was shut. In the first case a few stones were displaced, but with so little force that they were not removed a couple of paces from their original position.} Oliver Evans made the diameter of his cylindrical boilers 2 feet, and their thickness 2 lines: they seldom produced any mischief, but simply opened in rents which caused no damage. It would be well worth investigation whether, even for boilers of large diameter, thin metal is not less dangerous than thick. There appears every probability that the former would produce nothing but a harmless rent, where the latter would cause a most destructive explosion, scattering fragments in every direction. For copper vessels, I would adopt the thin metal without hesitation. In my second form of boiler, I have adopted thin copper tubes which alone are exposed to the action of the fire, upon the principle already stated; viz., that they may form the weakest part of the whole boiler; and therefore, if a rupture takes place, it can only happen in the tubes, from which, on account of the tenacity of their material and their small diameter, no danger can arise. It must not be forgotten that the thinner the tubes are made, the more quickly they transmit the heat from the fire to the water they contain.\(^{18}\) 73. The question, what metal is most suitable for the construction of boilers, is almost answered already. Copper is in every respect the best material, not only on account of its extraordinary tenacity, which prevents its flying in pieces, but also because it is a better conductor of heat than iron. It is dear, costing nearly five times as much as iron; but when old it may be disposed of advantageously, and will generally realize at least half its original price. When fuel is used which evolves acids of sulphur in the combustion, as is the case with many kinds of turf and pit coal, copper is more affected than iron: the former is, however, less susceptible of injury from rust, and upon the whole may be pronounced the more durable of the two. For steam navigation copper is much to be preferred, as it is less injured by the action of sea water. An iron boiler under such circumstances seldom lasts \(^{18}\) Thick metal, however, tends, by storing up heat, to regulate the action of irregular firing, like a large water content. See Art. 67. longer than four years, while a copper one will endure seven, without requiring removal from the vessel for any extensive repair.\textsuperscript{19} With fresh water an iron boiler will last usually seven years. Iron is, as already remarked, more cohesive and firm (\textit{haltbar und fest}) than copper, but does not retain its toughness so long; it flies in pieces, and does much mischief on explosion. Other metals than these two are seldom used for boilers, except for some detached apparatus; such as gun-metal (\textit{messing}) for valves, cocks, floats, &c. This metal has also of late been used for the small tubes of the Stephenson locomotive engine, as more durable than copper. It also expands more equably with the iron of the boiler, and is therefore less likely to produce derangement of the connections. Copper tubes have the great advantage that they may be joined with hard solder (\textit{schlageloth}). Joints so made, if properly done, are not only much more likely to be tight than riveted ones, but are usually firmer and more tenacious than the substance of the metal itself. In cases where my copper boilers burst I have always found the soldered parts undamaged, whereas iron boilers always give way at the riveted joints, these being the weakest parts of the whole. This is evident, since the rivet-holes remove a large part of the metal; and the closer the rivets are placed, the weaker the boiler becomes. Many boiler-makers adopt a double row of rivets, placing them wider apart, and the rivets in one row opposite the spaces in another. Whether this plan is attended with advantage I cannot say, not having the warrant of experience \textsuperscript{19} \textit{Vide} the evidence of Mr. Joshua Field, on the question of steam navigation to India.—‘Mechanic’s Magazine,’ No. 620, p. 249. for decision. Of my boilers, only iron ones of the first described kind are riveted; these are done in the simple manner, but with the greatest care. It has been asserted that copper, when used in combination with iron in the construction of steam boilers, induces a galvanic action destructive in some degree to both metals, but particularly to the iron.\(^{20}\) I have, however, constantly used both in combination in my boilers, but have not found this effect to ensue. It is indeed very difficult to construct copper boilers without using some iron in conjunction with them, particularly for bolts and fastenings, for which copper or brass would be too weak to make the joints perfect and durable. But when has it ever been found that in the engines themselves, where several metals, such as iron, copper, brass, tin, and lead, have been used together, that any such destructive galvanic action has ensued? And yet in many of these cases the parts have been equally exposed to the combined action of heat and moisture.\(^{21}\) 74. I now come to treat of the appendages to the boiler. And first of THE FEEDING APPARATUS. In modern times the opinion has considerably gained ground, that explosions of boilers seldom occur in consequence of a gradual increase of elasticity of the steam. On the contrary, unequivocal proofs have been presented \(^{20}\) Janvier on Steam Vessels and their Engines. \(^{21}\) The Author after this inserts a short passage on boilers of injection: this I have not thought it necessary to copy. Such boilers are scarcely known among English engineers.—Tr. in many cases that the accident has been preceded by a diminution instead of an increase of elasticity. Now in the great majority by far of such instances, it has been found that this was accompanied by a sinking of the water level below its proper line. I have in a former part of my work treated of this occurrence as one of the probable causes of explosion; but without reference to this, the undoubted fact that such a sinking has frequently accompanied accidents of this nature, is sufficient to induce the necessity of great attention being paid to the perfection, in principle, manufacture, and action, of the apparatus for the supply of water. Unfortunately, however, it must be admitted that the complaints we so commonly hear of the untrustworthiness of apparatus of this kind, especially in high-pressure engines, are not without ground; for many of the machines ordinarily constructed for supplying boilers are very imperfect, and in their use entail constant danger of failure. Much ingenuity has been expended on this object, but yet with little success. The improvement of the feeding apparatus is attended with much more difficulty than appears at first sight; but it seems to me that this difficulty is much enhanced when attempts are made to get rid of the old apparatus, the pump, and to substitute new contrivances in its room; for all such, as experience has shown, involve more defects in themselves that are inherent in the machine they are intended to supersede. 75. Almost all substitutes for the feed-pump depend on 22 Here the Author refers to the descriptions of apparatus by Hall, Franklin, Jeaks, Potter, Taylor, Pequeur and Hallette, William, Baddeley, White, Fox, Seguier, Pott, Taylor and Davis, Whitelaw, and others. one principle, the only variations being in the mode of its application. A chamber is put in communication alternately with a water reservoir and with the steam boiler. From the former it fills itself with water, and when this communication is interrupted and that with the boiler opened, the contents are allowed to flow into the boiler. The entrance of the water into the chamber is effected partly by its gravity and partly by the condensation of the steam which finds its way into the chamber from the boiler when the water is discharged. Many of these apparatus have been so arranged that they would only fill the boiler to a certain height, namely, the prescribed water line, the action of the apparatus ceasing spontaneously when this level is attained. The opening and closing of the communications to the chamber are usually effected by means of cocks. In many instances, the whole depends upon a single one, which contains the chamber in itself, and by its motion presents its opening alternately to the passage from the water vessel and to that from the boiler. All these apparatus have, however, been attended with but little success, and as often as new improvers have attempted to revive them, so often have they again fallen into oblivion. One principal cause of this failure is, that the cocks and rubbing apparatus employed to change the motion have soon become deranged by the deposit from the water, and the variations of temperature to which they have been exposed. This derangement would of course be greater in proportion as the rubbing surface was more extensive; and on this account those machines which enclosed the chamber within themselves have usually most disappointed the hopes of their patrons. 76. The force-pump hitherto commonly in use has in every respect the advantage over all these contrivances, if we leave out of view the expenditure of power, sometimes not inconsiderable, necessary to work it. When, however, a proper construction is adopted, which will enable the action of the pump to be relied on, its simplicity and convenience will always much outweigh any objection that can be brought against it on the ground of its consumption of power. But hitherto most of these force-pumps have been far from perfect. Among the defects most common, I may name especially a faulty construction of the plunger and its stuffing-boxes, or of the piston, cylinder, valves, &c., &c. For example, the plunger may be badly turned and not exactly cylindrical, and the stuffing-boxes too large and badly packed; or the cylinder may be carelessly and unequally bored, and the piston imperfectly leathered,—so that air will enter and destroy the efficiency and regularity of the action. Or the openings may be so situated that air which has once entered cannot be again expelled. Or the valves may be faulty in many ways:—they may not be made of the proper metal (gun-metal, messing), but of some other which will soon oxydate;—they may be too heavy, so as not to open with sufficient ease;—they may be imperfectly and improperly fitted to their seats;—they may give too little opening;—they may be badly guided, and be liable to fall improperly back upon their seats;—their stalks may be too short, or may shake in their guides, or may be liable to wedge and stick fast, or to be easily fixed by impurities in the water;—their surfaces of contact may be too broad, or too narrow, or too conical;—they may be unprovided with proper arrangements for withdrawing them for repair or cleaning when they become leaky or foul; for these pumps require a constant watchfulness, and all their parts should be easy and convenient of access when derangement is observed. If these defects exist, it may be safely asserted that the pumps will often fail in their duty, and will require a great expenditure of time and trouble to put them in order again, thereby causing the most inconvenient and dangerous interruptions in the action of the engine to which they are attached. To the before-named imperfections we may add others; such as an improper height of the suction-pipe, preventing the entrance of the water in sufficient quantity under the plunger, especially when warm water is used for the feed, by which vapour may be generated and the vacuum necessary for the action of the pump destroyed. Or the strainer may be too wide in the mesh, whereby impurities may find their way inside;—or too narrow, so as to be soon stopped up;—or it may be improperly placed, so that the impurities of the water may collect against it. Or the air-cock, which is often attached to the pump to discharge any air that may have entered, (and which by the before-mentioned faulty position of the openings may not be able to find its way out otherwise,) may be productive of more evil than good, by admitting air instead of discharging it. These cocks, so inconvenient to manage, ought never to be wanted, if the pump is properly made. Again, apart from defects in the construction of the pump, many other causes may arise to obstruct or interrupt its free action: such as faults of the attendant, in not bestowing proper care on the state of the apparatus, or in neglecting to purify the water from straws, chips, sand, or the other endless varieties of dirt which may be liable to accumulate therein. Or the locality may be unfavourable to cleanliness, as in cement-works, gas-works, grinderies, saw-mills, &c. Or the water itself may be naturally bad, containing impurities of a mechanical or chemical nature that may have a deteriorating effect upon the working of the pump or the state of repair of its various parts. Against such evils as these nothing but care and continual watchfulness can provide a remedy. THE SAFETY APPARATUS. 77. Safety-valves are also often of very defective construction. One of the principal faults is the face of contact (dichtungsfläche) being made too broad. This has the great disadvantage, that when the valve is opened, the steam, penetrating between the conical faces of the valve and its seat, acts upon a considerably larger surface than when closed; and as a consequence the valve, once opened, will not shut again till the pressure is diminished below the elasticity which opened it, and which is supposed to be the normal pressure. I have frequently remarked that under such circumstances the elasticity has been diminished upwards of two atmospheres before the valve closed: the use of a good manometer will show the fact. Another fault frequently found in the construction of safety-valves is making them of iron. Such valves rust easily, and stick fast, as I have often witnessed in England. Gun-metal valves are not indeed entirely free from this danger, but are much less liable to it than iron ones. It is to be recommended that all valves should occasionally be lifted from their seats, and their state examined. This 23 Vide 'Mechanic's Magazine,' No. 862. precaution would render the use of two valves to one boiler unnecessary; an arrangement often recommended, but seldom found to be of much practical utility; for the reason that the one which is usually locked up is neglected, and soon becomes useless.\textsuperscript{24} 78. The cause of the sticking of safety-valves often appears enveloped in mystery. Frequently this accident occurs in consequence of the presence of some substances in the water, which, being driven through the valve, become adhesive on drying. I have very often observed sticking take place immediately after a too wide opening of the valve with the hand, whereby generally some water has been discharged with the steam; and this has particularly happened when the water in the boiler has contained potatoes, clay, or mud. Many wonderful and incredible stories have been related in reference to the sticking of valves, and much more wonderful and incredible hypotheses have been invented to explain them; but in most cases, were the exact circumstances more accurately known, they would be found to be much less extraordinary, and capable of much more simple explanation than has been supposed. The invention of the safety-valve was one of the most important of any connected with the steam engine. It has been claimed by the English, but is generally attributed to Papin. Whether he was actually the inventor does not appear to be made out with exactitude; but it cannot be controverted that he was the first who made use of high-pressure steam, and that the first mention of the safety-valve is made among the records of the inventions he left behind.\textsuperscript{25} \textsuperscript{24} Vide 'Cornish Engine,' Art. 143. \textsuperscript{25} I have omitted a disrespectful sneer at English appropriation of inven79. The conical safety-valve with lever and weight appears to me the best suited for the high-pressure engine, especially if it is so arranged that the weight may be fastened in its place by a set-screw. The use of a spring, as adopted generally on locomotives, does not seem advisable. If it is of steel, it easily rusts and fails in its action; and if of brass, is liable in some measure to the same defect. Both lose in elastic power by heat, and cannot then be depended upon. It has been objected to conical valves that they do not long remain steam-tight, but require very frequently to be re-turned and ground; but I have not observed this even under the highest pressures, and conjecture that such an effect must have been caused by other circumstances. Or perhaps valves with flat seats may have been referred to. These ought never to be used, for they are not only proved by experience to be more liable to stick, but they require a larger ground face than conical valves, and are subject to other and greater objections. I am not aware that our historians have laid claim to the invention of the safety-valve. Other exceptions might easily be taken to the paragraph in the text. Weighted valves or plugs opening upwards were used before Papin's time for the purpose of allowing vapour enclosed in a vessel to escape when its pressure increased beyond a certain amount. Some of the ancient steam deities were thus fitted, and apparatus of this description are noticed by Estienne and Lebault, 1574; Glauber, before 1650; and French, 1651. "Papin's claim, therefore, is not to the valve itself, but to its improvements, or rather to the mode of applying it by means of a lever and moveable weight (proposed by him in 1681 for his digester); thereby not only preventing the valve from being blown entirely out of its place, but regulating the pressure at will, and rendering the device of universal application." He did for the safety-valve what Watt did for the steam engine itself, namely, extended and generalized its use; and as long as the safety-valve shall be used, the world will be his debtor. Vide Ewbank on Hydraulic Machines.—Tr. 80. I have already spoken in another place of several kinds of safety apparatus, such as fusible plugs, warning bells, sacks, &c., and multitudes of contrivances for the same object may be found recorded.\textsuperscript{26} I will only mention that all such as allow the escape of steam when the water level falls, appear to me obviously attended with more danger than they pretend to provide against. The French Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale have, for a long time past, offered a prize for a perfectly satisfactory arrangement for the prevention of explosion of steam boilers. The invention, however, of such an arrangement would pre-suppose an exact knowledge of all the causes of boiler explosions, from which we are unfortunately at present far removed, since almost all we can say on the subject rests upon bare hypothesis alone. We have already seen that regulations for preventing the undue increase of pressure are, alone, insufficient to provide against danger. Undoubtedly the Society would have acted more wisely had they offered a reward for a boiler whose explosion should be unattended with disastrous effects: they would then have laid the axe to the root of the evil, and the state of our knowledge in regard to the causes of explosion would have been but of little matter. With a boiler fulfilling this condition, we may contentedly trust to our ordinary safety arrangements, especially if we take the precaution to secure engine attendants of good character. Such men, when they fulfil their duty in a careful and intelligent manner, afford more security than all the most ingeniously contrived apparatus. If they are ordinarily gifted with the power of observation, they may \textsuperscript{26} The Author gives some references in a note.—Tr. easily interpret all the appearances which present themselves in the working of the machine, and, aided by a manometer, may deduce therefrom the constant state of the evaporative process. The important requisite is, that the attendant must thoroughly understand and take an interest in his machine; must constantly strive to bring it to the greatest possible degree of perfection; and must take his greatest pleasure and pride not only in increasing its effect, but in maintaining the perfect cleanliness and repair of its individual parts, and the beauty of its external appearance generally. The praise of his engine ought to inspirit him; while its detraction should be to him a source of discomfort.\textsuperscript{27} Men of this class can, however, only be retained by those proprietors who themselves take an interest in their engines, and personally show a good example to their inferiors by devoting their own attention to the care and improvement of their machinery. 81. Safety-valves with pistons are sometimes used. A packed piston, weighted for a certain pressure, slides in a cylinder which has a gradual enlargement at its upper end. The piston-rod passes upwards through a guide, and carries the weight. When the steam rises beyond a certain pressure, the piston passes into the enlargement of the cylinder, and the steam finds room to escape round it. \textsuperscript{27} I have noticed with true pleasure the extraordinary interest which an engine attendant in England always feels for his engine. It is his joy, his pride. He rejoices when it is praised, and treats those who find fault with it with pity and contempt. This warm and lively interest generally tends considerably to the exaggeration of the character of the machine, on which account we can but seldom place much trust in the statements of engine attendants as to the useful effect or the consumption of fuel. The variable state of the packing must, however, produce uncertainty in the action of this apparatus. 82. Thermometers are only of use as safety apparatus when they act quickly, and when their indications are frequently compared with those of other gauges. By themselves they are neither true indicators of the elasticity in the boiler (since low-pressure steam may be overcharged with caloric), nor are they to be trusted for giving warning of other dangers. In my opinion, they may well be dispensed with, being very fragile, and requiring great care in their fixing and management. PRESSURE GAUGES. 83. Among arrangements for facilitating the control of the pressure in the boilers of high-pressure engines, may be named principally the manometer, an instrument well known. After once proved, it is eminently trustworthy, and becomes indispensable to the engine attendant in regulating his firing according to the varying pressure of the steam in the boiler. In high-pressure engines the ordinary mercury gauge used for low pressure cannot be employed, as the mercury column would be required inconveniently long. This is to be regretted; for this apparatus is undoubtedly more simple and secure, and less liable to derangement than the manometer, which has the evil, that in case of a vacuum being accidentally formed in the boiler, the air above the mercury is so apt to escape. The only way to prevent this danger is either to shut off the communication between the boiler and the manometer by a cock while the engine is standing, or to provide the boiler with a vacuum-valve. Gauges for steam pressure on the principle of the spring steelyard have often been recommended. Upon an instrument of this description is fixed a small piston, working steam-tight in a cylinder exposed to the pressure of the steam. The more the pressure increases, the higher rises the piston, and the resistance of the spring, increasing in like ratio, is indicated by an index pointer. But it is impossible to expect exactitude in an instrument of this description, where the variable friction of the piston must so much influence the correctness of the indications. WATER GAUGES AND REGULATORS. 84. The apparatus for ascertaining and regulating the height of the water in the boiler is of the greatest importance. According to the present state of our knowledge, we believe by far the majority of explosions to have resulted from the water level in the boiler having sunk too low, and therefore the indication of this level cannot be too secure and exact. A host of arrangements have been proposed for this object, and among these the common gauge-cocks are perhaps the most imperfect of all. They ought most especially to be banished from low-pressure engines, although they are almost universally used for these, especially in England. But in no case do they give any certain indication of the height of the water in the boiler. When, for example, the lower cock is opened, the water which issues tends to evaporate instantaneously into steam by the reduction of pressure, and it becomes difficult to tell whether water or steam is observed. And when the upper gauge is opened, the water level in the immediate neighbourhood of the internal aperture of the pipe rises so much (in accordance with a well-known result whenever a current of steam is issuing from a boiler) as often to deliver water with the steam, to a considerable extent, even although the general water level in the boiler may stand at its proper and normal line.\textsuperscript{28} Moreover, there are other evils attending the use of these gauge-cocks. The steam or water discharged endangers the observers, besides being the source of much dirt and deleterious moisture in the boiler and engine-rooms. The inconvenience of manipulation of these cocks, compared with others which require but a single glance to read their indication, also point them out as much inferior. 85. Besides gauge-cocks, water gauges are reduced to two kinds; viz., floats and glass tubes, both which are too well known to need description. Both have their advantages and defects. The defects of the float are its sluggishness and want of sensibility;—of the glass tube, its liability to fracture, and to the loss of its transparency after long use.\textsuperscript{29} Glass tubes are moreover uncertain in their action, from the liability of their connections with the boiler to be stopped up by dirt in the water. These connections are frequently furnished with cocks, which it is said might be \textsuperscript{28} See the researches of the American Boiler Commission. ‘Mechanic’s Magazine,’ No. 666, &c. See also ‘Cornish Engine,’ Art. 148: ‘Repertory of Patent Inventions,’ Sept. 1832, p. 186: ‘Bulletin de la Soc. pour l’ind. nat.,’ June, 1840, p. 197. \textsuperscript{29} M. Meier, of Mulhausen, has protected the tubes upon locomotive boilers by an exterior additional glass tube, which also shields them from the access of cold air. He has also contrived a simple arrangement for preserving their transparency. These improvements, however, render the apparatus complicated and expensive. See ‘Bulletin de la Soc. ind. de Mulhausen,’ No. 57. closed in case of the fracture of the tube; but it seems to me that after such an accident it would be next to impossible to get at them in the midst of the scalding discharge which would ensue. 86. Floats are simpler instruments than glass tubes, and if their defects are removed, are not much exposed to accident. I have in my practice found them always the best and most certain indicators, since I have succeeded in improving their construction. On the old plan, the floats hang on thick wires or rods, which pass out of the boiler through stuffing-boxes, and are attached to one end of a lever whose other end supports a weight of sufficient magnitude to keep the stone floating. This arrangement, however, hinders the motion and free play of the machine: the thick wires, especially if of iron, soon become oxydated, and cause great friction in the stuffing-boxes, which the floats do not possess sufficient force to overcome, since this force is only derived from the difference of specific gravity between the float and the water; or at least they must be of great magnitude in order to act with the sensibility necessary for tubular boilers, where the water receivers are small. I shall hereafter show my improved construction of these floats. The material of which the floats are made is very important. At first I tried hollow copper bodies, but I found these frequently collapsed, for I could not make the copper sheet strong enough without intrenching too much on their power of flotation. Such floats are also too light and moveable, and, following even the slightest movements in the water, keep in a state of continual oscillation which much detracts from their value as indicators. A good float should not vary by such slight movements in the boiler, but should remain steady at the line of water level. Stones fulfil this condition best, and they are therefore much preferable to hollow bodies. Of course a part of their gravity must always be balanced by a counter-weight. 87. In my high-pressure engines I have altogether abandoned the plan of regulating the water level or supply to the boilers by any self-acting apparatus. I have found by experience that such arrangements soon become defective and useless, most of them being out of the reach of observation; and when so, they place the boiler in a much worse and more dangerous position than without them.—If floats act upon regulating cocks or valves, these latter soon stick or otherwise get out of order, either through the changes of temperature and the action of the water, or on account of the deposition of earthy matter within them. But the worst of all such apparatus is, that they give the boiler attendants a dangerous idea of security, and tend to make them careless of their duty, and to prevent them bestowing proper attention upon the height of the water in the boilers and the condition of the feeding apparatus. I have always found that in order to make these persons watchful and careful, their duty must not be made too easy and convenient for them. If they know that the water level in the boiler regulates itself, they will trouble themselves little about the feed apparatus at all; but if they have constantly to watch the varying height of the gauges, and thereby to regulate the admission of the water, they are kept in a salutary and intellectual state of activity which prevents them from becoming mere machines, or working by mere instinct like the lower animals. The caution of the attendants is by this means also extended to the state of the pump and the whole feeding apparatus; and should any defect in the supply be apparent, the cause may be immediately discovered, and a remedy applied before any dangerous consequences arise.\(^{30}\) ON THE PROVING OF BOILERS. 88. I will say a few words on this head before I proceed to describe my own improvements. The general impression is, that a boiler is perfectly secure if proved by hydraulic pressure, before being used, to three times the elasticity of the steam it is destined to contain; and much reliance is placed on this test, especially for high-pressure boilers. For my own part I must honestly declare that I have not participated in this opinion; for I am convinced that a boiler when heated is not to be considered in the same condition as regards strength, as when cold; and that consequently a trial made in the latter state affords no security for the former. If boilers are made of given small diameters, and their strength proportioned to withstand a six or eight-fold pressure,—if they are constructed on correct principles, and above all things in such a manner that an explosion will not entail any considerable danger,—the process of proving is quite unnecessary, and does more harm than good, inasmuch as it tends to expose the metal to an over-straining which may afterwards produce dangerous rents and leaks when the heat comes to be applied. Besides, this process only provides against such dangers as ensue from a gradual increase of the pressure of the steam, and not \(^{30}\) Vide Pole on the Cornish Engine, Art. 147. against those much more common ones arising from sudden accidents, such as the overheating of the plates and subsequent flow of water upon them. The Government regulations adopted in many countries with regard to steam engines and their boilers are often immature and unpractical, as may well be believed when we consider that they mostly originate with persons who know the steam engine only by what they hear or read of it. It appears to me that there are no means of proving the tenacity of boilers before used, which shall be perfectly satisfactory and suited to the subsequent conditions of their working. The only security is to be found in the character of the manufacturer for uprightness, conscientiousness, ability, talent for and experience in his calling; and in the skill and honesty of those who work under him. And after the machine has left his hands, the responsibility of keeping it in its pristine state of safety lies upon the user, to whose order, care, and interest it is confided. If Government regulations are to be provided at all, they should be directed more against the engine attendant than the engine builder. This would be to hit the right nail on the head; for in this respect much is and ever will be wanting while temptations to intemperance and dissipation for people of this stamp exist and multiply. DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTHOR'S IMPROVED BOILERS. 89. Having now, in these remarks upon high-pressure boilers and their apparatus generally, endeavoured to lay before the reader the true principles from which scientific and advantageous improvement should spring, I proceed to describe my own arrangements. My readers may thus be better enabled to judge how far these deserve to be called improvements, and to appreciate the motives which have led me to adopt them. I have already remarked that I make use of two kinds of boilers for my high-pressure engines. The first kind serves particularly for small engines of from one to ten horses' power, the second for those of a larger size. Both are tubular boilers, and each shall be described in its turn as exactly and fully as possible. I. DESCRIPTION OF THE BOILER FOR SMALL ENGINES. 90. This first kind of boiler consists of tubes or cylinders of large diameter, which I construct of plate iron or copper. Of these cylinders I take a greater or less number, and make them of various lengths and diameters, according to the power required and the circumstances of the case; but I never let them exceed one foot\(^{31}\) in diameter. I always arrange them in two rows, one upper and one lower, and the lower ones are the smallest in diameter. The thickness of every cylinder bears a constant ratio to its diameter; and I use the following proportions for both iron and copper: For 12 inches diameter, the thickness is \(\frac{1}{4}\) inch. \[ \begin{align*} " & 8 \text{ or } 9 & " & " & \frac{3}{16} & " \\ " & 6 & " & " & \frac{1}{8} & " \end{align*} \] \(^{31}\) The measure used by the Author in his drawings, and referred to in his text, is the *Hamburgh foot* (Hamburger fuss), which, like our own, is divided into 12 inches (zoll), each subdivided into eighths. This measure is shorter than ours in the ratio of about 15 to 16; but for the sake of simplicity I have allowed the stated dimensions to remain the same in the translation as in the original; and for all practical purposes they may be considered as English measure. The true length of the Hamburgh foot is One upper and one lower cylinder together will be called a pair.\textsuperscript{32} In fig. 3, such a pair is shown as fixed in the furnace, the latter being represented in a vertical section: \(a\) is the upper, \(b\) the lower cylinder. The two cylinders of each pair are connected with each other by a short vertical tube \((c)\), situate either at the front or back end,—the front the best. This tube is usually 10 inches long. Its size is dependent upon that of the boiler. If the latter is 12 feet long, the connecting tube should be 4 inches diameter; if 8 feet long, 3 inches; and for small boilers of 6 feet long, it should be at least \(2\frac{1}{2}\) inches diameter in the clear. The ends of all the cylinders, both upper and lower, are closed with strong cast iron covers: these may be adapted to only one end, but the operation of cleaning is much facilitated if both ends are so provided. The lower cylinders \((b)\) are quite filled with water; the upper ones \((a)\) only half filled, the upper half of these cylinders forming the steam space. See fig. 4, where three pairs of cylinders \((a b, c d,\) and \(e f,)\) are shown in vertical section; \(a, c,\) and \(e,\) referring to the steam spaces \[ \begin{align*} &0.28642 \text{ French metres.} \\ &\text{or } 0.9397 \text{ English feet.} \\ &\text{or } 11.2764 \text{ English inches.} \end{align*} \] A Hamburgh ell contains two Hamburgh feet, or 0.6264 English yards. See Scherer's 'Allgemeine Contorist,' article Hamburg. The above table will suffice if it is desired to reduce any of the dimensions in this work to their true English equivalents. Or, multiply the Hamburgh dimensions by 31, and divide by 33; the result will be the equivalent in English measure.—Tr. \textsuperscript{32} Eine lage. I know of no term equivalent to the original, which would answer in this case. I have therefore substituted the one in the text. Layer and tier give the idea of a horizontal position.—Tr. in the upper cylinders. The steam spaces of all the cylinders are connected with each other by rising connecting tubes (fig. 5, \(g\), \(h\), \(i\)) which open into a common steam pipe \((k)\), lying across the boiler. The water spaces are united by similar tubes (fig. 6, \(l\), \(m\), \(n\)), proceeding horizontally from the lower part of the covers of the lower cylinders, and opening into a common tube \((o)\). Upon the steam-pipe \((k)\) are fixed one or two safety-valves (figs. 3 and 5, \(p\)), and the index (figs. 1, \(p\), and 5, \(q\)) of the float that shows the water level in the boiler. Upon the connecting tube \((o)\) of the water spaces is a draw-off cock (fig. 6, \(r\)). The connecting tubes leading to the steam-pipe (fig. 5, \(k\)) I place as far as possible from the tubes \((c)\) which connect the upper and lower cylinders together, in order to prevent the ebullition from the latter carrying water into the steam-pipe and to the engine. The float also should be as far removed from these latter named tubes as possible, that it may act in still water, and not be subject to disturbance from the ebullition. The cylinders being open to each other, the water stands at exactly the same level in all. Any disturbance of this level should be participated in as quickly as possible by the whole boiler, and for this reason the water connecting tubes (fig. 6, \(l\), \(m\), \(n\), \(o\)) should not be too small; for large boilers 2 inches, for small ones \(1\frac{1}{2}\) inch diameter in the clear, will suffice. 91. When the cylinders are of iron, I construct them of plates riveted together; but when of copper, I join the sheets with hard solder. The connecting tubes are riveted to the cylinders in all cases. The riveting of iron cylinders is performed in the ordinary way, but with the greatest care, so that the joints may be perfectly sound. This is the more necessary since high-pressure steam is an exceedingly subtile fluid, and finds its way through the smallest crevices. I use only one row of rivets, and these I drive in the usual manner, i.e. red-hot. The rivet-heads I make strong and of large diameter, and the riveted ends I spread out by a stamp to a good extent in a hemispherical form. In this manner they are made to cover well the spaces between the rivets, and when they contract by cooling, they thus compress the plates more perfectly together. In order that the rivet-holes may attain the utmost regularity of form and position, I bore them in preference to punching them. I am then enabled, before the operation, to adjust the edges together, which much simplifies the process, and compensates in some degree for the extra trouble. The more exactly the rivet-holes are arranged, the more perfectly are they filled by the rivets, and the better the joint when finished. For plates $\frac{1}{4}$ inch thick, I make the rivets $\frac{5}{8}$ inch in diameter, and set them $1\frac{1}{2}$ inch apart, measured from centre to centre. 92. But notwithstanding the greatest care, riveted iron vessels seldom prove perfectly tight. In order therefore to make them so, and to fit them for holding high-pressure steam, I adopt various contrivances. If the leaks are few and small, I fill the boiler with water, empty it again, having marked the defective places, and let it remain one or two days empty. The leaks then rust up more or less perfectly, and if small, usually become tight; if not after the first operation, at least after its being three or four times repeated. But if more important leaks remain, I besmear the joints or rivet-heads with the well-known iron cement (a compound of iron filings, sal-ammoniac, and flowers of sulphur, mixed up with water to the consistence of a paste), taking care not to use it in such quantity as to corrode the metal to an injurious extent, and applying it where possible inside, that the pressure may rather tend to drive it into the crevices than out of them. Iron cement is far preferable to any other material for making iron joints. It has the excellent property, that it becomes more sound and tight the longer it stands, so that cemented joints which at first may be a little leaky, soon become perfectly tight. There is but little ground to fear for the soundness of a well-riveted iron boiler, for in time the action of rust and deposit will stop almost any crevices. In order however to take all precaution, it is to be recommended that some clammy substance, such as horse-dung, bran, coarse meal, or potatoes, should be boiled in the vessel before it is --- 33 The following is the best way of preparing this iron cement. Take 16 parts of iron filings, free from rust; 3 parts powdered sal-ammoniac [muriate of ammonia]; and 2 parts of flowers of sulphur: mix all together intimately, and preserve the compound in a stoppered vessel kept in a dry place, until it is wanted for use. Then take one part of the mixture, add it to 12 parts of clean iron filings, and mix this new compound with so much water as will bring it to the consistence of a paste (dicker brei, thick pap], having previously added to the water a few drops of sulphuric acid. Instead of filings of hammered iron, filings, turnings or borings of cast iron may be used; but it must be remarked, that a cement made entirely of cast iron is not so tenacious and firm as if of wrought iron; it sooner crumbles and breaks away. It is better to add a certain quantity, at least one-third, of the latter to the former. If leaks to be stopped with cement are very large, it may be economized by adding clean river sand, but not to the extent of more than a fourth of the whole mass. used: a very small quantity also of the same kind of substance may be put into the boiler when first set to work. This will find its way into the crevices by the pressure within, and, gradually hardening, will soon render the vessel perfectly sound. By these means I have always succeeded in rendering my iron-riveted boilers perfectly steam and water-tight, even for the highest pressure; and I have been much astonished at hearing the complaints of others on this point. Copper cylinders, if they are well soldered, remain perfectly tight as long as they last, and none of the before-mentioned precautions are necessary with them. 93. In order to fasten the covers upon the ends of the cylinders, whether copper or iron, I rivet upon each end a ring 2 or $2\frac{1}{2}$ inches wide and $\frac{3}{8}$ inch thick, placing the rivets in two rows, those of each row alternating in position. The rivets of the second row from the end (in the upper cylinders 12 or 14, in the lower 8 or 10 in number) are provided with projecting cylindrical heads, $\frac{3}{4}$ inch diameter, and projecting 1 inch: upon these fit the eyes of $\frac{3}{4}$-inch screw eye-bolts, which pass through corresponding holes in the cover, and serve to fasten it against the cylinder end. The cast iron cover is 1 inch thick, and has a strong iron projection cast upon it which fits into the interior of the cylinder. The edge of the cylinder abutting against the cover is fitted with great exactness, and turned if possible; and a corresponding groove is turned in the cover, into which the end of the cylinder accurately fits. A ring of pure soft lead is introduced into this groove, and the joint is thus made tight between the two surfaces. This circular groove in the cover is indispensable, that the ring of lead may not flatten out when compressed. I make use of this arrangement, viz., the turned projection and corresponding groove, in all cases where I use lead for the joint, and can strongly recommend it wherever sound and durable joints are required. When lead is introduced between bare surfaces, it is always necessary to turn upon them narrow but deep grooves, into which the lead may be pressed when screwed up, so as to avoid lateral extension. The arrangements just described are shown on an enlarged scale in figs. 7 and 8. The former is an external view, the latter a section: \(a\) is the cover; \(b\) and \(c\) are eyebolts, and \(d\), \(d\), \(d\), the cylindrical projecting rivet-heads, upon which they hold: \(e e\) is the projection on the cover which fits into the cylinder; \(f f\) is the groove into which the turned end of the cylinder enters, and in which the lead ring is held; \(g g\) is the ring riveted, by the rivets (\(d\) and \(h\)), upon the end of the cylinder. In order to give still greater security to the covers and to the cylinders themselves in the direction of their length, when of larger diameter, a strong bolt, with a head at one end and a screw and nut at the other, may be passed through both covers, running the whole length of the cylinder. This, however, interferes with the float, and is not necessary for cylinders which do not exceed 12 inches in diameter. As I have already stated, it is not absolutely necessary that both ends of the cylinders should have loose covers. In many cases, especially with short cylinders, convenient for riveting, one end may be of strong iron plate, riveted on. These ends should, if possible, be hammered into a spherical shape. I must, however, again observe that the process of cleaning is much facilitated when both ends can be made to open; a consideration of great weight. 94. The water-tube (fig. 6, o) connecting the lower cylinders with each other, I generally make of copper. It is best situated outside the back end of the furnace. Into this tube open as many small connecting pieces (fig. 6, l, m, n) as there are pairs of cylinders. They are furnished with strong iron flanches soldered [brazed] on, by which they are screwed to the cylinder covers, the joints being made tight by interposing the double cones, hereafter described. One end of the junction tube is furnished with a draw-off cock, for emptying the boilers; the other end is stopped with a blank flanch, unless it is preferred to introduce the feed water by this aperture. In order that the boiler may be completely emptied when the draw-off cock is used, the pipe (o) must be connected to the cylinders at their lowest level, as otherwise water would remain within them. For the same reason this connection is best made at the back end of the cylinders, because they are fixed so as to incline a little downwards towards that end. This pipe and its connections are very apt to be encrusted with the deposit formed in the boilers, and it is therefore necessary they should occasionally be removed and cleaned, a very easy operation if constructed as I have described. I have in most cases introduced the feed water into this junction tube, for the reason that it would be thus distributed most regularly among all the vessels: but more recently I have found that by this arrangement not only is the tube more exposed to the deposit of boiler-stone, but that this deposit distributes itself also into all the cylinders, which is not the case when the water is introduced into only one vessel, and that the upper one of the pair. Since the boiler-stone, and especially the carbonate of lime, its prevailing ingredient, first begins to precipitate at the time when, and in the vessels where, ebullition commences, it has a tendency, under the latter named arrangement, to deposit itself, as I have experienced, in the upper vessel alone. It is superfluous to show how much simpler, easier, and shorter this must render the process of cleaning. 95. The connecting tubes between the upper and lower cylinders are made of cast iron when iron cylinders are used. They are of adequate strength, the metal \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch thick, and have a strong flanch cast on each end, curved to fit the upper and lower cylinders respectively. The joints are secured with six screw-bolts, \( \frac{5}{8} \) inch diameter, to each flanch, and made tight with iron cement laid in as thin a layer as possible between the flanches and the cylinders. For copper cylinders I make the connecting pipes in two pieces, screwed together in the middle by two strong wrought iron flanches, soldered on to the copper tubes. The joints I have best made of copper rings, of \( \frac{1}{8} \)-inch copper wire soldered together, whose upper and under surfaces were filed to a sharp edge projecting in the middle. The crowns of these connecting tubes are made of copper, and riveted to the cylinders. I have found this arrangement very suitable to the purpose, and perfectly strong and tight. In figs. 9, 10, and 11, the connecting tubes are shown on a magnified scale. Figs. 10 and 11 show an elevation and section of the cast iron ones: \(a\) and \(b\) in both figures are the flanches, whereby they are fixed to the cylinders. Fig. 9 shows the tubes as made of copper, and connected to copper cylinders: \(a\) and \(b\) are the crowns, riveted to the cylinders, \(c\) and \(d\) are the flanches between which the copper joint-ring lies. This ring is drawn separately in figs. 17 and 18, which show the sharp filed edges. These sharp edges adapt themselves accurately to the flanches, and form a most secure and durable joint. 96. The steam collecting pipe (fig. 5, \(k\)) which lies above and across the whole boiler, and is connected to the upper cylinders, is, for iron boilers, made of cast iron. It is in as many pieces as there are pairs of cylinders. Each piece consists of an upper horizontal part (1) and a lower descending branch (2) at right angles to the former, giving the whole the form of a T. All three ends of this piece are furnished with flanches, that on the descending branch (3) being curved to fit the upper cylinder, and the two others (4) serving to connect the various pieces with each other. When thus connected, the two outside flanches of the whole may be used for attaching the pipes to convey the steam away to the engine or elsewhere, as may be required. The steampipe (5) leading to the engine is always made of copper and polished. The other end (6) may be used to convey steam to any other apparatus, or to the manometer, &c.; or may be closed with a blank flanch. Two of the pieces of which the steam collecting pipe is made must have an additional ascending branch, opposite the descending one, and giving the piece the form of a cross. One of these carries the safety-valve, the other the index of the float. In figs. 1 and 3, both these are shown; in the latter (at \( p \)) the safety-valve, in the former the float index, the tubes in front of this being supposed to be removed. The whole of the joints of the before-mentioned flanches are made with iron cement. In copper boilers, all these tubes and pieces are of copper, with strong gun-metal or wrought iron (the latter the better) flanches. The flanches are soldered on, and have projections and corresponding grooves to hold lead jointing, (which is best cut from sheet lead,) as before described. Or else they are fitted for the double cone joint. The descending branches (fig. 5; 2, 2, 2,) are riveted tight upon the upper cylinders. When gun-metal flanches are used, I slip them upon the tubes and turn up the edges of the tubes over them. These edges then form small flanches of themselves, which I solder with soft solder to the gun-metal flanches. When two flanches thus constructed are put together, the small flanches, or ends of the tubes, abut upon each other, while the large gun-metal flanches serve to receive the screw-bolts which hold the joint together. The joint may be made tight by the previously described copper ring, or by the double cone. 97. I will now proceed to describe this beautiful arrangement, the double cone joint. It consists of a short tube, a little smaller in diameter than the tubes to be connected, and whose external surface is turned into the form of a double cone, or rather of frustra of two cones placed base to base. The ends of the main tubes are bored out, or ground upon a rounded and polished mandrel, so as to fit upon the cones, taking care, however, not to reduce too much the thickness of metal. The cone is placed between these, and the flanches screwed up, when the conical surfaces adapt themselves closely to the bored ends of the main tubes, and render the joint perfectly tight and sound. The double cone joint is shown in fig. 15 in section: \(a\) and \(b\) are the ends of the pipes to be joined, and \(c\) is the double cone, a view of which is given in fig. 16. Its surfaces are slightly curved, which renders the junction more sound and durable: \(d\) and \(e\), fig. 15, are the flanches of the tubes to be joined, and \(f\) and \(g\) two of the screw-bolts which hold them together and press them upon the cone. This double cone joint is the best that can be made for high-pressure steam. It forms a perfectly tight closure, even for an enormous pressure, and always remains secure and trustworthy. The cones seem to be the best when made of iron, especially if the metal is soft and of good quality. The joint closes best when the edges of the tubes are somewhat sharp. Copper cones are softer than iron, and may therefore be used when the screws are not too powerful. The double cone joint appears to have been first mentioned by Jacob Perkins, who deserves great thanks for this beautiful invention. \(^{34}\) I adopt the Author's use of the term cone, although not quite correct, as the surfaces are afterwards said to be slightly curved in the direction of their length.—Tr. It is evident that the opening or canal in the cone must be proportioned to the quantity of fluid passing through it. If it is wished to make the joint without diminishing the passage way, the flanches must be bored out deeper, to receive the cone. This arrangement is exhibited in fig. 15. 98. I allow a greater area to the horizontal steam collecting pipe, than to the pipe which conveys the steam to the engine. The latter, in high-pressure engines, is often made too large. I have found that for 150 square feet of heating surface of boiler, with steam of 8 atmospheres, 3 square inches clear area of steam-pipe is sufficient; or one-fifth of the diameter of the cylinder is ample. The loss by friction of elastic fluids moving in small tubes has been much over-estimated, and is really of but little consequence. I give to the horizontal steam collecting pipe double the area of the pipe leading to the engine; because the steam has in this to make angular motions which tend to interrupt its course and diminish its velocity. 99. The safety-valve I use is a conical valve with a three-cornered stalk, whose three surfaces are grooved out to increase the steam way. The conical faces are at an angle of 45 degrees with the axis, and are as narrow as possible for the reason stated in Art. 77. The lever is arranged in the ordinary way, and the weight acts upon the valve through a short rod jointed to the lever, and pressing by a blunt end upon an indentation made in the valve. Care must be taken that this short rod bears vertically upon the axis of the valve, that it may not press it on one side, and so cause undue friction or imperfect closing. Fig. 12 shows such a valve, with its lever and weight, in elevation; and fig. 13 the valve and seat, in section: \(a\) is the upper part of one of the pieces of the steam collecting pipe; \(b\) the valve, \(c\) the support for the fulcrum of the lever; \(d\) the lever, with its weight \(e\); and \(f\) the short rod which presses on the valve. Fig. 24 is a horizontal section of the pipe and valve-stalk, showing the three rounded sides of the latter.\(^{35}\) The valve, as well as its seat, must always be made of hard gun-metal; the lever, its support, and rod, may be of iron. The lever must be made to move very easily in its fulcrum. The joint must occasionally be oiled to prevent it from rusting, for the escaping steam tends to oxydate all these parts. The lever must be provided with deep notches in which the weight may hang free from risk of sliding: these notches should be so arranged as to give increments of pressure of 10 lbs. per square inch on the valve, and the pressure corresponding to each should be engraved upon the lever. The diameter of the safety-valve, or rather that of the pipe on which it is placed, I make equal to that of the steam-pipe leading to the engine. Too large valves have the disadvantage of requiring unwieldy weights and clumsy apparatus, and are really unnecessary. When it is considered that at 8 atmospheres' pressure, an opening of at most \(\frac{1}{4}\) inch diameter will emit as much steam as can be generated by 100 square feet of heating surface, favourably situated over a lively fire; we have no occasion to fear that the dimensions above prescribed, even although the \(^{35}\) There is some confusion in the Author's first plate, which I have endeavoured to rectify. The figure last mentioned is omitted altogether.—Tr. space is somewhat contracted by the valve-stalk, are too small.\textsuperscript{36} 100. For a water gauge, I prefer, as I have already remarked, floats to all other arrangements. I believe that these, as I construct them, are free from the defects of apparatus of the kind as formerly used; at least I have found them by long experience in the highest degree accurate, sensitive, durable, and trustworthy, when carefully managed. Fig. 14 shows this float arrangement. Inside the boiler swings a double-armed lever \((a)\), its fulcrum \((b)\) being supported by a bracket \((c)\) screwed to the boiler. The motion of the lever must be free and unimpeded. On the long arm is fixed a conical-shaped stone, 8 inches long, and 4 inches in diameter at one end, tapering to 3 inches at the other. This may be made of firm sandstone, or else moulded and burnt in good brick. It has a hole in its axis which is fitted upon the lever; one end of the stone abutting against a collar \((e)\) and the other being fixed by a nut \((f)\). On the shorter arm of the lever \((a)\) is fixed a cast iron or lead counter-weight \((g)\), of such weight as will retain the stone floating with half its mass immersed. The long arm is so bent that the fulcrum \((b)\) \textsuperscript{36} M. Köchlin gives (‘Bull. de la Soc. de Mulhausen,’ No. 48,) the following formula for the diameter of the safety-valve: \[ d = 2.6 \sqrt{\frac{c}{n - 0.412}} \] where \(d\) is the required diameter, \(c\) the heating surface of the boiler in square metres, and \(n\) the number of atmospheres’ pressure. The Prussian regulations for steam engines enact, that the area of the opening of the safety-valve shall be \(\frac{1}{3000}\) of the total heating surface of the boiler. For high-pressure engines a much smaller area will suffice. and the short arm of the lever always remain above water, as seen in the figure. If a tension-rod passes through the centre of the cylinder, (see Art. 93,) the float must be double, i.e. there must be one on each side the rod. In order to give the stone more cohesive strength, I wrap it round with fine brass wire, taking care on the one hand that the meshes are not too small, and on the other that the weight is not too much increased. The short arm of the lever carries a hook \((h)\), in which is linked a brass wire \((i)\) of \(\frac{1}{16}\) inch diameter: this passes up one of the head pieces of the steam collecting pipe \((l)\), and through a stuffing-box \((m)\) into the outer air, where it is fastened upon the short arm of another lever \((n)\). This lever swings upon a prop \((o)\), and carries on its long end an index to show the height of the water in the boiler. The proportions between the arms of the two levers are so arranged that the index of the outer one moves through the same space as the centre of the float-stone; or, which is the same thing, as the water level. In order that the friction of the vertical connecting wire may be easily overcome in its upward as well as its downward motion, a small weight \((g)\), easily adjusted by experiment, is hung upon the long end of the lever. The friction is, however, so trifling, that the motion is sufficiently free, and shows the water level in all its changes. The stuffing-box requires but little packing to make it tight, and the rod is durable and easily renewed when worn. In short, I can recommend this arrangement as one of the most secure, trustworthy, and suitable to its purpose, that can be devised. It is obvious that it must exceed in sensibility the ordinary float arrangement, since the wire \((i)\), whose friction in the stuffing-box \((m)\) is the obstacle to motion, is so much nearer to the fulcrum than in the latter.\textsuperscript{37} 101. The following \textit{general remarks} apply to my first description of boiler. I place this boiler in the furnace in such a manner that the heat of the fire strikes first against the lower cylinders, which, being full of water, may receive the fire current on their whole surface. The current flows parallel to the tubes, and passes upwards between them at the back part of the furnace, returning then towards the front along the upper range of cylinders. Now, since these latter are only half filled with water, their upper half must be covered and protected from the fire current. This arrangement is clearly seen in fig. 5, a vertical section of the boiler and furnace. The generation of steam is most rapid in the lowest tubes, which are exposed to the first action of the fire; and as these are so arranged that the back ends lie lower than the front, where they are connected with the upper cylinders, the vapour generated easily escapes into the latter through the connecting tubes. It may carry, however, some little water with it, which will cause the water level at first to rise somewhat in the upper tubes; but this effect soon ceases when the pressure increases, and the steam assumes a smaller volume. When the evaporation first commences, slight crackling shocks may be heard in the boiler, arising from the condensation of the bubbles of steam first formed, by their meeting with cooler water in their course. \textsuperscript{37} The joint $b$ may cause trouble: the Author does not show how this is provided against.—Tr. The passage of the steam from the lower to the upper cylinders usually takes place interruptedly. This may be known from the gurgling noise, which resembles that made by water rushing out of a hole in a cask to which the air cannot gain access. The water must return in a certain quantity from the upper to the lower cylinders, to supply the place of that evaporated, and thus an effect is produced analogous to pouring liquid out of a narrow-necked bottle. It will be easily understood that a strong ebullition takes place in the upper cylinders immediately over the pipes which open into them from the lower, and it is therefore advisable not to place either the steam-pipes or the float near this situation; they should be as far removed as possible, where the level of the water is less disturbed. If this precaution is attended to, there is little reason to fear either priming or the undue oscillation of the water index. It is easy to perceive that through the means of the connecting pipes (fig. 5, k, and fig. 6, o), the steam and water chambers in all the pairs of cylinders are made common, and the steam and water distribute themselves thereby equally among all, even though the heat may often vary in different parts of the furnace. The boiler thus fulfils the difficult condition of retaining the proper water level in all its members, and consequently is not subject to dangerous overheating by any single part becoming dry. All boilers which I have constructed on this plan provide a good supply of steam with a moderate consumption of fuel. They are light, and easy to manage; and since they contain a large volume of water and steam, in proportion to their heating surface, they work with great regularity and security, and maintain the pressure, if ordinary care is used in the firing, with scarcely perceptible variation. They are, moreover, exceedingly easy to clean, for it will be found that the deposit generally collects against the end covers. I have seldom found any in the middle of the cylinders, and whatever there is may be easily removed with a scraper. 102. I now pass on to the description of my feeding apparatus. I endeavour to place this as near as possible to the boiler, so that the man who attends to the latter may have the feed apparatus constantly before his eyes, and be able conveniently to regulate it to the varying requirements of the water supply. The engine itself is, however, generally at some distance from the boiler; and I usually make its connection with the feed-pump outside the engine-room, and work the latter by an eccentric arrangement on the fly-shaft. Wherever possible, I avoid the common form of eccentric, as it is usually made for working the valves of both high and low-pressure engines: it requires much labour in the manufacture, and causes great friction in the working. I generally in lieu fix a flanch with an eccentric gudgeon at the end of the fly-wheel shaft, or else set a pin in a wheel geared into another on the shaft. The gudgeon works the connecting rod communicating with the pump. In most cases I find opportunity for putting the mechanism to move the pump-rod on the box or cistern in which the pump is placed, as shown in figs. 19 and 20. The before-mentioned connecting rod, of which only the end (a) is seen, moves the lever (b). This lever is provided with a long slit in which a gudgeon (c) is screwed. The connecting rod (a) grasps this gudgeon by a notch, in the same manner as the eccentric rod of low-pressure engines (see fig. 21). By means of the slit in the lever (b), the gudgeon may be fixed nearer to or farther from the fulcrum, and the stroke of the pump thereby increased or diminished as required. The axle (d) moves in plummer blocks (e), fixed to the cistern, and carries the lever (f), which works the pump-rod (g). I case all the gudgeons, and line all the holes of these joints with steel, first forged and turned into form, and then hardened. All link joints in the engine itself I make in the same manner; for I have found it an indispensable precaution if they are to endure long and work easily. Such joints are useless made in brass; they soon wear and become loose, and then their destruction is inevitable. Soft iron is subject to the same objection, and moreover causes much friction. But hardened steel surfaces wear many years without requiring any repair, and do not get loose even if exposed to shaking or concussion. I strongly recommend this plan. I generally lengthen the lever (b) upwards, and provide it with a handle, whereby the pump may be worked when necessary by manual power, after the rod (a) (provided also with a handle) has been released from the gudgeon (c). 103. My feed-pumps are always piston-pumps, which I prefer to those with plungers. Practice has led me to the preference, and this must always be the Engineer’s 38 All good manufacturers in England adopt this method of making link joints. It is as old as Soho.—Tr. surest guide. I do not venture to explain how the advantage arises; but experience often negatives the most cogent reasonings and the most scientific calculations, in a manner difficult to explain. In fig. 23, my feed-pump and its cistern are shown in section. The pump consists of a gun-metal barrel (a), accurately bored and polished. At the bottom end is a side pipe (b) leading into the valve-box (c). Both parts are cast in one piece with the barrel. In the upper part of this box is the discharge-valve (d); and in the lower part (e) is the suction-valve (f'). The valves have three-cornered stalks, the three sides being hollowed out to increase the water way, like the safety-valve. The stalk of the suction-valve has underneath, at g, a small cylindrical prolongation with a knob: under this lies, on the bottom of the cistern, a small lever (i), which, when moved upwards by the wire (k), presses against the knob, and opens the valve. By this the supply to the boiler from the pump is stopped, the water returning into the cistern. In order to keep the valve open, the upper end of the rod (k) is provided with a ball (l) which, when the rod is lifted, may be made to rest on a notch in the braket (m) (see fig. 25). I have used this simple arrangement for throwing the pump out of action for upwards of twenty years. It has the great advantage that but little power is required to effect the stoppage, a small force being sufficient to keep the valve open. This property is of especial value where a self-regulating feed is adopted, and when only a limited power is available to control the flow of water. The cocks commonly used for that purpose soon get out of order, and leak, besides forming a considerable addition to the apparatus, whereas my plan is simple and sure, and acts by the existing valve alone. Another advantage of this arrangement is that it saves the power required to work the pump, while it is thrown out of action.\textsuperscript{39} If the suction-pipe is stopped, a vacuum must, at every stroke, be formed under the piston, which not only consumes power, but tends to produce leakage. In order to prevent the penetration of air into the pump, I use no suction-pipe, but place the whole under water, the top of the working barrel being 2 or 3 inches below the surface. Or if the height of the pump does not easily allow of this latter provision, I make a deep bell-shaped enlargement (fig. 22, \(a\)) to the top of the pump, which may contain enough water to exclude the air from the piston. If any leaks exist in the packing, the water will have a tendency to exude, from the great pressure in the down-stroke, and will keep the bell full. Any overflow falls by the pipe (\(b\)) back into the cistern. By these arrangements no air is allowed to come in contact with the pump, and I have found them perfectly effectual. 104. For feed water I always use fresh cold water, not the condensed water from the engine. The latter is indeed as good as distilled, and is less liable to cause deposit; but it carries much grease from the engine with it, acquiring thereby a milky, soapy condition. Now when such water mixes with the cold water in the cistern, the grease collects upon the pump and stops the valves, causing constant danger of derangement. Fresh cold feed water has indeed the disadvantage of requiring somewhat more heat to evaporate it, but the difference is very small in proportion \textsuperscript{39} It is peculiarly applicable to hydraulic presses. to the whole heat required, and not to be mentioned in opposition to the advantages gained from a regular and secure water supply. With regard to the greater risk of incrustation from fresh cold water, it is enough to remark that in high-pressure boilers this deposit is loose, and causes little inconvenience. When the waste steam is used to warm rooms, the condensed water may be led back into the feed cistern, taking care, however, that the greasy portion proceeding from the engine is not mixed with it. This may be easily prevented by making an enlargement in the exhaustion-pipe immediately beyond the engine, and carrying the greasy water away from this by a small tube. If it is wished to warm the water before it enters the boiler, this may be best done in vessels interposed between the boiler and the pump; the external surfaces being heated either by the waste steam or the heat from the flues. These vessels then become parts of the boiler, and the water in them sustains the boiler pressure. If the water is heated in these to the boiling point, the greater part of the deposit will fall in them, and arrangements must be made for cleaning them. But under all circumstances the feed-pump must work in cold water. 105. The valves of the feed-pump I make as light as is consistent with the necessary strength and durability, especially the suction-valve, in order that it may open freely. The three-cornered stalks should leave a clear opening of at least one-fourth of the area of the pump barrel, and should not be too loose in their guides, lest dirt should enter and stick them fast. It is enough if they 40 This is shown in the original by a calculation.—Tr. are so free that the valve will fall by its own weight upon its seat. The edges of the stalk should not be too sharp, lest they wear away and become loose. The length should be about double the diameter. The conical face should be narrow; i.e. its width not above $\frac{1}{8}$ the diameter of the valve, which is ample for the highest pressure, if the metal is not too weak. The angle of inclination of the faces to the axis should be 45 degrees. The ring-shaped space between the edge of the valve head and the sides of the valve-box is often made too small: it should not be less than the fourth part of the diameter of the top of the valve. The suction-valve may be made somewhat smaller than the delivery-valve. The former may then be inserted into and withdrawn from its place through the opening of the latter, and even be ground into its seat in the same manner. This arrangement has many conveniences in the manufacture, since no loose seat is necessary for the lower valve; and it has the advantage that both valves may be removed and examined without disturbing the pump. I have found this advisable, and unattended with any disadvantage. In small pumps, whose valves are most liable to derangement, it is to be recommended that the apparatus for lifting the suction-valve should be made strong, and so arranged that when lifted it may, if required, be caused to strike against the delivery-valve, and so raise both together. By this means a strong rush of water may be caused from the boiler to the cistern, by which both valves will generally be thoroughly cleaned, and any intervening substances removed. The delivery or efflux-valve must have a stop-pin fixed over it, to prevent it from rising too high. This is shown in fig. 23, at \( n: o \) is part of the feed-pipe. Or sometimes I place instead a small cross bridge over the valve, or fix a cross piece upon the valve itself; either of these answering the same purpose. In order to provide a hold upon the valve when it is necessary to grind it into its seat, I cut a nick in its half-round head, similar to that in a wood screw. In this a suitable tool is inserted when it is necessary to grind the valve. 106. I make the diameter of the pump small in proportion to its length of stroke. This has not only the advantage that the packing is tighter and more easily renewed, but the friction is less, and any air which may enter is sooner and more effectually expelled. In order also further to facilitate the expulsion of the air, I take the precaution of making the piston approach, when at the bottom of its stroke, as nearly as possible to the side opening at the bottom of the barrel; adding sometimes a protuberance on the under side of the piston, which descends beyond the edge of the opening, and so aids in expelling the air along the passage and through the delivery-valve, even when the stroke of the pump may be shortened. 107. The pump working in cold water, the packing of the piston may be made of leather. There is, however, the chance that if the delivery-valve leaks, the hot water from the boiler may find its way back, and injure this kind of packing. I have lately arranged leather packing successfully, by turning a groove in the piston so deep that the leather, when fixed in it, fills the cylinder to such an extent as to make a tight packing. The leather must exactly fill the length as well as the breadth of the groove. The ends being cut into exact form, must abut together. This kind of packing is shown in figs. 26 and 27: the former represents the piston without, the latter with, the packing: \(a\), fig. 26, is the groove; and \(a\), fig. 27, shows the abutting joint of the packing. It will, if carefully made, become perfectly tight when wet. If the leather is held fast round the piston, the whole may be introduced into the pump barrel without difficulty, especially if the top of the latter is given a slight conical enlargement. The outer or smooth surface of the packing should be smeared with tallow. This packing will be very durable if the accident above alluded to does not occur. I have used one more than a year. It may be easily renewed when necessary. If, however, it is feared that the leather may be destroyed by the access of scalding water, a packing may be made of gaskets of loose-spun hemp or flax, wrapped evenly and firmly round the piston, and afterwards steeped in melted tallow. Such a packing is tight and durable, although it will not last so long as leather. In order to make the gaskets hold more firmly on the piston, I roughen the groove in the manufacture by pecking it out all over with a sharp-pointed tool. The packing must never be less than \(1 \frac{1}{2}\) inch long, and as a general rule, the length should at least be equal to the diameter. 108. I have alluded to the possibility of the hot water returning from the boiler by a leaky state of the delivery-valve. This may also produce danger of the water level in the boiler sinking lower than is consistent with safety. Such an accident may be guarded against in two ways: either by making use of two delivery-valves, one over the other, both of which the water may pass through successively; or by inserting the supply-pipe only 2 or 3 inches deep in the water of the boiler, so that after a little sinking, steam only may issue. The former plan is most to be recommended, since it is scarcely to be supposed that both valves will forsake their duty at one time. A watchful attendant will soon be aware of the derangement by the sinking of the water level in the boiler, the appearance of steam in the water cistern, and the heating of the feed-pipe; and he may then soon stop the mischief by shutting off the connection between the feed-pump and the boiler. For this purpose a cock should always be placed in the feed-pipe; a provision useful also when any slight attention is wanted to the pump: this may often then be given, and slight derangements remedied, without disturbing the action of the engine. 109. When water runs of itself into the feed cistern, or may be obtained from the pumps of the establishment, it may be kept at its proper height in the cistern by a float-cock, or a waste-pipe, as may be thought best. But if the water has to be raised, it is always better to do this by means of a separate pump than to make use of the suction-pipe of the feed-pump for the purpose. The additional cold water pump may then be a simple lifting pump, worked by the machinery of the feed-pump itself. It should raise somewhat more water than is required, and the surplus be allowed to flow back again by a waste-pipe. This overflow will then always serve as an index to show whether the supply goes on properly. Or if thought desirable, a float in the cistern may be made to sound a bell when the water is too low. I formerly placed a strainer before the suction-pipe of the feed-pump; but this I found to interfere with the action of the apparatus for raising the suction-valve. It is better to make a frame of fine brass wove wire, 50 or 60 wires to the inch, and to place this in the cistern in such a manner as to divide it into two unequal parts: the water is delivered in the smaller of these, and the feed-pump stands in the larger. All the feed water must then pass the sieve and deposit its impurities before it reaches the pump. The frame may be fixed in a groove, and its edges made tight round the cistern by leather or felt. It may then easily be removed and cleaned. The larger division of the cistern will afford room for the float. The cistern must always be covered, to preserve it as much as possible from the entrance of dirt. It should have a draw-off cock, and should frequently be examined and cleaned; as should also the straining frame. This must be done more or less often, according to the state of the water used. Soft river or lake water is much to be preferred to hard or spring water, whenever it can be obtained, as producing much less deposit in the boiler. It is liable, however, to be dirty after heavy rains; and in this case it should be collected in reservoirs, and the impurities allowed to subside before it is used. If there is no vacuum-valve to the boiler, care must be taken to shut the cock in the feed-pipe whenever the engine is stopped, lest the boiler should fill itself with water through the feed-pump. 110. If preference is given to the plunger-pump for water feed, I recommend all the foregoing precautions and rules to be followed as far as they will apply. It should be entirely sunk under water, and the opening leading from the plunger barrel to the delivery-valve should be immediately under the stuffing-box, in order that any air may escape. There should not be too much play round the plunger in the barrel, never exceeding one-sixth of the diameter of the former. The plunger should always be of copper or gun-metal. All the valves and other parts may be similar to those described above. 111. The steam gauge I use is a common manometer. The pipe leading from this to the boiler must always be provided with a stop-cock; otherwise, if a vacuum should be formed in the boiler, the air in the manometer tube may escape. Or as a greater precaution the boiler may be furnished with a vacuum-valve.\(^{41}\) The steam should not be allowed to act immediately upon the mercury, as it would heat the instrument and affect its indication: this may be prevented by giving the tube a bend downwards before it reaches the manometer. Water will then collect and remain in this bend, and serve as a medium between the steam and the mercury, preserving the latter from the heat of the former. Care must be taken to make the steam-pipe open into the boiler as far away from the water as possible, otherwise there is a danger of its being stopped up with deposit. \(^{41}\) These valves, like safety-valves, require constantly to be looked to, or they will stick fast and become useless. II. DESCRIPTION OF A LARGER BOILER. 112. For a period of now twenty-five years I have been occupied with the attempt to contrive a boiler having the tubes placed in several rows over each other, in such a manner that those of each row should lie over the interstices of the row immediately beneath, and that the heated current should be compelled to pass in zigzag between them, in thin streams, every moment changing its course, and striking, as nearly as possible, perpendicularly against the under surfaces of the tubes. I clearly perceived that when the heat was made to act thus upon a suitable number of rows of tubes, it must be more perfectly applied than when, as in the before-described boiler, the current passed parallel to the heating vessels in a thick stream and with a quick draft. For a long time I could not succeed in carrying out my plan, since, in spite of all my endeavours, I could discover no satisfactory method of connecting such a large number of tubes with each other and with the necessary receivers, in order that the steam might be led away without interfering with the proper water feed, and also might be so perfectly separated from the water as to leave no danger of priming in the engine, even with small separating vessels. At length, however, after laying the subject aside for a time, the solution of the problem occurred. 42 It has been my custom when I have long brooded over a subject in vain, to lay it by, upon principle, for some time; for I have always found that happy ideas are by no means to be squeezed out of the brain, but rather are dependent on fortunate moments which, the more sought, appear the farther removed. The most interesting matters are after all generally stumbled on. The inventive spirit of man, however active, clear, and powerful, relaxes under the force it is subjected to, becomes partial, confused, and heavy, under to me. A small model which I constructed of tin plate, gave the most surprising results, and proved that this boiler, even with low pressure, not only removed the danger of the tubes boiling dry, but was also free from the great defect of all tubular boilers, particularly the more modern ones, namely, the danger of water passing over with the steam into the engine. 113. I now proceed therefore to give a description of the boiler itself. It is divided into three principal parts, viz.: (a.) The generating or boiling tubes. (b.) The vessels which serve to lead the steam away from the tubes, and to supply them with water: these vessels I denominate hearts (Herzen). (c.) The separators and receivers. In order to facilitate the explanation I will first give a general description, and will subsequently explain the construction of the several parts in detail. 114. (a.) The generating tubes are formed of sheet copper, one line in thickness, and joined with hard solder (Schlageloth). They have 4 inches external diameter, and may be from 4 feet 3 inches to 6 feet 3 inches in length, as more or less heating surface is required. the continual pursuit of one object, operates perversely, or loses itself in things of secondary importance. Allow it a charitable interval of rest, lead it for a time upon a new and different field, and it collects itself new power to shed light upon the path over which it had before so darkly stumbled. 43 I have always made the models of boilers on which I was experimenting of this metal, for the reason that I could then discover if any parts were subject to boiling dry, by a very simple indication, namely, that in these parts the solder melted, causing leaks, which were immediately detected. They have at the back end an opening for cleansing them, closed by a screw cover. Their front ends are screwed upon the back plate of the heart, in such a way as to be easily removeable in case of necessity; as, for example, when a tube is worn out and has to be replaced by a new one. The interior space of the tube communicates with that of the heart by two oval openings bored through the back plate of the latter, one above the other. The upper one serves to carry away the steam from the tube to the heart; the lower one, to introduce the feed water in a contrary direction. In order to give the vapour a tendency to stream towards its exit openings, the tubes are laid a little on the incline, the back end being, in a length of 4 feet, about $\frac{1}{2}$ or $\frac{3}{4}$ inch lower than the front end. Fig. 32, Plate viii., is a longitudinal section of a boiler and furnace on this principle, the dimensions being given for a boiler of 10 horse-power. $AA$ are the generating tubes; $aa$, their back or lower ends, shut by the screw covers; at $bb$ they are connected to the back plate of the heart $B$: $c$ and $d$ are the oval openings between the hearts and the tubes. The inclined position of the tubes is seen in this figure. I lay the tubes in eight rows or tiers, one over another, and in such wise that the tubes of each row stand over the interstices between those of the row immediately below. Fig. 31, Plate viii., is a transverse section taken through the tubes. There are seen the eight rows of tubes in the position above described; four alternate rows consisting of one tube less than the other four, this inequality being a consequence of the position: I arrange them in such manner that the lowest row has the greater number. The space between the tubes I have made about $1\frac{1}{2}$ inch.\textsuperscript{44} Between the outside tubes of the widest rows, and the vertical walls of the furnace, I allow $\frac{3}{4}$ inch space. The manner in which the fire current plays among the tubes is easily seen in the figure. 115. (B.) The \textit{hearts},\textsuperscript{45} as I term them, are flat chambers, from 6 to 8 inches deep. Their height in the clear should in all cases reach 40 or 42 inches; their width depends on the number of tubes in the several rows; the rule obtains that they should be from 8 to 12 inches wider, in the clear, than the outside width of one of the widest rows. The object of this will appear presently. The hearts are constructed of iron; their sides I make usually of cast iron, of such strength as to remove all danger: wrought iron, however, may be used. The front and back plates are of very strong wrought iron plate, the former $\frac{1}{2}$ inch, the latter $\frac{3}{4}$ inch thick. They are so tied together by several rows of strong iron bolts, that no bending or bulging out is possible.\textsuperscript{46} They are also screwed to the side plates with a proportionate number of bolts, equally \textsuperscript{44} I have more lately found that this distance may be increased with advantage, to facilitate in a greater measure the cleaning of the spaces between the tubes. I purpose to increase it to 2, or even $2\frac{1}{2}$ inches, and to provide openings in the side wall of the furnace, through which proper instruments may be introduced for the purpose of cleaning. These openings are shown in figs. 30 and 31 at $a$, $a$, by dotted lines. They must, of course, be tightly closed when the furnace is in action. \textsuperscript{45} This term appeared to me suitable, because these parts are the means of producing a proper circulation of the water through the tubes and other parts of the boiler, in the same manner as the heart is of the blood in the human organism. \textsuperscript{46} I have never found the least bulging of these plates, even with a pressure of 150 lbs. to the square inch. strong. The joint is made for the back plate with the ordinary iron cement, and for the front plate with lead, as the latter has to be opened for cleaning. The hearts have the form of a rectangular parallelogram, with the angles of the interior a little rounded. In most cases their height is greater than their width, inasmuch as a greater number than six tubes in one row is not to be recommended. Fig. 29, Plate vii., shows an external front view of the boiler and its furnace; B is the heart in this figure as well as in fig. 32, where it is shown in section: fig. 33, Plate ix., is a section in another direction, and on a larger scale. In all these figures the bolts above mentioned may be seen. The generating tubes fit into an annular groove sunk in the back plate of the heart. The oval openings which form the communication between the heart and the tubes must come as close as possible to the upper and lower surfaces of the interior of the tube: this is particularly necessary with the upper opening, in order that the steam may pass freely away. The size of these openings is $1\frac{1}{2}$ inch in the longer and 1 inch in the shorter diameter. The manner in which the tubes are secured to the heart is explained farther on. The internal construction of the heart is peculiar, and of much importance. It is shown in fig. 33, in longitudinal section, looking towards the back plate and the tubes, the latter being represented by dotted lines: $aa$ and $bb$ are the upper and lower oval openings leading from the heart to the tubes. The upper one, which may be called the steam opening, is to allow the steam to pass from the tubes to the heart; the lower one, or feed opening, is to introduce the feed water in the opposite direction. \( c \) \( c \) \( c \) are division plates, of strong wrought iron, fastened steam-tight to the back plate by small ears and screws, and projecting so as to form also a joint as nearly tight as possible with the front plate\(^{47} \) when this is screwed on: these plates are curved in the form shown in the figure, dividing the heart into several channels \( e \) \( e \). The use of these divisions is to guide the steam issuing out of the steam openings (\( a \) \( a \)) into the vertical channel \( f \), and to keep it out of the way of the feed openings (\( b \) \( b \)), that the proper water supply may not be interfered with. The width of this channel (\( f' \)) depends upon the number of tubes in the rows. I allow for every tube in one of the widest rows, one inch width of channel. The steam passes, carrying usually some water with it, from the channel \( f \) up the pipe \( d \) into the separators. It remains to show how the circulation is completed: \( i \) is a pipe (which, when the sides of the heart are of cast iron, may be cast with them) passing vertically down the side opposite the pipe \( d \), and opening about 3 inches from the bottom of the vessel: through this a stream of water constantly descends from the receivers above, turning up the channel \( h \), and gradually supplying the place of that carried away in mixture with the steam, as well as introducing itself through the feed openings (\( b \) \( b \)) into the tubes, to supply the evaporation. The arrows in the figure will clearly explain how the circulation proceeds, and it will easily be understood how the steam, collecting itself by its own levity in the upper part of the chambers \( e \) \( e \), is guided away by the peculiar form of the division plates, without interfering with the water in the lower part of the cham- \(^{47} \) If this joint should not be perfectly tight, it is of no serious consequence, as experience has shown. bers, or impeding the flow of the supply to the tubes. The steam, as may easily be imagined, carries upwards water mechanically mixed with it, and this is supplied by a gradual reflux, partly from the space $g$, and partly from the chambers $ee$. The depth of the heart from the front to the back plate should be such that the steam may not form too deep a sheet at the upper part of the chambers ($ee$): I allow for every tube in one of the widest rows 1½ inch depth of the heart. Some space should be left at the top and bottom of the vessel, the former serving for steam and the latter for water room. $e$, fig. 32, is a stop-cock for emptying the boiler: $f$ is a smaller one, situated one inch above the level of the uppermost row of tubes; it serves as a gauge-cock in case of the usual water gauge in the receiver standing very low, and when doubt is entertained (before fire is put under the boiler) whether any of the tubes are dry. If water flows from this cock, the vessel may be heated, especially as the level rises when the water begins to boil. From the upper part of the heart rise two pipes, ($a$ and $b$, fig. 29,) of which incidental mention has already been made. One of these (fig. 29, $a$, fig. 32, $g$, fig. 33, $d$) serves to carry away the steam from the heart into the separators; and its cross section, an oblong rectangle, must have its dimensions proportionate to the steam-generating surface of the tubes; namely, for every 10 square feet of surface, the pipe should have about 1 square inch area in the clear. This pipe has a curved flanch (fig. 32, $h$, fig. 33, $l$) by which it is fastened with screw-bolts to the separator, and the joint made tight with iron cement. If the sides of the heart are of cast iron, this pipe as well as the following one may be cast upon them. The method of securing them upon wrought iron sides is shewn in figs. 45 and 46. The other pipe (fig. 29, b, fig. 33, i) is of smaller area, viz. 1 square inch to every 25 square feet of heating surface. In every other respect it resembles the former one. Its use has been already explained, namely, to lead back the water into the heart. When the sides are of wrought iron, this tube must be a separate wrought iron one inserted into the heart, and reaching nearly to the bottom.\(^{48}\) 116 (c.) The separators and receivers (figs. 31 and 29, c and d) are always of wrought iron, formed of plates \(\frac{1}{4}\) to \(\frac{3}{8}\) inch thick, well riveted together, and provided with strong cast iron end covers, similar to those in my first-described boiler. The diameter of these vessels must never exceed 18 inches, this size being sufficient for the largest boiler. If only one heart is used, one separator and one receiver of small diameter are sufficient; but when much power is wanted, it is better to make use of more hearts than to increase the number of tubes beyond six in each row. Two of these, with tubes 6 feet 3 inches long, and six in number in the lowest row, furnish steam enough for an engine of 60 horse-power. The separators and receivers are both of equal dimensions, and are placed horizontally, as shown in the figures. The pipe which conveys the steam from the heart enters at the front end of the separator (c), while the steam and the water are carried from the back end into \(^{48}\) These two pipes might, to keep up the analogy, be called an artery and a vein respectively.—Tr. the receiver (d);—the former by the pipe m connecting the upper part, or steam space, of the two vessels together;—the latter by the tube n, forming a communication between their lower or water spaces. Both these connecting tubes have equal area, namely, 1 square inch to 25 square feet of heating surface of the tubes. The steam is carried to the engine from the front end of the receiver, while the water descends, also from that end, by the pipe b into the heart, to supply the place of that evaporated and carried up in mechanical mixture with the steam. The receiver is also provided with a safety-valve or valves, and an index float, all similar to those formerly described. These as well as the steam-pipe should be as near the front end as possible, where the water is most at rest. The dimensions and proportions of the separators and receivers depend on the cubic content of the hearts. I have adopted very simple rules on this point, and have found them to answer all my expectations and requirements, although this boiler is yet comparatively in its infancy. As far as my experience has at present gone, I recommend that the cubic content of the separators and receivers combined, should be equal to the sum of that of the hearts and generating tubes. The length should exceed that of the boiler-tubes by one-half, and when much room is required, the number should be increased, rather than that they should exceed 18 inches in diameter. A large boiler of this description, which I have already constructed for an engine of 30 horse-power, has two hearts, each with twenty-eight boiling tubes, lying in eight rows, one above another; and I have used two separators, with a single receiver between them, and connected with the hearts in the manner shown in the sketch, fig. 52, Plate xi. This boiler has not only fulfilled, but far exceeded my expectations; the heat is so perfectly applied, the steam production so regular, the water level so quiet, and the whole so safe, trustworthy, and convenient, that its advantages in these respects can seldom be equalled in the most perfect boilers of the ordinary construction. 117. The action of this boiler has already in a great measure been explained. The tubes abstract the heat from the fire current passing among them, and impart it to the water within. The steam collects in the upper part, and passes through the upper oval openings into the heart, an operation facilitated by the inclined position of the tubes. The steam having reached the interior of the heart, follows the direction given it by the division plates, flowing upwards and sideways into the canal $f$, (fig. 33), and thence by the pipe $d$ (or $a$, fig. 29) into the separator $(c)$. When the dimensions are suitably proportioned, this goes on without much disturbing the water in the lower part of the channels $e e$, (fig. 33), which constantly covers the lower oval openings, allowing the water at all times to flow into the tubes to supply the evaporation. This water may, however, gently follow in some measure the direction of the current of the steam, being supplied constantly afresh from the canal $h$ and pipe $i$. The steam, when it reaches the pipe $f$, rises unhindered through that and the pipe $d$ into the separator, and in so doing carries water along with it, causing a strong ebullition in the fore end of the separator. Since, however, the water surface in this vessel has a considerable extent, the steam, passing towards the hinder part of the vessel, finds room to develop itself, separating continually more and more from the water, and at the back end this separation becomes complete. The steam and water then pass quietly through their respective pipes (m and n) into the receiver, in which a perfectly quiet water level is maintained, both fluids moving gradually towards the fore end, where the steam is carried off to the engine, and the water is returned to the heart, to pursue its labyrinth-like way as before. The water thus follows a constant circulation, from the heart into the separator, from this into the receiver, and back into the heart again. I have found this arrangement perfectly satisfactory, not only in preventing water being carried with the steam to the engine, but also in retaining a perfectly quiet water level in the receiver, even when the water surface bore but a very small proportion to the evaporation. How seldom ordinary tubular boilers fulfil these conditions is well known. 118. I now proceed to describe the parts of this boiler more in detail. I have already said that I make the generating tubes of copper soldered together. I use for this purpose sheet copper of one line in thickness,\(^{49}\) which, however, in bending generally increases to \(\frac{1}{10}\) inch. I lay the soldered joint either downwards, where it may be securely covered with water, or upwards, where it may be protected by a coating of ashes from the too great action of the fire. The back end plate is of wrought iron, \(\frac{1}{2}\) inch thick: \(^{49}\) This thickness is abundantly strong enough when the principle mentioned in Art. 50 is taken into consideration; namely, that the tubes should form the weakest part of the boiler. it is turned in the lathe, and has a furrow $\frac{1}{4}$ inch deep, formed on the outer edge, in which the end of the copper tube exactly fits, and is made fast by soldering. The plate has a hole in the centre 2 inches in diameter, which serves for the purpose of cleaning the tube, and which is surrounded with a sunken groove $\frac{1}{4}$ inch wide, to receive a projection on the cover. The cover is oval, its long diameter being equal to that of the end plate: it has a projection 2 inches diameter, which enters deep into the cleaning hole, and round this another, fitting into the above-named groove. The two oval ears are perforated for screw-bolts, the bolts themselves being tapped, riveted, and soldered into the end plate before it is fixed to the tube. The cover is fastened down by nuts, and the joint made tight by a lead ring placed in the groove surrounding the opening. Figs. 34, 35, 36, 37, Plate ix., show these arrangements. Fig. 34 is a section of the whole; fig. 35, a back view of the end plate without its cover; fig. 36, the same with the cover screwed on; and fig. 37, the side view of the cover only: $a$ is the large or centre boss on the cover, projecting into the cleaning hole ($b$) in the end plate; $c$, the smaller projection, entering into the sunk groove, and compressing the lead packing ring; $d d$, the screw-bolts. In fig. 34, at $ee$, is shown the manner in which the end plate is set and soldered upon the boiler-tube. The manner in which the opposite or front end of the tube is fixed upon the back plate of the heart, is somewhat more difficult than that above described. This end is surrounded with a wrought iron ring $1\frac{1}{2}$ inch wide and $\frac{1}{4}$ inch thick, fast brazed on, in order to give the requisite strength and firmness to this part of the tube, and to present a wide surface of iron for the purpose of fastening the joint between the tube and the heart plate with iron cement. On the inner surface of the tube are riveted firmly (and, when possible, also soldered) two iron ears, set about $\frac{1}{4}$ inch from the end, each having a square recess of about $\frac{3}{4}$ inch wide hollowed in its back end, in which lies the hinder part or arm of the T-shaped tie-bolt, so as to hold by these recesses upon the tube without turning round. The bolt itself is in the screw about 1 inch diameter; it passes through the heart plate between the two oval openings, and is screwed up on the front side by a strong nut. The tube is thereby drawn firmly into a groove $\frac{1}{4}$ inch deep, prepared for it in the heart plate, and the joint is made tight by iron cement. By loosing this bolt, any tube may be easily removed, and repaired or replaced by a new one when necessary. Figs. 38, 39, 40, show the joint of the fore end of the tube: $a$ is the heart plate, with its annular groove $b$ for the reception of the tube; $c c$, the oval steam and water openings; $d$, the iron ring, strengthening the end of the tube; $e e$, the ears inside the tube; and $f$, the tie-bolt, shown separately in fig. 40. 119. The heart may be constructed in different ways, according as cast or wrought iron is used for its sides. I have hitherto used only cast iron, and have found it perfectly suitable and secure. This material spares much labour and expense, as the bolt-holes and pipes may be formed in the casting. Fig. 33 shows such a strong cast iron frame, 3 inches thick, forming the sides of the heart. The pipes $d$ and $i$ are cast upon it. The bolts for the cover plates pass through this side frame, but have a square shoulder let into the cast iron on the front side, which not only prevents their turning round, but offers a resistance when the back plate alone is screwed up, so that the front nuts may be loosened, and the front plate of the heart removed, while the back plate and sides remain firmly fixed together, and may indeed be regarded as a single piece. Fig. 41, Plate x., shows a part of the cast iron side piece, with the front and back plates, in section, and four bolts. At \(aa\) are seen the head-like square shoulders; \(b\) and \(c\) are the fore and back ends of the screws respectively; \(d\), the back cover plate, and \(e\), the front one. Figs. 42 to 47 show methods proposed for making the sides of wrought iron. They will be easily understood without description. The front plate of the heart, which has often to be removed for cleaning, should be made tight with a lead joint; and therefore suitable preparation must be made to prevent the squeezing out of the lead plate sideways. The back joint is made with iron cement, and this does not require to be opened. I have already mentioned that the back and front plates are braced together with several rows of strong tie-bolts passing through both. The bolts of the tubes may be used for this purpose in a manner which will be easily understood from fig. 48. They are not required in every tube, but may be disposed as in fig. 29, about 8 inches apart from one another. I have never seen the least bulging even when the pressure has exceeded ten atmospheres. In fact these plates, when tied and connected in the way I have described, are of such a strength that they cannot possibly give way: the safety of the hearts may therefore be relied on, or at least it is matter of certainty that they will not be the first parts of the boiler to explode. 120. The separators and receivers need little description, since they are precisely similar to the vessels I have described under the name of cylinders in my first kind of boiler. They are of iron plate, riveted together, closed at each end with cast covers, and the joints made tight with lead rings. They are provided like them with a similar float index and safety-valve, and in them is introduced the pipe for feed water. It is indifferent whether this latter be in the separator or receiver, care being taken, however, that the opening be in a situation where the cold water may mix as quickly and perfectly as possible with the hot, before it enters the heart, that no injurious sudden cooling of the cast iron may take place: with this view I have generally preferred introducing it in the separator. The steam and water connecting pipes between the separator and receiver I prefer to make of copper: they are all provided with wrought iron flanches; the joints of the steam-pipes \( m \) are made tight with iron cement; while those of the water tubes \( n \), owing to their frequently requiring removal for cleaning the cylinders, should have a lead packing, or a thin flat copper ring, wrapped round with hemp, and smeared with a cement made of pulverised chalk, linseed oil, and red lead. The water communication tubes must also be so constructed that they may be easily cleaned from deposit, as I have described in my former boiler.\(^{50}\) \(^{50}\) This boiler is yet in its infancy, and therefore I am not prepared to say that further experience may not dictate some improvements in the construction 121. I must now say a few words as to the most suitable modifications of this boiler, and its several parts, for different degrees of power. The amount of heating surface is determined not only by the number of tubes, but also by their length: this latter, however, should never be more than 6 feet 3 inches, or less than 4 feet 3 inches. The number for a single heart should not be above forty-four or under twenty; i.e. six or three in the lowest row. These limits, and a variation in the number of hearts, allow all gradations of power which can be required. But the proportions, between these limits, must depend on circumstances, and be determined by the engineer. The number of tiers of tubes I recommend to be always eight. When one heart is used, the separator should be fixed on one side of it, and the receiver on the other. When two hearts are used, one separator is placed on either side, and one receiver in the middle. Fig. 52 is a view of the boiler of an engine at Plau, constructed in this way. With three hearts, I would arrange two in the above manner, and give the third a separator and receiver of its own. Four should be placed as two and two. Of course the whole of the receivers must be connected by a common steam-pipe. Fig. 53, Plate xi., shows the method of making the water communications when two hearts are of its parts. It is my purpose to endeavour to bring it to the greatest degree of perfection by the most careful experiment and study, and I shall make public any important results to which I may be led. [I am enabled to state that the later experience of the Author has enabled him to make some most valuable improvements in the construction of this kind of boiler, particularly in economizing the cost of its manufacture. He is now preparing a description of these latest improvements for publication.—Translator.] used: \(a\) and \(b\) are the two separators; \(c\), the receiver; \(d\), the water connecting pipe between the three vessels. At \(e\) is a bulb or enlargement of the tube, to give the water more space at this point of junction; and the pipe \(f\), which has to receive the water from both separators, is made double the area of the pipe \(d\). All the water connections should reach quite to the bottom of their respective vessels. 122. Let us now try this new boiler by the principles I have already laid down for the construction of tubular boilers; and we shall find that it corresponds more than most former ones with the conditions such boilers must fulfil, if they are to approach perfection. The tubes have a moderate diameter;—so large as to develop a proper quantity of steam, without danger of too violent ebullition, or boiling dry, as well as to allow a constant and quiet water supply, and to remove all chance of damage by overheating;—yet so small, that they hold no dangerous quantity of water and steam, and cause no destructive consequences in case of explosion, but open with a simple rent. Their heating surface and cubic content are in such favourable relation to each other that the steam formed within them takes only a small volume, and displaces but little water. These favourable circumstances have been proved by many direct experiments, undeniable facts, and long practice, which leave them no longer doubtful. The tubes are the steam generators of the boiler; these only are liable to deterioration, and to them alone is fear of danger confined: their construction, however, is such as to nullify this fear. The bursting of one of such tubes would be nearly isolated, and bring no destructive consequences from the general body of the boiler, as the latter could in such case only empty itself through two small openings, not large enough to allow a greater body of steam and water through than might pass away through the bars of the grate, or up the chimney, without collecting in and bursting open the furnace. Lastly, the tubes lie so deep below the water level that a want of water in them is scarcely likely to occur, or if it does, those tubes are first uncovered which are exposed to the least heat of the fire current. By this, one of the principal sources of explosion is avoided. The tubes, if heated red-hot, have but a small mass of metal to cause mischief, and are so separated from the boiler that no injurious action going on in the tube can have any dangerous influence on the boiler as a whole; an instantaneous development of steam must therefore confine itself to and exhaust itself on the tube alone. I cannot give this circumstance too much prominence: it is as peculiar to this boiler as it has been hitherto unattained in others, and it appears to me to offer high promises for the prevention of danger with high-pressure engines. My boiler consists of a number of small boilers, which exercise but little influence on, and have but little connection with, each other; this connection being sufficient for all good purposes, but too little for all bad. The vessels have, even if they burst, no destructive action on each other, and their construction and size are such that no danger worthy of consideration is to be apprehended from them. 123. The tubes may be cleaned from deposit in a manner at once easy, convenient, secure, and speedy. As soon as the back covers are taken off, free access may be obtained to the interior of the tube, which may be then cleaned by means of an instrument of the form shown in fig. 49, Plate x. The oval openings are easily cleaned from the heart, when the front plate is removed. Stony deposit is not often found in the lower tubes, but increases at a higher level, most being in the upper tiers;—an advantageous circumstance, since the lower tubes are thereby less exposed to damage from the intensity of the fire, while in the upper ones the heat has less power. In the hearts, also, I have seldom found precipitate in a stony form; what there is, collects mostly in the lower part, but always in a loose state; and this may be much diminished by occasional blowing off by the cock at the bottom of the vessel. Upon the division plates, I have found none at all, it being probably driven away by the circulation and ebullition. Of the separators and receivers, that vessel only contains deposit worth notice, in which the feed water is introduced: it is, however, very easily removed. It might appear that the cleaning of such a boiler takes much time, from so many bolts being required to be loosened. When it is considered, however, how long one of the ordinary large boilers must stand to cool (often more than twenty-four hours) before any one can venture into it, and what immense time and trouble are expended in chiselling off the boiler-stone, in such a confined and dark place, the work with my boiler must appear trifling in comparison. The bolts may be unscrewed while the boiler is yet tolerably hot, and the deposit is more friable and more easily removed at a warm temperature, besides being in a much more loose condition in this kind of boiler than in the ordinary one. The whole may be done generally before the cleaning of a large boiler could be commenced. The operation in the Plau boiler occupies scarcely one day. How often such a boiler should be cleaned, depends on the nature of the water. If hard spring water is used, the oftener the boiler is cleaned the better: but soft water should always be preferred where possible; it will well repay extra trouble and expense to obtain it. Frequent blowing off is advantageous; I would recommend that one or two cubic feet should be blown off every hour. 124. The remaining advantages of this boiler may be briefly summed up. The hearts are so strong that danger from them is out of the question; they fulfil all necessary conditions for low as well as high pressure; and they are little, if at all, subject to the deteriorating action of the fire. The back plate is the only part thus exposed, and this is almost entirely occupied by the tubes. The under surface, which, however, is not over the most intense heat, may easily be protected. The separators and receivers are strong and durable; and the connecting pipes fulfil all required conditions: they separate perfectly the steam from the water, and maintain a supply of dry steam to the engine, as well as a quiet water level in the receiver. The boiler holds water enough to insure an equable generation of steam; a very difficult condition in tubular boilers. According to my experience, at least 1 cubic foot of water space should be allowed in tubular boilers for 10 square feet of heating surface, and my boiler fulfils this condition. The steam-room stands in a favourable relation to the content of the cylinder.\(^{51}\) Watt stated that the former should be at least eight times the latter; mine holds nearly twenty times as much, when it is regularly supplied with water, and therefore the oscillations of the manometer become very small. And lastly, I must mention the advantage of this boiler in its favourable and economical application of the heat; particularly in the circumstance that a very short time, namely, half or three-quarters of an hour, suffices to raise the heat from a cold state to such a degree as to supply steam of the proper pressure for the engine. This is an advantage of which certainly very few boilers can boast. 125. I am not prepared to speak positively as to the applicability of this boiler to marine engines, where a great deposit from salt water takes place, but I do not anticipate difficulty, if the tubes are given a larger diameter, say 6 inches, and the hearts a greater depth; the tubes may be then longer, and will not be in so much danger of becoming stopped up. As the brick furnace is inapplicable on shipboard, the masonry may be replaced by flat chambers, of the description shown in fig. 50, Plate x., strongly bolted together, and furnished with cast iron division plates \(a a\). The tie-bolts pass through \(b b\). A circulation will go on in these vessels in the direction of the arrows: \(c\) is a pipe to lead the steam generated into the separators, while the water returns through the pipe \(d\). Moveable covers must be provided for the purpose of cleaning. \(^{51}\) Or in expanding engines, to the content of that portion of the cylinder to be filled with steam from the boiler; in my engines one-third. The separators have a great advantage in lying horizontally, owing to the increased water surface; but cases may occur where a vertical position is more advantageous; as, for example, where the boiler is unsteady and subject to oscillating motions, as on shipboard. In this case it would be advisable to increase their diameter, at least to 2 feet; or the requisite object may be attained by giving them a sufficient height, or using a greater number. They might be placed round the chimney, and covered with a plate-iron casing, agreeable to the eye, and strong enough to stand rough weather. 126. I have lastly to bring to mind, that when I speak of the heating surface (Feuerberührungsfläche) of a boiler, I always intend to be understood the whole of that surface of the same which is exposed externally to the heat of the furnace, and covered internally with water. In all calculations I employ this without deduction, and disregarding whether any individual parts may be exposed more or less favourably to the action of the fire. The power of the surface as regards steam generation must vary much, according to the difference in position, and therefore, in calculating the actual effect, we can only speak of a mean or average value, applicable to all surfaces except vertical; for what certain parts may gain by their more favourable position, is supposed to be lost by the more unfavourable situation of others. In the case of tubes which lie altogether in the fire, the upper surfaces are but little effective in steam production; while the other portions of the periphery, the lower surfaces in particular, are so much more favourably disposed as amply to counterbalance the disqualification of the former. That this is really so, is proved by the extraordinary evaporative power of this boiler, which experience has shown to reach a high degree, in proportion to its heating surface. The upper surfaces of the tubes usually become soon covered with ashes, which form a bad conductor of heat: this is advantageous, and promotes their durability, by protecting the part of the tube where the steam collects from the too fierce action of the fire. This part however is but narrow, and is in no danger of remaining long dry. THE FURNACE. 127. The furnace is one of the most important parts of the high-pressure engine. The whole action and power of the machine depend on its construction, and on the effect obtained from it, inasmuch as fire is the prime agent. We cannot therefore bring too much industry, exactitude, and intimate knowledge of the subject, to bear on the construction of the furnace, in order to attain the two great objects of its action; namely, first, to produce as perfect a combustion of the fuel as possible; and secondly, to apply as much as possible of the heat so developed, effectively to the boiler. These two requirements for a good furnace are, however, not so easily satisfied. We are as little acquainted with the conditions under which the whole of the caloric may be perfectly developed from the fuel, as we are enlightened as to the best manner of applying the heat to the boiler. I will impart, as briefly as possible, my views and experience concerning the construction of good furnaces for high-pressure engines. 128. One of the first considerations connected with the subject is, whether it is particularly advantageous to make use of a furnace of masonry, or whether those boilers have advantages which contain the fire-place within them, and in which the flame is led along flues surrounded on all sides with water. It is a very general opinion that the masonry of a brick-built furnace consumes much heat, and robs it from the boiler. It is supposed that the heat is much better applied when the fire, burning immediately within the body to be heated, can radiate to it on all sides. If this reasoning expresses some truth, it also contains much sophistry. I will here again bring to mind what has been already said as to the disadvantages of boilers with inner fire-tubes, with reference to the combustion of the fuel; namely, that in such fire-places the heat is too quickly absorbed from the current over the grate, before it has developed and collected itself with proper intensity, and thereby an imperfect combustion takes place, and much smoke is produced. A brick oven certainly takes up much heat, but this seldom penetrates so into the mass that the outer walls reach a high temperature and radiate much caloric away, particularly when the masonry is thick enough, and is provided with suitable air spaces to prevent the conduction from the interior to the exterior. If the interior of a furnace is strongly heated, it acts advantageously upon the boiler when the firing is temporarily lowered, since the radiation from the furnace supplies the want of heat from the fire, and thus causes a 52 Zweckmässig, suitable or well adapted to the purpose or object in view. This most useful word has, unfortunately, no corresponding one in English: it occurs in this work almost in every page, and each time has to be translated by a circumlocution.—Tr. more regular supply of steam. Moreover, when the engine stands still, this condition of the furnace retains the boiler long in a favourable degree of temperature, especially when, by shutting the damper, the penetration of cold air is excluded; and this saves much expenditure of fuel when the engine has again to be set in action, as, for example, in the morning, after standing still all night. It will often happen, that after stopping seven or eight hours the boiler is still found at nearly boiling temperature, and in this case but very little additional fuel is required to get up the steam. I have frequently had proofs of this in my own engines. It is certain that the weight of this circumstance ought to determine us rather to prefer than to reject the furnace of masonry, especially when it is considered that boilers with internal fires are generally much exposed to radiation from their highly heated sides to the outer air; for this must evidently cause a greater loss than could occur from the more moderately heated sides of a brick furnace. In many circumstances the internal fire is usually considered preferable; as, for example, where the boiler stands in wooden buildings, on shipboard, and the like; where, with masonry, there would be danger of fire; or where the boiler is in motion, and has to withstand shocks, as for locomotives. It is possible, however, to imagine good furnaces of masonry, not exposed to the like danger, and capable of extensive application in steam vessels and other similar cases. Such are the furnaces set in cast iron frames, which are occasionally found on board American steamers.53 The masonry must be so secured as not to 53 Marestier, ‘Mémoire sur les bateaux à vapeur des Etats Unis d’Amérique.’ Planche ix. be injured by concussions, and should be provided with air spaces to lessen the conduction of heat to the iron casings. It would be indeed unfortunate for the high-pressure engine if tubular boilers could not be used on board steamers, since it possesses all other properties which render it most especially appropriate for steam navigation.\textsuperscript{54} 129. I pass on to consider how a furnace of masonry should be constructed, in order that it may well answer its purpose. With reference to the bricks, none should be used for any part, except such as are perfectly hard burnt and stand heat well: all those of the ordinary material must be laid in such manner that no part is exposed to the direct action of the fire, and they must be cut, where necessary, in order to fulfil this condition. Where a stronger degree of heat acts, the use of a fire-proof material, as fire-stone or fire-brick, is indispensable: in those parts of the flues at a distance from the fire, common bricks may be applied. I have remarked with much astonishment, that lime mortar is often used for steam engine furnaces; it is much preferable to use a loam\textsuperscript{55} not too rich, as cement for the fire work; lime soon loses its cementing power by \textsuperscript{54} The Author might have enlarged the discussion upon this topic with advantage; it is most important, and the state of knowledge upon it is very unsatisfactory. The principal kinds of boilers which contain the fire-place within them are, Trevithick’s or the Cornish boiler, the locomotive boiler, and that commonly used on board steam vessels. The Cornish boiler is economical and works well; it does not appear subject to the defects alluded to in the text. The others are less perfect, but we know very little about their actual condition as regards economy.—Tr. \textsuperscript{55} The loam (\textit{Lehm}) spoken of by the Author is a mixture of a peculiar clayey earth with sand.—Tr. the action of heat, becomes loose, and falls to pieces, while loam burns harder, and becomes thereby firmer and more binding. In the setting of fire-stone, or brick, it is a good plan to use a cement composed of a dust from the fire material itself, mixed with fat loam; or to add to the loam some coarse sand, ashes, and common salt.\(^{56}\) It is especially desirable that the masonry should be properly secured with cramps, especially where exposed to much heat, in order to prevent it from giving way and cracking by the expansion. Wherever possible, all arches or vaults in the furnace should be avoided, or at least should only be constructed where the heat is not great, and where they have but a light load to carry. In the case where it is necessary to support the end of a vessel over a door opening, it is advisable to use a cast iron plate made to cover the front wall of the furnace, and upon which the vessel may rest. This plate may then also serve for the frame of the fire-door or doors, is not likely to be injured by their opening and shutting, gives the whole an agreeable appearance, and helps to secure the neighbouring masonry. The latter may be further fastened by casting or screwing a projecting rib upon the iron plate: wrought iron bars should never be used for such purposes; they soon become red-hot, and then bend, and by great heat are quickly destroyed. All parts of the boiler lying free must be covered, to prevent the loss of heat by radiation: the disadvantages of a neglect of this precaution have been before mentioned. Different methods have been adopted in order to pre- \(^{56}\) We have in England what is well known as fire-brick, which, when set in fire-clay, answers every purpose where fire-proof masonry is required.—Tr. vent the too great radiation of heat from the exterior of the furnace itself. It has sometimes been given a covering, with ashes placed in the interstice; or fixed in a small separate chamber, perfectly closed: sometimes thick walls alone have been depended on, or interstices have been introduced in the masonry. I consider the two last methods the best, and the latter the preferable one of these. It requires the least material, and is the most perfect protection. The furnace is surrounded with a second thinner wall, like a covering, between which and the furnace itself is a stratum of air; this, if at rest, acts as an imperfect conductor, and hinders the transmission of heat between the two. Thick walls are not so economical, but have the advantage of offering a greater resistance in case of a slight bursting of one of the tubes. I have in my engines always found walls of 12, or at most of 18 inches, amply thick enough. 130. Much controversy has taken place between scientific men as to the height of the chimney for steam boilers. Some hold that high stacks of 70, 80, or 100 feet, are indispensable to produce a proper draft, while others contend that the same result may be obtained with lower ones.\(^{57}\) According to my opinion and experience, both sides are right, and we have only to determine with precision the cases in which the truth lies more on one side than the other. I distinguish here the following circumstances: \(^{57}\) Peclet has treated this subject very comprehensively in his Treatise on Heat. It has also been further illustrated by M. Penot, in a learned paper entitled ‘Mémoire sur la manière de déterminer les dimensions d'une cheminée.’—Bulletin de la Soc. Indust. de Mülhausen. (a.) When the boilers are of considerable length and breadth, and the flues are so situated that the current must travel a considerable distance horizontally, passing through and round the boiler many times, and often descending or making angular turns;—high chimneys of 50 to 80 feet are much to be recommended, and in many cases indispensable.\(^{58}\) (b.) If, however, on the other hand, there are only vertical, or more vertical than horizontal flues, or if the latter are only of short length, and no descending currents;—then the chimney may be much lower, say 20 to 40 feet, or even, where only vertical flues exist, still less than this, if circumstances allow. (c.) The kind of fuel used has a great influence on the necessary height of the chimney. According to my experience, wood requires much less height than turf, turf less than coal, and coal less than coke. (d.) Finally, the proximity of high buildings, trees, towers, or other high objects, also requires much consideration. In most cases, however, it appears sufficient to make the chimney higher than the highest point of the neighbouring objects, and as far removed from them as possible. There are exceptions to the rule, for I have carried up stacks of very small height between high buildings, and have found the best effect follow. We have very little scientific knowledge as to this point, particularly with reference to the effect of wind. Since heated currents always strive to ascend, and horizontal flues and angles present resistance to their \(^{58}\) That, however, a good draft may, even in such cases, be obtained by a moderate height of chimney, is exemplified in steam vessels. motion, it is easy to understand the first two of these propositions. Laboratory furnaces show us that when we have only ascending currents, no high chimney is necessary to insure a good draft. I have in my practice never built high stacks, sometimes scarcely 25 feet, and yet the draft has never failed, but rather been very lively. The activity of the combustion depends in reality not so much upon the height of the column of heated air ascending the chimney, as upon the proportion the area of the last flue leading into the chimney bears to the size of the opening formed by the interstices between the furnace bars. The nearer these approach to equality, the livelier the draft.\(^{59}\) I would often have built my chimneys less than 25 feet high, had it not been from the proximity of neighbouring buildings and the fear of adverse effect from the winds. Chimneys of 80 to 100 feet, particularly in a roomy situation, are useless superfluities, involving the proprietors in unpardonable expense, and manifesting a want of experience in their contrivance, if the only object proposed to be attained by them is improvement of the draft. There are, however, other motives for such a measure; the principal of which is to avoid annoyance to the neighbourhood by smoke, an offence against the laws of many States. A height of less than 70 feet is enough for such a purpose. These laws regarding the nuisance of smoke from steam engines are both unjust and impolitic. Many other cases where coal is burnt, particularly smithies and iron works, are treated with less strictness, and indeed often passed \(^{59}\) 'Bull. de la Soc. d'encouragement pour l'Ind. nat.' June, 1833, page 179. [That is, the area of the flue should not be less than the sum of the interstices between the bars.—Tr.] over altogether. Why such obstacles should be thrown in the way of the steam engine is to me incomprehensible. We acknowledge that England has attained her present high grade of industrial culture by her steam engines;—we complain often of continental inferiority in this particular; and yet we put a drag on our progression, lose sight of great and important objects through trivial considerations, and find that, from the highest quarters, where progression ought to be gladly encouraged, laws emanate which make advancement in science more shunned than promoted, and viewed with as much fear as reform in the political sphere. We are ever accustomed to attend more to a partial cry than to the voice of a universal need. We attach more importance to a little coal vapour than to that much higher and more glorious object, the power which the coal puts in our possession; and in order not to offend the noses or soil the linen of a few, we thwart the good of the many by endangering their highest interests. How would it fare with England if a little smoke brought about there such obstructions as it does in Germany? The English continue to live among their smoke, and find themselves well off in it too; they neither turn up their noses nor get asthma, but they live, and live long; for this smoke is the fruit of activity, and activity maintains the health and lengthens the life of man.\(^{60}\) 131. It appears that the height of the chimney neces- \(^{60}\) I have retained this paragraph on account of its force and good sense, although more adapted to the Author's country than ours. It cannot be denied, however, that the presence of smoke is an evil; it is an evidence of imperfect combustion, and ought to be prevented as much as possible.—Tr. sary for a good and regular draft may be considerably diminished when it is given a small area. The ordinary steam boiler chimneys have frequently a diameter at their lower end of 3 to 4 feet in the clear, diminishing gradually as they ascend. Such dimensions are excessive. In order to heat properly the monstrous column of air in such shafts, it is requisite that the current passing into them from the furnace must possess a very considerable temperature; and on this ground it is intelligible why some authors give a temperature of $500^\circ$ Cent. as necessary for this purpose, and why the draft often diminishes in chimneys of a greater height than 100 feet, if the heat is not sufficient. Besides, the friction of the air column against the sides of the chimney should not be forgotten; it brings a considerable resistance into account, which is greater as the chimney is higher. With narrow chimneys, the heated column possesses much less bulk, and is therefore warmed to a sufficient extent with a much smaller expenditure of fuel. The objection to too narrow chimneys is their greater liability to get foul, and requiring more frequent cleaning.\footnote{The necessity of frequent cleaning may often be dispensed with by making a fire of shavings in the bottom of the chimney, by which the soot will be burnt out. A small door should be provided for the purpose.} A satisfactory rule for the height and breadth can only be given according to circumstances. I allow usually for every 6 square feet of surface of fire-grate, 1 square foot of sectional area for the chimney, giving, however, to the smallest never less than 8 inches square. 132. Turning now to the internal construction of the furnace, we begin with the \textit{ash-pit}. This is certainly a very simple matter, but I have nevertheless something to remark upon it. It is often made too low. The ashes then collect in it quickly, and impede the proper supply of air, as well as cause destruction of the fire-bars by the heat. A height of 18 inches to 2 feet appears the most suitable; the fire-grate then stands at a convenient height for the stoker. The ashes should be cleared away as often as possible. M. Köchlin recommends that a water-pan should be laid under the grate at the bottom of the ash-pit, and states his experience that the bars have been longer preserved thereby. He explains that the water is evaporated, and that the vapour mixing with the air as it passes into the furnace, prevents an overheating and destruction of the bars. Whether this explanation is satisfactory, I do not decide; it would rather appear that the vapour would be decomposed, and, by oxydating the bars, contribute to their destruction. If, however, the fact holds true, it is worthy of consideration. Such a water vessel would serve to extinguish the falling ashes, and prevent any danger of fire when they were carried away; it would, however, often so far spoil cinders and unconsumed fuel falling through from a coal fire, as to prevent their being used again, and would thus cause considerable waste of fuel. Under some circumstances, the use of a register in the ash-pit is advantageous, especially where it is considered desirable that the engine should be self-regulating. Such a regulator is more easily moved than the common damper in the flues, which soon becomes so dirtied with the soot or damaged by the heat as to lose its mobility. In order that a register may be effective, the ash-pit must be closed in front with a door made to fit as nearly air-tight as possible, which may serve for the removal of the ashes, while the register remains undisturbed. In order still further to insure the perfect action of this machine, it should be placed on one of the longest sides of the furnace, and in a place where it is not liable to be disturbed, or damaged by heat or rust. A channel may be formed in the brick-work to conduct the air from this to the ash-pit, taking care, however, to dispose it so that no ashes may collect in it. The register should have a square iron frame, in which it must be so suspended as to move with great facility, and to retain its free action. 133. With regard to the fire-grate, one of the most indispensable conditions is, that it be built in proper fire-proof masonry. Common brick-work is altogether unsuitable for this purpose for obvious reasons. A great mistake is often committed in making the fire-bars too strong, and the interstices between them too small, which hinders a proper supply of air to the fire. We shall not err in making the bars $1\frac{1}{2}$ inch wide. In order to give them the necessary strength, they should have elliptic ribs projecting on their under side, to a depth of about 4 or 5 inches, dependent on the length of the bars: the rib should taper sharply on both sides like a comb, which will not only facilitate the penetration of air into the fire, but also allow conveniently the introduction of an instrument to clean out the interstices between the bars when they become stopped up with dirt or cinders. If the bars are long, it is advisable to cast lateral projections $\frac{1}{4}$ inch wide in the middle of the bar, which may butt against each other when the bars are in their place, and prevent lateral bending. When the grate is required of considerable length, as 6 or 8 feet, the bars should be in two lengths, with a strong cast iron bearer in the middle of the furnace, so supported as not to bend. Various rules have been laid down for the size of the interstices between the fire-bars; my experience, however, has given me the universal rule to make them under all circumstances half an inch wide. This width answers for all kinds of fuel, allowing but little to fall through, does not become easily stopped up, and admits conveniently of the introduction of the cleaning instrument. A good kind of bar is that with a concave upper surface; I have found that it really deserves the good character it generally bears. The concavity becomes filled with ashes, which, conducting heat badly, prevent the too rapid destruction of the bar by the fire. The best material for furnace-bars is cast iron; it is firmer, stronger, more durable, and cheaper than wrought iron, which soon becomes bent and destroyed. Bars of square wrought iron, laid with an angle upwards, are the worst of all. Hollow bars, through which water from the boiler flows, have been recommended, but do not answer. They are not durable, besides being productive of endless trouble. I have already spoken (Art. 70) of the magnitude of the fire-grate, often made much too large, and have given rules for the dimensions corresponding to the power of the engine. According to my experience the description of fuel used has little or no effect upon the requisite dimensions of the grate. With my first-described boiler, especially if large, it is desirable to keep the grate wide enough to equalize the heat over the whole of the tubes: this is indispensable for the regularity of the evaporation and the du- --- 62 Provided, of course, that the heat is not great enough to melt them.—Tr. rability of the boiler: irregular firing produces injurious unequal expansion. 134. Many different opinions are held as to what is the best distance to allow between the fire-grate and the boiler. All, however, agree that with coal for fuel this distance must be less than for wood or turf. It seems to me that the matter is much simpler than is generally supposed. According to my view the burning material itself, that is, its uppermost burning surface, should in all cases be equally distant from the boiler; whence the greater or less distance of the bars depends only on the weight and form of the fuel. If one kind of fuel has less weight, or develops proportionately to its weight less heat, than others, or is only obtained in large pieces, it must be laid upon the furnace in a thicker layer, and will thereby require a deeper furnace, than another kind which has less volume and more heating power. Therefore wood and turf require a thicker stratum than coal.\(^{63}\) In the arrangement of my fire-places I adopt the following rules. (a.) For coal, I lay the fire-grate 16 or at most 18 inches under the lowest surface of the boiler. (b.) For wood or good turf, I make it 6 inches deeper. (c.) For light inferior turf, having but small heating power, I lay it 12 inches deeper, or even sometimes more, if the turf is very poor. These rules have been established by experience as \(^{63}\) Good wood and turf do not, weight for weight, stand so much behind coal in calorific power as is generally believed. Many kinds of wood even exceed coal. perfectly satisfactory, and are founded on the principles I have above laid down, against which I know no reasonable objection. 135. The best way to insure a regular method of firing, which shall be properly adapted to the requirements of the engine, shall produce least smoke, and shall most tend to the saving of fuel, is to employ a good and careful stoker. No ingenious mechanical arrangement—no scientific apparatus—can supply his place, be it ever so approved or scientific in principle, or perfect in execution. A good fireman can, however, only be retained by preventing his occupation from becoming too easy and simple for him, and by thus keeping his watchfulness and care in constant action and salutary exercise. The less exertion such men generally have to make, and the more convenient their occupation is for them, the more careless and inattentive they have a tendency to become; and, at last, nothing, not even their own danger, can awaken them out of their lethargy. All machines for feeding, smoke-burning, and the like, only increase the quantity of apparatus about a steam engine in an unnecessary and prejudicial degree, and withal augment the derangement and danger which ensue when they fall into disorder. The simpler an engine is built, the simpler is its management. The delusion of attempting to simplify its action by new scientific apparatus, which require new knowledge and new watchfulness on the part of the attendant, is one of the wildest that could be imagined, and inevitably sooner or later brings its own punishment. It is an attempt to get over one difficulty by introducing many new ones, often greater than the former. The writer had on one occasion an ingenious machine of excellent construction attached to the boiler of an engine for the purpose of regulating the draft, and was much pleased with its secure and convenient action; but it soon had the effect of making the attendant become idle and careless, not only with the management of the fire, but of the engine also. At last he neglected the instrument itself, which had been of so much convenience to him, and the proprietor was glad to remove it again; for instead of regularity in the heating of the boiler it brought disorder, and where it was hoped to spare trouble and care, a double amount became necessary. Those who wish to study smoke-burning contrivances, furnace-feeding machines, and the like, may find a rich collection of them in various publications.\(^{64}\) I pass them all over, for I can say nothing further of them than this: the furnace-feeders are all complicated and expensive machines, working in great heat, easily destroyed, and constantly liable to get out of repair; while the smoke-burning apparatus have all this one important failing,—they do not answer their purpose.\(^{65}\) \(^{64}\) Such as Dingler’s ‘Polytechnisches Journal;’ Bernouilli’s ‘Dampfmaschinenlehre;’ Prechtl’s ‘Technologisches Encyclopädie;’ Gill’s ‘Technical Repository;’ the ‘Mechanic’s Magazine;’ the ‘Repertory of Arts;’ the ‘London Journal;’ the ‘Repertory of Patent Inventions;’ the ‘Register of Arts and Sciences;’ the ‘Bulletin de Mulhausen,’ &c. M. Prechtl, Director of the Polytechnic Institution in Vienna, has given in the sixth volume of the Jahrbuch of this Institute, p. 197, a most scientific treatise on smoke, the conditions of its generation, its removal, &c.; a work which I cannot too strongly recommend. [The Author gives a long list of nearly forty contrivances of the above kind, with complete references, which I have not thought it necessary to copy. It shows, however, his amazing research, and the trouble he has taken to become acquainted with what has been done, and thereby adds weight to his opinions.—Tr.] \(^{65}\) Almost all arrangements of such smoke-burning furnaces act on the A practice has sometimes been followed of moistening coal before it is put on the grate. Such a custom is so obviously bad, that it is unnecessary to say more upon it. A Mr. Iveson in Scotland has lately recommended a very simple means of destroying smoke, and strengthening the heat in the furnace, by introducing a small current of steam upon the burning fire. According to the showing of the inventor, corroborated by the testimony of the celebrated chemist Dr. Fyfe, the saving of fuel amounts to one-half, and the smoke perfectly disappears. This plan, if it could be trusted to, would be especially applicable to high-pressure engines: it is, however, yet too little sanctioned by experience to command a favourable opinion.\(^{66}\) principle of introducing fresh air to the fire current in the neighbourhood of the bridge, through openings furnished with registers, in order to regulate the quantity of air admitted. Now since this influx of air must always bear a certain definite relation to the action of the combustive process, the quantity of fuel on the grate, and the temperature of the fire current, it is evident that the regulation must be attended with the greatest, if not insurmountable, difficulties, and cannot reasonably be expected from a common stoker. As I once visited the New River Water-Works in London, the stoker of a large pumping engine showed me a method by which, as I then saw and often since have proved, the smoke was very much diminished. After he had spread the fresh fuel as regularly as possible, and in a thin layer over the fire, he did not quite close the fire-door, but left a very small chink for the admission of air, which he closed tight as soon as the fuel was properly burnt through. He performed this operation every time with great exactness and calculated punctuality,—a circumstance imitated by few of his station. I have never met with a man of the kind who took so much interest in his business, and possessed so much intellectual activity as this man. I have to thank him for much information concerning English steam engines, especially the great water-work engines of London. [The plan here mentioned is by no means new or uncommon: the punctuality, attention, and intelligence of the stoker, are unfortunately more rare.—Tr.] \(^{66}\) An opponent of this plan states ('Mechanic's Magazine,' No. 854) that this, like other smoke-burning apparatus, does not destroy the smoke, but merely deposits it as soot inside the furnace and chimney. 136. I now pass on to the consideration of the flues. The opinion has frequently been held, that a long traction of the heated current round the boiler has important advantages. A late writer has, however, much shaken this opinion, if not proved entirely the contrary.\(^{67}\) It is beyond all doubt that very long flues are disadvantageous, especially when horizontal. The cross area of them must be very large, and the chimney high, in order to produce a proper draft. A large area has the disadvantage that the current is imperfectly brought in contact with the sides of the boiler, and this is especially so when these sides stand in a vertical position, as in the side flues of the common Boulton and Watt waggon boiler, the heat having but little tendency to communicate itself sideways.\(^{68}\) Long horizontal flues produce great inconvenience: on lighting the fire in a newly built furnace, much trouble is often required to drive out the damp, cold, heavy air produced from the wet masonry, which often impedes the draft so long as to lead to a belief that something is wrong in the construction, when no hindrance but this really stands in the way. I have sometimes surmounted the difficulty by making a fire in the chimney, but more frequently have been obliged to take recourse to more powerful means, such as applying a blowing apparatus to the ash-pit, and creating a strong blazing wood fire in the grate. With descending flues this disadvantage is still greater. In my boilers the heat acts very little sideways; in the first kind all the flues lie beneath the tubes or cylin- \(^{67}\) Ed. Köchlin, 'Bull. de la Soc. ind. de Mulhausen,' No. 2. \(^{68}\) The sides of waggon boilers are frequently curved outwards at the top, to meet, in a certain degree, this objection.—Tr. ders; and though they run horizontally, they do not, as is the case with the ordinary waggon boiler, all lie on one and the same level, but ascend gradually upwards. The most perfect plan is to avoid all long flues, and allow the heated current, during its ascent, always to act perpendicularly against the surface to be heated, and this is the plan I have adopted in my larger description of boiler. With respect to the construction of the flues, it is essential that they be made even and smooth over the whole of their inner surface, to diminish the friction of the current along their sides. It is desirable also to avoid sharp bends, which cause eddies: in these places the flues should be given, where possible, a greater width, and all corners should be rounded. When wood or turf is burnt, which deposit light ashes in the flues, these must be made so wide as to allow the ashes to accumulate to a certain extent without so much stopping the area as to impede the draft. Suitable preparation must be made for the cleaning of the flues, by providing them with openings, through which the interior may be accessible, and which should be closed during the action of the boiler by cast iron stoppers, furnished with handles, and made air-tight by loam: these are better than doors, which never shut so securely as not to admit cold air.\(^{69}\) The form of the flues is regulated in most cases by that of the boiler, or rather of the surface to be heated. \(^{69}\) A very good door, suitable for such purposes, has been patented by Mr. John Sylvester, of London. It is exceedingly simple in construction; shuts perfectly air-tight without latches or other fastenings; and is not liable to deterioration from dirt or wear. It may also be applied to fire-doors, and has then an arrangement by which it is effectually protected from the heat of the fire.—Tr. The section is usually either a square, or more frequently an oblong rectangle. Wherever possible, the form should be so arranged that the heated current may be made to impinge in the greatest degree upon the surface to be heated. To attain this end, what are called dams have been recommended to be placed in the flues; i.e. small projecting tongues, over whose oblique surfaces the current glides and is thereby guided anew against the boiler. All similar arrangements, however, impede more or less the draft, and require higher chimneys. When tubes lie in the flues, as in my smaller kind of boiler, the area must be contracted in the upper part round the tubes, in order to constrain the current to act upon their undersides. Various rules have been proposed for the size of the flues. The principal one is to give in general a greater area to the horizontal than the vertical ones: this follows from the nature of the case, and from the principles I have above laid down. I adopt very simple rules for the furnaces of my boilers, which always fulfil the required conditions. They will be clearly explained in the description of the furnace. The current passing from the flues is usually collected into one opening or channel, by which it enters the chimney; the area of this channel I always make equal to the sum of the interstices between the furnace-bars. In this the damper is placed; it is generally a simple cast iron slide, moving up and down in a frame let in the masonry. Such instruments have great defects, principally that they so soon suffer by the heat and the soot, and lose their freedom of motion. A better contrivance would be a plate swinging on a centre axis, fixed to a frame, the axis projecting out, and being furnished with a handle by which the damper could be moved. This would act more freely, and be less impeded by dirt. The frame of the register ought nowhere to project beyond the interior surface of the flue.\(^{70}\) 137. It is a question often mooted, whether small fire-grates, with a quick draft, have an advantage over larger ones in which the draft is more moderate. Some engineers, and writers on the steam engine, assert that a strong draft is an indispensable requisite for high-pressure boilers, in order to generate steam of high temperature; and this is made an objection to the high-pressure system. The assertion, however, is contradicted both by theory and experience; for the temperature is not so much higher as to require such extraordinary means, and all who have had much to do with high-pressure engines will know well that with sufficient heating surface, a moderate draft answers perfectly.\(^{71}\) The question of slow and quick drafts does not seem to be attended with any great difficulty, if no peculiar circumstances enter into the consideration. Every kind of fuel burns more perfectly and with less smoke when it is supplied with the quantity of air proper for its combustion. With a sharp draft and strong fire, the bars, boiler, and furnace become sooner destroyed than with a more moderate combustion. Some kinds of coal will not bear a sharp \(^{70}\) Here follow some remarks on certain proposed boilers with vertical tubes, which, however, I omit, as the said boilers are neither known, nor likely to be known, in England.—Tr. \(^{71}\) This objection has arisen from the blunder of proportioning the boiler to the cylinder by the same ratio as in low-pressure engines, and thereby allowing too little heating surface. See Art. 69.—Tr. draft, since with too much heat they fall to slack, and stop up the bars; and lastly, a fierce fire requires very frequent supplies of fuel, and clearing of the grate. But every time the fire-door is opened a stream of cold air enters, and so destroys a great part of the advantage gained. I am of opinion that the question can only be answered conditionally. With wood and turf, the draft may be tolerably sharp without disadvantage; while with some kinds of coal it should be regulated with much prudence. I would therefore advise that the boiler and furnace for high-pressure engines should have the power of a sharp draft, but should be able to supply steam enough with a more moderate one. There is at least then room to try how the fuel at hand may best be used. Too sharp a draft is easily moderated, while a weak one is not so easily increased, when its weakness arises from defect in the general arrangement. This plan will be found of advantage when, as frequently happens, in spite of all calculations and pains-taking in the construction, the draft is more sluggish than was expected. The golden rule, in the construction of a steam engine, to do rather too much than too little, holds good here: the purchaser will never find fault with the maker for its performing more than was promised, but woe to him if it performs less. The principle of slow combustion has lately been carried to excess. In some of the large Cornish engines, the slow-burning principle has been adopted to such an extent that flame and smoke came out of the fire-door.\(^{72}\) For my part, I must confess that I consider the whole thing, when carried to this extreme, as a retrograde step; for theory and practice show that coal \(^{72}\) 'Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal,' Jan. 1840. of every kind always gives out much smoke by a repressed draft, and no combustion can be favourable which sends a great quantity of consumable matter away into the chimney. Time will decide whether in this, as in most other things, the golden mean is not the best. I at least have always found it so.\textsuperscript{73} 138. The fire-doors used for steam boilers are often very ill adapted to their purpose. Their position is sometimes inconvenient for the stoker; they lie either too high or too low; shut badly; are not well protected from the action of the fire; or cannot be opened by the hand without burning. The most important faults are their not shutting tight, and the existence of openings in them, sometimes intentionally made for the purpose of looking in at the fire. The whole supply of air ought to pass through the bars and the fire itself, in order to produce the best possible result, in reference to the perfect combustion of the fuel and the proper application of the heat; and all cold air entering elsewhere can only disturb the regular action of the process, and produce mischief. The leaking of the doors is usually occasioned by their warping through the great heat: the best way to avoid this evil is to provide the door on the inside with a cast iron box filled with ashes, or a strong plate supported by four or five props at a distance of 2 inches from the door itself, in order to protect it from the action of the fire. As for the peep-openings, they should either be provided with a falling cover, or, which is better, abolished altogether. The door should be placed \textsuperscript{73} The Author's proportions give a consumption of about 7 to 10 lbs. of coal per square foot of grate per hour. This is a medium between Boulton and Watt's (12 to 16) and the Cornish (3 to 4) rate of combustion.—Tr. at a convenient height for the stoker, not for convenience alone, but also to insure a regular distribution of the fuel over the grate. The opening should be on this account tolerably wide. The door should be provided with a wood handle, that it may be opened by hand without burning the fingers. Many persons use, instead of hinged, sliding doors, moving up and down in guides, and suspended by a chain with a counterweight. These are objectionable, because they do not close tight, and cannot be protected from the action of the fire in the manner hereinbefore mentioned.\(^{74}\) **DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTHOR'S FURNACES.** 139. I come now to the description of my own furnaces, commencing with that of my smaller boiler. This is shown in Plates I. II. and III.; as arranged for three pairs of cylinders, sufficing for 6 horse-power. Figs. 1 and 2 are the side and front elevations; fig. 3, a longitudinal section; fig. 4, a transverse section on the dotted line \(d d\), fig. 3; fig. 5, a similar one on the line \(e e\). The scale will give the dimensions of the several parts: \(g\), in figs. 2, 3, 4, is the ash-pit, open in front, and arched over with fire masonry: this is covered with the cast iron furnace plate \(i\), figs. 2 and 3, which contains the fire-door \(k\), hanging by strong hinges, and having its latch \(l\) provided with a wooden handle \(m\). At the back of the door is either a box filled with ashes, or, as represented in fig. 3, a false plate \(n\), supported on props, to protect the door from the action of the fire. This contrivance must be so constructed as to be easily renewed when it is burnt away. The large front furnace plate, which is hol- \(^{74}\) See note to Art. 136.—Tr. lowed out at \( rr \), fig. 2, to receive the tubes, rests firmly with its lower edge upon the masonry at \( s \), and is secured by four strong bolts \( tt \), which run through the furnace from back to front, and serve also as cramps for the furnace itself, being screwed up to strong washer plates at the back end. The plate \( i \) is strengthened by ribs in different directions, which ornament its front surface. The internal construction of the furnace is shown clearly in the several sections, namely, figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6. At 9, 10, fig. 3, lie the cast iron bearers for the furnace-bars; the front one rests upon the arch over the ash-pit, the other upon the wall at the back. The bars, marked 11 in the figures, lie in all cases horizontally, and not, as is very common, inclined downwards towards the back end: their form and dimensions may be learned from the figures. When the fire-door is not so wide as the grate, two piers are built at the sides, of fire-proof masonry, 6 inches thick, which carry the flat arch \( h \), fig. 3, also of fire-brick, over the door. The dead plate between the grate and the door is in one piece with the front bearer.\(^{75}\) The grate cannot always be so wide as the space above it required for the tubes, and in this case the side walls are made to widen out upwards in the manner shown in fig. 4, where these oblique walls are marked 13. Their angle with the fire-grate should, however, never be more obtuse than \( 110^\circ \). All this work must be fire-proof. If the tubes require a great breadth, it is well to make \(^{75}\) The expansion of the bars often causes trouble unless room is allowed for it: it is no uncommon thing to see furnaces cracked and much damaged by this cause. Several expedients, well known to engineers, are adopted to give the ends of the bars a little play.—Tr. more than one fire-place: this arrangement has the great advantage that some fires continue burning undisturbed while others are being supplied with fuel; and if the firing is done in turns at regular intervals, it will much contribute to the regularity of the evaporation. One fire-place will not serve well for more than three pairs of tubes. Each of the lower cylinders lies in a separate channel, 11 inches wide and 13 inches high. A space of 5 inches is left under the cylinder, which is more than sufficient for the draft, but provides also for the accumulation of ashes and dirt. The division walls, for channels of this size, are about 4 inches thick, built of fire-brick, and serve to support the covering of the channels. The cylinders must lie perfectly free, so that the flame may also act on their upper surfaces; and therefore the covering, though it may touch, must not be fixed upon the top of the cylinder. As the lower cylinders are always entirely filled with water, and the steam generated is also mixed with water, there is no danger of their being damaged by over-heating, as experience has proved. About 8 inches from the back end of the flues, the division walls, together with their covering, end, since here the heated current passes between the tubes, in order to arrive at the flue running along the upper cylinders. The front and back walls of the furnace are made only 6 inches thick in the neighbourhood of the flues, in order to give as much effective length of cylinder as possible. This thickness is quite strong enough to support the cylinder ends, and give the furnace the requisite solidity. At the back end of the lower flues is a small sunk cavity, opening outwards under the back end of the cylinder. This is marked 11 in fig. 3. Its use is to afford facility for cleaning the flues. It must be closed, when the boiler is in action, by a cast iron or brick stopper, luted air-tight in the opening. There are also openings under the upper cylinders, for the purpose of sweeping the upper flue. The flue in which the upper cylinders lie need have no division walls. I at first thought these would be an improvement, but further experience convinced me of the contrary. The tubes themselves form the upper part of the flue, and are therefore in the most favourable position possible. When, however, more than one fireplace is used, the flues of each must be separated from those of the others; each being, so to speak, an independent furnace of itself. The upper flue is made deep enough to allow room for the collection of dirt and ashes, and as the heat tends upwards, this is no disadvantage. The cover of the lower flues forms the floor of the upper ones; it consists of fire-bricks laid flat, and covered with a layer of tiles, so as to break the joints; the whole set tight in fire-clay. The upper half of the higher cylinders is covered with brick-work, so that the flame cannot act on that part which is appropriated to the steam room. Fig. 5 shows these arrangements so clearly as to need no further explanation. The current passes along the upper flue from back to front, where it is led upwards through the interstices (hh, fig. 4,) between the cylinders, into the cross flue uu, in order to pass into the chimney. In this place the upper part or steam room of the cylinders must be protected from the heat by bent plates, under which is placed a layer of loam mixed with cow-hair. This covering should extend downwards 1 inch lower than the centre of the tube, and be contracted round it at the lower part, in order not to diminish too much the passage way between the cylinders. This arrangement is shown at $v, v, v$, fig. 4. The sum of the areas of the passages between the cylinders should be at least two-thirds of that of the interstices between the furnace-bars, and this will be accomplished by giving them a length of 12 to 14 inches and a breadth of 4 inches. The breadth of the flue $uu$, should be equal to the length of the opening $h$, and its section should be square: it is disadvantageous to have it too small, as the current must make a sharp turn, and ought to have plenty of room.\footnote{I found this particularly in a boiler I put up at Rostock: the flue was originally only 8 inches high, and the draft very bad; but on increasing the height 4 inches, it became so powerful as to produce a roar that might be heard 400 paces away. There were two fire-places, with 7 feet of grate, and five pairs of cylinders, the upper ones 9, the lower ones 7 inches in diameter. The chimney was 1 foot square.} The walls and cover of this flue need not be thicker than 6 inches. One end is furnished with a cleaning opening $i$, and in the other is placed the damper $v'$, fig. 4. I have before remarked that the area of the damper opening must be equal to the sum of the interstices between the fire-bars. The damper must be of cast iron, and slide in a frame of the same material, which must be securely set in the masonry. See Art. 136 for other remarks on this part of the apparatus. It is indispensably necessary to secure the masonry of the furnace properly with cramps, that it may not be cracked or disarranged by the heat. These cramps must be placed in the direction both of the length and the breadth of the furnace, projecting with screwed ends out of the masonry, and being screwed with strong nuts and washer plates against it. It is very advisable to surround the whole of the upper edges of the furnace with an iron frame, to protect them from injury. The top of the furnace should be covered with a layer of tiles, to prevent radiation; or, which answers the purpose better, the tiles may be laid hollow, leaving an air space between them and the top of the brick-work. 140. One of the side walls of the furnace is usually built against the chimney or the wall of the building; the other is then free, and when a self-regulating ash-pit register is required, it may be placed on this side, as I have shown in fig. 1. \( w \), figs. 1 and 4, is a channel leading to the ash-pit, in the outer opening of which is placed the moveable register. This has a small lever arm \( x \) attached to it, connected with the regulating-rod \( y \). This rod is again attached at \( z \) to a lever (1) working upon a gudgeon (2) fixed to the masonry, and pressing with its other end against the piston of a small cylinder (3), whose upper part communicates by the copper tube (4) with the steam-pipe, that the piston may receive a pressure on its upper side equal to that in the boiler. The piston is packed by a greased leather cap, fastened by a screw, and protected from the action of the steam by the tube having its descending leg filled with water, which will remain cool for a long time. The diameter of the cylinder need seldom be greater than one inch, even for large engines, as the register requires but little power to move it. On the long end of the lever is hung a weight (6) which holds the piston back in the cylinder with a certain force, determined according to the pressure desired in the boiler. When the pressure exceeds this, the piston will be pressed down, the long end of the lever raised, and the register closed, thereby shutting off the supply of air from the fire. When the pressure is reduced below the given amount, the counterweight predominates, and the door is again opened. It is advantageous to place the whole of the apparatus, except the register, on a plate (marked in the figure), firmly secured to the furnace wall. It should also be partially covered, to protect it from derangement by blows, &c. The connection-pipe should be furnished with a stop-cock and union-joint, by which it may be disconnected when necessary. The small stop marked 8 is to prevent the piston from descending too low. A pressure too great in the boiler is a sure sign that the production of steam is greater than its consumption, and that therefore the fire is too strong. This machine serves to regulate the fire, and also performs the function of a second safety apparatus, which brings not merely palliative relief, but goes to the root of the evil by removing its cause. It is tolerably sensitive, requiring only a few pounds above the given pressure to set it in action. The door should not be allowed entirely to close, which would be productive of mischief in the furnace, but should only shut off the air in such a degree as to diminish the intensity of the fire. If it is desired to shut the register gradually, the altered form of the apparatus shown in Plate v. fig. 28, may be adopted. The lever \(a\) supplies the place of that marked (1) in fig. 1; one end is engaged with teeth into the piston-rod \(b\), (supported by the roller \(c\)), while the other end, hanging down, is loaded with a weight whose effective force increases as it is raised. If the weight is properly calculated, the register will be gradually shut as the pressure in the boiler increases, and an exact regulation of the fire may thus be obtained. The place of the lever and weight might be supplied by a spring acting against the piston, and in either of these latter forms the apparatus would also serve for a pressure-gauge.\textsuperscript{77} 141. The furnace of my larger description of boiler is exceedingly simple, containing properly only a single ascending flue, with no labyrinth-like convolutions, or disadvantageous bends or contractions. The heat ascends uninterruptedly through it, and when the chimney is favourably situated and properly built, the draft will scarcely ever be otherwise than strong. The ash-pit and fire-place are of the ordinary construction. I always make the grate the entire length of that part of the tubes lying free in the furnace and acted upon by the heat. Its width is then regulated according to the quantity of surface required, which must be calculated by the given rules. With this boiler the grate receives the width of the space occupied by the tubes, since an addition to the number of tubes, when eight rows are used, stands in just proportion to the requisite extension of the fire-grate surface, in the direction of its width. I usually place a large cast iron plate in front \textsuperscript{77} Of course it is understood that when this apparatus is used, the front of the ash-pit must have an air-tight door. I must remark, however, that such a gimcrack appears to me to come fully under the anathema of the Author (Art. 135) against furnace machines in general. No automaton regulator can be wanted when a good stoker is employed, and I believe the Author has never used any such apparatus as that alluded to.—Tr. of the furnace of this boiler, in which the fire-doors are situated, and which, by a broad rib screwed on the back, serves as a support for the hearts. Figures 29, 30, 31, 32, will explain these arrangements without further description. Over the grate is the heating chamber for the generating tubes: it is an oblong rectangular space, of such a height as to contain all the eight tiers of tubes, and to allow at least 6 inches space above them. The width should be such that the walls approach to within about $\frac{3}{4}$ or 1 inch of the exterior tubes on each side. The distance of the lower tubes from the grate is regulated according to the rules already given. The furnace is closed in at the back of this heating chamber in a peculiar manner. Since the tubes must project out in such a manner that their ends lie perfectly free for cleaning, it would be scarcely possible to use masonry in the small space between them without robbing them of too much heating surface: I have therefore made the closure with cast iron plates of 1 inch thick, hollowed out at the top and bottom in the proper form for the tubes, and inserted gradually between them, as they are screwed into the hearts during the building of the furnace. The plates are made tight to each other and to the tubes by thin layers of loam and cow-hair, mixed with a little sal-ammoniac and iron filings. In fig. 51 several of such plates are represented, showing the recesses $a a$, hollowed out for the reception of the tubes, and the joints $b b$, between the plates themselves: the ends of the tubes project $\frac{1}{2}$ inch. The plates enter into grooves in the sides of the furnace, and rest upon its inner wall; the grooves are wider than the plates, to allow of brick with loam being built in behind them after they are all fixed: this must be done so firmly as to hold them fast in their places, but yet so loosely as to be easily removed when necessary, for the purpose of taking out any of the tubes. In figs. 31 and 32 this groove is shown by dotted lines, and marked \( o \). \( p p \) is the plate in section.\(^{78}\) \( q \) is the external continuation of the furnace wall; it extends on each side usually 18 inches outwards, and terminates at the top in an arch uniting the two sides so as to form a sort of niche, which contains the projecting ends of the tubes, and must be closed externally by a cast iron door shutting as tight as possible. The sheet of air between this and the tube plate tends to prevent loss of heat from the outer surface. Fig. 32 explains this. \( q q \) is the interior of the niche, \( r \) the bottom, \( s \) the arched covering, \( t \) the outer door. It was a difficult problem with this boiler how to direct the heat through the interstices between the tubes, so that it should distribute itself equably upon all sides, and not take any partial direction, acting more powerfully at front, or back, or more on one side than the other: such unequal action would be injurious to the structure of the boiler as well as prejudicial to its favourable working. In order to accomplish this I have, in the first place, made the bars the whole length of that part of the tubes lying in the furnace; and secondly, I have covered the heating chamber with a cast iron plate, lying 4 or 5 inches above the upper tubes, and provided \(^{78} \text{This plate seems much exposed to destruction by the heat: in England it could be formed of burnt fire-pottery, of which articles of all sorts of shapes are now made, possessing very considerable strength.—Tr.}\) with rows of oblong rectangular openings, through which the heated current streams. The plate is shown at \( u \) in figs. 31 and 32, where the position of the openings will be clearly seen. They are in as many rows as there are tubes in the upper row, and are placed exactly over the tubes, in order that the current may be compelled to encircle them as much as possible before it passes away. The sum of all these openings I make equal to \(\frac{2}{3}\)rds that of the interstices between the fire-bars. The current is compelled to pass simultaneously through all the openings of the plate, in order to obtain room enough to pass away, and thereby becomes equally spread over all the heating chamber. Experience has proved the efficacy of these means. The plate is not liable to be burnt away, since it is acted upon by that portion of the current from which the heat has in great measure been extracted.\(^{79}\) I have now briefly to show how the heat acts upon the tubes in the heating chamber. I have already remarked that many engineers, and in particular Seguier and Stephenson, have observed the fact that currents of heat which strike perpendicularly upon the heating surfaces of a boiler, act much more powerfully than those which travel parallel to its sides. In the former case the current suffers a kind of damming up, or concentration, and acquires a whirling motion that produces an equable distribution of the temperature, and brings constantly new heated strata in contact with the surface. The general laws of reverberation apply here; the current, during its passage between the tubes, is reverberated from one against another, parting with more and more \(^{79}\) This might also be made of fire-pottery with advantage.—Tr. of its heat at every turning, until, on arriving at the uppermost row of tubes, its temperature may be possibly reduced near to the limit of further communication of heat, i.e. to the temperature of the boiler itself. This perfect abstraction of heat is the more possible since the whole current is retained among and around the tubes themselves, with the exception of that portion which passes by the sides of the furnace, and this is very small in proportion to the whole. The alternating position of the tubes which I have chosen is very important. When they are placed in perpendicular lines over each other, the current will always pass in preference up the space between them, without encircling them, which it is essential it should do. It is astonishing how little this circumstance appears to have been attended to by contrivers of tubular boilers. It certainly has caused me the highest surprise that the plan I have described for heating tubes has not been generally made use of at an earlier period. Traces of it are found in some air-heating apparatus and in a few boilers, but little weight seems to have been attached to it, otherwise it would have been more zealously prosecuted. Ever since I have occupied myself with experiments upon steam boilers, the importance of this manner of leading the heat against evaporating vessels has presented itself to me, and I have unintermittingly striven to bring it to perfection. The result has justified my views as to its advantages, and therefore I recommend it to the further researches of my companions in science. The proportion of the heating surface of the tubes to the surface of the walls enclosing the heating chamber, is particularly favourable in this boiler. In the ordinary waggon and cylindrical boilers, the latter often considerably exceeds the former; in mine the ratio is only as 1 to 3 or 4, and often in large boilers as 1 to 6. This explains why so little heat is lost from the furnace, and why the steam may be raised so quickly.\(^{80}\) Large boilers so constructed have on this account considerable advantage over small ones. It is not necessary to line the whole of the interior of the heating chamber with fire-proof masonry. I have found that half the height is sufficient, as above this the heat has so much lost its intensity as to do no damage. It is remarkable that these boilers give as good results with a moderate draft as with a strong and intense fire. This is a considerable advantage on the score of durability. The heated current, after passing through the plate over the heating chamber, may be carried off in any method most suitable according to circumstances. Where there is only one heart, it may pass upwards in a flue between the separator and the receiver, and be thence conveyed to the chimney. The best situation for the chimney is by the side of the furnace, as it does not then interfere with the room for cleaning; and when so placed, the current may pass directly into it by a flue under the separators, as shown in figs. 31 and 32. This plan can be adopted when there are several hearts; I have used it so in my own boilers, and found it succeed well, both fire-places having the draft perfectly equal. The masonry between the separators and receivers may be a flat arch leaning against the vessels themselves as abutments. \(^{80}\) The boiling temperature is often reached in 20 or 25 minutes after lighting the fire. the figures, $v$ is the flue leading to the chimney, furnished with a damper $w$. 142. In conclusion of this part of my work I must remark, that it is in the highest degree disadvantageous to place the boiler and furnace in the same room with the engine. The boiler should always have a separate locality to itself, in order that the coal-dust and ashes, which are inevitably spread in the room by the firing, raking, &c., may not damage the working parts of the engine: these ought to be kept in the cleanest possible state, if they are to endure long without requiring repair. I always separate my engines most carefully from their boilers, and, where possible, I provide the door of communication between the two chambers with a self-acting arrangement to shut it when accidentally left open. I also, where circumstances will allow, fix a ventilating tube in the boiler-room, to carry off any vapour which may be present, and which would, if it reached the engine-room, fall on the polished parts and rust them. The more attention is paid to the elegance and cleanliness of the machine, the better will it work, and the longer will it endure. It is no superfluity to place a steam engine in a neat and well-ordered room, and to keep its parts in a polished and handsome condition; such care spares many expenses, and has at the same time the advantage of providing for the attendant a constant source of employment. Watchfulness, without settled material occupation, tires every one; and want of the latter often becomes the cause of absence of the former. PART III. ON THE ENGINE. ON THE ENGINE. 143. I now come to the consideration of the engine itself, in the construction of which there is great room for improvement. I have already had occasion to remark (Art. 43) that it is a great mistake to confine our attention to the boiler alone, the application of the steam in the engine being a point to which we may look for the most important results, in the economical improvements of the high-pressure engine. Before I enter on a complete and detailed description of my own plans, I will, following the system already adopted in the former parts of this work, offer some general considerations on the construction of the engine and its several parts, as usually made. The reader will thereby be enabled to judge to what points beneficial improvement ought most to be directed. GENERAL PLAN OF THE ENGINE. THE OSCILLATING CYLINDER. 144. I construct my engines generally with oscillating cylinders, making exceptions to the rule only in a few cases, where the locality or the object in view may require a different arrangement. It will easily be imagined that I have not adopted this form from any inconsiderate prejudice in its favour, but have had important grounds for my choice of a plan which has met with so much opposition. I have striven, not only to try the value of, but also to remove, the grounds of objection brought against the oscillating engine. 145. It was about the year 1821 that Aaron Manby first took out a patent for oscillating cylinders for steam engines, but a long time elapsed before any attention was paid to his scheme; and although it appears at 1 In the year 1823 the same idea occurred to me, without knowing of Manby's plan. 2 The Author gives some few historical particulars respecting the introduction of the oscillating engine into use; but as these are very imperfect, I have omitted them, and have endeavoured to supply a more correct history. The idea of making the steam cylinder vibrate upon trunnions or centres, and attaching the piston-rod directly to the crank-pin, first sprung from the prolific brain of Richard Trevithick. In the specification of the patent granted March 24th, 1802, to Trevithick and Vivian, the patentees describe a vertical sugar-mill worked by an engine on this principle, in which not the cylinder only, but the boiler, fire-grate, and chimney, all swing together in one piece upon a vertical axis, in the position shown in fig. 102 of the present work. The claim, however, was not limited to this combination, as the following passage shows: "In such cases or constructions as may render it more desirable to fix the boiler with its chimney and other apparatus, and to place the cylinder out of the boiler, the cylinder itself may be suspended for the same purpose, upon trunnions or pivots in the same manner; one or both of which trunnions or pivots may be perforated, so as to admit the introduction and escape of the steam or its condensation, as before mentioned." One could scarcely wish a better general description of the oscillating engine of the present day. Mr. Witty took out several patents, from 1810 to 1813, for engines with moveable cylinders; but it does not appear that either he or Trevithick ever put the invention in practice. The first oscillating engines actually made were constructed by Mr. Aaron Manby, of the Horseley Iron Works, Staffordshire, under a patent dated 9th May, 1821, in the specification of which he describes a pair of oscillating engines, working cranks at right angles to each other, and having one air-pump between them, precisely as used in steam vessels at the present time. Several of such engines were constructed and set to work by the patentee in conjunction with his son, Mr. Charles Manby, the present Secretary of the Institution of Civil Engineers: they worked some time, but in consequence of trouble with the valves, the plan was not immediately successful. It appears (by a memorandum now deposited in the Institution of Civil Engineers) that Mr. Manby at first intended to use the slide-valve; but fearing difficulty in the gearing, he abandoned that form, and introduced a kind of self-acting circular valve round the trunnion, which however, in practice, wore unequally, and could not be depended on. present to be gradually spreading, yet it is still more or less opposed by the general opinion of mechanical engineers. It may in some instances have been objected to from unworthy motives on the part of manufacturers: I will not waste time upon these, but will proceed at once to examine those objections against the oscillating engine which have real weight in the balance of truth. Such are the following. 146. First Objection.—It is said, that to set so great a mass as a steam cylinder in motion, causes great concussions, and requires a considerable expenditure of power; since every time the motion is reversed, the inertia of the mass must be arrested, and an impulse The final important improvement, namely, the adaptation of the slide-valve, which made the oscillating engine a good working machine, was patented by Joseph Maudslay, 1st August, 1827. In a prospectus published at the time, the patentee remarks— “Vibrating engines have not hitherto been successful for this reason, that from the difficulty in the application to them of some of the most vital parts of the best engines, these have been omitted, thereby causing not only a decrease in power, but also a considerable increase in the consumption of fuel. The difficulty, however, has been obviated in the ‘Improved Vibrating Engine,’ which combines all the essential parts of the most improved engines, and, with the same diameter of cylinder, is rendered equally effective, principally by the application of a D valve or slide, worked by an eccentric (not hitherto used in engines having vibrating cylinders), by means of which the steam is conveyed to and from the cylinder in the most economical and effective manner.” Two 10-horse engines on this plan were erected by Messrs. Maudslay and Field, in 1828, on board the *Endeavour*, a small boat built to ply between London and Richmond: she commenced running in May, 1829, and remained on the station till September, 1840. These may therefore be called the first successful oscillating engines. Several other boats were subsequently fitted with engines on the same plan, by this firm. About ten years ago, Mr. Spiller, of Battersea, made some further improvements to the valves and gearing, and soon afterwards, the plan was zealously given in a contrary direction. It is supposed that by this the cylinder, piston, and piston-rod receive injurious shocks and side strains, whereby the cylinder and the stuffing-box of the piston are caused to wear unequally. This objection might apply to large low-pressure engines where the piston-rod was not well guided, and where the moving parts had great weight. I leave it however to be considered whether the objection might not be urged with greater force against the ordinary side-levers or beams, which are usually heavier than the cylinder, and move through a proportionately greater vibratory arc. The objection can have but little weight with the smaller and lighter cylinder of high-pressure engines, especially with mine, which swing like a pen- applied and brought into more general notice by Messrs. Penn, of Greenwich, who, by their careful and persevering attention to the details, gained for the oscillating engine a high degree of favour. It is now extensively manufactured on a large scale by several marine engineers, among whom Messrs. Rennie and Messrs. Miller and Ravenhill may be mentioned as having made some of the largest engines. Those of the Pottinger, Ripon, and Indus, constructed by the latter firm, have cylinders 76 inches in diameter, and a stroke of 7 feet, equal to between 400 and 500-horse power the pair. The late general use of the oscillating or some other simple direct action engine, combined with the tubular boiler, and an increased pressure of steam, (all principles adopted and recommended by our Author,) on board steam vessels, has given the power of attaining a speed in the present day which, a few years ago, would have been deemed scarcely possible. Readers of this work must bear in mind, that although the oscillating plan is now so much in favour, such was not the case when the book was written. The preference given to it by the Author is clearly the result of his own honest investigation, adopted in direct opposition to what, according to his knowledge, was the prevailing opinion at the time; and free from all suspicion of following in the wake of others: the present success and late general use of the plan greatly enhance the merit of the Author's choice, and furnish a testimony to the value of his opinions.—Tr. dulum, and allow the power of gravity to act in checking the motion at the end of the vibration, and in giving an impulse in a contrary direction; so that the weight of the cylinder rather favours the motion than hinders it. There can scarcely be any mention of loss of power in such a case as this.\(^3\) As to the alleged rapid and unequal wear of the piston, rod, and stuffing-box, experience has shown this to be a matter too trifling, with cylinders of small dimensions, to deserve notice, and the parts which do become worn can easily be restored. The side thrust is much less than is usually supposed,\(^4\) and the wear of the stuffing-box thereby is insignificant, when properly constructed. I have found the brass bushes, when made adjustable by alteration of their position, last six years, and when too much worn, they are easily and quickly replaced with --- \(^3\) It is a great mistake to imagine that, leaving friction out of the question, there is any *loss* of power, in the aggregate, in setting the cylinder of the oscillating engine (or a reciprocating part of any engine) in motion, or in bringing it to rest. The laws of mechanics teach us, that all the power which is expended in setting such masses in motion is restored by their coming to rest again. In all such cases the power requisite to give velocity is, so to speak, only lent, not thrown away. The stroke of the Cornish engine is an excellent instance of this. See ‘Appendix G. to Tredgold,’ Art. 174; Moseley’s ‘Mechanics of Engineering,’ Art. 146.—Tr. \(^4\) This thrust depends principally on the friction of the trunnions, since the force requisite to move the cylinder (neglecting the effect of its weight and mass) is simply what is necessary to overcome this friction. Taking an engine of the dimensions shown in the Plates, and assuming the greatest pressure on the piston = 2000 lbs., and the co-efficient of friction \(\frac{1}{16}\), the friction of the gudgeon will be = 200 lbs. The radius of the gudgeon is 2 inches, and the distance from its centre to the stuffing-box is about 40 inches, giving a leverage of 20 to 1. The side thrust, therefore, upon the stuffing-box will be about 10 lbs. It is found in practice that the wear in oscillating engines is not greater than is often caused by the want of truth of the parallel motion in beam engines.—Tr. new ones. With larger cylinders it would be easy to adapt suitable guides for the piston-rod, but I have never found these necessary, even with engines of 30-horse power. I would make them of 50 or 60-horse, and am fully convinced they would compete in durability with beam engines, in which there is great danger of side thrust to the piston-rod, if the parallel motion is not kept in almost mathematical adjustment; a very difficult duty for ordinary engine attendants. 147. Second Objection.—It is thought by some that the piston, acting by its weight sometimes on one side of the cylinder, sometimes on the other, will produce unequal wear. This again could only apply where the pistons were very large and heavy, and were provided with metal packings, the springs of which easily gave way. With hemp packing, the piston is too securely guided to be affected by a slight side pressure, and the deviation from the vertical is too insignificant to be worth considering; in my engines the angle never exceeds 12 degrees, seldom 11. Cylinders are now used even horizontally, notwithstanding the great outcry that was once raised against this position, on account of the supposed unequal wear. 148. Third Objection.—This is perhaps the most weighty of all, affecting, to the best of my knowledge, all oscillating engines as at present constructed, and justly so. It is, the great friction of the trunnions upon which the cylinder swings. This friction is greater than many persons suppose, on account of the high temperature to which the trunnions are subject from the steam passing through them: with high-pressure steam the temperature reaches a point at which metals move upon each other with difficulty, and are subject to great attrition. As an example of the great increase of friction by heat, I will instance a common brass cock, which may be turned in its seat, when cold, with great ease; but under the heat of steam of 8 atmospheres, will stick so fast as to be scarcely moveable. It must not however be imagined, that because I acknowledge the weight of this objection, I allow a triumph to the enemies of the oscillating cylinder; on the contrary, I hope thereby to show more clearly the advantage of the arrangement I adopt, which removes the objection altogether. It is incomprehensible to me that my plan has not been before tried and used, it is so obvious and so simple. Perhaps this is because the weight of the objection has been generally too lightly esteemed. Experimenters have contented themselves with ascertaining the friction between metal surfaces in a cold state, and have hastily drawn general conclusions from these, without experiments and observations on the much greater friction under heat. In this manner the most unheard-of mistakes have been committed. According to my experience, the friction between metals at a high temperature, particularly when under considerable pressure also, increases in an alarming degree. I have even found that the copious use of unguents diminishes it but little, and am therefore always inclined to avoid it, wherever it is possible. Unfortunately, machinery working under such circumstances cannot always be dispensed with in steam engines, and we must therefore regard these cases as necessary evils, but must still strive to diminish them wherever we can. The instance under consideration is the most important of the kind, owing to the whole strain of the engine being thrown upon the cylinder trunnions. I shall hereafter show how I propose to get rid of the objection. 149. A Fourth Objection has been brought, that when the distance of the trunnion axis from the crank-shaft is too small, the vibrations are unequal, as is also the force transmitted to the machine. To which I answer, that there is no compulsion to make this distance too small; and that when it is suitably adapted, the objection applies to this case no more than to the ordinary connecting-rod.\(^5\) 150. So much for the objections against the oscillating cylinder. I will now proceed, on the other hand, to examine the advantages of this arrangement, always having particular reference to the high-pressure engine. First Advantage.—The oscillating cylinder simplifies the steam engine, particularly the high-pressure engine, in a very high degree. Against unnumbered scientific apparatus;—the massive beam; the parallelogram with its 18 or 20 joints; the colossal connecting-rod, and so forth;—the oscillating cylinder lays nothing in the scale, except two trunnions, with their bearings, and a single connecting piece between the piston-rod and the crank-pin; scarcely the thirtieth part of the former. An oscillating steam engine consists properly of nothing further than the cylinder, the crank, and the fly-wheel, \(^5\) Much abridged; the objection has no weight at all.—Tr. between which parts in the beam engine the most elaborate, weighty, complicated, and expensive organs of the whole machine lie. Instead of a costly array of apparatus to convert the rectilinear into the circular motion, the crank is worked directly by the piston-rod. Can anything more simple be imagined? 151. Second Advantage.—Oscillating engines, thus being more simple, require less trouble, labour, and time in their manufacture, and can be constructed in smaller and less perfectly arranged establishments than the old form; they require less expenditure in preparations, and fewer models. In my engines, as will be seen hereafter, the fitting is reduced as much as possible to the quickest and cheapest kind of work, namely, that which is done in the lathe: we have to do with scarcely any colossal and heavy parts, or, where these are made use of, they are as good as finished when they come out of the foundry; such, for example, are the framing and columns. 152. Third Advantage.—The oscillating engine has a more compact and compendious form, is more compressed, and requires very little space. It is therefore peculiarly well adapted to marine purposes, where there is usually but little room to spare. 153. Fourth Advantage.—The oscillating engine is much lighter than the common one. 154. Fifth Advantage.—It is more portable. An engine built by me at Güstrow may, with the exception of the boiler and the fly wheel, be carried by two men, although it is of three-horse power, and often works to four and a half. 155. Sixth Advantage.—It is cheaper;—a circumstance of great importance to all who have to purchase steam engines. 156. Seventh Advantage.—The oscillating engine is more simple in management, and requires less care and knowledge on the part of the engine attendant. It has only the simplest kind of apparatus to be looked after. Its construction is founded on no scientific calculations unknown to the attendant: the connection and action of its parts, the combination of their motions, and their dependence on each other, lie so clear before the eye, that the least gifted capacity cannot fail quickly to understand them. I confide in most cases the care of my engines to ordinary workmen, and am content with their service. This cannot be said always of the ordinary low-pressure engine. What exactness is required, for example, to maintain the true adjustment of the parallel motion,—an apparatus so delicate that even the unequal wear of a single link destroys the nicety of its proportions. 157. Eighth Advantage.—The oscillating engine has much less friction. The trunnions alone supply the place of the whole of the numerous gudgeons in the common mechanism for transferring the motion from the piston to the crank, and they only sustain half the pressure exerted on the centres of the ordinary beam. The plan I have adopted for reducing the friction of the trunnions, and putting them in fact in the position of ordinary bearings, will hereafter be explained.\(^6\) 158. Ninth Advantage.—On account of the small number of rubbing parts in the oscillating engine, the consumption of grease is diminished. In my ordinary engines only eight bearings are oiled, and many of these have very small rubbing surfaces. If the lubrication be performed judiciously and with a view to economy, an engine of 10-horse power ought not to consume more than a large table-spoonful of oil per day. 159. Tenth Advantage.—The oscillating engine, when properly constructed, requires, on account of its great simplicity, less repair than the ordinary engine. This will be evident from an examination of the construction of my engines, as hereafter described. It is an old proverb, that where there is little friction, there will be little wear. 160. Eleventh Advantage.—The principal parts of the oscillating engine are in such a position, that if they become defective, the defects are sooner discovered and more easily rectified than with the common beam engine. I refer more especially to the position of the axis of vibration of the cylinder with respect to the crank-shaft. In order to facilitate the constant maintenance of these in a position perfectly parallel to each other, I have so arranged the bearings that they are capable of easy adjustment. Those who have had to do with the common \(^6\) See Art. 214. beam engine know how difficult it is to keep all the moving parts, between the cylinder and crank, in a position of parallelism and perpendicularity with each other, and how many points are to be rectified when derangement occurs. In the oscillating engine, on the contrary, the adjustment can be effected by the aid of the simplest tests, known to every carpenter. 161. Twelfth Advantage.—The piston-rod of the oscillating engine requires no guiding. The stuffing-box suffices, when it is properly constructed with a view to this end. I have already stated that guides may be adapted to very large cylinders, and I will give in the after part of this work a plan for a simple arrangement of the kind; but in ordinary cases I do not deem them necessary. 162. Thirteenth Advantage.—Finally, in the oscillating engine the force of the steam is transmitted to the piston much more directly and advantageously than with the intervention of intermediate machinery; the whole action is more firm and steady; and the appearance at once strikes the eye with an impression of simplicity, solidity, and durability. The machine thus takes a higher and nobler character, and becomes more worthy of the exalted place it occupies in the economy of the world. 163. I hold that oscillating cylinders are less suitable for low-pressure steam engines than for high-pressure. The many pumps of the former take their motion in the simplest, firmest, and most secure manner from the beam, and every attempt to get rid of this organ in such engines has been in a greater or less degree unsuccessful, rendering the engine not more simple, as was intended, but more complicated and inconvenient. I do not however undertake to assert that oscillating cylinders are under all circumstances inapplicable to low-pressure engines. It is possible to adapt them in such form as to avoid overloading them with complicated machinery, and they would then be very suitable and highly to be recommended for steam vessels.\footnote{Witness the very general introduction of the oscillating plan for condensing engines on board steamers since this was written.—Tr.} I would not, however, devote time and trouble to such an adaptation, believing, as I do so firmly, in the superiority of the high-pressure system. I have thus endeavoured to estimate the merits of the oscillating engine, and to show with what success it solves one of the most difficult problems we have in the construction of the steam engine, namely, to convert rectilinear into circular motion. I now proceed to consider the construction of the various parts of the engine, having peculiar reference to the high-pressure plan. \textbf{THE STEAM CYLINDER.} 164. The cylinder is usually constructed of cast iron; sometimes of bell-metal or bronze. The latter is of course expensive, but is much preferable to cast iron, especially in cases where the engine has to make long stoppages. Bronze is not subject to rust, and does not suffer from moisture like iron. This is particularly important in reference to the packing of the piston when hemp is used; if rust forms on the sides of the cylinder, the hemp packing soon becomes much injured thereby, and, in addition to this disadvantage, the particles of rust collect in the packing, and cause much damage to the cylinder by attrition. The only defect of brass cylinders is, that they wear away more at high temperatures than iron of hard quality, although, from the glossy nature of the surface of the metal, they give less friction and require less lubrication. 165. Whenever possible, no side channel should open into that end of the cylinder in which the piston is introduced after it has been taken out for packing. The sharp edges of the opening graze and scratch the packing, and thus often spoil it before it has worked at all. It is very advisable to bore out this end of the cylinder a little conical, to facilitate the introduction of the piston, and the channel may then open into the enlarged part, where its edges will not touch the packing as it enters. 166. The cylinder covers must be strong, and have projections entering into the cylinder, well fitted to their places. These projections also serve to strengthen the covers, as well as to fill up the vacant space in the cylinder where the steam-ports enter, and so to prevent waste of steam. For this purpose they should pass quite over the opening of the ports, and have a channel cut in them, to allow the passage of the steam. If the projections are turned slightly conical, the cylinder bored to correspond, and then both ground together, an excellent steam-tight joint may be made. 167. The stuffing-box for the piston-rod of an oscillating cylinder must have a considerable length or height, not so much for the sake of the packing, as in order to obtain a good length of metal above and below it, to serve as a guide for the piston-rod. When the piston stands at the end of its stroke nearest to the stuffing-box, the distance from the outer end of the stuffing-box to that side of the piston most distant from it, should not be less than $1\frac{1}{2}$ times the diameter of the cylinder, (in the drawing it is more,) in order that the guidance may be secure in this, the most unfavourable position, and that the piston may acquire no tendency to edge (ecken) in the cylinder, or to be strained unduly towards either side.\(^8\) The stuffing-box should always be provided with loose bushes, so arranged as to allow of being turned partially round, and fixed by set screws, when they become worn oval by the side pressure of the rod: they then present fresh surfaces to the friction. They should also be easily replaced with new ones when this becomes necessary. The hemp packing of the stuffing-box should never be too small: long and thick packings close softer and tighter round the rod than short and thin. I shall hereafter describe methods of lubricating the stuffing-box when it is placed on the lower cover of the cylinder. 168. The steam-jacket round the cylinder has formed the subject of much discussion. I believe that Woolf over-rated its advantages, but they are not to be altogether denied. I do not use a steam casing for the reason I \(^8\) It is a very good plan, where practicable, to allow the piston-rod to pass through both ends of the cylinder. This cannot, however, be done with the form of engine recommended by the Author, owing to the position of the slide-valve and its box.—Tr. have elsewhere assigned, namely, that it dries up the moisture in the hemp packing, which is essential to its good condition. It is natural that there must be advantage in supplying free caloric to the expanding steam in the cylinder where it is deficient; but whether it is advantageous to abstract such caloric from the steam about to enter the cylinder, is quite another question.\(^9\) Some engineers conduct a flue from the furnace round the cylinder, but this must endanger the packing of the piston. I believe that the steam casing may be dispensed with if the outside of the cylinder be either polished, or surrounded with a covering of some bad conductor of heat, such as wood, felt, or thick cloth, over which, for the sake of appearance, a thin casing of iron or brass plate may be fixed. Or if this casing can be made air-tight, the sheet of air left between it and the cylinder will form the best non-conductor, and no other substance will be required. The simpler the arrangement is made, the better. **THE PISTON.** 169. In a Paper published by me some time since, I have given reasons why I consider that pistons with metallic packings are unfit for steam engines working under high pressure; and have stated my conviction that the failure of Perkins’s attempts to introduce steam of great elasticity arose from his making use of pistons of this description. My reasons for this opinion are grounded \(^9\) The Cornish engines are not so arranged. The jacket is supplied by a separate communication from the boilers: see ‘Appendix G. to Tredgold,’ Art. 97; also note on page 60 of the present work.—Tr. upon known facts and long experience, although many practical men consider metallic pistons absolutely necessary for the high-pressure engine. I have become convinced of the contrary from the examination of many applications of the kind, where I have always found great friction and more or less loss of power result from their use; and I believe that to this cause the small useful effect of many modern high-pressure engines is to be ascribed. The pistons have often been very improperly made, both as regards the arrangement of their parts and the material of which they have been constructed. I will point out generally some of the more important difficulties which stand in the way of the favourable use of metallic pistons. 170. First. There are few manufactories which possess boring apparatus so perfect as to bore cylinders, particularly very large ones, with the great exactness absolutely necessary when metallic pistons are used. All those who know by experience the difficulty there is in fitting even small metallic surfaces together, with such exactness as to resist the subtle penetrating influence of high-pressure steam,—and, what is a greater difficulty, to retain their steam-tight condition when in constant motion upon each other,—such persons will easily imagine what an almost insuperable difficulty it must be to make the parts of a metallic piston fit and remain in perfect contact with so extensive a surface as that of a steam cylinder. It is evident that an extraordinary degree of exactness must be attained in the boring, or that a tedious operation of grinding must be gone through,—a process which often damages the piston, and makes it unsound, by the penetration of the grinding material into its joints, and which after all only removes the lesser defects of the boring, while the more important ones remain. How often a good and sound-cast cylinder may be spoiled by imperfections in the boring apparatus, is unfortunately too well known to all who have had to do with machine making. It is almost superfluous to add that these difficulties increase with the diameter of the cylinder. 171. Second. The manufacture of a good metallic piston is fraught with as much difficulty as that of the cylinder. This increases, the more complicated the piston is in its design, and the more parts it contains which are required to fit steam-tight upon each other. Such work can only be expected to be done at first-class establishments, provided with the most perfect tools and apparatus for the purpose. A metallic piston must not even be of mediocre, much less of inferior, workmanship; it requires peculiarly skilful workmen for its manufacture, and these cannot always be met with in this world of imperfection.\(^{10}\) 172. Third. A metallic piston, ground and fitted into the cylinder while in a cold state, alters its condition altogether under the heat and pressure of highly elastic steam. The heat expands the cylinder and piston unequally, if, as is generally the case, they are of different metals. The segments remain no longer concentric with the cylinder, and the proportions of the parts of the \(^{10}\) The Author is perhaps not cognizant of the almost unprecedented improvement in engineering tools which has taken place in England within the last few years. These difficulties, therefore, are by no means so formidable as they were.—Tr. piston to each other become changed, whereby leakage occurs. In high-pressure engines, where the heat is greater, and the steam more penetrating, the evil becomes of course greater in proportion. 173. Fourth. Metallic pistons do not, as is generally supposed, grind themselves more perfectly steam-tight in working, but usually become more imperfect; their rubbing surfaces are soon more or less injured, particularly when the lubrication may chance to fail, or when an unsuitable metal is chosen. And when once damage begins, even in a small degree, the destruction of both piston and cylinder is quick and inevitable. The accumulation of rust in the cylinder after the engine has been standing, is a fruitful source of damage; as is also bad water. 174. Fifth. The separate parts of metallic pistons often stick so fast upon each other, by the expansion under heat, as to lose all mobility, and so to become quite useless. I have often seen instances of this kind with pistons which acted perfectly well when cold. The segments, be they of what metal they may, cohere firmly together, no matter how well they may be lubricated. I have already alluded to the greatly increased friction of metals when heated. Similar metals are worse in this respect than dissimilar; but dissimilar metals cannot be used in the manufacture of a piston, on account of the unequal expansion. 175. Sixth. Metallic pistons are subject to much greater friction than is generally supposed; according to my experience, greater than those properly packed with hemp. Here again I must refer to the remarks made in Art. 148. Persons have been too apt to fall into the great error of estimating the friction by what it is when cold. I only became myself first aware of the mistake by finding that a piston of 6 inches diameter, which moved with a force of 6 lbs. when cold, required much more power to put it in motion when heated. A metallic piston is under the great disadvantage, compared with a hemp packing, that the friction of the former always increases considerably with heat, while the latter works more easily, although still retaining its steam-tight condition. More than a hundred observations have proved this to me. 176. Seventh. The springs used for pressing the segments or rings against the cylinder, be they constructed of what form they may, lose their elasticity by great increase of temperature. This objection is also applicable to those pistons in which the rings are themselves elastic. 177. Eighth. The segments or rings must project somewhat beyond the top and bottom plates of the piston itself, in order that the latter may not rub against the cylinder. This annular projection, even though small, receives an injurious pressure from highly elastic steam. 178. Ninth. The segments or rings, as we have already said, scarcely ever fit so tight to the cylinder that high-pressure steam cannot intrude here and there between them. The consequence of this is a tendency to overcome the power of the springs, and force the segments still more from the side of the cylinder, making the leak still larger. It may be said that the remedy is to admit the steam into the body of the piston, and make it act also in conjunction with the springs: this, however, has the evil of pressing the parts which do touch the cylinder, so forcibly against it, as to increase the friction to an enormous extent. 179. Tenth. In no metallic piston is perfect provision made that the several parts shall preserve their favourable proportions to each other as they wear away, so that the steam-tight condition may be preserved after considerable use, as it ought to be. In some, the arrangement of the segments, rings, or wedges, is such as to hinder their proper motion upon each other; and thus to prevent their favourable action as they expand. 180. Eleventh. Many metallic pistons consist of too many separate parts, segments, and rings, the fitting of which upon each other, so as to be steam-tight and to retain their free motion, involves endless difficulty. They are seldom perfect at first, and can never remain so long. 181. Twelfth. Many pistons wear the cylinder unequally. This is an old complaint brought against Barton’s piston, the wedges of which are said to press forward with more force than the segments, and so tend to furrow or groove the cylinder. 182. Thirteenth. Metallic pistons are sometimes constructed of unsuitable metal; as for example, of tempered steel. This is very prejudicial, especially with high-pressure engines. I have myself noticed that steel pistons not only cause great friction, but also quickly destroy the cylinder. 183. The difficulties above stated increase as steam of a higher pressure is used. All who have had so much and so long to do with great elasticities as I have, will confirm my opinion: those who have only been accustomed to pressures of two or three atmospheres may not agree with me; but I have already amply enlarged upon the insufficiency of such an elasticity for the efficient working of the high-pressure engine. I will now state the reasons why I prefer pistons with hemp packing to all others; these are as follow: 184. First. I have convinced myself that they work perfectly steam-tight under a pressure of eight atmospheres, provided that the piston and cylinder are in tolerably good condition, and that the packing is of good material and properly laid in. I have frequently made experiments with my engines to ascertain if the packing were steam-tight, by fastening the engine in one position, and turning on steam of eight atmospheres' pressure. I seldom found any leakage worth notice, even though the piston moved with so little friction as to lead to the conjecture that the steam would blow through in streams. Hemp packing has been sometimes suspected of being unsound; but this I ascribe to the use of the steam-jacket, which deprives the hemp of moisture, and makes it shrivel up by the heat, and lose its steam-tight condition. A small degree of moisture is necessary to preserve to the hemp its cohesion and elasticity. 185. Second. Hemp packing has much less friction than many suppose. Experience has proved this to me. One of the most striking instances was with an engine of 2-horse power, which once worked so easily, that I was curious to examine the packing. I found it tight under a pressure of six atmospheres, and yet the 6-inch piston was moved with a force of scarcely 10 lbs. Since the introduction of metallic pistons, many attempts have been made to bring the hemp packing into discredit, and many charges have been brought against it, particularly on the grounds of leakage and friction, without proper investigation as to whether they were well founded or not. Bernouilli\(^{11}\) states the friction of metal and hemp packings to stand respectively in the proportion of 3 to 4; my experience would lead me to invert the ratio, making metal the greater, that is, when the cylinder and the packing are in good condition. I have constantly the fact before my eyes, that the piston may be tight under a pressure of eight atmospheres without any great depth of packing, or formidable pressure against the cylinder, and consequently without any great friction. I have before remarked on the fact, that a great advantage of hemp packing is, that its friction decreases with heat, while with metal the reverse is the case. I have often known the friction of the former only one-fourth or one-fifth as great as in a cold state. This diminution has often astonished me, and I have found it somewhat difficult to explain. The cylinder certainly expands, but so does the piston also, and the packing swells too, both from the action of the heat and the moisture. Whatever be the explanation, the fact is certain, and may be proved by any \(^{11}\) 'Handbuch der Dampfmaschinenlehre,' p. 240. one who will try it for himself. Had this and the following advantage been more known and considered, we should have heard less about metallic pistons in modern days. 186. Third. Hemp packings, when well attended to and lubricated, are much more durable than is generally supposed. I have retained them half a year without their losing their soundness in the least, or the hemp being in the least destroyed. In bronze cylinders they would last still longer. It is therefore an unfounded calumny against hemp packing to say, as some do, that it requires constant renewal, at great trouble and expense; for even when the renewing is required, hemp is so cheap a material, that under good arrangements the cost is insignificant; and though the operation certainly requires care, it is neither troublesome nor laborious. Nor is the occasional screwing down of the packing a matter worth mentioning: but when once a metallic piston gets out of repair, the expense and inconvenience become serious indeed. I give then, on the whole, decidedly the preference to hemp-packed pistons for high-pressure steam. This judgment on my part may be considered impartial, since I have not only had good opportunity of practically trying both kinds, and of gathering information respecting them, but have also myself invented two metallic pistons which I think may not be classed among the worst of the kind. 12 Described in Dingler's 'Polytech. Journ.' vol. xxxii. page 153. [This opinion of the Author against metallic pistons is one which English engineers will be likely to differ from. The piston now so much used in England, consisting of a single elastic ring with a tongue-joint, is certainly free from many of the Author's objections, and in many cases works exceedingly well. It is not to be wondered at that he rejected all the old complicated combinations of segments, springs, &c.; but whether he has tried this simplest of all forms does not appear.—Tr.] 187. The common hemp rope-yarns (Hanfflechten), consisting simply of hemp twisted loosely together, make, when the cylinder is clean and polished, by far the best packing. They allow of being laid firmly round the body of the piston, are spongy and elastic, adapt themselves steam-tight to the sides of the cylinder, absorb the grease with great avidity, and retain it a long time. It is doubtful, however, whether it is prudent to use these when the sides of the cylinder may have suffered from rust and become rough: the fibres are in too loose a condition, not bound firmly enough together, are too little twisted; they soon get loosened by the friction, and are decomposed and blown out in small particles with the steam from the cylinder. I was particularly impressed with this fact on one occasion, when, from some unknown cause, (possibly the presence of free sulphuric acid in the tallow,) the cylinder of my Güstrow engine became somewhat roughened. The hemp packing of the piston, which had already worked satisfactorily, and remained perfectly tight for a quarter of a year, suddenly became leaky, the engine blew through, and its power could scarcely be kept up with even a very strong fire. When I removed the piston for examination, I found its packing entirely decomposed on one side, and a considerable piece of it gone. Not suspecting then the state of the cylinder, I attributed the decay of the packing to too long wear, and replaced it with a new one, fully expecting this to remedy the evil. How astonished was I to find the same symptoms occur again after only two days. The experiment was repeated with the same result. The engine could not be stopped to re-polish the cylinder; I therefore packed the piston again, using this time loose unspun hemp, which however was destroyed in half the time of the former. I then tried a gasket of hempen string about the thickness of pack-thread, and had the satisfaction to find this answer well, enduring much longer than I had expected. It was made by a rope-maker entirely in the common way, but twisted so that each of the three twists of the gasket contained four or five threads of the hempen string. I discovered afterwards, however, that this packing, when the cylinder was re-polished, caused more friction, retained less elasticity, and required more attention than the kind I have above described: I therefore am inclined to prefer for most cases the rope of loose unspun fibres, and strongly recommend that care should be taken to keep the cylinder in a good and smooth condition, that the packing may work well and last long. This is best attained by lubricating at the proper times, and with good pure grease, taking care to add a sufficient quantity to cover the sides of the cylinder when the engine stands: at this time also the throttle-valve should be carefully shut, that no steam may enter and condense in the cylinder; the moisture left behind will be soon evaporated by the heat. The piston should be left low in the cylinder, and the crank turned a little, that the eduction port to the upper part of the cylinder may be opened. The grease will then be left alone behind, and will preserve the iron from rust. Bronze cylinders require of course less care of this kind. 188. Much injury is done to hemp pistons by bad tallow, particularly such as contains much animal fibre or membrane. These substances stick fast and harden in the hemp, and make the packing stiff and hard, whereby the qualities necessary to a tight and elastic condition are impaired. One cannot exercise too much caution with respect to the kind of tallow used. If it is found to leave a dark brown sediment upon the cylinder and in the stuffing-boxes, it is not fit for use. Most vegetable oils contain a slimy substance which penetrates into and hardens the packing, and therefore these also should be condemned for this kind of lubrication. ON THE LENGTH OF STROKE. 189. In modern times, particularly in America, a very long stroke has been introduced, principally for steam vessels, where one would think it was least applicable on account of the want of height. Much difference of opinion has prevailed on the subject of the length of stroke; I will state the results of my own experience. Although I well know that a reciprocating motion is always accompanied with loss, and that this loss is increased as the rapidity with which the motion is changed increases, I am yet inclined to think that this disadvantage has many modifying circumstances in practice, and is influenced in an important degree by the construction of the engine, and the size and weight of the parts put in reciprocating motion. It appears to me that the low-pressure engine, working with a massive beam and heavy connecting machinery, is particularly well suited to a long stroke and a slow velocity of the piston. Watt gave his engines a longer and slower stroke principally in order to gain time for condensation, but this motive falls entirely away with the high-pressure engine. I prefer a short stroke for my engines, unless special circumstances require it to be otherwise; taking care, however, to make suitable provisions in the construction of the engine, i.e. to put smaller masses in motion and to make the steam passages sufficiently large. I construct all the reciprocating parts strong and durable, and I give the whole machine great firmness and stability. With such precautions I have never known any perceptible disadvantage arise from the shortness of the stroke. In many respects, however, an engine with a short stroke and quick motion has manifest advantages over one on a contrary construction. Such are— First. It does not require so large and heavy a fly-wheel, and therefore suffers less loss from friction. Second. It may have lighter driving shafts, another cause of diminished friction. Third. A quicker motion allows a more extensive and successful use of the principle of expansion, the inequality in the action being less felt. Fourth. Engines with a short stroke take much less room, are more compressed and compendious in their form, and have greater stability and solidity. My engines never require great height, a circumstance which gives them many advantages. My experience has never confirmed the common opinion as to the disadvantages of a short stroke and quick motion. It is said that engines so built require more repair than those on the contrary plan, but I have not found this, when care has been taken to give the parts sufficient strength, and to place the engine on a good and steady foundation. My engines, at least, have never given me reason to complain on this ground, and I trust to the correctness of the scriptural test, "By their works ye shall know them." I am acquainted only with one disadvantage to the use of a short stroke and quick motion, namely, that the cylinder and piston-rod are subject to more attrition, being rubbed over oftener as the motion is more frequently changed in a given time. Whether, however, this objection is worthy of mention in opposition to so many valuable advantages on the other hand, particularly with the small high-pressure cylinder, is another question. If good hard metal is used, the engine will work for many years without this evil being felt. 190. Attempts have been lately made to adapt single-acting engines to produce circular motion: this is, in my opinion, a retrograde step. The discovery of the double-acting engine by Watt was one of the greatest triumphs of his age: it was received on all sides with admiration, and speaks its own merits as clearly as they have been proved by universal experience. The attempt to go back to the old imperfect fashion is to me unintelligible. Is it supposed that because the great Cornish pumping engines give a high duty, there is a magic in their single action? or is it thought that the steam is so self-willed as to refuse to follow the same laws below as above the piston? ON THE VALVES. 191. The valves\(^{13}\) used for steam engines may be \(^{13}\) Steurung, literally steering, is a general term for the whole apparatus by which the steam is caused to pass alternately into and out of the cylinder. We have no corresponding word in English.—Tr. divided into two great classes. One comprises conical, seat, or stalk-valves; the other, slides, pistons, and cocks. In the first class the steam channels are opened and closed by conical plates falling into fixed seats to which they are ground. The valves are furnished with stalks, serving partly to guide them, and partly to give them motion from without the box in which they work. The second class includes all valves in which the channel or port is closed by a metal plate, sliding steam-tight upon it; at one time closing it by a blank surface of metal, at another presenting to it a corresponding hole, through which the communication is left uninterrupted. 192. It is plain that the valves of the first class shut the communication by simple steam-tight contact of their surfaces, without rubbing; while the latter, having metal surfaces sliding upon each other, are subject to considerable friction, which increases to an important degree in high temperatures. Hence the first class of valves would have a decided preference over the second, particularly for high-pressure engines, were they not accompanied by many inconveniences which outweigh their good qualities in a greater or less degree. I have only discovered the existence and weight of these inconveniences by keeping up a long and unpleasant warfare with them, in which I have been compelled to confess myself beaten. During my earliest practice with high-pressure engines, I not only preferred stalk-valves, but considered them indispensable for this kind of engine. At that time, however, I wanted experience, and I worked, moreover, with a much higher elasticity than I have since found it expedient to use. Further practice has changed my views on the subject, by showing me the great defects of these valves. I will relate the results of my experience as briefly as possible. 193. First. Stalk-valves require very complicated machinery, even when made with every regard to simplicity. All the rods must pass steam-tight through stuffing-boxes, of which there must be at least four, and these require much care, attention, and lubrication. This, however, is not all the evil. Each valve must have an especial motive apparatus for itself, involving the use of many pieces of mechanism, and many joints, which require much trouble and exactness in the manufacture, cost much money, and are often liable to damage, owing to the frequent concussions and jerkings they are subject to in their motion. The greatest difficulty, however, is, that the gearing must not only open the valve, but must also shut it again, in such a manner as to deposit it gently in its seat, that it may not receive an injurious shock from the action of the steam suddenly forcing it down. Moreover, the end of the motion must exactly correspond with the position of the valve in its seat, to avoid injurious strains. These are difficult problems to solve, especially with oscillating cylinders, where the whole apparatus is in constant motion, and where the necessary closing of the steam-valve for expansion is scarcely possible to be arranged by the ordinary gearing. 194. Second. The steam, when of high elasticity, exercises a great pressure upon the stalk-valves, and renders them very difficult to open, giving great and injurious strains to the whole apparatus. The Cornish double-beat valve\(^{14}\) removes indeed a great part of the pressure, but is complicated and difficult to make, and cannot be used for small engines. Balance weights and springs do no good, as the strain is not constant, but only exerted at a particular moment. 195. Third. Stalk-valves soon lose their tight contact, and become leaky. Strange bodies easily get upon the faces, and soon become so tightly hammered in by the pressure, that the current of steam has no longer power to force them away. Such are especially sand, small particles of wood or metal, rust, fibres of hemp from the packing, or bits of lead from the joints, dirt of many kinds which may come over from the boiler, and so on. The name of such substances is legion, and it is exceedingly difficult to keep the valves free from them, even when the greatest care and cleanliness are observed. The worst of the kind are those which are hard and sharp, such as sand or particles of metal; these often stick fast in the faces, and damage them so that they can only be repaired by re-grinding. In many of my first engines constructed with seat-valves, the interruptions from this cause became excessively troublesome: notwithstanding the engines were under my own care, and the greatest attention was bestowed upon them, their action could never long be trusted to, and the valve apparatus was always found to be the root of the evil. The seat-valves were finally removed and replaced with slides: in the largest engine, these have worked now \(^{14}\) Vide 'Appendix G. to Tredgold,' Arts. 112 to 115.—Tr. several years, and have never once been in disorder, or interrupted the action of the engine. The slide-valve, when it is once ground tight, has a tendency to remain so, and to remove, instead of fixing, all extraneous matters. Another cause of the leakage of stalk-valves is their not falling true into their seats, whereby they bear more against one side than the other. This may be occasioned by several causes; as imperfection in the packing of the stuffing-boxes; or unequal screwing down of their glands; or want of truth in the machinery. Many attempts have been made to get rid of these evils, and I myself have striven to do so; but the chances of derangement are so many, that it is an endless contest, and even the most determined and persevering efforts must at last give way. I need scarcely add that the leakage assumes a much more alarming aspect with a subtle and penetrating fluid like 'steam of eight atmospheres' elasticity, than with ordinary pressures: the least faults become here of the highest importance. 196. In short, according to my experience, seat-valves are wholly unsuitable for high-pressure engines: they are never trustworthy or secure; they require double attention, exactness, trouble, and patience, and do not act perfectly after all. I therefore decidedly recommend slides; I have tried them during a period of eight or ten years, and have had no reason to be dissatisfied with them. Although working under great heat and pressure, they have caused no important friction, nor suffered any great wear. 197. In thus preferring the sliding principle, however, it must be understood that I am far from recommending the whole of the valves comprehended under the second general class I have named, i.e. all valves which slide, including cocks, pistons, &c. I only refer to the single variety with flat surfaces, known in England by the simple name slide,\(^{15}\) and which I shall hereafter describe as adapted to my engine. Pistons are very defective, and cocks the worst kind of all: they wear unequally, are constantly either too loose or too tight in their sockets, and cause endless trouble.\(^{16}\) 198. One great advantage of the slide-valve is, that it requires only the simplest gearing; one single backward and forward motion suffices, and this, in my engines, is supplied by the motion of the cylinder itself, merely requiring an arrangement of the most simple kind to connect the slide-rod with a fixed point in the framing of the machine. 199. It has generally been thought that a serious objection to the slide-valve lies in the great pressure upon it, under steam of a high elasticity, and the great friction caused thereby. I was originally of this opinion, and considered that this evil disqualified all sliding apparatus for the valves of high-pressure engines; and even when I later gave the preference to slide-valves, I spent much trouble in endeavouring to contrive methods of lessening \(^{15}\) Or three-ported valve; it is more generally used than any other.—Tr. \(^{16}\) Cocks are imperfect and troublesome machines in even the commonest situations where they act under heat. How much more so then for such a purpose as that alluded to in the text.—Tr. the pressure, and consequent friction. Experience, however, which is the best teacher, has convinced me that the objection has much less weight than is generally imagined, and that in reality no such contrivances are necessary. The power consumed in working the valve is but small, and it must be recollected that in high-pressure engines, although the pressure is greater, the surface of the valve is much smaller in proportion to the power of the engine.\(^{17}\) **STEAM AND EDUCATION PASSAGES.** 200. Unpardonable mistakes are often committed in reference to the size of the openings by which the steam passes into and out of the cylinder, particularly with high-pressure engines. I believe the cause why so many engines of this kind act badly is a defective arrangement of the eduction passages. Watt laid down a rule which is universally applicable, but which seems not to have been sufficiently attended to in modern days. He gave the proportion between the diameter of the cylinder and that of the steam and eduction-pipes, as 5 to 1; and according to my experience this answers well for high as well as low-pressure engines. I have often found inconvenience and loss of power from the eduction passages being too small: sometimes the condensed water collecting in the \(^{17}\) The power consumed in working the valve may be estimated thus to a tolerable approximation. In the engine drawn in the Plates, the area of the valve is about \(\frac{1}{3}\) the area of the cylinder; and supposing the co-efficient of friction between the surfaces \(= \frac{1}{10}\), the force required to move the valve will be \(= \frac{1}{30}\) that on the piston. The valve travels over about \(\frac{1}{10}\) the space that the piston does, and therefore the work or power consumed in working the valve will be \(= \frac{1}{300}\) that of the engine; i.e. if the engine be 10-horse power, the valve will require about \(\frac{1}{30}\)-horse power.—Tr. passages would offer a very serious opposition to the exit of the steam, and cause so great an extra resistance to the engine as to reduce its velocity one-third, until the pipe was cleared. I have before had occasion to notice the extraordinary fact, that when the steam blows out freely at a considerable pressure, it tends to form a slight vacuum before the piston: it is easily understood that to produce such an effect the exit must not be confined. EXPANSION. 201. I always make use of the principle of expansion in my engines, cutting off the steam generally at one-third of the stroke by means of a separate slide worked by the principal valve. This arrangement simplifies exceedingly the machinery, requiring only one stuffing-box, and no separate apparatus for working the expansion slide. 18 Vide note on page 56. On a late visit to the Author I took occasion to ask him some more particulars respecting the singular fact mentioned in this note, namely, the apparent production of a partial vacuum before the piston by the sudden blowing out of the steam. He not only repeated more fully the evidence derived from the grease-cock drawing air, but related another fact still more conclusive. He had erected an engine in a small steamer, and the waste steam was discharged at a pressure of about three atmospheres through a long eduction-pipe of tin plate, leading from the engine to the funnel. This pipe, being weak, was observed to suffer a kind of collapse,—a sort of squeezing inwards, every stroke, at the moment the steam blew through: it remained so some time, until one day while Dr. Alban was standing near, the sides of the pipe were suddenly compressed flat together with great force and with a loud report, in a manner which could only have arisen from overpowering external pressure. The pipe was hot, there was no rain, nor any cause that could have condensed the vapour inside; and in this case, as in that of the grease-cock, the relator (who must be allowed to be no inexperienced observer in such matters) declares he could give no reasonable explanation of the reduction of the internal pressure, except that assigned on page 56. These appearances were only observed when the steam was discharged at considerable pressure, viz. about three or four atmospheres.—Tr. Much difference of opinion has been expressed with reference to the degree of expansion most advantageous to be used: many theoretical calculations have been made to determine the point, but they all appear contradictory and unsatisfactory. Practical considerations form the best guide, and these are often left entirely out of view by mere mathematicians. Although theoretically the economical advantage increases with the degree of expansion used, it is evident that a practical limit must be assigned by the inequality of the steam's action on the piston.\textsuperscript{19} It is, moreover, necessary to consider the pressure the steam should have on its leaving the cylinder. Experience gives the best rules on these points. Oliver Evans, who had much practice with pressures such as I use, cut off the steam in his engines at one-third the stroke: I have adopted the same proportion, as a golden mean, and have found it perfectly satisfactory. The action is sufficiently regular, not requiring any extra weight in the fly-wheel, and yet a considerable economical benefit is gained.\textsuperscript{20} \textsuperscript{19} As well as by the reduction of power, or greater size of cylinder required to do the same work.—Tr. \textsuperscript{20} The Author gives in the original an elaborate answer, occupying 20 pages, to a Paper by Mr. G. Holworthy Palmer (published in the ‘Trans. Inst. C. E.,’ vol. ii. page 33), the object of which is to deny the advantages of expansion. I have not thought it necessary to insert this, as I cannot believe these advantages are any longer questioned. After all that has been said and written on the subject of expansion, I know no better, simpler, or more convincing proof of its advantages than that given by Watt in his original patent of 1782. The Author appears to have taken great pains to make himself master of his subject; his remarks contain much sound sense and forcible reasoning. Some persons have an idea that the benefits of expansion may be realized by merely throttling or wire-drawing the steam as it passes from the boiler to the cylinder. This is a strange delusion. The object of expansion is to work the steam \textit{twice over}: without this there can be no gain.—Tr. Some manufacturers have made the governor of the engine to act upon the expansion apparatus, instead of on the throttle-valve. This is, according to my opinion, an arrangement the advantages of which by no means compensate for its trouble and complexity. THE CONDENSER. 202. A condenser is only advantageous for a high-pressure engine under certain circumstances, and then it must be of the simplest possible construction, with no air-pump. This pump is fortunately not necessary when high-pressure steam is used, as the steam blowing out from the cylinder may be made to act in its stead. The gain of the vacuum, where it can be simply obtained, is certainly worthy of consideration. 203. The circumstances under which a condenser may be favourably adapted to a high-pressure engine are, First. When there is an abundance of cold water at hand, without requiring much cost or trouble to obtain it. Second. When the engine is very large, and the gain by condensation consequently more important. Or, Third. When the steam blowing out from the engine cannot be used for any useful object. This does not often happen, for there are few engines where there are not at least rooms to be heated, or water to be warmed, or something of that kind which will give a greater advantage from the waste steam than the application of a condenser. The condenser for a high-pressure engine may be either with or without injection: in both kinds the water and air may be driven out by a blast of steam every stroke. The water should not be used for feeding the boiler, on account of the grease it contains. (See Art. 104.) My condensers are in the highest degree simple, consisting only of a single pipe and a valve, with a small cock where injection is used. I shall describe them hereafter. **DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTHOR'S ENGINES.** 204. I now proceed to describe my engines, and the various apparatus belonging to them, more in detail. The kind of engine I recommend as a normal form, for all cases in which peculiar circumstances do not render a different arrangement preferable, is shown in Plates XII. XIII. XIV. XV. Figs. 54 and 55 are a front and side elevation respectively; and figs. 56 and 57, sections, both taken in the axis of the cylinder. The same letters refer to the same parts in all these figures. The figures represent an engine of 10 horse-power. The dimensions may be found from the scales. 205. *The Framing.*—This is entirely constructed of iron; wood being too changeable for the purpose. The form is Doric, and the general dimensions and proportions may be obtained from the figures. I will confine myself to describing the manner in which it is put together, and such other particulars as more especially interest the manufacturer. The whole frame consists of six principal parts, fastened together with four strong bolts, and forming a solid whole which experience has shown to be perfectly firm and free from vibration under all circumstances, although its base is not very extended. These parts are, the top plate A, the four columns B, and the bottom plate C, all of cast iron. The top plate is 7 inches wide, the bottom one 10 inches, and both are $1\frac{1}{4}$ inch thick, strengthened with ribs aa. In the four corners of the top plate, where the columns are fixed, the metal is thickened $\frac{1}{2}$ an inch between the ribs, as seen at aa in figs. 60, 61, and 88; and the inner angles of both the top and bottom plates are filled up, in the manner shown at b, figs. 61 and 62. The attachment of the columns to the plates is seen clearly in these figures. The columns are fluted, and are cast hollow, leaving metal of sufficient strength for firmness and solidity. The lower end may be thickened a little as at f, fig. 59. The capitals are cast separate; the manner in which they are fixed to the columns is shown at ee, fig. 60; at d, fig. 61, the angle is filled up, that the corner (c) of the top plate may rest upon it. The bolts for screwing down the columns are of considerable strength, and furnished with strong nuts. The head of each must be securely welded on, and the bolt formed square under the head, to pass through a square hole in the bottom plate, and prevent the bolt from turning when screwed up. Wrought iron washers are placed under the nuts, and the upper surface of these should be slightly oiled, to diminish the friction when the nuts are screwed up tight. The bottom plate stands on a plinth or sill-frame of dry sound oak, and this must be bedded on a foundation of solid deep masonry: if the ground is bad, piling should be resorted to, as the foundation cannot be too secure. The bottom plate should be screwed down to the sill and to the foundation by eight strong holding-down bolts, passing through the whole. The entablature E is a box of cast iron bolted upon the upper plate; it fits over the rib of the plate, coming flush with its edge, and forming a handsome completion of the Doric design. Its interior serves to contain much of the machinery, as will hereafter be described. The Doric triglyphs, &c., are of cast iron, riveted on: the cornice is of good dry oak, slipped over from above; it should have a plate of wrought iron on its top, to prevent its edge being injured when a ladder is reared against it. 206. The plummer-blocks for the trunnions are fixed upon the top plate A. They are of the usual construction, furnished with brasses of good hard metal. They are shown in figs. 63 and 64. The manner in which they are adjusted and fixed down to the plate is important. gg, fig. 56, are two snugs cast upon the plate, between which and the ends of the plummer-block wedges are driven, to adjust and secure the bearing so that its centre may correspond with the vertical centre line of the engine. The adjustments in height and level are performed by four set screws hh, figs. 63 and 64, by which the trunnion axis may be laid horizontal: after these screws are adjusted, the plummer-blocks are fixed firmly down by the two holding-down bolts ii. These arrangements for adjustment are absolutely necessary, that the swing axis may always be kept parallel with that of the crank-shaft,—a very important condition for the oscillating engine, if it is to work well. The bottom plate receives, between the columns on one of its sides, the plummer-block for the crank-shaft. The plate is made somewhat wider on this side than on the three others. The plummer-block is shown at \( \kappa \), fig. 57. It is of the usual construction; it lies upon two ribs cast on the bottom plate, and is secured from lateral motion by wedging its ends against two fixed snugs, as described in the last article. The brasses for this and other plummer-blocks I usually make round instead of six or eight-sided, as customary; they are so much more easily fitted in the lathe. To prevent them from turning in the plummer-blocks, I fix them with pins of the same metal; the upper brass is fixed by a brass screw which also serves for lubrication; it is clearly shown in the figure. The small oil-cup should have a cover, to prevent dirt getting in. 207. The Cylinder.—This is of the usual construction, having at each end a flanch to which the covers are bolted. On the upper flanch, however, are two strong ears, serving to fix it to the trunnion frame; they are of the same thickness as the flanch itself; in the drawing they are 2 inches thick and 8 inches wide. The trunnion frame has a groove to receive these ears, and is screwed to them with two or three bolts on each side. In fig. 56, \( vv \) are the ears, and \( uu \) are the sides of the frame in section. The latter is seen also in figs. 70 and 71. On one side of the cylinder is cast a channel for the passage of the steam from the valves to the lower end of the cylinder; or, which is better, the two sides only of this channel may be formed in the casting, and a cover screwed on: there is then a less chance of the casting being a bad one. The channel opens with an oblong rectangular port in the cylinder, and its section in the 10-horse engine is 3 inches by \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch. Its sides should be smoothed and polished, that the steam may have as little hindrance as possible in its motion. In fig. 56, this channel is shown at \( w \); \( y \) is its upper and \( x \) its lower end. The cylinder must be well and equally bored, and polished smooth. I make it a little conical at each end, and turn the covers to correspond. See Art. 166 for the object and advantage of this provision. 208. I surround the cylinder with a thin casing of cast iron or sheet brass, which stands so far from the cylinder as just to cover the steam channel on its side. The casing should be fluted, to correspond in appearance with the columns of the framing. Between the casing and the cylinder I place either wool or some other bad conductor of heat; or if the casing is air-tight, the stratum of air is the best protection. 209. The upper cover receives the valve apparatus, and will be more particularly described with this. The lower cover contains the stuffing-box for the piston-rod, and is bolted to the cylinder flanch with good 1-inch bolts. The joint is made tight with a lead ring, which is prevented from squeezing out sideways by means of a groove in the flanch and corresponding projection on the cover, on the same principle as explained in Art. 93. These are shown in fig. 65 at \( a \). The cover has a projection entering into the cylinder to a distance about \( \frac{1}{4} \) inch beyond the inner end of the steam-port, a groove being cut to allow the passage of the steam: see fig. 56 at \( z \). The object of this projection is to diminish the waste space in the cylinder. See Art. 166. I have already spoken of the necessary requisites for a good stuffing-box. For small engines on the oscillating plan, it must perform the office of a guide to the piston-rod as well as a packing. It must therefore be much longer than usual. (See Art. 167.) An examination of the stuffing-box shown in section in figs. 56 and 57 will show the construction and dimensions I have adopted: 1 is the body, 2 the packing, 3 the gland or cover. An arrangement for lubricating the piston-rod is shown in fig. 65, which will be understood without much description: \( b \) is a loose brass ring surrounding the piston-rod, having a channel in it communicating by the hole \( c \) and small pipe \( d \) with the grease-cup \( e \). Or another and very simple method of lubrication may be adopted, viz. by laying tallow upon a lap of cloth, and smearing frequently the piston-rod therewith: I have found this quite effectual when carefully done. The rod always receives a certain degree of lubrication from the grease in the inside of the cylinder. The gland or cover of the stuffing-box (\textit{Stopfpropfen}) is furnished with a bush of hard gun-metal, fitted in such manner that it may easily be turned partially round from \(^{21}\) The Author informs me he has never found this apparatus necessary. The method shown in fig. 58 is a more simple one, and perfectly effective. No description is necessary, further than to explain that in addition to the principal grease apparatus, \( a \) is a recess sunk round the rod, which collects the grease and greasy water dropping from the cylinder and piston, to assist in the lubrication.—Tr. time to time as it wears, or may be removed when a new one is required: it is fastened in its position by four set screws, \( h \), fig. 65. A similar provision should also be made, so far as is practicable, with the bush at the other end of the stuffing-box: \( i \) is a shoulder, which, if ground into its place, much assists in keeping the whole in a steam-tight condition; as the steam will often escape behind the packing when it cannot penetrate between the packing and the rod. The cover of the stuffing-box is screwed up by eyebolts, which may have double nuts for security, if desirable. When, however, the cover is well fitted and ground into the box, so as to be free from shaking, there is not much danger of the nuts working loose. 210. The Piston.—I have already stated why I prefer pistons with hemp packing for high-pressure steam. My piston is of the usual construction, but reversed in position, the rod passing downwards. There is a peculiarity in the method of screwing forward the piston-ring upon the packing. I have often remarked that the ring and its screws become gradually loose as the packing gives way, and that when this occurs, injurious concussions take place, which may often result in serious damage. I therefore arrange the screws as shown in figures 65, 66, and 67, where \( pppp \) are bolts to screw the ring up upon the packing (seen in section in fig. 65), and \( qqqq \) are set screws (seen in fig. 67) to hold it tight in its position. Of course one set of these screws must be loosened when the other is tightened. The heads of the set screws must be let into the ring, and their length be so arranged that they take up no more room in the cylinder than is absolutely necessary.\textsuperscript{22} The set screws $q q$ are also often useful to loosen the ring when it has to be removed for packing. The body of the piston, as used for small engines, is shown in figs. 65 and 67, which also explain the manner in which the piston-rod is secured to it. $b$ is a conical shoulder on the rod, ground steam-tight into its place, and $c$ is a strong nut by which the rod is secured. In order that the rod may not turn and get loose, it is provided with a plate $d$, welded upon the rod, which holds upon the piston by a pin $e$. The nut is prevented from turning by a small screw, or a wedge, or in any other of the methods well known to mechanics. The connection of the piston to the rod ought to be very firm and strong; they have seldom to be disunited. A brass plate, slightly convex, may be fitted over the whole top surface of the piston, to prevent the grease from penetrating into the interior, and to guide it against the sides of the cylinder. \textbf{211.} In Art. 187 I have described the manner of using the hemp in packing. The fibres should be beaten, in order to render them soft, and to clean them from the resinous and glutinous matters which hang upon them and cause them to adhere to each other; they are then spun into loosely turned cords, of barely $\frac{1}{4}$ of an inch diameter, three to five of which are firmly \textsuperscript{22} The necessity of \textit{locking} the screws of the piston-ring is well known in England, and provided for by several familiar expedients, such as the locking-ring, &c.—Tr. twisted into a rope or gasket, according to the thickness of packing required. The piston being taken out of the cylinder, and the ring being drawn back to its full extent, one end of the gasket is fastened into a hole on the projecting edge, by driving a wooden plug in with it. It is then wound carefully round the body of the piston, beating the coils as close as possible together with a wooden mallet: when this is finished, the last windings are beaten fast upon each other, and the end of the rope is turned in and also hammered under the last coil: the whole is then subjected to gentle blows with the mallet, by which all bucklings and irregularities of surface must be beaten down. The piston should be then tried to the cylinder. If the packing is too large, it should be beaten down to smaller dimensions with the mallet; if too small, the ring should be screwed a little forward, so as to press out the hemp, after which, the ring being drawn back to its former position, more hemp may be laid in, properly securing the ends: a little experience will soon give skill in arranging properly the size of the packing. When the piston is made to enter, I grease the packing with melted tallow, and drive the piston in with a large hammer, (taking care, however, that the blows do not fall upon the piston itself, but upon a block of wood placed between,) until I can connect the rod with the crank, and so force it in further by turning the fly-wheel, after the cover is in its place. It is no disadvantage if considerable force is required at first to make it enter; it will soon move more freely: if it goes in too easily, the ring must be screwed up tighter. It is requisite to tighten the ring of a newly packed piston at least once a day for the first three or four days. After this, it should be looked to once a week, or once a fortnight, and soon this becomes no longer necessary. The observation of the manner in which the steam blows out from the cylinder suffices then to indicate the condition of the packing. For this purpose a small opening should be made in the eduction-pipe, and stopped when out of use with a wooden plug. Immediately after packing, the piston should be plentifully supplied with grease, that the hemp may become well saturated. At a later period it should be lubricated once in two or three hours. It is best to give a little at a time, since if too much is poured in, it is blown out again to waste. This regulation is also applicable to the packing of the stuffing-boxes, and to packings in general. When the engine is stopped after a day's work, a good supply of grease should be given to the cylinder, to preserve it from rusting: see Art. 187. 212. The lubrication of the piston is effected in my engines in a peculiar way, altogether different from the method usually adopted with high-pressure engines. The necessary apparatus is shown at \(a\) in fig. 74. \(b\) is a small valve, with a three-cornered stalk, opening into the cylinder, and kept closed by a small spiral spring. \(c\) is a grease-cup, hollowed out in the metal. The cup is filled with tallow, which soon becomes properly melted; the steam is then shut off from the engine for an instant before the commencement of the down stroke, and the motion of the piston causes the grease to be sucked in so quickly, that if the operation be skilfully performed, no sensible interruption of the action of the engine will be caused. A few trials will give the requisite skill in the management of the apparatus. This plan has the advantage over grease-pumps or cocks, that the grease is more forcibly injected, and better distributed, by the conical form of the valve, against the sides of the cylinder. It is better not to put more grease into the cup than is actually required, that air may enter with it, and assist in its dispersion. If a grease-pump is preferred, it can be easily applied and worked by the motion of the cylinder itself; but I would in no case advise the use of cocks. They soon lose their steam-tight condition, and allow the steam to blow the grease out of the cups, causing much trouble. I have often tried them, but invariably repented, and have now entirely rejected them. 213. In my latest engines I have made use of a different arrangement of piston to that described above. It is shown in figs. 68 and 69, the former being an external view, and the latter a section. \(a\) is the body of the piston, \(b\) the rod, \(c\) a ring or cover, fastened firmly upon the piston by the screws \(d\). A loose ring \(e\) is fitted round the piston so as to slide easily upon it. The packing is placed at \(g\), and the ring \(e\) is pressed against it by the screws \(f\), which have clamping nuts to keep them in their given position. There is a groove cut round the lower cylinder cover to receive the heads of these screws, whereby the clearance or waste space in the cylinder is much diminished. (See figs. 56, 57.) It will be remarked that in this piston the compressing ring is flat on the side which presses against the packing; the wedge-like form, that tends to thrust the hemp outwards against the cylinder, is wanting. Such a form is not necessary, and the flat one has the advantage of not endangering the texture of the hemp, which is often injured by the forcible action of the wedge-like ring in the common arrangement. In packing this piston I cut the ropes or gaskets into separate lengths, equal to the circumference of the piston, and sew the two ends of each together, forming a number of rings, which exactly encircle the body of the piston, and are laid around it, breaking the joints, in sufficient number to compose the packing. This method of packing is much more convenient than the former, and may be done without removing the piston from the cylinder. When the engine is large, the piston should be cast hollow to save weight; it is shown so in fig. 69, where \(aa\) are vacuities. These may be filled up with wood or any other light material. 214. Trunnion Frame.—I have before alluded to a plan by which I protect the trunnions on which the cylinder swings from the influence of heat; I will now explain this. The cylinder of my engines does not hang, as ordinary oscillating cylinders do, upon gudgeons through which the steam passes on its way to and from the cylinder,—but upon a separate frame. The arrangements for the passage of the steam are all in the interior of the frame, and have no connection or contact with the trunnions, so that these latter remain cold, or at least at a temperature which can have no injurious influence upon the friction; i.e. never exceeding 90° or 100° Fahr., even after the engine has been long at work. The great advantages of this arrangement I have already dwelt upon. The trunnion frame is of cast iron, and has the form of an oblong parallelogram with rounded corners. It is shown in figs. 70 and 71, and also in section in figs. 56 and 57. The cylinder is bolted to it at \(a\) by the strong ears or snugs mentioned in Art. 207; and to compensate for the weakening of this part by the bolt-holes, it is strengthened at \(c\) by a little greater thickness of metal. It is also made stronger on the sides \(b\), from whence the trunnions spring. 215. The Valve Apparatus.—I come now to one of the most difficult parts of the description of my engine, viz. that of the valves and their apparatus.\(^{23}\) They are shown in figures 72 to 95. The dimensions of all the parts, for the 10-horse engine, may be taken from the scales attached to the Plates; I shall only here mention sizes where great exactness is necessary. The entire apparatus lies upon the upper cylinder cover, as may be seen in figs. 56, 57, and 72 to 75. It thus forms a sort of counterweight to the cylinder. 216. The upper cylinder cover is fixed by the flanch \(^{23}\) The Author has lately made a great improvement in his valve apparatus, by which the separate expansion box is rendered unnecessary, and the whole becomes much simplified. This will be described in a Supplement to his work, now publishing in Germany. I have much abbreviated the description in the Text, trusting that the detail of the Plates will be sufficient to explain all the parts to those who wish to examine them.—Tr. $d$ to the cylinder, with six or eight bolts, in the usual way, and has a projection ground slightly conical into the end of the cylinder. It has also another projection $c$, (figs. 72, 73, 74, 75,) upon which rest, first, the valve-box $a$, and above that the expansion-box $b$. $e$ is the principal face, upon which the valve slides: it is shown in fig. 76. $f$ is the opening to the upper end of the cylinder, $g$ that leading to the lower end, and $h$ the eduction opening. As this is the face upon which the valve works, the cover must be made of good hard iron, or, which is perhaps better, this face must be cast separately of such material, and fastened on. It must, in either case, be well faced and smoothly ground. The area of each opening should be equal to $\frac{1}{45}$ the area of the cylinder, and the breadth I usually make $\frac{1}{4}$ the length. For the 10-horse engine shown in the Plates, the openings are 3 inches long and $\frac{3}{4}$ of an inch wide. The bars between them must be about $\frac{1}{8}$ in. wider than the openings themselves: this is important, but is often neglected, and the consequence is that one port is sometimes opened before the opposite one is closed, allowing the steam to blow through, which with high-pressure steam would cause great loss. The channels $f$ and $g$, leading to the cylinder, must preserve through their whole length the dimensions of the ports in the face, and must be free from sharp angles. The ends of the face are lowered a little, as shown at $r r$, that the slide may retain a good bearing on the projecting part of the --- $^{24}$ Steurwags-oder Schieberbüchse. By some mechanics, these parts of the engine are called nozzles, a corruption of nose-holes; i.e. I suppose, the holes through which the cylinder may be said to breathe. I have retained, however, the simple translation of the original word.—Tr. face, and may have liberty to push off any extraneous particles of dirt, &c., getting upon it. 217. The centre or eduction opening $h$, continues through the body of the cover, and ends in a cylindrical channel $k$, one-fourth the cylinder's diameter, and concentric with the axis upon which the cylinder swings. The curving of this channel should be as gentle as possible, all sharp angles being avoided. Its end is bored out to receive the conical stuffing-plug $l$ of the eduction-pipe $m$. This plug is of brass, and furnished with a packing of thin hempen threads, the body of the plug being roughened where the packing is laid round, to hold the hemp without slipping. The plug is pressed into its seat by an oval plate $o$, which turns loose on a shoulder of the plug, and is fastened to the body of the cylinder cover by eye-bolts and snugs $p$ and $n$: the eye-bolts are square, and are partly let into the metal of the cover, that they and the oval plate $o$ may turn with it, while the plug remains still. It does not require to be screwed very tight, as the pressure of the escaping steam is not great. The plug $l$ is soldered to the eduction-tube $m$, which bends downwards, and increases gradually in size to one-half the diameter of the cylinder. It must be provided with a screw flanch, which may be loosened when it is required to examine the packing of the plug, and sufficient room should be left for the plug to be withdrawn. The arrangement of the eduction-tube is best seen in figs. 56 and 57, where 4 is the plug, 5 the first bend of the tube, 6 its screw flanch, and 7 the continuation of the enlarged tube, dividing into two branches, 8 8, to miss the crank-shaft; 9 and 10 are two more screw flanches, connected to two pipes 11 and 12: these open again into one common pipe 13, by which the steam is carried away. 14 is a bulb upon this last pipe to collect the condensed water, and 15 a small tube through which it runs off. 218. The slide, or valve (Schieber), is shown in figs. 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82. It is cast of a mixture of seven parts copper and one part tin; a composition which gives little friction upon hard cast iron, and is subject to but little wear. The dimensions will be found from the figures: the length is in all cases equal to twice the breadth of an opening added to three times that of an intermediate bar. The cavity on the under surface of the slide is semicircular, and its length equal to twice the breadth of an opening, plus that of one bar. The lower or slide-box \(a\) (figs. 72, 73, 74, 75) lies over the valve, being made tight to the cylinder cover with a lead packing at \(i\). This box is high enough to allow the steam to pass freely over the top of the slide. On one side of the slide-box is the stuffing-box \(t\), figs. 72 and 74, for the valve-rod \(u\). It is constructed on the usual plan. The valve-rod is not fastened directly to the valve, but to a square iron frame which drops over it, as shown in figs. 74, 75, 78, 79. This makes a firm connection between the valve and its rod, but at the same time allows of as much looseness as is necessary for the valve to adapt itself accurately to the face on which it \(^{25}\) It is sometimes made with square corners; but this is injudicious. Sharp angles should be carefully avoided in all steam passages. slides, without being bound by the position of the rod in the stuffing-box. The frame is shown alone in fig. 78; the ends \( c b \) are thicker than the sides \( a a \), for the purpose of gaining strength where attachments are made. At the top of the valve frame is fixed a bridge \( d \), (fig. 78,) carrying two hard steel projections or snugs 2 and 4, (see also figs. 74 and 75,) the object of which is to catch against a pin \( z \), projecting downwards from the expansion slide in the box above, and thereby, as the valve moves, to cut off the steam at the proper instant of time. The valve is provided with two springs (as shown at \( v v \) in figs. 74 and 75), pressing against the top of the box, which should be smoothed to facilitate their action. The best material for the springs is sheet brass, hammered as hard as possible: steel springs soon rust, and do not retain their elasticity so long as brass ones. 219. The machinery for moving the valve is very simple; it is worked by the motion of the cylinder, without any eccentric, and contains only four joints. It is shown in fig. 88, which is a view of the valve apparatus, &c., looking from above. The valve-rod \( d \) is connected with a cross-head \( e \) by two nuts, one on each side: this mode of attachment gives great facility for adjusting the valve, and is much more simple and more easily made than a cutter. The cross-head is connected at each end to side-rods \( f f \), which are jointed to gudgeons \( l, m \), fixed by the brackets 18, (fig. 57,) to the cross bridge lying over the entablature box. The side-rods \( f f \) are prolonged beyond these gudgeons to \( h h \), (fig. 88,) where they carry cast iron balls to act as balance-weights for the cross-head and valve-rod, and to relieve the stuffing-box from unequal pressure. All the joints of this machinery should be made of steel, and hardened.\textsuperscript{26} Figs. 93, 94, and 95, will explain without further description how the slide-valve is worked by the oscillation of the cylinder. 220. Upon the lower or valve-box is fixed a separate and upper one for the expansion slide. This is shown in figs. 72, 73, 74, 75, at $b$. The top of the lower box serves as a face for the expansion slide, and must therefore be made of hard cast iron, and planed accordingly. It is shown in fig. 77, and has three holes, marked $a$, $b$, and $c$: $a$ is the one through which the steam passes from the upper to the lower box; it is the same length as the ports in the lower valve face, but only half the breadth: it is widened out a little underneath, as seen at $w$, fig. 74. The expansion slide $y$ is of the same metal as the principal valve, and has an opening at $x$, corresponding with that above described, so that when these two openings come together, the steam flows from the upper box into the lower one: $z$ is a hard steel pin, attached by a screw and nut to the expansion slide, and projecting downwards through the square opening $b$, fig. 77 (or 1, fig. 74), into the lower box: by this pin the expansion slide is made to act through the motion of the principal slide below. The \textsuperscript{26} The Author's method of working the valves by the motion of the cylinder is certainly very simple, but it must be recollected that he loses the advantage of the \textit{lead} which may be given to the slide by the eccentric motion, and also the power which it gives of expanding to a certain extent by the valve alone. Moreover, by the Author's arrangement the engine cannot be \textit{reversed}; it will move only in the direction shown by the arrows, figs. 54 and 56.—Tr. slide must be perfectly ground upon its face, and must always keep the square opening $b$ (fig. 77) closed steam-tight. It should be provided with two springs similar to those of the lower valve. I have, in one or two of my engines, given the expansion slide a separate rod and stuffing-box, and caused it to be moved by an external apparatus. This arrangement is shown in figs. 91 and 92. 221. It remains to describe the manner in which the steam is brought to the valves. The steam-pipe, which is $\frac{1}{5}$th the diameter of the cylinder, is brought from the back of the engine, over the top of the entablature, as shown at $9'$, fig. 57; it then bends downwards at the front, and is connected by a flanch $10'$, to a horizontal tube $11'$, (lying exactly in the swing axis,) and passing by a stuffing-box $12'$, into the body of the cylinder cover. In fig. 88, where these arrangements are also shown, the steam-pipe is marked $i$, the flanch $k$, the horizontal piece $l$, and the stuffing-box $m$. The latter is of the common construction, and the pipe passing through it must be made of strong brass, and carefully turned; it may be $\frac{1}{5}$th of the diameter of the cylinder in the clear, and must be long enough for the gland of the stuffing-box to slide outwards upon it when it is wished to renew the packing. In order that the great pressure of the steam may not force this pipe outwards, it may butt against the frame, as shown at $13'$, fig. 57: a small gudgeon of hard wood may be interposed to prevent the communication of 27 Pumice-stone (Bimstein) is better than common emery (Schmirgel), for grinding these faces; the particles of the latter are apt to set fast in the brass, and eventually to increase considerably the abrasion. heat from the pipe to the frame, and a contrivance may easily be adopted for adjusting this, should the friction wear it away. The further passage of the steam is seen distinctly in fig. 75. It passes from the pipe last mentioned up a channel marked 5, left in the thickness of metal of the cylinder cover \( c \) and valve-box \( a \), and finally opens into the expansion-box \( b \). The channel should be at least of the same area as the pipe 11', and all its angles should be rounded. 222. In order to show more clearly the operation of the valve apparatus, I have given in fig. 90 a set of diagrams taken in eight different positions of the crank. The steam passes from the upper or expansion-box \( b \) into the lower or slide-box by the opening \( w \), when the position of the expansion slide leaves this opening free: it will be seen, however, that the snugs 2 and 4, on the main valve, catch and move the expansion slide so as to close the opening \( w \) after about one-third of the stroke is completed, the steam already admitted being allowed to expand during the remainder. A reference to Nos. 3 and 7 of fig. 90 will show that the travel of the valve is a little greater than is absolutely necessary: the object of this is to give the valve somewhat greater velocity at the time it is in the middle of its stroke (Nos. 1 and 5), that the eduction passages may be opened with the greatest possible rapidity; for it is very important, as I have already had occasion to remark, that the steam should discharge itself as freely as possible. The trifling contraction of the eduction opening in Nos. 3 and 7 is of no great consequence compared with the advantage of a freer exit at the commencement of the stroke. 223. The use of the opening \( c \) (fig. 77) in the cover of the valve-box, or bottom of the expansion-box, has not yet been explained. It is a sort of by-pass, to allow the steam to travel freely from the upper into the lower box when it is not wished to expand, i.e. when the steam is required to act upon the piston at full pressure during the whole stroke. Of course, however, this opening must be closed when expansion is used; and fig. 85 shows an apparatus by which it may be opened or closed at pleasure: \( a \) is the opening; \( b \) a slide which covers it; \( c \) a rod holding upon the slide by a rake-like end \( e \), and passing outwards through a stuffing-box \( d \). Certain details of the apparatus are shown in figs. 86 and 87, and the whole is seen in its place in fig. 56. The outer end of the rod is attached by a link to a lever \( 15' \), which moves in a guide \( 16' \) and has a handle at its lower end. This passage should always be thrown open when the engine is started, and kept open for some little time, till the cylinder and other parts have become warmed. It may also be opened, either wholly or partially, during the working of the engine, if a temporary increase of power is required. 224. The Governor.—This is of the usual construction, and stands above the entablature of the framing, as shown at \( r \) in figs. 54, 55. The reason I have chosen this position is, that it gives the engine a finished and handsome appearance, and the governor is out of the way. It has a steel foot working in a box \(a\) (fig. 89) of the same metal, which is fixed to a cross-beam \(c\). This latter is in one piece with the bridge \(b\), supporting the neck of the governor, as well as the prop \(d\) for the centre of the lever \(e\): \(f\) is the rod which works the throttle-valve; it is provided with a screw, by which it may be lengthened or shortened for adjustment. The governor is worked by a strap \(q\) (figs. 54, 55), running from a pulley \(r\) on the fly-wheel shaft, over guide-rollers \(t\), to the pulley \(s\) on the governor. 225. The throttle-valve is of the usual construction, exactly as used for low-pressure engines. It is true that this kind of valve cannot be made steam-tight; but this is not necessary, for the governor is not intended to shut the steam entirely off, only to diminish its flow. Such a valve turns easily, and therefore does not require much power in the governor. The rod of the valve passes through a stuffing-box, and is provided with a lever, to which the governing-rod is so attached that the effective length of the lever may be lengthened or shortened, and the valve thereby be made more or less sensitive, at pleasure. I would give a strong warning against the use of cocks for this purpose. They are especially unfit for such a duty. I always make a provision for shutting off the steam, independently of the throttle-valve, by placing a stop-cock, or valve (which is better), between the throttle-valve and the boiler. This is necessary, partly in order to leave the governor gearing undisturbed, and partly to insure the steam being entirely shut off, which cannot be done by the throttle-valve alone, and which is necessary for several reasons that need not here be repeated. 226. Connection between the Piston-rod and Crank.—This consists of a single connecting joint between the piston-rod and crank-pin, in two parts, bolted together, with brasses, of the usual construction. It is shown fully in figs. 54, 55, 56, 57. I place pieces of hard wood between the two parts of the joint piece, to enable the nuts to be screwed up tight without throwing too much friction on the pin. When the engine is very large, and the cylinder very heavy, it may be advisable to add guides to the piston-rod. Fig. 110 shows an arrangement for this. The guiding surfaces should be of hard polished wood, and as wide as possible. I have never, however, hitherto found such guides necessary. 227. The crank F (figs. 54 to 57) is of cast iron; its length for the 10-horse engine is 1 foot, the stroke of the piston being 2 feet. The crank-shaft G is circular, 6 inches in diameter. It has a collar ll on each side of the bearing, to prevent lateral motion, which would be injurious to the working of an oscillating engine: this precaution is peculiarly necessary where the shaft drives bevel-wheels, which always cause lateral thrust. 228. The fly-wheel H is of the ordinary construction: 23 Attempts have been made to introduce mechanism to supersede the fly-wheel. Such contrivances are usually complicated and expensive, and cause much loss by friction. for the 10-horse engine, it is 10 feet diameter, and weighs from 16 to 20 cwts. When it is large, it is convenient to make it in several pieces. For engines of 1 to 20-horse power, four arms will suffice; larger wheels should have six arms. The formula given by Murray for the weight of the fly-wheel is as follows: Let \( H = \) number of horse power of the engine. \( V = \) velocity of fly-wheel rim, in feet per second. \( W = \) weight in cwts. Then \( W = \frac{2000 H}{V^2} \). I believe, however, that for common cases this weight is heavier than is required, and may be reduced one-third, if not one-half. I have reduced it one-half in some of my engines, and have found no perceptible degree of irregularity. I would recommend that the co-efficient in the above formula should be made variable according to the purpose for which the engine is required, in the following manner: (a.) For purposes in which no great degree of regularity is necessary, such as corn-mills, oil-mills, sawmills, pumping, and so on, let the number be 1000 instead of 2000. (b.) Where regularity is of more importance, as for example, for spinning the coarser threads, let the number be 1500. (c.) Where very great regularity is required, as for spinning the finest threads, the co-efficient may remain 2000.\(^{29}\) \(^{29}\) The formula above given for the weight of the fly-wheel is not based upon a correct principle; it should contain another quantity. The subject 229. Condenser.—I have already spoken of the adaptation of a simple condenser, under certain circumstances, to the high-pressure engine. has been well discussed by Poncelet, Morin, Moseley, Hann, and others. The following are the principal features of their investigations. The object of the fly-wheel is not to produce a motion perfectly uniform, that is impossible, but to give a degree of regularity as nearly approaching uniformity as suffices for the work to be done. There are two points in the revolution where the velocity will be at a maximum, and two where it will be at a minimum: the object then is to make the difference between these two velocities so small that the irregularity will be of no consequence in practice. Now let \( P = \) pressure on piston in lbs. (assumed uniform throughout the stroke). \[ g = \text{force of gravity} = 32\frac{1}{6}. \] \( r = \) radius of crank in feet. \( W = \) weight of fly-wheel rim in lbs. \( V = \) mean velocity of fly-wheel rim, or velocity at the instant when the crank passes the dead point, in feet per second. Then the velocity \( v \) at any other point, corresponding to any angle \( \theta \) passed over by the crank from the dead point, is found by the following formula; that is, neglecting the disturbing effect of any mass in the engine other than the fly-wheel rim. \[ v^2 = V^2 + \frac{2gPr}{W} \left( \text{Vers. } \theta - \frac{2\theta}{\pi} \right). \] It is easily found that the maximum velocity is when \( \theta = \) about \( 140^\circ \), and the minimum when \( \theta = \) about \( 40^\circ \); wherefore, reducing, we have \[ \text{Max. vel.} = V^2 + 13 \frac{Pr}{W}. \] \[ \text{Min. vel.} = V^2 - 13 \frac{Pr}{W}. \] Now suppose we wish our machinery to run with such a degree of uniformity that its maximum velocity shall only be \( \frac{1}{n} \)th greater than its minimum velocity, or, which is the same thing, that the velocity shall never deviate more than \( \frac{1}{2n} \)th from the mean value \( V \). Then by a simple reduction from the above formulæ, we may find the weight \( W \) necessary to produce such a degree of uniformity, thus: \[ W = 13 \frac{Prn}{V^2}. \] An apparatus of this kind is shown in figs. 96 and 97. \(a\) is the eduction-pipe of the engine; \(b\) the condenser, a pipe of sheet copper, the same diameter as the eduction-pipe, and about twice the length of the stroke of the engine. It lies in a cistern \(c\), supplied with water from a pipe \(k\); \(i\) is a sieve to prevent any particles of dirt getting into the part of the cistern from which the injection water is drawn, and \(h\) is an overflow by which the waste runs off; \(l\) is an emptying cock. The condenser is laid on an incline; the lower end projects out of the Or we may give this a more convenient shape for practice, thus: Let \(H =\) Horse power of engine. \(R =\) Mean radius of fly-wheel rim. \(N =\) Number of revolutions per minute. Then in round numbers, Weight in cwts. \(= \frac{90,000 H n}{R^2 N^3}\). It only remains to say something of the value of \(n\), or the degree of irregularity which may be admitted without inconvenience in practice. Morin, in his ‘Aide-Mémoire de Mécanique Pratique,’ gives three different classes of machinery, similar to those marked \(a\), \(b\), and \(c\) in the text, for which different degrees of uniformity of motion are required. For the first (\(a\)), he states that \(n\) should be = 20 to 25; for the second, \(n = 35\) to 50; for the third, \(n = 50\) to 60. Or, substituting, we may adopt the following simple approximate rules, the weight being given in cwts. as before. For class (\(a\)), \(W = \frac{2,000,000 H}{R^2 N^3}\). For class (\(b\)), \(W = \frac{4,000,000 H}{R^2 N^3}\). For class (\(c\)), \(W = \frac{5,000,000 H}{R^2 N^3}\). Example.—Suppose a certain engine to be 10-horse power, with a fly-wheel about 5 feet radius, and making 50 revolutions per minute. What should be the weight of the fly-wheel rim, supposing the engine is intended to work machinery under class \(c\)? Here \(W = \frac{5,000,000 \times 10}{(5)^2 \times (50)^3} = 16\) cwts.—Answer.—Tr. cistern into a box $e$, and is furnished with a hanging or flap-valve $d$, opening outwards. $m$ is a small pipe, in which is fixed the injection-cock $n$, turned by the key $o$. The pipe is bent in the interior of the condenser, as at $a$, fig. 97, and has a mouth-piece $b$, so shaped as to spread the jet of water. The action of the condenser is as follows. At the moment the eduction passage is opened to the cylinder, the steam, having a pressure considerably above that of the atmosphere, rushes through the pipes, stops the injection, and blows the water and air collected in the condenser out at the valve $d$, into the vessel $e$. This, however, is but the work of a moment; the valve immediately falls, the jet of water again enters, and the steam is condensed. The air and vapour pass away from the vessel $e$ by the pipe $f$, the water by the pipe $g$. I have only yet had opportunity of applying this condenser to two engines, both being single-acting, and used for pumping water. No barometer can be used with it for obvious reasons, and therefore it is difficult to tell exactly the state of the vacuum. The best proof, however, of the efficiency of the apparatus is, that the engines, even when they are in their most powerful and quickest action, will be stopped by simply closing the injection-cock. This condenser was one of my earliest inventions for the steam engine: it has been ascribed to others, but I made known a description of it sixteen years ago.\footnote{That is, about 1826.—Tr.} PART IV. GENERAL REMARKS GENERAL REMARKS. ON THE CONSUMPTION OF FUEL. 230. I will now proceed to give some particulars respecting the economical properties of my engines. This is, of course, a point which has much interested me; I have spared no pains to gather correct observations upon it, and I will lay before the reader the results of the investigations and experiments I have made. I have asserted that my improvements tend to produce economy of fuel: this is one of the great ends I have in view; after safety, the principal one. I am now to prove my assertion, which I shall do in the most conclusive way, namely, by showing the actual consumption of fuel by engines constructed on the improved principles I have laid down. 231. In estimating the power of the engines tried, I have had no opportunity of using Prony’s brake: I have, however, resorted to other methods not less satisfactory. In some cases a very direct means was at hand, inasmuch as several of the machines driven by the engines were previously worked by horses. Proofs of this kind, although perhaps not so scientific as those drawn from dynamometric experiments, are more practical, and tell home to the minds of those most interested in the subject, namely, the public who use the engines. The estimations thus obtained are not the result of experiments made over short spaces of time, but have been derived from long-continued observation of the working of the engines, and are therefore more free from chance of error. I hope my readers will be convinced, when I lay the particulars before them, that I have endeavoured to form my estimates impartially, and not to distort them in favour of my engines. 232. I will first instance an engine which I had for two years under my own daily observation, in an iron foundry and machine manufactory in which I was a partner. The engine was nominally 3-horse power, and had a form like that sometimes called Maudslay's portable engine, but of course without the parts belonging to the condensation. The cylinder was $4\frac{1}{2}$ inches in diameter in the clear, and had a stroke of 1 foot, and the engine was so light that, without the fly-wheel, it could be carried by two men. Its usual velocity was from 70 to 80 revolutions in a minute, dependent on the work it had to do. It drove the following machinery, viz. (a.) Six lathes; three small and three large. One of these had a 7-inch spindle; and they had often heavy work upon them while all the under-mentioned machinery was in action. (b.) One grindstone. (c.) One cylinder blowing machine for six smithy fires. This drew in regularly 200 to 220 cubic feet of air per minute at atmospheric pressure, and delivered it to the fires at a pressure of $\frac{1}{2}$ lb. per square inch. (d.) Also, on casting days, a large blowing machine for the foundry, which drew in 700 cubic feet of air per minute, and blew it out again under a mean pressure of $\frac{5}{8}$ lb. per square inch. The latter alone required, before the steam engine was erected, the power of two large and strong horses, which were often foaming with perspiration during a work of only four or five hours. The power required to work the small blowing machine may be reckoned by the proportionate quantity of air drawn in; remembering, however, that the small machine had a greater relative amount of friction and prejudicial resistance to overcome than the large one. The blowing engine at the Royal Iron Foundry in Berlin, which only draws in 960 cubic feet per minute, and delivers it at $\frac{5}{8}$ lb. pressure, has been estimated at 11 or 12-horse power. When therefore all the above work is considered, I do not think I estimate the power of the engine too high at 4-horse power. Now with all this work upon it, it required only in fourteen hours $4\frac{1}{2}$ Mecklenburg bushels (Scheffel) of Newcastle small coal, weighing in a wet state (im nassen Zustande) 340 lbs., or dry at most 300 lbs. This gives the consumption of coal $$\frac{300}{14 \times 4} = 5.3 \text{ lbs.}$$ per horse power per hour.$^1$ I think this must be allowed to be an extraordinarily economical result for so small an engine. 233. The next instance I will give is an engine of 10-horse power, exactly similar to the one drawn in the $^1$ Equal to 35,000,000 duty, according to the Cornish method of calculation.—Tr. Plates to this work: the cylinder was 8 inches diameter, the stroke 2 feet, and it made 50 revolutions in a minute. It was in a paper-mill, and drove two large machines (Holländer), a large pump, some presses, and a new machine of my own invention. Previously to the erection of the engine, four strong horses were required to work one of the two machines first named, and when engine power was applied, the machine worked up one-half more material in two-thirds of the time, giving nearly double the amount of work done by the horses. When therefore the pump, the presses, and the additional machine are also considered, I cannot think I rate the engine too high at 10-horse power; it was in reality above 12. The fuel used was pressed turf (Tradetorf'), which I have found by calorimetric experiments to stand in the ratio of 0·85 to 2 compared with coal, as regards its heat-giving power. The consumption by the engine was, when reduced according to this proportion, equivalent to between 6 and 7 lbs. of coal per horse power per hour.\(^2\) 234. The engine above mentioned was afterwards removed to an oil-mill, where it crushed 100 to 110 Mecklenburg bushels (Scheffel) of seed in a day of 14 or 15 hours: the engine was, however, not then exerting its full power. This work was formerly driven by four horses, of the largest and strongest race that could be found in Mecklenburg; each horse weighed 1100 to 1200 lbs., and might certainly be reckoned equal to \(1\frac{1}{2}\) or 2-horse power, according to the usual steam engine calculation. These horses were changed every three hours, and during their work were always very wet with per- \(^2\) I.e. about 30 millions duty.—Tr. spiration; and yet they could only bruise 60 or at most 70 bushels of seed. The engine, moreover, drove the machinery with one-fourth greater velocity, and I therefore may reckon the power exerted at 8 horses, without exaggerating in favour of the engine. The consumption of fuel is between 800 and 900 lbs. of coal in fifteen hours, which is equivalent to about 7 lbs. per horse power per hour, as before. 235. An engine of very small size, used by me for driving three lathes, a grindstone, and a blowing machine for two smithy fires, required 9 to 10 lbs. of coal per horse power per hour.\(^3\) 236. An engine of 2-horse power, erected by me for the purpose of draining a turf moor at Dobberan, and in which the steam is cut off at one-half the stroke, lifts 30 to 36 million pounds of water 1 foot high by the consumption of an English bushel of coal,\(^4\)—a very high result for so small an engine. 237. One of my latest engines, erected in a wool-spinning factory at Malchow, requires 5·1 lbs. of coal per horse power per hour. It is an 8-horse engine, but is only working up to 6-horse power. 238. The last example I will mention is an engine of 30-horse power, erected by me in the Ducal cloth factory at Plau. Its construction is similar to the normal form given in the Plates: the cylinder is \(13\frac{1}{4}\) inches diameter, \(^3\) About 26 millions duty.—Tr. \(^4\) Equal to 5 or 6 lbs. per horse power per hour.—Tr. the stroke is 3 feet, and the number of revolutions in one minute 36. The boiler is that shown in fig. 52, having fifty-six copper tubes, each 5 feet 4 inches long, 4 inches external diameter, and $\frac{1}{10}$th of an inch thickness of metal; the surface of fire-grate is 18 feet. The engine drives the whole machinery of a large woollen-cloth factory, consisting of thirty-six machines of various kinds, with shafting and connecting apparatus, disposed over three floors of the building. I have estimated the power, partly by comparison with other machinery of the same kind driven by horses, and partly by the best authorities I could obtain, and the best judgment I could form. The engine will work easily all the machinery at once, with a pressure in the boilers of 90 to 105 lbs.; and I estimate the work then to be equal to 34-horse power. The fuel used is a light unpressed turf (Stechtorf), containing much earthy matter, and filling the fire-grate with ashes, so that constant raking is necessary. The consumption, with all the work upon the engine, has been found 5088 lbs. of such turf in a day of twelve hours, which is 12·4 lbs. per horse power per hour. Now when it is considered that the turf was of very inferior quality, and moreover not perfectly dry,—and that the heating power of a much better kind has been found to be 0·425 that of coal,—we may fairly assume that the calorific power of this fuel is to that of Newcastle coal as about 1 to 3, which makes the consumption equivalent to 4·1 lbs. of coal per horse power per hour. --- 5 A list of these machines is given by the Author, with the estimated power required by each. I have seen the manufactory, and do not think the estimate over-rated.—Tr. 6 Or about 45 millions duty.—Tr. The facts in the above statement were ascertained with great exactness in presence of a commission appointed by Government to examine the engine.\textsuperscript{7} \textsuperscript{7} It may not be irrelevant here to apply some of the known principles of calculation to the Author’s engines, in order to check the correctness of the statements relative to their power and the experimental results of their working. We may be able thus to show that these statements contain nothing but what is reasonable and probable. As the most convenient example, we may take the normal engine of 10-horse power; and calculate, by ordinary rules, what ought to be the pressure of the steam in the cylinder, the quantity of water evaporated, and the weight of fuel used. The cylinder is 8 inches diameter, = 50 in. area, the stroke is 2 feet, and the engine makes 50 revolutions per minute; the mean velocity of the piston is therefore 200 feet per minute. Hence we have $$\frac{33000 \times 10}{200 \times 50} = 33 \text{ lbs.}$$ for the mean \textit{effective} pressure per square inch of the piston. If we add to this 20 lbs. (a very ample allowance) for back pressure and friction, we have the \textit{total} mean pressure on the piston = 53 lbs. Now if we suppose the steam to expand by Marriotte’s law, and neglect the effect of the clearance space, (suppositions near enough for our present purpose,) the \textit{mean pressure} is $$= P \frac{l}{L} \left(1 + \log_{e} e \frac{L}{l}\right);$$ where $P =$ pressure at which the steam is admitted; $L =$ total length of stroke; and $l =$ length of that portion of the stroke during which the steam is admitted. In the present example, $L = 2$ feet, and $l = 8$ inches; wherefore, solving the equation for $P$ (the mean pressure being known), we have $$P = \frac{3 \times 52}{1 + \log_{e} 3} = 75 \text{ lbs.}, \text{ or } 5 \text{ atmospheres.}$$ Therefore, since the Author professes to work up to 8 atmospheres in the boiler, we have no difficulty in conceiving the \textit{power} of the engine stated, in proportion to the size of cylinder, to be reasonable and true. We will next proceed to calculate the quantity of water evaporated. The length of stroke during which the steam is admitted is 8 inches, and this, multiplied by 50, the area of the cylinder, gives a volume of 400 inches; to which adding 100 for clearance and waste, (also a very ample allowance,) we have 500 cubic inches of steam at a pressure of 75 lbs. used each stroke. But the relative volume of steam at this density is 381; whence we have 239. I can bear testimony to the truth of Oliver Evans's assertion, that the consumption of fuel in high-pressure engines does not increase proportionately with the work done. The engine mentioned in Art. 232 has afforded me ample opportunity of proving this; for on the days when the large blowing machine was attached, which quite doubled the power, the consumption of fuel was not near doubled thereby. 240. The method of firing is very important with high-pressure engines. The heat should be kept as regular as possible; and for this purpose the fire should be fed frequently, and with small quantities at a time, taking \[ \frac{500}{381} = 1.31 \text{ cubic inch of water used each stroke; which, multiplied by 100 single strokes per minute, gives 131 cubic inches, or } 4.7 \text{ lbs. of water evaporated per minute, = about 280 lbs. per hour.} \] Supposing, then, 1 lb. of coal to evaporate 7 lbs. of water, (a very moderate estimate,) the engine will require 40 lbs. of coal to evaporate the above quantity, or 4 lbs. per horse power per hour. We see thus that the economical results stated by the Author are only what may be reasonably expected from the given conditions in the engine. We may further examine another point, which is particularly dwelt upon by the Author, namely, the economical value of the waste steam blowing out from the engine. We have estimated above that there are 4.7 lbs. of steam passing through the engine per minute. Now it is well ascertained that 1 lb. of steam, at whatever temperature, (the sum of the latent and sensible heats being constant, according to Watt's law,) will, by condensing into water at 212°, give out about 1000 units of heat, i.e. 1000 times as much as will heat 1 lb. of water 1°. Hence the quantity of heat proceeding from the engine is = 4700 units per minute. Suppose, then, only one-half of this to be made available for useful purposes, and the other half wasted,—blown off into the air, &c.,—we have still a quantity of heat saved from this 10-horse engine which will raise nearly 100 gallons of water per hour from 62° to boiling-point, or will heat in the same time about 250,000 cubic feet of air from 30° to 60°.—Tr. care, however, not to admit more cold air at the doors than can be avoided. When coal is used for fuel, it should be broken in small pieces, and spread in a thin layer, which will cause less smoke than when put on in massive quantities.\(^8\) It is always advantageous to give the stoker plenty to do. If the coals fall through the bars unburnt, they should be put afresh on the fire. ON THE DIMENSIONS AND PROPORTIONS OF THE ENGINE. 241. I have already spoken in many places of the dimensions of various parts of the engine; I will now give some rules for the general proportions and dimensions, which it would have been inconvenient to introduce elsewhere. The engine given in the Plates as a normal example is of 10-horse power: the cylinder is 8 inches diameter; length of the stroke 2 feet; number of revolutions 50 in a minute; diameter of piston-rod 2 inches; height of packing of the piston 4 inches; diameter of the steam-pipe 2 inches, and of the eduction-pipe \(3\frac{1}{2}\) inches;\(^9\) dimensions of the steam and eduction ports 3 inches by \(\frac{3}{4}\). All other dimensions may be ascertained from the scales attached. I take the diameter of the cylinder for the basis of all calculations of the dimensions of the engine; and this having been fixed (by the rule in Art. 242), the linear proportions of the parts to each other will remain the \(^8\) These are exactly the directions given by Smeaton and Watt, and practised in Cornwall (see ‘Appendix G. to Tredgold,’ Art. 135). I think it probable, however, that the Author was not acquainted with this fact.—Tr. \(^9\) These dimensions differ a little from those stated in Arts. 217–221.—Tr. same as in the normal engine, with the following exceptions: (a.) The packing of the piston should never exceed 6 inches in depth for the largest engines. The length of the cylinder will depend upon this, and where it becomes shorter than the proportion of the normal engine, the difference may be added to the length of the stuffing-box, or to the interval between this and the crank-pin. (b.) The packing of the stuffing-box for the piston-rod should not exceed 6 inches in depth. (c.) The section of the fly-wheel rim, and strength of the arms, must be determined by the weight, as calculated by the proper formula (see Art. 228). The diameter may remain as drawn. (d.) With small engines under 6-horse power the stroke may be somewhat lengthened; but for the largest I would not make it longer than 4 feet. The framing will of course require alteration when the stroke is altered. Very small engines may be given a simpler form, which I shall hereafter show. 242. The calculation of the diameter of the cylinder is very simple. I make it four-ninths the diameter of the cylinder of a Boulton and Watt condensing engine of the same power, according to the ordinary Tables.\(^{10}\) 243. The number of revolutions per minute should be such that the mean velocity of the piston may be— \(^{10}\) I find that the following simple rules answer for the Author’s engines: The horse power = \(\frac{1}{6}\) the square of the diameter of the cylinder in inches. The diameter of the cylinder = the square root of 6 times the horse power. When the horse power is above 30, or the cylinder above 13 inches, the co-efficient 6 may be changed to be \(\frac{1}{2}\).—Tr. For engines under 10 h. p., 180 ft. per minute. " from 10 to 50 " 200 " " 50 to 100 " 240 " These rules may, however, be departed from if circumstances require a particular velocity to be given to the crank-shaft. A small high-pressure engine may move 240 feet per minute without the disadvantage that would arise to a condensing engine under such circumstances. 244. The quantity of water required to be furnished by the feed-pump may be calculated by the following formula, which my experience has shown to be satisfactory. Let \( A = \) area of the steam cylinder, and \( L = \) length of stroke, both in inches. Then the number of cubic inches of water required each stroke is \[ = \frac{AL}{262}. \] This supposes the steam to be 8 times the density of that at atmospheric pressure (= about 9 atmospheres' elasticity), and cut off at one-third the stroke: it allows nearly 20 per cent. extra supply for chance of waste, &c. ON THE APPLICATION OF THE ENGINE TO MACHINERY OF VARIOUS KINDS. 245. I have already stated that I consider it injudicious to adhere implicitly to one fixed form of engine. To use one invariable construction, be the object ever so different, or the circumstances under which it works ever so various, argues a poverty of ideas, absence of talent, and want of experience, very unworthy of the high position which the Engineer is supposed to occupy in the scientific world. There have been fashions in the form of an engine, just as in the cut of a coat, and these have been adopted often at the expense of simplicity. It is easy to understand that a fixed form of engine cannot be applicable to all required purposes, if the application is to be made in the simplest possible manner, and with the least possible loss of power. If a rotatory movement is required, a crank engine should be used;—if a reciprocating rectilinear motion is wanted, the reciprocating motion of the piston should be directly applied. Wherever the machine to be set in motion stands, it is certainly better, if possible, to apply the power directly upon this point, than to bring it from another situation by complicated connecting organs. The more connecting machinery, the more unnecessary first cost, and continual loss of power. In all my designs I follow the rule, confirmed alike by experience and common sense, that the power of the piston must be applied as directly as possible upon the machines to be moved; and there are few cases, even in adaptation to existing arrangements, where this end may not be more or less satisfactorily attained. I shall proceed to show how I endeavour to effect this object, by descriptions of various combinations of the steam engine with machinery, illustrated by the figures in Plates xxii. to xxviii. As a general remark, however, I would observe, that for all works where the main driving shaft lies horizontally, and near the ground, the normal form hereinbefore described should be adhered to as the best construction. Where this shaft lies high, some of the other forms shown in the following descriptions may be adopted. 246. Oscillating Engine with the Main Shaft above the Cylinder. Figs. 98 and 99 represent an engine where the piston-rod works upwards, instead of downwards as in the normal form. The fly-wheel shaft rests upon a frame $b$. The cylinder $c$ hangs in a trunnion-frame $d$, constructed on the same principle as that already described. The valve apparatus may either be placed at the bottom of the cylinder or at the front or back, between the cylinder and the trunnion-frame. The connecting piece between the piston-rod and crank should be of a good length, in order to remove the swing centre as far as possible from the crank-shaft. This form of engine is light and simple, and especially adapted to engines of small power. Figs. 108 and 109 show a modification in which the trunnion-frame of the cylinder is removed, applicable to cases where the space is confined, and where it is preferred to let the steam pass through the trunnions.\footnote{The Author has contrived a very ingenious and effectual method of reducing the friction and wear in gudgeons so placed, working under high temperatures. This will be described in the Supplement now about to be published in Germany.—Tr.} 247. \textit{Engine with a fixed Cylinder and Connecting-rod.} Figs. 100 and 101 represent an engine adapted for cases in which the driving shaft lies very high. It has a fixed cylinder, the top of which projects above the foundation plate. The main shaft $e$ may lie either upon the upper beams of the building or upon a bracket $d$, supported by columns $ef$, as shown in the figure. $g$ and $h$ are guides, with faces of hard wood, adjustable by set screws; they are attached to the columns by brackets $mn$. $op$ is a slide with hardened faces, attached to the piston-rod $k$. I prefer slides to friction rollers, as the latter are more liable to get out of order, and run untrue. For the attachment of the connecting-rod \( l \) to the piston-rod, I use a ball and socket joint, which is much easier to make than the ordinary strap and cutter joint used for such purposes, and works better, adapting itself to movement in any direction. It is shown more particularly in figs. 113, 114. \( a \) is the piston-rod, fastened by a cutter to the lower part of the socket of the joint; \( b \) is a hardened steel ball, fixed by the short rod \( c \) to the connecting rod \( d \). The rod \( c \) plays through a hole in the upper part of the socket, as is seen in the figure. 248. Engine for driving a Vertical Shaft. Fig. 102 represents a form of engine which I would recommend for giving motion to vertical shafts, such as for driving corn-mills. The steam cylinder here oscillates horizontally; it is bolted firmly to a strong cross piece \( b \) on the upright shaft \( c \), which swings in the carriage \( d \), and the step \( e \). The piston-rod has a small guide \( f \), which slides on two turned wrought iron rods \( g \), attached to the cylinder at one end and to a connecting piece \( h \) at the other. \( i \) is an additional strut, to give firmness to the piece \( h \). \( k \) is the connecting joint between the piston-rod and the crank-pin \( l \), set in the spur-wheel \( m \), which gives motion to the stones. This wheel is somewhat heavy, and acts as a light fly-wheel: a heavy fly is altogether unnecessary in a corn-mill, because the stones themselves act as such. The valve motion lies above the cylinder, as shown in the figures. \( n n \) are the channels to the cylinder. The valve-rod moves in a guide \( s \), and is worked by a rod \( r \) from an eccentric \( o \), on the shaft \( p \), turned by a small counter-crank $q$. $t$ is the steam-pipe, turning in a stuffing-box $u$. $v$ is the eduction-pipe, which is double, passing down each side of the cylinder, and joining in a stuffing-box and single pipe at $w$. The engine works in a room separated by the wall $x$ from the mill-rooms $y$. 249. Single-acting Pumping Engine. Fig. 103 represents the engine erected by me for lifting water at Dobberan Turf Moor, and referred to in Art. 236. In this I have used a beam, though it is by no means absolutely necessary. The cylinder $a$ is constructed for single action, i.e. working by the descent of the piston only. The valve $b$ is a slide, the construction of which is shown clearly by the sections, figs. 111 and 112. $g$ is the beam, having upon the ends two arcs $m$ and $n$, to which the piston and pump-rods are hung by strong straps (Riemen); and as the engine is but of the small power of 2 or 3 horses, these answer very well. $o$ is the framing; $p$ the pump, which is of copper, furnished with a cistern $q$, and run-off trough $r$: $s$ is the pump-rod, and $e$ the counterweight. $c$ is the condenser, and $u$ the feed-pump with its rod $t$. $v$ is a catch-rod, to prevent the engine making too long a stroke either upwards or downwards. The lower end of the cylinder is constantly open to the condenser, by a side pipe $d$. The steam acts upon the upper side of the piston, and is cut off at half its stroke by the valve moving into the position fig. 112; at the end of the stroke the valve takes the position fig. 111, the steam blows into the condenser, and a vacuum is soon formed above as well as below the piston; the counterweight then acts, and the engine performs its out-door stroke, at the end of which the valve is reversed, and the in-door stroke repeated as before. The valve is moved by the plug-rod $f$; it has on one side two tappets $h$ and $i$, which strike against the lever $k$, and so raise or lower the valve, and put the cylinder port in communication with either the boiler or the condenser. The lever-shaft carries also a smaller bent lever $l$, acted on by another tappet on the opposite side of the plug-rod, the object of which is to bring the valves at half stroke into the position fig. 112, thereby shutting off the supply of steam to the cylinder. This latter tappet is moveable, that any required degree of expansion may be used. Figs. 104 and 105 represent a pumping engine of simpler form, the cylinder standing directly over the pump. This arrangement will be understood without description. The steam acts, of course, underneath instead of above the piston. The valves are worked by a tappet upon the piston-rod. I saw a large engine on this simple construction belonging to the New River Water-Works Company, and working in Thames Street, London.\footnote{This construction was used in Cornwall by William Bull about 1790, and has been lately revived, both there and elsewhere. See ‘Appendix G. to Tredgold,’ Art. 50.—Tr.} \textbf{250. Arrangement for Marine Engines.} Figures 106, 107, show an arrangement of oscillating engines for marine purposes. This is so simple, and takes, with its boiler, so little room, that it occupies scarcely one-fifth part of the capacity of the vessel; whereas the ordinary low-pressure beam engines require nearly one-half. The figures will be understood without description.\textsuperscript{13} ON THE USE OF THE WASTE STEAM FROM THE ENGINE. 251. I have already mentioned, as one of the principal advantages of the high-pressure engine, the opportunity it gives of using the steam, after it has passed through the cylinders, for many purposes where heating is required: this advantage is often inestimable for large manufactories where spacious rooms have to be warmed, fluids to be heated, hot water to be in constant readiness, &c., &c. In such cases, if the steam can be properly applied, it may often be considered that the power of the engine is obtained for nothing, since as great a consumption of fuel would be required, were there no steam engine.\textsuperscript{14} This advantage has been too much neglected. Many mechanists with whom I have spoken have either not thought of it at all, or thought too lightly of it. I have put it in practice successfully for twenty years. In one of my early manufactories, the whole establishment was warmed in winter, and in summer the operation of drying wood was performed in this way. In a paper manufactory, the waste steam was applied to many purposes, one of which alone formerly required one-fourth as much fuel as was afterwards used for the whole engine. In the Ducal cloth factory at Plau, three large stories are warmed, water heated, certain machines supplied with steam, and other \textsuperscript{13} Let it not be forgotten that this was written nearly ten years ago.—Tr. \textsuperscript{14} See note on page 279.—Tr. operations requiring heat are effected, all with the waste steam from the engine. 252. It has been said, as an objection to this use of the waste steam, that it offers a much increased resistance to the piston. I cannot, however, admit this to be true if the arrangements are properly adapted, for I have never found, even when the most extensive use has been made of the steam, that it has had any sensible effect on the power of the engine. I always add a contrivance by which the waste steam may either be sent through the warming pipes, &c., or may be diverted and blown directly into the open air; and I have often proved, in presence of many witnesses, that no alteration in the working of the engine was perceptible when this change was made in the disposal of the steam. 253. In many of my arrangements for the purpose now spoken of, I have turned the steam directly from the eduction-pipe into a large receiver, in order to render the blast less perceptible. This vessel should be made of sheet iron or copper, and should be about forty or fifty times the cubic capacity of the cylinder. The pipes conveying the steam away to its various uses should pass from it, and it should also be provided with an escape-pipe leading into the open air, by which the steam may blow away when it is not required for the warming purposes. This last-mentioned pipe should have an enlargement, containing a valve of simple construction, opening outwards (Klappe), which may be weighted to about $\frac{1}{4}$ or $\frac{1}{2}$ lb. on the square inch, so as to retain the steam in the receiver with this force. It forms then a sort of safety-valve, which will prevent any dangerous increase of pressure in the cylinder, should the ordinary passages become under any circumstances impeded. The diameter of the escape-pipe and of the valve opening should be equal to that of the eduction-pipe of the engine. The water accumulating by condensation in the receiver should be carried away by a syphon-tube, which will not only prevent escape of steam, but also admit air, should a vacuum be formed while the machine is standing still: this last is a very necessary provision. 254. When apartments are to be warmed, the steam should pass, where possible, in a continuous course through pipes laid in the required directions, and with a sufficient fall to carry off the water of condensation: at the end of the circuit the steam should blow by an open pipe into the air. The pipes should be as large as possible, at least twice that of the eduction-pipe of the engine, to give but little hindrance to the passage of the steam; and if no other use but this is made of the steam, the receiver mentioned in the last Article may be dispensed with, taking care, however, to provide the by-pass, to allow the steam to escape directly into the open air when the heating is not required. The heating-pipe and the by-pass may each be furnished with throttle-valves, by which the steam may be turned in either direction at pleasure. When water or liquids are to be heated, the steam may be led either in a coil of pipe passing through them, or in a jacket surrounding them; or, when circumstances will permit, the steam may be brought at once into the fluid to be heated, by a dip-pipe, which should have a bend, to cause the steam to discharge itself in a horizontal direction, giving a beneficial motion to the fluid. For drying apparatus, or the like, flat chambers may be used, taking care to give ample room for the free passage of the steam, and to make due provision for the escape of the condensed water. In all arrangements of this kind, the steam should be allowed to give out its heat under the least possible pressure, so that the advantage may be obtained without detriment to the action of the engine by raising up a considerable counter-resistance to the piston. It is certain, that in this particular, as in those more immediately appertaining to the engine itself, there is ample scope for the exercise of that talent, perseverance, experience, and science, which adorn the profession of the Engineer. 255. I close my work with the exhortation of the Apostle— "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good." INDEX. Advantages of the high-pressure engine, 48. America, boiler explosions in, 23. American engines, 68. Application of engine to machinery, 282. Arago, M., 17. Ash-pit, 177. Attendant, engine, importance of having a careful person as, 108, 116, 182; good character of English, 109. Balcourt, M., 39. Barton's piston, 226. Berlin iron foundry, 274. Bernouilli, M., 55. Blowing machines, 273–274. —— through, 52. Boiler, height of water in, 17, 20–22, 101; regulation of water level, 114. ——, large, action of, 155; method of cleaning, 163; advantages of, 163–165; separators and receivers for, 153, 160; hearts, or flat chambers for, 149, 158. Boilers, explosions of, 15–34, 97, 100. ——, dimensions of, 23, 95, 117; cast iron, danger of, 29; high-pressure, errors in construction of, 29–34; best materials for, 30, 98; form of, 31; thickness of, 32; proving of, 115. ——, water surface in, 83. ——, steam space in, 33, 166. ——, water space in, 33, 88, 89, 90. ——, proportions of to heating surface, 165. Boilers, heated surface of, 91–94; how calculated, 167. ——, description of the Author’s small, 116–145. ——, description of the Author’s large, 146–168. ——, high-pressure, fundamental principle on which they should be constructed, 70. Boiler tubes, requisites in their use, 74; should be the weakest part of a boiler, 76; their dimensions, 78, 79; their position in the furnace, 80; degree in which they should be filled, 81; distance apart, 149. ——, for large boiler, 147, 156, 161; their position in the furnace, 201, 202. Boilers, tubular, 71; conditions to be fulfilled in them, 73; receivers and separators, 75; means of cleansing, 83–87. Bronze for cylinders, 218. Bull’s engine, 287. By-pass for steam, 264. Calculation of the Author’s engines, 278. Caloric in steam, 54. Casing round cylinder, 248. Cast iron, as a material for boilers, 29. Cement, iron, 121. Chimney, height of, 173; area of, 177. Christian, M., 37, 58. Cleaning of boilers, damage by careless, 19. Cloth factory, engine in, 277. Cock, shut-off, for steam pipe, 265. Cocks, defects of, 239, 265. Combustion in the furnace, 38, 39. ______, rate of, 189, 190. Condenser, 243, 268, 270. ______, pressure, 57. Connection between piston-rod and crank, 266. Copper, as a material for boilers, 30. Cornish boilers, 37. ______, engine, 59. Corn-mill engine, 285. Cornwall, engineers and manufacturers in, 3–5. ______, slow combustion in, 189. Crank, 266. ______, shaft, ib. Cylinder, the, 218, 247; condensation in, 60; covers, 219, 248; diameter of, 281. Damper, 187. Dams in flues, ib. Deposit in boilers, 18, 84–87, 125, 164. Dimensions of engine, 280. Dobberan engine, 276, 286. Double cone joint, 127. Draft, slow and quick, 188. Drying apparatus, 291. Duty of engines, 274–280. Earle, Thomas, 26. Economy of improved engines, 272–280. Eduction-pipe, 258. ______, openings, 57. ______, passages, 240. Electric phenomena of steam, 27. Emery, 262. Endeavour, the, 208. Engine applied to machinery, 282. ______, improvement required in, 61, 206. ______, with fixed cylinder, 284. ______, single-acting, 286. ______, dimensions and proportions of, 280. ______, with horizontal cylinder, 285. ______, oscillating, 206–218. ______, with main shaft above cylinder, 283. ______, attendant, importance of having a careful one, 182. Engine-house, advantage of cleanliness in, 204. Engines, the Author's, described, 244. ______, single-acting, for circular motion, 234. ______, improved economy of, 272–280. Etna, American steamer, explosion of, 19. Evans, Oliver, 11, 12, 31, 67, 242, 279. Ewbank, 107. Exhaustion of cylinder, 56. Exit of steam from cylinder, ib. Expansion, 59, 66, 241, 243; best degree of, 242. ______, apparatus acted on by governor, 243. ______, of boilers, unequal, 19. ______, slide, 261. Fashions in engines, 282. Feed apparatus, 100–104; description of, 135; imperfect, 22. Feed-pump, description of, 137. ______, packing of, 141; proportions of, ib.; substitutes for, 101; defects of, 103; valves of, 139, 143. Feed-pumps, plunger and piston, 136, 145. Feed required, 282. Feed water, 104, 138, 143, 144. Field, Joshua, 99. Fire-bars, expansion of, 192. Fire-doors, 191. Fire-feeding contrivances, 183, 184. Fire-grate and bars, 179. ______, space between it and boiler, 181. Fire, internal, for boilers, 170. Fire-tubes, internal, 22. Firing, method of, 279. Floats as water gauges, 113, 131. Flues, form and construction of, 185. Flue-door, Sylvester's patent, 186. Fly-wheel, 266; weight of, 267; velocity of, 268; substitutes for, ib. Foundation of engine, 245. Framing of engine, 244. Friction of the high-pressure engine, 51. ______, of hemp packing, 228. ______, under high temperatures, 212, 225, 284. INDEX. Friction of oscillating trunnions, 211, 255, 284. Fuel, economy of in high-pressure engines, 54; consumption of, 272, 279, 280. Furnace, 168, 171; manner of building, 171; the Author's, described, 191. —— feeding machines, 183. Fyfe, Dr., 184. Gauge-cocks, evils of, 111. Glass tubes as water gauges, 112. Governor, 243, 264. Grease-pump, 254. Grease, qualities of, 231. Grinding valve faces, 262. Guides for piston-rod, 266. Gurney, Mr., 53. Güstrow, engine at, 214. Guyton Morveau, 30. Hall, Adam, 21. Hancock, Walter, 31. Heat, waste of in high-pressure engines, 35; sensible and latent in steam, 37. Heating by waste steam, 288–291. —— surface of a boiler, 167. Hemp packing, 64, 227–229, 251; best method of making, 230. High-pressure engine, history of, 11, 12, 13; objections to, 14; advantages of, 48. Horizontal oscillating cylinder, 285. Hornblower's engine, 59. Horse power, 42, 281. Hydrogen gas in boilers, 20. Ideas, development of in the mind, 146. Indus, the, 209. Injection, 57. Iron, destruction of its fibre by heat, 17. Iron foundry, engine in, 273. Iron, hot, steam generated by, 21. Iveson, Mr., 184. Jacket round cylinder, 60, 220, 248. Janvier, M., 100. Jobard, M., 27. Joint, double cone, 127. ——, ball and socket, 285. Joints, cement, 121; of copper rings, 125; lead, 122; link, 136. Johnson, Professor, 21, 95. Köchlin, M., 131, 178. Lead joints, 122. Leakage in high-pressure engines, 41, 51. Leaks in boilers, 120. Leupold, 12. Loam for fire-bricks, 171. Lubrication, 44; of the piston, 249, 253. Malchow, engine at, 276. Manby, Aaron, 207. ——, Charles, ib. Marestier, M., 21. Marine boilers, 166. ———, bursting of, 22, 23. —— engines, oscillating, 287. Maudslay, Joseph, 208. Measures, Hamburgh, used in the original and on the drawings, 117, 118. Mechanic's Magazine, 105, 112. Miller and Ravenhill, 209. Models in tin plate, 147. Morin, M., 269. Morosi, Signor, 27. Muriatic acid for cleaning boilers, 85. Murray, 267. Neatness, advantage of, in engine-house, 204. Neukranz, M., 73. New River Water Works' stoker, 184; engine, 287. Oil, consumption of, 43. Oil-mill, engine in, 275. Oscillating engine, 206; history of, 207; advantages of, 213–218; objections to, 208–213. Packing, hemp, 64, 227, 229, 251. —— of piston, 53. Palmer, G. Holworthy, 242. Paper-mill, engine in, 275. Papin, 12, 106. Passages, steam and eduction, 240. Perkins, Jacob, 24, 128, 221. Penn, Messrs., 73, 209. Piston, 221, 232, 250. ———, metallic, objections to, 222, 226. ———, method of packing, 251, 253, 255. ——— packing, depth of, 281. ———, velocity of, 282. ———, resistance to from waste steam, 289. Pistons, hemp, advantages of, 227. ———, metallic and hemp, 41. Piston-rod guides, 266. Plau, engine at, 161, 276, 288. Plugs, fusible, 34. Plummer-blocks for trunnions, 246; for crank-shaft, 247. Potatoes for prevention of deposit in boilers, 85. Pottery for fire-work, 200. Pottinger, the, 209. Power of high-pressure engine easily augmented, 52. Pressure, what most advantageous, 43, 65–69. ———, mean, 278. ——— gauges, 111. Prony's brake, 272–280. Proportions of engine, 280. Priming in boilers, 91. Pumice-stone, 262. Pumping engine at Dobberan, 276, 286. Radiant heat, loss of, 40. Register for ash-pit, 178, 196. Regularity of motion, 267. Regulation of water-level in boiler, 114. Rennies, Messrs., 209. Repertory of Patent Inventions, 112. Revolutions per minute, 281. Ripon, the, 209. Riveting boilers, 120. Rostock, boiler at, 195. Safety apparatus, 105–110. ———, imperfect, 33. Safety-valves, 107. ———, defects in, 105; invention of, 107; description of, 129; size of, 130, 131. ———, substitutes for, 108. ——— with pistons, 109. ———, sudden opening of, 21. Samuda, 15. Savery, Captain, 11. Sediment in boilers, 18. Seguier, 201. Separation of boiler and engine-rooms, 204. Simplicity of the high-pressure engine, 49. Slide-valve first applied to the oscillating engine, 208. Smeaton, 280. Smoke-burning contrivances, 183. Smoke, nuisance of, 175. Spiller, Mr., 208. Springs for metallic pistons, 225. Steam, application of in the engine, 55. ——— gauge, 145. ———, high-pressure, economy of, 37. ——— passages, 240. ——— pipe and passages, 129, 262. ——— jacket, ib. ——— room in boilers, 166. ———, waste, 288–291. ———, use of for warming, &c., 59. Steamers, oscillating engines for, 218. Stephenson, Robert, 201. Stoker, importance of having a careful one, 182. ——— at the New River Water Works, 184. Stroke, length of, 232, 281. Stuffing-box, 219, 249, 281. Sylvester, John, 95. Sylvester's flue door, 186. Tallow, impurities in, 232. Tassin, M., 27. Taylor, Philip, 26. Thermometers, 110. Throttle-valve, 265. Throttling the steam, 242. Tools for engineering manufacture, 223. Trevithick, 13, 31. ——— the inventor of the oscillating engine, 207. Trunnion frame, 255. Trunnions, friction of, 284. Turf for fuel, 181, 275, 277. Vacuum-valve, 20, 145. ——— lost in high-pressure engines, 42. Vacuum, partial, formed before the piston, 57, 241. Valve, action of, 263. —— and rod, 259. ——, Cornish double-beat, 237. —— gearing, 260. —— grinding, 262. —— motion, 57. ——, power to work, 240. ——, slide, friction of, 239. ——, travel of, 263. Valves, 234–240. ——, description of, 256–263. ——, seat and slide, 46. ——, stalk, defects of, 235–237. Velocity of piston, 58, 282. Vertical shaft engine, 285. Vieux Valesse, explosion at, 27. Wagenmann, M., 39. Warming by waste steam, 288–291. Waste steam, heat in, 279. ———, use of, 288–291. Water; circulation of in boiler, 156. Water, cold, for condensation, 51. —— evaporated, 278. ——, height of in boilers, 17, 20–22, 101. —— required for feed, 282. —— space in boilers, 166. —— gauges, 111–115. ———, imperfect, 22. ———, float, description of, 131. Water level in the boiler, method of regulating, 114. Water pan to ash-pit, 178. Watt, James, 59, 60, 92, 234, 242, 280. Wear and tear of the high-pressure engine, 45–48. ——, unequal, of oscillating engines, 210, 211. Williams, C. W., 95. Wire-drawing the steam, 53, 242. Witty, 207. Wood for fuel, 181. Woolf, 59, 60. Worcester, Marquis of, 11. Boiler for Small Engines Fig. 1. Side Elevation Fig. 2. Front Elevation John Wade, 1847. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data in a computer program to make it easier to access, manipulate, and store. 3. Database: A collection of data organized in a structured manner so that it can be accessed, managed, and updated efficiently. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and managing databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data of any size into a fixed-size value. 7. Interface: A way of communicating between two systems or components. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules and procedures for communication between two or more systems. 10. Query: A request for information from a database. 11. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 12. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 13. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to perform a specific task. 14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that allows users to interact with it. 15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 16. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 17. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 18. API: Application Programming Interface, a set of rules and protocols for building software applications. 19. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet. 20. Big Data: Large volumes of data that require specialized techniques for processing and analysis. 21. Machine Learning: A subset of artificial intelligence that focuses on developing algorithms that can learn from and make predictions on data. 22. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A subfield of artificial intelligence that deals with the interaction between computers and human languages. 23. Robotics: The design, construction, operation, and application of robots. 24. Internet of Things (IoT): A network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other items embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity that enables them to connect and exchange data. 25. Quantum Computing: A type of computing that uses quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. 26. Blockchain: A decentralized digital ledger that records transactions across many computers in such a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retroactively without the alteration of all subsequent blocks and the consensus of the network. 27. Artificial Intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. 28. Deep Learning: A subset of machine learning that uses neural networks with multiple layers to learn and make predictions on complex data. 29. Neural Networks: A class of machine learning models inspired by the structure and function of the human brain. 30. Reinforcement Learning: A type of machine learning where an agent learns to make decisions by interacting with its environment and receiving rewards or penalties based on its actions. Boiler for Small Engines. Fig. 3. Longitudinal Section. Transverse Section. John Wade, 1847. Boiler for Small Engines. Fig. 6. Horizontal Section. Transverse Section. London, J. Weale, 1847. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science. It is intended to provide a quick reference for those who need to understand these concepts. 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data in a computer program so that it can be accessed efficiently. 3. Database: A collection of data organized in a way that allows for easy retrieval and manipulation. 4. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that it cannot be read by unauthorized users. 5. Hashing: The process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, which can be used for security purposes. 6. Interface: The point at which a user interacts with a computer system. 7. Network: A collection of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing resources. 8. Operating System: The software that manages the hardware and software resources of a computer. 9. Programming Language: A set of instructions that can be used to create computer programs. 10. Security: The measures taken to protect a computer system from unauthorized access or attack. 11. Software: Any program or application that runs on a computer. 12. System: A collection of related components that work together to achieve a common goal. 13. User: An individual who uses a computer system for personal or professional purposes. 14. Virtual Machine: A software implementation of a computer system that can run on top of another computer system. 15. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. Details of Boiler & safety valve for Small Engines. Fig. 7. A Cylinder Connections & Covers. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Safety Valve. London, J. Weale, 1847. The following is a list of the most common types of errors that can occur in a database: 1. **Data Integrity Errors**: These errors occur when the data in the database does not meet the rules and constraints defined for it. For example, if a table has a column that is supposed to be unique, but two rows have the same value in that column, then there is a data integrity error. 2. **Concurrency Errors**: These errors occur when multiple users or processes try to access the same data at the same time. For example, if two users try to update the same row in a table simultaneously, then one of their updates may be lost or corrupted. 3. **Deadlock Errors**: These errors occur when two or more transactions are waiting for each other to complete before they can proceed. For example, if transaction A is waiting for transaction B to commit before it can continue, and transaction B is waiting for transaction A to commit before it can continue, then a deadlock has occurred. 4. **Transaction Rollback Errors**: These errors occur when a transaction fails to complete successfully and must be rolled back to its original state. For example, if a transaction tries to update a row in a table but encounters an error, then the entire transaction will be rolled back and the changes will be undone. 5. **Database Corruption Errors**: These errors occur when the database becomes corrupted and cannot be accessed properly. For example, if a file containing the database is damaged or deleted, then the database may become corrupted and unusable. 6. **Network Errors**: These errors occur when there is a problem with the network connection between the client and the server. For example, if the network connection is interrupted or the server goes down, then the client may not be able to access the database. 7. **Security Errors**: These errors occur when there is a problem with the security of the database. For example, if an unauthorized user gains access to the database, then sensitive information may be exposed or modified. 8. **Performance Errors**: These errors occur when the database is not performing optimally. For example, if the database is slow to respond to queries or if it takes too long to process large amounts of data, then performance errors may occur. 9. **Backup and Restore Errors**: These errors occur when there is a problem with backing up or restoring the database. For example, if a backup fails to complete successfully or if a restore operation corrupts the database, then backup and restore errors may occur. 10. **User Interface Errors**: These errors occur when there is a problem with the user interface of the database application. For example, if the user interface is not intuitive or if it is difficult to use, then user interface errors may occur. It is important to note that these are just some of the most common types of errors that can occur in a database. There are many other types of errors that can also occur, depending on the specific circumstances and requirements of the database. Details of Water Gauge & Joints Fig. 15. Double Cone Joint Fig. 16. Ring Joint Fig. 17. John Wade, 1847 The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. Feed Apparatus. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. John Weale, 1847. Fig. 30. Front Elevation Side Elevation John Wolfe, 1848. G. Glutaran, sculp. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. Fig. 32. Fig. 31. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. 7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components that allows them to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by programmers to write computer programs. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of information and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. XML (Extensible Markup Language): A markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 19. API (Application Programming Interface): A set of rules and protocols for building software applications. 20. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet, including servers, storage, databases, and software applications. Details of Boiler for Large Engines. Fig. 34. Fig. 35. Fig. 36. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40. Scale for Figs. 34 to 40: 12 inches Scale for Fig. 33: 3 feet John Weale, 1848. G. Gladwin sculp. Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. Scale for Figs. 42 to 49. Scale for Fig. 51. John Wade, 1843. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. 7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components that allows them to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of information and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a common plan to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, providing a means for input and output. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. XML (Extensible Markup Language): A markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 19. API (Application Programming Interface): A set of rules and protocols for building software applications. 20. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet, allowing users to access and use these resources without having to manage the underlying infrastructure. 21. Big Data: A term used to describe datasets that are too large or complex to be processed using traditional data processing techniques. 22. Machine Learning: A subfield of artificial intelligence that focuses on developing algorithms that allow computers to learn from data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. 23. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A subfield of artificial intelligence that focuses on enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language. 24. Neural Networks: A type of machine learning model inspired by the structure and function of the human brain, which is capable of learning and making predictions based on patterns in data. 25. Quantum Computing: A type of computing that uses quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. 26. Blockchain: A decentralized digital ledger that records transactions across many computers in such a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retroactively. 27. Internet of Things (IoT): A network of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other items embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity that enables them to connect and exchange data. 28. Cybersecurity: The protection of information and systems from cyber threats, including attacks, breaches, and other forms of cybercrime. 29. Artificial Intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems, including reasoning, learning, and problem-solving. 30. Robotics: The design, construction, operation, and application of robots—artificially intelligent machines that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. Boiler for Large Engines. Plan of water connecting tubes. Views of a Thirty-horse Boiler. Front Elevation. John Weale, 1843. Fig. 54. Front Elevation. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. 7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components that allows them to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules and procedures that govern communication between different systems or components. 10. Query: A request for information from a database. 11. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, modification, or destruction. 12. Software: A collection of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 13. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to perform specific tasks. 14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user. 15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another operating system. 16. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 17. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language used for structuring and storing data. 18. API: Application Programming Interface, a set of rules and protocols for building software applications. 19. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet. 20. Big Data: Large volumes of data that require specialized techniques for analysis and management. 21. Machine Learning: A subfield of artificial intelligence that focuses on developing algorithms that can learn from data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. 22. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A subfield of artificial intelligence that focuses on enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language. 23. Robotics: The design, construction, and operation of robots. 24. Internet of Things (IoT): The interconnection of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other items with the internet, allowing them to exchange data and perform actions autonomously. 25. Quantum Computing: A type of computing that uses quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. 26. Blockchain: A decentralized digital ledger that records transactions across many computers in such a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retroactively. 27. Artificial Intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. 28. Deep Learning: A subset of machine learning that uses neural networks with multiple layers to learn and make predictions. 29. Neural Networks: A class of machine learning models inspired by the structure and function of the human brain. 30. Reinforcement Learning: A type of machine learning where an agent learns to make decisions by interacting with an environment and receiving rewards or penalties based on its actions. Fig. 55. Side Elevation B B F G C H G J. Wade, 1848. General Section Fig. 56. J. Weale, 1843. G. Gladwin, sc. General Section Fig. 57. J. Waite, 1843. The following is a list of the most common types of cancer and their associated risk factors: 1. **Breast Cancer** - Risk factors include family history, age, and lifestyle choices such as smoking and alcohol consumption. 2. **Lung Cancer** - Smoking is the primary risk factor, with second-hand smoke also contributing to the risk. 3. **Colorectal Cancer** - Age, diet high in red meat, and a lack of physical activity are significant risk factors. 4. **Prostate Cancer** - Age and family history are major risk factors, along with certain genetic mutations. 5. **Skin Cancer (Melanoma)** - Exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun or tanning beds is a leading cause. 6. **Ovarian Cancer** - Family history, age, and certain genetic mutations increase the risk. 7. **Pancreatic Cancer** - Age, smoking, and a family history of pancreatic cancer are risk factors. 8. **Thyroid Cancer** - Radiation exposure, genetics, and certain medical conditions can increase the risk. 9. **Leukemia** - Age, genetics, and exposure to certain chemicals or radiation are risk factors. 10. **Stomach Cancer** - Diet, particularly a high intake of processed foods, and certain infections are risk factors. 11. **Liver Cancer** - Chronic liver disease, such as hepatitis B or C, and heavy alcohol consumption are risk factors. 12. **Kidney Cancer** - Smoking, obesity, and certain genetic conditions are risk factors. 13. **Endometrial Cancer** - Obesity, diabetes, and a family history of endometrial cancer are risk factors. 14. **Cervical Cancer** - Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection, smoking, and a weakened immune system are risk factors. 15. **Esophageal Cancer** - Smoking, heavy alcohol consumption, and a diet low in fruits and vegetables are risk factors. Understanding these risk factors can help individuals make informed decisions about their health and take steps to reduce their risk of developing cancer. Details Fig. 59. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 64. Scale for Figs. 58 to 64. 1 foot = 1 inch 1 inch = 1 inch J. Ward, 1847 The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. Details. Fig. 66. Piston Fig. 67. Swing Frame Fig. 68. Valve Box Fig. 69. Upper Cylinder, Cover & Valve Boxes Scale for Figs. 66, 68, 69, 70 & 71. 4 inches Scale for Figs. 67 & 72. 2 inches J. Heath, 1843 The following is a list of the most common types of errors that can occur during the development and testing process: 1. Syntax Errors: These are errors that occur when the code does not follow the correct syntax rules of the programming language. Examples include missing semicolons, incorrect use of keywords, or mismatched parentheses. 2. Runtime Errors: These are errors that occur when the program is running and trying to execute a line of code that causes an error. Examples include division by zero, accessing an array out of bounds, or attempting to read from a file that does not exist. 3. Logic Errors: These are errors that occur when the code is syntactically correct but does not produce the expected output. Examples include incorrect conditional statements, incorrect loops, or incorrect calculations. 4. Performance Errors: These are errors that occur when the program runs too slowly or uses too much memory. Examples include inefficient algorithms, excessive use of recursion, or unnecessary data duplication. 5. Security Errors: These are errors that occur when the program is vulnerable to attacks such as SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), or buffer overflows. Examples include using insecure input validation, not properly sanitizing user input, or not properly encrypting sensitive data. 6. Debugging Tools: There are several tools available for debugging programs, including debuggers, profilers, and unit testers. Debuggers allow developers to step through the code line by line and inspect variables and memory at runtime. Profilers help identify performance bottlenecks in the code. Unit testers automatically run tests on individual units of code to ensure they are functioning correctly. 7. Best Practices: To avoid errors, developers should follow best practices such as writing clean, well-organized code, using version control systems, and conducting regular code reviews. They should also be familiar with common error messages and how to resolve them. Plan or Entablature Box, &c. Fig. 82. View of Cross Bridge & Apparatus attached to it. Fig. 89. The following is a list of the most common causes of hearing loss: - **Congenital hearing loss**: This type of hearing loss occurs at birth and can be caused by genetic factors, infections during pregnancy, or complications during delivery. - **Sensorineural hearing loss**: This type of hearing loss affects the inner ear and auditory nerve. It can be caused by exposure to loud noises, aging, certain medications, or diseases such as meningitis or measles. - **Conductive hearing loss**: This type of hearing loss affects the outer or middle ear. It can be caused by wax buildup, ear infections, or damage to the eardrum or ossicles (small bones in the middle ear). - **Mixed hearing loss**: This type of hearing loss is a combination of sensorineural and conductive hearing loss. - **Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis)**: This type of hearing loss occurs as people age and is often progressive. It can be caused by changes in the inner ear and auditory nerve over time. - **Noise-induced hearing loss**: This type of hearing loss occurs when the ears are exposed to loud noises for an extended period of time. It can be caused by prolonged exposure to loud music, machinery, or other sources of noise. - **Medication-induced hearing loss**: Some medications can cause hearing loss as a side effect. This type of hearing loss can occur suddenly or gradually and may be reversible with discontinuation of the medication. - **Traumatic hearing loss**: This type of hearing loss occurs when there is physical trauma to the ear, such as a blow to the head or a punctured eardrum. - **Tumors**: Tumors that grow in or around the ear can cause hearing loss. This type of hearing loss can be either sensorineural or conductive depending on the location of the tumor. It's important to note that hearing loss can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life, affecting their ability to communicate, socialize, and participate in daily activities. Early detection and treatment of hearing loss can help improve a person's overall well-being and quality of life. Details Diagrams explaining the action of the Valves. Note for Figs. 23, 41, 55. 1 inch = 12 inches J. Wolfe, 1848 The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science. It is intended to provide a quick reference for those who need to understand these concepts quickly. 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: A collection of data organized in a structured manner so that it can be accessed, managed, and updated efficiently. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software system that provides services for creating, maintaining, and using databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form so that it cannot be understood by unauthorized users. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. 7. Interface: A way of communicating between two systems or components. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules that govern how data is transmitted between two systems. 10. Query: A request for information from a database. 11. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 12. Software: A collection of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 13. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to perform a specific function. 14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user. 15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 16. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 17. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 18. API: Application Programming Interface, a set of rules and protocols for building software applications. 19. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet. 20. Big Data: Large volumes of data that require specialized techniques for processing and analysis. 21. Machine Learning: A subset of artificial intelligence that focuses on developing algorithms that can learn from data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. 22. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A subfield of artificial intelligence that focuses on enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language. 23. Neural Networks: A type of machine learning algorithm inspired by the structure and function of the human brain. 24. Quantum Computing: A type of computing that uses quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. 25. Blockchain: A decentralized digital ledger that records transactions across many computers in such a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retroactively. Modification of the expansion slide. Fig. 92. Condenser. Fig. 97. Slide for Figs. 91, 92. J. Wolfe, 1848. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: - Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. - Data structure: A way of organizing data in a computer program to make it easier to access, manipulate, and store. - Database: A collection of data organized in a structured manner that allows for efficient retrieval and manipulation. - Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. - Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, which is used to verify the integrity of the data. - Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. - Protocol: A set of rules and procedures for communication between two systems. - Security: The protection of data from unauthorized access, modification, or destruction. - Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. - System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to perform a specific task. - User interface: The part of a computer system that allows users to interact with it. These terms are just a few examples of the many technical terms used in the field of computer science. Understanding these terms is essential for anyone who wants to work in this field or use computers effectively. Modification of the Oscillating Engine. Fig. 49. Fig. 48. Fig. 100. Fig. III. Fig. IIIA. Fig. IIIB. Fig. 102. J. Wode, 1859. Single acting Pumping Engine. Fig. III. Valves, enlarged. Fig. IV. J. Wade 1847. Single acting Pumping Engine. Fig. 134. Fig. 135. Cylinder with guides for the Piston Rod. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form so that it can be securely transmitted or stored. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules that govern how data is transmitted between two systems. 10. Query: A request for information from a database. 11. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, modification, or destruction. 12. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 13. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to perform a specific task. 14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user. 15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 16. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 17. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language used to structure and format data. 18. API: Application Programming Interface, a set of rules and protocols for building software applications. 19. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet. 20. Big Data: Large volumes of data that require specialized techniques for analysis and management. 21. Machine Learning: A subset of artificial intelligence that focuses on developing algorithms that can learn from data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. 22. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A field of artificial intelligence that focuses on enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language. 23. Robotics: The design, construction, and operation of robots. 24. Internet of Things (IoT): The interconnection of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other items with the internet, allowing them to exchange data and perform actions autonomously. 25. Quantum Computing: A type of computing that uses quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. 26. Blockchain: A decentralized digital ledger that records transactions across many computers in such a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retroactively. 27. Artificial Intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. 28. Deep Learning: A subset of machine learning that uses neural networks to model and solve complex problems. 29. Neural Networks: A class of machine learning models inspired by the structure and function of the human brain. 30. Reinforcement Learning: A type of machine learning where an agent learns to make decisions by interacting with its environment and receiving rewards or penalties based on its actions. Oscillating Engines for Steam Vessels. Fig. 106. Fig. 107. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. Mechanical Construction of the Oscillating Engine. Fig. 178. Fig. 179. The following is a list of the books and articles that have been published by the author in the field of computer science. 1. "A Survey of Algorithms for Graph Coloring," *Journal of Computer Science*, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 150-160, March 2018. 2. "Efficient Algorithms for the Maximum Clique Problem," *International Journal of Computer Science and Engineering*, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 78-88, April 2019. 3. "A New Approach to the Traveling Salesman Problem," *IEEE Transactions on Computers*, vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 10-20, January 2021. 4. "An Analysis of the Performance of Parallel Algorithms for Matrix Multiplication," *ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software*, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 1-15, February 2022. 5. "A Comparative Study of Machine Learning Techniques for Image Classification," *IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence*, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 500-515, March 2023. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Web Service: A software service that is accessible over the internet and can be used by other applications. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization format that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Web Service: A software service that is accessible over a network using standard protocols such as HTTP. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization format that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. WELLS BINDERY INC. WALTHAM, MASS. SEPT. 1966 TJ275 Alban, Ernst A32 The high-pressure steam engine. London, J. Weale, 1848. 101069 TJ 275.A32 3 9358 00101069 0
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This year, apart from incorporating storytelling elements in the CEO training, we also joined a new programme called Tell-A-Tale Children’s Storytelling Competition. It consists of two online workshops, one about story writing and the other about storytelling, plus several rounds of internal and external story writing and storytelling competitions. In the story writing workshop in December, students learnt to develop a story plot with different story elements, start a story in an intriguing way, and use a story map to create a story. With the interesting and meaningful input of the tutors, many outstanding and creative stories were received in the story writing competitions! Then in the storytelling workshop in March, students learnt a variety of storytelling techniques to engage the audience and they all immersed themselves in the interactive activities of the workshop. **Intra-school competition results:** **Story writing:** | Category 2 (P.4) | 1st prize | 4A Lam Hei Yan, Michelle | |------------------|-----------|--------------------------| | | 2nd prize | 4A Mak Bo Yuan, Canning | | | 3rd prize | 4A So Shun Nok, Hayden | | Category 3 (P.5 & 6) | 1st prize | 5A Lam Wing Hang, Venus | |----------------------|-----------|-------------------------| | | 2nd prize | 5E Sham Hoi Ching, Valerie | | | 3rd prize | 6A Guo Wing Tung, Tiffany | (The results of other rounds will be announced later.) Students are trying out the techniques that they learnt to tell a short story. Category 3 (P.5&6) The mermaid 5A Venus Lam Once there was a mermaid who decided to go back home. A fisherman thought she was a girl who fell into the sea. Therefore, he jumped into the sea to save her. He swam deep but did not realize he couldn’t breathe too long. Luckily, an immortal found him and granted him an hour to stay in the sea without breath. He had a lot of encounters. Firstly, he was eaten by a big fish, so he was very scared and he swam out by himself. He complained to the fish for eating him. Therefore, the fish apologized about that. Secondly, he was trapped by a jellyfish which chased after him. When he was about to be hit by its tentacles, a turtle saved him. He thanked it and went away. Finally, the fisherman found the mermaid and she brought him to the land. They became friends ever after. Love is Giving 5E Valerie Sham Once there was an orphan called Linabell. She was ten years old. She had not got a friend in the orphanage. Poor Linabell’s mum died when she was a 2-month-old baby. She left her a magic wand which was made of pink diamonds. One day, when she felt very lonely, she waved her magic wand. Suddenly, a beautiful fairy and her lovely pet appeared. “My name is Stella. The yellow fluffy puppy next to me is Cookie. We will be your best friend forever,” said Fairy Stella. After that, Linabell and Stella did voluntary work together to give love and care to the needy. Moreover, they brought with Cookie as the doctor pet to visit the elderly and patients in the hospital. Everyone loved them so much. Finally, Linabell made a lot of new friends. She found the key to love and happiness - the most valuable thing her mum left her. Mary & Panda Fairy 6A Tiffany Guo Today, the weather was extremely hot because humans are polluting the earth. Therefore, Mary turned on the air conditioner to 16°C after school. Later, she turned on the TV and watched for half an hour. Then, she went to do her homework. However, she left the TV and air conditioner on. At that time, Panda Fairy was watching what Mary has done in the air. She felt really angry about that. After she finished her homework, she got an ice cream from the refrigerator, but she didn’t close the door! Therefore, the ice melted and the water was dripping. Panda Fairy was going to explode! She used magic to let all appliances have a mouth and complain to Mary. Mary was shocked and about to cry. Finally, Mary knew her fault and promised not to waste any electricity. Category 2 (P.4) Butterflies moved home 4A Michelle Lam Yesterday, I saw a butterfly I have never seen in Hong Kong. I mumbled, ‘I’ve never seen this kind of butterfly in Hong Kong before. Is this a new type?’ Suddenly, the butterfly answered, ‘Of course! I used to live in Singapore, but Singapore’s too hot for me now, so I moved to Hong Kong two months ago.’ Feeling puzzled, I asked, ‘Am I dreaming? How come a butterfly can talk? Why has Singapore become hot?’ Butterfly answered quickly, ‘You are not dreaming. Every creature has life so I can talk. Global warming is making the Earth hotter and hotter!’ I was frightened and said, ‘If the Earth is too hot for us, where can we move to?’ The butterfly flew away silently. A CAKE IN THE BOX? 4A Canning Mak Once upon a time, there were two mice living together. Their names were Tommy and Thomas. Tommy was helpful but Thomas was lazy and greedy. One day, when Thomas was eating a piece of cheese, Tommy came back home and said, “I find a present in the kitchen.” “It must be a cake! Let’s go and see.” Thomas replied. They sneaked into the kitchen and saw a red box tied with ribbons on the table. “It doesn’t smell like a cake,” Tommy doubted. “Whatever, there must be some food inside.” Thomas said and climbed to the box. Suddenly, a fat black cat popped up from the box. “I have waited for you for long. I’m hungry!” the cat meowed. The mice screamed and escaped. “Oh my God, it’s not a cake, it’s a cat in the box!” They ran back into the house finally and panted. Tommy said, “Don’t be greedy next time. Sometimes things may have good appearance but in fact it may be harmful.” The Haunted House 4A Hayden So One day, I was reading a book called Haunted House. The book was scary, so I screamed a lot. Suddenly, I was in front of the haunted house in the book. I was shocked, but then I calmed down. I wanted to find an exit back to my house, so I started to explore the haunted house. When I went into the haunted house, I saw a monster roar at me and I was very scared. But I found out the monster wasn’t real, it was just a doll. I realized there was a second floor, so I walked up to it. I heard some weird noises when I arrived on the second floor. I was frightened. Suddenly, a shadow appeared, it said, ‘Do you want me to lead you to the exit?’ ‘Of course!’ I answered. The shadow said, ‘Then follow me!’ I followed the shadow. It led me to a bright door. It said, ‘This is the exit!’ I ran to the exit. Suddenly I heard a noise, ‘Wake up! Wake up Hayden! You are gonna be late for your English lesson! Oh, it was my mum yelling at me. I woke up and I was in my house and it wasn’t haunted. It was just a dream.
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**When:** These exercises are the perfect WARM UP to be performed before training. **Why:** Prepare for training physically – by increasing muscle blood flow and activating the nervous system, both of which will assist in injury prevention. Prepare for training mentally – by getting the swimmers to focus on their breathing, posture and preparing to train well. Part of your long term physical development. **How:** Each sequence has exercises of increasing difficulty. Perform 1 exercise from each sequence for a full routine. Start with 10 repetitions for each exercise and increase the number of repetitions to a maximum of 20. (For the Front and side planks start with a hold of 30 seconds increasing by 10 seconds until can hold for a minute). Only progress onto the more difficult exercises once mastering the easier levels. Most importantly, perform the exercise well and without discomfort. **Where:** The aim of the program is that it is easy for coaches to implement, and is designed to be performed on pool-deck with minimal equipment. **Who:** The exercises included have been selected for their simplicity and safety so can be performed by all swimmers, from as young as 10. While junior swimmers may make some strength gains using this program, the focus is on skill acquisition and developing the correct movement changes, which may be developed once the swimmer is more mature. --- **BEGINNER**, **INTERMEDIATE**, **ADVANCED** --- ### Skipping 5-10 mins - stand with feet shoulder width apart - keep arms out in front, a tall back and weight on the heels - ensure left thighs are horizontal ### Half squats - stand with feet shoulder width apart - keep arms out in front, a tall back and weight on the heels - squeeze glutes and try to maintain a strong back position ### Full squats - stand with feet shoulder width apart - keep arms out in front, a tall back and weight on the heels - squeeze glutes and try to maintain a strong back position ### Jump squats to streamline - affix band securely at about shoulder height - step away to tension band with hands at shoulder level - jump up from fully extended position to allow to 90° keeping a strong pelvis/core position ### 2 arm push - affix band securely at about shoulder height - step away to tension band with hands at shoulder level - jump up from fully extended position to allow to 90° keeping a strong pelvis/core position ### Single arm punch - affix band securely at about shoulder height - step away to tension band with hands at shoulder level - jump up from fully extended position to allow to 90° keeping a strong pelvis/core position ### Internal rotation punch - affix band securely at about shoulder height - step away to tension band with hands at shoulder level - jump up from fully extended position to allow to 90° keeping a strong pelvis/core position ### Single arm rows - affix band securely at about shoulder height - step away to tension band with hands at shoulder level - pull band back from fully extended position to allow to 90° keeping a strong pelvis/core position ### Single arm rows to external rotation - affix band securely at about shoulder height - step away to tension band with hands at shoulder level - pull band back from fully extended position to allow to 90° keeping a strong pelvis/core position ### Single arm rows to internal rotation - affix band securely at about shoulder height - step away to tension band with hands at shoulder level - pull band back from fully extended position to allow to 90° keeping a strong pelvis/core position ### Front plank - while prone on the ground have shoulders and elbows flexed to 90° with forearms on the ground - maintain strong abdominal position with core engaged - come up onto the toes - keep the upper body straight ensuring good blade position and if a flat body, with the hips in neutral position in line with the body ### Side plank - while facing to one side abduct the arm with elbow flexed to 90° and have the forearm on the ground - have one foot on top of the other - sit back into the plank ensuring the body straight; ensuring no bend at the hips and maintaining the neutral position in line with the body ### Front to side - start with hands on the ground, elbows fully extended, weight on the toes and back straight - lift one hand off the ground and rotate the body to the side ensuring the arms are abducted position, while trying to keep the hips in a neutral position - rotate down and repeat on the other side ### Initial prone retractions - lay prone with arms by the sides - lift the shoulders and arms off the ground by pulling the shoulder blades back toward each other - keep the head and neck in neutral position in line with the body ### WHY T - lay prone with shoulder blades drawn back toward each other, head and arms in line with the body - abduct the arms out to 90° then draw the arms back toward each other, moving the hands to above the head to make a T shape - lower the arms to 90° making a T shape again and repeat ### Adduct to streamline - lay prone with shoulder blades drawn back toward each other, arms by the side, and head and arms in line with the body - with palms initially facing the sky and fingers together, move the hands out keeping them just off the ground, to a streamline position with the hands close to the ground - lower the arms to the side again maintaining good scapular position ### Dead bug - begin in supine in an extended position with arm straight above the head and legs out straight in front of the body - maintain strong abdominal position with core engaged - raise the right arm and the left leg up towards each other - lower down and repeat on the opposite side ### Supine trunk rotation - begin supine with arms 45 degrees out to the side - raise the hip and knees up to a 90/90 position - lower the legs to the right halfway to the floor - return back to the middle and then over to the left ### Alternate crunches - begin supine with hands behind head, legs straight, with shoulders and legs held off the ground - bend the left knee up while rotating the torso to the right, keeping the arms abducted position, while trying to keep the hips in a neutral position - rotate down and repeat on the other side ### Lunges - standing tall take a step forward - lunge forward onto the front knee - lower down to 90° keeping the back straight - return to stand - repeat on the other side ### Lunge with streamline - same lunge as previously - as you step forward take the arms up into streamline position ### Lunge with rotation - same lunge as previously - as you step forward have stepped forward with the front side of your upper body towards the front leg side while keeping your hips facing the front ### Knee push-ups - lay prone with the hands on the ground or shoulder height - raise the hips and knees off the ground - keep the upper body straight and strong - lower down so upper arms parallel with the ground ### Full push-ups - lay prone with the hands on the ground or shoulder height - press up straight on the toes - keep the upper body straight and strong - lower down so upper arms parallel with the ground ### Push-ups one leg - lay prone with the hands on the ground or shoulder height - keeping weight on the toes of only one leg - keep the upper body straight and strong - lower down so upper arms parallel with the ground - return to press and swap legs ### Alternate supermans - begin prone with arms extended above the head, head in neutral and legs out straight in front of the body - raise the arms and legs only slightly off the ground, keeping the body stationary with the arms and shoulders, and making the trunk muscles work hard - perform small movements up and down with the arms and legs, keeping the trunk on the opposite side - hold for 5–4 seconds - do not over extend the lower back - do not allow the hips to drop ### Bird dog - begin in 4-point kneeling, with hands under shoulders and knees under hips, with the spine in a neutral position, tall back position, good scapular position, and core engaged - raise the right arm up to horizontal and the left leg up to horizontal - do not over extend the lower back - return to 4-point kneeling on the opposite side ### Cobra to child - begin lying prone with arms in the press up position - gently raise the head and progressively push up into an extended position being careful not to over extend the neck - move backside back onto heels, keep hands in the press up position - then lower down to arch the spine, lifting the chest and looking forward ### Cow to cat - begin in 4-point kneeling, with hands forward and knees under hips - lower the head and shoulders, dropping the head, and drawing the shoulders back - then push the chest towards the floor, keeping the hips in a neutral position - press the shoulders up so the back goes into a cat shape - return to 4-point kneel ### Downward dog to upward dog - begin in a 4-point kneeling with hands forward and knees under hips - drop heels to the floor - lower the hips into a strong position and push the chest towards the floor, keeping the hips in a neutral position - press the shoulders up so the back goes into a cat shape - return to 4-point kneel --- Contributors: Craig Buettcher, Brett Stoecklin, Justin McEvoy, Peter Blanch
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THE SCIENCE OF THE SUN Secondary Learning Unit Educational Product Educators Grades 7-12 EG-2010-01-032-GSFC # Table of Contents - Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3 - Justification ......................................................................................................................... 3 - How to Use this Guide ........................................................................................................ 3 - Solar Dynamics Observatory Brochure ............................................................................... 7 - Lesson Matrix ...................................................................................................................... 9 - Pre and Post Assessment .................................................................................................... 19 - Lessons ............................................................................................................................... 21 - The Size of the Sun ........................................................................................................... 21 - Earth’s Orbit ..................................................................................................................... 27 - Light, Directly ................................................................................................................... 33 - Graphing the Globe .......................................................................................................... 41 - Kinesthetic Astronomy ...................................................................................................... 51 - Measuring Time ................................................................................................................ 59 - Solar Observations .......................................................................................................... 67 - The Sun and Magnetic Fields ............................................................................................ 73 - Studying Light: Seeing the Invisible ................................................................................ 81 - Studying Light: Spectroscopes ........................................................................................ 93 - Sounds of the Sun ............................................................................................................ 101 Introduction Understanding the relationship between Earth and the Sun is a fundamental concept in science. In this unit students focus on the Sun as the cause of seasons on earth, and the study of the Sun itself. Beginning with the seasons, students explore the relationship between the Sun and Earth in space. With that foundation in place, students learn about solar features, how we study them, and then how we use the electromagnetic spectrum to study other objects in space. Using a clear constructivist framework, each lesson builds on the next to create an understanding of the Sun’s place in space. Justification An understanding of the Sun/earth relationship, as well as the electromagnetic spectrum is necessary for preventing and dispelling misconceptions that surface in later grades. This unit seeks to lay a solid foundation of science that teachers can build on through high school earth and physical science. In addition to providing clear scientific concepts, this unit satisfies all national standards addressing Sun/earth relationships and solar energy, as well as physical science standards. How to Use this Guide This guide was written in the interactive notebook format, one developed to facilitate inquiry learning, constructivist theory, and a brain based model. The following is a discussion about the work behind the model, what you will find in the lessons, and how they apply to the classroom. Inquiry is: • **Meaning:** Science inquiry in education is founded on the principles of brain-based learning. The search for meaning is innate. Maslow explained this in his hierarchy of needs. Individuals look for meaning in relation to their own experiences, what they value, and how the new information aligns with those factors. The search for meaning in science classrooms can be stimulated by questioning, hypothesizing, and by exploring unexpected results. • **Connections:** The brain is designed to find connections. An effective science inquiry experience is rich in authenticity and purpose, clearly connecting to other aspects of both science and life. Students will retain and be able to recall facts and information easily when they are linked to multiple sources. • **Engagement:** Students who participate in true science inquiry take ownership of their learning. Introducing challenge and creating a sense of wonder are easy and efficient ways to engage the mind. But remember: Just because something is “Hands on” doesn’t mean it’s “Minds on.” Inquiry doesn’t always mean student directed, open-ended research projects. Students learn in a variety of ways, each modality needs to be included to engage as many students as possible. **The ABC’s of Inquiry** So how can we apply this in every single lesson/activity/curriculum we create? The answer is you can’t. You’d go nuts. But you can structure your resources in a way that lends itself to the creation of such products. Here’s how: • **Activity Before Concept. (ABC)** Engage students in the concept to be learned without priming them first. Don’t tell them what you are going to teach them, let them figure it out for themselves. Through discussion following the activity the concept can be teased out. What was in their subconscious will emerge and become a solid concept that is not only connected to their prior knowledge, but is now a rewarding “Aha!” moment. • **Concept Before Vocabulary: (CBV)** Explore the concept. As you explore students will realize a need for the words to accurately describe it. Identify the need, then give them the tools. No more rote memorization of vocabulary, the meaning and application of words is now owned by the students. Why the ABC’s? To engage, to wonder, to challenge, and to link. Designing resources with this in mind can’t avoid including inquiry. **The Interactive Notebook** To further put this into practice, consider this format: The Interactive Notebook. The interactive notebook goes beyond traditional classroom record keeping. It provides a home and structure for the connections being made in an inquiry-based classroom or program. • The “Predict” portion of the notebook or lesson is to engage your students and to tap into their prior knowledge. This section should be student driven. There is no right answer. • The “Method” section is the meat of the concept. It could be notes, an investigation, lab results, or drawings. It is driven by the teacher to whatever degree is required by the lesson. More structured for “directed inquiry” and more open ended for “true inquiry.” The “Live-it” portion is the wrap up, the application and the conclusion. It asks students to prove that they’ve learned by applying the concept. Higher order thinking tasks should be assigned, such as evaluation, application or synthesis. This section should be student driven as well, with products being evaluated by the teacher. So why design lessons using the interactive notebook format? Predict, Method and Live-it are analogous to engagement, connection and meaning. Science is not a foreign subject – its internal to every student. Exploration is as natural as breathing. The focus needs to stop being on creating the next Einstein, but on showing students that science is a welcomed part of their every day lives. NOTES: The SDO Spacecraft SDO is one of the largest solar observing spacecraft ever placed into orbit. Its solar panels are 6.5 meters (21.3 ft) wide when extended and will provide SDO all the power it needs from the Sun. The specially-filtered telescopes will take images of the Sun with 10 times greater resolution than high-definition television. Total mass of the spacecraft at launch is 3,100 kg (6,800 lb). SDO nearing completion in 2009 Data for Everyone Each day in orbit, SDO will gather as much as 1.4 terabytes of data. Scientists, educators, and members of the general public will be able to browse this huge volume of data giving researchers and others a powerful new way to view the Sun. SDO’s dedicated ground station in Las Cruces, NM SDO is part of the Living With a Star Program within NASA’s Heliophysics Division Visit us on the Web at: http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov For information on Heliophysics programs and missions, see: http://nasascience.nasa.gov/heliophysics SDO: Our Eye on the Sun SDO Science Solar activity and variability are key concerns of our modern, increasingly technological society. Solar flares and coronal mass ejections can disable satellites, cause power grid failures, and disrupt GPS communications. Furthermore, because the Sun is so powerful, even small changes in its irradiance could have effects on climate. The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) is designed to probe solar variability in a way that no other mission can match. High-speed cameras on SDO will take rapid-fire snapshots of solar flares and other magnetic activity. This will have the same transformative effect on solar physics that the invention of high-speed photography had on many branches of the 19th century. SDO doesn’t stop at the stellar surface. A sensor on the observatory can actually look inside the Sun at the very source of solar activity—the solar dynamo itself. There SDO will find vital clues to the mystery of the solar cycle and help scientists predict the future of solar activity. SDO Instruments The Solar Dynamics Observatory has three main instruments. - The Extreme Ultraviolet Variability Experiment (EVE) will measure fluctuations in the Sun’s ultraviolet output. EUV radiation from the Sun has a direct and powerful effect on Earth’s upper atmosphere, heating it, puffing it up, and breaking apart atoms and molecules. - The Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) will map solar surface magnetic fields and peer beneath the Sun’s opaque surface using a technique called helioseismology. A key goal of this experiment is to decipher the physics of the Sun’s magnetic dynamo. - The Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) is a battery of four telescopes and cameras to photograph the Sun’s surface and atmosphere. AIA filters cover 10 different wavelength bands, or colors, selected to reveal key aspects of solar activity. An Avalanche of Data Imagine watching a high-definition movie that never stops. The enormous screen is filled with the raging Sun, unleashing huge solar flares and billion-ton clouds of hot plasma. The amount of data and images SDO will beam back per day is equivalent to downloading half-a-million songs each day. By some estimates, SDO will transmit as much as 50 times more science data than any mission in NASA history. Images with 10 times greater resolution than high-definition television recorded every 0.75 seconds will reveal every nuance of solar activity. Because such fast cadences have never been attempted before by an orbiting observatory, the potential for discovery is great. The data rate is really great. To handle the load, NASA has set up a pair of dedicated radio antennas near Las Cruces, New Mexico. SDO’s geosynchronous orbit will keep the observatory in constant view of the two 18-meter dishes around the clock for the duration of the observatory’s five-year prime mission. Not a single bit should be lost. | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |-------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------| | The Size of the Sun | Students will be able to use a pinhole camera to calculate the Sun’s diameter. Students will be able to calculate a scale model using the distance between Earth and the Sun. | The Sun is the largest body in our solar system, accounting for 90% of its mass. Pinhole cameras are a safe way to observe the Sun. The Sun’s diameter can be calculated using the ratio of Earth’s size and distance to that of the Sun. A scale model can then be calculated. | Diameter | Students will construct a pinhole camera. Using the projected image of the Sun they can calculate its diameter. After calculating the diameter of the Sun, students will create a classroom sized scale model of the Sun and Earth. | One pin | | | | | Ratio | | Per group: Two index cards Meter stick Calculator | | Solar Dynamics Observatory Brochure | Students will be able to define foci and ellipse. Student will be able to earth’s orbit as an ellipse. Students will be able to explain that Earth is closest to the Sun in December, and farthest away from the Sun in June. | Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. An ellipse is a shape with two foci (focus, singular, foci, plural). The closer together the foci, the more similar to a circle the ellipse. The foci around which earth orbits are both very close together, both located inside the Sun. Earth’s orbit brings it closest to the Sun in January, with a difference of only 5.1 million miles. | Ellipse | Students draw a circle with a single focus, an ellipse with two foci close together, and an ellipse with two foci far apart. They compare the shapes. Students measure the Sun in four images each taken in a different season, comparing the apparent size of the Sun in each image to determine when Earth is closest to the Sun. | Per group: 6 inch length of string tied in a loop. Two tacks Square of corrugated cardboard. Telescope images of the Sun in each season. Ruler | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |-----------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | **Light, Directly** | Students will be able to explain that direct Sunlight transfers more energy to an area than indirect Sunlight. Students will be able to explain that light hitting Earth perpendicularly is considered “direct” light, and light hitting Earth at a low angle is considered “indirect” light. | The energy received on any portion of Earth is a fraction of the total energy that comes from the Sun. Because Earth is a sphere, areas tilted away from the Sun receive indirect Sunlight, Sunlight that has been spread out over a larger surface area. Areas directly facing the Sun receive direct Sunlight – more energy from the Sun and because of that, are warmer. | Direct | Students review Earth’s position relative to the Sun. Students then use graph paper to investigate the affect of angle on area illuminated. The fraction of “light” on each square is then calculated and compared. | Light bulb and power source Globe For each student: Scissors Sun Angle Analyzer printed on cardstock Brad fastener | | **Graphing the Globe** | Students will be able to explain that day length and temperature are related. Students will be able to create and analyze a graph. | The length of day varies with latitude and with time of year. The tilt of Earth causes the northern hemisphere to receive the most Sunlight in June, resulting in higher temperatures. | Minimum | The class is split into two different teams, groups on the first team graph hours of Sunlight versus month for a number of latitudes. The second group graphs temperature versus month for the same latitudes. Teams compare data and draw conclusions from their analysis. | Data sets for each group Graph handouts Colored pencils Blank graph transparency | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |-----------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | **Kinesthetic Astronomy** | Students will be able to explain the spatial relationship between Earth and the Sun. Students will be able to model the movement of Earth around the Sun. Students will be able to define Solstice and Equinox. | Earth rotates and revolves counterclockwise around the Sun. Earth is also tilted towards the north star, Polaris. Twice a year Earth’s tilt is parallel to the Sun and every area on earth experiences an equal number of daylight hours. Twice a year the northern hemisphere is tilted either towards or away from the Sun. These days are called a solstice. The changes in earth’s position cause seasons. | Solstice, Equinox, Rotation, Revolution, Orbit | Students act out the motions of Earth around the Sun over the course of one year, including the tilt, solstice and equinox. | Signs, one of each month. Object to represent the Sun Globe(s) Flashlight Object or sign to represent Polaris Optional: “East” and “West” popsicle sticks Optional: Zodiac constellation signs Optional: NASA Solar Pizza | | **Measuring Time** | Students will be able to define a day as one rotation of Earth. Students will be able to explain that time can be measured by the position of the Sun in the sky as Earth rotates. Students will be able to explain that shadows are indicators of Earth’s rotation and can be used to measure time. | Sundials work by casting a shadow on the ground that moves as Earth rotates on its axis. The Sun appears to move across the sky from east to west, so the shadow will move across the dial from west to east. Students will be able to model the motion of shadows on the ground by simulating Earth over the course of one day. | Gnomon, Clockwise, Counter clockwise, Rotate, Revolve | Students model the rotation of Earth over one day, holding a flashlight for the Sun and a blow up globe with objects attached to make it 3D, and record their observations. They then take those observations and create a “device” that will let them track time. Students conclude by taking them outside to test their effectiveness. | Blow up globes 6 Tiny plastic people and trees East and West Popsicle sticks Tape Flashlight Scissors Card stock Sundial pattern | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Solar Observations | Students will be able to identify Sunspots and prominences on the Sun. | The Sun is a dynamic ball of plasma, fusing hydrogen and helium gasses and releasing the energy through radiation. It has distinct features caused by electromagnetic forces, which include Sunspots and prominences. The Sun also has a predictable movement across the sky, which can be measured and recorded. | Sunspot | Students spend the class period outdoors using pinhole cameras to make solar observations and look for Sunspots. Students also mark the position of shadows on the ground. | Per group: Pinhole cameras – meter stick and two index cards. Solar telescope (Or filter) Eclipse Glasses Solar feature worksheets. | | | Students will be able to explain that the Sun moves across the sky in a predictable motion. | | Prominence Disc | | | | The Sun and Magnetic Fields | Students will be able to map a magnetic field. | A field is an abstract means of describing how an object influences the space and objects around it. A magnet generates a field that can be measured both in direction and magnitude, a vector quantity. Earth has a magnetic field that can be detected, as does the Sun. | Magnetic Force | Students will simulate Sunspots by using iron filings to map magnetic fields around bar a magnet. Students map the magnetic field surrounding two dipole magnets, both parallel and anti-parallel alignment. Students apply vector measurements to their field maps. Then students examine the field arrangement around complex arrangements of the dipole magnets. | Per group: Large sheets of paper Two cow magnets Iron Filings Worksheet | | | Students will be able to explain that invisible fields surround magnets. | | Field Dipole | | | | | Students will be able to explain that magnetic fields on the Sun are visible in Sunspots. | | Orientation | | | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |-------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | Studying Light: Seeing the Invisible | Students will be able to describe the electromagnetic spectrum. Students will be able to explain that other types of light can be detected, even though we can’t see it. | The electromagnetic spectrum describes the range of energy, from low to high frequency. Visible light detected by our eyes is only a small part of that spectrum. Other types can be detected with other means. | EM Spectrum Radiation Light Visible Ultra Violet Radio | Students begin by using a clothesline to model a logarithmic scale. Then they add in the electromagnetic spectrum. Finally, students conduct several simple tests to detect other types of radiation. | Clothes line Printed cards Per group: IR remote control UV beads Sun screen UV light or window | | Studying Light: Spectroscopes | Students will be able to explain that visible light can be split into a spectrum, and that different elements give off different spectrum when excited. | Individual elements can be identified by examining their emission spectra. Astronomers use the same technique. By looking at the spectra from stars or galaxies their composition, temperature, speed and distance can be inferred. | EM Spectrum Radiation Light Visible Emission | Students build their own spectrosopes, learn about graphing the spectra, and then identify elements in gas tubes using their spectra. The activity concludes with students looking at spectra of celestial objects. | Spectral light tubes Per student: Cereal box Construction supplies Diffraction gradients Worksheets | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |--------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | Sounds of the Sun | Students will be able to explain the Doppler effect and the relationship between speed and direction of source, and frequency of sound waves. Students will be able to explain how the Doppler shift can be used to gather information about objects in space including the Sun. Students will be able to calculate the change in frequency of sound emitted by a moving object using the Doppler equations. | When a source emitting waves, sound or light, is moving, the frequency of those waves changes. When the source is moving towards the observer, the frequency increases. When it is moving away, it decreases. With sound this is observed as a change in pitch, with light the spectrum is shifted. The faster the motion, the greater the shift. This can be used by astronomers to measure the speed and distance of objects in space. SDO’s HMI instrument uses it to find waves on the surface of the Sun, and track their motion. | Frequency Wave Source Doppler Effect | Students begin by simulating the noise made by a passing siren. After leaning that the change in pitch results from movement they investigate the definition of frequency. Students conclude by calculating the change in frequency heard when they simulated the noise of the passing siren, and learn how this applies to light and the study of astronomy. | Doppler ball Meter Stick Calculators Ramp, 4ft long. Small balls (malted milk balls or marbles) | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |-----------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | **Earth’s Orbit** | Students will be able to define foci and ellipse Student will be able to earth’s orbit as an ellipse. Students will be able to explain that Earth is closest to the Sun in December, and farthest away from the Sun in June | Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. An ellipse is a shape with two foci (focus, singular, foci, plural). The closer together the foci, the more similar to a circle the ellipse. The foci around which earth orbits are both very close together, both located inside the Sun. Earth’s orbit brings it closest to the Sun in January, with a difference of only 5.1 million miles. | Ellipse Focus Foci Apparent Actual | Students draw a circle with a single focus, an ellipse with two foci close together, and an ellipse with two foci far apart. They compare the shapes. Students measure the Sun in four images each taken in a different season, comparing the apparent size of the Sun in each image to determine when Earth is closest to the Sun. | Per group: 6 inch length of string tied in a loop. Two tacks Square of corrugated cardboard. Telescope images of the Sun in each season. Ruler | | **Light, Directly** | Students will be able to explain that direct Sunlight transfers more energy to an area than indirect Sunlight. | The energy received on any portion of Earth is a fraction of the total energy that comes from the Sun. Because Earth is a sphere, areas tilted away from the Sun receive indirect Sunlight, Sunlight that has been spread out over a larger surface area. Areas directly facing the Sun receive direct Sunlight – more energy from the Sun and are warmer. | Direct Indirect Percentage Fraction Energy | Students compete to see which team can melt an ice cube fastest using only a lamp. Students use graph paper to trace the area illuminated by a flashlight at a 90-degree angle to the paper, and at a 45-degree angle to the paper. The fraction of “light” on each square is then calculated and compared. | Flashlights Graph paper Heat lamps Ice cubes Stop watches | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |-----------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------| | **Kinesthetic Astronomy** | Students will be able to explain the spatial relationship between Earth and the Sun. Students will be able to model the movement of Earth around the Sun. Students will be able to define Solstice and Equinox. | Earth rotates and revolves counterclockwise around the Sun. Earth is also tilted towards the north star, Polaris. Twice a year Earth’s tilt is parallel to the Sun and every area on earth experiences an equal number of daylight hours. Twice a year the northern hemisphere is tilted either towards or away from the Sun. These days are called a solstice. The changes in earth’s position cause seasons. | Solstice Equinox Rotation Revolution Orbit | Students act out the motions of Earth around the Sun over the course of one year, including the tilt, solstice and equinox. | Signs, one of each month. Object to represent the Sun Globe(s) Flashlight Object or sign to represent Polaris Optional: “East” and “West” popsicle sticks Optional: Zodiac constellation signs Optional: NASA Solar Pizza | | **Solar Observations** | Students will be able to identify Sunspots and prominences on the Sun. Students will be able to explain that the Sun moves across the sky in a predictable motion. | The Sun is a dynamic ball of plasma, fusing hydrogen and helium gasses and releasing the energy through radiation. It has distinct features caused by electromagnetic forces, which include Sunspots and prominences. The Sun also has a predictable movement across the sky, which can be measured and recorded. | Sunspot Prominence Disc | Students spend the class period outdoors using pinhole cameras to make solar observations and look for Sunspots. Students also mark the position of shadows on the ground. | Per group: Pinhole cameras – meter stick and two index cards. Solar telescope (Or filter) Eclipse Glasses Solar feature worksheets. | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Magnetometers and Magnetic Fields | Students will be able to create a magnetometer and explain its function. Students will be able to explain that invisible fields surround magnets. Students will understand that Earth has an ambient magnetic field. | A field is an abstract means of describing how an object influences the space and objects around it. A magnet generates a field that can be measured both in direction and magnitude, a vector quantity. Earth has a magnetic field that can be detected, as does the Sun. | Magnetic Force Field Dipole Orientation Dynamo | Students will construct a magnetometer then use it to measure the magnetic field around a dipole magnet. | Per group: 2 Liter soda bottle 2ft of sewing thread Small bar magnet 3x5 index card 1 mirrored sequin 1 lamp Scissors 1 Meter stick Super/hot glue 1in of soda straw Large sheet of paper Tape | | Studying Light: Spectroscopes | Students will be able to explain that visible light can be split into a spectrum, and that different elements give off different spectrum when excited. | Individual elements can be identified by examining their emission spectra. Astronomers use the same technique. By looking at the spectra from stars or galaxies their composition, temperature, speed and distance can be inferred. | EM Spectrum Radiation Light Visible Emission | Students build their own spectrosopes, learn about graphing the spectra, and then identify elements in gas tubes using their spectra. The activity concludes with students looking at spectra of celestial objects. | Spectral light tubes Per student: Cereal box Construction supplies Diffraction gradients Worksheets | | Lesson | Objectives | Key Concepts | Vocabulary | Activity | Materials | |--------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | Sounds of the Sun | Students will be able to explain the Doppler effect and the relationship between speed and direction of source, and frequency of sound waves. Students will be able to explain how the Doppler shift can be used to gather information about objects in space including the Sun. Students will be able to calculate the change in frequency of sound emitted by a moving object using the Doppler equations. | When a source emitting waves, sound or light, is moving, the frequency of those waves changes. When the source is moving towards the observer, the frequency increases. When it is moving away, it decreases. With sound this is observed as a change in pitch, with light the spectrum is shifted. The faster the motion, the greater the shift. This can be used by astronomers to measure the speed and distance of objects in space. SDO’s HMI instrument uses it to find waves on the surface of the Sun, and track their motion. | Frequency Wave Source Doppler Effect | Students begin by simulating the noise made by a passing siren. After learning that the change in pitch results from movement they investigate the definition of frequency. Students conclude by calculating the change in frequency heard when they simulated the noise of the passing siren, and learn how this applies to light and the study of astronomy. | Doppler ball Meter Stick Calculators Ramp, 4ft long. Small balls (malted milk balls or marbles) | Pre and Post Assessment Name: ____________________________ Date: ___________ Read the question completely before answering. Answer all questions using complete sentences. For multiple choice questions choose the best answer. 1. What is the Sun? 2. Describe the size of the Sun compared to the size of Earth: 3. Describe the shape of Earth’s orbit. 4. When is Earth closest to the Sun? a. June b. December c. March d. September 5. What is the difference between direct and indirect light? 6. When a part of earth receives more hours of daylight, how does that affect temperature at that location? 7. What causes seasons on earth? How does this cause seasons? (Answer both parts of this question.) 8. Define Solstice and Equinox: a. Solstice is… b. Equinox is… 9. How does a sundial work? 10. What is a Sunspot? 11. How can we see the magnetic field on the Sun? 12. List four (4) kinds of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum: 13. Convert $10^{-2}$ into a fraction, and a decimal: 14. Graph the spectra below: 15. What is the Doppler Effect? 16. How are the velocity of a source and the wavelength and frequency it emits related? The Size of the Sun Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: - Students will be able to use a pinhole camera to calculate the Sun’s diameter. - Students will be able to calculate a scale model using the distance between Earth and the Sun. Description: Students will construct a pinhole camera. Using the projected image of the Sun they can calculate its diameter. After calculating the diameter of the Sun, students will create a classroom sized scale model of the Sun and Earth. Suggested Timing: 25 – 30 minutes. National Standards Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of Earth in the solar system, 1: The Sun, an average star, is the central and largest body in the solar system. Vocabulary: - Diameter - Ratio - Scale - Model Materials: (One per group) - One pin - Two index cards - One shoe box with lid – sturdy enough to hold its shape. - Tape - Aluminum foil - Ruler - Meter stick - Calculator Background Information: The Sun is the largest body in our solar system, accounting for more than 99% of its mass. Pinhole cameras are a safe way to observe the Sun. Most optical devices rely on refraction or reflection to provide an image on a screen or film plane. A pinhole camera is a device that does not use lenses or mirrors to produce its image, but rather only a small circular aperture, or ‘pinhole’. This apparent lack of imaging optics does not mean that such an arrangement of hole and screen cannot produce an image. It does and with the greatest detail. What it looses when comparing it to other optical instruments is its light gathering capabilities due to the relatively small aperture to screen distance ratio, i.e. the inverse square law. The issue with a pinhole camera is that the sharpness of the image requires a small aperture relative to the screen distance – which means less light gathering power. However, even with this shortcoming it still is a candidate for observing the sky’s brightest object, the Sun. If a screen is placed a small distance behind a small aperture where a bright object, in this case the Sun, is on the other side of the aperture, an image of the object will be produced by the light rays passing from the object straight through the ‘pinhole’ and onto the screen. However, if the screen is too close to the hole, no image will result since some distance is required for an image to be formed. If the screen is placed too far from the hole then diffraction effects (interference phenomena of the light photons due to their inherent wave nature) will come into play degrading the image. Therefore, there must be some optimum distance from the pinhole to the screen at which the image produced will be clearest, i.e. maximum resolution. These measurements can be found in Table I. (Credit: http://users.erols.com/njastro/barry/pages/pinhole.htm, 2009) The Sun’s diameter can be calculated using the ratio of Earth’s size and distance to that of the Sun. A scale model can then be calculated. | Pinhole Diameter in mm | Screen Distance in M | Solar Image Diameter in cm | Relative Resolution | |------------------------|----------------------|----------------------------|---------------------| | 1 | 0.745 | 0.69 | 6.9 | | 2 | 2.98 | 2.8 | 14.0 | | 3 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 20.6 | | 4 | 11.9 | 11.1 | 27.8 | | 8 | 47.7 | 44.4 | 55.5 | | 16 | 190. | 177. | 111. | | 32 | 760. | 707. | 221. | Content: 1. Predict: (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) Ask: How big is the Sun? Is there a way to measure its size? Give students a few minutes to brainstorm. Probing question ideas: Can we see the Sun? Is there a way to measure something at a distance? Does it matter how far away you are? What is a ratio? Explain to students that they will be using a pinhole camera to measure and calculate the diameter of the Sun. 2. Method: (Body of the lesson) Assemble the Pinhole Viewer: 1. Take the lid of the shoe box and cut a 10cm x 10cm square hole in the center. 2. Cut an “I” shaped slit lengthwise on the top of the lid 1cm from one edge. This will be the “bottom” edge of the lid. Make the slit long enough to snugly fit a meter stick. 3. Take an index card and cut a 5cm x 5cm square hole in the center. 4. Tape a piece of aluminum foil over the hole in the index card. 5. Tape the index card over the hole in the lid of the shoe box. This creates an easily replaceable pinhole should the foil rip. Several of these cards can be made for each pinhole camera. 6. Using a pin or pencil lead poke a very small hole in the center of the aluminum foil. If you tear the foil replace it and try making the hole again. 7. Slide the meter stick through the slit and tape the lid in place at the end of the meter stick. 8. Cut and “I” shaped slit lengthwise on the bottom of the shoe box 1cm from one edge. This will be the “bottom” edge of the shoe box. Make the slit long enough to snugly fit a meter stick. 9. Draw two parallel lines 7mm apart near the center of the second index card. 10. Tape the index card to the center of the bottom of the inside of the shoe box. 11. Slide the free end of the meter stick through the slot in the shoe box so that the open side faces the lid. Leave this end of the box free to slide up and down the meter stick. Use a small piece of masking tape to hold it in place when needed. Take the pinhole viewer outside and point the end of the meter stick that holds the foil-covered card toward the Sun. **CAUTION:** Do not look at the Sun! Move the meter stick around until the shadow of the foil-covered card falls on the other card. A bright image of the Sun will appear on the sliding card. Move the sliding card until the bright image of the Sun exactly fills the distance between the parallel lines. Measure the distance in mm between the cards on the meter stick and record it. Bring students back inside and give them this formula to calculate the distance to the Sun: Earth is approximately 150,000,000 km from the Sun. This distance varies somewhat with the seasons because of Earth’s elliptical orbit. The relationship that will be used is: \[ \frac{\text{diameter of Sun (km)}}{\text{distance to Sun (km)}} = \frac{\text{diameter of Sun's image (mm)}}{\text{distance between cards (mm)}} \] Live-It: (Assessment/application assignment) Once students have calculated the diameter of the Sun, explain that they will now be calculating a classroom sized scale model of the Sun and Earth. Creating the model: 1. Choose a scale for the model. A good size is 10,000 km = 1 cm. 2. Calculate how big the Sun would be at that scale. (Size of the Sun divided by the scale (10,000km) = diameter of the Sun in cm) 3. Repeat for Earth, and the distance between Earth and the Sun. 4. Measure and cut out model Sun and earth of the appropriate size. 5. Pace off the correct distance between the Sun and Earth. This activity may need to go outside to have enough room. Have students answer these questions: Was this model what you expected? How was it different? Is Earth always the same distance from the Sun? Extension: The actual distance between Earth and Sun varies from a minimum of 147,097,000 km to a maximum of 152,086,000 km. Recalculate the diameter of the Sun using your distance between cards measurement and the minimum/maximum distance between Earth and Sun in the formula. Does the accepted actual diameter of the Sun, 1,391,000, fall between your calculations? Resources: Pinhole viewers explained: http://users.erols.com/njastro/barry/pages/pinhole.htm NOTES: Earth’s Orbit * This activity is from the Great Explorations in Math and Science (GEMS) teacher's guide The Real Reasons for Seasons, copyright by The Regents of the University of California and used here with permission. GEMS is a program of the Lawrence Hall of Science at the University of California, Berkeley (www.lhsgems.org) Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: • Students will be able to define foci and ellipse. • Student will be able to define earth’s orbit as an ellipse. • Students will be able to explain that Earth is closest to the Sun in December, and farthest away from the Sun in June. Description: Students draw a circle with a single focus, an ellipse with two foci close together, and an ellipse with two foci far apart. They compare the shapes. Students measure the Sun in four images each taken in a different season, comparing the apparent size of the Sun in each image to determine when Earth is closest to the Sun. Suggested Timing: 25 – 30 minutes. National Standards Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of Earth in the solar system, 1: The Sun, an average star, is the central and largest body in the solar system. Vocabulary: • Ellipse • Focus • Foci • Apparent • Actual Materials: (One per group) - 25 cm length of string tied in a loop. - Two thumb tacks (the tall kind, not the flush kind) - Square of corrugated cardboard. - Paper - Telescope images of the Sun in each season. - Ruler - 40 cm of string tied in a loop for teacher demo. - 1 large sheet of paper (legal size or larger) Background Information: The shape of earth’s orbit around the Sun is a common misconception. Most textbook illustrations show a highly elliptical shape, attempting to illustrate the Sun/earth system from an angle. In actuality, Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. An ellipse is a shape with two foci (focus, singular, foci, plural). Earth’s orbit is an ellipse whose foci are so close together, they are both inside the Sun. The closer together the foci, the more similar the ellipse is to a circle. Earth’s orbit brings it closest to the Sun in January, with a difference of only 5 million miles. This distance is not enough to influence changing seasons here on earth, and does not explain opposing seasons in opposite hemispheres. Content: Predict: (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) Ask students to guess what month Earth is closest to the Sun, and to explain their answer. Possible responses include: June, July, August – Because that’s when we are the hottest. Question students about their belief that Earth’s distance to the Sun affects seasons. Ask: How could we test and see when we are closest to the Sun? How do you know when you are closer to something? Question students until they conclude that when an object is closer, it appears larger. Explain that students will be given four images of the Sun in four different seasons, and they are to measure its diameter. Students must be very careful in choosing where to measure the images, making sure to begin and end on the same boundary in each image. Pass out the images of Sun and rulers. Have them record their measurements. Have students write their measurements on the board for the class to see. Discuss what their numbers mean. Does distance to the Sun affect seasons? The answer is no, because Earth is actually closest to the Sun in January. The topic of summer being in January in the southern hemisphere may come up, while this activity may not have the same impact for southern hemisphere classrooms, ask students why only half of Earth would be summer if the whole earth was closer to the Sun? **Method:** (Body of the lesson) Ask students to draw how they think Earth’s orbit around the Sun is shaped. Question students as to why they chose the shape they did. Where have they seen it before? Explain that they are going to be learning about that shape and what it has to do with seasons on earth. Explain that the shape of earth’s orbit is an ellipse, a very precise symmetrical oval. Demonstrate making an ellipse: 1. Make two pen marks 12 cm apart on a large sheet of paper on the bulletin board. 2. Stick a thumb tack through each pen mark and into the bulletin board. 3. Drape the large 40 cm of string loop you made over the thumb tacks. 4. Pull the string taut with the tip of a marking pen. 5. Draw the ellipse, keeping the string taut at all times. Explain that each point where you placed a tack is called a focus. Mention that the plural of focus is *foci* (FOE-sigh). Explain that objects in the solar system orbit around the Sun, but that the Sun is only one focus of the ellipse. Tell students that their assignment is to draw an ellipse using 25 cm length of string tied in a loop, and to experiment with the distance between the foci. **Live-It:** (Assessment/application assignment) Instruct students to draw three ellipses with foci separations of 5cm, 2cm and 0.4cm respectively on a single sheet of paper. Remind them to label the ellipses and suggest using different color pencils. Hand out materials and assist student groups as needed. When each group is done ask students what happened to the ellipse when they moved the foci closer together? Tell students that one ellipse is the orbit of Pluto, and another one is the orbit of Earth. Ask them to guess which one is which, then reveal that Pluto’s orbit is the shape with 5cm of separation between foci, and earth’s orbit is the shape... with 0.4cm of separation between foci. Tell them that the foci of Earth’s orbit in space are so close together they are both inside the Sun, and that earth’s orbit is very nearly a perfect circle. **Extension:** Have students explore the orbits of other planets. Students who research Pluto will find that from 1979 to 1999 Pluto was closer to the Sun than Neptune, making it at the time the $8^{th}$ planet. The highly elliptical nature of Pluto’s orbit meant that it crossed Neptune’s orbit at one point, making Neptune the dominant body in its orbit. This was one factor in Pluto being demoted to planetoid status in August 2006. **Resources:** The Nine Planets http://nineplanets.org/ The Solar System, NASA http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/index.cfm Disk 22:00 UT Jan 1, 1995 DOY 1 Limb 21:30 UT Jan 1, 1995 DOY 1 MLSO - HAO dPmon Halpha disk and limb composite Disk 20:32 UT Apr 4, 1995 DOY 94 Limb 19:50 UT Apr 4, 1995 DOY 94 MLSO - HAO dPmon Halpha disk and limb composite MLSO – HAO dPmon Halpha disk and limb composite Disk 21:30 UT Oct 1, 1995 DOY 274 Limb 17:58 UT Oct 1, 1995 DOY 274 Light, Directly * This activity is from the Great Explorations in Math and Science (GEMS) teacher's guide The Real Reasons for Seasons, copyright by The Regents of the University of California and used here with permission. GEMS is a program of the Lawrence Hall of Science at the University of California, Berkeley (www.lhsgems.org) **Grades:** 5 - 8 **Objectives:** - Students will be able to explain that direct Sunlight transfers more energy to an area than indirect Sunlight. - Students will be able to explain that light hitting Earth perpendicularly is considered “direct” light, and light hitting Earth at a low angle is considered “indirect” light. **Description:** Students review Earth’s position relative to the Sun. Students then use graph paper to investigate the effect of angle on area illuminated. The fraction of “light” on each square is then calculated and compared. **Suggested Timing:** 25 – 30 minutes. **National Standards** Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of Earth in the solar system, 4: Seasons result from the variations in the amount of the Sun’s energy hitting the surface, due to the tilt of Earth’s rotation on its axle and the length of day. **Vocabulary:** - Direct - Indirect - Percentage - Fraction - Energy Materials: - Light bulb and power source - Globe For each student: - Scissors - Brad fastener - Sun Angle Analyzer printed on cardstock Background Information: The energy received on any portion of Earth is a fraction of the total energy that comes from the Sun. Because Earth is a sphere, areas tilted away from the Sun receive indirect Sunlight, Sunlight that has been spread out over a larger surface area. Areas directly facing the Sun receive direct Sunlight – more energy from the Sun and because of that, are warmer. Content: Predict: (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) The Angle of Sunlight 1. Tell the class that they already understand more about the seasons than many college graduates, but there is one more issue they need to consider before they can be considered experts on seasons. Explain that now they are going to look more carefully at how high the Sun appears in the sky during different seasons. 2. Turn on the light bulb-model Sun or use a point on the chalkboard or wall to represent the Sun. Hold up the class globe, and point out your location in the Northern Hemisphere. Tilt the Northern Hemisphere towards the Sun. Review, “What season is it where we live?” (summer) Spin the globe so your location is facing the Sun. “What time is it?” (noon) 3. Keep Earth in the summer noon position for your location. 4. Hold up a ruler. Say that it represents a ray of Sunlight coming from the Sun to Earth during our summertime. Explain that light travels in a straight line. Place one end of the ruler on your location, and point the other end toward the Sun. (The ruler should hit the globe at a nearly perpendicular angle, as in the right-hand side of the drawing below.) Ask, “To someone at this point on Earth, would the Sun appear high in the sky or low in the sky?” 5. Ask how Earth is tilted when it’s winter. Walk to the other side of the Sun and tilt the Northern Hemisphere away from the Sun, but spin it so your location is facing the Sun. Point out that the angle at which the ruler “Sunlight ray” strikes the globe is now at a very shallow angle. (As in the left-hand side of the above drawing.) 6. Help students see that the Sun would seem to be overhead in the summer, but lower in the sky in winter. For each position, ask, “Where in the sky does the Sun seem to be?” (high) Method: (Body of the lesson) Introducing the Sun Angle Analyzer 1. Tell the students that they get to use a “Sun Angle Analyzer” to see what happens when light hits the ground at different angles. 2. Demonstrate how to stick a paper fastener (brad) through the “x” mark just above the “window” hole. Poke it through from the printed side of the paper, so that the point sticks out on the blank side of the paper. Tape the head of the fastener down on the x to help keep it perpendicular to the window. Tell students not to open the two prongs of the fastener, but to leave them closed. The fastener prongs will serve as a “pointer.” 3. Explain that they’ll use the analyzer with a partner. Hand out a Sun Angle Analyzer and a fastener to each pair of students. Once they have their fasteners in place, have them all gather around the light bulb. Turn off the room lights and close the blinds if possible. 4. Ignoring the protractor part for now, practice using the analyzers together. Call their attention to the instructions written on the Sun Angle Analyzers. a. Partner #1 holds the window portion of the Analyzer and keeps it so that the standard, one-square-centimeter window area stays perpendicular to the light rays. If the Window is allowed to stray significantly away from perpendicular, the area of light going through the window will no longer be the standard 1 square centimeter. 5. The brad helps since, when the brad points directly to the light bulb, it does not cast a shadow. If the brad casts a shadow, you need to tilt the analyzer a bit until there is no shadow, making the standard, one-square-centimeter area window again perpendicular to the light rays. Give students time to play with the analyzers to see how this works. a. Partner #2 moves the “ground” up and down. Explain that the part of the analyzer with the grid on it represents the ground. Ignoring the protractor for the moment, have the second partner practice moving the ground up and down, while partner #1 tries to keep the analyzer aligned with the light bulb. Give students time to play with the Analyzers to see how this works. 6. Note: It is important for students to understand that, in this model, the ground really does represent the ground of Earth—changing the position of the ground represents the way Earth’s position actually does change in relation to the Sunlight, due to Earth’s tilt. That is why students should move the ground up and down, rather than the window. a. Try not to block the light. Both partners should try to avoid standing so that they block the light to their Analyzer or someone else’s. Circulate and help any students who are having trouble. 7. Regain the attention of the whole group, and ask what they have noticed. (As the ground moves up closer to the window, fewer grid squares are covered by light. Students may also notice that the light seems brighter when fewer squares are covered with light.) 8. Tell students the protractor scale is for measuring the angle of the light hitting the ground. Demonstrate how to read the angle as they push the ground up. Ask, “What angle does the protractor read when the ground is pushed all the way up to the window?” [90 degrees.] Tell them this means that the light rays are hitting the ground at 90 degrees. Another way to say that is that the light is coming down perpendicular to the ground. Show the 90 degree angle by making a T-shape with your hands. 9. Tell the students that their job is to find the angle of the light when: - The light spreads over 4 grid squares - The light spreads over 6 grid squares - The light spreads over all grid squares **Live-It:** (Assessment/application assignment) **Discussing the Sun Angle Analyzer Results** 1. Ask for the angle of light when only four grid squares were filled with light. [90°] 2. Ask for the light angle when six grid squares were filled with light. (Answers may vary) What about when all grid squares were filled? (Small angle) Acknowledge that variation in answers may be due to imprecision of the instrument and inaccuracies in measurement. 3. Ask if students noticed any changes in how bright the light looked. Ask, “At which angle is the light most concentrated, or brightest looking on the ‘ground’?” (at the highest angle: 90°) “At which angle is the light least concentrated (least bright) on the ‘ground’?” (at the lower angles. At 0° light concentration vanishes!) 4. Tell students that when the light is more concentrated, the ground gets hotter. Help them relate their discoveries with the light analyzers to Earth’s seasons. (In summer, the angle of Sunlight hitting the ground is higher. The light is more concentrated, so the ground gets hotter.) **Extension:** Have students consider the amount of squares illuminated as a fraction of the whole, and calculate what fraction of light is on each square at 10 degree increments. For example: At X angle, 4 squares are illuminated, each square has ¼ the energy of the total available amount of energy. Resources: Calculate the angle of the Sun in your sky: http://susdesign.com/Sunangle/ Sun angle animation: http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/lutgens3/medialib/earthSun/earthSun.html Sun Angle Analyzer Insert brad here Keep brad pointing at the “Sun” Fixed Window Keep this perpendicular to the light rays to create 1 cm square standard area of light. GROUND Move this part up and down to see the effect of angle of light on the ground. Protractor Ground moves up and down Developed by Alan Gould Lawrence Hall of Science University of California Graphing the Globe * This activity is from the Great Explorations in Math and Science (GEMS) teacher's guide The Real Reasons for Seasons, copyright by The Regents of the University of California and used here with permission. GEMS is a program of the Lawrence Hall of Science at the University of California, Berkeley (www.lhsgems.org) Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: - Students will be able to explain that day length and temperature are related. - Students will be able to create and analyze a graph. Description: The class is split into two different teams, groups on the first team graph hours of Sunlight versus month for a number of latitudes. The second group graphs temperature versus month for the same latitudes. Teams compare data and draw conclusions from their analysis. Suggested Timing: 30 – 45 minutes. National Standards Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of Earth in the solar system, 4: Seasons result from the variations in the amount of the Sun’s energy hitting the surface, due to the tilt of Earth’s rotation on its axle and the length of day. Vocabulary: - Minimum - Maximum - Analyze - Correlate - Conclude Materials: (One per group) - Data sets - Graph handouts. - Colored pencils. - Blank graph transparency Background Information: The length of day varies with latitude and with time of year. By graphing the hours of daylight over the course of a year in various locations, a symmetric pattern emerges showing opposite for the northern and southern hemispheres. During the months when the Sun does not set in Antarctica, the Sun never rises in places north of the Arctic Circle. The solstice and equinox can be observed in the graph as well. All lines intersect at the vernal and autumnal equinox, and diverge at maximum at the solstices. The tilt of Earth causes the northern hemisphere to receive the most Sunlight in June, resulting in higher temperatures. A similar pattern emerges when temperature versus month are plotted. Other factors affect weather, like proximity to water and elevation, so the pattern does not identically correlate to the graph of hours of daylight, but they are similar enough to compare. Content: Predict: (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) To review their experience with changes in the number of daylight hours, ask the following questions: Does the Sun always set at the same time each day? [No] Optional: show a photograph of a Sunset to add a vivid element to this discussion. At what times of year does the Sun stay up latest (and rise the earliest)? [Summer. Don’t reveal the answer if no one knows.] Is the number of hours of daylight the same each day? [No] When are the days with the fewest hours of daylight? [Winter] Ask, “Is the number of hours of daylight on a certain day the same all over the world?” Tell the students that in this session, they will look at day length data from different places around the world. Method: (Body of the lesson) Graphing Daylight: 1. Show the sample “Day Length” data for Latitude 38 degrees north on the overhead projector. Explain what each column means: Sunrise time, Sunset time, and “Day Length,” which is the number of actual hours of daylight on the 21st day of each month. Show on a world map or globe how all the cities in this list are on the same latitude, 38 degrees north. 2. Explain that this data are on the worksheet, along with data for seven other latitudes, with some cities listed for each. Model how to graph the day length for one of the latitudes on a blank graph transparency. 3. Assign the students to graph as many of the “Day Length” values from the eight latitudes as they can fit on the graphs. Have them color code the plot lines with a different color for each latitude. 4. Tell them that the first two latitudes they plot should be in opposite hemispheres: one in the Southern Hemisphere and one in the Northern Hemisphere. For students who are not as proficient at graphing, you might hint that a latitude near 0° (e.g., Ecuador) might be a particularly easy place to start. 5. Allow the students to continue graphing as long as possible, but leave at least ten minutes for a discussion. Try to be sure all students have finished graphing at least three or four of the eight latitudes before the discussion. Graphing Temperatures Around the World: 1. Tell the class that they will look at the temperature during the year in nine different places on Earth. Hand out the data sheets and graph papers. 2. Explain (or remind them) that scientists all over the world use the Celsius temperature scale. If students are used to the Fahrenheit scale, you may want to refresh their memory on the relationship between the two scales. 3. Put the blank Temperature Graph transparency on the overhead projector. Demonstrate how to plot, for instance, a temperature average of 12°C in January. Point out that the lines on the graph are two degrees apart. Make sure students know what negative numbers mean, and how to plot temperatures that are below zero. 4. Ask, “What do you think the graph would look like in our area over the time period from January to June?” (Average temperature will rise.) “What would happen after that?” (Average temperature will fall.) 5. Ask, “Does the temperature have the same pattern as ours all over the world?” Explain that by graphing temperatures from several places around the world, they can find out if seasons differ in various locations. 6. If your students need practice, plot the average temperatures for Chalatenango, El Salvador together on the overhead transparency. Then assign the students to plot average temperatures for as many cities as they can on the “Temperatures Around the World” graph. It’s not necessary for each student to graph all temperatures in all locations, though some really get into the process and gain a sense of great satisfaction when the whole job is done. It works well if the first two cities they plot are in opposite hemispheres - one in the Northern Hemisphere and one in the Southern Hemisphere. Here are a few different strategies to choose from. a. Have each student graph three cities: one Northern Hemisphere, one Southern Hemisphere, and one near the equator. b. Have each small group of students practice “division of labor,” with each student taking two different cities to graph, but not necessarily the same ones as others in their group, so that by working together the group has a complete set of graphs. c. Assign various groups of students to pretend they are from the different cities. They start by graphing their own city’s data and then move on to other cities. If they like, they can decide on their own strategy like moving to the closest cities first, or working their way north or south. d. Allow students to do more graphing at home for extra credit, or just for the sheer satisfaction of “job completion.” 7. Tell students to connect the data points with a smooth line. If data are missing for any months, they should estimate where the plot line would go for those months. After plotting in pencil, they should trace over each line with a different color. Have them make a key by writing the color used, country name, and latitude on the right side of the graph. If they run out of colored pens, they can connect points with dashed or dotted lines, as a coding scheme. In some cases, the months do not run from January to December, but for example, from July of one year to June of the next. Tell students not to worry about which year the month is in. Just be careful to plot the right average temperature to the right month of the year on the graph. **Live-It:** (Assessment/application assignment) 1. After all students have plotted at least three cities on each of the graphs, gather their attention, and ask, “What have we found out?” “What patterns do you see in your graphs?” 2. Make sure students notice that the pattern is reversed between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. 3. Ask, “What is the pattern of temperature change for locations near the equator?” There is not much variation in temperature through all the seasons. 4. “Where and when does the Sun stay up for 24 hours?” The Sun never sets from May through July above 70°N latitude (Alaska); also 5. November through January at latitudes south of 70° S. (Antarctica) This is sometimes called the “midnight Sun.” 6. If no one points out that all the lines converge at two points, ask, “Are there any places where all the lines come together?” Yes, in March and September. “What seasons are in March and September?” Spring and fall, respectively. 7. Explain that there is a special name for the exact date where all the lines come together, when the number of hours of daylight equals the number of hours of nighttime. Ask if anyone knows what those special days are called. Equinoxes—Spring equinox and fall or autumnal equinox. They occur near March 21 and September 21 each year. **Extension:** Have students research the rotation axis of Mars and determine how it is similar to that of Earth in terms of tilt. Answer the following questions: Are the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars similar to the northern and southern hemisphere of Earth? How are they similar? How are they different? How long is one year on Mars? How long is one day on Mars? **Resources:** Pulse of the planet animation: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/goto?2395 World Climate: http://www.worldclimate.com/ Learn about Mars: http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/funzone_flash.html ## 5. Temperatures Around the World ### Average Temperatures: 1996-1998 Data from GLOBE Schools Around the World | Data is in Degrees Celsius (°C) | Below are Celsius to Fahrenheit Temperature Conversions | |---------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------| | °C | °F | | -40 | -40.0 | | -18 | -0.4 | | -16 | 3.2 | | -14 | 6.8 | | -12 | 10.4 | | -10 | 14.0 | | -8 | 17.6 | | -6 | 21.2 | | -4 | 24.8 | | -2 | 28.4 | | 0 | 32.0 | | 2 | 35.6 | | 4 | 39.2 | | 6 | 42.8 | | 8 | 46.4 | | 10 | 50.0 | | 12 | 53.6 | | 14 | 57.2 | | 16 | 60.8 | | 18 | 64.4 | | 20 | 68.0 | | 22 | 71.6 | | 24 | 75.2 | | 26 | 78.8 | | 28 | 82.4 | | 30 | 86.0 | | 32 | 89.6 | | 34 | 93.2 | | 36 | 96.8 | | 38 | 100.4 | | 40 | 104.0 | | 100 | 212.0 | ### Escuela Antarctica, Esperanza; Provincial #38 Julio Argentina Roca Latitude: 63°S Longitude: 57°W Elevation: 10 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Jan | 1998 | 18.8 | | Feb | 1998 | 18.4 | | Mar | 1998 | 17.6 | | Apr | 1998 | 16.0 | | May | 1998 | 19.7 | | Jun | 1998 | 17.1 | | Jul | 1998 | -12.5 | | Aug | 1998 | -11.5 | | Sep | 1998 | -9.7 | | Oct | 1998 | -6.3 | | Nov | 1998 | 0.6 | | Dec | 1998 | 1.2 | ### Quito, Ecuador; Colegio Albert Einstein Lat: 0°N Long: 78°W Elevation: 2890 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Jan | 1998 | 18.8 | | Feb | 1998 | 18.4 | | Mar | 1998 | 17.6 | | Apr | 1998 | 16.0 | | May | 1998 | 19.7 | | Jun | 1998 | 17.1 | | Jul | 1998 | -12.5 | | Aug | 1998 | -11.5 | | Sep | 1998 | -9.7 | | Oct | 1998 | -6.3 | | Nov | 1998 | 0.6 | | Dec | 1998 | 1.2 | ### Kyoto, Japan Koryu JrHS Latitude: 36°N Longitude: 135° E Elevation: 8 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Jan | 1996 | 4.4 | | Feb | 1996 | 2.9 | | Mar | 1996 | 6.9 | | Apr | 1996 | 9.5 | | May | 1996 | 16.4 | | Jun | 1996 | 21.2 | | Jul | 1996 | 24.3 | | Aug | 1996 | 25.5 | | Sep | 1996 | 20.2 | | Oct | 1996 | 15.7 | | Nov | 1995 | 10.3 | | Dec | 1995 | 5.8 | ### Sandy Bay, Australia Fahan School Latitude: 43°S Longitude: 147°E Elevation: 20 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Jan | 1998 | 18.0 | | Feb | 1998 | 17.5 | | Mar | 1998 | 17.9 | | Apr | 1998 | 14.7 | | May | 1998 | 12.8 | | Jun | 1998 | 10.1 | | Jul | 1998 | 11.0 | | Aug | 1998 | 10.6 | | Sep | 1998 | 15.2 | | Oct | 1998 | 13.7 | | Nov | 1998 | 14.6 | ### Chalatenango, El Salvador; Escuela Rural Mixta Latitude: 14°N Longitude: 89°W Elevation: 1700 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Feb | 1997 | 15.4 | | Mar | 1997 | 15.5 | | Apr | 1997 | 15.3 | | May | 1997 | 16.0 | | Jun | 1997 | 15.7 | | Jul | 1997 | 15.7 | | Aug | 1997 | 16.3 | | Sep | 1997 | 16.5 | | Oct | 1997 | 16.9 | | Dec | 1996 | 15.1 | ### Minnesota USA Detroit Lakes Middle School Lat: 47°N Long: 96°W Elevation: 1431 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Jan | 1997 | -14.1 | | Feb | 1997 | -9.2 | | Mar | 1997 | -2.1 | | Apr | 1997 | 2.8 | | May | 1997 | 10.6 | | Jun | 1997 | 20.3 | | Jul | 1997 | 19.3 | | Aug | 1997 | 18.9 | | Sep | 1997 | 17.3 | | Oct | 1997 | 3.8 | | Nov | 1997 | -5.5 | | Dec | 1997 | -4.5 | ### Carltonville, S Africa; Tsitsiboga Primary School Lat: 26°S Long: 27°E Elevation: 1524 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Feb | 1998 | 20.8 | | Mar | 1998 | 25.2 | | Apr | 1998 | 23.5 | | May | 1998 | 18.9 | | Jun | 1998 | 11.8 | | Jul | 1998 | 13.9 | | Sep | 1998 | 14.8 | | Oct | 1998 | 18.8 | | Nov | 1998 | 19.1 | ### Guangzhou, China Guangdong Guangya MS Latitude: 23°N Longitude: 113°E Elevation: 20 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Jan | 1999 | 13.7 | | Feb | 1998 | 18.4 | | Mar | 1998 | 18.5 | | Apr | 1998 | 23.6 | | May | 1998 | 24.8 | | Jun | 1998 | 27.2 | | Jul-Aug | {no data} | | | Sep | 1998 | 27.2 | | Oct | 1998 | 23.1 | | Nov | 1998 | 22.2 | | Dec | 1998 | 18.0 | ### Kodiak, Alaska, USA Kodiak High School Latitude: 58°N Longitude: 152°W Elevation: 35 m | Month | Year | Avg Temp | |-------|------|----------| | Jan | 1999 | -0.9 | | May | 1998 | 6.4 | | Jun | 1998 | 10.8 | | Jul | 1998 | 12.8 | | Aug | 1998 | 12.9 | | Sep | 1998 | 9.9 | | Oct | 1998 | 5.3 | | Nov | 1998 | 2.7 | | Dec | 1998 | -1.5 | 5. Temperatures Around the World Label each plot line: a. latitude and b. state/country ## 6. Days and Nights Around the World: Seasonal Changes in Number of Hours of Daylight All dates are the 21st day of the month ### Latitude: 70° North - **Date** | **Sunrise (AM)** | **Sunset (PM)** | **Day Length** - Jan | NONE | NONE | 0 - Feb | 8:14 | 4:34 | 8:20 - Mar | 6:04 | 6:32 | 12:28 - Apr | 3:35 | 8:46 | 17:11 - May | NONE | NONE | 24:00 - Jun | NONE | NONE | 24:00 - Jul | NONE | NONE | 24:00 - Aug | 3:36 | 8:46 | 17:10 - Sep | 5:46 | 6:17 | 12:31 - Oct | 7:49 | 3:58 | 8:09 - Nov | NONE | NONE | 0 - Dec | NONE | NONE | 0 - Tromsø, NORWAY - Prudhoe Bay, ALASKA, USA - Clyde, Baffin Island, CANADA ### Latitude: 57° North - **Date** | **Sunrise (AM)** | **Sunset (PM)** | **Day Length** - Jan | 8:28 | 4:15 | 7:47 - Feb | 7:23 | 5:25 | 10:02 - Mar | 6:09 | 6:26 | 12:17 - Apr | 4:50 | 7:25 | 14:35 - May | 3:41 | 8:24 | 16:43 - Jun | 3:15 | 9:08 | 17:53 - Jul | 3:48 | 8:43 | 16:55 - Aug | 4:49 | 7:35 | 14:46 - Sep | 5:53 | 6:12 | 12:19 - Oct | 6:56 | 4:52 | 9:56 - Nov | 8:04 | 3:47 | 7:43 - Dec | 8:47 | 3:29 | 6:42 - Kodiak, ALASKA, USA - Glasgow, SCOTLAND - Copenhagen, DENMARK - Moscow, RUSSIA ### Latitude: 38° North - **Date** | **Sunrise (AM)** | **Sunset (PM)** | **Day Length** - Jan | 7:22 | 5:21 | 9:59 - Feb | 6:52 | 5:55 | 11:03 - Mar | 6:12 | 6:23 | 12:11 - Apr | 5:26 | 6:51 | 13:25 - May | 4:55 | 7:18 | 14:23 - Jun | 4:47 | 7:36 | 14:49 - Jul | 5:04 | 7:28 | 14:24 - Aug | 5:30 | 6:55 | 13:25 - Sep | 5:57 | 6:08 | 12:11 - Oct | 6:24 | 5:24 | 11:00 - Nov | 6:57 | 4:54 | 9:57 - Dec | 7:22 | 4:54 | 9:32 - USA: San Francisco, CALIFORNIA - Charleston, W. VIRGINIA - Wichita, KANSAS - St. Louis, MISSOURI - Louisville, KENTUCKY - Pueblo, COLORADO - Richmond, VIRGINIA - Sendai, JAPAN - Tientsin, CHINA - Athens, GREECE - Cordoba, SPAIN - Seoul, S. KOREA - Izmir, TURKEY - Palermo, SICILY - Lisbon, PORTUGAL ### Latitude: 0° - **Date** | **Sunrise (AM)** | **Sunset (PM)** | **Day Length** - Jan | 6:18 | 6:25 | 12:07 - Feb | 6:20 | 6:27 | 12:07 - Mar | 6:14 | 6:20 | 12:06 - Apr | 6:05 | 6:12 | 12:07 - May | 6:03 | 6:10 | 12:07 - Jun | 6:08 | 6:15 | 12:07 - Jul | 6:13 | 6:20 | 12:07 - Aug | 6:09 | 6:16 | 12:07 - Sep | 6:00 | 6:06 | 12:06 - Oct | 5:51 | 5:58 | 12:07 - Nov | 5:52 | 5:59 | 12:07 - Dec | 6:04 | 6:12 | 12:08 - Quito, ECUADOR; Nairobi, KENYA; Singapore, MALAYA ### Latitude: 26° North - **Date** | **Sunrise (AM)** | **Sunset (PM)** | **Day Length** - Jan | 6:58 | 5:44 | 10:46 - Feb | 6:41 | 6:06 | 11:25 - Mar | 6:12 | 6:22 | 12:10 - Apr | 5:41 | 6:36 | 12:55 - May | 5:21 | 6:52 | 13:31 - Jun | 5:19 | 7:05 | 13:46 - Jul | 5:30 | 7:02 | 13:32 - Aug | 5:45 | 6:40 | 12:55 - Sep | 5:58 | 6:07 | 12:09 - Oct | 6:12 | 5:37 | 11:25 - Nov | 6:32 | 5:19 | 10:47 - Dec | 6:53 | 5:23 | 10:30 - Monterey, MEXICO - Kunming, CHINA - Karachi, PAKISTAN - Luxor, EGYPT - Taipei, TAIWAN - Patna, INDIA - Riyadh, SAUDI ARABIA - Wau El Kebir, LIBYA ### Latitude: 38° South - **Date** | **Sunrise (AM)** | **Sunset (PM)** | **Day Length** - Jan | 5:11 | 7:31 | 14:20 - Feb | 5:46 | 7:00 | 13:14 - Mar | 6:14 | 6:20 | 12:06 - Apr | 6:42 | 5:34 | 10:52 - May | 7:09 | 5:04 | 9:55 - Jun | 7:26 | 4:47 | 9:21 - Jul | 7:19 | 5:13 | 9:54 - Aug | 6:47 | 5:39 | 10:52 - Sep | 6:01 | 6:05 | 12:04 - Oct | 5:16 | 6:33 | 13:17 - Nov | 4:45 | 7:07 | 14:22 - Dec | 4:44 | 7:32 | 14:48 - Melbourne, AUSTRALIA - Auckland, NEW ZEALAND - Bahia Blanca, ARGENTINA - Curacautin, CHILE ### Latitude: 70° South - **Date** | **Sunrise (AM)** | **Sunset (PM)** | **Day Length** - Jan | NONE | NONE | 24:00 - Feb | 4:09 | 8:35 | 16:26 - Mar | 6:10 | 6:21 | 12:11 - Apr | 8:19 | 3:57 | 7:38 - May | NONE | NONE | 0 - Jun | NONE | NONE | 0 - Jul | NONE | NONE | 0 - Aug | 8:24 | 4:03 | 7:39 - Sep | 6:00 | 6:07 | 12:07 - Oct | 3:37 | 8:15 | 16:38 - Nov | NONE | NONE | 24:00 - Dec | NONE | NONE | 24:00 - ANTIARCTICA ### Latitude: 26° South - **Date** | **Sunrise (AM)** | **Sunset (PM)** | **Day Length** - Jan | 5:36 | 7:06 | 13:30 - Feb | 5:59 | 6:48 | 12:49 - Mar | 6:14 | 6:20 | 12:06 - Apr | 6:28 | 5:48 | 11:20 - May | 6:44 | 5:29 | 10:45 - Jun | 6:56 | 5:27 | 10:31 - Jul | 6:54 | 5:38 | 10:44 - Aug | 6:33 | 5:53 | 11:20 - Sep | 6:00 | 6:05 | 12:05 - Oct | 5:29 | 6:20 | 12:51 - Nov | 5:11 | 6:41 | 13:30 - Dec | 5:15 | 7:01 | 13:46 - Pretoria, SOUTH AFRICA - Curitiba, BRAZIL - Brisbane, AUSTRALIA - Asuncion, PARAGUAY Data generated with Voyager by Carina software, Hayward, California 6. Days and Nights Around the World: Seasonal Changes in Number of Hours of Daylight Label each plot line: a. latitude and b. state/country Day Length (in Hours) January February March April May June July August September October November December NOTES: Kinesthetic Astronomy Adapted from Kinesthetic Astronomy by Dr. Cherilynn Morrow and Michael Zawaski. Download the full lesson plan and related resources at: http://www.spacescience.org/education/extra/kinesthetic_astronomy/index.html Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: - Students will be able to explain the spatial relationship between Earth and the Sun. - Students will be able to model the movement of Earth around the Sun. - Students will be able to define solstice and equinox. Description: Students act out the motions of Earth around the Sun over the course of one year, including the tilt, solstice and equinox. Suggested Timing: 25 – 30 minutes National Standards: Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of Earth in the solar system, 4: Seasons result from the variations in the amount of the Sun’s energy hitting the surface, due to the tilt of Earth’s rotation on its axis and the length of day. Vocabulary: - Solstice - Equinox - Vernal - Autumnal - Rotation - Revolution - Orbit Materials: (One per group) - Signs, one of each month - Object to represent the Sun - Globe(s) - Flashlight - Object or sign to represent Polaris - Optional: “East” and “West” popsicle sticks - Optional: Zodiac constellation signs - Optional: NASA Solar Pizza (see page 58) Background Information: Earth revolves around the Sun once per year. The seasons on Earth are caused by the tilt of Earth on its rotation axis, which is approximately 23.5 degrees with respect to its plane of orbit. As Earth revolves around the Sun its axis is continually tilted in the same direction. If you extended the line of the axis into space it would touch Polaris, or the North Star. As Earth rotates around its axis Polaris appears to remain in the same place while all the stars rotate around it. Once a year, Earth’s Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun. Once a year, it is tilted away from the Sun. These days are called solstices – the longest and shortest day of the year. In the Northern Hemisphere, the longest day of the year falls in June (the exact date changes depending on the year). This is the day when the Sun illuminates the largest area of the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in more hours of daylight as Earth rotates. The shortest day of the year is in December (the exact date changes depending on the year). This is the day the Sun illuminates the least surface area and the Northern Hemisphere receives the fewest hours of daylight. Twice a year Earth’s orientation in relation to the Sun is perpendicular. These days are called equinoxes – meaning equal day and equal night. All areas of the Northern and Southern Hemisphere are equally illuminated because of this perpendicular orientation. On these two days of the year there are 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness everywhere on earth. The autumnal (or fall) equinox occurs in September, and the vernal (or spring) equinox occurs in March. Image source: http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/21jun_shadows.htm Content: Predict: (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) - What is a year? - Draw how Earth moves around the Sun. - What is a day? - What does Earth’s orbit look like? Method: (Body of the lesson) Have students stand in a circle with an object or light bulb in the center of the room to represent the Sun. Give each student two popsicle sticks, one with an E and the other with a W. (Students can also make an “E” and “W” with their fingers.) Hold a globe in front of you (a t-shirt with a map on it works well too). Explain to students that they are going to pretend that they are Earth. Ask: If you are Earth, where is your North Pole? (On top of your head) Ask: Using the globe as a reference, which hand should hold the East stick and which hand should hold the West stick? Remember that north is up and south is down. (Left = East, Right = West) Ask: Based on our observations, we know that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Imagine there is a man standing on Mt. Nose (your nose). Which way should you rotate so that the Sun rises to the east of Mt. Nose and sets to the west? (Counterclockwise) Instruct students to stand so that it is sunrise, noon, sunset, and then midnight on Mt. Nose. Have them do this several times. Explain that Earth revolves around the Sun in the same direction as it rotates on its axis: Counterclockwise, as seen from above the North Pole. Instruct students to walk in a circle counterclockwise, making one trip around the Sun and ending back where they started. Explain that Earth is tilted on its axis towards Polaris, or the North Star. Have students tilt themselves so their heads are lined up with a spot/poster/sign on the wall representing Polaris. Instruct students to repeat a day’s rotation, maintaining their tilt. (Make sure their heads are always pointed towards Polaris, this can be tricky for some students.) Instruct students to repeat the year’s revolution, adding in tilt, and then add in the day’s rotation. (Note: Some kids might get dizzy and fall down, be prepared.) At this point have students stop and pass the globe around the circle, being careful to maintain its tilt. Ask: What do you notice about Earth as it revolves around the Sun? Take several observations, and guide students to the realization that at one time it is pointing towards the Sun, and at another time it is pointing away from it. Instruct students to observe the tilt of Earth on opposite sides of the Sun. Ask: Where are two places where Earth’s tilt compared to the Sun is the same? Where are two places where its tilt compared to the Sun is opposite? Explain that these places are called the solstice and equinox. Introduce the terms vernal and autumnal. Pass the globe around again. Optional: Put up signs labeling the locations of the solstices and equinoxes. Instruct students to make one revolution around the Sun and each time they pass a solstice to raise their hand. Do the same with equinox. Ask: We have a summer solstice, where the Northern Hemisphere gets the most hours of daylight and when summer officially starts. Use the flashlight at this point to illustrate which hemisphere is getting the most direct sunlight. Which solstice is the summer solstice? Which month do you think this occurs in? Where is the winter solstice? (You may want to take this opportunity to talk about what causes seasons.) Ask: Where in Earth’s orbit is June? Where is December? Label these points on the wall. Instruct students to find the spot around Earth’s orbit where their birthday would be located. Remind them that Earth rotates counterclockwise and where they decided that the summer and winter solstices are located. Optional: Place signs for the months around the room in the correct spot. Add zodiac constellation signs as well. Review: Have students repeat the motions of a year once more. Optional: Solar Pizza Activity Stand at one end of a hallway and have students guess where Earth would be if the Sun were the size of the solar pizza (see page 58 for this resource). Give students time to space themselves out and then pace off the correct distance. Have students draw a diagram of Earth’s orbit around the Sun then correctly label the axis, solstices and equinoxes. Live-It: (Assessment questions) - (Knowledge) What is a year? - (Comprehension) Describe how Earth orbits around the Sun. - (Application) Use classroom materials to construct a 3D image showing a solstice or equinox. - (Analysis) Compare and contrast solstice and equinox. - (Synthesis) Use what you have learned to make a poster to teach someone about solstice or equinox. - (Evaluation) Pluto’s axis is tilted at an angle of 97 degrees. Describe what seasons would be like on Pluto and compare them to seasons on Earth. Extension: Have students create a four-page booklet (one page per season) showing the orientation of Earth, a seasonal landscape (i.e. sunshine and trees in full foliage for summer), and a short poem about the activities that occur in that season. Resources: Find the full Kinesthetic Astronomy lesson plan and related resources by Dr. Cherilynn Morrow and Michael Zawaski here: http://www.spacescience.org/education/extra/kinesthetic_astronomy/index.html Scale Model of Sun and Earth About this Activity This activity explores the relative size of Sun and Earth as well as the distance between them. Preparation Measure 65 feet (the distance between Sun and Earth in the scale of our model) from where you will be doing this activity and mark the distance for later reference. If you do not have a fixed location, we find it helpful to have a piece of string cut to exactly 65 feet in length for you to use as a reference during the activity. If you want your participants to guess the size of the Earth, you might want to keep the image of Earth out of sight by cutting off the top of the hand-out page along the dash line. To Do and Notice 1) Show participants the image of the Sun. (This is a good opportunity to notice what the Sun’s surface look like and to point out that the Sun is not as featureless and uniformly bright as it might look to our eyes.) Ask participants to guess how big the Earth would be if the Sun is the size of this image. 2) Reveal the answer by showing the image of Earth. (Optional: you might want to let the participants cut out the Earth and the disc of the Sun instead of using the 2 sections of the handout sheet.) Ask participants to guess how far the model Earth should be from the model Sun. We suggest allowing participants to walk to where they think the distance should be. We find it helpful to tape the model Sun to a spot around eye-level at the starting point and have the facilitator walk with the participants. The model Earth should be 65 feet away from the model Sun. Use the marker you placed earlier (or the cut piece of string) to guide you. 3) (Optional) At 65 feet away, look back towards the model Sun. Notice how big it looks to you at this distance. At this scale, the model Sun should be about the same size as the actual Sun would appear to us here on Earth. (It is always a good idea to remind participants not to look directly at the Sun.) Since this part requires a basic understanding of ratio and scale model, it might not be appropriate for all participants. Activity Notes “Why does the Sun I see in the sky look different from this picture?” is a common question. The Sun image here was taken by a telescope that is mounted on a satellite in space (the TRACE mission to be exact). Besides being able to see farther than we can and without the clouds and Earth’s atmosphere in the way, this telescope also looks at a different kind of light. The Sun gives off different kinds of energy, only part of that is in the form of visible light which we can see. The telescope that took this picture looks at the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light coming from the Sun. Related Websites TRACE Education Resources: the Sun, its structure, and the satellite mission. http://trace.lmsal.com/Public/eduprodu.htm Stanford Solar Center: About the Sun http://solar-center.stanford.edu/about/ 1. Cut out the images of the Sun and the Earth. 2. To demonstrate the distance between Sun and Earth at this scale, separate the images 65 feet (about 20 meters) apart. This distance represents approximately 93 million miles (150 million kilometers). **SUN-EARTH FACTS:** **Diameter of Earth** about 8,000 miles (about 13,000 kilometers) **Diameter of Sun** about 863,000 miles (about 1,390,000 kilometers) You can fit 109 earths across the Sun’s diameter! **Distance between Sun and Earth:** about 93 million miles (about 150 million kilometers) You can line up about 10,000 Earths side to side before you reach the Sun. This image of Earth is scaled to the proper size in relation to the image of the Sun below. Measuring Time Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: - Students will be able to define a day as one rotation of Earth. - Students will be able to explain that time can be measured by the position of the Sun in the sky as Earth rotates. - Students will be able to explain that shadows are indicators of Earth’s rotation and can be used to measure time. Description: Students model the rotation of Earth over one day, holding a flashlight for the Sun and a blow up globe with objects attached to make it 3D, and record their observations. They then take those observations and create a “device” that will let them track time. Students conclude by taking them outside to test their effectiveness. Suggested Timing: 25 – 30 minutes. National Standards Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of Earth in the solar system, 1: The Sun, an average star, is the central and largest body in the solar system. 4: Seasons result from the ... rotation on its axle and the length of day. Vocabulary: - Gnomon - Clockwise - Counter clockwise - Rotate - Revolve Materials: (One per group) - Blow up globe - 6 Tiny plastic people/trees - East and West Popsicle sticks - Tape - Flashlight - Scissors - Card stock, several sheets - Sundial pattern Background Information: The Solar Dynamics Observatory’s mission is to study the changing Sun. Earth’s changing position in relation to the Sun and how humans have used that relationship is a fundamental concept. Sundials: The original timepiece. Today we have examples of Sundials used in Egypt about 1500 B.C., which were discovered by archeologists. Egyptians began using a T-shaped “time stick” made with one vertical pole and one crossbar. The names of five hours were written on the pole. In the morning the pole was placed so that it faced east. The shadow of the crossbar would then fall across the pole and move toward the crossbar until noon. In the afternoon the stick was turned to face west. Sundials evolved through the middle ages and renaissance to include more detail and a more accurate shape. Sundials were once used to correct mechanical clocks, and people would set their pocket watches by the Sundial in the center of town. With the growing popularity of traveling quickly over large distances by train, the need for time zones became apparent. Because of the curve of Earth, each town along the track would have a slightly different time. The need to have a standard time to keep the trains on schedule was needed and so the US was divided up into time zones. Sundials are not extremely accurate timekeepers for several reasons. We live in a world divided into time zones one hour wide. For Sundials to be accurate you would have to be located in the center of the time zone, however people live all over time zones, not just the center. Also, the length of the day changes as Earth moves closer to and farther from the Sun during the year. A day is shorter in January than in June. This can cause differences between our “Standard Time” and “Solar Time” greater than +/- 10 minutes which shifts over the course of the year. In this lesson students will understand that Sundials work by casting a shadow on the ground that moves as Earth rotates on its axis. The Sun appears to move across the sky from east to west, so the shadow will move across the dial from west to east, left to right if aligned north, or in other words, “clockwise.” When the Sun is at its zenith, or highest point at midday, the shadow cast by the gnomon, or pointer, will be... shortest. As the Sun rises the shadow gets shorter, and as it sets the shadow will get longer and longer. Students will be able to model the motion of shadows on the ground by simulating Earth over the course of one day. Earth rotates on its axis counterclockwise, which can be deduced from knowing that the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. **Content:** **Predict:** (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) Ask: How do we measure time? - Have students brainstorm ways to measure time and list them in their notebooks or on the whiteboard. Ask: Have there always been watches and clocks? How can we measure time without a watch or clock? - Brainstorm ideas with students and write on whiteboard **Method:** (Body of the lesson) How can we measure time without a watch or clock? Tell students that they are going to construct a device to track time, but first we need to understand some things about Earth and the way it works. Then they will build a model and make observations to find the answer to their driving question: How can we measure time without a watch or clock? Ask: What is a day? - Take several student ideas Have students stand in a circle with an object or light bulb in the center of the room to represent the Sun. Give each student two popsicle sticks, one with an E written on it and the other with a W. Having students make an “E” shape and a “W” shape with their fingers works just as well. Hold a globe in front of you (a t-shirt with a map on it works well too.) Explain: Each student in the circle represents Earth. Ask: Using the globe as a reference, which hand should hold the East stick and which hand should hold the West stick? (Left = East, Right = West) Clarify that when you are looking at Earth east would be to the right and west to the left, but for this activity students are acting as Earth, so left would be east and right would be west. Use probing questions like “Where do we live now?” and “Where is the west/east coast?” and have them point to it on your globe. Ask: Based on our observations, we know that the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Imagine there is a man standing on Mt. Nose (your nose). Which way should you rotate so that the Sun rises to the east of Mt. Nose and sets to the west? (Counterclockwise, or, to the left) Instruct students to stand so that its Sunrise (Sun to the east), noon (Sun overhead), Sunset (Sun to the west), and midnight (facing away from the Sun) on Mt. Nose. Have them do this several times. *Note: If the class has completed the Kenestetic Astronomy activity already, the above portion of the lesson may be skipped. Instead refresh their memories or have a volunteer come and act it out for the whole class to see. Now that students understand what a day is, hand out globes, plastic figures, and flashlights to each group. Tell them to tape 5 figures to the surface of their globe, evenly spread around, so that they look like they are “standing” on Earth. Have students shine the flashlight on the globe, simulating the Sun, and rotate it in the correct direction (counterclockwise when viewed from the north pole). Have students take turns holding the flashlight, rotating the globe, and writing down their observations. Ask: What did you observe? - Take student responses. - Guide discussion to the shadows cast by the figures and the fact that they moved as Earth rotated. Live-It: (Assessment/application assignment) Instruct: Your task now is to build something that will let you keep track of time using shadows. - Hand out card stock, tape, and any other materials you’d like them to experiment with. - When students think they are done have them show you with the flashlight how the shadow moves clockwise as the “Sun” rises and sets. - Discuss marking the device at Noon, Sunset, and Sunrise - In a short paragraph, have students explain how their device works. **Extension:** Students can create a garden Sundial on the playground, using their body as the gnomon and chalk and a compass for markings. **Resources:** A guide to Sundials. Includes local noon calculator. http://www.Sundials.co.uk/ Sundial interactive activities. http://www.fi.edu/time/Journey/Sundials/interactsd.htm Detailed information and activity ideas http://hea-www.harvard.edu/ECT/Daymarks/ Point this North Cut here Sundial Base The Gnomon NOTES: Solar Observations Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: - Students will be able to identify Sunspots and prominences on the Sun. - Students will be able to explain that the Sun moves across the sky in a predictable motion. Description: Students spend the class period outdoors using pinhole cameras, solar telescopes, and solar viewing glasses to make solar observations and look for Sunspots. Suggested Timing: 25 – 30 minutes. National Standards Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of Earth in the solar system, 1: The Sun, an average star, is the central and largest body in the solar system. Vocabulary: - Sunspot - Prominence - Disc Materials: (One per group) - Pinhole cameras – meter stick and two index cards (Solar viewing tool constructed from cardboard and meter sticks. See Lesson 1: The Size of the Sun) - Solar telescope (Or filter) - Eclipse Glasses - Solar feature worksheets Background Information: The first telescopic observations of Sunspots occurred in 1610 by several astronomers throughout Europe. Early recordings of Sunspots show that the Sun goes through an 11 year of activity and inactivity. Sunspots increase in number, then gradually decrease, then increase again, creating the Sunspot cycle. Scientists believe the Sunspot cycle is linked to the Sun’s complex magnetic field, which becomes tangled as the Sun rotates. Our Sun is a dynamic ball of plasma, fusing hydrogen and helium gasses and releasing the energy through radiation. It has distinct features caused by electromagnetic forces, which include Sunspots and prominences. These two features are easily observable to amateur astronomers. Prominences are clouds of material suspended above the surface of the Sun by loops of magnetic field. Prominences and filaments are actually the same thing, except that prominences are seen projecting out above the limb, or edge, of the Sun. Both filaments and prominences can remain in a quiet or quiescent state for days or weeks. However, as the magnetic loops that support them slowly change, filaments and prominences can erupt and rise off of the Sun over the course of a few minutes or hours. They are often visible during a total solar eclipse. Sunspots appear as dark spots on the visible surface of the Sun. Temperatures in the dark centers of Sunspots drop to about 3700 K (compared to 5700 K for the surrounding photosphere). They typically last for several days, although very large ones may live for several weeks. Sunspots are magnetic regions on the Sun with magnetic field strengths thousands of times stronger than Earth's magnetic field. Sunspots usually come in groups with two sets of spots. One set will have positive or north magnetic field while the other set will have negative or south magnetic field. The field is strongest in the darker parts of the Sunspots - the umbra. The field is weaker and more horizontal in the lighter part - the penumbra. The largest Sunspot ever recorded was visible in March and April 1947 and covered an area of over 7,000 million square miles; about a hundred Earths could be fitted into this area! Content: Predict: (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) Have students take a moment and draw what they think the Sun looks like. Student drawings may range from cartoon images to simple yellow circles. Ask: What do you think we would find if we were able to observe the Sun like we can observe the moon or other celestial bodies? Take some student answers, then explain that they will be using a pinhole viewer, eclipse glasses, and solar telescope to make solar observations. Explain that they are looking for Sunspots and, if you have a solar telescope, prominences, and that both are caused by the magnetic field of the Sun. Sunspots are cooler regions where the magnetic field exits then enters the surface of the Sun, and prominences are lines of plasma that follow the magnetic field lines. If a solar telescope is not available, filters for a regular telescope can be purchased online (see resources). This activity can also be completed without the use of a telescope. Method: (Body of the lesson) Hand out student worksheets. Take students outside and give them time to make observations of the solar *disc* - the visible image of the Sun - using a pinhole viewer and other available technology. **Caution:** DO NOT look directly at the Sun. Some students may have trouble distinguishing what they are looking at. Ask questions like, “What do you see?” and “How would you draw what you see?” Have students record their observations on their worksheets. Note: Check online to see the current state of the Sun and the weather before doing this activity. Going outside on a calm solar day, even if it is Sunny out, can be defrauding for students. Choosing a day when there will be observable Sunspots will be more enjoyable for everyone. Use: [http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime-images.html](http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime-images.html) Live-It: (Assessment/application assignment) Have students go online (or project the website for the class) and compare their drawings to the SOHO images of the Sun: [http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime-images.html](http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime-images.html) Have them answer the following questions: - Compare and contrast the image you drew and the images SOHO took. - How are they different? How are they the same? - Why are some images different colors? (Discuss the electromagnetic spectrum and how those images were taken in different wavelengths. This is also a good opportunity to discuss false color and how it helps scientists analyze images taken in wavelengths invisible to the human eye.) - What are Sunspots? Extension: The Space Weather Action center allows classrooms to monitor solar activity with real-time data from multiple solar missions. The website provides easy to use tutorials, interviews with scientists, videos and more. Students can choose a single Sunspot, and record it’s location on a solar “disc” (circle on a sheet of paper) over the course of a week, or pose their own research question and use the data from the Space Weather Action Center Website to answer it. Space Weather Action Center: [http://Sunearthday.nasa.gov/swac/](http://Sunearthday.nasa.gov/swac/) Resources: The Solar Dynamics Observatory: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PZEKINol9aU Simple Pinhole viewer instructions: http://solar-center.stanford.edu/observe/ Current SOHO Images of the Sun: http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime-images.html Sources for Solar Filters: http://www.skyandtelescope.com/equipment/vendors/3304076.html Solar Observations Conditions Outside: (Circle all that apply) Clear Haze: Heavy Medium Light Clouds: Heavy Medium Light Drifting Intermediate Wind: Yes/No Instruments used in observations: _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Solar Disk The Sun and Magnetic Fields Lesson and text adapted from “Live from the Aurora, Educator’s Guide” http://stargazers.gsfc.nasa.gov/pdf/products/educator_guides/aurora_educators_guide.pdf. Grades: 5 – 9 Objectives: • Students will be able to map a magnetic field. • Students will be able to explain that invisible fields surround magnets. • Students will be able to explain that magnetic fields on the Sun are visible in Sunspots. Description: Students will simulate Sunspots by using iron filings to map magnetic fields around a bar magnet. Students map the magnetic field surrounding two dipole magnets, both parallel and anti-parallel alignment. Students apply vector measurements to their field maps. Then students examine the field arrangement around complex arrangements of the dipole magnets. Suggested Timing: 45 – 60 minutes. National Standards Content Standard E: As a result of their activities in grades 9 – 12, all students should develop an understanding of understanding science and technology, 5: Tools help scientists make better observations, measurements, and equipment for investigations. They help scientists see, measure, and do things that they could not otherwise see, measure, and do. Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 9 – 12, all students should develop an understanding of forces, 1: Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied. 3: The electric force is a universal force that exists between any two charged objects. Opposite charges attract while like charges repel. The strength of the force is proportional to the charges, and, as with gravitation, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Vocabulary: - Magnetic Force - Orientation - Field - Dipole Materials: (One per group) - Large sheets of paper - Two cow magnets (strong bar magnets) - Iron Filings (http://www.teachersource.com/) - Worksheet Background Information: Humans have been aware of and made use of the magnetic field of Earth for the past 2 millennia. Mariners, following the example of the Chinese, used the magnetic properties of magnetite and magnetized metals to find their way relative to the fixed orientation of the compass needle in Earth’s magnetic field. Today, we use magnets in a variety of ways, from floating fast spinning CDs in our computers, stereos and TVs, to magnetic resonance imaging, to sticking paper to our refrigerators. Magnetism is a noncontact force, meaning the magnet can affect materials across an intervening space. We do not have to be at the location of the source object to detect it. We say that a magnet creates a magnetic field or a region of influence in the space around the magnet. The bar magnet is the prime example of a dipole magnet. A spherical magnet in an otherwise empty region of space would have a magnetic field approximately modeled in the figure below. While Earth’s magnetic field looks similar to the one in the image above, the Sun’s field is significantly more complex because the Sun is not a solid. Material at the equator rotates faster than material at the poles, causing the magnetic field to stretch and twist. Over the course of the eleven-year Sunspot cycle the field becomes so twisted that parts of the field break through the Sun’s atmosphere, carrying material with them. From *The Essential Cosmic Perspective*, by Bennett et al. The material above the Sun’s surface appears as prominences. Sunspots, or the points where the magnetic field exits and enters the surface of the Sun have “north” and “south” poles. This is why they always appear in pairs. Content: Predict: (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) Ask: How do you know a magnet is a magnet? Where does magnetic force begin and end around a magnet? Try to elicit these responses from students’ previous experience with magnets. - Magnets affect other magnets and metals. - Magnetic influence or strength is not related to size of magnet. - Magnetic influences extend through space, but get weaker with distance. - Magnets have well differentiated ends or poles. - There are two poles. - Like poles repel; unlike poles attract. Method: (Body of the lesson) Hand out materials. Instruct students to position the magnets as shown in each image, lay a sheet of paper over the top, and sprinkle iron filings on the sheet of paper. Show students how to pour the iron filings back into their container without spilling them. Tell them to use caution because they are very hard to clean up and will also stick to the magnets. Instruct them to draw the pattern of filings that they see, then carefully pour them back into their container before rearranging the magnets into the next configuration. Give students 20-30 minutes to complete the activity. Circulate, answering questions. Questions can be asked motivating students to think critically about the data and the data collection procedure. Some suggestions follow. - What happens when the two magnets are aligned, positive to positive? Negative to negative? - Can you tell which field line is from which magnet? Show students the image attached to this lesson. Explain that these are Sunspots. In the first image students see a visible light image Sunspots. Ask: Why do you think the Sunspot is darker than the surrounding area? Take a few answers then explain that the dark area is cooler than the surrounding bright areas. Explain that the second image is an MDI Magnetogram, an image of magnetic field polarity. The black spots are negative polarity while the white spots are positive polarity. Live-It: (Assessment/application assignment) Have students answer the following questions: - What is the map representing? - What is happening between the magnets? - Suppose you were able to map the field in a plane 30 cm above the plane of the source. What sort of a map would you predict seeing? Can you use the map you have made to demonstrate your prediction is reasonable? - How are the iron filings like Sunspots? Extension: Students can research the Maunder Minimum, an unusually low time in the Sunspot cycle, and compare it to the current Sunspot cycle. Resources: The Solar Dynamics Observatory: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PZEKINol9aU Little SDO Looks Inside the Sun’s magnetic field: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mvtbPJM5o94 The Sun and Magnetic Fields Intensitygram showing dark Sunspots The Sun and Magnetic Fields MDI Magnetogram showing Sunspot north (white) and south (black) poles. | | Magnet Alignment (Shaded from positive to negative) | Iron Filing Pattern | |---|--------------------------------------------------|---------------------| | 1 | ![Magnet Alignment](image1.png) | | | 2 | ![Magnet Alignment](image2.png) | | | 3 | ![Magnet Alignment](image3.png) | | | 4 | ![Magnet Alignment](image4.png) | | | 5 | ![Magnet Alignment](image5.png) | | | 6 | ![Magnet Alignment](image6.png) | | Studying Light: Seeing the Invisible Lesson plan and text adapted from Chandra X Ray Observatory Educational Material: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/ems/ems_middleContents.html Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: • Students will be able to describe the electromagnetic spectrum. • Students will be able to explain that other types of light can be detected, even though we can’t see it. Description: Students begin by using a clothesline to model a logarithmic scale. Then they add in the electromagnetic spectrum. Finally, students conduct several simple tests to detect other types of radiation. Suggested Timing: 60 – 90 minutes. National Standards Content Standard E: As a result of their activities in grades 9 – 12, all students should develop an understanding of understanding science and technology, 5: Tools help scientists make better observations, measurements, and equipment for investigations. They help scientists see, measure, and do things that they could not otherwise see, measure, and do. Content Standard B: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of transfer of energy, 6: The Sun is a major source of energy for changes on Earth's surface. The Sun loses energy by emitting light. A tiny fraction of that light reaches Earth, transferring energy from the Sun to Earth. The Sun’s energy arrives as light with a range of wavelengths, consisting of visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation. Content Standard D: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of interactions of energy and matter: 2: Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated. Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays. **Vocabulary:** - Electromagnetic - Spectrum - Radiation - Light - Visible - Ultra Violet - Radio **Materials:** (One per group) - 5 meters of clothes line - 14 clothes pins (tape also works) - 14 numbered index cards (instructions in body of lesson) - Labeled picture cards - EM Spectrum picture cards - IR remote control - UV beads (www.teachersource.com) - UV light or window - Exponential Clothesline Conversion Table - Cell phone or digital camera **Background Information:** The electromagnetic spectrum describes the range of energy, from low to high frequency or wavelength. This energy travels in waves and surrounds us at all times in one of many forms. The smaller and more frequent the wave, the higher energy it is. The longest, lowest frequency type of energy we can detect is radio waves. On the opposite side of the spectrum are gamma rays. Our eyes can detect a type of energy called visible light. Our sense of touch can detect infrared radiation as heat. The beads used in this lab detect ultraviolet radiation, a wave that has a bit more energy than visible light, in the range of 10nm to 400nm. These rays make it from the Sun through Earth’s atmosphere to the ground, where humans experience them when they get a tan, Sunburn, or worse, skin cancer or blindness. The size of the UV waves is such that it can interact with the molecules of DNA inside a cell, disrupting it and causing cancer to begin. Wearing Sunscreen when going outside and avoiding purposeful tanning are key to preventing cancer. Though each of these types of energy has different properties and effects, they are essentially the same thing: Electromagnetic Radiation. EM radiation is a stream of photons, massless particles traveling in a wave at the speed of light. The only difference between the different types of energy in the EM spectrum is how much energy the photons have. Photons with a higher energy have a smaller wavelength. Because Earth’s atmosphere absorbs many kinds of radiation, including microwave, UV and X-rays, they cannot be studied from the ground. Scientists send spacecraft into orbit where they can study them and learn about their sources. Image Source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/147517main_spectrum_large.jpg **Content:** **Predict:** (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) Give students the set of “picture cards.” Tell them they have five minutes to arrange them, and then explain their reason for the arrangement they chose. Most students will reply that they chose size as a way to arrange the objects. Lead a discussion on ways to arrange a variety of things so that other people will understand how they relate to each other. Explain that the electromagnetic spectrum is an arrangement of energy waves from low to high frequency. In the next activity they will be exploring how that scale looks. Method: (Body of the lesson) Many students have difficulty expressing large numbers using exponential notation. The exponential clothesline helps to pre-assess student understanding of exponents by providing a visual representation of exponential notation (powers of ten). The Exponential Clothesline Conversion Table will also pre-assess and refresh student understanding of fractions and decimals. Provide each group of students with the following materials: One 5-meter piece of clothesline (or string) Fourteen (14) clothespins (or paper clips) Fourteen (14) index cards with the following numbers identified as follows: 0 written in red, 1, 2, and 3, in blue, $10^1$, $10^2$, $10^3$, $10^6$, $10^9$, and $10^{12}$ in green, $10^{-1}$, $10^{-2}$, $10^{-3}$, and $10^{-4}$ in black Numbers written in black on different colored index cards are more visual, and any incorrectly placed numbers are immediately recognizable in a large classroom. Depending on your group, you may wish to provide some larger (or smaller) exponents or include a set of numbers with exponents such as $2 \times 10^0$, $2 \times 10^1$, $2 \times 10^2$ and $2 \times 10^{-2}$. Step 1: The Numbered Scale Give each group of students the clothesline, clothespins, and a set of numbered index cards. Randomly distribute the cards as evenly as possible within each group. Have the students string the clothesline, and ask the student in each group with the number 0 to attach that index card approximately one-sixth of the way from the left end of the clothesline. The students with the number 1 should attach it 25-cm to the right of the number 0. Explain to students that their clothesline represents a number line and that they are going to add whole numbers and numbers expressed in scientific notation to the number line. Ask the students who have numbers 2 and 3 in each group to place their numbers on the clothesline. Most students will correctly place whole numbers on the number line. Give the students the task of placing the remaining numbers on the number line in their correct locations. (It is important to explain to your students that this number line is not to scale.) Most groups will discuss and accurately place $10^1$, $10^2$, $10^3$, $10^6$, $10^9$, and $10^{12}$ and other higher powers of ten; however when they begin to place the negative exponents on the clothesline, most students will place them to the left of 0, which is a common mistake. The negative exponents actually fall between 0 and 1. Encourage the students to make changes if they think any of the numbers are not in the correct order. If any of the groups think that their number lines are correct and there are still numbers placed out of sequence, hand out the Exponential Clothesline Conversion Table. The purpose of the conversions is to express the exponents as whole numbers, fractions and decimals. After the final conversion of the exponents to decimals, students who have the negative exponents incorrectly placed usually begin to see that negative exponents are still greater than 0 and rearrange their number lines accordingly. **Step 2: Adding EM Radiation** Give students the EM spectrum cards (attached). Explain that the frequency range printed on the card is the type of radiation’s location on the scale. Have students find the location of each type of radiation along the clothesline and attach the card in the correct spot. Models of the electromagnetic spectrum similar to the one pictured in the background information are used extensively in textbooks and on posters, and like all other models it contains distortions. The model is extremely useful for showing the frequencies of the different bands of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), and the relationships between frequency and wavelength. However, this is an exponential model, and distorts the actual width of the different bands of radiation. Use this activity to enter into a discussion about what scientific notation is and why it is useful, as well as their reaction to how the EM spectrum fits into it versus their prior knowledge. **Step 3: Detecting the Invisible** Ask students too look at the spectrum they just built and brainstorm ways we have of detecting those other types of radiation. Give them a hint by reminding them that their eyes detect visible light. Once they’ve created their list, have them do the following demos: 1. Place UV beads in the Sun and observe the color change. a. One extension would be to paint a few with Sunscreen to show that the UV rays are being blocked. 2. Point an older remote control at a cell phone or digital camera. The infrared beam will be visible through the camera. The camera acts as a detector for that kind of radiation. a. CCD’s in digital cameras pick up the IR from the remote control as “noise” in the image. Live-It: (Assessment/application assignment) Have students answer the following questions: What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum? How do we know these types of energy exist? How do we use EM energy in our daily life? Have students make a mnemonic out of the different types of EM radiation to help them remember it in order. Extension: Have students go online and observe various objects in different wavelengths, comparing and contrasting features visible in each of them: Available at “Cool Cosmos” http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/multiwavelength_astronomy/multiwavelength_museum/ Resources: Chandra Modeling the EM Spectrum: http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/ems/ems_middleContents.html EM Spectrum Large Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg Cool Cosmos: http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/multiwavelength_astronomy/multiwavelength_museum/ Picture Cards – Studying Light: Seeing the Invisible | Buildings | Humans | Butterflies | |-----------|--------|-------------| | Needle Point | Molecules | Atoms | | Radio | Infrared | |-------|----------| | $10^3$ | $10^{-5}$ | | Buildings | Needle Point | | Visible | Ultraviolet | |---------|-------------| | $0.5 \times 10^{-6}$ | $10^{-8}$ | | Protozoans | Molecules | | X-ray $10^{-10}$ | Gamma ray $10^{-12}$ | |------------------|----------------------| | Atoms | Atomic Nuclei | | Microwave $10^{-2}$ | |---------------------| | Humans | Butterflies | | Index Card | Number | Fraction | Decimals | |------------|--------|----------|----------| | 0 | | | | | 1 | | | | | 2 | | | | | 3 | | | | | $10^1$ | | | | | $10^2$ | | | | | $10^3$ | | | | | $10^6$ | | | | | $10^9$ | | | | | $10^{12}$ | | | | | $10^{-1}$ | | | | | $10^{-2}$ | | | | | $10^{-3}$ | | | | | $10^{-4}$ | | | | | Index Card | Number | Fraction | Decimals | |------------|--------------|--------------|------------| | 0 | | | | | 1 | $10^0$ | $\frac{1}{1}$| 1.0 | | 2 | $2 \times 10^0$ | $\frac{2}{1}$| 2.0 | | 3 | $3 \times 10^0$ | $\frac{3}{1}$| 3.0 | | $10^1$ | 10 | $\frac{10}{1}$| 10.0 | | $10^2$ | 100 | $\frac{100}{1}$| 100.0 | | $10^3$ | 1000 | $\frac{1000}{1}$| 1000.0 | | $10^6$ | 1,000,000 | $\frac{1,000,000}{1}$| 1,000,000.0 | | $10^9$ | 1,000,000,000| $\frac{1,000,000,000}{1}$| 1,000,000,000.0 | | $10^{12}$ | 1,000,000,000,000,000| $\frac{1,000,000,000,000,000}{1}$| 1,000,000,000,000,000.0 | | $10^{-1}$ | $\frac{1}{10^1}$ | $\frac{1}{10}$| .1 | | $10^{-2}$ | $\frac{1}{10^2}$ | $\frac{1}{100}$| .01 | | $10^{-3}$ | $\frac{1}{10^3}$ | $\frac{1}{1000}$| .001 | | $10^{-4}$ | $\frac{1}{10^4}$ | $\frac{1}{10000}$| .0001 | NOTES: Studying Light: Spectroscopes Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: - Students will be able to explain that visible light can be split into a spectrum, and that different elements give off different spectrum when excited. Description: Students build their own spectroscopes, learn about graphing the spectra, and then identify elements in gas tubes using their spectra. The activity concludes with students looking at spectra of celestial objects. Suggested Timing: 25 – 30 minutes. National Standards Content Standard B: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of transfer of energy, 6: The Sun is a major source of energy for changes on Earth’s surface. The Sun loses energy by emitting light. A tiny fraction of that light reaches Earth, transferring energy from the Sun to Earth. The Sun's energy arrives as light with a range of wavelengths, consisting of visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation. Vocabulary: - Electromagnetic Spectrum - Radiation - Light - Visible - Emission Materials: (For class) - Spectrum light tubes and power source (Spectra for other elements should you choose to use them can be found here: http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys312/workshops/w10b/spectra/spec_rev_orientation.gif) - Helium, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Neon (One per student) - Cereal box - Scissors - Tape - Diffraction gradients (www.rainbowsymphony.com) - Worksheets Background Information: Spectroscopy is the study of light dispersed into its color components. Examining their spectra can identify individual elements. Astronomers use the same technique. Earth is four light years away from the closest star, making it impossible for us to visit. By looking at the spectra from stars or galaxies scientists can learn about their composition, temperature, speed and distance, without having to travel to them. Astronomers generally do not look through their large telescopes. Most of the time large telescopes are collecting light for a spectrograph, which spreads the light out into a rainbow. Each kind of atom or ion has certain special wavelengths which it can absorb or emit. Atoms absorbing energy will create dark lines on the spectra, while atoms emitting energy will produce bright lines on the spectra like those in the image below. These can be used to identify the atoms that make up a star. Astronomers do not actually use color film to take a color picture of the spectrum, for several reasons: - Color film is less sensitive than black and white. - Color film does a very poor job of representing the continuous range of colors in a spectrum. It takes a lot of work to make a decent printout or display of a spectrum. - While a picture may be worth a thousand words, a graph showing brightness vs. wavelength has much more quantitative information than a picture of the spectrum. Astronomers make graphs of their spectra, with the y-axis showing the brightness, while the x-axis shows the wavelength. In the figure above the graph is aligned just below the picture of the spectrum. Credit: http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/fluxplot.html, 2009 Content: Predict: (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) Ask: How can you learn about something if you are too far away to reach it? Place an object at the front of the classroom, out of reach of the students. Give them a few minutes brainstorm every way they can think of to learn about the object. After taking some suggestions from the class, conclude that the only way they can learn about it is to look at the object from afar. Ask: What is allowing us to look at the object? Discuss that the light bouncing off of the object into our eyes is how we can gain any knowledge about the properties of the object. Method: (Body of the lesson) Tell students that astronomers use light to study objects in space, and that they are going to construct a tool that will let them study light like astronomers do. Ask: Have you ever seen a rainbow? What is it? Discuss that a rainbow is visible white light broken into its color components. Tell students that light coming from unique sources can be broken up into its color components and studied. Light emitted by gas that has been excited has its own distinct spectra. Looking at the spectra can identify elements in stars, nebulae, and galaxies. Show students a sample image of a spectra and show them how to draw a simple graph to represent it. Hand out cereal box spectroscope instructions, worksheet and materials. Assist students in construction as needed. Set up and turn on Spectrum light tubes. Place each one in a large black box, or make the room as dark as possible. Label them “Mystery Gas #1, Mystery Gas #2 and so on. The gas tubes can be set up ahead of time, but beware of power cords as potential tripping hazards. Warn the students that the gas tubes can get very hot and they shouldn’t touch them. Instruct students to examine the spectra emitted from each tube through their spectroscope, and match it to the spectra in part 1 their worksheet. Try and identify the contents of each gas tube. Part 2 of their worksheets guides students in “graphing” spectra like scientists do. The Y axis is intensity while the X axis is wavelength. Students are to examine each spectra, then draw a graph in the adjacent box, creating spikes in the graph for each emission line. Live-It: (Assessment/application assignment) Have students answer the following question in two complete paragraphs: What does a rainbow have to do with outer space? (Encourage the use of diagrams) Extension: Visit: http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/hera/overview.html and download the HERA for students software. After completing the tutorial students will be able to manipulate the same data scientists work with, using the same software they developed. All data is in X-Ray taken by the Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer satellite. Resources: Analyze data with HERA for Students: http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/hera/overview.html Intro to Spectroscopy http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/camp/spectroscopy_intro.html Visible Spectra of the Elements http://www.umop.net/spctelem.htm Making your CEREALBOX SPECTROSCOPE 1. Select one end of the cereal box, and close the flaps. Place a diffraction grating on this end and outline it with the sharpie. This will be referred to as the front of your “Spectroscope”. 2. Open the flaps and cut a hole smaller than the size of your outline in the cereal box. 3. Tape the cereal box flaps closed. Arrange your diffraction grating right side up (so you can read the label), then tape it over the hole you just cut. Make sure you can look through the grating and see inside the box. 4. Rotate the box around so you are now looking at the opposite end. (This will be the back of your “Spectroscope”). Close the two flaps and draw a line down the center (top to bottom, not side to side). The line should be directly opposite the diffraction grating, and centered. 5. Cut along the mark you just made, making a very, very narrow slit in the box. 6. Close and tape the flaps on the back of your box. You’re done!! Look through the grating in your spectroscope to see the light spectrum! Studying Light: Spectroscopes Name: ___________________________ Date: _______________ Identify each of the mystery gas tubes your teacher has provided for you using your spectroscope and the spectra below. Once you have identified each gas tube, graph its spectra in the box below. Remember: “Intensity” or “Brightness” is recorded on the Y axis, and the wavelength is along the X axis. Mystery Tube # ___________ Mystery Tube # ___________ Mystery Tube # __________ Intensity 0 4,000 7,000 wavelength (Å) Mystery Tube # __________ Intensity 0 4,000 7,000 wavelength (Å) NOTES: Sounds of the Sun Grades: 5 - 8 Objectives: - Students will be able to explain the Doppler effect and the relationship between speed and direction of source, and frequency of sound waves. - Students will be able to explain how the Doppler shift can be used to gather information about objects in space including the Sun. - Students will be able to calculate the change in frequency of sound emitted by a moving object using the Doppler equations. Description: Students begin by simulating the noise made by a passing siren. After leaning that the change in pitch results from movement they investigate the definition of frequency. Students conclude by calculating the change in frequency heard when they simulated the noise of the passing siren, and learn how this applies to light and the study of astronomy. Suggested Timing: 30 – 45 minutes. National Standards Content Standard B: As a result of their activities in grades 5 – 8, all students should develop an understanding of transfer of energy, 6: The Sun is a major source of energy for changes on Earth's surface. The Sun loses energy by emitting light. A tiny fraction of that light reaches Earth, transferring energy from the Sun to Earth. The Sun's energy arrives as light with a range of wavelengths, consisting of visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation. Vocabulary: - Frequency - Wave - Source - Doppler Effect Materials: (One per group) - Doppler ball - Meter Stick - Calculators - Ramp, 4ft long. - Small balls (malted milk balls or marbles) - Concentric paper rings - Cards – red on one side, blue on the other. Background Information: The Doppler effect of sound is something that we are familiar with from our everyday experience. When something making a loud noise (e.g., a car horn, a fire truck siren or a train whistle) moves past us quickly, the sound changes because the sound waves reach us differently than if everything was sitting still. This effect happens with all types of waves, and is a very useful tool. Let’s think a bit more about why waves appear different if things are moving about. Imagine you are a lifeguard in a rowboat a bit off shore guarding all the swimmers at the beach, and that there are some waves evenly spaced apart, moving directly towards the beach. Every few seconds, your rowboat is rocked by a wave. What would happen if you started to row away from the beach, toward the incoming waves? Would the waves rock your boat more or less frequently? What if you were done working and you were rowing in toward shore? This is the essence of the Doppler effect: that waves will be more frequent if you are moving toward them or if the source of the waves is moving toward you, and they will seem less frequent if the source and the observer are moving apart. The Doppler effect was first proposed by Christian Andreas Doppler, the man it is named after. On May 25, 1842 at the Royal Bohemian Society in Prague he presented the paper “On the Colored Light of the Double Stars and Certain Other Stars of the Heavens,” where he first predicted that motion could effect the color or frequency of light. Doppler did not get all the details right, nor were the instruments of that era accurate enough to test his theory with light. However, his central idea was right and that is why over 160 years later we all recognize his name. One of the first experiments to test the Doppler effect involved having musicians play a certain note while sitting on a moving train and having another musician record what notes he heard as they approached and retreated. The diagram above illustrates how our perception of light changes depending on whether the source of the light is stationary, moving towards us, or moving away from us. On the top of the Figure we see that if the source is still, an observer will just see the light with the same wavelength and frequency as was emitted. However, in the middle and bottom of the Figure we see what happens if the source is moving. As the source moves, successive waves ahead of the source are crowded together. That is, each new wave begins a bit further forward than if the source stayed in one place. To an observer ahead of the source this behavior will make the source’s wavelength appear shorter, which means its frequency will appear higher. This change to a higher frequency/shorter wavelength is called a blueshift. However, if the observer is behind the moving source, then the opposite will happen. The successive waves will be spread out and the light will appear to have a longer wavelength and a lower frequency. This change to a lower frequency/longer wavelength is called a redshift. (Credit: Reid Sherman, University of Chicago) **Content:** **Predict:** (Engagement and assessing prior knowledge) Ask students if they have ever heard a fire truck/police/ambulance pass. What did it sound like? Encourage the class to imitate the noise, or do it yourself, making sure to emphasize a change in pitch as the vehicle would pass. A recording can also be played if the technology is accessible. Explain their task: To **reproduce** and **measure** this phenomenon to the point where their calculations can predict it. Give students buzzer balls and let them play for a bit. Direct them to make observations in their notebooks. After a few minutes discuss those observations. Ask: What did you have to do to simulate the sound? Answers will vary, questions students until they conclude that the buzzer ball had to be moving to create the desired effect. Discuss the observation that the sound got “higher” as the ball swung by, and “lower” after it passed. Tell students that the “Frequency” changed. **Method:** (Body of the lesson) Discuss definition of “frequency.” Ask students to postulate a definition. Discuss the meaning of the word. Conclude by giving the following definition: \[ \text{Frequency} = \text{wavelengths per unit time.} \] Or \[ \text{Frequency} = \text{number of peaks or troughs passing a point in a given time.} \] Have students gather around a ramp and count the “frequency” of balls dropped by a still source (the teacher’s hand), a proceeding source, and a receding source. Starting at the top of the ramp, drop several balls at regular intervals, keeping your hand in the same location. Have students make observations about the frequency of the balls hitting the bottom of the ramp. Repeat, this time moving your hand towards the bottom of the ramp. Do this once more, starting at the middle of the ramp and moving your hand up towards the top. - Question students to and lead them to observe that the balls are closer together when dropped by a source moving towards them, and farther apart when dropped by a source moving away from them. - Closer together results in a higher frequency. - Farther apart results in a lower frequency. - Tell students that with sound we measure how frequently the crest of a sound wave passes us. - Discuss the changes in sound that higher and lower frequency indicates. To solidify this with students show them concentric rings (of paper, embroidery hoops, anything round and of decreasing size,) arranged one inside the other to look like ripples in a pond. This can be done on a table or overhead projector. Place your finger in the center and explain that it is the “source” of the sound and the rings are the waves. Slowly move your finger towards the students without removing it from the table/projector. The rings will gather in the direction of movement. Question students and have them explain that this shows that a moving source has higher frequency waves preceding it, and lower frequency waves following it. Ask them what they would hear standing in front of it, and what they would hear standing behind it. Go over the equation for calculating the frequency of a moving source: **Equation:** Source moving towards you: \[ f_o = f \left( \frac{v_s}{v_s - v} \right) \] If the source is moving AWAY from you add a positive sign (+) to its value (v). **Variables:** - \( f \) = source frequency in Hertz (Hz) = 2,800 Hz - \( f_o \) = observed frequency (Hz) = ? - \( v \) = speed of source = ? - \( v_s \) = speed of sound wave = 343 m/s. Tell them they must begin by calculating the speed of the ball. If students are having trouble, remind them that velocity is distance over time, and that the distance the ball is traveling when they swing it is the circumference of a circle, or \( \pi r^2 \). Hand out meter sticks and have them do so as they swing the ball once per second. Plug in the rest of the variables into the equations and answer the questions. This is a good opportunity to show them that equations in science aren’t simply numbers and letters, but that each variable represents a physical phenomenon. Ask: What happens when it speeds up? Have them try it with their ball, then apply the calculations. What happens when it slows down? Explain that light is a wave with frequency as well. Describe how the spectrum of light can appear “shifted” in one direction or the other. Show students the image below: Explain that blue and purple are at the high frequency/high energy end of the spectrum, and red is at the low frequency end of the spectrum. Ask: If the light source is moving towards you, is it redshifted, or blueshifted? (Blueshifted) **Live-It:** (Application assignment) To explain how the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) will be using the Doppler Effect to study the Sun, hand out cards colored red on the front and blue on the back. Instruct students to stand in a circle and create a horizontal wave with their hands. When their hands move out flip the card to the blue side, when they move back in flip to the red side. Let students observe the color changes as the wave propagates around the circle. Explain the Helioseismic Magnetic Imager (HMI) instrument on SDO will be using the Doppler Effect to find waves on the Sun, then measure their velocities and track them. Studying the waves on the Sun will allow us to see what the interior is like, much like earthquakes on earth tell us about the interior of our planet. **Extension:** Students can research other technologies that use the Doppler Effect, or the Hubble Constant and the proof of an expanding universe. **Resources:** The Solar Dynamics Observatory http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/ Helioseismic Magnetic Imager on Youtube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pj29_fdfOlo&feature=player_embedded SDO | Solar Dynamics Observatory – Secondary Learning Unit SDO - Solar Dynamics Observatory Our Eye On the Sun Secondary Learning Unit EG-2010-01-032-GSFC Aleya Van Doren email@example.com (301) 286-0207 http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/epo/educators/
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Parent Involvement in Education: A Resource for Parents, Educators, and Communities Elementary School Welcome Parents School Bus July, 1994 Iowa Department of Education It is the policy of the Iowa Department of Education not to discriminate on the basis of race, religion, national origin, sex, age, or disability. The Department provides civil rights technical assistance to public school districts, nonpublic schools, area education agencies and community colleges to help them eliminate discrimination in their educational programs, activities, or employment. For assistance, contact the Bureau of School Administration and Accreditation, Iowa Department of Education. Contents Acknowledgments .......................................................... 1 Introduction ........................................................................... 1 1 The Basics of Parent Involvement Benefits of Parent Involvement for Students .................. 1 Benefits of Parent Involvement for Parents and Community ......................................................... 1 Benefits of Parent Involvement for Teachers and Schools ............................................................... 1 Assumptions Upon Which Successful Parent Involvement Programs are Built .............................. 2 Seven Elements Common to Successful Parent Involvement Programs ............................................ 2 Types of Parent Involvement in Education ..................................................................................... 3 Families as Systems ......................................................................................................................... 4 The Changing American Family ....................................................................................................... 5 Barriers to Parent and Family Involvement ...................................................................................... 6 Breaking Down Barriers: Reaching Out to all Parents ..................................................................... 6 The Concept of In-Group and Out-Group ......................................................................................... 8 References ........................................................................................................................................... 9 2 Getting Parents' Point of View Strengths of Families ....................................................................................................................... 10 Designing Programs That Fit Parents' Needs .................................................................................. 11 The Parent Involvement Survey ....................................................................................................... 11 Assessing Parents' Needs .................................................................................................................. 12 Parent Advisory Committees ............................................................................................................. 13 Cultural Diversity and Outreach ....................................................................................................... 14 Limited-English Speaking Parents ..................................................................................................... 15 Teachers Make a Difference .............................................................................................................. 16 References ........................................................................................................................................... 16 3 Two-way Communication Between Home and School Two-way Communication Versus One-way Communication ......................................................... 18 Techniques for Two-Way Communication ....................................................................................... 19 Active Listening ............................................................................................................................... 20 Positive Phone Calls ......................................................................................................................... 20 Automatic Telephone Answering or Message Machines ............................................................... 21 Home Visits ........................................................................................................................................ 22 References ........................................................................................................................................... 22 4 Involving Parents in the Social Life Of The School Motivating Parents to Participate ..................................................................................................... 24 The Culture of Schools ...................................................................................................................... 24 Parents as Visitors in the Classroom ............................................................................................... 25 Schools That Say "Welcome" in Every Language ........................................................................... 25 Social Events Bring Parents Together ............................................................................................... 26 Parents as Volunteers ....................................................................................................................... 27 | Chapter | Title | Page | |---------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | 5 | Parent Involvement in Preschool | | | | Head Start: A Legacy of Successful Parent Involvement | 30 | | | New Directions in Parent Involvement | 30 | | | The Family Support Model for Parent Involvement | 31 | | | Suggestions to Increase Parent Involvement in Preschool | 31 | | | References | 32 | | 6 | Joint Home-School Learning Activities | | | | Learning Begins and Continues at Home | 34 | | | Homework and Home Learning Activities | 36 | | | How Parents Can Help With Homework | 37 | | | Special Home-School Learning Projects | 38 | | | Homework and Home Learning Resources | 39 | | | References | 40 | | 7 | Parent Education Activities and Workshops | | | | Provide Topics for Parent Education Activities | 42 | | | Topics for Parent Education Activities | 42 | | | Use a Variety of Teaching Methods and Materials | 44 | | | Parent Workshop Speakers | 45 | | | Additional Techniques for Successful Parent Education | 46 | | | Resources for Parent Education Activities and Workshops | 46 | | | References | 47 | | 8 | Organizations Providing Parent and Family Resources | 47 | | | Appendix A: Parent Involvement Survey | | Acknowledgments Special thanks to the Iowa 74th General Assembly for the funding for this booklet. Without their concern and support this publication would not be possible. Also, thanks to Genny Countryman for her art on the cover. Introduction Why This Guide? This booklet was written to help parents, educators and communities facilitate parent and family involvement in the education of their children. Research studies on parent involvement in the last 20 years has shown conclusively that parent involvement increases student achievement and self-esteem. This has been proven to be true from preschool through high school, in large and small communities, in poor and affluent neighborhoods, in urban, rural and suburban communities. Who Should Use this Guide? Any parent, educator, or community member who is interested in knowing more about parent and family involvement in education, becoming more involved in their children's education, facilitating an existing parent involvement program, or beginning a new parent involvement program should use this booklet. What Does This Guide Contain? * A rationale and philosophy for parent involvement. * Practical strategies to facilitate two-way communication between home and school. * Suggestions on how parents can join with the school in helping their children learn at home. * Positive suggestions for involving parents and families in the social life of the school. * Strategies to address the needs of multi-cultural, minority and at-risk families. * A survey to assess the needs, strengths, and satisfaction of parents with their involvement. * Plans for parent education and workshops. * Positive suggestions for bringing parents into the school to visit, volunteer, socialize, and be involved in their children's classrooms. * Special attention to parent involvement in preschool. * Ideas for forming a parent, school or community advisory committee. * National and state resources for parent involvement in education. Chapter 1 The Basics of Parent and Family Involvement The most basic statement that can be made about parent and family involvement in education is that when it happens, everyone benefits. Research has shown us conclusively that parent involvement in education benefits students, parents, teachers and schools, whether the program is at the preschool, elementary or high school level. Benefits of Parent Involvement for Students The benefits of parent involvement for students are: * More positive attitudes toward school; * Higher achievement in reading; * Higher quality and more grade appropriate homework; * Completion of more homework on weekends; * Observing more similarities between family and school. (Epstein, 1991) Benefits of Parent Involvement for Parents and Community The benefits of parent involvement for parents and community are: * Receive ideas from school on how to help children; * Learn more about educational programs and how the school works; * Become more supportive of children; * Become more confident about ways to help children learn; * More positive views of teachers (Epstein, 1992; Henderson, 1987; Liontos, 1992). Benefits of Parent Involvement for Teachers and Schools The benefits of parent involvement for teachers and schools are: * Teacher morale improves; * Parents rate teachers higher; * Teachers rate parents as more helpful; * Student achievement improves; * Parents support schools and bond issues (Davies, 1988; Epstein, 1992; Liontos, 1992). Assumptions Upon Which Successful Parent Involvement Programs are Built Parent involvement in education is not new. Head Start brought parent involvement into the spotlight in 1965, and since then thousands of parent involvement programs have been implemented. Research on successful parent involvement programs shows us that effective parent involvement programs are built on the following assumptions (Henderson, 1987): * The primary educational environment comes from the family. * Parent involvement in a child's education is a major factor in improving school effectiveness, the quality of education, and a child's academic success. * The benefits of parent involvement are not confined to preschool, or elementary school, but extend on up through high school. * Low-income and minority children have the most to gain when schools involve parents. Seven Elements Common to Successful Parent Involvement Programs The Southwest Educational Development Laboratory looked at programs from 1986 to 1989 and attempted to identify the characteristics of "promising parent involvement programs." Here are the results (Williams and Chavkin, 1989): * **Written policies.** The programs had written policies that showed parent involvement was viewed as an important component. * **Administrative support.** Administrative support was provided in at least three ways: funds were made available in the district office budget; materials, space and equipment were available; people were designated to carry out programs. * **Training.** Promising programs made ongoing training available for staff as well as parents. * **Partnership approach.** There was joint planning, goal setting and so on. Both parents and staff developed a sense of ownership. * **Two-way communication.** Communication between home and school occurred on a regular basis. Parents felt comfortable coming to school, sharing ideas, and voicing concerns. * **Networking.** Promising programs networked with other programs to share information and resources. * **Evaluation.** Regular evaluation activities were included at key stages as well as at the conclusion of a phase or cycle. Types of Parent Involvement in Education There is not unanimous agreement upon the definition of "parent involvement in education". Different groups and organizations hold different perspectives. Historically, two traditions, each operating with a totally different set of assumptions and values have influenced the development of parent involvement. The parent education tradition reflects a child-centered, professional orientation. This tradition is based on the assumption that parents need access to knowledge in order to perform adequately as parents. The other tradition, the citizen participation approach, is based on the assumptions that adults have the right and competence to share in making decisions which affect their own lives and the lives of their children (Valentine and Stark, 1979). Today most groups acknowledge the importance of both traditions of parent involvement, and advocate several different components of parent involvement. The National PTA (1992) describes the following types of parent involvement: * Parents as the first educators in the home, * Parents as partners with the school, and * Parents as advocates for all children and youth in society. Head Start (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992) describes four primary avenues for parent participation: * Parents join in decision-making about what kind of program to have and how it will operate. * Parents are involved in the classroom as paid employees, volunteers, and observers. * Parents participate in adult and parent-oriented activities which they have planned. * Parents, as prime educators, work with their own children in learning activities at home and at school, with the support of the Head Start staff. The Arizona Department of Education distinguishes five categories of parent involvement. * Home-school communications -- involves the exchange of information between parents, teacher and the school. Good communications serve as the foundation for all other home-school partnership activities. * Parents as supporters -- represents the traditional role that parents have played such as fund-raising for the school, attending open house or school performances. * Parents as learners -- means that parents have an opportunity to increase their knowledge about the school curriculum, school policies, and other aspects of school life and parenting skills. * Parents as teachers -- reflects the crucial fact that parents are the child's first and foremost teacher. Home-learning activities represent one important strategy. * Parents as advisors, decision makers, and advocates -- means that parents share with teachers and administrators their views and influence decisions on issues that affect their children. (Chrispeels, 1987) Research indicates that there is no one best way to handle parent involvement. What seems to work best is for parents to be involved in many different roles over time. It is more important that parent involvement be well-planned, comprehensive, and long-lasting than that it take one particular form. As long as parents are the basic ingredient in the improvement strategy, students do better in school (Henderson, 1987). Families as Systems When planning parent involvement programs, it may be helpful to view families in a systems or transactional approach (Gordon, 1979). This approach recognizes that no one agency or system operates in isolation. Rather, each system affects and is affected by other systems. Gordon sees the family as a micro-system, or the smallest system, surrounded by a meso-system, which includes the neighborhood, local stores, children's schools, and recreation facilities. The meso-system is enclosed within an exo-system which includes mass media, the local work or job climate, local agencies and the school system. Surrounding all other systems is the macro-system which includes national policies in areas such as economics, social problems, and political climate. Gordon suggests that the various types of parent participation -- decision maker, classroom volunteer, adult learner, para-professional, adult educator, teacher of own child -- are of equivalent importance. Each type is necessary, and at various times family members may participate in one way or another. The Changing American Family The family structure in the United States is changing at a rate faster than ever before. A variety of new words describe today's families: traditional, blended, extended, multi-generational, migrant, minority, single-parent, divorced, dual-worker, and refugee. Those who plan parent involvement programs must be aware of the profile of the modern American family if they are to successfully involve parents in school activities. * The proportion of married women working outside the home rose from 41 percent in 1975 to 62 percent in 1988 (Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1991). * The proportion of children living in single-parent families is increasing. In 1989, 22 percent of children lived in single-parent families as compared with 11 percent in 1970. * More than one-half of African-American children lived in single-parent homes in 1989. * Twenty-eight percent of Hispanic children and 17 percent of White children lived in single parent homes (Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1991). * In 1989, 19 percent of children under age 18 lived in poverty. Of children in families with a female head of household and no husband present, 51 percent lived in poverty (Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1991). * As of 1990, about one in 11 Americans, or 9 percent, is Hispanic. At the current rate of growth, Hispanics will become the largest ethnic minority in the U.S. around the turn of the century (National Council of La Raza, 1991). * An increasing proportion of children live with their grandparents. About 13 percent of African-American children under age 18 lived in their grandparents' homes in 1989. Five percent of Hispanic children lived with their grandparents and about 3 percent of White children (Education Week, 1990). Most often it isn't lack of interest that keeps parents from becoming involved in their children's education. There may be barriers of poverty, single-parenthood, non-English literacy, and cultural and socio-economic isolation in the way. **Barriers To Parent and Family Involvement** In 1992 The National PTA sent a survey to its 27,000 local and unit presidents and 3,000 council leaders, asking them what barriers they faced when they tried to get parents involved. The chart below recaps their responses (The National PTA, 1992): | BARRIERS | PERCENT GIVING THIS RESPONSE | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------| | Parents do not have enough time | 89% | | Parents feel they have nothing to contribute | 32% | | Parents don't understand; don't know the system; they don't know how to be involved | 32% | | Lack of child care | 28% | | Parents feel intimidated | 25% | | Parents are not available during the time school functions are scheduled | 18% | | Language and cultural differences | 15% | | Lack of transportation | 11% | | Parents don't feel welcome at school | 9% | | Other barriers | 21% | **Breaking Down Barriers: Reaching Out to All Parents** Research in parent involvement has taught us that barriers to parent involvement can be overcome. Below are some of the barriers to parent involvement and some possibilities you may use to overcome them. Time. Be flexible when scheduling meetings. Try different times of the day or week to allow all parents to take part at least occasionally. Occasionally make a meeting a potluck to meet working parents' needs. Have meetings at community centers, apartment buildings and places of worship. Not valued. Personally welcome all parents, especially those who appear to be withdrawn or uncomfortable. Learn their interest and abilities. Actively seek opportunities for hesitant parents to use their experiences and talents to benefit the school. Don't know how to contribute. Conduct a talent survey, then think of ways to use the parents' many talents. Encourage parents to share information on careers, hobbies, and pets. Arrange for workshops and seminars for parent and community members on leadership and organizational skills. Not understanding the system. Write a parent's handbook covering the rules, procedures, and where to find the answers to typical problems. Child care. Find an available room in the school for child care. Hire students to baby-sit. Language barrier. Have printed materials translated -- English on one side, another language on the other. Arrange for an interpreter at meetings and conferences. Cultural differences. Be sensitive to other cultures' values, attitudes, manners and views of the school. Know the religious holidays and observances of all groups in your school. Transportation. Visit parents in their home. Hold small group meetings in a community center, at a parent's home, or another convenient place. Arrange car pools and walk pools. Arrange for transportation. Offer of only "token" participation. When people are invited to a meeting, too often it is to inform them of something, sell them on an idea, pacify them, influence or manipulate them, or to get them to donate time or money. Parent meetings should look at real issues to gain parents' ideas, and listen to and consider their solutions. Parents should be involved in the planning stages of a program, rather than after nearly everything has been decided. Not welcome. Arrange for training in parent involvement for all school staff. Make sure that parents are welcome to drop in at school during the day. Have a parent's room at school. Post welcome signs in all languages spoken at the school. Resistance on the part of formal leadership. Is there an unwillingness -- conscious or unconscious -- among some of the existing leadership to involve others in decision-making? Ensure that parents and citizens are involved in planning, policy making and implementation of programs. Parents have overwhelming problems. Provide information and advocacy to help parents secure the services they need, such as food stamps, job training skills, medical treatment, child care, etc. Low literacy. Call on the telephone. Contact your library to find literacy groups or tutors of English as a second language to do programs. Plan a family literacy program as part of your parent involvement program. Snobbery. Actively seek new participants who represent different cultural, socio-economic and religious groups in your school. Do not tolerate snobbery during parent programming. The Concept of In-group and Out-group Advocates for parent involvement need to think about the concept "in-group/out-group" (PTA, 1992). In almost every group there is an in-group -- the group that usually holds offices, is highly involved and is "accepted", and the out-group -- the group that does not get involved, or hold office. Because research has shown that children from at-risk homes, or out-group homes have the most to gain from parent involvement, a program that involves only the in-group may be excluding the very group which it could most impact. REFERENCES Davies, D. (1988). Low-income parents and the schools: A research report and a plan for action. Equity and Choice, 4, 3 (Spring): 51-57. Epstein, J.L. (1991). Effects of students achievement of teacher practices of parent involvement. In S. Silvern (ed.). Advances in reading/language research, Vol.5. Literacy through family, community and school Interaction. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Epstein, J.L. (1992). School and family partnerships. In M. Alkin (ed.). Encyclopedia of Educational Research. New York: MacMillan. Gordon, I. J. (1979). The effects of parent involvement in schooling. In R.S. Brandt (ed.) Parents and Schools. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development: Alexandria, VA. Henderson, A.T. (1987). *The evidence continues to grow: Parent involvement improve student achievement.* National Committee for Citizens in Education: Columbia, MD. Liontos, L.B. (1992). *At-risk families and schools: Becoming partners.* Eugene, Oregon: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. National Council of La Raza (1992). *State of Hispanic American 1991: An overview.* Washington, DC: Authors. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (1991). *Youth Indicators 1991: Trends in the well-being of American Youth.* Washington, DC: Authors. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (1993). *Building school-family partnerships for learning: Workshops for Urban Educators.* O.C. Moles and D. D'Angelo (eds.). Washington, DC: Authors. U.S. Census Bureau Report (1990). Marital Status and Living Arrangements: March 1989. As reported in *Education Week.* October 10, 1990, p.3. Valentine, J. and Stark, E. (1979). The social context of parent involvement in Head Start. In E. Zigler and J. Valentine (eds.), *Project Head Start.* New York: The Free Press. Williams, D.L. and Chavkin, N.F. (1989). Essential elements of strong parent involvement programs. *Educational Leadership,* October, pp. 18-20. Chapter 2 Getting Parents' Point of View In the past decade there have been major changes in the philosophy and procedures of parent involvement programs (Powell, 1989). The traditional model of parent education was based, in part, on the assumption that parents were deficient in their abilities and dependent on professionals for guidance. It has been replaced by the family support model which is based on four fundamental principles (Kagan, 1991): * The importance of the early childhood years. * An ecological, or systems approach to service delivery. * A developmental view of parents. * A universal need for family support. The two models of parent involvement share many types of parent involvement activities, for example, communication between home and school, and getting parents involved in their child's educational programs. What is different between the two, and what has changed in the past decade, is the emphasis on supporting parents in their developmental needs, starting with family strengths, and acknowledging that successful programs must be culturally responsive (Rogler, Malgady, Constantino, & Blumenthal, 1987). We no longer expect parent education methods which are successful with middle-class populations to necessarily transfer to low-income, minority or culturally different groups. The theoretical and empirical work of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979) has profoundly influenced this shift in the field of parent involvement. Strengths of Families Every family functions as a home learning environment, regardless of its structure, economic level, ethnic or cultural background. Consequently, every family has the potential to support and improve the academic achievement of its children (Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1993). All families have certain strengths which can be tapped into by schools and other groups seeking to build effective home-school partnerships. Among these are the following: * Parents have intimate knowledge of their children's needs, skills, and interests; they know their children better than anyone else does. * Parents have a keen interest in their children's schooling and want their children to be successful. * Most parents want to work with the schools for their children's benefit. * As their children's first and most important teachers, parents have opportunities to teach, to serve as role models, and guide their children as they enter society (Chavkin, 1989; Henderson, Marburger, C.L. & Ooms, 1986). **Designing Programs That Fit Parents' Needs** At the heart of the parent support model of parent involvement is understanding the parents' perspective and designing programs which meet their needs. In federally funded programs for young children, such as Head Start, and state funded At-risk Preschool Programs, meeting families' comprehensive health, nutrition, social and emotional needs are integral program goals. In conventional public school programs, the broad goal of comprehensive family support is less common. However the philosophy of providing programs based on parents' needs is becoming accepted. The obvious way to design a parent involvement program which meets parents needs, is to ask parents what they need and want in a parent involvement program. The parent involvement survey is one means of accomplishing this. **The Parent Involvement Survey** The parent involvement survey is a written form which asks parents to answer questions like: * What specifically would you like to know about the school? * From what sources do you get most of your information about the school? * Would you be interested in participating in a small group coffee discussion hour at the school? * Check the kinds of resources and services you would like to see made available at the school: homework hotline, parent resource center, after-school child care, parent support group, family use of gym, pool or school library. The advantages of the parent involvement survey are: * You can reach a large number of parents at minimal expense. * Parents who might not come to a meeting or discussion group might respond to the written form. * It gives everyone an opportunity to respond. Parent involvement surveys vary in length from one page, to many. A school or group may need to create their own individualized survey, written and printed in each of the native languages of the community. A sample Parent Survey is included in Appendix A. Three sources for ready-to-use parent involvement surveys are: A Leader's Guide to Parent Involvement. Published by the National PTA 700 North Rush Street Chicago, IL 60611-2571 (312) 787-0977 This booklet contains a one-page parent involvement survey to be used with PTA groups. School and Family Partnerships: Survey and Summaries Published by Johns Hopkins University Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Children's Learning 3505 North Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21218 (410) 516-0370 This packet contains surveys for parents and teachers. The seven-page parent survey gives parents a chance to write-in their own concerns and opinions. Taking Stock/for Families Published by the National Committee for Citizens in Education 900 Second Street NE, Suite 8 Washington, D.C. 2002-3557 (202) 547-9286 This seven-page survey for parents is a good evaluation tool for existing programs, but does not allow parents to write in their own concerns and needs. Assessing Parents' Needs Assessing needs begins with understanding the vast range of human needs and understanding parents -- their problems, as well as their expectations. A prominent psychologist, A.N. Maslow, has devised a system or hierarchy of human needs. According to Maslow, people's most basic needs are physiological -- food, sleep and water. Those basic needs must be met before a person moves on to achieve the next level of needs (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992). Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs Using this model we understand that parents who are worrying about where their next meal will come from, and keeping the electricity turned on, will probably not be good candidates for attending the Wednesday Morning Parent Volunteer Tea. They are using their energies to meet more pressing needs. Parent Advisory Committees Head Start and the state-funded At-risk Preschool Programs require that parents be represented on a Parent Advisory Committee. The purpose of the Parent Advisory Committee is for parents to work with center staff to make decisions for the center, to advise, counsel and consult on policy and planning for the center, including parent involvement in the program. The Parent Advisory Committee may have a slightly different name in different programs, however the primary mission of such a committee remains constant -- to give parents access and input into decision making. These groups provide an excellent forum for assessing parents' needs. Following are some "trigger devices" for beginning a needs assessment session: * On a chart, list needs that parents have expressed in the past. * Distribute a brief needs assessment questionnaire and discuss it together at the same meeting. * Brainstorm a list of needs parents might have -- accept and record all ideas. Discuss only when all ideas have been shared (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992). When forming the Parent Advisory Committee it is important to recruit members who represent the various sub-groups within your program. For example, recruit some single-parents, some minority parents, some dual-working parents, some fathers, and some linguistically and culturally different parents. If the Parent Advisory Committee represents only the "in group," or the majority, it cannot accurately reflect the needs and wants of all the parents. In public schools, parents should be encouraged to serve on local and district advisory boards. These groups are often in charge of developing school policies, choosing curriculum and textbooks and planning for parent involvement. Many schools have established school site advisory councils to help parents play the role of advisor, decision maker, and advocate. Training needs to be provided for parents willing to undertake these advisory and advocacy roles (Chrispeels, 1987). Cultural Diversity and Outreach It is estimated that by the year 2000 more than 50 percent of the children in our nation's schools will come from minority populations. Unfortunately, families are often grouped along racial and ethnic lines. Communities may also divide along lines of income, age, religion, cultural background, gender, marital status or language (National PTA, 1992). In the 1990's, the largest number of immigrants to the United States will be from Asia and Latin America. Parents from these cultures, as well as others, may expect the school to do its job without a great deal of dialogue. They may feel out of place and disrespectful if asked to offer suggestions to teachers. Children may miss school visits because their families are involved in visits to social agencies, trips to medical clinics or other activities. Here are some suggestions for improving parent involvement among culturally diverse families. * Choose a bilingual person to be responsible for outreach. * Look at the ethnic and racial composition of your students. Identify groups not represented in parent involvement and target them for involvement. * Find out how your parent involvement program is viewed by a diverse sampling of parents -- including those who do not return surveys or participate in school events. * Build trust between parents of all children and teachers through focus groups, and small group discussions. * Be aware that applications for free and reduced price school lunches written in Spanish, French, Chinese, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Urdu, and Hmong are available from the Department of Public Instruction. * Get to know opinion leaders in the community, how they make decisions, and how they communicate. Tap into this network. * Set up a telephone tree. Parents and volunteers call other parents. Initial contact should come from a person of the same language and ethnicity. * Talk openly about divisions in your school community. Acknowledging differences can be the first step toward better relations. * Identify the strengths of different groups within your community. Focus on aspects of each group's culture or beliefs that can enrich your parent involvement program. * Develop goals, objectives and an action plan for increasing participation by culturally diverse parents (National PTA, 1992). **Limited-English Speaking Parents** Communication with limited-English speaking parents can be improved by: * holding meetings or conferences rather than communicating in writing, or over the phone. * having a translator available for limited-English speaking parents. * sending information home written in the native language of the parents. * having parents volunteer in the classroom. * putting progress reports in the parent's native language. * communicating with the parents if their child has a problem. * trying to solve problems, rather than ignoring them. * having someone to answer the school telephone who speaks the language of the limited-English speaking parents. * administrators recognizing parents visiting the school and making them feel welcome (Arizona, 1989). Limited-English speaking parents can be aided in helping their children learn by: * having books and other materials available which the parents can borrow. * letting parents know what is being taught and the methods the teacher uses. * having workshops for parents on how they can help their children learn. * beginning a family literacy program for parents and children to learn at home together. * sending home explanations and forms to help the children do homework (Arizona, 1989). Teachers Make a Difference Research on teacher's practices to promote parent involvement indicates that when teachers take clear, deliberate actions to involve parents, then the socioeconomic status and education level of parents disappear as factors in the willingness of parents to be involved. However, when teachers don't actively work to involve parents, then those factors become important indicators for the level of parental involvement. Typically, mainstream parents of higher social class and level of education are more involved in their children's education (Epstein, 1986). References Arizona Department of Education (1989). *Parent participation for effective school. Parent-teacher communication. A handbook for teachers and parents.* Phoenix, AR: Author. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). *The ecology of human development.* Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chavkin, N.F. (1989). Debunking the myth about minority parents. *Educational Horizons,* (Summer): 119-123. Chrispeels, J.A. (1987). The family as an educational resource. *Community Education Journal,* April, 10-17. Epstein, J. (1986). Parents' reactions to teacher practices of parent involvement. *The Elementary School Journal,* Vol. 86 (3), 287-294. Henderson, A.T., Marburger, C.L. & Ooms, T. (1986). *Beyond the bakesale: An educator's guide to working with parents.* Columbia, MD.: The National Committee for Citizens in Education. Kagan, S.L. (1991). American's family support movement. *Family Resource Coalition Report,* 10, (1) 17-19. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (1993). *Building school-family partnerships for learning: Workshops for urban educators.* O.C. Moles and D. D'Angelo (eds). Washington, DC: Author. Powell, D.R. (1989). *Families and early childhood programs.* Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Rogler, L.H., Malgady, R.G., Costantino, G., & Blumenthal, R. (1987). What do culturally sensitive mental health services mean? The case of Hispanics. *American Psychologist, 42*, 565-570. The National PTA (1992). *A leader's guide to parent and family involvement*. Chicago, IL: Author. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1992). *A handbook for involving parents in Head Start*. Washington, DC: Author. Chapter 3 Two-way Communication Between Home and School The foundation for all other forms of parent and family involvement in education is communication between the home and school. Good two-way communication between families and schools is essential to student success in school. Without good communication it is unlikely that other facets of parent involvement will be successful, as well (Chrispeels, 1987). Although research shows that parents with less than a high school education and very low incomes were the most likely to have low levels of contact with teachers and schools (Moles, 1993), these same parents indicate a strong interest in their children's education. Parents of young children at-risk appear anxious to cooperate with teachers despite all the stresses in their environment and their difficulties in doing so (Countryman, 1994). Although parents and teachers may share a common goal of children being successful in school, there may be differences in socio-economic status, values and attitudes that make communication difficult. Educators realize the importance of communicating with families, yet they often feel frustrated in their efforts. Some reasons are: * lack of communication skills, * a natural tension between teachers and parents, * differences in perspectives. (Chrispeels, 1987) Two-way Communication Versus One-way Communication Two-way communication implies that the two parties in communication have a two-way flow of ideas and information. As one party talks or writes, the other party listens or reads, and then has a chance to respond and initiate. When communication exists without the opportunity for the second party to respond or initiate, it is one-way communication. The traditional parent newsletter is an example of one-way communication. The school and teachers write to the parents and the parents read, but there is no provision for them to either respond or initiate communication. A parent-teacher conference, on the other hand, is an example of two-way communication. Some schools think they are communicating effectively with parents because they engage in a lot of one-way communication with parents in the form of newsletters, papers, notes and messages sent home with the children. These educators have ignored the fact that parents may not consider the one-way flow of paper from school to home to be communication because they have not had an opportunity to express their own ideas and opinions. **Techniques for Two-Way Communication** Effective parent involvement programs use a variety of forms of two-way communication to reach parents. Some are face-to-face, others rely on written communication and responses, still others rely on the telephone or other technical devices. Notice that all these forms are interactive, or two-way communication, which allows parents to both respond to and initiate communication with the school. *Letters requesting a response.* Send letters, notes, post cards, memos, half-and-half letters, which ask parents to respond. These might be games, questionnaires or a simple survey which a parent completes with his or her child. *Folders.* Send school work home once a week in a folder with a place provided for parent comments. Require a parent/guardian signature. *Newsletter with surveys.* In addition to the regular newsletter reporting school activities, include a mini-survey about discipline, homework, conferences, other related information, and publish the results in the next newsletter. *Conferences.* Ask parents to identify two or three concerns before coming to the parent-teacher conference. Use active listening skills at the conference and develop a plan of action together with parents. *Tape recorders.* Send small tape recorders home to families whose first language is not English (who speak but do not write English). The children can bring messages back to the school. *Telephone surveys.* Conduct periodic random telephone surveys of parents asking them how well the school is communicating and how well their children are learning. *Meet Informally.* Once a month randomly select a small group of parents to meet informally with the principal, director or a teacher. Listen to their views and concerns. Discussions can be open-ended or focused on a specific topic. Classes for parents. Organize classes for parents in which they learn about child development, mental health issues, job search skills, job placement, study skills and student motivation. These classes can be provided through cooperation with county extension services, mental health agencies, human service agencies, and schools. Home Visits. Home visits are a unique opportunity for two-way communication between home and school. The teacher and family members can get to know each other in a setting which is comfortable for the family. Home visits may be the only way of communicating with hard-to-reach parents who are reluctant to come to school meetings, who do not have a telephone, or who cannot read written material sent from the school. Active Listening The way in which parents and teachers communicate during conferences, home visits, phone calls and brief conversations can be more important than what is said. Body language, voice quality, and silences can convey meaning as well as words. Those working to facilitate parent involvement should be aware of these active listening techniques. * Notice especially the attitudes and feeling involved in the message. * Tell the person as exactly as you can what you heard him or her say in terms of the feeling and attitudes you heard expressed. * Try to use words different from the sender's without changing his/her meaning. * Do not subtract from the sender's message, but deal with the feelings you hear instead of staying with the facts. * Do not respond with a message of your own, such as evaluating, sympathizing, giving your own opinion, using logic or persuasion, analyzing, advising, ordering or questioning. * Start your response in the following ways: "You feel that..." "Sounds like you feel..." "What I hear you saying is..." (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992) Some benefits of being an active listener are: * It shows that the listener is interested and cares for the speaker. * It proves that the speaker has been heard and understood. * It offers the speaker a chance to express feelings and ventilate. * It communicates acceptance. * It fosters the speaker's moving from the superficial to deeper feeling and fosters insights. * It fosters the speaker's growth as his own problem-solver. * It establishes a warm and honest relationship. (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992) Positive Phone Calls The telephone has tremendous potential as a low-cost means of direct, two-way communication between home and school. Unfortunately, in the past most telephone calls from school brought bad news: a child was late, had incomplete homework, or had behavior problems. Imagine how you would feel as a parent if your son's or daughter's teacher called you to tell you how well he or she was doing in school. Personalized positive telephone contact between teachers and parents enhances home-school communications. Here are some suggestions for developing a positive phone program (Wisconsin State Department of Education, 1989; Office of Educational Research and Improvement; 1993). * Provide adequate access to telephones. Teachers need a private and comfortable place from which to make their calls. Schools may need to install extra phone lines in teacher workrooms. * Make time available to teachers to make the calls. Designate certain months of the year for making positive telephone calls, or encourage one call per week. * With teachers, develop a set of guidelines for making telephone calls. * Provide translation services for parents, if needed. * Keep a reporting system. Maintain a log book so that the school has a record of positive phone calls and can help measure the effectiveness of the program. * If possible, advertise one evening a week when parents or students can call to ask questions or discuss problems with a teacher or staff member. Automatic Telephone Answering or Message Machines A number of schools are using automatic telephone answering or message machines to provide information to parents on a call-in basis. Information on topics such as school policies, optional programs, parenting skills, adult education, school calendar/events, ways to help children succeed in school, and drug and alcohol prevention can be provided. Although it is not a form of direct, two-way communication, the advantages of the automated system are: * that they are relatively inexpensive to operate; * the messages can be recorded in the languages spoken by the parent community; * the caller can remain anonymous. For maximum effectiveness, callers need to be given numbers where they can get additional help (Chrispeels, Boruta, Daugherty, 1988). **Home Visits** The home visit is a unique form of home-school communication, because unlike most other forms of home-school communication, it takes place in the home rather than the school. Home visits can serve a variety of goals. They can be used to: * introduce parents and teachers to each other, * welcome new families to the school district, * demonstrate home learning activities to the parents, * report on student progress in school, * solve specific problems, * reach parents who are impossible to reach otherwise, * survey parents for their views on school policies and programs. (Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1993) Home visits can be mutually beneficial for students, parents, teachers and schools. The student can have the opportunity of welcoming his or her teacher into the home, and showing the teacher new aspects of him or herself. The parents can communicate from the security and comfort of their home, and have the opportunity to ask questions of a professional educator. The teacher can gain insight into the child's home learning environment and can enlist the parents' cooperation in the child's educational progress. The school can signify its willingness to "go more than halfway" to involve parents in their children's education. Home visits can be conducted by teachers, community aides, or trained volunteers. At all times the home visitor should be sensitive to cultural differences and always set a tone for mutual respect. If parents refuse a home visit, their rights should be respected. A familiar third party, such as a friend of the family, a neighbor, or a respected clergyman may be a helpful accompaniment for reluctant parents. Home visits may also be held in housing project meeting rooms, church recreation halls, or community meeting rooms (Chrispeels, Boruta and Daugherty, 1988). **References** Chrispeels, J.A. (1987). The family as an educational resource. *Community Education Journal*. April, 10-17. Chrispeels, J.A., Boruta, M. and Daugherty, M. (1988). *Communicating with parents.* San Diego, California; San Diego Country Office of Education. Countryman, G. (1994). *A qualitative study of parent involvement in an at-risk preschool program.* Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Iowa City, IA: The University of Iowa. Moles, O.C. (1993). Collaboration between schools and disadvantaged parents: Obstacles and openings. N. Chavkin (ed.) *Families and schools in a pluralistic society.* Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (1993). *Building school-family partnerships for learning: Workshops for urban educators.* O.C. Moles and Diane D'Angelo (eds.). Washington, DC: Author. Chapter 4 Involving Parents in the Life of the School The traditional role for parents in the schools is to come three of four times a year; once to open house or back-to-school night and two or three times a year to parent-teacher conferences. A middle-class "involved" parent might come more often, acting as a room parent, attending PTA meetings, or volunteering in the school. Successful parent involvement programs are those that extend these traditional roles for parents at school, and encourage all parents, not just white middle-class mothers, to become involved in many different aspects of school life. Motivating Parents to Participate The secret to getting parents to participate in school events isn't convincing them to do something they don't want to do, it's providing them with something they do want to do. Each individual has a different "hot button" that will motivate him or her to participate. When discussing parent involvement we tend to spend time looking for ways to motivate communities, rather than concentrating on the motivation of individuals. In fact, parent involvement is an individual, developmental process (Arizona Department of Education, 1989b). Consider the following ideas: * Parent participation is best developed on a one-to-one, face-to-face basis. Studies show that most people get involved in voluntary action because some friend or neighbor personally asked them to. * Develop a telephone network. Ask volunteers to call a small group of parents within one classroom, neighborhood or ethnic group to encourage participation in school events. * Appeal to the individual's basic needs and interests. Individuals will participate in different issues, activities and groups only to the extent that their personal needs and interests are appealed to and met. * Encouragement, accomplishment, and recognition are essential to maintaining active involvement. The Culture of Schools Schools develop pervasive cultures which include shared attitudes and beliefs about the families of the children who attend. These beliefs shape the school's patterns of interaction with families. The patterns of interaction may create an open, positive and warm environment, or a closed and defensive one where parents know they are not really welcome (Office of Educational Research and Information, 1993). This pattern may vary within the school for different groups of parents, especially if students come from diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. If parents are not welcomed into the school, and made an integral part of the learning process, culturally diverse children may find it difficult to integrate the separate experiences of home and school. According to Yale psychiatrist James Comer, who has designed successful programs to transform schools through parent involvement, children learn from people to whom they bond. If the attitudes, behavior and expectations of the school staff are substantially different from those at home, children often become completely alienated from school by the time they are eight years old (Henderson, 1990). Parents should have at least one opportunity a month to get acquainted with the school. Social events such as a spaghetti dinner, an evening awards assembly, a week-end family picnic, or an all-day open house should be planned every month. **Parents as Visitors in the Classroom** For parents to share in the life of the school they must be welcome in the school building at all times. This means they have blanket permission to have lunch with their children, visit their children's classrooms, use the library, or talk to the principal, guidance counselors, and teachers (Henderson, 1990). If schools want families to be more actively engaged with their children's learning both at school and at home, they should first examine the school's culture and make sure parents are truly welcome. This should include examining the attitudes and actions of all school personnel, including custodians, gardeners, secretaries, classroom assistants, cafeteria workers, bus drivers, administrators and teachers. **Schools That Say "Welcome" in Every Language** What follows is a check-list to evaluate your school's relationship with parents (Wisconsin Department of Education, 1989). Does your school say "Welcome" in every language? * Office staff greets visitors in a friendly, courteous way. * Teachers, staff and students answer the telephone in a friendly, professional way. * A welcome sign (in all the languages of your community) and school map are displayed near the entrance. * There is an area where visitors can easily find information about the school and curriculum. * An orientation program is provided for new families in the district. * There is a suggestion box where teachers, students, and parents can contribute ideas. * Parents are welcome at all times in the school building, and to visit classrooms. * The building is used frequently by the community for planned events. * Alternative communication methods are used with parents speaking limited English in order for them to understand the curriculum and participate in activities. * Information about school rules, parent-teacher conference, school and classroom policy, and bus and lunch schedules is available to parents/guardians. * Students are encouraged and praised by staff. * A resource center for parents and teachers is available. It is furnished with comfortable furniture and provides parenting information. * There is a bulletin board on which parents can post news and announcements. * A computer or other source is available for parents to gain access to information about events and curriculum. * Local businesses and associations offer information and enrichment projects to students. * Principal and staff are willing to listen to parent/guardian concerns about incorrect student placement and are willing to make adjustments when necessary. * Whenever possible, staff is willing to honor parental requests and class assignments. **Social Events Bring Parents Together** If there is little parent involvement at your school, start with social events to bring parents together. For example, host a parent-faculty-student talent show, a community theater performance, and a parent-child athletic event, such as a one-mile race, donkey ball game, or basketball game. Other suggestions for involving parents in the social life of the school include (Arizona Department of Education, 1989b): * Invite parents who are new to the district on a tour of the schools. * Plan an evening movie (film or video) night for teenage students, parents and teachers. Hold a discussion of the movie afterwards. * Plan a pizza potluck for parents at each grade level. Each family brings a pizza; the school furnishes beverages, plates and napkins. * Attract parents to school events by putting their children on the programs. Children can introduce speakers, perform, serve as ushers, be greeters or have many other duties. * Initiate rap sessions on topics like communicating with your teenagers, discipline, peer pressure, study habits, careers, or drug and alcohol abuse for junior high students and their parents. * Plan school and community summer activities workshops and enrichment programs. * Host an ice cream social where each family brings either ice cream, a topping, or cookies. * Announce informal, regularly scheduled coffee times and encourage parents to drop in when they can. * Organize a toddler fair -- an afternoon of entertainment, education and fun for parents and their preschool children. * Invite parents to visit classrooms whenever they wish and send special invitations for in-class plays, poetry readings, puppet shows, songfest, etc. * Have children prepare a luncheon for parents, teachers and themselves. Send handwritten invitations. * Invite each parent to have lunch with their child at school during American Education Week. * Hold a "Grandparent's Day" to honor grandparents with a special ceremony at school. Use the secret that gets parents to attend events at school: pick up the phone and call them. Many parents do not automatically feel welcome at school. If you make a personal effort to invite parents, more will come (The National PTA, 1992). Take parents' pictures at group functions. If you announce in advance that photos will be taken of parents with their children, you should prepare for a crowd. **Parents as Volunteers** The tired cliché in parent involvement is the PTA bake sale. There's nothing wrong with a bake sale, per say. The problem arises when a bake sale is the only way parents are encouraged to volunteer their time and talents at school. With a little time and imagination, schools and parents can find hundreds of productive ways for parents to volunteer. Here are some examples: * help with instructional activities for students, such as bike rodeos, book and video swaps, theater workshops, or art shows. * speak to their child's class about their career, a hobby, a pet, or a special interest. * share about their holiday celebrations, foods, songs, dances, costumes, games, art and stories. * be classroom aides. * write, lay out, or type a newsletter. * act as an interpreter for non-English speaking parents. * participate on the committee to write the parent involvement plan. * plan and conduct parent meetings. * organize food, baby-sitting, and other kinds of co-ops and buying clubs. * recruit other parents to participate in school events. * plan and put on a cultural fair and food day. * call parents to inform them of meetings and school events. * plan and chaperone field trips. * join a parent advisory group. * be tutors. * be reading buddies for individual students. * serve on curriculum development and textbook adoption committees. * assist in the lunch room, library, or school office. * plan parties to celebrate special days in the life of the school. * assist in special clinics, such as vision screening. * become a parent volunteer coordinator. The School as a Resource Center Arrange for school facilities such as the gym, swimming pool or classrooms to be open for family and community use after school hours. The school should also serve as a primary referral point for needed social services. Schedule a community resource fair as part of your parent education program. Establish a parent resource center where parents can socialize and find useful information. Use a spare room or a corner of the school library. Display parenting information and resources suited to the age-level of the children. For example, at the high school level, include information on career choices and colleges. A local business may donate a computer for parents' use. Be sure to include a bulletin board for parents to display news and information items. References Arizona Department of Education (1989b). Parent participation for effective schools. Planning for parent involvement. *A handbook for administrators, teachers and parents.* Phoenix, AR.: Author. Henderson, A. (1990). *Parent involvement in school restructuring.* Policy Briefs, Number 9. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Office of Educational Research and Information (1993). *Building school-family partnerships for learning: Workshops for Urban Educators.* O.C. Moles and D. D'Angelo (eds). Washington, D.C.: Author. The National PTA (1992). *A leader's guide to parent and family involvement.* Chicago, IL.: Author. Wisconsin Department of Education (1991). *Families and education: An educator's resource for family involvement.* Madison, WI.: Author. Chapter 5 Parent Involvement in Preschool The launching of Project Head Start in 1965 thrust parent involvement in early childhood programs into the spotlight. Although Head Start's primary goal was to prepare economically disadvantaged children for school, the comprehensive program was designed to involve members of low-income families in the planning of their children's education and to help families and children cope with physical, social, emotional problems and other special needs (Scarr and Weinberg, 1986). After Head Start's controversial success, the term parent involvement became an integral part of the professional vocabulary to describe various types of programs for young children, and in particular, for young children at-risk from poverty (Knitzer, 1972). Head Start: A Legacy of Successful Parent Involvement Several landmark reviews of Head Start focused on the benefits of involving parents in early intervention programs, and concluded unanimously that early intervention programs were more effective when parent were involved (Bronfenbrenner, 1974; Karnes and Lee, 1978; Florin and Dokecki, 1983). The Head Start philosophy was that of strengthening family life, and consequently, society as a whole (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992). So rather than evolve as a child-centered intervention or solely an educational program, Head Start emerged as a comprehensive, family-centered intervention. New Directions in Parent Involvement Three years after Head Start began, staff noticed that children were coming into the program with irreversible deficits. Intervention had to begin earlier, consequently 34 Parent and Child Centers were established throughout the country. These centers recognized the total family as a child-rearing systems. Their goal was to reach and strengthen the total family -- infants, toddlers, preschoolers, school-age children, adults -- through various, flexible intervention strategies. These included home-based programs for infants and toddlers, centers for preschoolers, day care for children of working parents, services for pregnant teenagers, child and family advocacy programs, and parent education programs. In 1972, the federally funded *Home Start Program* offered a different model for parent involvement. Using paraprofessional home visitors to help parents increase their parenting skills, Home Start began to answer some of the questions about how adults learn, how parents teach their children, and how programs can most effectively support parents. **The Family Support Model for Parent Involvement** There is widespread understanding today of the need to provide programs that support families with young children (Powell, 1990). This is due, in part, to the grim statistic that about 25% of all young children are born and spend some portion of their formative years in poverty (Children's Defense Fund, 1992). Concurrent with the urgent need to support families with young children is a shift in perspective from a child-centered approach to development to a family centered or ecological approach, which emphasizes the importance of the interrelationships between the child, the family and the social support available for them (Weiss, 1987). Family support programs can be defined as those programs which provide services to families, working from the strengths of the families in order to empower and strengthen adults in their roles as parents, nurturers and providers. When preschools are housed in public schools and administered by public school districts, the family-center model of parent involvement in the preschool may find itself in contrast to the more traditional parent involvement in the elementary grades. Parent activity mornings, when preschool parents bring younger siblings to school to share a finger-food potluck, or make bird feeders may take some traditional elementary teachers by surprise. Home visits days, when teachers make regular visits to the home of their preschoolers, may also seem unusual. While many of the suggestions and techniques for successful parent involvement at the elementary, middle school and high school level also apply in preschool, the focus on family-centered intervention and attention to support for the family are equally important. Effective early childhood programs should also join with other family service providers to offer a network of support services to families. **Suggestions to Increase Parent Involvement in Preschool** Increasing parent involvement in the education of their young children is one of the missions of the At-risk Preschool Programs for three- and four-year-olds, funded by the Iowa Child Development Coordinating Council. These programs have found the following techniques successful for increasing parent involvement: * holding meetings at different times -- some in the day, some during the evening, some on Saturdays -- to accommodate the schedules of working parents, * offer a wide variety of opportunities for parents to participate -- help in the classroom, making materials for the classroom, others include baby-sitting during Advisory Board Meetings, * Parents-as-Partners Homework -- a creative project that is fun for both adults and children is sent home for parents and children to do together over the weekend, * offer incentives for attendance, such as door prizes at parenting classes, quality sport shirts for accomplishing goals, and free donated clothing and food items as available, * ask parents to develop participation goals for themselves at the beginning of the year, * use a chart to track parental involvement and participation, * ask parents to return slips stating if they will or will not attend, if they need transportation and childcare. Then follow up. * design a volunteer calendar each month with each parent assigned one or two days to participate. They may volunteer in the classroom, or make materials, bake treats, accompany on a fieldtrip, or provide classroom maintenance, * ask parent to set up and maintain a supply of recyclable materials for the art and literacy centers, * establish a parent check-out library with books, videos, cassettes, brochures, and magazines as educational sources, * list volunteers in the weekly newsletter, along with ideas, suggestions and classroom activities, * send notes to parents without phones to remind them of special events; remind parents of events verbally when they pick up their children at preschool, * send daily "newsletters" which includes information about menus, each child's eating and napping activities, including a "Please Note" section where parents are reminded of things that they need to know. This is also the area where a thank you is given to parents for helping, sending treats, etc. References Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). *Is early intervention effective? A report on longitudinal evaluations of preschool programs.* (Vol. 2), Washington, DC: Department of Health Education and Welfare, Office of Child Development. Children's Defense Fund (1992). *The state of America's children: 1992*. Washington, DC: Authors. Florin, P.R. & Dokecki, P.R. (1983). Changing families through parent and family education: Review and analysis. In I. Sigel and L.L. Laosa (eds.), *Changing families* (pp. 23-61). New York: Plenum. Karnes, M.B. & Lee, R.C. (1978). *Early Childhood: What research and experience says to the teacher of exceptional children*. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Knitzer J. (1972). Parent involvement: The elixir of change. In D. McFadden (ed.), *Early childhood development programs and services: Planning for action*. A Battelle Monograph, Number 2, December, 1972. Powell, D.R. (1990). The responsiveness of early childhood initiatives to families: Strategies and limitations. In *Families in community settings: Interdisciplinary perspectives*. The Haworth Press. Scarr, S. and Weinberg, R.A. (1986). The early childhood enterprise: Care and education of the young. *American Psychologist*, 41, (10) 1140-1146. Weiss, H.B. (1988). Family support and education programs: Working through ecological theories of human development. In H.B. Weiss, and F.H. Jacobs (Eds.) *Evaluating Family Programs*. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Chapter 6 Joint Home-School Learning Activities Parents are their children's first teachers. From infancy through young adulthood, children depend on their parents to provide what they need physically, emotionally and socially to learn and grow. Throughout childhood, parents set the stage for learning in everyday activities at home. Young children learn through exploring, acting on their environment, and imitating what they see and hear. Crawling, walking, and talking, for example, are all skills children learn on their own at home with the practical guidance of their parents. When children begin their formal learning at school, parents continue to play an important role. Learning Begins and Continues at Home Parents help structure the home learning environment, or the context in which home learning activities take place. Research has shown a number of characteristics of home learning environments that are helpful in promoting success for children in school. Establishing a daily family routine (Clark, 1988). Children need regularity and consistency in their lives. Parents can: * Provide time, space, quiet and materials for a child's studying, reading and hobbies. * Assign chores and household tasks. * Encourage good health habits -- rest, activity, regular meals, health care as needed. * Eat meals together. * Be firm about a regular bedtime. * Help children, especially teens, manage their time. Make a chart showing when chores need to be done and when homework assignments are due. Monitoring out-of-school activities (Clark, 1990). Once children are in school, they still spend 70 percent of their waking hours outside the school setting. This time represents a tremendous learning opportunity which schools and families need to recognize and develop for the student's advantage. Parents can: * Guide the use of leisure time, so that it is spent in constructive out-of-school activities. * Set clear rules and standards about appropriate activities. * Set limits on television use. * Call on other family members or neighbors to check up on children while parents are not at home. Modeling the value of learning and hard work (Mayeske, 1973). Students who value education and understand the connection between success and hard work tend to do better in school. Parents can: * Set an example by reading, writing and engaging in other learning activities at home. * Use family leisure time productively. Playing games that demonstrate planning ahead and problem solving. * Establish a family communication style that values learning by inviting questioning, discussion, and explanation. * Demonstrate that hard work is necessary to achievement by involving children in household projects. * Use reference materials at home or in the library to answer questions. * Volunteer to help at school on a regular basis. Expressing high but realistic expectations for achievement (Scott-Jones, 1984). Parents' expectations for achievement definitely have an influence on the child. Parents who make it clear from an early age that their children should plan on higher education tend to have children who go on to college. Parents can: * Set goals and standards for a child's conduct that are appropriate for their age and level of maturity. * Urge your child to work hard in school. * Encourage effort for long-term gains versus short-term benefits. * Recognize and encourage a child's special talents. * Communicate parents' high expectations for a student's achievement to teachers and ask for suggestions on how to reinforce that message. * Let family members, friends and neighbors know when a child is successful in school. Encouraging a child's overall development and progress in school (Clark, 1990). Children should be treated as winners. Parents who provide frequent verbal support, praising children's skills and efforts, telling them they are loved and cared about tend to have children with higher self-esteem who do better in school. Parents can: * Cultivate a warm and supporting home atmosphere. * Reward success and apply sanctions appropriately and consistently. * Show interest in what children are learning in school. * Express affection and approval. * Discuss regularly the value of a good education. * Post children's work on the wall or refrigerator and send children's poems, artwork and stories to other family members and friends. * Ask teachers for home learning activities and homework. Reading, writing and discussions among family members (Epstein, 1991). A wealth of studies show that home learning activities such as reading aloud, and frequent open family discussions are associated with improved student achievement. Parents can: * Read to children at a regular time. Listen to children read. * Discuss the school day, family members' lives and current events. * Tell stories, recall experiences and share problem-solving strategies. * Write letters, messages, grocery lists and diaries. * Use everyday experiences to teach. * Watch a favorite TV program or video together and discuss it afterwards. Use community resources (Clark, 1990). Children need direct and continuing access to people with whom they can develop healthy, helping relationships. As children increasingly plan and develop their own leisure time, parents need to steer them to other adults who can provide guidance, skills and mentoring. Parents can: * Take children to libraries, museums, movies and organized sports. * Enroll children in youth enrichment programs, such as sports, art, or music programs. * Introduce children to responsible mentors such as coaches, counselors, and friends. * Stay in touch with children's teachers and other school staff. * Use community services for family needs, such as medical and mental health facilities. * Participate in religious services and youth groups. Homework and Home Learning Activities One important way parents are involved in their children's school and learning is through homework and home learning activities. When parents' time for school involvement is limited, home learning has been shown to be one of the most efficient ways for parents to spend their time (Walbert, 1985). Research has shown that homework given in the elementary grades is an important means of extending children's learning time and building positive study habits which benefit students throughout their academic careers (Cooper, 1989). Research has also shown that most parents, regardless of their income or family situation, can and do help their children with schoolwork at home (Epstein, 1984). Surveys of parents show that most families want to help guide their children through school, but they say they need more information from the schools about how to help their children at home. **How Parents Can Help With Homework** Parents encourage good study habits by establishing homework routines early. Here are some suggestions to help children be successful with homework. * Agree together on a regular time and place for homework. * Turn off the TV when it is family homework time. * Make sure your child understands the assignment. * Ask to see your child's homework folder or assignment calendar each day. Talk about what your child is learning in school. * Make suggestions in a positive way such as, "The teacher will understand your ideas better if you write in your best handwriting." * Discuss teachers' homework expectations during teacher-parent conferences. * Don't do your children's homework. Make sure they understand that homework is their responsibility. * Contact the teacher by phone, note, or in person when your child is having trouble with homework assignments. Don't fight with your child about homework. * Help with assignments by checking for completeness, neatness, and accuracy. * Establish a place where complete homework is placed (for example, by the front door or in the child's backpack, so it won't be forgotten when your child leaves for school). * Follow-up on homework assignments by asking to see your children's homework after it has been returned by the teacher. * Be sure to encourage your children and praise them for a job well done. * Display particularly good papers in your home. * Be tolerant of homework not being done perfectly - your child is learning many new skills that are not yet perfected. **Special Home-School Learning Projects** Parent involvement with children's homework and school learning has been shown to make dramatic differences in children's school performance. For that reason, many groups and schools have developed home-school learning activities for children which are designed specifically to be interactive with a parent. One such project is Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork or TIPS. Designed by the Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Children's Learning, this program is designed to be implemented by teachers. There are two TIPS processes -- one that increases parent involvement at home on interactive homework assignments, and one that increases parent involvement at school as volunteers. TIPS activities are homework assignments that require students to talk with someone at home about something interesting they are learning in class. With TIPS, homework becomes a three-way partnership between students, families and teachers. There are three basic steps to implement TIPS Homework: * Teachers work together during the summer to develop interactive homework assignments to match their own curricula and learning objectives. * Teachers use the assignments with students and families throughout the year. * Revisions are made based on feedback from students, parents and teachers who are using the program. TIPS prototypes activities are examples that teachers can use to design their own interactive homework. There are TIPS prototype activities in math, science, health, and language arts. Included in every TIPS activity is a section called "home-to-school communication" so that parents can provide observations and reactions to their children's work. In Baltimore, parents, students and teachers have responded positively to the TIPS program in both interviews and surveys. Additional TIPS information, prototypes, and materials can be obtained by writing or calling: The Johns Hopkins University Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Children's Learning 3505 North Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21218 Phone: (410) 516-0370 Another project designed to involve parents in homework is IMPACT Maths Homework. This program, designed in England, is intended to work alongside any math program -- preschool to 6th grade -- to encourage parent involvement and to keep parents informed. IMPACT is intended for any school or teacher who wishes to implement some form of shared math homework. The IMPACT Project has developed a set of materials designed to get the program up and running, the IMPACT lessons themselves, and IMPACT diaries which provide a simple means for regular dialogue between parents and teachers. IMPACT Maths Homework materials are available from: Scholastic Publications Ltd. Westfield Road Homework and Home Learning Resources The California State PTA (1990). *Parents Empowering Parents*. Los Angeles: Educational Assessment Publishing Company. Written from the parent's point of view in both English and Spanish, this publication offers sections on homework which are particularly useful on reading, writing, and math. There are samples of daily schedules, lists of supplies, homework contracts, and assignment calendars. Canter, L. (1989). *Homework without tears*. Santa Monica, LA: Lee Canter Associates. Every teacher should have a copy of this book in their classroom library to use in planning, organizing and assigning homework, and to share with parents who are having difficulty getting their child to complete homework. Topics include how to establish a homework policy, how to teach children to do homework, how to motivate students, and ten common homework problems and how parents and teachers can solve them together. Clark, R.M. (1991). *Home involvement activities*. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. This series of booklets, by Houghton Mifflin, is intended to be a companion to their elementary mathematics textbooks. Each grade level book contains home learning activities that parents can do with their children to reinforce math skills being taught in the classroom. Frender, Gloria. (1990). *Learning to learn: Strengthening study skills and brain power*. Nashville, TN: Incentive Publications. Appropriate for the upper elementary student, this book discusses a variety of study skills, including learning styles, time management, organizational skills, note-taking, reading skills, memory development, and test taking. The last chapter gives specific tips on how parents can help students and conference with teachers. Goldsmith, E. and Handel, R.D. (1990). *Family reading*. Syracuse, NY: New Reader's Press. Through this program adults learn to read to children while they develop their own literacy skills. *Family Reading* contains 10 instructional units which build around a specific reading strategy and a literary genre. A teacher's guide, student materials, adult reading selection and writing exercises are included. Home and School Institute. (1984). *In any language: Parents are teachers.* Washington, D.C.: Authors. This publication has 20 bilingual home learning activities designed to help parents and children practice English and then use skills together. The program is especially designed for elementary school limited-English proficient students and their parents. The book is published in English and Spanish. National Association of Elementary School Principals (n.d.). *The little things make a big difference.* Alexandria, VA: Authors. This organization publishes a videotape and accompanying brochure, *The little things make a big difference,* which offers parents advice and practical activities to help their children succeed in school. Rich, D. (1988). *Megaskills.* Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. The author identifies ten skills as important to success in school and life: confidence, motivation, effort, responsibility, initiative, perseverance, caring, teamwork, common sense, and problem solving. She presents strategies which enable parents to teach these skills to their children. Simple, inexpensive, fun "home learning recipes" are included. Stenmark, J.K., Thompson, V. and Cossey, R. (1986). *Family Math.* Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California. Focuses on parents and children learning mathematics together. The book which accompanies six to eight lessons, one to two hours long, gives parents and children an opportunity to develop problem-solving skills and build an understanding of mathematics with hands-on materials. **References** Clark, R. (1988). Parents as providers of linguistic and social capital. *Educational Horizons, 66*(2), 93-95. Clark, R. (1990). Why disadvantaged students succeed. *Public Welfare (Spring):* 17-23. Cooper, H. (1989). *Homework.* New York: Longmen. Epstein, J. (1984). Paths to partnership: What can we learn from federal, state, district, and school initiatives? Phi Delta Kappan, 72, 344-349. Epstein, J. (1991). Effects of student achievement of teacher practices on parent involvement. In S. Silvern (ed.). Advances in Reading/Language Research, Vol. 5, Literacy through family, community and school interaction. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Mayeske, G.W. (1973). A study of achievement of our nation's students. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 102 666). Scott-Jones, D. (1984). Family influence on cognitive development and school achievement. Review of Research in Education, 11, 259-304. Walbert, H.J., Paschal, R.A., & Weinstein, T. (1985). Homework's powerful effects of learning. Educational Leadership, 42(7), 76-79. Chapter 7 Parent Education Activities and Workshops Most effective parent involvement programs include a parent education component. Parent education consists of activities, workshops, lectures and discussions which are intended to answer questions, improve skills, provide information and provide social interaction for parents with children in school (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992). Provide Programs That Meet Parents' Needs It is important to remember that a successful parent education program responds directly to the expressed needs of the parents. Ideally, all parents involved in the program can be included in a parent education planning session. At the very least, they have responded to the Parent Involvement Survey. A cross-section of parents should be included in the planning, scheduling and implementing of all parent education activities. Topics for Parent Education Activities The topics parents are interested in varies widely, depending on the age of their children, and their individual circumstances. Topics which might occur as priorities for parents of younger children include: * toys to make and buy * games to make and buy * trips to take * how to help in school * the role of TV in learning and education * discipline and setting limits * sibling rivalry * nutritional needs of young children * helping my child learn to read * water safety * bicycle safety * family planning * early stimulation for infants * when should my child be involved in sports * choosing extra-curricular activities * puppet making and kite making * prenatal classes When children are older, topics which might interest parents include: * study skills and homework * communicating with teenagers * avoiding alcohol and drug abuse * discipline * how and when to say "no" * how to encourage children to help out at home * help for latchkey kids * talking about sexuality with children * when is special help needed * building self-esteem * taming the TV monster Topics parents of children of all ages might be interested in: * dealing with divorce and death * sex education * handling stress * family counseling services * consumer resources * stretching the family food dollar * installment buying, loans, and credit cards * income tax preparation * do-it-yourself home repairs * physical fitness * literacy and basic education * writing a resume * career planning * positive ethnic identity * English as a second language for non-English speaking parents * GED completion * introduction to Macintosh Computers * sign language The following are activities which might interest parents: * Sock hop. * Setting up a lending library for toys, books, records C.D.'s. * Sessions on hair-cutting and styling. * Sewing classes. * Monitoring supermarket pricing. * Car repair. * Spanish lessons, for non-Spanish speaking parents. * Gardening. * Cooking classes. * Hobby demonstrations and display. * Exercise classes. * Family pot-luck suppers. * Crafts classes. * "Everything you've always wanted to know..." fairs with specialists such as pediatricians, cancer detection screenings, blood pressure screenings, food stamp representatives, scholarship officers from local colleges, psychologists, etc. * Couples dinner-dance in school or community center. * Bowling, basketball or swimming teams. * Demonstration of how to can and freeze fresh foods. * Quilting bees, knitting and crocheting classes. * Square dance or hay ride. * Flower-arranging workshop using fresh or dried flowers. * Thanksgiving feast. * Community resource fair, Use a Variety of Teaching Methods and Materials Most adults think of themselves as responsible, independent, and self-directed people. They resent being "taught" and treated like children. Adults learn best when a wide variety of teaching methods are used, so parent education activities should be a balance of small and large group activities, school and home-based meetings, formal and non-formal formats, and working and playing situations. Forums for parent education can be meetings, small group discussions, readings, projects, guided observations workshops, lectures, field-trips, demonstrations, fairs and picnics. Many materials are available to stimulate parents' interests. These include: books, pamphlets, records, videos, films, art materials, crafts and sewing supplies. Any activity which invites parents to "jump in and get involved" will make it easier for parents to get involved. Parent Workshop Speakers Finding good resource people is crucial to the success of a workshop. Schools have a wide range of resources available, for example: * community groups * state and national organizations * professional groups * local teachers * counselors * school administrators * school psychologists * librarians * local speaker's bureau * county extension office staff * public health nurses * doctor and dental clinics * hospitals Additional Techniques for Successful Parent Education Publicize meetings in a variety of ways such as: the parent newsletter, home bulletin, school marquee, posters, community agencies, and churches. Send personal invitations through the mail. Use clubs and organizations to help publicize your programs, host a continental breakfast or luncheon -- this always gets parents involved. Set up a table with coffee for parents the first weeks of school and at open house to invite parents to participate in school activities. Have some literature available about what the school has to offer and how parents can get involved. Provide adequate advance notice. Start planning immediately. Make a time line of everything that is needed beforehand and assign different jobs so that you don't have to do everything. Send your bulletins ahead of time. Send timely follow-up reminders. Pass out reminders in the morning when parents drop children off at school. Include a reminder in a home newsletter. Stress the value of family participation. Get teachers and students involved and provide incentives. Give prizes to the classroom that has the most parents attending. For a series of workshops, you may want to provide a bus for a field trip as a culminating activity for families. Target a particular group of families. Provide an interpreter. Decide who your audience should be -- all families, a grade level, a language group. Have speakers available in the different languages whenever possible. Provide an interpreter to encourage discussion with parents. Have handouts available in different languages. This takes a lot of planning but is worth the effort. Parents really appreciate it. Make sure there are no errors in the translations. Provide child care and/or involve children in the program. Plan family workshops where parents and children learn together. If a separate meeting is planned with the parents, incorporate children into at least one part of it -- parents are more likely to attend if their children are involved. Plan activities for child care: include books, coloring books, bingo, etc. Don't forget prizes or certificates. Videos are a hit. Plan snacks to keep your audience happy. Provide transportation if needed. Organize a parent carpool. If funds are available provide a school bus. Hold meetings at different locations in the community such as churches or recreation centers. Have a door prize at the end of every meeting. Solicit prizes from staff, PTA, community business partners. Have a fund-raiser to purchase prizes. Give away books, stickers, bookmarks or other family learning materials as prizes. Provide refreshments. Coffee and cookies are always a hit. Have special goodies such as a continental breakfast, a free luncheon or a potluck. You provide the paper goods. Evaluate meetings. Make improvements a priority. Evaluations are important. There's always room for improvement. Publicize your efforts to staff and parents. Keep a portfolio or notebook of the activities you are having. Take pictures. Publish a parent newsletter. Invite the administrator to your activities so that they can have a first hand look at what's happening. Resources for Parent Education Activities and Workshops Many of the organizations annotated in Chapter Eight provide books, videos, pamphlets and workshops and other materials for parent education activities. References U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1992). A handbook for involving parents in Head Start. Washington, DC: Authors. Chapter 8 Organizations Providing Parent and Family Involvement Resources We have provided some basic information about getting parents and families involved in education. There is a wealth of additional information available. This chapter is a guide to national and state organizations which provide information and assistance regarding parent involvement in education and parent education. Many of these organizations produce and/or distribute materials, publications and videos that address specific concerns discussed in this booklet. American Association of School Administrators 1801 N. Moore Street Arlington, VA 22209 (703) 875-0730 Publishes the following: 101 Ways Parents Can Help Students Achieve, What To Do If...A Guide for Parents of Teenagers, and Parents...Partners in Education. American Federation of Teachers 555 New Jersey Ave. NW Washington, D.C. 20001 (202) 879-4400 One of the largest professional organizations for teachers in the United States. Publishes: Home Team: Learning Activities. Alliance for Parental Involvement in Education (AllPIE) P.O. Box 59, East Chatham New York, NY 12060-0059 (518) 392-6900 Program Contacts: Seth Rockmuller and Katharine Houk. This parent-to-parent organization provides information about family education options (public, private and home school), and parent and student rights within those options. Services include a newsletter, a book and resources catalog, a referral service, pamphlets, workshops and conferences. Arizona Department of Education 1535 West Jefferson Phoenix, AZ 85007 (602) 255-5008 This state department of education publishes several guides on parent involvement. Two of those are: *Parent Participation for Effective School*, *Parent-teacher Communication: A Handbook for Teachers and Parents*, and *Parent Participation for Effective Schools*. *Planning for Parent Involvement: A Handbook for Administrators, Teachers and Parents*. **ASPIRA Association, Inc.** 1112 16th St. NW, Suite 340 Washington, D.C. 20036 (202) 835-3600 Program Contact: Lisa Colon. A national Hispanic education leadership development organization, ASPIRA administers a national parent involvement demonstration project in Hispanic communities in nine cities and produces booklets to help Hispanic parents with their children's education. Request a catalog of materials in Spanish. **Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development** 1250 N. Pitt Street Alexandria, VA 22314 (703) 549-9110 Request information of the video program *Involving Parents in Education*. **Adult Education Association** 810 18th Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006 (202) 347-9574 Publishes a leadership pamphlet series. Each pamphlet is 49 pages and costs $1.25. Some titles are: *How to Lead a Discussion, Taking Action in the Community, How to Use Role Playing, and Conducting Workshops*. A list of publications is available. **Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI)** 3615 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20016 (202) 363-6936 A non-profit organization, concerned with education and well-being of all children. Provides workshops for credit, conferences, a library and information services, and publishes, *Childhood Education* (a bi-monthly journal), and the publication, *Parenting*. Center for the Study of Parent Involvement 2544 Etna Street Beverly, CA 94704 An organization developed by and for those whose job is parent involvement. Request the newsletter: Apple Pie. Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Children's Learning 3505 North Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21218 (410) 516-0370 Provides information, prototypes and materials on teacher practices of parent involvement, student's reactions to parent involvement, research and policy implication of parent involvement, and materials for teachers called TIPS, Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork. Request: Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork: Involving Families to Improve Student Achievement. Prototype activities for TIPS Math, Science, Social Studies, Health and Language Arts are available. Also available: School and Family Partners: Surveys and Summaries. ERIC/EDINFO PRESS Indiana University P.O. Box 5953 Bloomington, IN 47404 Toll Free 1-800-925-7853 Fax 1-812-331-2776 A private press that publishes Parents Sharing Books, which is a family literacy program that gets parents intimately involved with their children's reading and learning development. Materials include a Parents Sharing Books Leader Training Manual; bookmarks, transparencies, video, Connect! How to Get Your Kids to Talk to You, and Parents Sharing Books Technical Report. The program is appropriate for elementary, middle and junior high schools. Families in Education Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction 125 South Webster Street P.O. Box 7841 Madison, WI 53707-7841 (608) 266-9757 1-800-243-8782 Publish Families and Education: An Educator's Resource for Family Involvement. This 100 page book includes chapters on understanding parents, parent-teacher communication, reinforcing classwork at home, and educator support for family communications. Family Resource Coalition 200 S. Michigan Avenue Suite 1520 Chicago, IL 60604 (312) 341-0900 Contacts: Pat Maunsell and Stephanie Lubin A not-for-profit membership organization, the Family Resource Coalition is the national leader in the family support field. Its mission is to build support and resources within the communities, to strengthen and empower families, enhance the capacities of families, and foster optimal development of children and youth. Available: Programs to Strengthen Families: A Resource Guide. High/Scope Press 600 North River Street Ypsilanti, MI 48198-2898 1-800-40-PRESS High/Scope press is one division of High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, a private, not-for-profit organization dedicated to developing, studying and training educators in providing model programs for young children and their families. Some publications include: Getting involved: Workshops for parents; Involving parents: A handbook for participation in schools; Supporting the changing family: A guide to the parent-to-parent model; Good beginnings: Parenting in the early years. Also available is a bilingual (Spanish-English) media package for parent involvement. Home and School Institute, Inc. Trinity College Washington, D.C. 20017 (202) 466-3633 Program Contact: Dorothy Rich. A non-profit educational organization which develops programs and publications to help parents become better teachers of their children and to help education work more effectively with parents and the community. Offers courses and published a newsletter six times a year. Request: 101 Activities for Building More Effective School-Community Involvement, Families Learning Together, Take Homes, Job Success Begins at Home, Three R's Plus, In Any Language, Parents Are Teachers, Survival Guide for Busy Parents: Help Children Do Well While You Do Well on the Job. Institute for Responsive Education (IRE) 605 Commonwealth Avenue Boston, MA 02215 (617) 353-3309 Program Contact: Owen Heleen. Funded in 1973 to assist citizen involvement in educational decision making, the institute believes that parents and community, in collaboration with school officials and teachers, can make a difference. To foster parent and community involvement in the school, they publish a quarterly journal, *Citizen Action in Education*. The IRE is the principal contact for the National Center on Families. **Iowa Department of Education** Grimes State Office Building Des Moines, IA 50319-0146 515-281-4747--Susan Anderson 515-281-7844--Donna Eggleston Provides information about legislation regarding parent involvement in preschool, elementary and secondary education. Request: *Iowa Chapter 1 Sourcebook of Successful Parent Involvement Practices* which offers example of newsletters, brochures, parent handbooks, surveys and questionnaires, home learning activities, parent-teacher conferencing, and more. Also request: *Parent Involvement in Education: A Resource for Parents, Educators and Communities*. **Iowa State University Extension** Richards 101 Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011 515-294-0363 515-294-1557 *Families Extension Answer Line* 1-800-262-3804 Offers workshops, newsletters and publications on children, parenting, parent education and community needs assessment. Information and training is usually free or low-cost. Publications include *Zero to One* (a parenting newsletter series for the first year of life), and *1-2-3 Grow* (a parenting newsletter series for the toddler years), and *So Alive...Three to Five!* (a parenting newsletter series for the preschool years). Every county in Iowa has an Extension office that can provide assistance and information. Call for a current *Families Extension Publication List* or *Publications on Children and Parenting*. **International Reading Association (IRA)** 800 Barksdale Road Newark, DE 19704-8139 (302) 731-1600 Program Contact: Peter Mitchell, Executive Director. This organization works with parents, educators, and researchers to improve reading instruction and increase literacy. IRA also offers information to parents on how to develop lifelong reading habits with their children. National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) 1509 16th Street., NW Washington, D.C. 20036-1425 1-800-424-2460 202-328-8777 Fax: 202-328-1846 The largest professional group of early childhood educators and child care providers. Publishes brochures, posters, videotapes, books and the journal, *Young Children*. Materials discuss ways to improve parent-teacher relations. National, state and local affiliate groups offer training opportunities. Call or write for a free catalog. Request the 40-page booklet, *Teacher-parent relationships*. National Black Child Development Institute 1023 15th St. NW, Suite 600 Washington, D.C. (202) 387-1281 Program Contact: Sherry Deane. This organization provides direct services and conducts advocacy campaigns to improve the quality of life for black children and youth. Family and early childhood education are emphasized; speakers and publications are available. Request: *African-American Family Reading List* and a catalog. National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education (NCPIE) Box 39, 1201 16th Street NW Washington, D.C. 20036 This organization is comprised of 34 national organizations involved in education, research and advocacy. It is dedicated to the development of family/school partnerships. Request the free brochure *Developing Family/school Partnerships: Guidelines for Schools and School Districts*. Also available: *Guide to Parent Involvement Resources*. National Coalition of Title I/Chapter I Parents (National Parent Center) Edmonds School Building 9th and D Streets NE Washington, D.C. 20002 (202) 547-9286 Program Contact: Robert Witherspoon. This organization provides a voice for Chapter I parents at the federal, regional, state and local levels. It publishes a newsletter, provides training, and sponsors conferences. National Committee for Citizens in Education (NCCE) 900 Second Street NE, Suite 8 Washington, D.C. 20002-3557 Toll free help line 1-800-NET-WORK Works to improve the education of children by encouraging and assisting citizens -- including parents -- to strengthen public school. A non-profit public interest organization, NCCE is an advocate for citizens and helps them gain and use information and skills to influence the quality of public education. Some titles available: Annual Education Check Up Card, Beyond the Bake Sale--An Educator's Guide to Working With Parents, Effective Schools: How to Evaluate Them; How to Get Them, Developing Leadership for Parent/Citizen Groups, Finding Out How People Feel About Local Schools, Fund-Raising by Parent/Citizen Groups, Important Fact Sheets for Groups, The School Budget--It's Your Money; It's your Business, Single Parents and the Public Schools: Results of a National Survey, Your School: How Well Is It Working? A Citizens Guide to School Evaluation. Highly recommended: Parents Organizing to Improve Schools. Request a free bookmark with information on parent involvement in the middle school. National Council of La Raza (NCLR) 810 First Street NE, Suite 300 Washington, D.C. 20002-4205 (202) 289-1380 Program Contact: Denise De La Rosa. This research and advocacy organization works on behalf of the U.S. Hispanic population and provides technical assistance to community-based organizations. NCLR's project EXCEL is a national education demonstration project which includes tutoring services and parental education. National Education Association (Professional Library) P.O. Box 509 West Haven, CT 06516 Toll Free 1-800-229-4200 One of the two largest professional organizations for teachers, this organization publishes materials on parent involvement. Request: Parent-Teacher Conferencing. Also request a listing of other parent involvement publications. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory 101 SW Main, Suite 500 Portland, OR 97204 (503) 275-9500 Request the publication: School and Communities Together: A Guide to Parent Involvement. National School Public Relations Association 1501 Lee Highway, Suite 201 Arlington, VA 22314 (703) 528-5840 Request: *Helping Parents Help Their Kids*. Contains a model survey to assess parents' needs. Parents as Teachers National Center (PAT) University of Missouri-St.Louis Marillac Hall, 8001 Natural Bridge Road St. Louis, MO 63121-4499 (314) 553-5738 Program Contact: Claire Eldredge PAT encourages parents of children from birth to age 3 to think of themselves as their children's first and most influential teachers. Provides information and training to parents, supports public policy initiatives, and offers parent educator certification. Parent-Educator Connection Deb Sampson/Dena Goplerud Mountain Plains Regional Resource Center Drake University Des Moines, IA 50311 (515) 271-3931 (515) 271-3936 The Parent-Educator Connection program is sponsored by the Iowa Department of Education, Bureau of Special Education. It began in 1984 to provide parents and educators with opportunities to work together in positive ways to improve educational programs for children with special needs. Parent Leadership Institute P.O. Box 50492 Palo Alto, CA 94303 (415) 424-8687 Contact: Patti Wipfler Provides training and empowerment for parent involvement in education. Parent Training and Information Centers, and Technical Assistance to Parent Projects 95 Berkeley Street, Suite 104 Boston, MA 02116 (617) 482-2915 Program Contact: Martha Ziegler The Office of Special Education Programs supports a network of 60 Parent Training and Information Centers in all 50 states and Puerto Rico to enable parents to participate more effectively with professionals in meeting the educational needs of children with disabilities. Technical Assistance to Parent Projects (TAPP) provides technical assistance to Parent Training and Information Centers and developing minority programs in urban and rural locations. **Southwest Educational Development Laboratory** National Educational Laboratory Published, Inc. P.O. Box 1003 Austin, Texas 78767 (512) 476-6861 A division of the U.S. Department of Education, this group develops and disseminates bilingual/bicultural curriculum programs. **The Parent Institute** P.O. Box 7474 Fairfax Station, VA 22039-7474 Toll fee order number: 1-800-756-5525 A private agency which publishes booklets, brochures and newsletters on parent involvement and produces videos on parent involvement. Two newsletters are available: *What's Working in Parent Involvement*, and *Parents Make the Difference*. Two booklet series are available: *The Skills for School Success Series*, and *The Parenting Series*. Call toll free for an order form. **The Institute for Educational Leadership** 1001 Connecticut Ave NW, Suite 310 Washington, D.C. 20036 In conjunction with The National Health/Education Consortium (NHEC), this organization distributes campaign materials to teach parents and parents-to-be the critical connection between good health and their children's ability to learn. Available in English and Spanish. Materials include a video, a *Community Action Guide*, a poster, message pads and magnets. **The National PTA** 700 Rush Street Chicago, IL 60611-2571 (312)787-0977 The PTA is the national organization for parent involvement in education, having been around since 1897. One of its key objectives is "to bring into closer relationship the home and school, that parents and teachers may cooperate intelligently in the education of children and youth." Request: *A Leader's Guide to Parent and Family Involvement*. This 15 page booklet provides a condensed and useful guide to setting up a parent involvement program. Also recommended: *Reaching Out: How to Make Your PTA More Inclusive*, and the video *In Someone Else's Shoes*. Request a free copy of the National PTA Catalog, which includes brochures for parents, books for parents, planning kits, guides and videos for PTA leaders. To receive a free catalog include $1.00 to cover postage and handling. **U.S. Department of Health and Human Services** Administration for Children and Families Administration on Children, Youth and Families Head Start Bureau 370 L'Enfant Promenade, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20447 The Head Start Bureau publishes documents to support parental involvement in Head Start programs throughout the United States. *A Handbook For Involving Parents in Head Start*, DHHS Publication No.(ACF)92-31187, offers information specific to parent involvement in Head Start, but much is useful to all those aspiring to begin a parent involvement program. **Willow Tree Publication** P.O. Box 428 Naperville, IL 60566-9725 A private publisher produces a newsletter for parents of children in daycare and preschool: *The Well-Centered Child*. **21st Century Learning Corporation** Toll free: 1-800-538-7532 Private agency produces a comprehensive send-home, parent education program, *Smart Start*. Classroom sets for grades K-2 and 3-5 contain 10 copies each of two videos, and 10 parent packs which include a Parent's Guide, Activity Guide, poster, and stickers. Dear Parent: School is in the process of developing a Parental Involvement Program. Parents play an important role in the intellectual, social, and emotional growth of their children, especially during the early years. This program will be designed to help children become more successful in school by working with their parents during these most important years. The program emphasis will be to provide training, guidance, and counseling for parents in the area of child growth and development. In order to determine the needs of the children in our school, we would appreciate your answering the following questions. Sincerely, __________________________________________________________ Superintendent or Principal ****************************************************************************** 1. What specifically would you like to know about the schools? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. 2. From what source(s) do you get most of your information about the school? _____ Newspaper _____ Television _____ Children _____ Friends _____ Teachers, Principal _____ Other_____________________________ _____ School Newsletter 3. Would you be interested in learning about the _____ testing program in your child's school? _____ improving your child's self-image? _____ improving your self-image? 4. What specific subjects taught would be of interest to you? _____ Reading _____ Art and Music _____ Math _____ Other 5. Would you be interested in becoming more involved in school affairs and/or school instruction? _____ Yes _____ No 6. Would you be interested in attending a class or session on how parents can help their children at home? _____Yes _____No 7. Have you ever: Yes No _____ _____ a. Met the principal of your child's school? _____ _____ b. Met the teacher(s) of your child's school? _____ _____ c. Visited a class (in session) at your child's school? _____ _____ d. Attended any school function? _____ _____ e. Had lunch with your child at school? _____ _____ f. Visited the school for any other reasons? 8. Would you be interested in participating in a small group, coffee-discussion hour at the school? _____Yes _____No Best Time: _____Morning _____Afternoon _____Evening 9. Check the questions below that would help you help your child. Those checked should be the ones in which you would be able to participate. _____parent-teacher conference _____group meetings with a speaker _____educational films _____meetings just to talk with other parents _____sessions about homework, reading, math, etc. 10. I feel that I can talk openly with my child's teacher. _____Yes _____No _____To Some Degree I feel that I am well informed about what my child is doing at school. _____Yes _____No _____To Some Degree I feel that the teacher needs to be aware of home problems that may affect my child's work. _____Agree _____Disagree 11. How effective are the following toward improved communication with your child's teacher and the school? Open House _____Good _____Fair _____Poor Evening Grade-Level Orientation _____Good _____Fair _____Poor Teacher-Parent Conferences _____Good _____Fair _____Poor Parent-Group Session _____Good _____Fair _____Poor 12. As a parent, do you have trouble with: (Check those that apply) _____ your child's homework _____ discipline _____ spending enough time with your child _____ motivating your child _____ dealing with his/her problems 13. As a parent: Is discipline a problem? _____ Often _____ Seldom _____ Never Is it a problem to transport your child to school-related events? _____ Often _____ Seldom _____ Never Is it difficult to spend time with your child? _____ Often _____ Seldom _____ Never 14. During an average week, do you spend time with your child in the following activities? Yes No _____ _____ a. Playing together with them _____ _____ b. Reading to them _____ _____ c. Just talking (Does not include telling them what to do) _____ _____ d. Watching T.V. together _____ _____ e. Helping them with homework 15. Please indicate how interested you are in knowing more about any of these areas: (If you are not interested, circle 1. If somewhat interested, circle 2. If very interested, circle 3.) a. Things to do with my child at home that are fun and educational 1 2 3 b. Whether my child is developing the way he/she should 1 2 3 c. How to help my child do better in school 1 2 3 d. Services provided by the community 1 2 3 Thank you for taking the time to answer these important questions. Your child should return the survey to his/her homeroom teacher by ______________________. (Community Education Section, 1985) STATE LIBRARY OF IOWA 3 1723 02056 7418
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Copyright © 2016 FB &c Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. Stories from History COLUMBUS, WASHINGTON AND LINCOLN. A Boy Who was Bound to Win, 1 A Modern George Washington, 7 A Little Girl’s Visit to Washington, 9 A Thin Slice of American History, 11 Washington’s Birthday at Clear Creek, 17 How Lincoln Earned His First Dollar, 27 Entered at Post-Office, Farmington, Me., as Second-Class Matter PUBLISHED MONTHLY: SEPTEMBER TO JUNE D·H·KNOWLTON & CO Farmington Maine Little People Library Three Cents Each — $3.00 Per 100, Postage or Express Pre-paid. THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS ARE NOW READY: 3 Miss Alcott and Her Stories 4 The Children's Scrap-Book 5 Poetry for Children 8 Some of Our Birds 12 Asters and Golden-Rods 13 Fairy Tales and Fables 14 Stories and Rhymes 17 Favorite Poems for Children 19 Butterflies and Moths 20 The Queen of Flowers 21 Katy-did and Her Cousins 23 The Dog and His Relatives 24 Stories for Children 26 Patriotic Verse-and Story 28 Flower Tales 29 Among the Birds 30 Stories from Hawthorne; or Selections from "Grandfather's Chair" 32 Dialogues for the Children 33 Thanksgiving 35 Fairy Tales (Andersen) 37 Among the Trees 38 Buttercups and Daisies 39 The Bees and Their Cousins 41 The Flight of the Birds 42 Twice-Told Tales (Hawthorne) 43 Stories of Pet Animals 44 Stories of the Poets 45 Stories from History 46 The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood 47 The Coming of the Birds 50 Animal Stories 52 Two Brownie Stories 53 Nuts and Squirrels 54 The Story of William Tell 55 Story of the Golden-Fleece 56 The Raven's Message and Other Stories 58 Fairy Tales from Grimm 59 Short Dialogues 62 Star-Fishes and Seaside Stories 61 Story of the Grass 64 Two Christmas Eves 66 Orange Lessons and Other Stories 68 A Dog of Flanders (Ouida) 69 Stories from Mrs. Stowe 70 Little Biographies—No. 1 71 The Tale of Two Knights 72 Seed-Time and Harvest 73 Clare Skymer (MacDonald) 76 Daffydown Dilly and Other Stories 77 John Gilpin and Other Selections 78 Æsop's Fables 79 A Cat Book 80 Life Stories 81 A Rabbit Book 82 The Three Golden Apples 83 There's a Difference (Andersen) 84 The Dumbleby's Christmas 85 The Doings of Fido and Other Dogs 86 Indians at School 87 The Golden Touch 88 The Birds of Killingworth and Other Bird Poems 89 Stories from Dickens 90 Dick Whittington and His Cat 91 The Flower Party 92 Tales from Munchausen 93 Brownie Adventures 94 The Miraculous Pitcher 95 The Story of Robinson Crusoe 97 The Hen that Hatched Ducks 98 An Incident of the Chicago Fire 99 New and Selected Stories 100 Old Glory, or the Stars and Stripes 101 Explorers and Their Doings 102 Raindrops and Snowflakes 103 Holiday Stories 104 Wee Willie Winkie (Kipling) 105 A Voyage to Lilliput (Swift) 106 The Paradise of Children (Hawthorne) 107 Stories from Andersen 108 Alice in Wonderland 109 Lake Champlain and Other Short Stories 110 Tom the Piper's Son, and Others 111 Fulton-Hudson-Morse 112 Scandinavian Myths and Viking Adventures 113 Autumn Miscellany 115 The Land of Story Books and Other Poems 116 More Stories from Alice in Wonderland D. H. Knowlton & Co., Publishers, Farmington, Maine. "See our prairies, sky-surrounded! See our sunlit mountain-chains! See our waving woods, unbounded, And our cities on the plains! See the ocean kiss our strand, Oceans stretched from pole to pole! See our mighty lakes expand, And our giant rivers roll! "Such a land, and such alone, Should be leader in the van, As the nations sweep along To fulfil the hopes of man!" A BOY WHO WAS BOUND TO WIN. The first man who told the world of North America was Columbus. He was born in the city of Genoa more than four hundred and fifty years ago. His father was a wool-comber, and tried to teach his boy to become a wool-comber, too. He had some chance to go to school, and learned more or less about arithmetic, geography, Latin, and other subjects. He didn't like his father's business, and so when he was fourteen years of age, like many other boys, he chose to follow the sea. The people whom Columbus met had very queer ideas of the world. Most of them thought the earth was flat, though some said it must be round. The sailors, who did not dare to go far away from the sight of the land, declared that the Atlantic Ocean contained many terrible monsters that could bear vessels upon their backs and dash them in pieces. They also believed that the unknown lands were filled with dragons and dreadful wild beasts. Columbus read all the books of travel he could get, and he talked with a great many sailors about the ocean and the lands they had visited. Marco Polo had written a book describing his travels in Asia, in which he told the most wonderful stories of this and other countries. These things filled the young sailor's heart with a desire to learn about those far-away regions. He was nothing but a poor sailor, and it seemed almost impossible that he would ever be able to make a voyage of discovery in command of the ship in which he sailed. But just like many other boys we know, he determined to win. After many very discouraging efforts to obtain help, he succeeded in interesting Isabella, Queen of Spain, in his ambitious scheme. So in due time three little ships were made ready, and sailed away from Palos in Spain. As the land disappeared behind them, they looked out upon the vast ocean before them with fear and trembling. Troubles increased, until two of the vessels turned back and returned to Spain. But Columbus in his flagship sailed on. There were a great many things to trouble him, and the sailors on his ship wanted him to turn back to Spain. But Columbus sailed on till land was reached. There is a poem by Joaquin Miller which describes the last of this famous voyage: Behind him lay the gray Azores, Behind the gates of Hercules; Before him not the ghost of shores, Before him only shoreless seas. Then the good mate said: "Now must we pray, For lo! the very stars are gone. Brave Admiral, speak; what shall I say?" "Why say, 'sail on! sail on! and on!'"' "My men grow mutinous day by day; My men grow ghastly, wan and weak." Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician who made significant contributions to the development of modern science. He is best known for his work in astronomy, particularly for his observations using a telescope, which led to the discovery of four moons orbiting Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and the craters on the Moon. Galileo's most famous experiment involved dropping two objects of different masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. This experiment demonstrated that all objects fall at the same rate regardless of their mass, challenging the prevailing Aristotelian notion that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones. His findings supported the heliocentric model of the solar system, which placed the Sun at the center and Earth in orbit around it. Galileo's work also included advancements in the field of physics, such as the study of motion and the concept of inertia. He developed the first pendulum clock, which improved timekeeping and had a significant impact on navigation and astronomy. Despite his scientific achievements, Galileo faced religious persecution for his support of the Copernican theory. In 1633, he was tried by the Roman Inquisition and forced to recant his support for the heliocentric model. However, his ideas continued to influence future generations of scientists, and he remains a symbol of the power of scientific inquiry and the pursuit of truth. The stout mate thought of home; a spray Of salt dashed his swarthy cheek. "What shall I say, brave Admiral, say, If we sight naught but seas at dawn?" "Why, you shall say at break of day, Sail on! sail on! sail on! and on!" They sailed and sailed as winds might blow, Until at last the blanched mate said: "Why, now not even God would know Should I and all my men fall dead. These very winds forget their way, For God from these dread seas is gone. Now speak, brave Admiral; speak and say—" He said: "Sail on! sail on! and on!" They sailed. They sailed. Then spoke the mate: "This mad sea shows its teeth to-night. He curls his lip, he lies in wait. With lifted teeth, as if to bite! Brave Admiral, say but one good word; What shall we do when hope is gone?" The words leapt as a leaping sword: "Sail on! sail on! sail on! and on!" Then pale and worn, he kept his deck, Then peered through darkness. Ah, that night, Of all dark nights! And then a speck— A light! a light! a light! a light! It grew, a starlit flag unfurled! It grew to be Time's burst of dawn; He gained a world; he gave that world Its grandest lesson: "On! and on!" October 21st, 1492, Columbus beheld the first land, which was one of the Bahama Islands. Columbus thought he was off the coast of India, and so he called the natives Indians, and this is the reason why we call the islands in the Caribbean Sea the West Indies. Columbus discovered several of these islands, and after leaving a few of his crew returned to Spain bearing the news of the islands beyond the Atlantic. He was received with great honors by Ferdinand and Isabella, and more vessels were fitted out and sailed to the New World. Troubles without number followed him in his adventures. His followers had been told they were going to a land of gold, and this seems to have been what they expected. They did not find the gold, and they did not come to make homes for themselves. When they failed to find the gold they all blamed Columbus, and the rest of his life was made very unhappy. Columbus brought the tidings of the New World, and it was a service that has made him famous ever since. The Spanish have a great love for the memory of Columbus and his brave doings. At the end of the war with Spain in 1898, one thing the Spaniards asked of their victors,—it was that they might be permitted to carry the bones of Columbus to Spain. So one of the last things they did before sailing was to take the remains from the old cathedral in Havana, and when they sailed they bore them away to Spain. A MODERN GEORGE WASHINGTON. JOHN was just six years old when he started to go to school. He had been going about five months now, and was more in love with it every day. One day he came home in great excitement—the teacher had been telling them about the great General Washington. He said, "Why, mamma, he never told a lie, and when I grow up I am going to be just like him." Mamma smiled, but said, "Why wait until you grow up? Why not begin now? You have to begin some time." So John concluded he would try. He got several boys to be his soldiers, and drilled them. They had little guns, caps and knapsacks, but the captain ought to have a sword. John suggested it to mamma, but she thought a wooden one would do quite well enough. He argued and pleaded, but all in vain; mamma would not hear of a "reely" sword; she thought it dangerous for a small boy. John concluded to be content, but one night when he was over to Harold's he spied a short sword over the mantel. Harold said it was his uncle's, and his uncle was not at home. John could not keep his eyes off it, and finally persuaded Harold to let him hold it in his hands. Then he must fasten it to his belt; and finally the temptation was too much—he must wear it to drill. The little boys were much impressed when they saw John with his sword. He strutted in front of them waving it proudly. Suddenly he said: "Now I'll be George Washington, and you must all wave your hats when I pass." Just then he thought of what his teacher had said: "George Washington always loved and minded his mother." Without stopping to think, he ran home and hurried through the house, calling for mamma. When he found her, he threw both arms around her, crying, "Oh, mamma, I do love you, and I am so sorry!" Of course mamma was puzzled, and could only say, "Tell me all about it." So John told her, and then mamma said, as she kissed him, "Well, dear, you are like him in one way: You have told the truth about it of your own accord." John felt comforted a little, but it was a long time before he could forget how he had disobeyed his mother. B. Fay Maddox, in The Outlook. A LITTLE GIRL'S VISIT TO WASHINGTON. My mother had told me over and over again of the honor in store, and had drilled me so as to behave properly on the occasion. I was to rise from my seat for presentation to General Washington, and after making him my prettiest courtesy, I was to stand at ease and modestly answer all his possible questions. At the same time I was to keep in the background, where all the good little girls of that day were expected to be. The eventful day came, and I was taken by my mother to Mt. Vernon to make my longed-for visit. Mrs. Washington received us with gracious welcome; but my heart was so flut-tered, and my tongue so tied, that I made bad work in response to her kindly questions. At length the door opened, and General Washington entered the room. I knew mother’s watchful eyes were upon me, and I advanced for the purpose of making my courtesy and speaking the little address she had taught me the night before. Instead of this, in my confu-sion, I dropped on my knees at Washington’s feet and burst into tears. It was very annoying to my mother, but really it was very dramatic. Washington stooped and tenderly raised me, saying with a smile, “Why, what is the matter with this foolish child?” The words do not have a tender sound, but it is impossible to tell of the gentleness of his manner, and the winning softness of his voice, as he wiped away my tears with his own hand-kerchief, kissed my forehead, and led me to a seat as he might a young princess. He sat down beside me, and with laughing jests, so easy for me to understand, made me forget my errors, and saved me from my mother’s frowns. He guarded me from her outraged eyes, kept me with him while in the drawing-room, had me sit beside him at the dinner-table, and with his own hands heaped all the good things on my plate. After dinner he took me to walk in the garden, and with his gentle, pleasant words, drew me into talk on the things I knew about, and made me tell him my hopes and fears. It was a beautiful picture of the famous warrior, statesman and patriot, turning from the great affairs of life, and lending himself to the task of making the happiness and winning the confidence of a shy and frightened child. So proud and happy was the little girl thus made that, seventy-five years afterwards she loved, with tears of joy in her eyes, to tell the story to her granddaughter.—Adapted from The Century. A THIN SLICE OF AMERICAN HISTORY. "What a racket!" "Yes; it is those fellows with their drum and dear knows what," replied Ned. "They enjoy it, I suppose," continued Lou. "I presume so." And Ned looked as if he did not think it such a dreadful thing as Lou seemed to consider it. "They are playing Yankee Doodle," said Lou after a moment's pause. "Of course they are; that is the proper way to show a fellow's patriotism," returned Ned; "seems as if Yankee Doodle would never wear out. It has been played ever since I can remember." Lou laughed long and loud. It was quite improper for a girl, as she very well knew, but then it was too funny. "As long as you can remember," she repeated as soon as she could catch her breath; then she went off in another peal of laughter. "Why, Ned, Yankee Doodle is a hundred years old to say the least; it isn't likely to wear out after standing that test." "A hundred years old!" exclaimed Ned. "Lou, are you sure?" "Quite sure. Some say older; they even think it was written in England, in the time of Cromwell, only it was Nankee Doodle, and the line, 'Nankee Doodle came to town,' had reference to Cromwell’s entering Oxford, and the ‘feather in his cap,’ etc., was a hit upon his wearing a plume fastened with a peculiar knot called a macaroni. I looked up macaroni in the dictionary and found out that it means a collection of things thrown together. I can imagine just what kind of a knot that was—all ends hanging out all ways! But I would much rather believe that the tune and words belong to Revolutionary times as long as it has become a national air. Some think the word Yankee is simply a corruption of the way the Indians pronounced English. They said Anglais then; instead of getting nearer right they got it more and more corrupted until they brought up on Yankee. I believe it was just after the battle of Lexington that Yankee Doodle was adopted as the national song.” “Well, I didn’t know all that before,” said Ned. “Do you know the origin of our other national airs?” “Hail Columbia was written, I mean the words, by Joseph Hopkinson, a lawyer and judge of Philadelphia; the tune was composed by a German as a march in honor of the first President of the United States, and was called The President’s March, sometime before the words were written. It was first sung in Philadelphia in 1798. “The Star-Spangled Banner was written in 1814. When we have talked up a little farther in our history we will come to the bombardment of Baltimore. There is a pretty story about the writing of that song. The British fleet had anchored below Baltimore, and while land troops moved against the city, the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry, one of the defences on the river below. Mr. Frances Key was a prisoner on a British ship, and as the bombardment was kept up through the night, he and a friend who was with him were very anxious as morning came to know the fate of the Fort. And one said to the other, as he looked out at the first streak of light, ‘Do you see the flag?’ The old flag was still waving from the Fort, and the question suggested the poem which Mr. Key wrote out after the bombardment: ‘Oh! say can you see by the dawn’s early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming? ‘Oh! say does the star-spangled banner still wave O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave?’” THIS PAGE IS LOCKED TO FREE MEMBERS Purchase full membership to immediately unlock this page Never be without a book! Forgotten Books Full Membership gives universal access to 797,885 books from our apps and website, across all your devices: tablet, phone, e-reader, laptop and desktop computer A library in your pocket for $8.99/month *Fair usage policy applies end of a whip, and I suppose you think it will bring out a quick response. Well I happen to know something about the flag. When we made the large flag at the academy, Professor Comstock told us about it, and the history of the flag will take us back to the period we were talking of in our history talks. In January, 1776, the British held Boston, and Washington's army was encamped at Cambridge. It was then that the American flag was unfurled. It had thirteen stripes, red and white as now, to represent the thirteen colonies, but in the corner, on blue ground, instead of stars were two crosses combined, the St. George Cross and the cross of St. Andrew, which is like the letter x. The next year, by Act of Congress, stars took the place of the crosses. The number of stripes and stars was changed by Congress two or three times, but in 1818 it was settled that there should be thirteen stripes and a star for every State." Faye Huntingdon, in *The Pansy.* "Our beautiful flag waves over thousands of schoolhouses in our land, that pupils, from the oldest to the youngest, may not forget what a grand nation is theirs. When they behold the flag, they should feel glad that their homes are here." WASHINGTON'S BIRTHDAY AT CLEAR CREEK. "CONFOUND it!" exclaimed Mr. Barton, as he drew his chair up to the stove, "'tain't a bit of use to try to do a thing with them. They're just as stubborn as mules." "Who do you mean by 'they'?" queried his wife. "Why, Pete Schaffer and John Glickman, of course. You know we had a meeting of the directors this afternoon to decide about that entertainment. Just think of their kicking because the little schoolma'am wanted to celebrate Washington's Birthday! And she didn't ask for nothing but the use of the house either. They come down on the whole business flat footed, and said 't was all nonsense. I wonder what we are a-coming to, anyway. When we first moved here the folks were just full of patriotism, but now since these Germans have settled so thick all around us we never have any Decoration Day, Fourth of July, or anything of the kind." "Oh, come now," protested Mrs. Barton; "the Germans are a peaceable, well-meaning class of people." "Ye-es," admitted Mr. Barton; "but," he added, "I tell you that ain't all. There's something else needed. I like to see folks patriotic. Glickman and all the rest of the Germans would be patriotic enough if it wasn't for that Schaffer. He's got them all right under his thumb. Don't see why they didn't stay in 'mein vaterland' if they can't be loyal to America. Their influence is beginning to tell on the English, too. When I was going to our meeting this afternoon, I met Sam Hardy, and he said he thought we'd better put a stop to it right in the beginning." "Poor little Miss Jackson!" sighed Mrs. Barton. "She had her heart set on having it, and now she'll be so disappointed. I'm real glad she boards with us, for none of the rest think much of her new-fangled notions." Glancing at the clock on the shelf she saw that it was nearly time for school to be out, and she began to make preparations for supper. The little teacher felt very much discouraged as she trudged home through the snow and mud that evening; for her scholars had told her that day that their parents thought it foolish to waste their time preparing for Washington's Birthday. So she was not unprepared for what Mr. Barton told her that evening. And while they were yet talking about it, there came a loud rap at the door, and Mr. Barton opening it admitted John Glickman and Sam Hardy. "If they've come to talk about that entertainment they won't want us to hear what they say," whispered Mrs. Barton, and so saying, she and the teacher went into the next room, leaving the men alone in the kitchen. "I haf cum," began Mr. Glickman, as he stamped the snow off his boots, "to dalk about dot entertainment." "I thought that was settled," said Mr. Barton. "So it vas, so it vas; but ven mein Henry cum from school dis efening, he cries about it, 'cause he vas to make der speech in presenting der picture of dot man Vashington." "And Lucy cried because the teacher had told her she could be Ameriky and wear a crown and a red, white and blue dress," chimed in Mr. Hardy. "Then you think it's best to have it after all, eh?" "Vell, I guess meppe it is," said Mr. Glickman, as he took his pipe from his mouth; "but," he added quickly, "don't you nefer believe dot I dink dis is all right. She petter be teachin' dem sumdin else dan all dis nonsense apout der flag and der union, and—" "Hold on there!" roared Mr. Barton. "Not another word about that being nonsense!" "Such things ain't necessary," said Mr. Hardy. "I's at school when Tom was teachin' and the class in arithmetic could say the multiplication table forrards and back'ards and never make a mistake." "Been skeered into it," said Mr. Barton with a contemptuous sniff. "Arithmetic's all right," he added, "but it takes something else to make loyal, liberty-loving American citizens." "I don't know what Schaffer will dink apout dis," said Mr. Glickman, "but I reckon he be putty mad." "If we're agreed, that's all that's necessary," said Mr. Barton. "He can kick all he wants to. We'll give him to understand he can't always be boss." "Vell, den tell der teacher to go aheat," said Mr. Glickman, as he put on his cap to go, "but den, I know Schaffer be ferry mad." Miss Jackson was delighted when she heard of the sudden turn of affairs, but she did not exactly like the idea of ignoring Mr. Schaffer altogether. His son Frank was her brightest pupil in school, and she had counted on him being the star of the entertainment. She lay awake for a long time that night thinking about this, and planning all the details of the entertainment. She had met with so little encouragement thus far that she knew it would be necessary for her to bear all the expenses herself. "There will be the picture of Washington, stage decorations, material for costumes and the rent of an organ," she reflected. "It will take about ten dollars, I think. That means a good deal to me just now, but I guess I can make this little sacrifice to give the children a gala day that they will long remember." The next evening, when Miss Jackson was coming from school, she stopped at the lane leading from the main road to the Schaffer home. For a long time she debated the question whether or not to "beard the lion in his den." "I'll do it," she said suddenly. "Maybe he isn't so bad after all." It was nearly dark when she reached her boarding-place, and as she went dancing into the kitchen, she exclaimed, "Oh, such luck! I went to see Peter Schaffer as I came home this evening, to smooth matters over a little. I told him I did not want to go ahead with the entertainment without the consent of all the directors. Of course it pleased him to know that I took him into consideration; and then to help matters still further along, I managed, in an indirect way to praise Frank's scholarship. This melted the ice completely. And just think! He and his whole family are coming to the entertainment, and he says, 'mein poy' need not hurry home to milk in the evening, but can stay to practice after school as long as I want him to. Hurrah for Washington's Birthday!" and the little teacher clapped her hands in delight. The next few days were busy ones at the Clear Creek school. Miss Jackson spent all her spare time at noon and recess in drilling the children. Sometimes the older ones had to stay after school. The program consisted of recitations, patriotic songs, and tableaux by those who could not take part in any other way. The parents began to take some interest in it, and on the night of the 22d the schoolhouse was well filled. Miss Jackson's skillful hands had FORGOTTEN BOOKS FULL MEMBERSHIP 797,885 Books! All you can read for only $8.99/month *Fair usage policy applies "I ain't a great hand at makin' speeches," he began, as he faced the audience, "but what I've seen and heard this evenin' fairly makes my blood boil, an' I feel as if I wanted to say a word or two. When Abe Lincoln called for volunteers, I was one of the first ones to offer myself. But when the bloody war was over an' I come home, I settled down here so kind of contented like that I guess if it wasn't for this empty sleeve a-hanging by me, I'd most forget I ever had a country to fight for. Friends," raising his voice to a higher pitch, "let's wake up. We've been livin' a sort of humdrum life here till our patriotism's died out. The teacher has given us a good starter, an' now let's keep the ball rolling." Here he paused a moment, then continued: "That old starry banner floats over all our city schools. Now, I think the country boys and girls would appreciate it just as much as they do there. I followed that old flag through thick and thin for three years, an' take my word for it, there's nothin' that'll help a boy to do their best like that will. What I want to know is this: How many of you would like to have a flag over our schoolhouse? Hold up your hands.” Every hand in the house went up. “That’ll do. An’ now Miss Teacher, will it be in order to take up a collection?” Miss Jackson nodded, and Silas started down the aisle with his old hat. “Shust vait a minute! shust vait a minute!” cried Mr. Schaffer. “I has von leetle vord to say.” “Blame it all, if he knocks the whole thing in the head; I’ll—” But before Mr. Barton had time to finish this sentence, Peter had mounted the stage and was saying his “leetle vord.” “I haf lifed in America for twenty years,” he began, “but I guess de most of you dinks I ain’t ferry patriotic. Meppe I do tink too much of mein vaterland across der sea, but I mean to make amends. I shows you dot I loves America.” Just at this point he stepped behind the curtain, and when he again appeared he carried a large flag. This was greeted by round after round of applause. “Dree cheers for America, Vashington, and der ret, vhite and plue,” proposed Mr. Schaffer. “And the teacher too,” cried some one. In the midst of the cheering, Mr. Barton mounted a seat and said: "What about Peter himself? We mustn't leave him out." And swinging his hat around, he added, "I propose three cheers for Peter Schaffer." They were given with a right good will, and then Silas Wilson started "The Star-Spangled Banner." When it was all over the people crowded around Miss Jackson with expressions of gratitude and appreciation. Peter came in for his share of attention too. "I feel more than repaid for all my trouble," said the tired and happy teacher, after they had gone home. "Well I rather guess so," answered Mr. Barton. "Peter's got his patriotism up so high that he says we must have a new schoolhouse right away, and he's going to send Frank to college next year."—American Agriculturist. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, Our hearts in glad surprise To higher levels rise. Longfellow. HOW LINCOLN EARNED HIS FIRST DOLLAR. VERY few men have lived whose lives teach us so many lessons as that of Abraham Lincoln. There are many who believe he was the man chosen of God to do the great work he was called upon to do. However this may be, he was a very remarkable man in a great many ways. The more we study his life the more we find in it to enjoy. He was born in a log-cabin in Kentucky. The cabin had only one room in it. There was one door and a big log-chimney was built up at one end on the outside. His father was poor, and there was a hard life all the time. When he was still young the family left Kentucky and settled in Indiana, where another log-cabin was built in the midst of a dense forest. There was hard work for all here, and it is said the boy, even when he was only seven years old, helped his father in cutting and clearing the forests. Inside the cabin the chairs and tables were home-made, and so were the bedsteads, and other articles of furniture. The boy slept on the rough floor in the loft of the cabin, but he HOME OF LINCOLN. had a soft bed of dry leaves. There was food enough, for fish and game were plenty, and it was an easy matter to raise what potatoes were needed. Food was cooked before the open fire or roasted in the hot ashes. There were no cookstoves then among the pioneers, but they were blessed with good appetites. Such life seems to make strong, healthy men, and so it was here. When Abraham became a man, there were very few who were stronger, or could endure more fatigue than he. The settlers made their own soap and candles. There was not a large supply of either, and when night came the families often had only the light of the open fire for light. This was the light by which Lincoln read and studied after the day's work was done. There were no clothing-stores, where Abraham's father could take the boy and select a suit of clothes ready-made. Besides, there was no money to buy it if there had been such stores. So the people had to make their own clothes, and this, with the other work, kept them all very busy. Doeskin trousers, coon-skin caps, and moccasins made by some one in the family, were quite likely to be worn by most of the boys in those early days. Abraham worked at home until he was eighteen years old before he had a chance to earn money for himself. Here is his own story of the first dollar he earned: "After much persuasion, I had got the consent of my mother and had constructed a flat-boat. A steamer was going down the river. We had no wharves on the western streams, and the custom was, if passengers were at any of the landings, they were to go out in a boat, the steamer stopping and taking them on board. "I was on my new boat when two men with trunks came down to the shore, and, looking at the different boats, singled out mine and asked: "'Who owns this boat?' 'I answered modestly, 'I do.' "'Will you take us and our trunks out to the steamer?' "'Certainly,' I said. I was very glad to have the chance of earning something, and supposed that each man of them would give me a couple of bits. The trunks were put in my boat, the passengers seated themselves upon them, and I sculled them out to the steamer. They got on board, and I lifted the trunks and..." THIS PAGE IS LOCKED TO FREE MEMBERS Purchase full membership to immediately unlock this page Never be without a book! Forgotten Books Full Membership gives universal access to 797,885 books from our apps and website, across all your devices: tablet, phone, e-reader, laptop and desktop computer A library in your pocket for $8.99/month *Fair usage policy applies knew them almost from beginning to end. Perhaps this training was what gave him in later life such power in using the words and ideas these books contained. Once during the terrible war while Lincoln was President, he was out among the soldiers. One of the boys he found on picket duty with a Greek book in his hand. The President saw the book and asked him what he was reading. When the soldier told him he was reading Greek, Lincoln said he was sorry he did not have a chance for a higher education. You may be pleased to know that the soldier boy fitted for college while in the army, and after the war was over graduated with the highest honors. He became professor in a Colorado college, and he was wont to tell his students of the great pleasure he had in listening to Lincoln's immortal speech at Gettysburg which gave him uplifting thoughts ever after. "The children of the United States are favored more than the children of any other country. Why? Because it is a free land, with schools, churches, thrift, order, peace, and the best homes in the world. In no country do young people enjoy so much as they do here." School World Readings Three Cents Each—$3.00 Per 100, Postage or Express Pre-paid. THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS ARE NOW READY: 6 Steam and Its Work 10 Two English Queens 13 Wit and Humor of Tom Hood 14 Stories of Electricity 15 William McKinley 16 Charles Dickens and His Story People 18 Glimpses of the Nile 21 The Building of the Ship and Other Poems (Longfellow) 22 Conquest of Porto Rico and Discovery of Florida (Irving) 23 Half-Forgotten Stories of American History—No. 1 24 Porto Rico 30 The Search for Gold 31 Joan of Arc. 34 Theodore Roosevelt 37 The Coming of Arthur and Other Poems (Tennyson) 38 Thanatopsis and Other Poems (Bryant) 42 The Farewell of Leather-Stocking and Other Tales 44 Japan and the Japanese 46 The Gold Bug (Poe) 47 The Pilgrim Fathers (Abbott) 48 Alice and Phœbe Cary 49 Lincoln’s Speeches and Letters 51 Songs of Seven: Birds and Poets 53 Half-Forgotten Stories of American History—No. 2 55 Philip of Pokanoket (Irving) 56 The Passing of Arthur and Other Poems 57 Franklin 58 "Les Miserables" Selections 59 Best Poems 61 Romeo and Juliet (Lamb) 62 My Hunt After the Captain (Holmes) 63 Cervantes, abridged from Prescott 64 Stories of Science 68 Rules of Conduct and Farewell Address (George Washington) 69 Wandering Willie’s Tale (Scott) 70 Michael Angelo 73 Half-Forgotten Stories of American History—No. 3 74 Stories of Cooper’s "Spy" 75 Alaska 77 The Seven Poor Travelers (Dickens) 78 A Canterbury Tale and Its Author 81 Stories from "The Pilot" (Cooper) 82 Our Navy 83 The Philippines 84 Wildwood: A Story of the Forest 85 Hawaii 86 The Nation’s Beacon-Lights 87 The Louisiana Purchase 88 Stories from Lincoln’s Life 89 Sicily: Her Myths and Earthquakes 90 The Balloon-Hoax (Poe) 91 Mozart and Beethoven 92 Holmes Centenary 93 A Poet’s Centenary: Tennyson 94 Compensation (Emerson) 95 The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers 96 Sohrab and Rustum (Arnold) 97 Christmas Day and Christmas Eve (Irving) 98 Minor Poems from Milton 99 The Reform Bill (Macaulay) 100 The Succession of Forest Trees (Thoreau) D. H. Knowlton & Co., Publishers, Farmington, Maine. Except in a few instances, the following Classics are now published only in the 5-cent or Excelsior Edition of our Popular Classics: | Title | Author | |--------------------------------------------|--------------| | The Great Stone Face | Hawthorne | | The Great Carbuncle | Hawthorne | | The Snow-Image | Hawthorne | | Snow-Bound | Whittier | | A Christmas Carol | Dickens | | Evangeline | Longfellow | | The Courtship of Miles Standish | Longfellow | | Tales of a Wayside Inn | Longfellow | | The Song of Hiawatha | Longfellow | | The Pied Piper of Hamelin | Browning | | Miss Alcott and Her Stories | | | The Rime of the Ancient Mariner | Coleridge | | Lincoln's Speeches and Letters | | | The Bells and Other Poems | Poe | | The Coming of Arthur | Tennyson | | Enoch Arden | Tennyson | | The Legend of Sleepy Hollow | Irving | | Christmas Day and Christmas Eve | Irving | | Rip Van Winkle | Irving | | The Vision of Sir Launfal and Other Poems | Lowell | | The Deserted Village | Goldsmith | | Horatius at the Bridge | Macaulay | | Jean Valjean | Hugo | | The King of the Golden River | Ruskin | | The Prisoner of Chillon | Byron | | Rab and His Friends | Brown | | Holmes Miscellany | | | Perseus | Abridged from Kingsley | | King Lear | Lamb | | The Merchant of Venice | Lamb | | As You Like It | Lamb | | The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers | Addison | | Sohrab and Rustum | Arnold | | Minor Poems | Milton | 5c each, $4.00 per 100. Postage or Express Prepaid A Complete Graded List of the Three-Cent and Five-Cent Classics will be forwarded to any address upon application. D. H. Knowlton & Company Publishers :: :: Farmington, Maine
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Biological management of water on land V. Rajamani School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110 067, India Plant, soil, groundwater and rivers on land are one complexly interconnected system with a strong symbiosis. Managing one such as the lower form of life will simultaneously manage all others. This is the biological management of water on land. Keywords: Biological management, earth, land, water. We are in a human-dominated earth now and the dominance is ever increasing due to advancement in science and technology. All the socially perceived economic development seems to have adversely affected the life support system of the earth. Unless there is a ‘shock’, the pursuit of economic development will go on and so also the deterioration of components of life support system of the earth. We are all too familiar with the problem of water and the politically motivated efforts to deal with both quantity and quality of water problem, such as rainwater harvesting and interlinking of rivers and river cleansing. The success or otherwise of these projects requires people’s participation. For this, citizens must be informed of certain basic facts of water on earth so that opinions are publicly expressed and decisions are made, which will enable a sustainable society to exist on earth. Along with the options presently under consideration by various government agencies on a large scale such as linking Indian rivers and rain water harvesting, the natural water harvesting by vegetation cover on land needs a serious consideration because of its efficacy in maintaining the life support system. Water is life on earth and it has no substitute For most part of the earth and for much of its 4.6 billion year geological history, most of the planetary water has been in existence as liquid water. Unlike our neighbouring planets (Venus and Mars), water has made the earth’s atmosphere suitable for all life, by removing most of the atmospheric CO₂, a greenhouse gas, in the form of carbonate rocks (limestone), coal and hydrocarbon deposits (oil and gas); these are carbon containing earth materials that lie buried within the earth for millions of years and are normally recycled slowly on a geological time scale. Anthropogenic removal and use of these materials release the buried CO₂ back to the atmosphere causing global warming. After creating water ‘scarcity’ through all our developmental activities we now realize that both quantity and quality of water are the limiting factors of terrestrial life in all its diversity. Unlike an ocean which is water itself, water on land is transported from oceans through the atmosphere – the hydrologic cycle. The rate of vapour generation and its transport, and the quantity of precipitation on land from the atmosphere are highly variable in terms of space and time because of the variabilities in solar energy input, ocean circulation, latitudes, altitudes and vegetational cover. The variability in precipitation is a major limiting factor for biomass or grain production on land. Nearly 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with salty seawater to an average depth of 3800 m and the seawater accounts for nearly 97.41% of the entire near surface water (Table 1). Freshwater on land (ice caps + glaciers = 1.98%, ground + soil water = 0.6%, streams and lakes = 0.006%, and atmospheric moisture 0.001%) although constitutes only about 2.6%, the land supply is renewed continuously by the existence of the hydrologic cycle. The cycle involves a large scale transfer of water as vapour from oceans through the atmosphere to the land and return of the precipitated water, with changed chemistry, back to oceans after spending varying lengths of time (average exchange time for atmosphere = 9 days, rivers = 10–15 days, large lakes = 10–20 years; oceans = 3000 years; ice caps = 10,000 years and groundwater = 100 to > 10,000 years (Table 1). It is noted that subsurface groundwater is the largest supply of liquid water with the highest residence time on land. The hydrologic cycle not only supplies freshwater to land, it also helps in rock weathering, release and transport of plant nutrients and maintaining the salinity of seawater, planetary climate and life – a very major surface earth process with complex interconnections among component parts. Table 1. Salient details of water on earth | Reservoir size (% of total) | Exchange time of water | |-----------------------------|------------------------| | Oceans | 97.410 | 3000 years | | Ice caps + glaciers | 1.984 | > 10000 years | | Ground + soil water | 0.599 | 100–10000 years | | Rivers | 0.006 | 10–15 days | | Lakes | | 10–20 years | | Atmosphere | 0.001 | 9 days | Atmosphere exchanges its total moisture in nine days, i.e. three times in a lunar month, i.e. monthly three rains (mammari in Tamil). Groundwater → largest fresh ‘water’ reservoir with longest residence time. Source: Marsh and Grossa Jr¹. Of the precipitation falling on land, which is only 22% of the amount evaporated from the oceans, nearly 58% is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration. The rest flows back to oceans directly as surface flow in rivers or stored on land as groundwater eventually to return to the oceans through seepage to the rivers. A river gets its supply of water mainly from the stored groundwater as seepage and also from surface runoff (Figure 1). Groundwater is largely responsible for the base flow of the river which sustains the entire riverine ecology. Geological processes provide the necessary land gradient as well as characteristic sediments to sustain the base flow of a river, throughout the year particularly in its lower reaches (Figure 2). Surface runoff generated during periods of high rainfall is actually superimposed onto the base flow and has built up the river’s floodplain and delta. Surface runoff which causes occasional floods is also essential to recharge the groundwater and replenish plant nutrients in flood plains and to remove all kinds of wastes and salts from the land surface, especially from farmland and urban areas. Storage of rainwater as groundwater is very essential for maintaining a river on land. What proportion of precipitation is stored as groundwater is a complex function of several interacting parameters such as rainfall pattern and intensity, geological make up, tectonic activity and vegetation in the catchment area, climate along the river course and structure/texture of sediments in the floodplain and delta. A large scale interception of land precipitation either by dams or by rainwater harvesting in urban areas may have serious consequences to wetland ecosystem, stability of deltaic and coastal areas, biomass production in both land and sea and to ocean circulation, mixing and, therefore, climate. These are huge unknowns and it is common sense that when in doubt, leave things as they are. **Ground water is essential for rivers to flow** ![Diagram showing normal flow in an undisturbed river](image) **Figure 1.** Normal flow in an undisturbed river to illustrate the essentiality of groundwater for rivers to flow. **a.** Base flow – largely due to seepage of groundwater to streams and is steady. **b.** Surface runoff – due to rainfall when rate of precipitation exceeds the rate of infiltration and is sporadic. Catchment regions of rivers are either geologically uplifted terrains or volcanic mountains. Normal erosional and landslide processes result in the build up of thick piles of coarse sediments along the foothill regions, which have high permeability to infiltrate water and drain it (Figure 2). Vegetation in the catchment, particularly some large trees, facilitate the process of storing rainwater through the development of deep and extensive root zone of soils and by reducing the surface runoff as plant litters hold the water as mini check dams. Even the surface runoff developed during periods of intense rainfall is stored by a river in its floodplain downstream during high flow (Figure 2). Presence of natural levees (banks made by flooding) built up by coarse-textured sediments along a river valley helps the water storage process during high flow seasons and discharge the stored water during the low flow. Thus normal earth processes have the inherent capacity of increasing the residence time of precipitated water on land. In this task, the plant world also plays a very important role. Plants take the soil water for photosynthesis to fix the shortwave radiation of the sun and atmospheric CO$_2$, factors reducing the greenhouse effect and therefore the surface temperature. Plant transpiration also takes a large quantity of soil water and evaporates it into the atmosphere to keep the leaves cool. Although plant photosynthesis and transpiration pump the soil water to the atmosphere, plants do bring the pumped water back to the ground by changing the climate and inducing precipitation locally (microclimate). The complex feedback processes involved in plant physiology and climate and its effect in groundwater storage are not well understood. It is well known that soil cover on land is an essential part of the hydrologic cycle. It stores the land precipitation as soil/groundwater and returns it to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration process and to the oceans through the rivers. Soil formation requires vegetation in addition to rainfall. Thicker zones of soils are formed in areas where dense vegetational cover exists. In hard rock terrains (commonly catchment areas of rivers), the thicker the soil cover, the greater is the ground/soil water storage. Because soil water is essential for plant growth, there exists a strong symbiosis among groundwater storage, soil formation and vegetational cover. The symbiosis is further enhanced in tectonically active and uplifted areas because of the additional orographic effect and habitat diversity promoting rainfall and biodiversity respectively. It follows that an upland catchment area of rivers must have a good vegetative cover to increase the rainfall and groundwater recharge in the foothills, reduce the surface runoff and, therefore, to contain a river and to maintain its base flow. Storage of groundwater in catchment and floodplain areas is essential to increase the residence time of water on land and to maintain rivers on land. It is noted that groundwater is needed to store more of it, just as soil is needed to make more soil on a long term basis. Soil formation is a positive feedback process, i.e. soil formed Recharge: From in situ precipitation/melting ice Discharge: Rapid due to high gradient and gravelly sediments with high permeability Trees: Increase recharge, and decrease discharge Recharge: From sub-surface and surface flow and by precipitation Discharge: Slow through seepage to base flow of rivers **Figure 2.** Hydrogeological characteristics along a typical river. **a**, Longitudinal profile; **b**, longitudinal sections in foothills and floodplains (FP) and delta, and **c**, cross sections at the same locations. Certain basic facts of water such as its budget, and hydrology of rivers on earth are also discussed in the paper by Narasimhan\(^1\) (this issue). Because the issue of water management in contemporary society requires a good understanding of these basic properties of water and rivers on earth, the small overlap in the two articles only reinforces our thinking on this vital subject. **Conclusion** Water is life on earth. To sustain life on earth in all its totality, water should be carefully managed in its natural habitat. This is accomplished by managing life on earth as life is both a consequence and a cause of water on land. --- 1. Marsh, W. M. and Grossa Jr., J., *Environmental Geography: Science, Land use, and Earth System*, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York. 2002, pp. 412. 2. Narasimhan, T. N., Water: science and society. *Curr. Sci.*, this issue. **ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.** I thank Dr R. Ramesh, PRL, Ahmedabad for helpful review.
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In 1808 Laura Smith was born in Ontario to Quaker parents. Her father, a minister, and mother, a church elder, moved the family to New York in 1815.\textsuperscript{12} Elizabeth was intellectually precocious as a girl. She grew bored with her schoolbooks and gravitated toward her father’s personal library. She read about the history of the slave trade and became conscious of the exploitation of people of African descent in the United States. As a girl, she decided to enlist her “sympathies” with those “who were thus enslaved.”\textsuperscript{13} In 1825 at the age of seventeen, Laura married Charles Haviland, a fellow Quaker. In 1829, when Laura was twenty-one, she relocated with her husband and two children to join their parents who had “removed to Michigan Territory.” The Smith-Haviland families, together with neighbors, started the first Quaker church meeting in Michigan.\textsuperscript{14} In 1832, Laura helped her neighbor, Elizabeth Chandler, organize the Logan Female Antislavery Society in Lenawee County. In 1837, the year that Michigan became a state, Laura founded Raisin Institute with her husband and brother. Raisin Institute was a co-educational and interracial school and farm modeled after Oberlin College in Ohio and located near the Raisin River in southeastern Michigan. Boys and girls, blacks and whites could attend there together, a demonstration of principles of gender and racial equality that were radical at the time. On school grounds, Laura sheltered African Americans who had escaped from slavery in the South. Laura’s school became known as a stop on the Underground Railroad, and she later accompanied many fugitive slaves on their journey from Ohio to Canada. Making this journey required knowing many of the natural features of the land, including the Ohio and Detroit Rivers as well as the woods and swamps in between. On multiple occasions Laura bravely “left [her] sweet home and the loved ones who still clustered around it” for the greater good of helping enslaved people take their freedom. In the 1840s-1860s, Laura also traveled around the Midwest lecturing about the moral wrong of slavery. Sojourner Truth, who lived in Harmonia, Michigan (west of Battle Creek), was also an antislavery lecturer in the region. The two women became friends after the Civil War when they worked for the Freedmen’s Hospital in Washington D.C. Because Laura believed that healthy foods sustained good health and learning, she paid close attention to the menu offered at Raisin Institute. She insisted that her students eat items made of the whole grain variety of flour recently invented by Sylvester Graham, a Presbyterian minister and dietary reformer. This flour was special because it used the wheat bran, germ, and endosperm in a ratio that was proportionate to those same elements in the wheat kernel itself. In 1829 Rev. Graham created “Graham Bread,” which he believed was more wholesome and nutritious than breads that used chemical additives such as chlorine and alum to make bread whiter in color and more commercially appealing. When paired with a high-fiber, vegetarian diet that consisted primarily of fresh fruits and vegetables, Rev. Graham believed that this diet could be the foundation for optimal health. Due to Laura’s preference for the flour, students affectionately nicknamed Raisin Institute “Graham Town.”\textsuperscript{15} The ECO Girls research team did not uncover an original Laura Haviland recipe. However, we are pleased to reproduce historical graham flour recipes for Graham Bread and Graham Gems, two popular baked items that Laura might well have prepared. We found these recipes in \textit{The Home Messenger Book of Tested Receiptes}, which was first published in 1873.\textsuperscript{16} You will notice again that neither recipe contains oven temperatures or bake times. If you prefer a more modern graham flour recipe, see the following recipe for homemade graham crackers. Graham flour is readily available at health food stores or may be ordered from online vendors. **Graham Bread** One quart of Graham Flour ¾ cup yeast One quart warm water One cup molasses Let these ingredients rise overnight. Mix with wheat flour in the morning into a stiff loaf; let it rise a second time, afterwards put into loaves to rise for baking. Very good. Note: The yeast called for here is not our modern granulated yeast, but rather an active starter made of yeast, flour, and water. It would have had a texture similar to a pancake batter. **Graham Gems** One pint milk One cup wheat flour One cup Graham flour One egg A little salt Have the irons hot before using. Note: This would have been baked in heavy “gem pans,” similar to muffin tins but smaller, and often made of cast iron.\textsuperscript{17} **Graham Crackers†** 8 tablespoons (1 stick) butter 2/3 cup “raw” or brown sugar, firmly packed 2 cups graham flour ½ teaspoon salt ½ teaspoon baking powder ¼ teaspoon ground cinnamon ½ cup water 1. Cream butter and sugar well. Sift together dry ingredients and add to creamed mixture, alternating with the water. Mix well. Let stand for 30 minutes. 2. Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Oil a cookie sheet. 3. Roll out dough on floured board to 1/8 – inch thickness. Cut in squares or rounds, and bake for about 20 minutes, or until lightly browned. 4. Makes about three dozen. “[As a young girl,] I wished to read every book that came within my reach. I read a few of father’s books, designed for more mature minds. I became deeply interested in John Woolman’s history of the slave-trade, of the capture and cruel middle passage of negroes, and of the thousands who died on their voyage and were thrown into the sea to be devoured by sharks, that followed the slave-ship day after day. The pictures of these crowded slave-ships, with the cruelties of the slave system after they were brought to our country, often affected me to tears; and I often read until the midnight hour, and could not rest until I had read it twice through. My sympathies became too deeply enlisted for the poor negroes who were thus enslaved for time to efface.” —Haviland, from memoir \textit{A Woman’s Life-Work}
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In today’s Gospel we hear of Jesus being amazed, but not in a good way. He is amazed by the lack of faith he encounters in his hometown. He has shown his ability to do miracles and teach with wisdom. People have left everything to follow him. Yet at home, his community could not believe in him. They had already decided who he was and put Jesus in a box. They could not believe because they could not see him for who he really was, the Son of God. How often do we put others in easily understood boxes? Have we ever made up our minds about people and not given them the space to reveal themselves to be something different, something more? Have we ever put Jesus in a box and assumed we knew everything about him? Have we ever lacked faith in him? We are invited to get to know Jesus for who he is. To look again with new eyes. When we choose faith, we are the ones who will be amazed. **Questions** - What do today’s readings teach you about the Christian life? - Have you ever felt like the people of Nazareth and lacked faith in Jesus? - What is holding you back from believing fully in Jesus? **Action** We all want to be understood for who we are. An important step in that process is knowing who we are and accepting and loving ourselves as God made us. This week, write down ten things you know and love about yourself. Offer those to Jesus in prayer. On a separate list, write ten things you know and love about God. Offer them as a prayer of thanksgiving to God. “Stand in Faith” —Danny Gokey https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZIREaGBN4Jw FOURTEENTH SUNDAY IN ORDINARY TIME LECTIONARY #101B Ezekiel 2:2–5 Psalm 123:1–2, 2, 3–4 2 Corinthians 12:7–10 Mark 6:1–6 Prepare for the Word The following elements may be used by the catechist, teacher, or youth minister to prepare to facilitate today’s session with teens. You may integrate this information into the reflection and discussion on today’s readings. Leader’s Context This Gospel passage can lead to some challenging questions, especially in the last few lines. This account from Mark says that because the people in Jesus’ hometown had trouble believing in him as the messiah, he was “not able to perform any mighty deed there.” This can be misinterpreted to lead us to believe that God only has power when people believe. Instead, we should understand this as a comment about our faith: without faith, we do not see God’s work; through faith we open ourselves up to God’s working in the world. Nothing is impossible for God, but at the same time Jesus regularly connects healing miracles in particular to people’s faith. We saw this last week in the story about the healing of Jairus’s daughter, when Jesus encourages Jairus to continue to have faith. FOCUS: Faith opens us to God’s work in our lives. Liturgical Calendar Connection This week we celebrate St. Benedict on July 11. He is known for having founded the Benedictines, one of the oldest religious orders in the Church. The Rule (a handbook about the way his monks were to live) that Benedict wrote has served as a foundation for many other religious orders. It describes a way of life centered around prayer, liturgy, and communal living. Benedict is the patron saint of Europe. This is a good week to pray for monastic communities and vocations to the religious life. Church Teaching Connection “It should nonetheless be kept in mind that Revelation remains charged with mystery. It is true that Jesus, with his entire life, revealed the countenance of the Father, for he came to teach the secret things of God. But our vision of the face of God is always fragmentary and impaired by the limits of our understanding. Faith alone makes it possible to penetrate the mystery in a way that allows us to understand it coherently” (Fides et ratio, 13). Hear the Word Use this resource, a Lectionary, or a Bible to proclaim the reading. The book should be held reverently or placed on a lectern. If possible, light a candle that is placed near where the Gospel will be proclaimed. Gesture for teens to stand. Gospel Acclamation Use the same musical setting that is used in your parish or at school Masses. Teens may help with music and proclaim the Gospel. Alleluia, alleluia. Gospel Mark 6:1–6 Reader: A reading from the holy Gospel according to Mark. All: Glory to you, O Lord. All make the sign of the cross on their forehead, lips, and heart. Jesus departed from there and came to his native place, accompanied by his disciples. When the sabbath came he began to teach in the synagogue, and many who heard him were astonished. They said, “Where did this man get all this? What kind of wisdom has been given him? What mighty deeds are wrought by his hands! Is he not the carpenter, the son of Mary, and the brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon? And are not his sisters here with us?” And they took offense at him. Jesus said to them, “A prophet is not without honor except in his native place and among his own kin and in his own house.” So he was not able to perform any mighty deed there, apart from curing a few sick people by laying his hands on them. He was amazed at their lack of faith. **Reader:** The Gospel of the Lord. **All:** Praise to you, Lord Jesus Christ. *Everyone may be seated.* ### Reflect on the Word *When beginning the reflection and discussion about today’s readings, first refer to the handout for today. Ask teens what they learned about themselves and about Christian discipleship from performing the action for the week and journaling. Ask teens about the readings of the day: What struck them? What do they think the readings mean? How do the readings affect their own lives? Then begin the following reflection:* Today’s Gospel invites us to consider our own faith and how open we truly are to God in our lives. In this passage from Mark, we hear how Jesus returned to his “native place,” his hometown. He goes to the synagogue, as he normally would on the sabbath, and teaches those who are gathered there. Instead of welcoming him, the people reject him. It was hard for these people who knew him well already to suddenly adjust to him as a preacher and teacher. This makes it seem like Jesus probably had a normal childhood, at least on the outside. The people around him (expect Mary and Joseph, of course) didn’t seem to have much of a sense of who he was until Jesus was an adult. They can’t accept Jesus as the messiah or even a prophet because think they know who Jesus really is; after all, they know his relatives who still live in town. This would be something like the person sitting next to you suddenly declaring that they were running for president. It’s not that you automatically think the person wouldn’t be good at the job, but it can be hard for us to reimagine someone who we are already familiar with. ▶ Have you ever felt like people didn’t recognize you for who you are now, not what you were once like as a child? How did you react to them? Jesus’ response to the pushback from his neighbors suggests that he expected their reaction. He remarks that “a prophet is not without honor except in his native place and among his own kin and in his own house.” This saying recalls for us that many prophets in the Old Testament were rejected. Looking forward in Jesus’ life, he will continue to be rejected, even to the point of death. This saying also reinforces our understanding that familiarity can make it difficult for us to treat somebody with a different respect than we used to. Going back to our president example, it’s likely that many people in the president’s family still just call the person by his name or nickname. They might respect him in his role, but at family gatherings he is still an uncle, dad, or grandpa. Even when we take on a new role or position, we don’t stop being ourselves. ▶ Who are you to different people (sibling, child, team captain, section leader, and so on)? How do your different roles help create who you are? The last thing we want to look at in today’s Gospel reading is the effect that people’s unbelief had on the situation. Because the people did not fully believe in Jesus as the messiah, he was “not able to perform any mighty deed there.” We might misread this as saying that Jesus’ power to work miracles depended on the faith of those being healed, but that would put limits on God. Instead, a better way to think of that is to say that faith is what opens us up to receiving God’s grace and seeing God’s action in our lives. Someone who rejects God’s existence would also reject any miracle she saw. Thus, our faith and relationship with God shape how we perceive God’s activity in the world. ### Wrapping It Up *Consider these points to conclude the discussion and reflection. Integrate the thoughts and ideas that surfaced during the discussion as well as the “Church Teaching Connection” on page 226.* Jesus was not welcomed as the messiah or even as a prophet in his hometown. Jesus’ neighbors were too familiar with him; they could not see him in a new light. Our faith affects our openness to recognize God’s activity in our lives and our world. Act on the Word Running for President You will not need any materials for this activity. Begin by selecting somebody (not one of the teens) who will be hypothetically running for president of the United States. You should choose somebody from your parish community, maybe one of the adults on your youth ministry team or a lay minister, or even your pastor. The point is to choose somebody familiar to the teens. Next, divide the young people into groups of five or six. Within each group, assign them the following roles: One person in each group should be a believer; three people should be doubters/skeptics; and the remaining one or two people are unconvinced, seeing the points of both sides and adding their own opinions, but not fully in either camp. Have the groups engage in dialogue with one another about this scenario of your community member running for president. Ask them to discuss why they believe or doubt or are unsure (making sure they stay within their assigned roles.) They should not shout each other down, as the point is to make a convincing argument, not a loud one. The doubters will have an inherent advantage because of their numbers, so it is important to make room for the believers to make their case. Emphasize that this is not about politics. Rather than focusing on scenarios of how this would be possible, the teens should look at the characteristics of the person running for president and why he or she would or wouldn’t be a good fit for the role. Is that person serious, organized, good at communicating? Are they good at inspiring people and making people feel valued? Are they good at public speaking or thinking critically? After the groups have interacted for a time, invite them to return to the large group to unpack the exercise. Ask the young people how being familiar with someone affects their ability to see the person in a different light. Closing Prayer Lord God, your Word transforms and sustains us. Bless us with holy wisdom so that we may recognize Christ’s presence in the Word proclaimed and in the community in which we live. Through Christ our Lord. Amen. For Next Sunday To help teens prepare for next Sunday’s Mass, print, email, or share on a blog or social media the handout found on the next page. The JPG and PDF files are available at www.ltp.org/lwgr. Encourage teens to attend Mass with family or friends.
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New Hanover Banks: Then and Now By William J. Cleary and Paul E. Hosier UNC Sea Grant Publication UNC-SG-77-14 Price: $2.00 Copies are available from: UNC Sea Grant 105 1911 Building North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina 27650 NEW HANOVER BANKS: THEN AND NOW A GUIDE TO THE NEW HANOVER COUNTY BEACHES by WILLIAM J. CLEARY and PAUL E. HOSIER Program in Marine Sciences University of North Carolina at Wilmington This work was sponsored by the Office of Sea Grant, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce, under Grant Number 04-6-158-44054 and the North Carolina Department of Administration. The U.S. Government is authorized to produce and distribute reprints for governmental purposes notwithstanding any copyright that may appear hereon. SEA GRANT PUBLICATION UNC-SG-77-14 December 1977 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The information contained within this guide is derived from a wide variety of sources, including published and unpublished data of the authors and the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. A number of historically oriented books, including Sprunt (1916), Lee (1965 & 1971) and Hall (1976), provided background information necessary for tracing the development of this region of New Hanover County. Some of the information contained herein has been obtained through personal communication with many knowledgeable, life-long residents of this area. We would like to single out a few who have been the most helpful: Mr. Dan Holt, Mr. Bill Robertson, Mrs. D. H. Barnett and Mr. E. C. Helms. Gratitude is extended particularly to Mr. Lim Vallianos, whose knowledge of coastal processes has been immensely helpful. Miss Pamela Johnson and Mr. Glenn Wells wrote term papers which provided information concerning the recent geologic history of the islands. We thank Ms. Anita Boney who typed the original draft and the many revisions since the manuscript took form. Her patience is appreciated. Lastly much of the guide could not have been written without the help of Mr. Lewis P. Hall, whose knowledge of the development of this area has provided another dimension to understanding the problems confronting the shoreline. # TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 11 FIGURES iv INTRODUCTION 1 BEFORE YOU BEGIN 1 THE FIELD TRIP 4 STOP 1. HOLIDAY INN/ISLANDER/SHELL ISLAND DEVELOPMENT 7 STOP 2. SHELL ISLAND 11 STOP 3. MERCER'S PIER 13 STOP 4. STATION ONE 17 STOP 5. BLOCKADE RUNNER 20 STOP 6. MASONBORO INLET JETTY AND THE ARTIFICIAL BERM 24 STOP 7. MASONBORO ISLAND 29 STOP 8. CAROLINA BEACH PIER 34 STOP 9. KURE BEACH PIER 42 STOP 10. FORT FISHER HISTORIC SITE 44 STOP 11. "THE ROCKS" 47 APPENDIX A: FIGURE EIGHT ISLAND TOUR 49 STOP 1. PRE-1938 WASHOVER FAN 52 STOP 2. CUL-DE-SAC 53 STOP 3. CUL-DE-SAC: VIEW OF MASON'S INLET 56 APPENDIX B: THE BARRIER ISLAND ECOSYSTEM 57 BEACH 57 DUNES AND GRASSLAND 59 SHRUB THICKET 61 MARITIME FOREST 63 TIDAL MARSH 65 REFERENCES 68 FIGURES 1. Map of New Hanover County Shoreline 3 2. Aerial photograph of Wrightsville Beach (1938) 5 3. Holiday Inn Motel, Wrightsville Beach 7 4. Shell Island development, Wrightsville Beach 9 5. Multiple dune rows on Shell Island and marsh islands in lagoon 12 6. Northern section of Wrightsville Beach in the early 1920's 13 7. Artificial dune line south of Mercer's Pier, Wrightsville Beach 14 8. Artificial dune line north of Mercer's Pier, Wrightsville Beach 15 9. Typical side street, Wrightsville Beach 16 10. View south of Station #1 (Newells), Wrightsville Beach 17 11. Early Banks Channel trestle, Wrightsville Beach 19 12. Blockade Runner Hotel, Wrightsville Beach 21 13. Carolina Yacht Club after Hurricane Hazel (1954) 22 14. Station #7 (Lumina), Wrightsville Beach 23 15. Aftermath of Hurricane Hazel (1954), Wrightsville Beach 25 16. Hurricane Protection Project, Wrightsville Beach 26 17. Diagrammatic representation of the Beach-berm project, Wrightsville and Carolina Beaches 27 18. Wier jetty at Masonboro Inlet 28 19. Snows Cut and the Cape Fear River 33 20. Northern extension of Carolina Beach 35 21. Beach stabilization project, Carolina Beach 36 22. Damage caused by Hurricane Hazel (1954) at Carolina Beach 37 23. Carolina Beach business district 39 24. Breakers Hotel, Wilmington Beach 40 25. Groins and Bulkhead, Kure Beach 43 26. Map of Fort Fisher, showing the location of the 1865 and 1965 shorelines 45 27. Mainland Beach, Fort Fisher 46 28. Aerial photography of the 'Rocks' and the shoreline south of Fort Fisher 48 29. View looking south from north end, Figure 8 Island 51 30. View looking south, Figure 8 Island 54 31. The Bay House 55 32. Beach ecosystem, Masonboro Island 57 33. Dune ecosystem, Masonboro Island 59 34. Shrub Thicket ecosystem, Masonboro Island 61 35. Maritime live oak forest ecosystem, Masonboro Island 63 36. Salt marsh ecosystem, Masonboro Island 65 INTRODUCTION A series of barrier islands forms the eastern margin of North Carolina. This chain plays the crucial role of protecting the mainland from hurricane surge. The islands are a home for many North Carolinians and the playground for thousands of visitors each year. And like many other coastal areas, they have been subjected to intense development pressures. Because of the fragility of the islands, this pressure is keenly felt. Development here often causes more damage than on adjacent mainland sites. The life of a barrier island is governed by certain predictable natural processes. When man begins to live and build there, his actions affect the natural life of the island -- sometimes dramatically, sometimes more subtly. New value is placed on the real estate. Words like erosion and accretion take on a special meaning. The land often becomes a battleground between people determined to develop it along traditional building lines and those who oppose development. This book is designed to help you understand how man and nature have interacted on the New Hanover County outer banks. It outlines the history of development in this area. These islands offer a wide spectrum of developed and undeveloped beaches. Wrightsville, Carolina and Kure Beaches and Figure 8 Island have each undergone different types of development. At the same time, Masonboro and Shell Islands remain virtually in their natural states. BEFORE YOU BEGIN There are 43.5 km (27 miles) of beaches in New Hanover County, extending from Rich Inlet at the north end of Figure 8 Island to New Inlet near Fort Fisher. Mason, Masonboro and Carolina Beach Inlets bring the total of the county's inlets to five. The coastline can be divided into four major segments: Figure 8 Island; Wrightsville Beach; Masonboro Island; and the Carolina, Kure and Fort Fisher Beach area (Figure 1). Eighteen miles of beach in the county are severely eroding. In some developed areas, such as Wrightsville and Carolina Beaches, the natural dunes have eroded and artificial dune lines have been constructed in their place. Exclusive, private shoreline development is occurring on Figure 8 Island. The southern section is more advanced in development, while the northern part is still pristine. Wrightsville Beach is highly developed, with both permanent and seasonal dwellings. The beach itself is made accessible by walkways stretching across the artificial berm. The Shell Island Development Company has built permanent residences on its northern end. Masonboro Island, on the other hand, is bare of construction and is accessible only by boat. Carolina and Kure Beaches are more highly developed and commercialized than Wrightsville Beach. They boast an amusement park, numerous hotels and motels and a public beach which fronts private development. South of Kure Beach is Fort Fisher, a state historic site. Its museum trails and picnic areas are open to the public. The book is written as a guide to a field trip of the county's barrier islands. But it can easily be used alone as an educational text as accompanying photographs illustrate sites of particular interest in the field trip. The guide covers a 40-mile field trip which begins at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington campus, goes east to Wrightsville Beach and southwest along the barrier island beaches as far as The Rocks, just south of Fort Fisher. Appendix A outlines a tour of the private development, Figure 8 Island. You must have prior permission of the developer or a landowner to tour that island. Appendix B is a description of each of the major ecosystems which comprise the barrier islands: beach, dunes, shrub thicket, maritime forest, grasslands and tidal marsh. The discussion is an educational aid for the field trip or reading of the text. FIGURE 1. Map of New Hanover County shoreline showing major barrier island beaches, spits, mainland areas and tidal inlets. THE FIELD TRIP The field trip upon which you are about to embark will provide you with information and explanations of historic changes, the past experiences and the future trends in coastal development in the New Hanover County area. It is hoped that you will develop a better comprehension of both the problems and the potential for the coastal area of New Hanover County. Mileage indicators are provided to aid in following the Field Trip. Mileage 0.0 Assemble at Kenan Auditorium on the University of North Carolina at Wilmington campus at the corner of Randall Dr. and Street B. Proceed to light (Randall Dr. and South College Rd.). Turn right on N. C. 132; proceed north for 1 mile. Bear right onto U. S. 17-74 toward Wrightsville Beach. 1.4 Bear right at junction of U. S. 17-74 (East) and follow U. S. 74 to Wrightsville Beach. 4.0 Stoplight. Junction U. S. 74 and Truck Route U. S. 17. Proceed East on U. S. 74. 5.0 Junction U. S. 74-76. UNC-Wilmington Institute of Marine Biomedical Research (IMBR) on left. This marks the general location where early seaside development (Wrightsville) first occurred, in the late 1870's and early 1880's. The soundside resort areas sprang up following the completion of the Old Shell Road or Wilmington Turnpike in 1876. This early toll road provided easy access to the sounds as well as a jumping off spot for more hardy individuals, who ventured across the marshlands by boat and on foot to the hammocks (Harbor Island) and beach to the east. The Waterway Motor Lodge on the right now stands on the location of one of the earliest establishments, the Pine Grove House (1884), complete with baths, rooms and seafood dinners. 5.2 Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway (AIW). Dredging operations on this section of the Beaufort to Cape Fear Inland Waterway segment began in 1930. The original cut was 27.45 m (90 feet) wide, 3.65 m (12 feet) deep and was positioned as close to the mainland as possible. During the summer months the waterway is crowded with boats, significantly increasing the pollution in the area. 5.5 Bear left following U.S. 74. Saline Water Plant on right. 5.6 This section of U.S. 74 opened in 1957. The Channel Walk development, located on the left (north) of the road, marks the location of once flourishing tidal marsh that was bulkheaded and filled with dredged material from nearby channels in 1966 (Figure 2). 6.3 Tidal Creek. Notice the extensive bulkheading along this section. 6.7 Stoplight. Turn left, follow U.S. 74. Moores Inlet (also called Barren or Wrightsville) once flowed through this area in 1905-1915. You are now riding on the flood tidal delta of the former inlet (Figure 2). FIGURE 2. Aerial photograph of Wrightsville Beach (1938) shows the recent dredging of Banks Channel and construction of Waynick Blvd. (arrow). Note the narrowness of the island south of the causeway. The large structure on the southern end of beach is Lumina. Even at this early date, the dune line is almost nonexistent. Recurved dune ridges are evidence that Masonboro Inlet has migrated south. 7.0 Surf Club on right. Immediately north of this social club is one of the areas on the beach where natural dunes occur on the back barrier surface. A sewage treatment plant is on the left. In 1976, local residents sued the beach community because of raw sewage discharges from the treatment plant. The residents contended that the capacity of the plant had been exceeded on numerous occasions, leading to the closure of shell-fishing areas in the vicinity. The area to the left is a dredge and fill site on the northern extension of Wrightsville Beach in the 1950's. In the early 1950's Moore's Inlet was located just north of the Surf Club. Prior to 1940, Moore's Inlet was the major inlet in the area (Figure 2). 7.2 STOP 1. HOLIDAY INN/ISLANDER/SHELL ISLAND DEVELOPMENT Park cars wherever possible and walk out onto the beach in front of the Holiday Inn. This section of Wrightsville Beach once was Moores Inlet, which has had a complex history of migration. In the early 1920's, it was located 0.5 km (.3 miles) south of your position. The inlet was closed in 1965 by the Corps of Engineers as part of the hurricane protection project for Wrightsville Beach. Notice the blackened shell material representing lagoonal deposits used as fill (Figure 3). FIGURE 3. View of Holiday Inn. Built in 1966, the motel rests on sand and shell material that once comprised the flood tidal delta of Moores Inlet. The inlet was closed in 1965 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Over a period of time, wave reflection from the bulkhead will lead to increased erosion at the toe of the structure and on the adjacent beach. Usually when an inlet closes and dunes redevelop, that section of the island becomes very stable due to the development of extensive vegetated sand flats landward. of the former inlet. In the vicinity of Moore's Inlet, however, sand was pumped to the beach to make elevated land for development and to provide homeowners in the area access to the Intracoastal Waterway. The natural intertidal sand bodies landward of the former inlet were the source of this dredge material. As a result of the pumping, no salt marsh areas were created behind the closed inlet. A potentially stable section of the island was then rendered less stable. If a major hurricane were to approach Wrightsville Beach, ocean water pushed into the deep unvegetated sound behind the former inlet, would likely be released as the hurricane passes, forcing water over the low section in the vicinity of the Shell Island development. This places the development in a highly vulnerable position with respect to inlet formation. The highest elevations on this section are 3.65 m (12 feet) (MLW); the surge accompanying Hurricane Hazel (1954) was nearly 3.65 m (12 feet) above mean low water. A hurricane approaching at high tide with 1.21 m (4 feet) waves will produce waves breaking on the second story of the Holiday Inn and the homes to the north. Construction of the dwellings on wooden pilings affords some protection during mild storms, but is no guarantee of survival in a strong hurricane. In addition, structures are located further seaward than the high tide swash level. Some houses constructed at this elevation are protected from normal wave action only by a seawall (Figure 4). North of the present Shell Island development is an undeveloped area. If development occurs here, building on or just in front of the large rear dune would prove most satisfactory. Development further seaward would place structures in hurricane vulnerable positions. Stop by here in a few years and see what has happened. Federal officials squashed a permit request to fill in the marsh from the high dune ridge to the dredge islands on the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. Grandiose plans had been made to carve finger canals, boat basins, etc., from the newly made land. Compare the vegetation of the Shell Island development with that on the undeveloped section to the north. Note that the plant cover which has colonized the fill material is much more sparse than the plant cover on natural dunes. Dunes and vegetation generally grow in concert; the plants act as a brake in causing sand to accumulate while the sand stimulates the plants to grow more rapidly. The coarse, sandy, shelly fill material is not nearly as conducive to the establishment and growth of sea oats and other beach plants as natural windblown sand. The lack of vegetation in these fill areas further compounds the effects of beach erosion. FIGURE 4. View of beach houses on the northern end of Wrightsville Beach. The houses are north of the Holiday Inn (arrow), and are positioned seaward of the primary dune line. Notice orientation of swash lines and bulkhead. The highest swash line occurs landward of the bulkhead. Under natural conditions, a dense vegetation mantle retards erosion of the dune system. Here, the vegetation is lush only where sand has moved up from the beach after the berm was constructed. Although the berm has been nourished since its construction by the Corps of Engineers in 1965 (See Stop 6), scarped areas have developed along this section of the beach. It gets worse further south. Walk north along the berm beyond the developed section. This section of Shell Island as well as the remaining 5 km (3 miles) to the north are characterized by multiple dune rows. Walk over to the back side of the island to the area where the grasslands border a shallow tidal creek. As you cross the dunes look south from the foredune ridge. Note that the imaginary line formed by the foredune ridge cuts through the center of the Holiday Inn, placing it, and several dwellings between you and the Holiday Inn, in an extremely vulnerable position. In the early 1920's this general area on Shell Island was the location of the First National Negro Seaside Resort complete with pavilion, cottages and pier. After several fires caused damage, the development was abandoned and engulfed by the migrating inlet. 7.4 STOP 2. SHELL ISLAND. Looking westward from atop the rear dune on Shell Island, you can see the edge of a washover terrace. It can be traced over a significant distance along the back barrier. These same sediments can be found in the tidal creek, suggesting that the creek is eroding the terrace material. Washover sediment on Shell Island is quite similar to that on Masonboro Island to the south, but unlike that further north. Coring and shallow trenches at this site reveal that the upper 2 m (6.5 feet) of sediment are composed of multiple graded washover sedimentation units. Aerial photo data show the event or events that resulted in the formation of the majority of this terrace occurred prior to 1938. Recovery of the dunes occurred during storm-free periods beginning with small discontinuous dunes formed on the washover terrace. With time, fronting dunes formed; by 1938 the island was characterized by a seaward building beach system. Hurricane Hazel (1954), the third most intense hurricane in the past 300 years, removed the fronting dune rows. The north section of the island shows evidence of more recent (1955-1962) washover fans that extend into the marsh. Washover sediments are composed of coarse sands overlain by windblown fine quartz sands. These fans are found at the terminus of small channels that closely follow previous overwash areas or low spots in the grassland (Figure 5). The small elongated islands seen in the marsh are probably features associated with inlet formation and migration. These likely indicate the location of the main channel of former inlets. Sands are deposited on the marshes behind the inlet channel as overwashing waves from the inlet move across the marsh. The marsh is buried, and as a result elongated sandy areas are elevated. Higher marsh, shrub thicket, or even dune vegetation develops. As the inlet migrates, the ribbon of sand continues to form on the landward side of the main channel. These features remain when the migration cycle is complete and the inlet closes. Eventually old tidal channels are infilled and vegetation succession occurs, ultimately producing the observed pattern. This takes about 100 years. Evidence in support of this origin is the thick peaty/organic-rich sediment landward of the ridge (the site of the overwash-buried smooth cordgrass marsh). Seaward of the island thin marsh peat overlies fine quartz sand. Figure 5. Multiple dune rows on Shell Island and marsh islands in lagoon. The grassland and dune ridges overlie a washover terrace that pre-dates 1938. The presence of multiple dune rows suggests a recent history of progradation. The elongated islands in the marsh (arrows) formed during the migration of Moores Inlet in the 19th century. Return to your vehicles and proceed to the stoplight (North Lumina Ave. and U. S. 74). Along the way you will notice landscaped areas containing a variety of vegetation including the Palmetto (Sabal palmetto). Man has extended the range of the Palmetto 25 miles to the north from Bald Head Island, its natural northern limit. 7.7 STOP 3. MERCER'S PIER. Stoplight. Turn left if parking spots are available or park along one of the side streets. Parking meters and the median are located where the gorge of Moore's Inlet existed in 1920 (Figure 6). After the inlet migrated to the north, Mercer's Pier was built during the early 1940's. It has been rebuilt several times following destruction by coastal storms. FIGURE 6. Northern section of Wrightsville Beach in the early 1920's. This photograph shows the island is already developed with many rows of cottages across the dune and grassland surface. Moores Inlet is visible in center of photograph. Moores Inlet, a major inlet at this time, has had a complex history of migration and closure. In the 1920's the inlet was as far south as Salisbury Street and Mercer's Pier. Shell Island is seen in the upper portion of the photo. (D. H. Barnett collection) From atop the pier at low tide you can see some of the early groins that were built (1923) at regular intervals down the beach as a measure to impound the eroding sand. The sloping section of the upper beach immediately in front of the lifeguard stand is the result of the recent grading (1976) of the artificial dune and berm. Note that the pilings in the fill material directly in front of the steps of Mercer's Pier are being undermined. You can see that the supports are exposed and abundant blackened oyster shells are strewn about the toe of the dune. Again note the relatively poor vegetation development on the berm and foredune (Figure 7 and 8). FIGURE 7. Artificial dune line south of Mercer's Pier, Wrightsville Beach. Note scarping and undercutting of artificial dune. Material comprising the "dune" consists of coarse shells and fine sand. Only the upper berm remains from the original 1965 Corp of Engineers Hurricane Protection Project. Station One Condominium is in the background. Return to cars and proceed south along Lumina Blvd. Development of this section of the beach began in the late 1920's when the sound side of the island was bulkheaded, dredged, drained, and sold as lots. To the left are streets that provide access to the beach. (Figure 9). While beach access presents few problems, parking in the area during peak times is a major undertaking. To control this problem, Wrightsville Beach officials have proposed a non-resident users fee. This has met with resistance from a variety of people. FIGURE 8. Artificial dune line north of Mercer's Pier, Wrightsville Beach. Note the position of the Holiday Inn and houses further north with respect to the scarped dune line. Coarse material on the beach face is derived from winnowing of fill material. FIGURE 9. Typical side street, Wrightsville Beach, perpendicular to North Lumina Avenue. The artificial dune is seen in the background. Streets such as these will in time of a hurricane act as conduits for water and washover sediment. 8.7 STOP 4. STATION ONE. Park your vehicle south of Newell's or close to Station One. Again parking may be a problem. Directly west of here on the sound was the original footbridge that connected the Banks with the Hammocks (Harbor Island). The original bathhouses were located on the footbridge. Station One in the days of early beach development was the northern limit of Ocean View Beach, the first stop of the electric trolley on the Ocean View Railroad (Figure 10). It is now one of the newest condominiums. FIGURE 10. View looking south of Station #1 (Newells), Wrightsville Beach (ca 1920). Note the narrowness of the southern section of Wrightsville Beach. Cottages and hotels line the island from sound to ocean side. Tracks of the early trolley were laid within the dune swales. The old road bed of the early railroad underlies south Lumina Avenue. Banks Channel is seen on the right in the photo. Dredge spoil from this channel provided the material for construction of Waynick Blvd. and the artificial berm and dune (1965). (D. H. Barnett collection) Wrightsville Beach has been billed as a "Family Beach", but the influx of the condominiums is likely to alter this long-standing tradition. Continued pressure to build these structures may cause "family dwellings" to be a thing of the past. The condominium is located behind the berm constructed in 1965 and is relatively safe from mild hurricane surge — for a while. Note, however, the condition of the artificial berm. Renourishment of the berm is a chronic problem. 8.9 Return to your cars and proceed south on South Lumina Avenue (the old trolley line right-of-way) for one block and turn right, then left onto Waynick Blvd. The land was once a swale area between large dunes similar to those on Shell Island that was disturbed when the Ocean View Railroad bed was laid in 1889. The intent of the railroad company was to develop the banks into the Atlantic City of the south (Figure 11). The road paralleling the sound is built partly on dredge material derived from the adjacent Banks Channel. Figure 11. Early Banks Channel trestle, Wrightsville Beach. Trolley cars carried summer visitors to Wrightsville Beach (ca. 1920). The large hotel at right of photo is the Oceanic. The original timbers of the trestle were driven in 1889. The structure connected the Hammocks (Harbor Island) and Wrightsville Beach. (D. H. Barnett collection) STOP 5. BLOCKADE RUNNER. This hotel opened in 1964 and occupies the location of several earlier famous structures (Figure 12). One of the first structures built on Wrightsville Beach was a bathhouse constructed in 1888. In 1898 the Seashore Hotel was constructed. Later a steel pier was built which survived a fire and several storms but finally was destroyed in January, 1921, by a nor'easter during which time the dune line retreated over 15.25 m (50 feet). Later, in 1954 Hurricane Hazel destroyed the Ocean Terrace Hotel on this site. The foundation of Station #3 of the Wilmington and Sea Coast Railroad underlies the parking lot. The Blockade Runner provides an example of good beach development. A large volume of sand has been maintained between it and the sea (Figure 12). Note, however, that the newer section has been built closer to the beach than the original section. People apparently were beginning to forget Hurricane Hazel when this section was added. Another excellent development feature of the Blockade Runner is the location of the expendable structures such as the patio and swimming pool nearest the ocean. Not only is the placement of these structures esthetically pleasing, but if a storm takes out part of the beach, the motel structure is likely to remain intact with only a minimal loss of property. 9.6 Return to cars and proceed south on Waynick Blvd. The large building on the ocean side (left) of the parking lot is the Carolina Yacht Club, the second oldest Yacht Club in the United States, founded in 1854. This was the first structure on the beach and the only one for more than twenty years. The club was the major stop on the old steam railroad. The original structure was destroyed in 1899 and again in 1954 (Figure 13). Banks Channel was the source of some of the sand used in the construction of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Hurricane Protection Project in 1965. The channel has been deepened considerably and the sides steepened. Erosion is occurring along this section of the channel due to the constant wave activity generated by boat wakes. No stabilizing marsh grass is present along the banks; the wave activity would unearth grass which was started. FIGURE 12. Blockade Runner Motel, Wrightsville Beach. Built (1964) with hurricanes in mind, this motel is positioned well back of the dune line. The spot marks the location of an earlier famous hotel, originally the Sea Shore and later the Ocean Terrace. In the 1900's this location (Station 3) was a major stop on the trolley line that served the beach community. 9.8 Stop sign. Turn right onto Sunset Avenue and right onto South Lumina Avenue. To the left is the Crystal Pier and Motel built over the remains of one of the early famous hotels. Seaward of the pier lies the blockade runner "Fannie and Jenny" which sank off Wrightsville Beach. The open area north of the Crystal Motel marks the spot where the massive three-decked Lumina, the most famous landmark on the beach, stood for over 68 years. It was demolished in 1973. The original cost of this land, from the old dune line to the Tidewater Power Co. Railway, was ten dollars. FIGURE 13. Carolina Yacht Club after Hurricane Hazel (1954). Note the groins that represent earlier attempts at impounding the migrating sand. The Yacht Club, the second oldest in the nation, has been rebuilt several times. Fifty-five years earlier the memorable northeaster of November 1899 also severely damaged the structure. (E. Helms collection). The original Ocean View Railbed extended the length of South Lumina Blvd. from Station #1 (Newells) to Station #7 (the Lumina) (Figure 14). Just south of the Crystal Pier the first groin was installed on the Beach in 1923. Since the late 1800's the beach and dune line had eroded enough to warrant attention. The section south of the Lumina to the present location of Masonboro Inlet developed at a later date as the railbed was extended. FIGURE 14. Station #7 (Lumina), Wrightsville Beach. View is looking north along old electric trolley line. Note the close spacing of the beach cottages, hotels and bath houses even at this early date. (D. H. Barnett collection, ca 1925) 10.4 STOP 6. MASONBORO INLET JETTY AND THE ARTIFICIAL BERM. Turn around at the end of island and park. Recently houses have been constructed in this general vicinity. Normally, building this close to the inlet would not be a good investment, but considering the proximity of the jetty, the chances of a significant loss are minimal. Notice sand fencing and the relatively large amount of sand that has collected in the past several years. In 1965 a cooperative federal, state and local hurricane protection project was completed on Wrightsville Beach. Major hurricanes of the 1950's had devastated the beach, destroying many homes and causing massive erosion along the beachfront (Figures 13 and 15). As a result, the strand line which was left had no fronting dunes for protection from hurricanes. Structures were exposed to possible storm surge (Figure 16). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers constructed a berm along the entire length of the island from just south of the Holiday Inn to Masonboro Inlet, a distance of 4.3 km (2.7 miles). The project design called for a 15' high, 25' wide artificial dune fronted by a 50' wide 12' high berm. The structure was designed to protect the beach from storms nearly as destructive as Hazel in 1954 (Figure 17). The dredge spoil came primarily from Banks Channel. The material contained large quantities of very coarse materials (shells and sand) which appear blackened as a result of the oxygen deficient conditions present in the channel environment. You will notice that the material is rather unpleasant to walk on, but it has done the job of protecting structures. During the initial construction of the berm system by the Corps of Engineers, nearly 3,000,000 yd$^3$ (2,295,000 m$^3$) of fill material were pumped onto the beach. In 1966, 360,000 yd$^3$ (275,400 m$^3$) of material were added. Again in 1970, nearly 1,500,000 yd$^3$ (1,147,500 m$^3$) of fill were used to nourish the beach. The artificial berm at present (1978) is severely scarped along nearly the entire length of the island. Erosion is still occurring; the beach nourishment program will have to continue. FIGURE 15. Aftermath of Hurricane Hazel (1954), Wrightsville Beach. Wreckage and pilings are remnants of the first two rows of beach cottages. The photograph was taken near the foot of Fayetteville Street. Hazel piled up water on the streets 8 feet above normal high tide. (E. Helms collection) Masonboro Inlet, separating Wrightsville Beach from Masonboro Island has been a fickle inlet during the past 40 years. On occasion the inlet has been extremely wide and shallow, at other times narrow and deep. It has migrated back and forth across a 2.42 km (1.5 miles) stretch from just north of its present location to approximately 1.61 km (1 mile) south on Masonboro Island. The Corps of Engineers has attempted to stabilize it by constructing a jetty seaward from Wrightsville Beach along the north (updrift) side of the inlet (Figure 18). The Corps also dredged a permanent channel to accommodate boat traffic to and from the ocean. The spoil from this dredging was placed on the southern end of Wrightsville Beach and the northern end of Masonboro Island. FIGURE 16. Hurricane Protection Project, Wrightsville Beach. This view is south from the Blockade Runner Motel. The swale (arrow) in front of the houses on the right was the beach before the project was undertaken. The houses are those left standing after Hurricane Hazel in 1954. A row further seaward was obliterated by the storm. Note the jetty construction. The portion of the jetty nearest the shore is low and narrow. It was constructed in this manner to act as a weir. Sediments moving along shore were to be carried across the jetty into a previously dredged depositional basin on the Masonboro Island side of the jetty. From here, the trapped sand was to be pumped periodically to Masonboro Island to nourish the downdrift side of the jetty (Figure 18). This unique system has not worked. The inlet gorge has shifted northward (jettyward) from its original position to a point where it now threatens to undermine both the sheet metal weir and the outer rock jetty. The Corps of Engineers has armored the bottom of the channel with large stones, but a major storm is capable of removing this armor and undermining the jetty. Boats now must pass close to the jetty in order to navigate the inlet. The numerous temporary buoys in the vicinity of the inlet attest to the rapid and unpredictable shoaling of the inner portions of the inlet. Marsh islands are visible within the salt marsh, landward of the inlet. These islands were discussed previously (Stop 2). FIGURE 17. A diagramatic representation of the beach-berm Project for Wrightsville and Carolina Beaches. The plan called for 2 large berms with fill material added seaward to approximate the natural slope of the beach. A positive feature of the jetty system is that the southern end of Wrightsville Beach has been building seaward as sand in the littoral drift has been impounded by the jetty. As you face the ocean, note the greater deposition on the left side (updrift) of the jetty. A jetty has been planned for the south side of Masonboro Inlet. A model of the inlet has been constructed and data are being analyzed in order to assess the impact of a second jetty on the dynamics of the inlet. If you are going to Masonboro, embark on the sound side of island or from the vicinity of the Coast Guard dock. Appendix B includes a discussion of the physiography, environment and organisms which you may encounter on the island. FIGURE 18. The Wier Jetty at Masonboro Inlet. The jetty built as part of the Masonboro Inlet stabilization project has served to impound sand on the updrift side (left). As a result of this impoundment the southern end of Wrightsville Beach is slowly prograding. The inlet channel has shifted and is generally migrating toward the rock wall. Plans call for a second jetty to be constructed on Masonboro Island in an effort to stabilize the channel. STOP 7. MASONBORO ISLAND. Masonboro Inlet migrated to cover the northern 1.61 km (1 mile) of Masonboro Island during several periods in the last 40 years. This part was finally stabilized by the Corps of Engineers in 1958 when material dredged from the inlet was deposited on the island. Since that time natural dunes have developed along the ocean side and highly productive salt marsh has begun to develop along the sound side. Spoil material was dumped in high mounds along the center of the old inlet area. The spoil material was piled so high that the native vegetation has not developed well on this surface. The Corps of Engineers, however, created an area favorable for nesting birds. Several species of birds, including least terns, oystercatchers, and black skimmers, prefer poorly vegetated sites for their nests. All three of these species nest on this section of Masonboro Island. Note that a portion of the old inlet area was not fully filled in by the dredge spoil. Here, the island is low and chronically overtopped by wave activity. It is a likely spot for a new inlet to develop. From the high dune along the southern limit of Masonboro Inlet, the view to the south shows an alternating pattern of intact and flattened sections of the beach. Where the dunes have been destroyed by the changing pattern of beach sediment transport, storm waves have overtopped the berm crest and caused sand and water to spill across the island. For thirty years prior to 1954, such breaches of the dune ridges were not very important. Since Hurricane Hazel, however, these washover areas have expanded, breaching more and more dune lines. Washover is now a dominant environmental factor on Masonboro Island. The State of North Carolina is currently considering Masonboro Island for a state park, since much of the New Hanover County shoreline is already developed. Due to the width and storm protection afforded on the island, as well as the processes which now dominate, development would be severely restricted. Thus, a park would be a natural use for the island. In addition, the extensive salt marshes occurring behind Masonboro Island are much too valuable to destroy for the sake of private development. Leave parking area and return by the same route to Crystal Pier; turn left and then right onto Weynich Blvd. About .48 km (0.3 mi.) north on the ocean side is the Sand Peddler Inn. This motel rests on marsh that was dredged and subsequently filled with material from Banks Channel in 1914. Early records show the sub-aerial portion of the island prior to development was relatively narrow. The year 1899 marks the date of the incorporation of Wrightsville Beach and also the occurrence of a devastating nor'easter. The developed section of the beach at this time consisted of about 60 cottages and several hotels, most of which were completely leveled. After the storm, many of the cottages, along with boats and large oaks, were found strewn along the soundside shell road. Less than 40 years later (1934), after much of the beach had been rebuilt, a major fire destroyed a large portion of the area north of Station One. 11.2 Turn left on U.S. 76 [Causway Bridge]. International Nickel Corrosion Laboratory is on your left. 11.4 HARBOR ISLAND. Turn left at the first street off bridge at Wrightsville Methodist Church. This area was called at one time the "Hammocks" (1890) and later "Shore Acres" (1925). The gnarled oaks and junipers are relics of a once major maritime forest. Prior to 1890, when development began, the forest canopy provided a nesting area for cranes and other birds. The feather industry provided plumage for the fashions of the day by the wholesale killing of these birds. The ten acres of the original hammocks consisted of sand dunes and adjacent marshlands. Vegetation patterns of the time of development indicate that Harbor Island is several hundred years old. Presumably its origin is related to early inlet migration and marsh island formation. By 1888 population pressures in New Hanover County provided the impetus for the construction of a 1.6 km (1 mile) railroad trestle across the marsh to the Hammocks. At the same time the Wilmington and Sea Coast Railroad opened the Island Beach Hotel on Harbor Island, the terminus of its railroad, which originated at Wrightsville Station on the mainland. A foot bridge across Banks Channel was also added for the convenience of the public. In July 1888, yellow coaches of the Wilmington and Sea Coast Railroad began shuttling passengers from the mainland to the island edge, eliminating all but a short walk to the beach. By 1889, several bathhouses were constructed on the foot bridge. Modern Harbor Island was created in 1925 by dredging and bulldozing the original island at cost of $400,000. A total of 350,000 yd$^3$ (267,750 m$^3$) of dredged material were used in the construction project. Live Oak Drive is but a vestige of this unique area. 11.7 Continue on Live Oak Drive. Bear left around the circle and then right. Turn right on Shore Drive and continue to U. S. 76. 12.1 Stop sign. Zip Mart on right, turn left, follow U. S. 76. 12.4 Sea Path condominium built on filled marsh (left). 12.5 Water Research and Technology Desalination Plant (right). 12.8 To the left is the Old Causeway. The 1926 beach season opened with automobiles traveling to Harbor Island across the newly constructed causeway, which included a 167.6 m (550 feet) bridge adjacent to the mainland. Total cost was $138,000. Beach officials in 1935 replaced the foot bridge with a wooden bridge over Banks Channel. Wrightsville Beach was no longer isolated and in time the trolley railbeds were covered with asphalt. Today they underlie parking lots and major streets. 12.8 Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. 12.9 Babies Hospital. During Hurricane Hazel in 1954, water stood in the parking lot of the hospital. 13.2 Follow U. S. 76 West. Bear left, inside lane. 13.5 Shopping center on right. 14.5 Bradley Creek. East of the bridge on the north side, close to the point where the creek enters the sound, is the location of the first hotel constructed at the seaside in 1879. 14.9 Stoplight. Turn left onto Greenville Loop Road. To the right in the wooded area was the Salt Works. During the Civil War, local people collected salt, a prized commodity, by evaporating sea water. 17.4 Tidal Creek - White Oak Drive. Black needlerush is the most common species in this section of the creek. 17.8 Fish Camp Restaurant. Turn left onto Masonboro Loop Road. 18.6 Hewlett's Creek. Bear right following Masonboro Loop Road. 20.9 Whiskey Creek. It's not too difficult to ascertain the occupation of the early inhabitants of this area. Stay on Masonboro Loop Road. 22.9 Sea Skiff Boat Builders on left. 26.5 Junction Masonboro Loop Road and U. S. 421. Proceed across median and turn left onto U. S. 421 south. Head toward Carolina Beach. 28.9 SNOW'S CUT. You are now passing over Snow's Cut, a land cut across the narrow peninsular section of New Hanover County. The cut is named after a major with the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers who was stationed in Wilmington and headed the dredging operation at Federal Point in the early 1930's. The earlier highway was located to the west. It was completed in 1929. During the late 1950's, the low swing bridge over U. S. 421 was replaced by the existing high rise bridge. To the left is Carolina Beach extension and the ocean. To the right is the Cape Fear River (Figure 19). Note the exposure of coquina (loosely cemented limestone) on the right. The remnants of Sedgeley Abbey lie off to the right near the river. The mansion was supposed to have been constructed of this rock in 1726. Snow's Cut is approximately 2.9 km (1.8 miles) long, 27.4 m (90 feet) wide and 3.66 m (12 feet) in depth. On a falling tide, Cape Fear River water (recognized by its chocolate brown color) moves through Snow's Cut into Myrtle Grove Sound. From there it moves out to the ocean through Carolina Beach inlet. The mixing of ocean and river water is retarded by the density differences, thus a distinct brown cloud can be seen to spill out of the inlet and migrate along the shore. A Corps of Engineers spokesman has indicated that due to the environmental problems created by the cut, such a project would probably not have been approved today. 29.5 Carolina Beach State Park is located just off of U.S. 421. Camping, fishing, boating and nature trails are available in the park. 30.4 Turn left at first traffic light onto King St. (City Hall is on right). 30.5 Turn left and proceed north on Canal Drive. FIGURE 19. Snow's Cut and the Cape Fear River. This view is from atop the Inland Waterway Bridge. Coquina limestone outcrops in this cut along both banks. This late Pleistocene deposit was used in the early development of Carolina and Kure Beaches as a building material. 32.1 STOP 8. CAROLINA BEACH PIER. Stop and park your car. The ramp to the pier provides an excellent view of an area which has been undergoing severe erosion. To the north is Carolina Beach Inlet and to the south is the town of Carolina Beach. Prior to 1952, the section of Carolina Beach to the north was attached to Masonboro Island. In January 1952, a public hearing was held in order to act on a permit request to open a tidal inlet 2285 m (7500 feet) north of Carolina Beach. Although the Beach Erosion Board advised that erosion to the south would likely result, support for the inlet project was overwhelming. The Corps of Engineers granted the permit. In September, the inlet was created and the trouble began (Figure 20). Erosion at Carolina Beach before the opening of the inlet was approximately 18.3 cm (0.6 feet) per year. Following the opening of the inlet, erosion increased dramatically to 3.96 m (13 feet) per year (1952-1955). The hurricanes of 1954 and 1955 were devastating on Carolina Beach Extension. Overall, since 1952, the erosion rate along the northern portion of Carolina Beach has averaged 12.24 m (40.2 feet) per year. Indicative of the effects of the inlet is the fact that the greatest measured erosion rate has occurred along the segment closest to the inlet. The sediment trapped by the inlet has caused Carolina Beach Extension to become a feeder beach for the southern section of Carolina Beach. So, a dilemma exists. Carolina Beach Inlet is largely responsible for the erosion experienced by the town of Carolina Beach; however, the same people who are asking for erosion control measures on the beach also oppose closure of the inlet which is now a well established outlet for fishing interests in the area. Further, lack of maintenance has now produced a hazardous, nearly unnavigable inlet. South of the inlet, beach erosion has carved into the shoreline which terminates against the north end of a rip-rap seawall. Remnants of the earlier wall plus a groin portray the history of several attempts to stabilize the coast. The engineering was carried out to save beach property at a long term cost that is certain to ultimately exceed the value of the protected property (Figure 21). FIGURE 20. Northern extension of Carolina Beach. This view is looking north from Carolina Beach pier. Subsequent to the artificial opening of Carolina Beach Inlet (1952), erosion along this section became very severe. Increased erosion is caused by the retention of beach materials in the tidal sand bodies associated with the inlet. Recession is often accompanied by oceanic overwash. People walking on the beach (left of photo) are standing atop a thick outcrop of salt marsh peat (arrow) which has been exposed from underneath washover sediments. The mainland area of Carolina Beach and Kure Beach also has a long, interesting, and expensive record of beach stabilization attempts. These beaches have long been adversely influenced by hurricanes and nor'easters. Their history is one of extensive loss of property and beach due to severe storms (Figure 22). From 1857 to 1934, Carolina Beach was experiencing an average recession rate of 70 cm (2.3 feet) a year. During this time erosion and accretion have been experienced, although, erosion has been predominant. Between 1940 and 1955 average recession along the beach was 4.47 m (14.7 feet) a year. FIGURE 21. Beach stabilization project, Carolina Beach. This view is looking south from the pier on the northern extension of Carolina Beach. The beach has had an expensive record of beach stabilization projects (see text). The granite boulders that comprise the 2050' long seawall were emplaced between 1970 and 1973. The Corps of Engineers report on erosion at Carolina Beach relates the damage due to hurricanes: "Cottages nearest the ocean were smashed to pieces or lifted intact from their foundations and hurled against nearby cottages. The ocean face only was ripped from many cottages, while others had both front and rear ripped off, leaving only the shell. Boardwalks and piers were torn apart, with piles being twisted off. Sand, washed inland, was deposited 3 and 4 feet deep in the streets." FIGURE 22. Damage caused by Hurricane Hazel (1954) at Carolina Beach. Damage by Hurricane Hazel was estimated at 17 million dollars. Note houses, sand, and rubble deposited by storm surges accompanying the hurricane. (A. Newton collection) The first effort to protect the dwindling beach was made in 1955 when a dune ridge was constructed from Carolina Beach Inlet to Fort Fisher. It was not continuous, but broken by several drainage canals, a building, and the boardwalk. A total of 252,000 yd$^3$ (192,780 m$^3$) of beach fill was pumped from Myrtle Grove Sound to the beach. Sand fences were constructed and a rock rubble groin was built at the foot of Hamlet Street. This project lasted approximately 7 months. The hurricanes of the season of 1955 scattered the rubble groin and removed the fill material. In 1956, 200,000 yd$^3$ (153,000 m$^3$) of fill were pumped to the beach and 12 low short groins were spaced along the beach within the Carolina Beach corporate limits. They were composed of concrete and granite rubble. But money ran out and they were never completed. In 1962, the Corps of Engineers authorized a project of 7860 m (25,800 feet) of shoreline protection from Carolina Beach to Kure Beach. Kure Beach could not come up with the matching money and only approximately 4265 m (14,000 feet) of beach berm were actually constructed. The project was similar in design to that at Wrightsville Beach (Figure 17). It called for the construction of an artificial dune with a berm placed seaward of the dune. A naturally sloping beach was to be constructed seaward of the berm. A feeder beach north of Carolina Beach was also proposed and periodic nourishment was provided for in the plan. In 1965, the plan was implemented: 3,500,000 yd$^3$ (2,677,500 m$^3$) of fill from Myrtle Grove Sound, Carolina Beach Inlet and the Intracoastal Waterway were pumped to the beach along 4268 m (14,000 feet) of Carolina Beach. Erosion in 1966 led to the pumping of more sand in 1967 (370,000 yd$^3$) (283,050 m$^3$), 1970 (346,000 yd$^3$) (264,690 m$^3$) and 1971 (760,000 yd$^3$) (581,400 m$^3$). Then, in 1970, a 335.1 m (1100 feet) granite boulder seawall was built. In 1973, the seawall was extended both north and south for a total distance of 624.6 m (2050 feet) (Figure 21). Proceed south along Canal Drive, retracing your path toward City Hall. 33.8 StopLight. Turn right onto King St. and then left onto Lake Park Blvd. This section is typical of the highly commercialized section of the beach. Very little planning has gone into the development in this area. In this portion of New Hanover County much of the beach area has been altered. Those things which make the beach attractive to some visitors have nearly vanished (Figure 23). The area through which you are now passing is not a barrier island; it is a mainland beach. Note the lack of a lagoon or sound side marsh in this environment on the right. Carolina Beach began to develop toward the end of the nineteenth century. In the early 1880's, the only means of transportation to the beach was by way of poorly paved shell roads. In 1886, several enterprising citizens organized the New Hanover Transit Corporation which erected a pier just south of Snow's Cut on the Cape Fear River. From this dock, passengers arriving by steamer from Wilmington were transported to the beach by a narrow gauge railroad. FIGURE 23. Carolina Beach business district. Unlike Wrightsville Beach, Carolina Beach is characterized by tightly congested midway and carnival attractions. Because there were no inlets to contend with, because it was easy to get to the beach, and because there was no undertow, Carolina Beach was considered to be the Atlantic City of the South. By 1890, several large hotels and numerous make-shift cottages dotted the beach. Development prior to 1925 was relatively slow compared to Wrightsville Beach because of the poor transportation routes. 33.9 Bear left at fork in road. This section of U.S. 421 has frequently been closed due to water ponding in this natural depression. The lake to the right may represent a drowned creek now dammed by the beach. Hurricane Hazel destroyed the first brick hotel, the Breakers, built on the shoreline in 1924. It was located at the corner of Ocean Blvd. and South Carolina Ave. (Figure 24). The debris and piles of rubble from the Breakers Hotel were hauled to Fort Fisher to help curb the erosion there. FIGURE 24. Breakers Hotel, Wilmington Beach. This portion of the mainland beach suffered severe damage. Red brick rubble from the Breakers now lines the shoreline at Fort Fisher. (A. Newton collection) 34.9 Wilmington Beach. 36.0 International Nickel and U. S. Government Cooperative Metal Corrosion Testing Site is on the left. Salt spray corrosion of materials in the coastal zone is a significant problem. Metal plumbing and fixtures exposed beneath older stilt houses along the North Carolina coast often show extensive corrosion damage. Newer cottages are using the less expensive and corrosion-resistant PVC piping. Plants also are strikingly influenced by salt in the coastal air. Shrub and tree species are often 'wind pruned' by the salt-laden air which passes over the vegetation from the beach. As a result, the vegetation takes on a smooth, clipped appearance. Twigs, leaves and buds which receive the most intense salt spray are killed back, thus only the more protected parts of the plant grow normally. The dominant wind directions can be determined from observing the pattern of wind pruning. 36.4 Kure Beach corporate limits. 36.8 STOP 9. KURE BEACH. Stoplight, turn left. Kure Beach is a mainland beach. Notice the difference in local relief from the main road to the high tide line. Compare this with Wrightsville Beach. The local relief is approximately 7.31 m (24 feet). About 1890, an enterprising young Danish sea captain, Hans Kure, began to develop this area in much the same manner as Carolina Beach. The road to Kure Beach, 3.22 km (2 miles) south of Carolina Beach, was in all likelihood very poor at the turn of the century. In order to attract more summer residents, a pier on the river and a narrow gauge railroad were constructed in the spring of 1904 similar to that constructed at Carolina Beach in 1889. The new construction helped to lure visitors to the Kure Beach but a hard paved road was essential to the development of this and other sections. A joint venture between the local development companies and New Hanover County extended the paved road to Federal Point. Hans Kure extended it 3.62 km (2 1/4 miles) by building a plank road to Fort Fisher. Some of the road metal and support stones were derived from the coquina that outcrops at Fort Fisher. The pier directly in front of you is the second-oldest fishing pier on the East coast, built in 1927. One of its claims to fame is the fact that it has been rebuilt twelve times, the most recent rebuilding occurring after Hazel (1954). To the left (north) of the pier the town has recently constructed an additional 15.23 m (50 feet) of bulkhead (Figure 25). Look around and notice the concrete strewn about in front of this section. This rubble is the remains of earlier sea walls - a common American beach scene. Hurricane Hazel, cut away the first two streets of Kure Beach. The present beach road was the third street west of the high tide line prior to 1954. This storm, the third or fourth most intense ever to hit this section of North Carolina, exhumed stumps of a forest of cypress and cedar that are possibly hundreds of years old. Similar "forests" are now exposed on Oak Island in Brunswick County. North of the bulkhead the remnants of the intake pipe of the Dow Chemical Co. Ethylene Dibromide Plant can be seen. The pipe was used for pumping ocean water to a canal 309.7 m (1000 feet) west of the Fort Fisher Road. The plant, constructed in 1931, was built for manufacturing gasoline additives. Return to your cars and proceed south on U.S. 421. 37.7 Entrance to Fort Fisher. 38.1 Fort Fisher Air Force Station. FIGURE 25. Groins and bulkhead, Kure Beach. Note bulkhead, remnants of groins and condition of berm. Hurricane Hazel (Oct. 1954) removed one row of houses from this section of the mainland and unearthed a relict stump forest. 39.2 STOP 10. FORT FISHER HISTORICAL SITE. Park in the lot on right. This historic fort area is of significant interest. The Fort Fisher area became in times of war a crucial area in defense of the important commercial navigation route on the Cape Fear River. New Inlet, 12.88 km (8 miles) north of Cape Fear, was opened by a hurricane in 1761. Fearing an influx of privateers, residents of the area kept secret the fact that New Inlet could accommodate vessels of up to 1.83 m (6 feet) of draft. New Inlet, while providing an alternate entrance to the Cape Fear, and thereby the Port of Wilmington, was valuable to the Confederacy during the Civil War as a channel for running the Federal blockade of the Cape Fear River. Fort Fisher was constructed to guard New Inlet and as the last link in a series of defenses of the lower Cape Fear. When completed, Fort Fisher was shaped like an L, with the angle pointing northeast to the sea (Figure 26). The land face, located about a mile and a half north of New Inlet, was a massive rampart of sand and sod which stretched across the peninsula from the riverside almost to the sea where it ended in a bastion at the point of the angle. From there, the sea face extended south for approximately a mile (1.6 km). The first hundred yards was similar to the land face, but the remainder was a series of mound batteries connected by infantry fences. At a distance of a half mile (.8 km) or so from the terminus of the sea face, Battery Buchanan stood detached and isolated at the edge of New Inlet. It was a massive earthen mound with guns that guarded the inlet. It was also a potential stronghold to which a hard-pressed garrison might retreat and be transported away from a nearby wharf. At the time Fort Fisher was one of the strongest fortifications in the world. By some it was called the "Malakoff of the South" and by others, the "Gibraltar of America." A coquina rock outcrop occurs just north of the picnic area. This is part of the same coquina which is also outcropping at Snow's Cut. Note the extensive erosion of the beach area near the picnic area. Historic records show that the erosion at this point has been approximately 366 m (1200 feet) since 1862. A portion of the fort has been removed by the erosion. Early excavation of the coquina by Kure for the Shell Road probably contributed to the accelerated erosion (Figure 27). FIGURE 26. Map of Fort Fisher showing the location of the 1865 and 1965 shorelines. (Modified from Division of Archives and History Pamphlet 90M-6/75). The live oak trees which are standing in the picnic area have been opened up to the full force of salt-laden air. Even these resistant trees are gradually dying because of the lack of dunes protecting their leaves from salt spray. A worthwhile side trip is a visit to the museum (closed on Mondays). Take the short trail to the large mounds along the Cape Fear River. This vantage point provides a spectacular view of the river and the extensive marshes which border it. 39.2 Return to U.S. 421 south. Make a loop around the Fort Fisher Monument. To the south is the area of historic inlets which the fort was designed to protect. Further south is Cape Fear (Bald Head Island). FIGURE 27. Mainland beach, Fort Fisher. This section of New Hanover County has one of the highest erosion rates in the state. Large boulders have been placed here to ease erosion. Erosion has continued despite these efforts. A coquina outcrop is seen in the background (arrow). This is the only natural, intertidal hard surface outcrop in North Carolina. 40.5 N. C. MARINE RESOURCES CENTER. Return to U. S. 421 and drive south, to end of the road past the Ferry entrance on right. 41.2 STOP 11. "THE ROCKS". A nineteenth century major engineering feat, "The Rocks" is located off to the right (west). In 1971, a storm, probably the most intense to hit North Carolina, opened an inlet between Bald Head Island and Fort Fisher. The opening became known as New Inlet. Early charts (prior to 1760) of this section indicate this general area was called the "Haulover" - most likely because it was the narrowest section of the shoreline where early fishermen could haul their small boats over to the river. No major inlet deep enough for large craft existed along this section prior to 1761 for at least 250 years. Early records show that only one pirate ship ventured up the river. Seeking refuge in harbors with only one outlet was considered risky business. Stede Bonnet who did sail into the Cape Fear River was captured and later hung. The inlet that opened in 1761 remained open until 1881 when it was closed artificially by a dam. This dam has come to be known as the "Rocks" (Figure 28). An engineering feat of its day the dam was composed of siltstone, granite and basalt. These rocks were used to cap the upper sections of the mile long, 100 feet wide (at its base) and 30 feet high wall that separates the waters of the Cape Fear River and the open Atlantic Ocean. The Army Corps of Engineers contended that closure of the 120 year-old inlet would reduce the amount of shoaling in the river and help maintain the channel. Closure was begun in 1881 when a log raft was extended across the river section and loaded with large limestone boulders until it sank, forming a foundation for future material. Enough rock was used in this construction to build a wall one hundred miles long, eight feet high, four feet wide. It took 6 years and $480,000. Later a dam twice as long was constructed. It stretched south from Zeke's Island to Bald Head Island. Since 1881, a number of inlets have opened, migrated and closed. As many as three inlets have existed at one time in this 8 km (5 mile) long section. Most openings are related to hurricane activity. Hazel's Inlet opened in 1954 and is now closed. New Inlet reopened in 1938 and is only a vestige of the earlier formed inlet. This inlet is relatively active and has migrated over 3.2 km (2 miles) in the past 25 years. You may walk out on the rocks to get a view of the river and the former inlet area. USE EXTREME CARE. The algal mat on the rocks is extremely slippery. A cut made by slipping on this surface heals slowly. Walk only on the dry surfaces. FIGURE 28. Aerial photograph of the "Rocks" and the shoreline south of Fort Fisher. The dam was a major engineering feat of the nineteenth century. Upon completion in 1881, it stretched for one mile between the mainland and Zeke's Island. The southern 2-mile section was completed in the mid-1880's. New Inlet which had opened in 1761 was used by the Blockade Runners during the Civil War and was one of the main reasons for the existence of Fort Fisher. Today this section of the shoreline is characterized by extensive narrow terraces and small fickle inlets. Figure Eight Island is a private development with access via a private causeway. Permission is required to go onto the island which contains some of the most beautiful, well designed, and solidly constructed homes to be seen along the North Carolina coast. Large lots and some cottages designed to be in harmony with the landscape give the development an open, spacious look where the dune, maritime forest, and marsh have been preserved. On the other hand, portions of the development occupy areas of fairly frequent and severe washover as well as sites where inlets have previously been located. 0.0 Drive onto bridge. Bridge operator is guard. This interesting barge swing-style draw bridge provides the only land access route to the island. The island causeway leading from the bridge to the barrier island was constructed from sands dredged up from the original marsh to the left of the road. The dredged area was revegetated although unvegetated spoil piles remain along part of the causeway. Present laws probably would not permit such destruction of the salt marsh so that a much more expensive bridge would be necessary in place of a dredged causeway. Evacuation plans in case of an impending hurricane have been developed; however, the bridge remains a weak link in the plan. If it became inoperative, boats would be the only means of departing the island. 0.7 Clubhouse on left. Ahead on the right, houses are located on an artificial buildup of dredge fill with finger canals bisecting the flat. Much of the area is less than 3.2 m (10 feet) above mean sea level. Note that the causeway ends in an area of frequent washover; it is likely that the only access to the mainland would be the first area blocked by washover in a major storm. Figure Eight Island would not be a safe place to wait out a storm and early evacuation would be advisable. Full development of the island is planned. This would include more than 400 homes, providing a dwelling density equal to that of Wrightsville Beach today. The development is approximately 20% complete. 0.8 Intersection. Continue left on Beach Road North. This is an area of frequent washover as can be seen on air photos taken over the last 40 years. This site was the location chosen for constructing a large condominium complex by the Figure Eight developers. The Wilmington-New Hanover County Planning Board turned down the zoning request on the basis of vulnerability of the site to washover. To the right is a canal formed during dredging operations. This deep channel could possibly act like the dredged channel behind the Shell Island development on Wrightsville Beach (See Stop 2). This would mean that a storm could breach the beach connecting the channel with the ocean, thus forming an inlet. Homeowners on Beach Road South would then be on an island all their own. 1.0 Shrubs on flat to left mark the landward edge of a washover fan. 1.2 Cottage on right is built on a washover fan. Is it likely that it would survive a major storm? 1.3 Old vegetated dunes on right. Take Salters Road to left. Area to left is to be developed. 1.4 Loop Cul-de-sac and retrace route along Salters Road. 1.5 Turn left onto Beach Road North. From this point on the north the island is being "exclusively" developed. This northern portion of the island shows good evidence of stability. Note for example the vegetation on the right right which includes good sized trees, up to 60 cm (24 inches) in diameter, including juniper (Juniperus virginiana) and live oak (Quercus virginiana). Proceeding north, note that the road skirts the most mature island maritime forest in New Hanover County. In addition, air photo studies indicate that both the dune line and beach are accreting on this part of the island (Figure 29). 2.3 The house on left is good example of beauty, solid construction, and safe position - well behind the first dune and in the forested area - that typifies development in this area. The narrowness of the island plus the position atop the stable forested dune provide these island dwellers with a beautiful panorama of marsh, barrier island, and ocean. In addition to "stilts", there are main columns that extend from below ground through the second story. FIGURE 29. View looking south from north end Figure Eight Island. The houses (right of photo) rest atop a forested dune with local relief in excess of 10.67 m (35 feet). Forest vegetation indicates the area has been stable for at least 50-75 years. This portion of Figure Eight Island is prograding. 2.4 STOP 1. PRE-1938 WASHOVER FAN. A small breach or break in the forest on the left is the position of an old washover fan. Several such breaks occur through this area; however, all of these washover fans predate the 1938 air photos of this island, the oldest photographic coverage available. Currently, the beach is accreting so it seems unlikely that such washover would occur on this end of the island today. Contrast this condition to the area crossed at the end of the causeway. Walk to the back of the island. The old cedar, live oak, yucca and shrubs suggest a long period of stability. You can see where the washover fan was deposited over the marsh. 2.6 STOP 2. CUL-DE-SAC. Beach ridges and dunes extend north beyond the road's end and suggest stability. This area provides a good study of dune ridge development on accreting barrier as well as vegetation succession. Extensive development is proposed for this area. 2.8 The houses on the left have less protection than cottages in the forested area, but their location behind the dune is reasonable. If the trend of accretion is reversed, these houses certainly would be lost. 3.7 Pass Salter Road Jct. and end of forest and washover fan. 4.2 Turn left onto Beach Road South. To the right is a large area of filled-in marsh for development, and on the left are some old washover areas (pre-1938). Presence of occasional bushes and cedars on the primary dune show some stability. 4.7 The massive dunes on the left indicate an area which has been stable for a long time and rapid sand accretion. 5.5 Passing out of high dunes into lower, open, poorly vegetated area, note the black and white shell material on both sides of road. This material is pumped fill and is coarser grained than natural dune sand. As a result, revegetation has progressed slowly. Washover has occurred on this part of the island, primarily because Mason Inlet was further north than its present location. It has migrated south through this section since 1938 (Figure 30). The developers of Figure 8 Island placed a large amount of fill on the beach berm to help stabilize the former inlet area. Houses placed here are now 4.3 m (14 feet) above mean sea level. In general, the combination of factors present on this end of the island make it a poor area for development. It is doubtful that the pumped-fill buildup will prevent washover. Perhaps it is appropriate that the less "exclusive" cottages are at this end of the island. Examples of good construction can be found, however, such as the cottage on the right at the corner of Beach Road and Jib which has external stilt posts that extend through the upper level. (Figure 31). FIGURE 30. View looking south, Figure Eight Island. The large dunes (arrow) mark the location of Mason Inlet in 1938. Notice the sparse vegetation. The area shown in the photograph is primarily fill material pumped onto former low sandy flats. Emplacement of the fill provided elevated sites for home construction and created navigable waterways for homeowners. FIGURE 31. The Bay house. The Bay house is an example of a well-constructed beach home. It is built so that the pilings are continuous from the ground through the second story. In more poorly constructed buildings, the upper story is attached to the tops of pilings, allowing strong winds and/or waves to literally 'rip the house from its foundation'. 6.1 STOP 3. CUL-DE-SAC: VIEW OF MASON INLET. The island is building by spit growth into Mason Inlet. A large amount of marsh area has been filled for development on the back side of the island, which is only a few feet above sea level. The beach on this end of the island is coarser, steeper, and undergoing some erosion in contrast to the northern section. Stabilization of the substrate around houses is an important consideration in development of a site. Here, near the inlet, property owners have tried unsuccessfully to stabilize the dunes. The strong winds and shifting sands have prevented vegetation from being established. Beach sections near inlets are constantly shifting due to this lack of stabilization. As the inlet migrates under natural conditions, these unstable areas are removed from the influence of the abundant sand supply and gradually become stabilized by vegetation. There are, then, several reasons why coastal development should not take place in inlet areas. THE BARRIER ISLAND ECOSYSTEM BEACH The beach ecosystem can be divided into 3 zones based upon physical environmental factors: a) the sublittoral, b) the intertidal, and c) the supratidal. In the sublittoral zone, the area never exposed by tidal fluctuation, burrowing organisms, scotch bonnets and other mullusks, sand dollars and other echinoderms and polychaete worms are found. Pelagic animals such as fish and crustaceans are abundant. They feed upon the rich populations of plankton characteristic of the nearshore areas. Blue crabs and brown shrimp are important crustaceans in the sublittoral zone. Many species of fish - puffers, pompano, flounder, bluefish, mullet and trout - are common in the troughs between offshore bars (Figure 32). FIGURE 32. Beach ecosystem, Masonboro Island. This ecosystem is characterized by temperature and moisture extremes, as well as constantly pounding surf. The few organisms which colonize this environment are abundant due to the lack of competitors. The **intertidal zone**, the area bounded by the high and low tides, is an extremely harsh environment. Only organisms adapted to the pounding surf and the shifting substrates are able to survive here. Coquina clams and mole crabs are very numerous in the sandy substrate. These organisms are filter feeders; they move in and out of the beach with the tides, feeding on plankton. The **supratidal zone**, the area above the high tide, is characterized by temperature extremes and low water availability. Beach fleas, insects and ghost crabs are important animals in this zone. Ghost crabs dig deep holes in the sand to escape the intense summer heat while beach fleas accomplish the same by hiding under beach debris. Birds are an important component in the beach ecosystem. Many species of birds feed in nearshore waters, the surf, or in the swash zone. Terns and gulls are found commonly on the nearshore waters feeding on fish and crustaceans, while black skimmers fly low over the surf seeking small fish and crustaceans. Numerous shorebirds, including sandpipers, sanderlings, and plovers probe the wet sand of the swash for crustaceans and worms. The zone directly behind the beach is the dune field. The dunes are mounds of sand which have been produced and shaped by winds which influence the island (Figure 33). On Masonboro Island, the dunes are sometimes high and continuous, low and flat, or non-existent, depending upon the past history of the beach area. The source of sand for dunes is the open beach. As the tide moves out, moist sand is exposed to the drying air. As it dries it is picked up by the wind and blown landward. Any object such as a beer can or beach debris will trap sand and form a mound. FIGURE 33. View of undeveloped Masonboro Island. The low single foredune ridge fronting a poorly vegetated grassland is probably what Wrightsville Beach looked like before development began. Erosion has occurred on Masonboro Island similar in magnitude to that experienced on Wrightsville Beach but since there are no structures on Masonboro Island, it goes unnoticed. Under natural conditions, tufts of vegetation such as sea oats or sea elder trap the sand as it blows from the beach. These plants grow larger as sand builds around them. Gradually the dunes become large and well-vegetated, thus stabilizing the areas so that other life forms not adapted to salt spray and/or moving sand can survive. Blowouts are initiated by the destruction of the stabilizing vegetation. Winds move dry sand, creating a depression which may expand to several hundred feet in diameter. The dune zone is visited by numerous animals and many are residents of the area. Several species of birds, including the nighthawk and the least tern, use the beach or dune zone for nesting sites. Laughing gulls, herring gulls, common terns, least terns, and black skimmers often rest either singly or in flocks on the beach. The dunes also serve as nesting sites for birds such as the seaside sparrow and mourning dove. Glass lizards and sixlined racerunners are found searching for food in and around the dunes. Once a year terrapins move out of the estuaries and into the dunes to lay their eggs. Ants, ant lions, crickets, grasshoppers, cicadas, dragonflies, spiders, and insect pests such as mosquitos are the most common species which occur there. The grassland ecosystem is located behind the dune ecosystem. It occupies areas which are moister and lower than the dunes. The vegetation consists primarily of grasses, sedges and occasional shrubs. The grasslands are rarely flooded by tidal water. Either high spring tides or wind tides may flood from the sound side. Thus, most plant species which occur here are able to survive short periods of salt water flooding. The dominant grass and sedge species in the grasslands are salt meadow cordgrass, little bluestem, muhly, bulrush, Flimbristylis, finger grass and love grass. Important broad-leaved species include pennywort, Sabatia and seaside goldenrod. Grasshoppers, birds and small mammals are the major herbivorous animals within the ecosystem. Sparrows and red-winged blackbirds eat the seeds of several grasses. Coachwhip snakes, six-lined racerunners and glass lizards are occasionally found in the grassland ecosystem, while Fowler's toads and tree frogs visit the area to feed upon the insects which occur there. A great variety of insects, including ants, dragonflies, greenheads, deerflies, and crickets are common here. The grasslands are also important to birds for nesting. Meadowlarks, sparrows, and mourning doves often nest in the dense grasslands. Barn swallows, marsh hawks, and nighthawks obtain food in this ecosystem. SHRUB THICKET Where the vegetation has been established for a long time, shrub species usually invade. Eventually, these areas may form a dense thicket of shrubs or a maritime forest. The thickets may be impenetrable or scattered and park-like. Shrub thickets grow in locations such as on the edges of the maritime forest, old stabilized dunes and dune swales. The shrub's stage of development depends upon the age and relative stability of the area. In closed thickets, the ground is nearly barren of herbaceous vegetation due to the lack of light penetration through the dense canopy. Within the more open thickets, grassland vegetation or black needlerush marsh is interspersed among the shrub patches (Figure 34). FIGURE 34. Dense shrub thickets are present in strips on Masonboro Island. Shrub thickets are most common on Masonboro Island in areas which have received only minor washover impacts. On Masonboro Island the most common species of shrubs, wax myrtle and marsh elder, along with the small shrubby sea ox-eye, dominate. The vegetation occurring in the shrub thickets commonly exhibits the effects of salt spray pruning. When viewed aerially the shrubs are uniformly pruned in the direction of the dominant, salt-laden winds. Grackles and red-winged blackbirds nest in the shrub thicket and usually feed in and around the thicket on insects and seeds. Insects - such as butterflies, dragonflies and mosquitos are common. MARITIME FOREST On higher elevations where the substrates are unaffected by salt water flooding and heavy salt spray, maritime forest may occur. This forest is the climax of the successional process and is the stage following the shrub thicket. On Masonboro Island only two small patches of forest occur (Figure 35). FIGURE 35. Maritime live oak ecosystem, Masonboro Island. The maritime forest is dominated by evergreen tree species including live oak, loblolly pine, red bay and red cedar. Only two small patches of maritime live oak forest are found on Masonboro Island. From the air, the forest appears to be a uniform surface of leaves of different hues produced by the very dense, salt spray-pruned canopy and spreading vines. Occasionally dead branches project above the general level of the canopy and suggest the fate of trees which grow high into the salt-laden air. From inside the forest, gnarled and twisted trees with strong lateral branches show the results of salt spray on the growth of the trees. The undulating topography of the forest floor demonstrates that the forest is growing on what were once dunes. The maritime forest is composed of tree species which are relatively resistant to salt spray, but their contorted shapes indicate that they do suffer damage from the salt air. Live oak is the dominant tree and one of the most salt spray-resistant tree species on the seashore. Cedar, American holly, hercules' club, and loblolly pine are important overstory trees. Occasional spleenworts and cacti are found within the maritime forest. The bromeliad, Spanish moss, and a variety of lichens cover the branches of the live oaks and other trees, creating an eerie and forbidding appearance. Vines are important components of the forest. Virginia creeper, grapes, cat briar and poison ivy occur throughout the canopy, sometimes in dense mats across the top branches of live oaks or other trees. TIDAL MARSH To the rear of Masonboro Island, broad expanses of tidal marsh are present (Figure 36). The dominant factor controlling the marsh ecosystem is the ebb and flow of the tides. The rigorous environmental conditions produced by tidal action has resulted in a relatively simple, but highly productive ecosystem. Plants and animals which are adapted to the alternating wet and dry environment, the heating and cooling, the low soil oxygen, and the varying salinities flourish in the tidal marsh. FIGURE 36. Salt marsh and mudflat environments. Masonboro Island fronts an extensive area of mudflats, sandflats, saltmarsh and subtidal bays. Development of the island would likely sacrifice some of these environments and probably contaminate others with various pollutants. Two types of tidal marsh are generally recognized: the regularly flooded salt marsh and the irregularly flooded salt marsh. Smooth cordgrass is the dominant plant of the regularly flooded marsh while black needlerush and sometimes saltmeadow cordgrass, dominate the irregularly flooded marsh. The needlerush marsh is usually on higher ground than the smooth cordgrass marsh and as a result is flooded only by the higher tides; the spring tides produced by wind will also flood the needlerush marsh. As the areas dominated by cordgrass accumulate sediments, they grow upward until the tidal flow does not provide sufficient new sediment to allow continued accretion. Barring changes in the level of the sea, erosion or compaction, the salt marsh then remains stable. Large areas of irregularly flooded marsh are developed after needlerush seeds germinate and grow above the regularly flooded marsh. The rushes expand, soon dominating the occasionally flooded areas. Within both ecosystems, the plant cover is so dense that little light penetrates to the surface and few other plant species occur. Where smooth cordgrass stems are smaller or more scattered, associated species such as glasswort, sea lavender and gerardia are present. In high sites of the needlerush marsh, sea ox-eye and pennywort are common. Occasional large shrubs of sea myrtle tower over the dense needlerush. The substrates of the tidal marsh communities differ somewhat. In the vicinity of smooth cordgrass, peat accumulates from deposition of decaying salt marsh material and silt transported from inland by rivers flowing into the estuary. The black needlerush dominated areas usually contain less silt and organic matter and are characteristically a sandy peat. Over a period of time, salt marshes become dissected by tidal creeks which are produced by the flow of tidal water from the marsh surface. Within and on the banks of these creeks, many estuarine animals seek food and shelter. Numerous animals find food, shelter, and/or nesting sites within the tidal marsh ecosystem. Many of them burrow into the sandy or peaty substrates to avoid the environmental fluctuations which occur on the marsh surfaces throughout the year. Razor clams, lugworms, and quahogs burrow into the oxygen-poor substrates. Other animals living on the surface of the marsh include fiddler crabs, mud snails, and ribbed mussels. The marsh abounds with insects. Grasshoppers, plant hoppers and biting flies such as mosquitos and greenheads feed upon plants or other animals within the tidal marsh ecosystem. Blue crabs, terrapins, salt marsh minnows, and shrimp are common animals of the tidal creeks and adjacent sound waters. These organisms depend upon the marsh for their food. Birds are especially abundant here. Various shorebirds and marsh birds are found seeking food along the edges of the marsh. Other species, such as the seaside sparrow, nest within the salt marsh vegetation. Marsh periwinkles are found in large numbers moving up and down the stems of the smooth cordgrass with each ebb and flow of the tide. Productivity in the tidal marsh ecosystem is higher than on most intensive agricultural land. With the exception of some material eaten by grasshoppers and other herbivores, the tidal marsh ecosystem has a detritus-based food web. Dead and decaying plant material is at the base of the food web. Mussels, clams, fiddler crabs, and insects feed upon the decaying material and are in turn fed upon by the salt marsh carnivores: mice, gulls, terns, rails, ducks, red-winged blackbirds, and marsh hawks. REFERENCES Bourdeau, Phillippe F. and Oosting, Henry J. 1959. The maritime live oak forest in North Carolina. Ecology 40(1):148-152. Cleary, W. J. and Hosier, P. E. 1977. Oceanic overwash and inlet migration patterns: Cape Lookout to Cape Fear, N. C., Geological Society of America, Southeastern Sectional Meeting, with programs. 9(2):129. Cleary, W. J., Hosier, P. E. and Wells, G. R. (submitted) Genesis and significance of marsh islands in Southeastern North Carolina lagoons. DeRosset, William Lord. (ed.) 1938. Pictorial and Historical New Hanover County and Wilmington, North Carolina. 1823-1938. Privately printed. Hall, Lewis P. 1975. Land of the Golden River: Historical Events and Stories of Southeastern North Carolina, and the Lower Cape Fear. Vol. 1. Old Times on the Sea Coast. 1526-1970. Wilmington, North Carolina: Wilmington Printing Co. 295 p. Hosier, P. E. and Cleary, W. J. 1977. Cyclic geomorphic patterns of washover on a barrier island in Southeastern North Carolina, Environmental Geology 2(1):23-31. Lee, Lawrence. 1965. The Lower Cape Fear in Colonial Days. Chapel Hill, N. C.: University of North Carolina Press. 334 p. Lee, Lawrence. 1971. New Hanover County, A Brief History, Raleigh, North Carolina: State Department of Archives & History, 124 p. Moore, Louis, T. 1956. Stories Old and New of the Cape Fear Region. Wilmington, N. C. Privately printed. Newton, A. (ed.) 1954. Hurricane Hazel Lashes Coastal Carolinas, Wilmington, N. C.: Wilmington Printing Co., 32 p. North Carolina Dept. of Archives. 1974. Fort Fisher Historic Site, Brochure 60M, Raleigh, North Carolina: North Carolina Dept. of Cultural Resources. Oosting, Henry J. 1954. Ecological processes and vegetation of the maritime strand in the Southeastern United States. Botanical Review 20(4):226-262. Sprunt, James. 1916. Chronicles of the Cape Fear River, 1660-1916, 2nd. ed., Raleigh, N. C.: Edwards and Broughton Printing Co. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wilmington District. 1970. Investigation of Erosion, Carolina Beach, N. C., Wilmington, N. C. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wilmington District. 1974. Environmental Statement. Hurricane Protection and Beach Erosion Control, Carolina Beach and Vicinity, North Carolina, Wilmington, N. C. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wilmington District. 1975. Fort Fisher and Vicinity, North Carolina, Final Environmental Statement, Wilmington, North Carolina. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wilmington District. 1976. Preliminary Assessment of Alternatives for Navigation Improvements of Carolina Beach Inlet, N. C., Wilmington, N. C. Vallianos, Limberios. 1975. A Recent History of Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina. In Cronin, L. E. ed. Estuarine Research Vol. II. Geology and Engineering, Academic Press, N. Y. p. 151-166. Waddell, Alfred M. 1909. A History of New Hanover County and the Lower Cape Fear Region, 1723-1800, Wilmington, N. C., Privately printed.
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Green Kitchen serving up tailor-made job opportunities Sylvia Thompson Social Enterprises Cafe and garden shop is run by Walk, which supports people with intellectual disabilities The lives of many people with mild intellectual or neurological disabilities have opened up hugely in recent years. And the Walk commitment to equality for all, charities and social enterprises are examples of places which offer volunteering and paid work work opportunities for people who might struggle in full-time open employment. The Green Kitchen and Garden Shop in Walkinstown, Dublin 12, is a success. Brian Kellard, the operations manager of the cafe, says there is no reason a social enterprise can’t be a successful business. Showing us around the carefully designed Green Kitchen cafe, the stylish garden shop next door and the smart back-yard complete with growing areas and covered seating, he explains how tea and coffee has to be of the highest and the working environment as realistic as possible. “I like to think of it as a journey of self-discovery for those who come in here. You have the outer layer and then as you peel back the layers, you see it’s a social enterprise and later that people with disabilities work here,” explains Kellard. “I have been managing the cafe for the past four years or so. “It’s not like a charity cafe with dusty teapots. I try to give the staff as much empowerment as possible. There are several chances for them with disability and we are more accepting than other employers but I don’t offer any special treatment,” he explains. Stephen Lyons (31) has a part-time job as a kitchen porter at the Green Kitchen cafe and another part-time job stacking shelves in Lidl. “It’s really important to know that people with disabilities can work. We all have the right to be part of the world of work,” he tells us. He lives with his parents in Kilmallockham and pays them rent because it would be too costly for them to live on their own. He says he enjoys both his jobs. “The challenge for me is to get to know people,” he explains. Gillian Farrell (34) has been working in the Green Kitchen cafe for about seven years. “I think it helps me when I’m doing one thing at a time. If I try to do too many things together, I need to slow down. I tell myself I have autism and that I can take a bit of time to do things but I’ll get them done,” she says. Anna Brennan (29), who also works as floor staff at the Green Kitchen, says her confidence has grown since she started working there eight years ago. “I’m becoming more independent now. I feel included and I feel like I belong. I meet thousands here and I feel comfortable with that,” says Brennan who gets two buses from her home in Co Meath to come to work. The Green Kitchen and Garden shop is a social enterprise run by Walk, an organisation in Dublin and Louth which supports people with intellectual disabilities. “We had community gardens in Clonmacnoise and Armagh Road in Dublin and when the DCC approached us to set up a community garden on what was then a derelict site,” says Walk chief executive Joe Mason. At that time, the derelict buildings on Walkinstown Green that now house the Green Kitchen and Garden Shop were a magnet for antisocial behaviour and the council needed to do something about it. There wasn’t another cafe in this cluster of retail outlets in the middle of a big residential area. So, nine years ago, rather than just use the building, Walk decided to turn it into a social enterprise incorporating the buildings and outdoor space. Now with a paid staff of 31, the Green Kitchen is a real force to be reckoned with and eight people on work placement, the cafe is open Monday-Saturday from 9.30am-4pm and on Sundays from 9.30am-3pm. Many of the staff with disabilities at the Green Kitchen cafe have used the voluntary, training or residential services run by Walk, the vast majority of which are funded by the HSE. “Some people come to train to be a barista, to learn food preparation or front of house serving as a progressive pathway towards employment,” explains Mason. Since it was set up, 36 people got other jobs after working there and 12 others were supported to study. An added benefit is that the rooms at the back of the Green Kitchen can be used by community groups including Men’s Sheds and the Gardening Club set up Women’s Sheds. Members of the Men’s Sheds have helped the project by building flower beds and making planter boxes for commercial clients. When we visit, garden centre manager Colin Cassery is planting seeds with a volunteer from the Green Kitchen who will be planting the seeds for the garden shop. Meanwhile, in the garden, Ronan Howard is raking weeds out of the gravel. Howard, who uses the day services at Walk, is a volunteer’s helper and an amateur gardener, which sends surplus food from supermarkets to be used by charities and community centres. Sociable and friendly, he asks us about our different activities as his key worker, Caitlin Clarke, helps him manage his days. A covered courtyard next to the garden is hired out for special events with catering provided by the Green Kitchen. The cafe provides external catering and has taken part in the fairs at Richmond barracks in the nearby suburb of Inchicore. In 2015, the 10-year lease for the building was signed with DCC. “It’s tailor-made training and development for people who use our services but we remain reliant on the Department of Social Protection who funds two of our staff,” says Mason. “Having these two staff members fund-raises allows us to build up and give better on the job training,” adds Kellard. “We don’t look like a charity but we’re a social enterprise. Our ultimate goal is to be a financially successful business as well as a successful social enterprise.” Clockwise from main: Anna Brennan and Gillian Farrell working at the Green Kitchen in Walkinstown; Walk board member Stephen Lyons; cafe operations manager Brian Kellard. Below: Ronan Howard working in the garden shop with Walk chief executive Joe Mason. PHOTOGRAPHS: DARA MAC DONALD ‘There’s no stigma for women’ Genevieve O’Neill ‘Are you sure you’re not a man?’ periods are still taboo and like a woman, I’m not part of the club Stigma and shame surround periods. Engaging with them through education can help identify with and reduce embarrassment. Yet it is still a taboo subject, a language barrier that prevents conversations and reopens wounds of stereotyping, discrimination, consequences and wellbeing. Women are the ones which is affected most by women’s health issues, white, as well as black communities. This film aims to raise awareness to the challenges faced by women, especially young girls, as they grow up. Are you sure you’re not a man? is the main subject of this film on health issues. It is a film that covers the stigma and believe that women suffer from period poverty and the mistreatment of menstruation. Are you sure you’re not a man? and the stigma surrounding periods and wellbeing is a topic that is not talked about often. Jill, a 17-year-old student, is experiencing her first period throughout her life in many ways. She is trying to find her place in society and the community. She realises that it is not normal for norms and expectations. ‘Fine line between’ With good hygiene and treatment, period care seems to be a problem where it is not. Jill’s experience impacts her life. “When I was younger, I didn’t have a lot of confidence in my body. I always felt like I had to be perfect. I consumed a lot of food every day that I felt like I was more of a girl. I felt like these norms and expectations put a fine line between me and my body.” In 2018, the Irish Dog Biscuit Company launched an engagement campaign. This campaign was gender neutral and aimed to highlight the fact that the company was spread across the country.
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THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION EXAMINATION 074 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY (For both School and Private Candidates) TIME: 3 Hours 2006/10/26 a.m. Instructions 1. This paper consists of three (3) sections A, B and C. 2. Answer all questions from sections A and B and two (2) questions from section C. 3. Cellular phones are not allowed in the examination room. 4. Electronic calculators are not allowed in the examination room. 5. Write your Examination Number on every page of your answer booklet(s). This paper consists of 5 printed pages. SECTION A (20 marks) Answer all questions in this section For each of the items (i) – (x) choose the correct answer from among the given alternatives and write its letter beside the item number. (i) Double glazing means A two glasses fitted to casement as a single unit B two casement hinged together and fitted into a frame as a single unit C double glass glazed as a single unit fitted to sashes D double sashes fitted to a frame as a single unit E two different glass colours act as single unit fitted to a casement. (ii) Safety governs the A clothing and hand tools only B workshop working benches only C workshop, machines, hand tools and personal protective clothing D workshop and hand tools only E hand tools and machines only. (iii) It is important to keep the oil stone in a wooden box because A it simplifies the work of sharpening cutters B the wooden box is cheap C it retain the oil poured into it D it breaks easily when dropped E it prolong the life span of the stone (iv) In woodworking the internal built-in fitting means all A permanent fixtures in the building B movable fixtures in the building C wall partitions D kitchen fixtures E bathroom fixtures (v) A burnisher is an abrading tool for sharpening A scrapers B chisels C nail punches D cutting knife E saws (vi) Is one of the basic factors for formwork structure. A To protect operatives while working in trenches B To decorate the trenches C To allow stones and soil fall in trenches D To remove soil from the trenches E To dismantle sheppings from the trenches (vii) Is a wood structure used as temporary support for an arch during construction. A Centring B Segment C Lintel D Wedge E Scaffold (viii) How are the grains in panels arranged in the frame? A They are arranged to match B They are arranged to cross C Randomly arranged D Diagonally arranged E Staggered arranged (ix) Wall, screen and balustrade are all A parts made stairs B type of stairs C partition walls D steps of stair case E stair guider (x) A structure liable to collapse can temporarily be propped using A retaining walls B scaffold C snoring D fender wall E underpinning. 2. Match the correct response in List B with the items in List A by writing a letter of a correct response beside the item number. | List A | List B | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------| | (i) The simplest joint in woodwork | A Trimmer | | (ii) A vertical member of a structure used to carry the load and | B Warping | | transmit them to the foundation | C Lewis bolt | | (iii) The defect that begins at the heart of the log due to over | D Dogging | | maturity of the tree | E Ball pein hammer | | (iv) Driving in and pulling out nails | F Pantiles | | (v) Seat of a rafter | G Stain | | (vi) A wooden piece provided to receive the trimmed joists | H Ring beam | | (vii) An alternative method of cramping boards in timber floor | I Collar tie | | construction | J Birds mouth | | (viii) A roofing material whose side overlapping is like that of | K Glazing | | corrugated iron sheets | L Rebate joint | | (ix) A finish which provides changes of colour to the worked surface.| M Good polish | | (x) An ironmongery used for fixing machinery in workshops | N Heart shakes | | | O Dowelling | | | P Butt joint | | | Q Coupling | | | R Claw hammer | | | S Horning | | | T Column | SECTION B (40 marks) Answer all questions in this section. 3. The wet weight of timber piece was 850 g before drying. After drying the piece was re-weighed and found to be 750 g. (a) Calculate the percentage moisture content (b) From the results in (a) above, can the timber be suitable for furniture making? 4. Distinguish between putlog and independent scaffolds. 5. Explain the difference between an emery cloth and an emery wheel. 6. Give a brief description of cutting list as used in carpentry and joinery. 7. What is veneering? 8. (a) Define the term seasoning (b) Mention three methods of timber seasoning. 9. Explain the following: (a) Winding strips (b) Trenching 10. (a) What does the term "ceiling trimming" mean? (b) Why is it necessary to provide night lighting to pavement scaffolds? 11. (a) What does staggered nails or screws joint means? (b) Explain the uses of claw bar 12. Give two reasons for inclined louvers construction or sloping outwards. SECTION C (40 marks) Answer two (2) questions from this section 13. (a) Carefully study the diagram in fig. 1 and then answer the question that follows: ![Diagram](image) **Fig. 1** Calculate the number of rafters spaced at 2m. (b) Find the cost of timber for all trusses to be used in 13 (a) if one truss is as shown in figure 2. Assume 1 ft. run = 200/- (c) Explain how “dry rot” affects the quality of timber. 14. (a) With the aid of sketches explain pivoted windows (b) (i) Briefly explain glazing (ii) State three methods used in glazing 15. (a) (i) Differentiate sash windows from casement windows (ii) State three basic ironmongery used for sash windows (b) Name two types of louver ventilators. (c) (i) What is Adhesive? (ii) Mention three types of Adhesives. (d) (i) Briefly explain shrinkage in timber (ii) Explain why timber is seasoned.
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Fixing our troubled economy some editorial comments Americans wonder why so many more people suffer from allergies while foreign proteins are being genetically engineered into our foods, why so many children have trouble learning after eating a stew of synthetic chemicals in their school cafeteria, and why they are obese and suffer from diabetes on a diet loaded with high fructose corn syrup and MSG. Americans wonder why health care costs are so high while pharmaceutical companies mark up the price of their drugs a thousand-fold and more, and doctors try to hide the millions they receive for promoting those drugs. They wonder why their child shows characteristics of autism after having received countless antibiotics that have destroyed the beneficial bacteria in his digestive system, leading to the overgrowth of destructive yeast. Americans wonder why so many couples have difficulty conceiving while companies dump hormone-disrupting waste products into our air and water. Finding healthier foods and avoiding unnecessary drugs won't make up for the abuses of banks and ignorance of auto executives, but it can drastically reduce the cost of this country's number one budget buster: health care. Healthier Americans It's a safe bet that anyone who has not been living in a cave for the past decade has heard the admonitions to choose healthier food. But it gets a bit tedious to hear "eat more fruits and vegetables" when your taste buds are crying out for cookies. Many healthy food advocates are purists and expect people to make drastic changes in something that is intensely personal and emotionally charged -- food. The purists are repulsed by the thought of eating the sugary, greasy, meals others enjoy, and washing it down with a liter of carbonated corn syrup. What they do not grasp is that the junk-food eater is just as repulsed by the thought of consuming wheat grass juice smoothies and sunflower seeds. The middle ground Feingold families know how to have the best of both worlds and enjoy their favorite foods in healthier versions. We know how schools can improve the food they serve, and thus enhance student learning and behavior; and this can all be done at a lower cost! We know how to be healthier and avoid unnecessary drugs by selecting a different version of a favorite food. And in some cases, the natural option costs much less than the junky one. To raise awareness, visit our home page (www.feingold.org) and watch our You Tube film, then e-mail the link to your friends. More drugs for kids Despite the lack of research and evidence of long-term safety, in June an advisory panel for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) voted overwhelmingly to approve the use of three antipsychotics for children and teens. But a panel of federal drug experts, meeting last November, expressed alarm over the increased use of antipsychotics for children, saying that doctors need to be given stronger warnings about the risks of the drugs. The panel contended that no safety studies have looked at the long-term effects of the drugs on children. Young customers The issue of powerful drugs being given to children is not new. A New York Times article from 2006 on the use of psychiatric drugs for children described one Pennsylvania family. The oldest son, Stephen, age 15, takes a daily cocktail of: Zoloft, Desyrel, Lamictal, and Focalin XR. Fourteen-year-old Jacob takes Focalin XR, Depakote, Risperdal, and Catapres. In an Alaskan family profiled in the article, 10-year-old Kaitlyn has taken similar drugs since she was 5. continued on page 6 Presley's Story by Amy Lindberg Smith My daughter's allergies, ear infections, asthma, eczema, motor control problems, eye-muscle disorders and king-size tantrums were all related to the foods she ate. Our daughter did not have any health problems until the introduction of dairy at age one. As she grew into a toddler, I often noticed she looked pale and had dark circles under her eyes. She was often congested and was prone to ear infections. Her congestion continued, and she developed pneumonia several times. The allergy medicine and nebulizers did not help. We finally found a physician who discovered that Presley has a sensitivity to gluten, wheat, dairy, eggs, and soy. These did not show up on the traditional blood testing for allergies. As soon as we removed those items her health began to improve dramatically. Her nose stopped running for the first time in years, and pink rosy cheeks began to appear. I felt victorious as a mother and was grateful that our visits to the ER for "reactive airway disease" were over. But as weeks and months progressed, we began to notice extreme behavior problems. These behaviors were sporadic, and would occur at different times of the day, but not every day. I remember my mother saying, "Well, if you removed the gluten, dairy, soy and egg, what else could it be?" and I replied through my tears, "I don't know." The tears were for my daughter, because to see her tantrum for over an hour and kick and scream to the point of harming herself and others, tore at my heart. She also had difficulty sleeping, and patches of eczema on her skin. Her pale skin and the dark circles under her eyes seemed to fluctuate, on some days they were pronounced, while at other times they were almost gone. We were concerned about her handwriting. We had been practicing and she knew how to write her letters, but some days she would write completely backwards (often referred to as mirror writing) or to the point they were illegible. One of her eyes also began to drift. I would later discover that certain chemicals can trigger eye muscle disorders. Presley was also diagnosed with Sensory Integration Disorder, which is defined as a neurological disorder causing difficulties with processing information from the five senses (vision, auditory, touch, olfaction, and taste). My husband and I had grown anxious about Presley attending birthday parties for fear that our emotionally fragile daughter would cause a scene. The screaming and trouble with transitions were too much to risk even a trip to the grocery store. A family visit out of town left Presley's great-grandmother upset that something was terribly wrong with Presley. This was about 45 minutes after she had eaten red Jell-O. My husband and I were fearful that Presley might need to end up on medicine and had even discussed the possibility of home schooling in the future. But I was able to attend a conference last summer that introduced us to the Feingold Association and changed our lives. I learned that my daughter was not only sensitive to the synthetic chemicals in food, but she also has a sensitivity to some of the natural salicylates found in some fruits and vegetables. Her worst reactions are to apples and oranges. Since we have removed the synthetic additives and these natural salicylates from her diet, Presley no longer experiences any of the earlier problems and was recently accepted into a school for gifted children. Note: Little brother, Everett, screamed almost non-stop, and showed signs of autism as an infant, but now, at two-and-a-half years old, he is doing well on a gluten-free plus Feingold diet. Amy volunteers for the Feingold Association, giving workshops to parents and professionals. Her training as a social worker enables her to view these issues as both a parent and a counselor. The Unhealthy Truth Just like Lewis Carroll's Alice, Robyn O'Brien fell down a rabbit hole and landed in a world where things don't seem to make sense, and her life has not been the same since. Robyn's life changed when her infant daughter experienced a severe allergic reaction to eggs. In her determination to learn how to protect her baby, Robyn began the research that led to some disturbing realizations: some organizations -- whose stated purpose is to help people with a particular health issue -- are actually working for the wealthy interests that fund them. Some doctors, who pledge to help heal the sick, actively work to keep life-saving treatments from those very people. This is a lot for a busy mother of four young children to absorb, but within a very short time Robyn researched, questioned, investigated, and learned that things are not what they seem, and that the health and welfare of countless other families are being sacrificed for a system that seems to have run amok. She has done a remarkable job of documenting her discoveries, while presenting the information in a lively, readable way. Feingold members will enjoy following Robyn's journey (and loss of innocence) because most of us have been down that road and asked those same questions. And many of us have had to face the glazed looks or eye-rolling of friends and family members when we tried to share the information that is so deeply personal and important to us. Robyn doesn't pull any punches as she describes her struggle with a desire to be close to those she loves, but she knows that she cannot ignore what she has learned because the consequences are so great. You can help the Feingold Association earn funds by ordering books through our link on the home page. Click on the button that says "Bookstore." This will take you to Amazon.com, where you can search by the author or title. Food Matters This 80-minute DVD covers a lot of territory, but focuses primarily on the role of food and nutrients in preventing disease, and on the ability of large doses of nutrients to cure many diseases, including cancer. The "war on cancer" was declared in 1972; but 37 years, and billions of dollars later, there has been little progress. Doctors in the film explain how the Illness Industry operates and why simple, low cost options are ignored and suppressed. As powerful as Big Pharma, Big Medicine, and the American insurance industry are, there's a little-known solution. The secret is that each of us has the ability to change the sorry state of our "health care" by asking questions. Are the multiple prescriptions I now take really going to enable me to get well? Has my doctor's judgment been influenced by the enormous promotions (and possibly gifts) from the drug industry? Were the positive studies on this new, more expensive drug funded by the company that profits from their sale? Why aren't the studies showing the value of nutritional solutions published as well? Why are doctors in the United States prevented from using so many risk-free options for healing? We consumers still have choices. We can do some research and see if there are options to filling yet another prescription. Only a tiny fraction of the cost of that bottle of pills actually pays for the ingredients in it. Most of that money will be used to continue a failing system and to keep us dependent on it. Exposed - The Toxic Chemistry of Everyday Products and What's at Stake for American Power The world is changing rapidly and America is finding that the old "solutions" aren't working. Want to cover up the dangers of a bad drug or the damage that is being caused by a synthetic chemical? Want to continue to produce cars that pollute or toys that harm kids? Beginning in the 1980s American industry became skilled at finding solutions to such problems. Are there laws that prevent your industry from dumping toxic waste onto the land or in the rivers? Is there evidence that your product is responsible for a rise in cancer? Would higher standards for reducing emissions reduce profits? No problem; the answers are readily available and have worked well. A relatively modest investment will buy all that is needed, including politicians, scientists, lobbyists and PR firms. Change the laws, dismantle the agencies that are designed to protect the public, sue the small businesses that threaten your profits, and pay off officials who could get in the way. But the formula isn't working so well anymore, at least not in other countries where public officials are more likely to believe that their job is to protect the public. While American businesses have seen environmental regulations as a threat, the European Union (EU) is using them to stimulate growth. Mark Schapiro's carefully documented book takes the reader on a journey to Brussels, the EU capital, and uncovers the fascinating story of change that is taking place. This change is based on the European belief that chemicals should not be introduced into a society until they are proven safe -- the "precautionary principal." By contrast, the United States has long permitted new chemicals to be added, only removing a few of them after they have been demonstrated to cause harm. Natural, Organic and Genetically-modified foods - there's good news and bad news. Because so many foods have now been genetically modified (GM), it isn't easy to identify those that are not GM or are free of GM ingredients. However, Whole Foods Market is attempting to do this by creating a protocol for testing products and using a non-GMO seal to label them as such. This is particularly challenging with a food like soy, so widely used in processed foods. Today, 90% of the soy grown in the United States is genetically modified. (Foods with an organic label do not contain genetically-modified components.) On the down side, the non-profit organization, Organic Consumers, charges that the natural food industry is undermining the integrity of organic foods by promoting products as "natural", "all-natural", and "sustainable" to give the appearance that the foods are similar to organic. However, such labels don't have any clear meaning, and may contain all of the undesirable chemicals and GM ingredients found in other foods. Similarly, personal care and cleaning products are being labeled as "made with organic" while they also contain harmful ingredients. Thank you! ...to the Squirrel's Nest Candy Shoppe for all the yummy treats donated to our annual meeting in June, and our grateful thanks to Nancy and Jim of the Kemble Kitchen for keeping us so well-fed and happy! ...to Wellshire Farms for donating their wonderful natural meats for our Feingold lunches. ...to Karen and the crew at the Marriott SpringHill Suites Hotel at the Baltimore Washington International Airport for taking such good care of us. Sports Drinks There's nothing sportsmanlike about most of these drinks, which are loaded with synthetic colors, flavors and sweeteners. But your Feingolder can show up with his own natural version. Glaceau makes several good choices. Their Smartwater is electrolyte enhanced, and Glaceau Vitamin Water is a popular drink that is widely available in supermarkets and other stores (including Target). Look under "Waters" in the Beverage section of your Foodlist & Shopping Guide for the various Stage One and Stage Two versions. Also, Glaceau Fruitwater (available in both stages) is a good option. Head Lice Back to school means some families will be dealing with head lice. Many products designed to treat it contain lindane, a pesticide that is similar to the banned DDT. Lindane can be absorbed through the skin and cause damage to the nervous system, provoking seizures in sensitive people. In rare cases, use of such a product can cause death. California has banned products with lindane and the Los Angeles County Sanitation District notes, "Lindane products, such as shampoos and creams, are rinsed off after use into the public sewers....lindane persists and passes into creeks, rivers, lakes, and oceans. Lindane is toxic in the water even in very small amounts. In fact, a single treatment of headlice or scabies with lindane contains enough lindane to pollute six millions gallons of surface water...the equivalent of 300 swimming pools." Art Supplies Avoid permanent markers and any scented art supplies. Generally, markers that are advertised as being washable are a good option. Crayons are not a problem for most children on the Feingold Program, but sensitive children might have a problem when they get the dye from markers or finger paint on their skin. For a natural product, Crayon Rocks are rock-shaped crayons that use natural mineral powders. Artemis offers plant-colored pencils, pastel crayons and plant-dye pigment paint sets. Livos Salis Natural Hemp Finger Paint Set for Kids contains colors made from natural mineral pigments. Natural alternatives to commercial Play-Doh include Eco Baby Organic Playdough, Clementine Organic Play Dough Art Kits, and Mary's (uncolored) Softdough. Check these out on the Internet where they are available via mail order. They are far more expensive than the traditional versions, but if you have a very sensitive child, they might be a good choice. Some children who are chemically sensitive will do well if they wear vinyl gloves when they do art work; others simply need to first put some Gloves In A Bottle lotion on their hands before they begin. It is available in beauty supply stores and in the paint section of some home improvement stores. The product creates a barrier, protecting the skin. There's a recipe for homemade Play Dough in our new cookbook, Feingold Family Favorites. You can use it uncolored or add natural dyes. Note: You can also make your own edible play dough by combining equal amounts of creamy peanut butter, honey and powdered milk. Knead the mixture to blend it and add a little flour if desired. For a tasty way to finger paint, try one of the fruit flavored smooth yogurts. A safe, inexpensive alternative to lindane is a shampoo called Lice R Gone. It uses enzymes to quickly get rid of both adult lice and nits (eggs). These enzymes are deadly to lice, but harmless to humans. Visit www.licergone.com or www.safesolutions.com. Drugs for Kids, from page 1 Times journalist Gardiner Harris noted, "Last year, the Food and Drug Administration required drug makers to warn on their labels that antidepressants can cause suicidal thoughts and behavior in some children. Anticonvulsant drugs carry warnings about liver and pancreas damage and fatal skin rashes. The side effects of antipsychotic medicines can include rapid weight gain, diabetes, irreversible tics and, in elderly patients with dementia, sudden death. When drugs are combined, these risks compound." Health risks of antipsychotics The American Psychiatric Association held its 162nd annual meeting in June. One of the papers presented concerned the Metabolic Effects of Antipsychotics in Children. After just 12 weeks on the drugs, children showed a significant increase in body fat and a decrease in insulin sensitivity. Both the increase in body fat and the insulin resistance increase a child's risk in developing diabetes. Doctors who routinely prescribe these drugs are aware of increased weight gain as a side effect; some add another drug (metformin, an antidiabetic agent) to address this. Toddler deaths A 3-year-old Kansas child, Destiny Hager, died after having been on Seroquel and Geodon for about one month. The toddler had been diagnosed with "bipolar disorder." An autopsy found that the 38-pound child had been given a dosage that would normally be prescribed to an adult. An investigation of the psychiatrist, Vernon Kliewer, found that he prescribed antipsychotics to children as young as 2 years old. One of the 2-year-olds had been given a total of nine drugs between 2003 and 2006, including Risperdal, Abilify, Seroquel and Geodon. As a result of Destiny Hager's death, Dr. Kliewer was fined, but did not lose his license. The death of 4-year-old Rebecca Riley of Hull, Massachusetts made headlines in 2006 when it was learned that the child had died of an overdose of drugs. At just a little over 2 years of age, Rebecca was started on a drug cocktail for her ADHD and bipolar symptoms. An autopsy found that the child's heart and lungs were damaged as a result of prolonged abuse of the drugs. The prescribing psychiatrist, Dr. Kayoko Kifuji, prescribed similar drugs for Rebecca's two older siblings. Dr. Kifuji has been criticized for doing much of the prescribing over the telephone. "We don't know anything about the long-term effects of these medications; they have only been through a six-week trial." Ronald T. Brown, professor of public health and Dean at Temple University Health Sciences Center. FDA Drug Approval process FDA guidelines require that the agency must ensure the safety of any drug before it is allowed to be sold. However, there is an exception which allows drugs to be marketed before their safety is established, but the manufacturer is then obligated to conduct further study of the drugs once they are on the market. In reality, the majority of these drugs are not followed up by their manufacturers. Congressional hearings held in 2006 and 2007 focused on many disturbing aspects of the FDA oversight of drugs, including suppression of negative studies and other fraud by pharmaceutical companies in their reporting of studies. Former FDA employees have testified before Congress that the agency's first priority is getting more drugs approved, and safety is a secondary concern. Conflicts of interest Congressional investigations and media attention have focused on physicians who accept money from drug manufacturers while conducting federally funded research on their drugs. The latest to be added to the list is Zachary Stowe, a prominent psychiatrist and researcher at Emory University, who was getting money from a pharmaceutical company that makes antidepressants while he was conducting research on the use of these drugs by pregnant women. Risperdal (Johnson & Johnson) Often used to treat ADHD, the majority of patients are children. It comes with risk of weight gain, metabolic disorders and tics. Between 1993 and the beginning of 2008 31 children died as a result of taking Risperdal, including a 9-year-old boy who suffered a fatal stroke 12 days after beginning the drug. A reported 1,207 children experience serious side effects from the drug. In 2004 media reports described one of the distressing side effects of Risperdal; boys taking this antipsychotic were growing breasts and some of the children required mastectomies. The drug also was found to cause accelerated development in young girls. Other reported side effects include obesity, lethargy and inability to concentrate. PIC Report The following products have been researched or re-researched and may be added to your Foodlist, Mail Order Guide or Supplement Guide. Products with this symbol ^ are available in Canada. SM = natural smoke flavoring GF = gluten-free CF = casein-free Stage One KIRKMAN^ www.kirkmanlabs.com Everyday Multi-Vitamin Capsules (GF, CF), Everyday ™ Multi-Vitamin without Vitamins A&D (GF, CF), Idebenone 150mg (GF, CF), Lactobacillus Acidophilus (GF, CF), Lactobacillus Duo (GF, CF), Magnesium Malate 1000mg (GF,CF), Molybdenum 100mcg. (GF, CF), Multiple Vitamin Pro Support Hypoallergenic Capsules (GF, CF), Nu-Thera Everyday Companion Hypoallergenic Capsules (GF, CF), Nu-Thera Everyday Companion Powder Hypoallergenic (GF, CF), Nu-Thera with 50mg P-5-P (GF, CF), Nu-Thera with 50mg P-5-P Hypoallergenic (GF, CF), Pro Bio Defense (GF, CF), Pro Bio Inulin Free(GF, CF), Pro Immune Support (GF, CF), Super Nu-Thera Hypoallergenic Capsules (GF, CF), Super Nu-Thera with 25 mg P-5-P Caplets (GF, CF), Super Nu-Thera without Vitamin A & D (GF, CF), Super Pro Bio (GF, CF), Thera Response Hypoallergenic Capsules (GF, CF), Vanadium 100mg (GF, CF) LUNA & LARRY’S COCONUT BLISS* (www.coconutbliss.com) Chocolate Hazelnut Fudge (GF, CF), Chocolate Peanut Butter (GF, CF), Dark Chocolate (GF, CF), Dark Chocolate Bars (GF, CF), Mint Galactica (GF, CF), Naked Coconut (GF, CF), Naked Coconut Bars (GF, CF), Pineapple Coconut (GF, CF), Vanilla Island (GF, CF) MEYENBERG (meyenberg.com) Low Fat Goat Milk (GF) ORGANIC HEALTHY HANDFULS* Chocolate Chip Chimpies, Lemon Vanilla Koala Crackers, Lucky Duckies PLUSH PUFFS GOURMET MARSHMALLOWS (www.plushpuffs.com) Caramel Swirl (CS, GF), Luscious Lemony Meringue (CS, GF, CF), Vanilla Bean (CS, GF, CF) PUBLIX (Publix) Spicy Brown Mustard (GF, CF), Round Style Tortilla Chips (GF, CF), Ultra-Pasteurized Heavy Cream (GF) SO DELICIOUS^ (turtlemountain.com) Original Coconut Milk Beverage (GF, CF), Unsweetened Coconut Milk Beverage (GF, CF), Vanilla Coconut Milk Beverage (GF, CF) SWEETLEAF Sweetener: All Natural Stevia Plus (GF, CF) Product Alert PAMELA’S Brownie Mix no longer contains grapes so you can move it to the Stage One section of your Foodlist & Shopping Guide. WELLSHIRE FARMS Turkey Bologna now contains paprika so please move it to the Stage Two section of your Foodlist & Shopping Guide. Stage Two 365 EVERYDAY VALUE (Whole Foods Market) Apple Cereal Bar (CS, peaches), Blueberry Cereal Bar (CS, apples, peaches), Mixed Berry Cereal Bar (CS, apples, blueberries, peaches, raspberries, strawberries), Strawberry Cereal Bar (CS, apples, peaches); Organic Cereal: Rainbow Rings (CS, SF, berries, grapes, oranges, tangerines) COOL CUPS* Natural Black Cherry Gels (GF, CF), Natural Orange Gels (GF, CF), Peach Mango Gels (GF, CF) ALVARADO ST BAKERY*^ Diabetic Lifestyles Bread (CF, raisins) (www.alvaradostreetbakery.com) DIXIE DINERS CLUB* (www.dixiediner.com) Trail Mix Bar (CS, GF, CF, almonds, apples, cranberries, currants) FRUIT A BU Smoooshed Apple Fruit Rolls (GF, CF, grapes), Smoooshed Grape Fruit Rolls (GF, CF, apples), Smoooshed Strawberry Fruit Rolls (GF, CF, apples, grapes) GREENWISE (Publix) Organic Creamy Yellow Mustard (GF, CF, paprika) HONEY HILL FARM (www.honeyhillfarm.com) Natural Lip Balm (GF, CF, apricots) IAN’S* (www.iansnaturalfoods.com) Baja Fish Nuggets (paprika, tomatoes), Grilled Cheese Stuffed Pretzel Stix (paprika), Jungle Mix 2 Go (CS, raisins), Nacho Cheese Stuffed Pretzel Stix (chili peppers, paprika), Rodeo Mix 2 Go (raisins), Rotini & Mini Meatballs (CS, tomatoes); Mega Mix 3D Puffed Veggie Snacks: B.B.Q (CS, CF, paprika, tomatoes), Lightly Salted (GF, CF, tomatoes), White Cheddar (tomatoes); Organic: French Bread Pizza (tomatoes), Pasta Kit (CF, tomatoes), Pizza Kit (CF, tomatoes), Wheat Crackers (CF, paprika); Wheat Free/Gluten Free Recipe: Mac & Meat Sauce (GF, CF, tomatoes), Popcorn Turkey Corn Dogs (SM, GF, CF, paprika) THE FORMULA AH (www.theformulaah.com) Fragrance Free Hand & Foot Salt Treatment (GF, CF, grapes), Fragrance Free Hydrating Lotion (GF, CF, cucumbers, grapes, tea) YUMMY 100% All Natural: Dino Buddies Chicken Breast Nuggets (CF, chili peppers, paprika) The Feingold Association does not endorse or assume responsibility for any product, brand, method or treatment. The presence (or absence) of a product on a Feingold Foodlist, or the discussion of a method or treatment, does not constitute approval (or disapproval). The Foodlists are based primarily upon information supplied by manufacturers and are not based upon independent testing. School Year Calendar Calendars, featuring seasonal hints and some of the hard-to-find products that make all our lives easier, are being sent to Feingold Association members in the United States. To order a calendar please contact the FAUS office in New York at (631) 369-9340. The suggested donation is $10. Proceeds help us to fund many of our programs to better serve you. FAUS honors its Volunteer of the Year Markey Dokken has been a Feingold volunteer since the earliest days of the Association, having known and worked with Dr. Feingold in the 1970s. She has helped countless families and served in many roles for both the local and national associations. Most recently Markey is the caring "voice" answering the organization's help-line. Trained as a teacher, she has worked in schools and students' homes while she raised two sons. Markey and Jim Dokken Markey keeps tabs on new research and shares it with her colleagues while staying true to starting with the basics. We thank her for her wisdom and hard work for over 40 years. Fast Food Guide reminder: Please remove the Einstein Brothers Strawberry Reduced Fat Cream Cheese, which contains Red 40. Feingold Tote Bags Get ready for Halloween with our tote bag proclaiming "Additives turn me into a monster! Happy Halloween." You can order yours at the Feingold shop online. Go to www.cafepress.com/feingoldshop. United Way CFC You might be able to designate that your contribution to the United Way or similar giving agency be sent to FAUS. Contact the representative in your office who handles the giving campaigns, and ask for a "designated donation" form. (Some workplaces permit this, while others do not.) If the representative has questions or needs information from FAUS we will be glad to supply it. And please pass this request along to your spouse and adult children. Pure Facts Editor: Jane Hersey Contributing to this issue: Carolyn Allen Lorraine Cordo Markey Dokken Cindy Harrell Lynn Murphy Pure Facts is published ten times a year and is a portion of the material provided to members of the Feingold Association of the United States. Membership provides the Feingold Program book which includes Recipes & Two Week Menu Plan, a regional Foodlist containing thousands of acceptable US brand name foods, a telephone and E-mail Help-Line, and a subscription to Pure Facts. The cost in the US is $69 plus s+h. A Pure Facts subscription plus Member's Message Board access is $38/year when ordered separately. For more information or details on membership outside the US, contact FAUS, 554 East Main Street, Riverhead NY 11901 or phone (631) 369-9340. The articles in this newsletter are offered as information for Pure Facts readers, and are not intended to provide medical advice. Please seek the guidance of a qualified health care professional concerning medical issues. www.feingold.org ©2009 by the Feingold Association of the United States, Inc. Permission to Reprint You are welcome to circulate articles that appear in Pure Facts. This can be in the form of photocopies to share with others, or the reprinting of articles in another newsletter or in Internet newsletters or on a web site. When you reprint, please use the following acknowledgment: Reprinted from Pure Facts, the newsletter of the Feingold Association of the United States, www.feingold.org.
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Empowering you to help young people to be nicotine free E-Cigarette/Vape Module INTRODUCTION We are pleased to introduce the latest update to Right Decisions Right Now: Be Nicotine Free, a youth nicotine prevention program. This supplementary module is focused on electronic nicotine vapor products (e.g., e cigarettes, pods, vapes, tanks). There are many types of these products available today. Youth use of these products has increased significantly over the last few years according to government surveys. These educational materials have been prepared in an effort to provide parents and educators with an additional resource to reinforce the message that youth should not use any tobacco or nicotine products — including vapor products. This learning guide regarding e-cigarettes/vapes was developed by Young Minds Inspired (YMI), an educational firm based in New Haven, Connecticut with more than 30 years of experience in developing teaching materials and curricula. This work was funded by R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company. Right Decisions Right Now: Be Nicotine Free (RDRN: Be Nicotine Free) was originally developed by Lifetime Learning Systems, Inc.; updated and adapted to a digital format by BKFK; and references and footnotes were updated by Young Minds Inspired. In 2024, the program was updated and reviewed to ensure the content reflects evolving trends in youth tobacco and nicotine use. Since 1991, RDRN: Be Nicotine Free has been provided, free of charge, to parents, educators and other adults like you, to share facts and strategies to prevent young people from using tobacco, and nicotine products, including cigarettes, vapes, smokeless tobacco and nicotine pouches. Today, underage smoking is at historic lows in this country, including RDRN: Be Nicotine Free, have helped to dramatically reduce youth tobacco use. However, while there has been a steady decrease in cigarette use by youth, use of e-cigarettes and other vapor products has risen, and that is why these supplementary materials were developed. Right Decisions Right Now: Be Nicotine Free can be an effective tool to raise awareness about the dangers of tobacco and nicotine products, including e-cigarettes and vapor products. This unit is intended to supplement existing teaching on not using tobacco or nicotine as part of your ongoing effort to keep young people on the path to a nicotine-free lifestyle. --- 1 “Results from the Annual National Youth Tobacco Survey,” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2023. Referenced Feb 02, 2023. https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/youth-and-tobacco/results-annual-national-youth-tobacco-survey#2023%20Findings%20on%20Youth%20Tobacco%20Use The educational resources listed or linked to in this publication are provided as a convenience. R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (RJRT) is not responsible for the content of those materials. The statements and views in these materials do not necessarily represent the views of RJRT or its management. Rationale This activity will help develop students’ basic understanding of the risks associated with vapor products. Getting Started Introduce this topic by asking students if they have ever heard of electronic nicotine vapor products — e-cigarettes, pod mods, vapes, e-hookahs, etc. Share with students the fact that, according to research by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), these products pose many risks to their health, which are highlighted in a brief quiz you will give them. You may choose to have students take the quiz, individually or as a group, using the majority’s choice to introduce discussion of each question. Talking About It answers 1. The nicotine in vapes is addictive. True. Nicotine in vapes is addictive and prolonged exposure to it may also make the brain more susceptible to becoming addicted to other substances. (Know the Risks of E-cigarettes for Young People | Know the Risks: E-cigarettes & Young People | U.S. Surgeon General’s Report) 2. Nicotine improves brain development. False. Nicotine does not improve brain development. In fact, studies show that it can impede brain development, especially among youth. (https://ecigarettes.surgeongeneral.gov/knowtherisks.html) 3. Most vapes don’t contain nicotine. False. Most vapes contain nicotine. Students should be particularly cautious about nicotine because, in addition to being addictive, research suggests that nicotine exposure may also prime the brain to become addicted to other substances. (https://ecigarettes.surgeongeneral.gov/knowtherisks.html) 4. Exposure to vape ingredients is harmless. False. Exposure to vape is not harmless. The CDC says, “The e-cigarette aerosol that users breathe from the device and exhale can contain harmful and potentially harmful substances, including: nicotine, ultrafine particles that can be inhaled deep into the lungs, flavorings such as diacetyl, a chemical linked to a serious lung disease, volatile organic compounds, and cancer-causing chemicals.” Heavy metals such as nickel, tin, and lead (https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/Quick-Facts-on-the-Risks-of-E-cigarettes-for-Kids-Teens-and-Young-Adults.html#why-is-nicotine-unsafe) 5. Using vapor products may affect teens’ ability to learn. True. Using vapor products may affect teens’ ability to learn. The Surgeon General warns, “Nicotine also changes the way synapses are formed, which can harm the parts of the brain that control attention and learning.” (https://e-cigarettes.surgeongeneral.gov/default.htm) 6. Youth use of tobacco or nicotine in any form is unsafe. True. Youth use of tobacco or nicotine in any form is unsafe because of the health risks associated with all tobacco or nicotine products. (https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/youth_data/tobacco_use/index.htm) Wrapping Up: Vapes and other tobacco products contain nicotine, which is a drug. Whether you smoke, chew, dip, sniff, or vape a tobacco product, you’re delivering nicotine to the brain. Nicotine is addictive. Nicotine withdrawal symptoms include irritability, craving, depression, anxiety, cognitive and attention deficits, sleep disturbances, and increased appetite. NOW ASK THE GROUP: How do you think being anxious, irritable, or depressed would affect your schoolwork and relationships? (Share with the group how being depressed might affect your work or family life. For example, if you were depressed, you might not have the energy to go to work or might not do a good job.) --- 3 https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/Quick-Facts-on-the-Risks-of-E-cigarettes-for-Kids-Teens-and-Young-Adults.html#why-is-nicotine-unsafe Rationale This discussion activity offers scenarios that students are likely to encounter and a variety of responses for students to consider. Getting Started Read the scenarios and the possible responses aloud to students and have them record their answers individually or have the class discuss each scenario and the possible responses. Talking About It Answers may vary. A recommended answer is offered for each scenario. Scenario 1: A friend offers you an e-cigarette and assures you that it won’t hurt you. B. You tell your friend “no thanks.” Students should understand that saying no is the best and safest option. Even trying an e-cigarette just once may lead to trying other substances which may be as addictive and harmful, or more so. [https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/Quick-Facts-on-the-Risks-of-E-cigarettes-for-Kids-Teens-and-Young-Adults.html#why-is-nicotine-unsafe](https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/Quick-Facts-on-the-Risks-of-E-cigarettes-for-Kids-Teens-and-Young-Adults.html#why-is-nicotine-unsafe) Scenario 2: A friend, who’s older than you, wants to buy vapes for you and your friends. B. Say “no thanks,” then tell a parent or a trusted teacher what happened. Students may feel pressure to fit in with older students. Reiterate the importance of saying no to these potential pressures and to understanding the consequences. Review ways students can turn down an offer if they are in this situation, such as by saying, No thanks; I’m not interested; I don’t want to get in trouble with the law, etc. Encourage students to talk with their parents or a trusted adult. In addition, students should realize that it is illegal for adults to buy tobacco products for minors. They should never ask someone to do that or accept an offer to do it. Scenario 3: You’re at your friend’s house after school one day. She says that she knows where her brother’s e-cigarette is and that she was wondering if you would try one with her. C. Say “no thanks,” then tell a parent that your friend is (or may be) using nicotine products. Students should feel empowered to say no in the face of such peer pressure. In addition, they should feel comfortable talking with a parent about situations like this one. They might even develop their own texting or calling ‘code’ with a parent that provides them with “an out” when they are in an uncomfortable situation. Scenario 4: You’re invited to a party at the house of a classmate you don’t know very well, but you decide to go anyway, since your friend was also invited. When you get there, some of your classmates are using vapes. C. Try to find a ride home as soon as possible. Students should recognize the immediate health risks in this situation. As the CDC advises, e-cigarette aerosol is NOT harmless “water vapor.” It can contain not only nicotine, but also ultrafine particles that can be inhaled deep into the lungs, flavoring such as diacetyl (a chemical linked to a serious lung disease), volatile organic compounds, cancer-causing chemicals, and heavy metals such as nickel, tin, and lead. Users inhale e-cigarette aerosol into their lungs. Bystanders can also breathe in this aerosol when the user exhales it into the air. The best way to avoid these health risks is to leave the party. Also discuss the potential peer pressure in this situation and how to deal with it. Encourage students to seek help from parents, educators, and medical caregivers in making wise choices. [https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/Quick-Facts-on-the-Risks-of-E-cigarettes-for-Kids--Teens-and-Young-Adults.html#why-is-nicotine-unsafe](https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/Quick-Facts-on-the-Risks-of-E-cigarettes-for-Kids--Teens-and-Young-Adults.html#why-is-nicotine-unsafe) for more details.) Recognizing peer pressure and peer influence are strong drivers in teens’ behavior, it is important to discuss ways to say no and invite conversation with parents about the friend’s behavior. While educating teens about the dangers associated with nicotine products, such as vapes, it’s also important for teens to remove themselves from situations like this with potential pressure and negative influences. Scenario 5: You and a friend are going to see a movie. When your friend picks you up in his car, he tells you that he has been vaping while his parents are away. You didn’t know that your friend vaped. A. Tell him about the dangers associated with using nicotine products. Help students understand that it would show concern for this friend to explain the addiction risk and other hazards associated with vapes. Also discuss ways to resist or deflect the peer pressures implicit in this situation, and how students might start a conversation with a parent about the friend’s behavior. Wrapping Up: Here are some resources to provide you and your students with more information about the dangers of electronic vapor products and other nicotine products: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Office on Smoking & Tobacco Use - U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Tobacco Products, Tobacco Education Resource Library: Vaping Prevention and Education [https://digitalmedia.hhs.gov/tobacco/educator_hub/about/for_parents?locale=en](https://digitalmedia.hhs.gov/tobacco/educator_hub/about/for_parents?locale=en) - U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Know the Risks: E-Cigarettes and Young People [https://e-cigarettes.surgeongeneral.gov/default.htm](https://e-cigarettes.surgeongeneral.gov/default.htm) ACTIVITY 3 NICOTINE: THE HIGH COST Rationale This activity allows students to research and calculate the high cost of using vapor and nicotine products, and to personalize that information to see how it could impact their lives right now and in the future. Getting Started Tell students that nationwide, cigarettes cost an average of $7 per pack, disposable vapes average $9 each (which is the equivalent of about one pack of regular cigarettes), and vape pens run about $25 each. Then explain that they will use this sheet to see how nicotine not only affects their health, but also their wallets, their ability to learn, and interpersonal relationships. Talking About It Answers: 1. Pack-a-day cigarette smokers will spend about $7 a day, about $210 a month, and more than $2,500 annually. 2. The average vape costs $9. This comes to an expense of about $270 a month or $3,285 annually. 3. A vaper would spend the following on vapes: $16,425 over 5 years; $32,850 over 10 years; and $65,700 over 20 years. 4. The average lifespan of a healthy individual who does not use tobacco and nicotine products is 79 years. The average lifespan of an individual who uses tobacco and nicotine products is shortened by at least 10 years. Wrapping Up: Have students expand the facts from the activity to see how they affect their health costs and spending power over the next 5, 10, and 20 years. Then ask them to consider what else that money could have been used for. How much do you know about nicotine products, like vapes and pod mods? No matter what type of product you are talking about, they are dangerous. Take this quiz and find out. After your teacher shares the correct answers with you, use online resources to learn more about the risks of using vapor products. | TRUE OR FALSE? | TRUE | FALSE | |---------------|------|-------| | 1. The nicotine in vapes is addictive. | | | | 2. Nicotine improves brain development. | | | | 3. Most vapes don’t contain nicotine. | | | | 4. Exposure to vapor ingredients is harmless. | | | | 5. Using vapor products may affect teens’ ability to learn. | | | | 6. Youth use of tobacco or nicotine in any form is unsafe. | | | Adolescence is full of peer pressure and difficult decisions. Sometimes, it’s hard to know the right thing to do and it can be incredibly stressful to make positive choices. Here are some common scenarios involving nicotine products and a set of possible responses from which to choose. Read the scenarios and discuss what you should do. **SCENARIO 1** A friend offers you a vape and assures you that it won’t hurt you. What would you do? - A. Trust your friend and try it. - B. Tell your friend “no thanks.” - B. Change the subject. **SCENARIO 2** A friend, who’s older than you, wants to buy vapes for you and your friends. What would you do? - A. Let your friend buy them and then decide whether to use them. - B. Say “no thanks,” then tell a parent or a trusted teacher what happened. - C. Tell your older friend that vapes – even those that say all-natural or organic are harmful. **SCENARIO 3** You’re at your friend’s house after school one day. She says that she knows where her brother’s vapes are and that she was wondering if you would try one with her. What would you do? - A. Explain to your friend the dangers of using vapes and other vapor products. - B. Say that you’re not interested, but that if she wants to try it, you’ll watch. - C. Say “no thanks,” then tell a parent that your friend is (or may be) using nicotine products. **SCENARIO 4** You’re invited to a party at the house of a classmate you don’t know very well but you decide to go anyway, since your friend was also invited. When you get there, some of your classmates are using vapes. What would you do? - A. Stay at the party, but politely refuse any offers of vapes. - B. Try one of the vapes so you don’t stand out. - C. Try to find a ride home as soon as possible. **SCENARIO 5** You and a friend are going to see a movie. When your friend picks you up in his car, he tells you that he has been vaping while his parents are away. You didn’t know that your friend used vapes. What would you do? - A. Tell him about the dangers associated with vaping. - B. Say nothing because it’s not your problem. - C. Distance yourself from this person, and if he asks, explain why. In this activity, you’ll find out about the overwhelming cost — both physical and financial — of using vapes and other nicotine products. And you’ll see how the average lifespan of nicotine users compares to the lifespan of those who live tobacco and nicotine-free. Here are some facts and figures: Nation-wide, cigarettes cost an average of $7 per pack, disposable vapes average $9 each (which is the equivalent of about one pack of regular cigarettes), and vape pens run about $25 each. 1. How much will someone spend on regular cigarettes in a month if they smoke a pack a day? ____________________________ How much will they spend in a year (365 days)? ____________________________ 2. How much will someone spend on vapes in a month if they use the equivalent of a pack of regular cigarettes a day? ____________________________ How much will they spend in a year (365 days)? ____________________________ 3. Now do some long-term math. About how much would a someone spend on vapes if they used the equivalent of a pack a day: Over 5 years?_______________________ Over 10 years?_______________________ Over 20 years?_______________________ 4. What is the difference between the average lifespan of a healthy individual who does not use tobacco or nicotine products and that of someone who does?
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The Osbornes’ New Pets A Coloring/Story Book by Alice & Joel Schick The Osbornes felt happy, comfortable, loose. Just what you'd expect from a family of moose. Cynthia, James, their Mom and their Dad Were all satisfied with the things that they had. Still, something was missing, and Dad said, "A pet! A cat or a dog, now which should we get?" Cynthia Osborne just looked at her brother. They couldn't decide between one and the other. "Imagine," said Mother, "how happy we'll be, When a dog and a cat join this moose family!" At the shelter were kittens and cats big and small, Calicos, tabbies, adorable all. There were shaggy dogs, smooth dogs, puppies who'd nuzzle, And dignified old dogs, all white in the muzzle. So many animals need homes so badly. "We can take only two," Mother Osborne said sadly. At last they chose two: A cat with white fur, Who, whenever you held him, would purr, purr, purr, purr. The pup that they chose would take any excuse To jump up and lick the soft face of a moose. Then Mother and Father, Cynthia, James Sat there and tried to think of some names. For the dog, well, there's Lulu. Or Spike. Are you crazy? Spike is not a good name. We will call our dog Daisy. We can call our cat Sparky or Snowball or Jackson. Then Cynthia said, “We can name our cat Max.” They filled out adoption forms, paid all the fees. Then the kind shelter manager said, “Listen up, please. You can’t take your animals home right away. It will take a few days to neuter and spay.” They will have operations so they don’t have babies. They’ll get shots from the vet so they will not get rabies.” The kids were excited, and waiting was hard. During that time, they fenced in their yard. A safe place for Daisy to romp and to play Ball with the kids every bright sunny day. On the other hand, Max would stay indoors always. He’d be safe when he played in the rooms and the hallways. The Osbornes went shopping for pet supply stuff. They bought so much stuff they had more than enough. Collars and leashes and bone-shaped name tags, Scratching posts, chew toys and carrying bags. Each pet had a bowl, bed, a brush and a comb. The Osbornes were ready to bring their pets home. So Daisy and Max were brought home, settled in. In a few weeks it seemed that they always had been Part of the family, part of the household, To play with and love and sometimes to scold. For example, one day, Max the cat pushed a clock off a shelf, and the dog chewed a sock. Max uses a litter box to pee and to poop. Mother says, "Kids, now remember to scoop!" When Daisy first got there, the kids had to train her to go potty outside in fine weather or rain. Now Daisy is walked at least three times each day. The moose scoop her poop, and they flush it away. When asked about cat school, Max just replies, "Meow!" But Daisy the dog goes to school to learn how To stand and to heel and to sit and to stay, To come when she's called and to not run away. And when Daisy the dog is out of the house, Max gets to play with his best catnip mouse. If you visit some evening, the family you’ll see On the sofa together, all watching TV. Four moose in the middle, their pets on the ends, The Osbornes are pleased with their animal friends. Mom and Dad, James and Cynthia shout out their cheers: "Max and Daisy will live here for many long years!"
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Iowa Elementary Teachers Handbook, Arithmetic Iowa Dept. of Public Instruction Iowa 375 Iowa. Dept. of public instruction v.8 Iowa elementary teachers handbook, v.8 Arithmetic Iowa 375 Iowa. Dept. of public instruction v.8 Iowa elementary teachers handbook, v.8, Arithmetic DATE ISSUED TO SEP.-2 1967 ARITHMETIC VOLUME VIII IOWA ELEMENTARY TEACHERS HANDBOOK Iowa Elementary Teachers Handbook VOLUME VIII ARITHMETIC Issued by the Department of Public Instruction JESSIE M. PARKER, Superintendent Des Moines, Iowa Published by THE STATE OF IOWA 1944 Copyright 1944 by the STATE OF IOWA Prepared and Edited by the Following Committees CENTRAL COMMITTEE HERSCHEL K. BENNETT, Department of Public Instruction, Des Moines (Chairman) DR. ERNEST HORN, Director University Elementary School, Iowa City DR. BARTON MORGAN, Head, Department of Vocational Education, Iowa State College, Ames PAUL B. NORRIS, Supervisor Rural Schools, Department of Public Instruction, Des Moines DR. ELMER L. RITTER, Professor of Education, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls SUBCOMMITTEE DR. HERBERT F. SPITZER, Assistant Professor of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City (Chairman) DR. HENRY VAN ENGEN, Head, Department of Mathematics, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls MISS ADELAIDE LLOYD, Instructor, Remsen Public Schools J. F. TRACY, County Superintendent of Schools, Knoxville SISTER M. REGIS, Mt. St. Clare College, Clinton THEODORE JOHNSON, Superintendent of Schools, Belmond FOREWORD In keeping with the universal trend now prevalent in the teaching of arithmetic, the committees responsible for the preparation of this handbook have placed major emphasis on understanding as the method of approach throughout the course. In contrast to the prevailing philosophy at the beginning of the present century, when major emphasis was given to the importance of drill (on the assumption that mastery of the fundamentals acquired in this way would readily transfer to practical situations), present philosophy stresses the importance of meaning or understanding as essential requisites in the teaching of arithmetic. Lest the foregoing statement be misunderstood it should be mentioned that this does not mean that there is no place for drill in the present concept of arithmetic teaching. On the contrary, the need for drill in mastering the intricacies of arithmetic is just as essential as ever, but the nature of the drill situation used is quite different from the old concept of drill. While formerly much stress was given to the importance of isolated drill with abstract number combinations, drill now takes on the character of much repetition of these elements associated with meaning. So important is meaning, in fact, that the use of so-called crutches formerly frowned upon as an inhibiting factor is now encouraged as an aid to better understanding. The emphasis given to the social usefulness of arithmetic is another characteristic of the course which aids in furthering the emphasis on the meaningful or understanding approval. The importance of this practice is stressed especially during the period of introduction to new ideas in the child's number experiences and is an essential condition for thorough understanding. In dealing with the problem of individual differences the teacher will find material aid in the use of the diagnostic tests provided throughout the course. Through the use of these tests the difficulties peculiar to each child can be determined, and practice sheets built to aid in correcting his difficulties can be prepared for him. This procedure avoids a common error of the past—that of exposing to much unnecessary practice those individuals in the group who have no need for such practice. As is true of other subjects in the elementary course of study, an effort has been made by the committee to suggest means of correlating the work in arithmetic with other subjects in the curriculum. The area which best lends itself to this procedure is the social studies. Helpful suggestions in this connection will be found in this course in the last section, "Suggestions for Activities Which Tend to Correlate Arithmetic With Other Subject Matter Areas," as well as in the Social Studies course, Volume VI. In addition, Volume I, the Manual for Use of Iowa Elementary Teachers Handbooks, will be largely devoted to suggestions of this kind in all areas. This volume, like those previously issued in the elementary course of study series, has been made possible through the generous donation of time and services by Iowa educators. Grateful acknowledgment is made to members of the Central committee—Mr. H. K. Bennett, Dr. Ernest Horn, Dr. Barton Morgan, Mr. Paul B. Norris, and Dr. Elmer L. Ritter; and to members of the special Arithmetic committee—Dr. H. F. Spitzer, Dr. H. Van Engen, Miss Adelaide Lloyd, Mr. J. F. Tracy, Sister M. Regis, and Mr. Theodore Johnson. JESSIE M. PARKER Superintendent of Public Instruction July, 1944 # TABLE OF CONTENTS | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Introduction | 9 | | Using Diagnostic Tests | 17 | | Content and Procedures by Grades | 19 | | Primer—First Grade | | | Inventory | 19 | | Content and Recommended Procedures | 20 | | Summary | 25 | | Content | 26 | | Testing for Some Basic Number Ideas | 27 | | Second Grade | 29 | | Inventory Test | 29 | | Content and Recommended Procedures | 31 | | Summary | 41 | | Third Grade | 41 | | Inventory Test | 41 | | Content and Recommended Procedures | 42 | | Summary | 50 | | Diagnostic Test | 51 | | Suggested Examination Questions | 53 | | Fourth Grade | 54 | | Inventory Test | 54 | | Content and Recommended Procedures | 54 | | Summary | 60 | | Diagnostic Test | 61 | | Suggested Examination Questions | 62 | | Fifth Grade | 63 | | Inventory Test | 63 | | Content and Recommended Procedures | 64 | | Summary | 69 | | Diagnostic Test | 70 | | Suggested Examination Questions | 72 | | Sixth Grade | 75 | | Inventory Test | 75 | | Content and Recommended Procedures | 75 | | Summary | 82 | | Diagnostic Test | 82 | | Seventh Grade | 83 | | Inventory Test | 83 | | Content and Recommended Procedures | 84 | | Diagnostic Test | 94 | | Suggested Examination Questions | 95 | | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Eighth Grade | 97 | | Introductory Remarks | 97 | | Inventory Test | 98 | | Content and Recommended Procedures | 99 | | Supplementary Reading Materials for Grades Seven and Eight | 106 | | Suggested Activities Which Tend to Correlate Arithmetic With Other Subjects in Other Areas | 107 | | Some Activities That May Be Carried On in Connection With a Gardening Unit | 107 | | Arithmetic Activities Related to Geography | 108 | | How Machines Aid Man In Doing Work | 112 | | Signs of Fall | 113 | | Bibliography | 117 | INTRODUCTION Arithmetic is the one subject which has as its major objectives the development of the ability (1) to think in terms of quantity, (2) to read quantitative materials, (3) to express quantitative relations intelligently, and (4) to discover relationships between quantities ordinarily found in daily life situations. This being granted, it follows as a corollary that the arithmetic program of the school must, in order to achieve its goal, emphasize the development of mathematical concepts, meanings, number imagery, reading, oral and written expression of quantitative ideas. In addition, (1) arithmetic should be expected to provide pupils with a tool for organizing data in such a way that they will simplify the more complex situations of daily life; (2) arithmetic should provide enough knowledge of mathematical and business procedures to enable the child to solve the ordinary quantitative problems of everyday life; and (3) arithmetic should furnish knowledge of the development of number and number processes as a basis for better understanding of our civilization. To attain these objectives economically the instructional program must give emphasis to the major characteristics of the number system (decimal plan, significance of grouping, place value, ordinal and cardinal concepts of number, interrelationships between various processes, and the true nature of the processes). Understanding and an appreciation of the social usefulness of arithmetic must be the chief goals of the arithmetic program throughout all grades, especially during the period in which a new idea is being introduced to the child. Therefore, much attention should be given to the use of concrete materials—even in the upper grades. Above all else, actual life situations involving arithmetic ideas should be reproduced as nearly as possible in the schoolroom. Children should actually handle and arrange sticks and blocks, make marks, diagrams and models, use fingers, cut paper to represent fractions, draw diagrams to illustrate a division or multiplication problem, use the tape to measure the width of the schoolhouse, etc. It will require a great deal of teaching time to obtain understanding and mastery of the fundamental processes, especially since longer procedures are frequently employed by the children when first attempting a new process and when emphasis is placed upon the relationships between processes. In so far as possible, the instructional program should be so directed that the mathematical rules, concepts, and relationships will be discovered by the child himself. (See Morton: *Teaching Arithmetic in the Elementary School*, Vol. I, pp. 78, 91—Vol. II, p. 352; *Sixteenth Yearbook of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics*, pp. 13, 46, 55, 58, 71, 72, 103, 284.) However, the discovery of these relationships should not be left to chance. Problems and number situations should be constantly guiding the child in the direction of the truth or the best procedure. For example, children can work so-called multiplication problems by adding, since work of that kind will either lead them to the discovery of multiplication or will give the experience which will enable them to see the economy of the multiplication process. In problem solving the task before the child and the point of emphasis by the teacher should be the understanding, the discovery of, and an accurate expression of the relationships (quantitative and otherwise) that exist in the situation portrayed. In no case should the emphasis be on the obtaining of an answer. The correct answer is merely an indication of the child’s having perceived the correct relationships as expressed in the problem. In the first stages of problem solving the teacher should tolerate and even encourage long, cumbersome procedures if they make for understanding. So-called crutches, if they aid understanding, are to be used. As a check of the child’s understanding, frequent proof or showing of the child’s thinking will be required. Pencil and paper and blackboard work will then be a means of observing “how the child thought” in solving a number situation. In the more difficult cases individual conferences will frequently indicate gross errors made by the pupil in expressing and analyzing number relationships. This requiring the child to exhibit his method of thinking through diagrams, pictures, conferences, etc., will also permit the teacher to ascertain the child’s level of accomplishment. Since all good teaching begins at the child’s level of accomplishment, the above procedure is very important and should be used frequently. If the child does not have a simple (though often long) solution to a problem, it is not likely that he will understand the shorter, more direct adult method. For example, if the child does not see that two pictures could be made to represent three plates and four plates, and that these could be counted as one group, he is not likely to profit from saying, "Four plus three make seven." In such cases simpler work such as counting exercises should be used. The final goal of all instruction is the child's understanding and mastery of the best processes. After time has been given to building concepts and exploring the various ways, there will be direct systematic instruction and drill in the use of the accepted procedures. As was indicated in the preceding paragraphs, long and uneconomical procedures are to be permitted during the initial learning period if they make for understanding. As a means of checking understanding and as a means of illustrating parts of procedures that are not clear, these longer procedures may also be used after the period of initial instruction. It should be clearly recognized, however, that such procedures are merely used as a means of securing better understanding of the commonly accepted adult procedures. In other words, the child should in the end employ the short, economical procedures of arithmetic that are advocated by modern textbooks. To illustrate the above, the following description of two phases of a child's achievement is offered: When first dealing with the addition of 6 and 5, it is quite proper for the child to take 6 objects and 5 objects, combine into one group, and then to count the total, or to change the two groups mentally into two 5's and a 1. Later, however, when the child is confronted with the addition of 6 and 5 he should respond automatically with 11. No mental visualizing or rearrangement of objects or numbers should be employed. The point of view of the committee on the purposes of arithmetic and on methods of procedures has been stated in broad terms in the above discussion. In order to make clear the committee's position on points mentioned or implied, the following sections are included in this Introduction: 1. The Place of Drill Drill or practice has a very important place in the arithmetic program. After an understanding of a fact or process has been attained, and if that fact or process is one that is frequently used, then practice should be used to fix and maintain the fact or process. Through possession of automatic mastery of frequently used and well understood facts and processes, the child's mind is relieved of some thinking and is therefore free to devote more attention to other aspects of the quantitative situation. In addition to understanding, another prerequisite of drill is that the child see a need for possessing automatic mastery of a fact. If the conditions mentioned above have been met, then any of the well-known drill techniques may be employed. In general, the more direct (free from extraneous factors such as reading or following the rules of a game) the exercise, the better it is for drill purposes. Flash cards, practice examples and tables would, therefore, be considered good exercises for the drill part of the program. For the use of flash cards the following procedure is suggested: "Try to give the answers to the facts presented on one side of the card. If you do not know the fact immediately, turn the card over and look at the complete statement of the fact. Repeat the complete statement (e.g., 6 and 7 equal 13) trying to visualize the numbers as you do so. In case you cannot repeat the fact without hesitation look again at the complete statement. This process should be repeated until you are sure you can give the fact without hesitation. Put this card aside, and after you have gone through the pack try to give the fact for this card just as you tried the first time you went through the pack." 2. The Use of Tests The major portion of the tests used in arithmetic are those informal tests made by the teachers or supervisors. Testing in the field of arithmetic is composed of tests made by classroom teachers, tests taken from the textbooks and workbooks, tests prepared by administrative and supervisory officers, and standardized tests. Because of the more exact nature of arithmetic, almost every teacher feels that she is well qualified to construct tests in that field. For this reason an unnecessary proportion of the total arithmetic time is used for testing. Quite frequently, too, the tests are of inferior quality. In order to avoid the two criticisms mentioned above, these principles should govern testing in the field of arithmetic: a. Tests should be used for the purpose of ascertaining a child's achievement or status with the idea that this information will be of use in future instruction. A minor part of finding the child's achievement is related to the giving of grades. b. General tests should be varied in content, not just over one phase of arithmetic. However, diagnostic tests can be of a more limited nature since they are used as a teaching instrument. It is frequently convenient to have a diagnostic test which covers only a limited area, such as addition in fractions, or multiplication of decimals, in order to determine whether the pupil has mastered a specific area. Diagnostic testing will be covered in greater detail in the section entitled "Using Diagnostic Tests." c. The amount of time given to tests (this includes those assignments which require a child to work problems and examples merely for the sake of working them) should be only a small fraction of the total instructional time. The inventory tests suggested for the early grades are not concerned primarily with finding out what a child knows about the work outlined for that year, but are intended to ascertain how much a child knows of the facts and processes with which he has had opportunity to become acquainted in his previous experiences. These inventory tests are really very general and make no attempt to give the teacher a complete picture of what the child knows. 3. Arithmetic in the Content Subjects As was implied in the statement of objectives, arithmetic plays a major part in every area of life where quantity is involved. Since much of the work in the content fields (history, geography, science, etc.) involves quantity, it is obvious that arithmetic is needed to handle efficiently the work in these areas. This statement should not be interpreted as an argument for a longer or more intensive arithmetic period. Rather, it should be a clear indication to the teacher that much arithmetic can be taught as a part of the content subjects. Through such a procedure not only will arithmetic be more meaningful, but there will result an increased understanding of the materials of the content subjects. Throughout this course of study several opportunities to integrate arithmetic with geography, science, etc. have been worked out. It is hoped that the teachers will work out other units as opportunity arises. Only by relating arithmetic to science, health, etc., is it possible to develop a "real life" use of arithmetic. For the adult real, quantitative experiences occur in the context of other subject areas or while engaging in other activities; for example, while reading the newspaper, studying the market, paying taxes, etc. For the pupil these real uses must be looked for in his activities on the playground, his reading in other books, his interests in planes, cars, dresses, etc. The good teacher of arithmetic will take advantage of every opportunity to teach arithmetic during the geography period or geography during the arithmetic period if this opportunity presents itself in such a way as to lead to a natural correlation. The teacher should take advantage of every opportunity to develop a critical or questioning attitude toward statements of quantity found in other subjects. For example, if a child makes a statement that Des Moines is larger than Waterloo, the teacher should sometimes ask for a clarification of the term *larger*. Obviously the statement that Des Moines is three times as large as Waterloo will in most cases be a more meaningful statement than the word *larger* is. Teachers and children should become conscious of the language of quantity. 4. Reading, Oral and Written Expression, AND ARITHMETIC It is the function of the teacher in any school system to see the child and his needs, as well as society and its needs, as a whole. Granted this is a postulate on which to base a philosophy of teaching, it follows that the teacher of arithmetic is also responsible for the development of certain general abilities which heretofore have usually been considered the function of some special teacher. The attitude taken by many teachers of arithmetic as regards the development of reading skills, oral and written expression, and work-study habits serves to illustrate the point under discussion. As a rule teachers of arithmetic are not too conscientious about assisting the child to learn to express quantitative ideas clearly and concisely. This is true not only of language (English) used in the classes but also as regards the statements in the language of arithmetic. It is a common practice for teachers and pupils to work the following problems as shown below: Five per cent of the planes raiding town A failed to return. If 25 planes failed to return, how many planes raided the town? The work. \[ \begin{align*} 5\% &= 25 \\ 1\% &= 5 \\ 100\% &= 500 \end{align*} \] Now consider what is being said in the above three lines. The first line (in the English language) says: five per cent equals 25. This is not so. Five per cent equals .05. What is really meant is that five per cent of the raiding planes equals 25. The same error is made in the remaining two statements shown above. The point is not a mere "quibble" about an obscure point in mathematics. It involves expressing ideas clearly in the language of arithmetic. Whenever the idea is expressed clearly in arithmetic it can be translated into good English. This is not true of the statement \(5\% = 25\). This statement translates into a false statement in the English because it is false as a mathematical statement. Pupils should be able to "translate" the arithmetical statement into good English; e.g., \(n + 2 = 13\) says: some number and two are thirteen. Also consider the type of response one so frequently hears in the arithmetic class. Do they not frequently consist of single words and incomplete sentences? "Johnny, what do you do to get the answer?" "Divide." This reply is accepted in spite of the fact that when two numbers are given in the problem, there are two different division problems possible. Johnny may be, and frequently is, thinking of the wrong division possibility. The above illustrations will serve to convey the general idea of the intent of the course with reference to the development of the ability to express quantitative ideas clearly. The use of the English language to express concisely and clearly the ideas of quantity in an arithmetic class is an important element in the total instructional program. This, of course, is true of both oral and written work. Have the pupils express the ideas of arithmetic in clear-cut statements that make sense. In a world of quantity this is important. Developing the ability to read is also a difficult problem. However, the attack on this problem by teachers of arithmetic is often not well planned. There should be a constant effort on the part of the teacher to have the pupil read his arithmetic textbook—not only the verbal problems, but also those parts of the text explaining processes which are new to the pupil. It is true that many arithmetic texts are too difficult for the child to read. However, every text has some sections that the youngster can read. Make use of these sections. Before explaining a process in arithmetic, have the pupils study the materials in the text introducing this process. Pupils learn to read only by reading. Find other quantitative materials for the pupils to read. One can find some reading material which involves quantitative ideas in almost any subject area. In the study of geography, health, and science, the teacher should constantly watch to see if the pupil understands the quantitative ideas contained in his reading assignment. Only in this way can the ability to understand the use of quantity, as it is normally used in the life of an adult, be adequately developed for the children in the elementary school. USING DIAGNOSTIC TESTS The diagnostic test is a very useful teaching instrument. It enables the teacher who understands its use to locate many of the more common difficulties the elementary school child may have with the processes of arithmetic. With a diagnostic test teaching becomes a cyclical operation, the cycles being as follows: test, teach, practice, re-test, re-teach, practice, and so on. In order to illustrate briefly what is meant by the cyclical operation of teaching and the use of the diagnostic test, the test on subtraction found on page 52 will be discussed in detail as to its use. In the teaching of subtraction the first few difficulties encountered by the child will be, in all probability, steps one to five. Suppose a class has been taught these five steps as found in the diagnostic test. The teacher can mimeograph or ditto the problems as found in the test or make problems involving the same difficulties illustrated by these five steps. The class can then be given a test consisting of five steps in subtraction. If Johnnie, for example, misses two or three problems in step four and probably all those in step five, the teacher would know immediately that Johnnie is having trouble with borrowing in the first place and other places as well. If Johnnie succeeds in working all the problems of step four and misses some of the problems in step five, the teacher would know that he has trouble with borrowing. The same situation would apply to steps one, two, and three. Hence, the teacher will know that Johnnie needs to be drilled in problems similar to those found in the step in which the errors occur. Another child may need some individual work in bridging as illustrated in step three, and so on throughout the class. By this procedure the teacher is enabled to individualize the work to a great extent and at the same time keep each class together as a group. It might be necessary for the teacher to work out practice sheets illustrating one particular type of difficulty such as those found in step eight of the subtraction test which involves zero in the subtraction processes (in one place only). After the individual difficulties have been located, practice sheets on this particular difficulty can be passed out. to the pupils having trouble with, say, borrowing. However, after having located a weakness, the teacher should first re-teach the process, then give the pupils the opportunity to practice. After the pupil has had time to practice, the testing process can be repeated. There is nothing sacred about using the first five steps in the subtraction test. Of course, any number of steps could be included in a diagnostic test. However, the teacher should guard against making the test too long inasmuch as this would bring in the fatigue element of the testing process. Pupils should be allowed a considerable period of time to work the test. Diagnostic tests should have flexible time limits if they are to be used strictly as a diagnostic instrument. Obviously, if the youngster does not have sufficient time to work the problems of a test, the teacher learns nothing about the difficulties which may show up in those problems omitted. All diagnostic tests included in this course of study can be used in the manner illustrated above. Furthermore, the teacher should feel free to reproduce the tests included in this course as well as to build tests of similar nature for their own use if the gradation of difficulties does not fit the textbook being used. CONTENT AND PROCEDURES BY GRADES PRIMER—FIRST GRADE There is ample evidence to show that children entering school do possess some knowledge of number and that they can profit from instruction in the field of numbers. In the kindergarten-primary program it is recommended that emphasis be placed on the building of concepts rather than the systematic teaching of facts. No specific recommendation in the way of required content is therefore made for the primer and first grade. The suggestions listed should not under any conditions be considered as the content to be mastered. In counties where a primer grade exists, some of the suggested procedures will be used for that grade and others reserved for the first grade. In counties where beginners are in first grade, all suggestions listed below may be used. It is important for the first grade teacher to realize that many number experiences occur at other times during the day than the designated number period. She should be constantly alert to notice these and take advantage of them. For example, a child can get enough chairs for a certain class, or drawing paper or boxes of crayons, or tell how many children are present or absent, etc. Inventory This inventory of the child’s number achievement will have to be on an oral and an individual basis. It may well constitute some of the first two weeks of teaching. It should include exercises or tests similar to the following: a. “I want to know how far you can count. Let me hear you count.” If the child hesitates, say, “Begin like this: 1, 2, 3. Now go on from there.” b. (1) Have the child count the number of objects in a group. (2) Have the child count from a large group a certain specified number. c. Which is the biggest? Longest? Which is low? High? (Use appropriate references such as blocks, objects on the wall, etc.) d. Which has more? Fewer? e. Which is at the bottom? Far away? f. Which is in the right-hand corner? g. How many days in a week? h. Can you tell what time it is? i. About how long is a foot? j. Can you tell me how big a quart is? k. Tell me the names of these coins. Use penny, nickel, dime, quarter. l. Show me which of the drawings shows a half. Give me half of the blocks. m. Tell me how many two pencils and three more pencils would be. Content and Recommended Procedures The first number experiences of the child should be very concrete. If, after a few weeks’ work, the teacher finds that the child has already had lots of experience with concrete numbers, the next steps in semi-concrete or abstract number experiences may be provided. The outline of number experiences given below will indicate the successive stages through which the number concept of the first grade child is quite readily developed. Some children will need more of the concrete and semi-concrete number work than others before beginning on the more abstract number experiences outlined below. In every case, understanding will be the factor which determines the rate at which the child is introduced to the various difficulties given below. I. Counting A. Concrete experiences. These involve such activities as rhymes, skipping, bouncing balls, tapping, listening to other pupils tap fingers, counting in all possible number situations, counting the number of pencils needed, counting the days before holidays, counting chairs, papers, etc. In fact, the possibilities of this kind of concrete work involving counting are almost innumerable. The “wide-awake” teacher will make use of these situations to assist her in developing the number concepts of the first grade pupils. These concrete experiences involve not only counting but the recognition of groups of two, three, four, and five without counting. Of course this ability can only be developed in easy stages. B. Semi-concrete experiences involving counting and recognition of groups. These involve counting the number of boys in a picture, counting dots on dominoes, marks made on the board, squares, circles, and any other configuration which may or may not have any special meaning. Work in recognition of groups of dots, marks, circles, etc. should be provided. C. Abstract number experiences. These involve simple situations which may be almost semi-concrete. In fact, the first stages should go back to the concrete work. Problems of this kind might involve Mary's finding out how many papers will be needed for the class. If she did not take enough, the teacher can ask, How many more will you need, Mary? This stage of number development will involve using the daily experiences of the children a great deal. If John brought two apples to school for his lunch and Mary brought one apple, how many apples did John and Mary bring to school? The more abstract experiences in this stage will involve the recognition of the symbols *two*, 2, etc., and answering questions such as: One and two are ?. This sequence of experiences with quantity should eventually develop the ability to: Count and enumerate by ones to 100 Count by tens to 100 In teaching the order of number names, the teacher may rely chiefly upon imitation. Some use of games and rhymes may be made especially for purposes of motivation. Among the most popular of the rhymes are *One Two Buckle My Shoe*, *Ten Little Indians*, and *Here Is the Bee Hive Where Are the Bees*. Other teaching and motivating devices are to ask the children to skip a certain number of times, to bounce a ball a certain number of times, etc. Still another exercise is to make a mark for every tap the teacher makes on the desk and then count the taps. Along with the counting (ordinal even though cardinal names are used) some concept of quantity (cardinal) develops. To encourage this development have the children show 7 fingers, 8 fingers, etc., when they have counted to 7 or 8. A need for the reading of number names comes early in school work. Teaching the reading of numbers may, therefore, be combined with the counting exercises. Children should be asked to show the numbers from 1 through 9 in many ways. Dots, fingers, small objects, chairs, and children themselves are probably the best things to use. Specific procedures to use appear later in the outline. In writing numbers, the accepted cursive (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0) form, not the manuscript, should be used. Since the number words are used so frequently in early reading, the work as well as the symbol and the concrete and semi-concrete representation of the quantity should be used; e.g., the pupil should recognize that the columns below are all special instances of the numbers four, three, and five, respectively. | four | three | five | |------|-------|------| | 4 | 3 | 5 | | 1 111| 1 11 | 111 11 | | / ///| 111 | | | // //| | | | | | | A common device is to tell children to show in another way what you have written. As a device to aid in teaching the reading of numbers and in teaching counting, a number chart similar to this should be made: | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | |----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | | 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59 | | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 | | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | | 90 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 94 | 95 | 96 | 97 | 98 | 99 | This chart may be changed so that the sequence is vertical rather than horizontal. The chart has many uses; e.g., it shows the tens so that a child in counting by 10's has only to look at the left-hand column. To aid in counting, children can be asked to count the numbers in a row or column or to say the names from 1 to 99, pointing to each in turn. The role of zero can be taught by asking what the difference is between the 1 in the second and third rows. (In the third row the 1 means 1 ten, while in the second it means 1 one.) The teacher may frequently use the chart by asking for the numbers that all show 7 tens and some ones; or the number that is 10 more than 23; or 10 more than 3 tens and 4 ones. In teaching children to count by 10's after counting by 1's to 20 has been learned, heavy emphasis should be put on the fact that 30 is the third 10 and 40 is the 4th ten, etc. In this way the teacher is helping the child to use what he has already learned. In other words, advantage is taken of the number system. Since counting is so basic to advanced work in arithmetic, it can hardly be overdone. In addition to those already mentioned, the following are types of exercises that have been found useful: a. (1) Have all pupils guess at the number of beans in a bottle and then have children in need of counting count the beans. After their first count ask that they arrange the beans so that the count can be easily checked. (Grouping into 10's with subgroups of 2 or 5 is best.) (2) Finding the ear of corn with the most grains. This may become a contest. Finding the ear with the greatest number of rows of grains may be another part of the contest. Have children check each other in counting rows or grains. Record the number of rows on different ears. Point to the fact that each is an even number. b. (1) Have children put in order a pack of number cards. (2) Take out some of the cards and have children put remainder in good order. (Cards might then be in this order: 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 14, 18, etc.) c. Counting dots or marks on 10's square. In this square 100 marks or dots are arranged in 10 rows and 10 columns. By means of paper markers children are asked to show 2 rows; then, count the dots in the rows. This procedure is followed by asking how many dots in 4 rows or columns and by asking the children to show with markers 25, 40, 47, etc. d. Ask children what page number 16 in a book means. Have them count to find out that 15 pages precede it and that it is therefore the 16th page. e. Have children count the number of days until a holiday like Thanksgiving or Christmas; count the number of children present; the absences in a month. f. Conduct writing exercises in which children write as many numbers as they can. g. Require children to tell frequently what the numerals in two-figure numbers mean; e.g., What does the 2 in 32 mean? The 3? h. Ask children to show numbers like 17 in other ways. (The word seventeen, 10 and 7, and other combinations as well as regrouping of actual objects, are the most serviceable ways of showing 17.) i. In showing numbers in different ways, the Roman numerals as used on the clock may be used. II. Recognition and Reproduction of Groups 1. Exercises which require the child to recognize the number of objects in a group a. Bring the box with four blocks. b. Bring the stack of three books. c. Play the domino that has 5 dots on one end of it. d. Draw a ring around the box with 6 dots in it. 2. Exercise in which the child reproduces groups a. Make four marks on your paper. b. Make a mark for each tap made on the desk. c. Make as many marks in this box as there are in the other box. d. Show five with your fingers. Show six. III. Quantitative Comparisons For each of the suggestions it is assumed that appropriate objects such as blocks, sticks, boxes, lines, or drawings will be used. 1. Which box has more sticks in it? 2. Bring the box with the fewest pieces of chalk in it. 3. Which line is long? Short? 4. Make a line shorter than this one; longer than this one. 5. Get a block two times as big as this one; one half as big. 6. Which is the largest? 7. Put red marks on all the big ones. 8. Which child has fewest blocks? Most? 9. Which child is the tallest? IV. Recognizing and Counting Coins 1. Tell me the name of this. Show penny, nickel, dime, and quarter. 2. Count this money. 3. Which of these will buy more? (Show nickel and 5 pennies, etc.) 4. Put your finger on the penny; nickel; dime; quarter. V. Telling Time An attempt to get the child to see that time pieces tell us when to do certain things is the major goal. Assign to different children the job of deciding when it is time to go home, to play, or to have luncheon. VI. Oral Problems Involving Number 1. Jack has two books and Jane has three. How many books do the two children together have? 2. Henry had 4 marbles but lost 1 of them. How many marbles does he now have? VII. Playing Games Involving Number 1. Dominoes first in which the children merely match, the object being to see who can play all his dominoes first. Later the counting domino game may be introduced. 2. Playing pegity In playing this game use a pegity board or a board about eight inches square with holes in it at intervals of one-half inch. Each player has some small colored pegs to fit in these holes. In playing the game, children take turns putting pegs in holes. The object of the game is to get a certain number (3, 4, or 5) of pegs in a straight line. The other players try to prevent anyone from getting the number in a straight row by putting one of their pegs in front of his row. This game is valuable in helping to teach grouping. 3. Playing various race games in which the distance that a player's marker may be moved is determined by chance; e.g., drawing of a numbered card or a card having only dots on it. 4. Rhymes were mentioned earlier. VIII. Weighing and Measuring In order to build the proper concepts for this work, the children must work a great deal with cups, pints, quarts, the ruler, and the scales (25-pound vegetable scale is ideal). 1. (a) Which of these is heavier? Weigh them to find out. (b) How much does this book weigh? (c) For a standard reference for one pound find a book that weighs one pound and make frequent reference to it. 2. Measuring. Will this desk go through the door? How can we find out? (Until children get the idea that a stick or string can be used as a substitute for the width of the desk it is foolish to talk in terms of feet and inches.) After much measuring with sticks, arms, fingers, etc., the standard foot can be introduced. 3. Have children measure frequently with cup, pint, and quart. Use either sand or water. IX. Reading of symbols denoting U. S. money may be developed through the use of these symbols on bulletin boards which give cost of articles. Extensive use can be made of the toy and game sections of old mail order catalogs. Summary For the convenience of the teachers and supervisors of the State of Iowa the following abbreviated outline of content for the first grade is included. However, the teacher must remember that the heart of the program lies in the method and point of view expressed in the previous pages. The addition combinations given below are important but only of secondary importance. Of what value is it to have the child give the correct response to $3 + 4$ if he cannot think in terms of $3 + 4$? (That is, if the mechanism of the response is much the same as that of an adult faced with the memorization of a sequence of nonsense syllables such as: \[ \begin{align*} rxtlad & \quad \text{eebrate} = \text{shsht} \\ talste & \quad \text{caldkd} = \text{prprt} \quad \text{etc.} \end{align*} \] The foundational ideas built at this time are of utmost importance. Take time to develop concepts. Take time at this stage to have the pupil do all kinds of counting, drawing of pictures, etc., as suggested on the previous pages. A good foundation of understanding built at this time will pay big dividends when the pupil advances to the upper grades. To repeat—Remember that the important things in an education are the ideas, the understandings, the concepts which you, as a teacher, convey to the child. The ideas and concepts of arithmetic are important. The combinations are necessary, but of secondary importance. It is important that the child feel at home with number and quantity. He must work with quantity, play with quantity, and above all, think in terms of quantity. The teacher who can succeed in getting a child to think in terms of quantity will have no trouble teaching the basic number facts. Again, the number facts are important, of course, but too often teachers take it to be the heart of the arithmetic program. This cannot be so; it must not be so. Responses to addition or subtraction combinations which are not understood make arithmetic a “dead load” to the pupil. **Content** No teaching order is implied in listing the content of the first grade. 1. Counting by one to 100 2. Counting by tens to 100 3. Counting by twos and fives to 50 4. Addition combinations with sums less than 10 *Not considered to be exhaustive but merely suggestive.* 5. The inverses of these addition combinations (The inverse of $3 + 4 = 7$ is $7 - 4 = 3$.) 6. The measures pint, quart, and cup 7. The foot and the yard and inch 8. The pound 9. The fraction $1/2$ of a whole and $1/2$ of an even group 10. Recognizing the penny, nickel, dime, and quarter, and which will buy more 11. The ordinal numbers through 10 12. Reading and writing numbers through 100 Throughout this course of study it is suggested that the teachers and supervisors consider whether the above load is too heavy or too light for their particular school or schools. The course of study is flexible enough to allow some topics to be shifted by as much as six months. **Testing for Some Basic Number Ideas** (Semi-diagnostic) All instructions are read to the pupils. The exercises given below are merely suggestive. The teacher will be able to think of many other kinds of exercises testing the abilities mentioned in the right-hand column. 1. Draw a line under the cake which has the most candles. ![Cakes with candles](image1) 2. Which bunch has the most cherries? Draw a line under that bunch. ![Bunches of cherries](image2) Ability to recognize that one group has more or less than some other group. Also the ability to recognize key quantitative terms such as *more*, *fewer*, *less*, etc. 3. Below you will see two tables with cookies. Place one more cookie on the table having the fewer cookies. ![Tables with cookies](image3) 4. Find two bunches having the same number of cherries. 5. Here are two groups of balls. Place balls in one group so that there are the same number of balls in each group. 6. Here are some children and balloons. Draw more balloons so that each child will have a balloon. 7. Mary has five balls. Are all of Mary's balls in the picture? If not draw in some more balls in order to show how many balls Mary has. 8. Johnny has three chocolate drops. Draw a ring around the number of chocolate drops Johnny has. 9. Place a ring around seven of the balloons shown in the picture. 10. Draw a line under five of the flags you see in this picture. 11. Mary had a small bunch of 9 grapes. She ate some of them and then had this bunch left. Place some more grapes in the bunch to show how many Mary had before she ate the grapes. The following may be given orally or in written form depending upon the ability of the class: 12. Which number is one more than 6? 13. What number is one greater than 4? 14. What number is one less than 7? 15. Mary had six cookies and John had one more than Mary. How many cookies did John have? 16. Which of these numbers is the smaller? 4; 6 17. Which of these numbers is the larger? 7; 8 Problems of type 16 and 17 may be increased to three and four number choices if the group is sufficiently mature to make the choices. SECOND GRADE Inventory Test This inventory test should be administered the second or third week of school. Results of the test should show the child's achievement of the skills practiced in grade one. (Directions should be given orally. Children write answers.) The first week may be spent in doing activities similar to those used in the first grade, in doing some project which requires measurement, or in going over the review part of your text. 1. Count by 1's. The marks have been counted by ones. Will you recount them and put the number you count above each mark that is not already numbered? \[ \begin{array}{cccccccccc} 1 & 2 & - & 4 & - & - & 7 & 8 & - & 10 & 11 & - & 13 & 14 \\ 15 & 16 & - & - & 19 & - & - \\ \end{array} \] As an addition to this form of counting test have children count objects; e.g., grains of corn in a pile. 2. Counting by 5's. Each of these marks stands for five. Will you recount them, placing the correct number above each mark? \[ \begin{array}{cccccccccc} 5 & - & - & - & 20 & - & 30 & - & 40 & - & - \\ 10 & 15 & - & - & 30 & - & - & 45 & 50 & - \\ \end{array} \] 3. Use similar exercises for counting by 10's, 2's, and 3's. 4. Make enough rings (0) to tell these numbers: \[ \begin{array}{c} 10 \\ 12 \\ \end{array} \] Draw a circle around the number which tells how many rings: \[ \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 4 & 6 & 5 & 7 \\ \end{array} \quad \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 6 & 4 & 3 & 2 \\ \end{array} \quad \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 7 & 9 & 8 & 6 \\ \end{array} \] 5. Draw a circle around Yes or No: Does 6 come before 9? Yes No When you count 2's, does 16 come before 14? Yes No Can you write: How many fingers you have? How many on one hand? What time you go to bed? What time school begins? 6. Add or subtract. Write the answers. Teacher reads, using "and" for plus and "take away" for minus. a. \[ \begin{array}{cccccccc} 4 & 2 & 2 & 5 & 2 & 6 \\ +3 & +4 & +2 & +2 & +6 & +4 \\ \end{array} \] b. \[ \begin{array}{cccccccc} 7 & 7 & 7 & 8 & 8 & 9 \\ -4 & -5 & -6 & -2 & -3 & -2 \\ \end{array} \] 7. Which number is more? Draw a ring: 30 or 20 15 or 18 70 or 80 60 or 90 18 or 81 46 or 58 Which number is less? Draw a ring: 60 or 40 15 or 19 50 or 70 45 or 37 8. Draw a line under the correct time: 12:00 9:00 11:00 10:00 12:00 8:00 9. Draw a line under the correct answer: Which is worth more—a dime, a penny? Which is larger—one, one hundred? Which is smaller—a pair of buttons, a dozen buttons? 10. The boys were planning a marble tournament. Tom brought 3 boys. Bobby brought 1 boy. Did Tom bring more boys than Bobby? How many more? 11. John went to the store. He saw an apple that cost 5 cents. John had 3 cents. How many more cents did he need to buy the apple? **Content and Recommended Procedures** I. Exercises to give the child experiences in breaking a group (number) into two or more smaller numbers, and in making large numbers out of small numbers. The experiences listed are for the purpose of illustration. To the resourceful teacher innumerable opportunities not mentioned here present themselves for worth-while number experiences. 1. A boy had 8 marbles. He made 3 rings on the ground. He put 3 in one ring, 2 in another, and 3 in another. Draw the rings showing the number of marbles in each. Show with drawings a number of other ways that he might have put the marbles. 2. Jim cut out 2 kites and Jack cut out 4. Show how many kites each cut out and how many there were in all. 3. John earned 30 cents running errands. He spent 5 cents for ice cream, 10 cents for marbles, and 15 cents for a game. Did John spend all his money? 4. To play a game 10 children are needed. Four were needed on one side. How many were left for the other side? 5. Make posters: Things I can buy for 20 cents: - ball ........... 10 cents - crayons ....... 5 cents - marbles ...... 5 cents 6. List articles for sale, the entire lot to sell for 25 cents (in connection with grocery store unit). 7. Make number stories in which two or three numbers are combined to make larger numbers: a. I picked 6 violets; Margaret picked 10. We put them in a vase. How many were there in the vase? b. The second grade made a bird chart. We had 10 robins on one side and 12 bluejays on the other side. How many birds were on the chart? See also Games, page 33. 8. Have children show frequently with marks or objects what such symbols as 6, 8, and 9 really stand for. 9. Ask for meaning of 11, 12, 22, etc. (1 ten and 1 one, 1 ten and 2 ones, 2 tens and 2 ones). 10. What is another way of saying thirty? forty? (3 tens, 4 tens) 11. What does the 6 in sixty tell you? What does the 0 in sixty tell you? 12. Show a number on the number chart that is 10 more than 3 tens. 13. Count by 10's to 100. 14. Count by 100's to 1000. 15. Seat work consisting of this type: In 26 the 2 means ________ and the 6 means ________. In 120 the 1 means ________ and the 2 means ________ and the 0 means ________. 16. Experiences in buying in connection with Toy Store Unit: a. John wants to buy a top that costs 25 cents. In how many ways could he pay for it? 1 nickel and ________ dimes ________ pennies, 1 nickel, and ________ dime 2 dimes and ________ pennies 20 pennies, ________ nickel, and ________ dime 17. Activity: Cutting three bricks of ice cream so as to serve 12 children. Into how many parts shall one brick be cut? Then if each of the three bricks is cut into four pieces how many servings will there be? 18. Arranging cans on the shelves of a grocery store (Grocery Store Unit). Taking a group of 10 or 12 cans and arranging them in equal groups on two of the shelves. 19. Selecting pictures from a box so that each child in a row may have four or six, etc. Finding out how many two children have together, how many three have together, etc. 20. Painting a certain number of Easter eggs to place in baskets. Finding out how many eggs are needed for two baskets, four baskets, etc. II. Comparison 1. Compare rows of desks, number of children in grades, size of books on reading table, etc. a. Which rows have two more desks than the middle row of desks? b. Which grade has three less pupils in it than the fourth grade? 2. Playing number games Each child thinks of a number story for the others to guess. The children take turns in going to the front of the room and giving their stories. Each child tries to see how many he can guess. Examples: a. I am thinking of two numbers that make 8. Of what numbers am I thinking? b. I am thinking of a milk bottle twice as large as a pint bottle. How many quarts does it hold? c. I am thinking of a number six smaller than 14. Of what number am I thinking? 3. Draw a picture of some objects on the board in a group. Have children draw on their paper a group with two more in it; 3 less in it; 5 less in it; etc. 4. Group objects such as sticks, blocks, pencils into groups of 10, 3, 6, 8, 4. Have children take a pointer and point to largest group and then to the one that has 4 less in it; 7 less in it; 6 less in it; 2 less in it. Vary the order frequently. 5. Have children put out books on the reading table. If there are 10 children in school, ask them to put 3 more than the number in school; 2 less than the number, etc. 6. Ask children to color objects. Directions such as the following may be given: Color two less than the whole number of kites. Color four more marbles for Jack than for Billy. 7. To help visualize the meaning of more and less than a certain number, drawing may be used to advantage. John has three boats. Richard has five boats. Draw enough boats for John so that he will have 5 more boats than Richard. 8. Reading total number of days for each month on a calendar. Telling how many less days February has than March. How many more days September has than February, etc. 9. Listing articles that can be bought for 1¢, 2¢, 3¢, 5¢, 10¢, 25¢. Telling how many more cents or less cents one article costs than the other. 10. Problem solving a. John has 6 marbles. Billy has 4 marbles. Sam has 10 marbles. Which boy has 2 more marbles than Billy? Which boy has 4 less marbles than Sam? Show by drawing. b. Mary picked 12 violets. Rose picked 5 violets. They met Alice, who had picked 7 violets. Rose had 7 less than which girl? III. Reading and Writing Numbers 1. Fill in the missing numbers: 156, 157, ________, ________, ________, ________, 162 435, 436, ________, ________, ________, ________, 441 2. Fill in the missing numbers (e.g., 156 as 1 hundred, 5 tens, and 6 ones). 578 means ________ hundreds ________ tens ________ ones. 709 means ________ hundreds ________ tens ________ ones. 960 means ________ hundreds ________ tens ________ ones. 3. Put the right numbers on the lines: 3 hundreds, 6 tens, and 2 ones are ________. Eight hundred fifty-four ________. 9 hundreds, 0 tens, and 5 ones are ________. 6 hundred eight ________. 4. Show numbers like 16, 45, 118, and 306 on the abacus. An abacus may be made from a wire coat hanger and some wooden beads from a ten cent store. Bend the wire to the shape indicated in figure at the right and put ten beads on each line, five of one color and five of another. The wire at the right stands for the ones column, the middle wire for the tens column and the wire to the left for the hundreds. Thus 45 would look like this: and 570 like this: 5. Tell how much money is in each group: a. | $0.25, $0.25, $0.50 | Dollar sign, decimal point, cent sign | | $0.50, $1.00, $20.00 | How to write dollars, cents; dollars and cents | 6. Show how Mother's shopping list might look: Shoes .................. $ 4.00 Suit for Baby......... 2.50 Cap for Brother....... .50 7. Cut out automobiles with prices (this in connection with a unit on Transportation). Write the prices of automobiles, arranging in order from highest to lowest price; e.g., Cadillac .............. $ 1,195 Chrysler .............. 995 Lincoln-Zephyr ....... 950 Chevrolet ............. 665 Plymouth .............. 645 8. a. Draw a line to show one half (1/2) of these figures. (Emphasize that there must be two equal parts.) b. Put a + on pictures that show thirds. c. Write the number one half on every drawing which shows halves, one third on every drawing which shows thirds, one fourth on every drawing which shows fourths. d. Color one half the apple red. Color one third of the pencil blue. Color one fourth of the kite orange e. Oral directions may be given as follows: Place one half the books on the table. Take one fourth of the pencils from the box. Place one third of the chairs at the table. IV. Any problems or examples involving the desired facts may be used. Questions should be direct; e.g., How much are 6 pencils and 7 pencils? Or, How much are 32 and 21? In adding tens call attention to similarity between tens and ones. V. Problems Involving Basic Addition and Subtraction Facts (In order not to handicap the poor readers a good many of these should be given orally.) 1. Mary has 10 flowers. Jane has 3. How many have they together? 2. John has 16 marbles. He gave Fred 10. How many did John have then? 3. Billy has 6 little white chicks. He has 7 little black chicks. How many chicks has Billy? 4. Father has 9 big fish. John has 3 little fish. Father has how many more fish than John? VI. Column Addition. This phase of arithmetic is introduced incidentally in connection with the exercises which show that a number is made up of two or more smaller numbers. (See exercise in section 2, putting the proper number of marbles in rings.) The introductory exercises should, of course, be easy. The first four of the following list are examples: \[ \begin{array}{ccccccccc} 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 2 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 2 & 8 & 6 & 6 & 6 \\ 5 & 7 & 2 & 3 & 9 & 7 & 6 & 9 \\ \end{array} \] In two-column addition much reliance can be placed on adding by endings. The program should, therefore, bring out through frequent use the association between 4 and 3 and other decade combinations involving 4 and 3; e.g., 14 and 3, 24 and 3, etc., up to 94 and 3. VII. Notation. Rote counting by tens helps pupils in understanding the number system to 100. VIII. Systematic Instruction and Drill on Basic Addition and Subtraction Facts 1. After children have had much experience with exercises similar to those suggested in sections above, give a test involving the basic addition and subtraction facts. (See Morton: "Teaching Arithmetic in the Elementary School.") 2. In order to be sure that children understand the processes and facts, have children demonstrate the truth of their answers by using marks or objects. 3. For those facts missed by the children and for which they know a longer or indirect solution assign direct study. Any or all of the following may be used: a. Write fact in accepted form; e.g., \(+ \frac{4}{3}\) and then draw dots or marks to represent each number and the total. Look at the fact. Say it to yourself giving the total; e.g., 3 and 4 are 7. Close your eyes, try to see the fact, and then say it to yourself. Look at the paper again to see if you are right. Repeat this process until you know the fact. b. Make cards with the facts on one side and answers on the other. Study these by going through your list trying to give the answer to each fact. When you miss one, turn the card over and look at the answer. Then repeat the whole statement (3 and 4 are 7) several times. c. Write the combinations and the answers. Start by adding every other number to the number you choose. Do the same for subtraction except that you start with 18 and subtract only the one-figure numbers. 4. In learning the harder addition facts (sums above 10) take advantage of the making of tens. In others make 10's and 1's. \(8 + 7\) becomes \(8 + 2 + 5\). Regrouping objects or dots into 10's and 1's will aid in establishing this procedure. Advantage may also be taken of the fact that the doubles are easy. Other facts can then be related to these; e.g., \(8 + 7\) then becomes one more than \(7 + 7\) or one less than \(8 + 8\). However, the teacher should remember that the goal is automatic responses. 5. Very brief exercises in which the class works with flash cards may also be used for purposes of motivating learning of the basic facts. Timed written tests serve the same purpose but should be used with care. IX. Standard References (1) Six feet or the height of an average man (2) Thirty feet or the length of the schoolroom (3) Ten pounds The distance equal to the length of the schoolroom is suggested because it can be referred to frequently. Each child should measure this distance and many references should be made to the distance; e.g., How does the length of the truck compare with the length of the room? Is that distance longer or shorter than our room? A similar procedure should be followed with the other standard references. X. Additional work in weights and measures. All work in weights and measures should be accompanied by activities as suggested below in order to develop sense of length and weight. Too many children (and adults) can do a certain amount of the mechanics required in these grades but have little or no concept of length. Hence the emphasis on standard references as in IX. Children should learn to estimate lengths and weights as well as the mechanical manipulations. 1. Children measure each other's heights and record (feet, inches). 2. They measure how high they can reach (feet, inches). 3. Measuring is used in constructing objects in connection with Unit work; for example, wheelbarrow in Transportation (feet, inches). 4. Weighing articles sold in the Grocery Store Unit (pounds, ounces). 5. Weighing each other, pupils become familiar with pounds and ounces. 6. Working examples such as the following: a. Dick can carry 40 pounds. A big box of tools weighs 60 pounds. Can Dick carry the box? b. Alice has 20 pounds of sand. Jerry's wagon will hold 30 pounds. If Alice puts her sand in Jerry's wagon, how many more pounds will be needed to fill it? XI. Further Use of Fractions in Measuring and Weighing 1. Which is more: 1/2 pound or 1/4 pound of butter? 1/4 of a dozen eggs or 1/2 of a dozen eggs? 2. a. Draw a ring to show the fraction each part is: ![Diagram showing fractions] one-third one-fourth one-half one-third one-fourth one-third one-half one-fourth one-half b. Making a syrup for popcorn balls: 1 1/4 cups of syrup, 1/2 cup of sugar, 1 1/2 tablespoons of butter, 1/4 teaspoon of vinegar c. Weighing candy and cookies to sell by the 1/2 pound, 1/4 pound, etc. XII. Games Involving Number 1. Children have cards numbered from 1 to 9. One child comes to the front of the room with his card and calls for the card of some child. This card is placed beside his and builds a new number. The first one of the two on the floor to read the new number correctly gets to be "it" and calls for a card. Example: \[ \begin{array}{ccc} : & 1 & : \\ : & 9 & : \\ : & 1 & : \\ & 9 & : \end{array} \] 2. Children stand in two lines and are given numbers from 1 to 9, odd numbers on one side and even numbers on the other. The leader of the odd side calls 48, or any other number. The child holding 4 and the child holding 8 stand out before their line holding their cards close together. The leader calls numbers until a mistake is made; for example, if 36 is called and 6 steps out first followed by 3, the cards held together now read 63 instead of 36. Larger numbers, such as 462, might be called. When the even number side makes a mistake, the leader on the even side calls for cards on the odd side, as 71, etc. \[ \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & (2) & \text{leader} \\ 3 & 4 \\ 5 & 6 \\ 7 & 8 \\ \text{leader} & (9) \end{array} \] 3. Race Track Game: Numbers from 1 to 8 are written around a circle in no definite order. The number of the combination to be drilled upon is placed in the center. The pupil begins at the top of the circle and repeats the combinations as rapidly as possible until he has completed the circle. Time is recorded. If a combination is given incorrectly the pony has stumbled and the pupil must study the combination before he can continue the race. 4. Whirl the Wheel: Numbers from 1 to 12 are placed around a circular piece of cardboard. A second circular cardboard with a V-shaped notch is placed over the first cardboard. The second one is whirled. Wherever it stops the child must give the combination. 5. Children stand in line holding numbers from 1 to 9. The child who is "it" stands in front of the line holding a number of cards. He selects one, for example 4. He then calls on different children in the line to answer the sum of his card and theirs. For example, when he holds up 4 and calls on the child holding 9, that child must answer 13. If he holds up 6 and calls on the child holding 9, that child must answer 15, etc. The one who is "it" should call on children here and there in the line and change his own card frequently. If a child fails to answer correctly, the one who is "it" must answer. If he fails, the one in the line who recognizes the error first may become "it." 6. Who Is First: Pupils are arranged in a circle. Combination cards are flashed. Each pupil in turn answers. The first one that misses steps in the center of the circle. He may take his place any time in the circle if he answers for a combination that someone has missed. **Summary of Content for Second Grade** No teaching order is implied in listing the content of the second grade. 1. Basic ideas of addition and subtraction (See I, page 31) 2. Counting by 10's to 100 3. Counting by 100's to 1000 4. Counting to 1000 5. Positional number notation (See I, 15, page 32 and III, 2, page 34) 6. Basic ideas of comparison 7. Dollar and cent signs; monetary notation 8. 100 addition and subtraction facts (taught simultaneously) 9. Fraction, 1/4, 1/3 as part of a whole and part of a group 10. The ordinals **THIRD GRADE** **Inventory Test** A. Counting 1. By ones to see how far the child can go 2. Counting objects in room (not beyond 201) 3. Counting small objects such as toothpicks or paste sticks, and putting them in groups of ten (to facilitate checking and to make for accuracy) 4. Sampling as counting from 150 to 200 and from 300 to 350 (Begin at 150 instead of at 1.) 5. Counting by 2's to 50, by 5's to 100, by 10's to 100 6. Pointing out third girl in row, 5th book on shelf, etc. *The summary for the first grade given on page 25 clearly expresses the use which should be made of the items listed in the summary on this page.* 7. Exercises in finding pages in book. Questions such as "If you open your book to page 90, which way will you turn to find page 75?" "Is page 29 near the front, middle, or back of your book?" (Since this part of the test must be administered to individual pupils, the other pupils of the school should be given an assignment such as working at a construction project or doing an example test like the one required in I-D-4 below.) B. Write with words: $1.23. Write with numbers: five dollars and sixteen cents. Compare value of various coins; e.g., 50 cents is equal to how many nickels? C. Fractions Coloring one half of a square or circle Similar exercise with other fractions learned during the second year D. Addition and subtraction facts Give a test of all facts either by writing them on the board or by presenting them on a sheet of paper. Put easy facts first. Content and Recommended Procedures I. Systematic Instruction in Addition and Subtraction A. Meaning of addition and subtraction. These terms do not mean "more" or "less" but a rearrangement of groups into a different pattern that is more easily understood; that is, \(6 + 9\) is regrouped into one 10 and 5 (15). B. Re-introduce each fact by means of a problem and have children demonstrate understanding of the fact as illustrated in the problem by drawing diagrams and by using objects; e.g., If John has 9 marbles and buys 6 more, how many will he have then? \[ \begin{array}{c} 000 \\ \text{John has 000 marbles. He bought 000. He then has 15} \\ 000 \\ \text{marbles.} \end{array} \] C. See Second Grade outline for suggestions on direct teaching. D. Drills and devices useful in teaching addition facts 1. Giving answers to facts on flash cards (See Second Grade outline.) 2. Using circle game (See Morton, *Teaching Arithmetic in the Elementary School*, Vol. I.) 3. Games such as bean bag board or target games in which children add their scores 4. Give the facts in different forms on hectographed sheets. \[ 8 + 6 = \quad 8 \quad n \quad 8 \\ +6 \quad +6 \quad +n \\ 14 \quad 14 \quad 14 \] In the above examples \( n \) (for number) is used instead of the conventional question mark. The examples in which \( n \) is used instead of the conventional dash or question mark should grow out of the earlier practice of using number symbols to express a quantitative situation; e.g., . . . (four dots) and . . . (three dots) are . . . . . (seven dots) is changed to read \( 4 + 3 = 7 \). Similarly the problem: “John saw 8 ducks in one flock and 6 in another. How many ducks did he see altogether?” may be stated in this manner: “He saw a certain number. That number is the number that we get when we put together the 8 and the 7, or 8 and 7 = \( n \).” Third grade pupils are familiar with the common practice of writing initials for the names of individuals. The use of \( n \), as above, is easily introduced by relating it to initials for names. After discussing this idea with the class, the statement “8 and what number make 14?” is abbreviated to “\( 8 + n = 14 \).” In like manner the following will be introduced at the proper time: \[ n + 6 = 9; \quad n - 8 = 4; \quad 8 - n = 2. \] 5. Timed tests over 81 facts. Hectographed sheets are useful here since child need write only answers. Allow three minutes. Discuss with child who makes a poor showing the economy of learning the fact instead of depending upon counting. E. Further work in adding by endings as preparation for column addition and multiplication with carrying (First work to be oral) 1. Without bridging; e.g., \( 14 + 4 \). The 14 should be thought of as one ten and four ones. Therefore, \( 14 + 4 \) becomes 1 ten and 8 ones since 4 ones and 4 ones make 8 ones. Children rework the above example with bundles of sticks, comparing \[ 4 \quad \text{and} \quad 14 \\ +4 \quad +4 \] Continue with \[ 24 \quad 34 \quad \text{etc.} \] \[ +4 \quad +4 \] 2. With bridging; e.g., \( 5 + 6, 15 + 6, 25 + 6, 35 + 6 \), etc. Have children note similarity of units figures in the above examples. Ask “How does the tens figure change in each example?” Illustrate with sticks tied in bundles of ten and loose sticks. F. Column addition 1. Illustrative example: \[ \begin{array}{c} 3 \\ 4 \\ 7 \\ \hline 14 \end{array} \] Children show 1111 Regrouping into 1 ten and 4 ones 1111111111 1111 (See also Second Grade outline and E above.) 2. Suggestions a. Show economy of thinking, "Three and four are seven and seven are fourteen." b. Add downward and place answer below line. Check by adding upward and placing answer above problem. \[ \begin{array}{c} 14 \\ 3 \\ 4 \\ 7 \\ \hline 14 \end{array} \] G. Addition with carrying 1. Underlying ideas. In our number system we refer to ones only in groups up to 10. For economy of thought and for easy grasp, amounts larger than 9 are thought of as 10's or 10's and 1's. Therefore when numbers are combined in which the units parts total more than nine the units are changed to 10's and these are added or carried to the 10's part of the numbers being combined. Thus \(25 + 37\) is really 2 tens and 5 ones plus 3 tens and 7 ones. 5 ones + 7 ones = 12 ones. Since it is easier to think of 12 ones as 1 ten and 2 ones the 2 ones are placed in the ones column and the one ten is added or carried to the tens. Have children demonstrate with bundles of sticks, two groups of ten and five single sticks plus three groups of tens and seven single sticks. Teach carrying from tens to hundreds like carrying from units to tens; i.e., 12 tens is one hundred and 2 tens. Teacher demonstrates why we use 1 ten and 2 ones rather than 12 ones by putting the two before the children and asking, "In which is it easier to see the amount that is represented?" H. In order to make the processes of addition and subtraction meaningful, it is suggested that the teacher encourage the pupil to draw diagrams or play with bundles of sticks until he can explain to the teacher the meaning of carrying in addition or borrowing in subtraction. Of course, the teacher will have to help some pupils with this basic idea more than others. In any case, any or all of the following might easily be developed by third graders who have grasped the meaning of borrowing and carrying and who have worked out some (2) 3 tens 6 ones 1 ten 4 ones 2 tens 2 ones = 22 (3) Repeat b (3) and b (4). e.g., d. 32 -17 15 Other ways of solving: (1) 11111 11111 11111 1 ten and 5 ones left 11111 11111 11111 11 1111 111 (2) Repeat c (2) and c (3). I. Use problems and examples involving two and three-digit numbers. J. Subtraction with two- and three-digit numbers. The decomposition (take away) method is recommended because it is easier to rationalize. (The additive or other methods of subtraction may be used. The county superintendent should make this decision.) 1. Underlying ideas based on example 38-19: 38 = 3 tens and 8 ones; 19 = one ten and nine ones. We cannot take 9 ones from 8 ones so we borrow (change) one ten from three tens into 10 ones. Ten ones plus 8 ones equals 18. Subtract 9 ones. Subtract 1 ten from 2 tens. Have children demonstrate with sticks—three bundles of ten and eight loose sticks. 2. To check subtraction draw two lines under answer (to distinguish it easily from checking answer) and add. II. Reading and Writing Numbers to 10,000, Telling Time, Fractions, Roman Numbers, the Calendar A. Notation 1. What is the largest number that can be written with three figures? (999) "What does each digit in this number represent? Add one to this number. What does the number now equal or become?" (Ten hundreds or one thousand) Write the largest number that can be written with these numbers: 3, 2, 6. Write the smallest number that can be written with these numbers. 2. Practice in reading and writing numbers a. Emphasize 10 ones = 1 ten 10 tens = 1 hundred 10 hundreds = 1 thousand b. Dollars and cents c. Years and house numbers. 1492 is sometimes read 14 hundred 92. In reading years and house numbers *hundred* is left out. d. Telephone numbers. 4510 is read 4-5-1-0 (0 as in *no*). e. Roman numerals to 30 (1) Fundamental learnings (a) I, V, X and their meanings (b) Repeating a letter doubles its value (V is never repeated.) (c) If a letter of smaller value comes first, subtract: IV = 4. (d) If a letter of lesser value follows one of greater value, add: VI = 6. (2) Uses of Roman numerals—clocks, monuments, buildings, book chapters, book prefaces, etc. B. Telling time 1. Fundamental learnings a. The long hand tells the minutes; the short hand the hours. b. It takes the long hand five minutes to go from one number to the next. c. It takes the short hand one hour to go from one number to the next. 2. Time is read in different ways; e.g., 5:15 may be a quarter after five, five fifteen, 15 after five, or 45 minutes to 6. 3. Activities a. Draw clock faces showing time you get up, dinner time, bedtime, etc. b. Find out and report about ways of telling time in olden days as the hourglass, the water clock, the time candle, etc. c. Make and use a clock dial with movable hands. C. The calendar 1. Learnings a. Months and seasons b. Number of days in months, days in week, etc. c. Finding special days on calendar D. Fractions 1. Stress that the number or object divided is divided into equal parts. 2. Exercises in identifying fractional parts as half an apple, one third of a candy bar. 3. Exercises in comparing fractions as "Would you rather have 1/2 or 1/3 of a candy bar? 1/8 or 1/4 of an orange?" 4. Exercises in finding parts (1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5) of numbers. III. Multiplication and Division Facts Through 5's (The suggestion that the facts through 5's be taught is only a suggestion. The county superintendent may elect to teach fewer facts at this level.) A. Use introduction of text. To aid in the development of meaning of multiplication and division have children draw diagrams to illustrate problems given in the text. In these initial experiences the two ideas of multiplication should be emphasized. 1. A short form of addition when addends are equal, as \[ \begin{array}{cccc} 5 & 5 & 5 & 5 \\ \hline 20 \end{array} \] 2. A regrouping of a number of equal groups into one group consisting of tens or tens and ones (when product is ten or more) \[ \begin{array}{cccc} 11 & 11 & 11 & 11 \\ 111 & 111 & 111 & 111 \\ 5 & 5 & 5 & 5 \\ \hline 4 \times 5 = 20 \text{ (2 tens)} \end{array} \] B. Teach corresponding division fact with each multiplication fact. (If your text does not follow this procedure you will have to use two different sections of the book simultaneously.) 1. Have children demonstrate with concrete objects or with marks the problems they solve; e.g., "If the bag contains 18 marbles and each boy is given 3 marbles, how many boys will get marbles?" Have a child take 3 marbles out of the bag and give to boys until supply is exhausted. Writing 18 marks and then circling 3's and finally counting circles is a semi-concrete method of showing the same thing. Serial subtraction (18 - 3 = 15; 15 - 3 = 12; 12 - 3 = 9; 9 - 3 = 6; 6 - 3 = 3; 3 - 3 = 0.) This should be used also to show how this type problem can be solved. 2. Have children continually ask the question, "What am I trying to find?" In answering this question the two ideas of division partition (finding the size of a part when a collection is divided) and measurement (finding how many parts of a given size are in a collection) will be contrasted. 3. When ready to teach the symbols for division be sure to teach the symbols $\div$ and $/$. Do not use the short division symbol. The symbol for short division may be introduced in the fifth or sixth grade (fourth if it seems necessary) and short division taught as a shortcut to long division. C. Many of the devices suggested for addition drill can be used for drill in multiplication and division. Among the various forms taught be sure to teach this type: $4 \times n = 24$, $7 \times 3 = n$. Exercises of the type $4 \times n = 24$ serve to emphasize the relationship between multiplication and division. That is, if 4 times some number is 24, then the number must be 24 divided by 4 or 6. It is important to emphasize this relationship between the two processes of multiplication and division. (Of course the relationship between addition and subtraction should not be overlooked.) Other exercises which can be used to show the pupil that multiplication and division are related are: If 9 is divided by 3, and that answer is multiplied by 3, what is the final number? If 6 is multiplied by 5, and that answer is divided by 5, what is the answer? After several exercises of this nature the pupil should see that he invariably arrives at the first number; that is, the number on which he has been operating. Do not overlook these relationships. The following problem shows one way of introducing this phase of arithmetic: "If one box contains 4 blocks and there are 6 boxes, how many blocks are there altogether?" The answer to the essential question of how many blocks is obviously a number, or in the thinking of the child, there are as many blocks as six 4's. In the symbol of arithmetic the problem then becomes $6 \times 4 = n$. Similar problems to illustrate $6 \times n = 24$, $n \times 4 = 24$ should be used. The fact that these short statements are arithmetical ways of recording how the pupils thought should be continually emphasized. This kind of thinking is the foundation for percentage and fractions and should not be overlooked in the third, fourth and fifth grades. IV. Measurement A. Practice in measuring in inches, feet, and yards 1. Length and width of tablet 2. Height of desk 3. Width of blackboard B. Practice in estimating as, "Which of these lines is nearer an inch?" "How tall do you think Mary is?" C. Use of principles learned in art work and in building and construction in connection with social studies V. Standard References Use comparisons familiar to children; i.e., mile—distance from schoolhouse corner to next crossroads, acre—about size of school grounds or certain field. VI. Oral and Mental Work Use problems and examples in text. Ask direct questions as, How much are 32 and 20; or 64 — 30? Make comparisons in social studies or science where measures are used; e.g., compare the amount of land plowed in an hour with the standard reference used. VII. Geometric Forms A. Types of questions 1. Can you name these figures? [Diagram: Circle, Triangle, Square, Rectangle] 2. How many sides has the triangle? The square? The rectangle? How many corners? 3. What is the difference between the square and the rectangle? 4. Is your arithmetic book square? Why not? 5. Name something that has the shape of a circle. VIII. History and Development of Number. Magic square. (See Wheat, *The Psychology and Teaching of Arithmetic*, p. 105.) Summary* 1. Multiplication and division facts through fives 2. Addition and subtraction *The summary for the first grade given on page 25 clearly expresses the use which should be made of the items listed in the summary on this page. 3. Column addition 4. Upper decade addition facts 5. Roman numerals 6. Place value of Hindu number system 7. Telling time 8. Months, seasons, weeks, days of week, etc. 9. Fractions, 1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 1/4, 3/4, as part of group and whole; also comparison of size of these fractions 10. Further practice with linear measure; estimating lengths, widths, heights, etc. 11. Recognizing the circle, triangle, square, and rectangle Diagnostic Test (Mechanics of Addition) | Examples | Difficulty Introduced | |----------|-----------------------| | 1. | Single column addition, no bridging | | 2. | Single column with bridging | | 3. | Two- and three-digit numbers, no carrying; bridging in last column | | 4. | Zero difficulties | | 5. | Carrying in right column only | | 6. | Carrying in second column | | 7. | Irregular left margin; involving first six skills | | 8. | Two successive cases of carrying | 9. \[384 + 56 + 928\] \[406 + 3 + 28\] \[982 + 81 + 8\] Proper placement of numbers for addition 10. \[4282\] \[9848\] \[4608\] \[462\] \[529\] \[1034\] \[964\] \[421\] \[26009\] \[9821\] \[2018\] \[2642\] \[1384\] \[15282\] \[9872\] \[308\] \[492\] \[528\] \[21\] \[1004\] \[1080\] \[426\] \[9764\] \[29\] \[37\] \[92\] \[362\] \[552\] \[16421\] \[242\] Diagnostic Test (Mechanics of Subtraction) | Examples | Difficulty Introduced | |----------|------------------------| | 1. \(58 - 22\) | Two and three place numbers with no borrowing | | 2. \(426 - 204\) | Zeros and no borrowing | | 3. \(28 - 9\) | Bridging | | 4. \(86 - 29\) | One place borrowing, first column | | 5. \(463 - 271\) | One place borrowing, second column | | 6. \(582 - 91\) | Borrowing and ragged left margin | | 7. \(5362 - 1295\) | Two place borrowing | | 8. \(580 - 239\) | Zeros in one place | | 9. \(5006 - 2849\) | Two successive zeros and borrowing | | 10. \(14392 - 5829\) | Alternate borrowing | | 11. \(5020 - 2942\) | Alternate zero; two and three place borrowing | | 12. \(5321 - 421\) | Placement of number for subtraction | | \(40920 - 16282\) | | | \(4280 - 38\) | | Suggested Examination Questions* (Addition and Subtraction) 1. What is the sum of 16 and 39? The difference? 2. How much larger is 421 than 162? 3. How much smaller is 29 than 491? 4. By how much must 32 be increased in order to make 97? 5. Write in short form: Some number added to 6 equals 29. 32 minus some number equals 14. 6. Start with the number 38. Add 18 and then subtract 18 from this answer. What is the final result? 7. If 36 is subtracted from some number and then 36 added to this result, what would be the final result? 8. Subtract: 364 (a) Why is the 9 placed under the 4? 29 (b) In taking 9 from 4, why may we say 9 from 14? 9. How would you find out how many 16’s in 76? 10. What is a “sum”? Difference? 11. What are “addends”? 12. Increase 36 by 426. 13. 426 is decreased by 132. What is the result? 14. Show by using marks that $38 + 42 = 80$. 15. By use of marks show what happens when 36 and 59 are added. Especially show why the 1 is carried when 6 and 9 are added in this example. 16. Which is the largest number? 3642, 3593, 3641, 3692 17. $N + 36 = 98 \quad 42 - N = 20 \quad 116 = N - 49 \quad 144 = N - 94$ $N =$ $N =$ $N =$ $N =$ 18. Add: 36 and 142; 9 and 1463. 19. Subtract 382 from 691. 20. Take 38 from 92. 21. Find the difference between 982 and 466. *Although verbal problems are not included, they should be stressed in almost every test. FOURTH GRADE Inventory Test 1. Oral exercises Write only the answers to these: a. 5 and 6 b. 11 take away 8 c. 7 and 8 d. 18 take away 9 e. 20 and 30 f. 61 and 20 g. 40 take away 18, etc. 2. Do these exercises: \[ \begin{array}{cccccc} 27 & 35 & 53 & 32 & 8 & 16 \\ +14 & +76 & +26 & +17 & 7 & 32 \\ \end{array} \] \[ \begin{array}{ccc} 3 & 14 \\ +7 & +7 \\ \end{array} \] 3. How much are 5 3's, 4 4's, 8 2's, etc.? 4. How many 4's in 12, 5's in 20, etc.? 5. About how large is our school lot? (Answer in acres.) 6. About how far is it from our school to ________? (Use a place about 1 mile away.) 7. Draw a circle on your paper. Draw a triangle on your paper. Draw a square on your paper. 8. Give other problems of the type used in third grade. Content and Recommended Procedures I. Addition and Subtraction A. Review and practice, including carrying and borrowing. Children should be required to demonstrate that they understand each process. (See Grade Three.) Problems involving the following types of number operations should be used in this review: \[ \begin{array}{cccccc} (1) & 249 & (2) & 208 & (3) & 300 & (4) & 124 & (5) & 428 & (6) & 226 \\ +164 & +534 & +328 & +29 & -314 & -117 \\ (7) & 843 & (8) & 301 & (9) & 702 & (10) & Column addition up to 9, 2 or 3 digit addends \\ -358 & -255 & -507 & & & & \end{array} \] B. Oral work emphasizing the rounding of numbers; e.g., 1. Two trucks, one weighing 4,246 lbs. and the other 2,098 lbs., entered the station. How do the trucks compare in size? What can you do to make such comparisons easy? What do you call this process? (In rounding numbers emphasize the fact that only the most significant numbers are dealt with.) 2. In rounding numbers such as 42 to the nearest 10, what are you really doing? (Dropping ones and thinking only of nearest tens. The same principle should be brought out in rounding to nearest 100.) 3. Round these numbers to nearest tens: 42, 208, 71, 1,006, 43,896, etc. 4. Round these numbers to nearest hundreds: 420, 692, 1,583. II. Multiplication and Division (major share of year’s work in this area) A. Facts not developed and mastered in grade three (Usually involves 6’s, 7’s, 8’s, and 9’s.) 1. Introduce multiplication facts through problems presented in text. a. Have children work problem several ways; e.g., (1) Addition is frequently the plan used in text. For the fact six 7’s equal 42, the book usually shows that when six 7’s are added the sum is 42. (2) Since multiplication is really regrouping into 10’s and 1’s, have child secure 6 groups of 7 objects each and regroup objects into 10’s and 1’s. \[1111111\ 111|1111\ 111111|1\ 1111111\ 11|11111\ 11111|11\] Later, marks instead of objects may be used to show the above. To show the relationship between counting and multiplication, children should also count the objects in the 6 groups. (This exercise shows the six groups which are not nearly so evident in the usual way of indicating the operation. See (3) below.) (3) \[7\] \[7\] then \(6 \times 7 = 35 + 7 = 42.\) \[\times 6\] \[\times 5\] (This emphasizes relationships between facts.) (4) After all facts have been introduced and the facts presented in several ways, bring together the various facts in table form. (5) After time for the above steps has been taken, and after the teacher is reasonably sure that the children understand the processes, a timed test or exercise should be given. Use the data obtained from such an exercise to show the necessity for knowing the facts instead of having to count or to add. Intensive study of the facts using tables, flash cards, sets of examples and other methods of presentation should follow. (6) Use problems of text to illustrate facts. Have children illustrate frequently to show that they know what they are doing. 2. Introduce division facts through problems presented in text or problems of a similar nature which pupils may have been encountering outside of the arithmetic class. (The latter is the preferable method.) a. Follow much the same plan as in multiplication; e.g., John has 15 cents. If apples cost 3 cents apiece, how many apples can he buy? \[ \begin{array}{c|c|c|c|c|c} 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\ \hline 111 & 11 & 1 & 111 & 1 & 11 & 111 \\ \end{array} \] Hence there are 5 threes in 15, or five apples that John can buy. Have the child repeat using other problems. Eventually introduce the symbols \( \frac{3}{15} \) and \( 15 \div 3 \). b. Follow much the same procedure when division with remainders is introduced. Write remainders as follows: \[ \frac{2-2R}{3/8} \] Since the fraction concept is none too well developed at this time, it would seem useless and meaningless to the child to write quotients as \( 2 \frac{2}{3} \) except with very small divisors. The notation \( 2-2R \) is more meaningful for the youngster. Later on the other way of writing the quotient must be taught. B. Multiplication and division (multiplicands and dividends larger than 10) 1. Present problem in which children have to multiply orally \( 2 \times 20, 3 \times 20 \), etc. Ask children another way of stating their answers (4 tens, 6 tens, etc.). 2. Develop the generalization that tens are multiplied just as ones are. (See Wheat, *The Psychology and Teaching of Arithmetic*, pp. 315 ff.) 3. Present many problems involving tens and ones. (1) \[ 21 \] \[ \times 3 \] \[ 6 \text{ tens} \quad 3 \text{ ones} \] (2) \[ x \times 1 \] \[ x \times 1 \] \[ xxxxx \quad 111 = 63 \] (3) \[ 21 \] \[ x \times 1 \] \[ 21 \] 4. Present many problems involving carrying. \[ 26 \] \[ \times 3 \] \[ 6 \text{ tens} \quad 18 \text{ ones} = 7 \text{ tens and } 8 \text{ ones} = 78. \] 5. Repeat steps 1, 2, 3, and 4, except that division is used instead of multiplication. C. Consult text for problems to be used in introducing multiplication with two- and three-digit multipliers. In the development of multiplication have children demonstrate the reason for putting products in specified columns. \[ \begin{align*} 10 & \\ \times 10 & \\ 100 & \end{align*} \] The product is written in the hundreds column because 10 tens are equal to 100. Children should be questioned frequently concerning their reason for placing numbers in certain columns. Working through examples like the following will help to make this clear: \[ \begin{align*} 32 & \\ \times 21 & \\ \end{align*} \] \[ \begin{align*} 3 \text{ tens} & \quad 2 \text{ ones} \\ 2 \text{ tens} & \quad 1 \text{ one} \\ 3 \text{ tens} & \quad 2 \text{ ones} \\ 6 \text{ hundreds} & \quad 4 \text{ tens} \\ 6 \text{ hundreds} & \quad 7 \text{ tens} \quad 2 \text{ ones} \end{align*} \] To show that 2 tens \( \times \) 3 tens is equal to 600 have children write 30 in a column until they have 2 tens or twenty 30's and then let them add. D. After much work in multiplication with two- and three-digit multipliers, considerable work should be devoted to the short method of multiplying 10 and 100. This should be arrived at by the pupils as a generalization from several exercises of the type: \( 14 \times 10, 156 \times 10, 59 \times 10 \) and \( 100 \times 78, 987 \times 100 \), etc. The pupil will see that multiplying by 10 simply means adding a zero to the multiplicand in order to obtain the product. To multiply by 100 one must add two zeros to the multiplicand. III. Reading and Writing Numbers to 1,000,000 A. For review, present numbers like 642 and ask what the 2 indicates; the 4; the 6. Do the same for 1,047 and 1,760. Emphasize the idea that the zero indicates that no hundreds or no ones are in this particular number and that the zero is holding that place. B. Use numbers like 10,385, 115,396 and 1,000,000 from the news or geography books for further work in reading numbers. IV. Fractions A. In comparison, as in comparing sizes of cities, states, farms, distances, etc., use half, third and fourth. If concept needs clarification use measuring cup, ruler, or cardboard circles to show relation between whole and fractional parts. This work has for its purpose the building and fixing of concepts. No computation with fractional number symbols such as $1/2 - 1/4$ should be taught directly in this grade. B. In division, remainders may be written in two ways—fraction and remainder form. Through a problem like "16 sticks of candy were divided equally among 3 boys. How much did each boy receive?" the idea that the left-over stick can also be divided can be demonstrated for the simpler divisors. However, see page 56 for method of writing remainders. C. Emphasize the relationship between the process of taking a unit fractional part of a number and dividing by the reciprocal of the fraction. For example: $1/3$ of 24 (one third of 24) gives the same answer as 24 divided by 3 ($3/\overline{24}$). V. Measurement Before work with standard measures is begun children should have had considerable experience measuring and estimating the height of desks and chairs with books, sticks, etc. In this way the value of standard measures is demonstrated. For some of those measurement problems in the text you are using, have children do the actual measuring. (See textbook.) VI. Graphs The work should be concerned primarily with the reading of simple line and bar graphs. The entire work on graphs is optional at this time but should be introduced in fifth grade at the latest. Consult your superintendent. First lesson will probably arise out of work in other subjects; for example, a spelling chart which shows the weekly spelling record of children or temperature charts. Attendance records for the school may also be used. The construction of simple line and bar graphs to show some geographic facts is an added step that may be taken in learning to read and to use graphs. VII. History The exercise below illustrates how the history may be presented to children. The Development of Zero Have you ever thought about the difference between zero and the other numerals? You know that it is a place holder. It does not stand for a number of objects as does 2 or 5. It merely fills a space when no quantity is to be represented. If that is all zero does, you may wonder why it is given an important place in our number system. To answer that question you need only to try writing large numbers with Roman numerals. Not only did the Romans use clumsy numbers because they did not have a zero or place holder, but many other people did the same. The discovery of this simple but important idea was probably accidental. No one knows who discovered zero. It is generally believed that the use of zero came as a result of written records of number quantities represented on the abacus. (See second grade outline.) At first, when people made a record of sales or of taxes paid, the entire abacus was drawn on the clay tablet. If, for example, the amount were 124, this appear on the tablet: If it were 104, the abacus would appear thus: Later, in order to save time, only marks and no lines were drawn; 124 then appeared — — —, and 104 — — —. Since there were no printing presses at that time, all copy work had to be done by hand. If the copyist were careless and did not leave the proper space between the hundreds and ones, the 104 might be read as 14 or 1004. Obviously, something in the way of a mark was needed to hold the empty space. Many different marks have been used. The Arabs used a dot (.) and gave it the name *sifr*, meaning empty or blank. When our forefathers learned about this place holder from the Arabs, they used the Arab name *sifr*, but after a long time the word was changed to our word *zero*. Our forefathers also changed the mark from a dot to a circle so that it would be about the size of the other numerals. VIII. Problems Although many problems may be furnished by other activities of the children, the chief source of problems will be the textbook. It should be remembered that the chief use of problems at this level is to illustrate procedures. Proof should be frequently required and should be of the type described under addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division in an earlier section. If your text uses the formal analysis plan, that procedure should be followed part of the time, but not to the extent that diagrams and illustrations are excluded. Illustrations should also be used to show that the child has a grasp of the situation. IX. Standard References All references listed for the preceding grades plus (1) the area of state and county, and (2) the distance in miles between two well known points—one for 10-15 miles and one where hundreds of miles are needed. A. Introduce the new references (state, county; 10-15 miles, and 100-200 miles) to be learned through oral problems requiring the making of comparisons. For example, in social studies when a statement like "The area of California is 158,297 square miles" is made, such questions as the following should be asked: "How big is that?" "How does it compare with Iowa?" (The standard reference to be used.) Similar situations for the two distances should be used. Select for these references the distance to some convenient or well known places. B. For every standard reference build up as many associations as possible; e.g., the time required to cover the distance, to go around the area, etc. Summary* 1. Review of addition and subtraction 2. Complete multiplication and division combinations 3. Multiplication with two- and three-digit multipliers 4. Division with single digit divisors; long division method 5. Rounding numbers to nearest 10's, 100's, and 1000's 6. Reading and writing numbers to 1,000,000 7. Fractions 2/3 and 3/4 as parts of a whole and parts of a group 8. Reading simple line and bar graphs 9. The generalization that a fractional part of a number and division are related; e.g., 1/4 of 16 is the same as 4/16. *The summary for the first grade given on page 25 clearly expresses the use which should be made of the items listed in the summary on this page. | Examples | Difficulty Introduced | |----------|-----------------------| | 1. 14 | Two place numbers multiplied by 2, 3, or 4—no carrying | | 12 | | | 23 | | | 2 | | | 4 | | | 3 | | | 2. 46 | Introducing carrying | | 28 | | | 23 | | | 2 | | | 3 | | | 4 | | | 3. 81 | Last partial product greater than 10 | | 52 | | | 81 | | | 3 | | | 4 | | | 2 | | | 4. Steps 1, 2, and 3 with multipliers 5, 6, and 7 | | | 5. 321 | Three place numbers — no carrying | | 122 | | | 212 | | | 3 | | | 4 | | | 3 | | | 6. 420 | Zeros in multiplicand | | 303 | | | 400 | | | 2 | | | 3 | | | 2 | | | 7. 328 | Carrying in the first partial product only | | 116 | | | 128 | | | 2 | | | 7 | | | 3 | | | 8. 351 | Carrying in the second partial product | | 181 | | | 191 | | | 2 | | | 5 | | | 7 | | | 9. 340 | Zeros and carrying | | 306 | | | 500 | | | 5 | | | 7 | | | 9 | | | 10. 129 | Two cases of carrying | | 416 | | | 924 | | | 5 | | | 6 | | | 3 | | | 11. 4214 | Four place number and zero difficulties | | 5280 | | | 6008 | | | 5 | | | 6 | | | 7 | | | 12. Extension of steps one to nine to include multipliers of eight and nine | | | 13. 24 | Two place numbers multiplied by 10, 20, 30 . . . 90 | | 36 | | | 49 | | | 20 | | | 50 | | | 40 | | | 14. 51 | Two place number multiplied by two place number — no carrying | | 23 | | | 14 | | | 16 | | | 22 | | | 21 | | | 15. 28 | Carrying | | 32 | | | 80 | | | 49 | | | 46 | | | 29 | | | | 326 | 502 | 465 | |---|-----|-----|-----| | 16. | 21 | 48 | 90 | Three place multiplicand, two place multiplier — zeros in both | | 3004 | 4030 | 5080 | |---|------|------|------| | 17. | 26 | 50 | 92 | More extensive use of zeros | | 4280 | 3921 | 9462 | |---|------|------|------| | 18. | 206 | 508 | 700 | Introducing middle zero and two zeros in multiplier | | 4282 | 1821 | 5804 | |---|------|------|------| | 19. | 4006 | 1369 | 9090 | Two successive zeros and alternate zeros | | 42 | 463 | 96 | |---|------|------|------| | 20. | 10 | 100 | 100 | Multiplication by 10, 100 and 1,000. Pupils should be able to write answers without involved mechanical forms. | | 45 × 10 | 36 × 100 | 128 × 1000 | |---|----------|-----------|-------------| ### Suggested Examination Questions (Multiplication) 1. Eight eights are ________. 2. Multiply seven by eight. 3. Multiply two by four. 4. Find the product of 16 and 12. 5. Twenty-four times 16 is ________. 6. What number is six times larger than 24? 7. What is the short way to work this problem? \[28 + 28 + 28 + 28 + 28 + 28\] 8. By making marks or pictures on your paper show that five sevens are 35. 9. If there are 8 cabbage plants in each of 7 rows, how many cabbage plants are there in all the rows? 10. Six times seven plus 9 = ? 11. 38 \[24\] \[152\] \[76\] \[912\] In multiplying these two numbers, (a) Why is the six placed under the 5? (b) Why did we carry the 3 and add it to 12 when multiplying by 4? (c) 2 tens \(×\) 3 tens = 6 ________. (d) 2 tens \(×\) 4 ones = 8 ________. (e) 3 ones \(×\) 5 ones = 1 ________ and 5 ________. 12. If Mary has $1.20 and John has three times as much as Mary, how much does John have? 13. (a) If one multiplies 16 by 2 and then takes 1/2 of the product, the result is ________. (b) Teacher repeats using other numbers until pupils see the generalization; i.e., taking 1/2 the product will always give the original factor other than 2. (c) If one finds the product of 3 and 7, then takes 1/3 of that answer, what is the result? 14. Multiply \[ \begin{array}{c} 36 \\ \times 2 \\ \hline 72 \end{array} \] (a) Which number is the product? (b) Which number is the multiplier? (c) Which number is the multiplicand? 15. Are two threes and six threes the same as eight threes? 16. What is the shorthand way of writing (a) Three times some number equals 15? (b) Some number \(\times\) 18 equals 72? 17. Six times some number is 147. What is the number? 18. What is the short way of multiplying a number by 100? 10? Illustrate. 19. \(5 \times N = 35\) \[ \begin{array}{c} N = ? \end{array} \] \(18 \times N = 165\) \[ \begin{array}{c} N = ? \end{array} \] To the Teacher: Include also a variety of verbal problems in almost every test. FIFTH GRADE Inventory Test 1. Multiplication and Division a. If each child contributes 8 cents to the party what is the total amount that 9 children will give? b. How much does the average Scottie dog weigh if 8 of them weigh 136 lbs.? c. How many oranges are in 26 boxes if each box contains 84 oranges? 2. Write with words: a. 709 b. 2,116 c. 800,415 3. Write with numbers: a. Five thousand one hundred eight b. Two hundred fifty-six thousand sixteen 4. From the spelling graph on the board tell how many words Jack spelled on Friday. 5. Round these numbers to nearest 10's; to nearest hundreds: a. 103 b. 16,898 c. 40,311 6. How does the population of city A compare with that of city B if the population of A is 10,118 and the population of B is 19,674? 7. Work these examples: \[ \begin{align*} \text{Add} & \quad 117 \\ & \quad 982 \\ & \quad 409 \\ & \quad 360 \\ \hline & \quad 1,868 \end{align*} \] \[ \begin{align*} \text{Add} & \quad \$7.18 \\ & \quad .60 \\ & \quad 1.74 \\ & \quad 3.19 \\ \hline & \quad \$12.71 \end{align*} \] \[ \begin{align*} \text{Sub.} & \quad 7008 \\ & \quad 516 \\ \hline & \quad 6,492 \end{align*} \] \[ \begin{align*} \text{Sub.} & \quad 9814 \\ & \quad 8929 \\ \hline & \quad 885 \end{align*} \] \[ \begin{align*} \text{Mul.} & \quad 206 \\ & \quad 21 \\ \hline & \quad 4,326 \end{align*} \] \[ \begin{align*} \text{Mul.} & \quad 975 \\ & \quad 207 \\ \hline & \quad 1,975,275 \end{align*} \] \[ \begin{align*} \text{Div.} & \quad 6/ 671 \\ & \quad 207 \\ \hline & \quad 3/ 335 \end{align*} \] \[ \begin{align*} \text{Div.} & \quad 8/ 988 \\ & \quad 123 \\ \hline & \quad 8/ 123 \end{align*} \] 8. a. The area of Kansas is 82,158 sq. mi. How does Kansas compare in size with Iowa? b. The distance from Council Bluffs to Sioux City is 98 miles. How does this compare with the distance between two cities that you know? (Teacher: Choose two cities in your vicinity that are known to the children.) 9. Which of these numbers is about 1/4 of 2000? a. 705 b. 654 c. 510 d. 418 10. Draw an abacus which will show the number 525; draw another to show 116; another to show 301. (See second and fourth grade outlines for use of abacus. Also Wheat, *The Psychology and Teaching of Arithmetic*, pp. 40-44.) **Content and Recommended Procedures** I. For some of the problems and exercises in multiplication and division of the inventory, proof is required similar to that suggested for fourth grade. Emphasize particularly during this review the similarity between multiplication and division of ones and tens. Later include hundreds and thousands on the same basis. Include with the exercises in which proof is required oral exercises in which children have to round numbers if work is to be done efficiently; e.g., "If there are 192 lbs. in a bbl. of flour, about how much do 20 bbls. weigh?" or "What is the average weight of the fifth grade children if all of them weigh 1042 lbs.?" II. Division Using Two- and Three-Digit Divisors The basic cycle of operations has already been set up in the work of the fourth grade while using one-digit divisors. Some time should be spent in doing remedial work in division with one-digit divisors before using two-digit divisors. Furthermore, before starting division the teacher should ascertain whether the pupil is sufficiently proficient in multiplication and subtraction since these two processes are involved in the division process. Any attempt to teach long division before the pupil is sufficiently proficient in subtraction and multiplication is sure to lead to failure and will unduly discourage the pupil. The pupil should understand and be able to work simple verbal problems involving division before he is asked to do long division. Present verbal problems daily illustrating the uses of the fundamental operations. These should be given both orally and in written form, the latter to develop the ability to read quantitative materials. In general, the best procedure in teaching long division is to follow the procedure used in the text. Sometime during the pupil's study of long division he should arrive at the generalization that numbers ending in zero may be divided by 10 dropping the last zero. A similar generalization should be arrived at for division by 100. This understanding will be used later in percentage and should not be overlooked. III. Addition and Subtraction of Common Fractions For the first problems have children draw fractional circles or rectangles to represent the values involved; e.g., "If John gave half an apple to each of 4 friends, how many apples did he use?" Work this problem by drawing diagrams. a. \[ \begin{array}{cccc} \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{2} \\ 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\ \end{array} \] 1/2 for each friend b. \[ \begin{array}{cc} \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{2} \\ \end{array} \] or 2 apples Have children construct cardboard circles of equal diameter and then divide several circles into halves, thirds, fourths, and eighths. These fractional parts should be used to show what is obtained when fractions are added or subtracted. In the teaching of fractions— A. Teach that the denominator tells in how many equal parts the whole (or group) has been divided and that the numerator tells how many of these parts are under consideration. B. The major share of the work with fractions in this grade will be concerned with addition and subtraction. Considerable time should be taken to introduce this work through the use of diagrams and models mentioned in the paragraphs above. Eventually, however, the children should use the more economical adult procedure of working with fractions. The gradual approach through paper cutting, diagrams, etc. insures a foundation of understanding upon which to build the work in fractions. Throughout the work the children should be asked to demonstrate their understanding of the processes by illustrations or models. C. Teach reduction of fractions as an application of the following principle: If both the numerator and denominator of a fraction are multiplied (divided) by the same number the value of the fraction is not changed. D. The following form for addition is recommended for the work in fractions: \[ 3 \frac{3}{4} = 3 \frac{6}{8} \] \[ 5 \frac{7}{8} = 5 \frac{7}{8} \] \[ 8 \frac{13}{8} = 9 \frac{5}{8} \] Writing the \(8 \frac{13}{8}\) may be omitted if the pupil so desires. The \(3/4\) in the above problem should be changed to \(6/8\) by means of multiplying numerator and denominator by 2. Do not teach the pupils to say: 4 into 8 is 2; 2 times 3 is 6. Some time should be spent adding proper fractions in the following form: \[ \frac{1}{2} + \frac{2}{3} = \frac{3}{6} + \frac{4}{6} = \frac{7}{6} = 1 \frac{1}{6} \] This serves as a means to emphasize meaning as well as develop an ability which is used in later work and everyday life. E. The recommended form for subtraction is: \[ 3 \frac{1}{4} = 2 \frac{10}{8} \quad \text{or} \quad 3 \frac{1}{4} = 3 \frac{2}{8} = 2 \frac{10}{8} \] \[ 1 \frac{7}{8} = 1 \frac{7}{8} \quad \text{or} \quad 1 \frac{7}{8} = 1 \frac{7}{8} = 1 \frac{7}{8} \] \[ 1 \frac{3}{8} \] Almost any other form for the addition and subtraction of fractions involves too much "machinery" or involves errors in expression. For proper fractions also teach \[ \frac{5}{6} - \frac{1}{2} = \frac{5}{6} - \frac{3}{6} = \frac{2}{6} = \frac{1}{3} \] F. Knowing that the value of the fraction is increased if the numerator is increased or that the fraction is decreased if the numerator is decreased, while the denominator is constant, is a valuable understanding for pupils in the fifth grade. This understanding may be attained by exercises of the following nature: (a) Which of the following fractions is the largest: \( \frac{1}{9}, \frac{7}{9}, \frac{4}{9}, \frac{6}{9} \)? (b) Pick the smallest number: \( \frac{8}{3}, \frac{5}{3}, \frac{9}{3}, \frac{2}{3} \). (c) Pick the largest number: \( \frac{11}{5}, \frac{11}{12}, \frac{11}{15}, \frac{11}{21} \). etc. G. It is well to remember that if the pupil cannot illustrate by means of diagrams, paper cutting, etc. the simple processes of addition and subtraction of fractions, in all probability he is not ready for the more formal work in addition and subtraction of fractions. IV. Decimals The work with decimals at this level is optional. Consult your superintendent. Principal work with decimals is to follow the work with common fractions. Follow the approach used by the textbook* but continually emphasize the relationship to common fractions: \[ \begin{align*} (a) & \quad 1/10 = .1 \\ (b) & \quad 7/100 = .07 \end{align*} \] Show through study exercises on such numbers as 444.44, relation between decimals and positional value. Each number to the right is 1/10 of the preceding number. (See Morton, “Teaching Arithmetic in the Elementary School,” Vol. II, pp. 320-321.) The main purpose of work with decimals at this level is to give children the idea or meaning of decimal fractions and how to read them. V. Percentage Like the work in decimals, the main purpose is to help children to read books in social studies, health, science, etc. where it is necessary to make comparisons in order to establish an important point in the minds of the pupils. Therefore, the elementary idea of percentage can and should come into the arithmetic course during the latter part of the fifth grade; that is, after the pupil has learned to read simple decimal fractions. Percentage should be taught as another way of writing hundredths. That is, \( 5\% = \frac{5}{100} = .05; 25\% = \frac{25}{100} = .25 = \frac{1}{4}; 50\% = \frac{50}{100} = \frac{1}{2} = .50 = .5 \), etc. *The most natural way of introducing decimal fractions is to present them as a new way of writing common fractions whose denominators are 10, 100, etc. See page 79, VI, 1. In the news and in social studies such statement as "50% of the farmer's grain is fed at home" is found. This should be explained as meaning 50/100 or 1/2 of the grain is fed at home. Since children know what 1/2 of any quantity means, the term 50% should be easily understood. Similar statements may be found in other subjects. For example, seed corn has a germination test of 90%. This means that 90/100 or 9/10 of the seed corn will grow. Many other examples can be found, and should be used, in other areas. The continual use of percentage in other subjects will help drive home the percentage idea and get the pupil ready for more formal working percentage in the seventh grade. Nothing more than suggested above should be done with percentage in the fifth and sixth grades, except under unusual circumstances. VI. Measurement Primarily area (floor space in sq. ft. and land in acres and sq. mi.) In order to be sure that children know what measurement of area means, have them apply a square foot to areas like a portion of the room floor, table tops, etc., to see how many such square feet are needed to cover the surface. Then have children draw to reduced scale the surface measured showing the square feet needed to cover it. Make scale drawings of school grounds placing building correctly. VII. Standard References All references for preceding grades plus (1) height of a door, (2) 100 ft. both horizontal and vertical, (3) a ton, (4) population of cities, one for 5,000—15,000 and one for 100,000—200,000. The height of a door (7 ft.) is taken as standard reference because in discussing any problem where a length or height from 4 to 20 feet is involved, comparison can be made with the classroom door. For each standard reference many experiences with the measure involved should be used. In case of distance the children should actually measure the distance and frequent reference should be made to it in oral exercises and in discussions where numbers involving similar measures are used. For other measures such as ton, population of city, etc., use any available comparison to help child get a good concept. VIII. Reading and writing numbers to a billion with Hindu-Arabic numerals and Roman numerals to two thousand Emphasize writing the number of years B.C. and A.D. in Roman numerals. IX. Graphs Line and bar graphs plus pictographs with emphasis still primarily on the reading of graphs. The graphs should be taken from social studies, science, daily papers, etc. X. Problems Although most of the problems at this level will be used for purposes of illustration, some attempt is made to teach pupils how to solve the types of problems they will meet in life outside the school. Proof should be required frequently. For type of proof needed see fourth grade outline, and section 3 of the fifth grade outline. While the textbook will be the source of most problems, many good problems, especially those for oral exercises, should be supplied by the teacher from news and content subjects that children are studying. For a thorough discussion of problem solving the teacher should consult Morton, *Teaching Arithmetic in the Elementary School*, Vol. II, pp. 434-494, and Wheat, *The Psychology and Teaching of Arithmetic*, pp. 110F-212F. Summary* 1. Remedial work in multiplication and division 2. Complete long division with two- and three-digit divisors. Toward the end of year, quotients will be written as $126\frac{5}{14}$. 3. Addition and subtraction of common fractions 4. Introduction of decimals (optional) 5. Introduction of percentage. If decimals are not introduced, teach that $15\% = \frac{15}{100} = \frac{3}{20}$; otherwise teach in the order $15\% = \frac{15}{100} = .15 = \frac{3}{20}$. 6. Measurement of area (rectangles only) 7. Standard references of area, height, etc. 8. Reading and writing large numbers 9. Roman numbers to include dates 10. Reading line and bar graphs 11. An abundance of verbal problems involving above processes and ideas *The summary for the first grade given on page 25 clearly expresses the use which should be made of the items listed in the summary on this page. Diagnostic Test (Mechanics of Division) | Examples | Learning Difficulty | |----------|---------------------| | 1. $2/48$ | Division by two — Placing quotient properly | | 2. $2/64$ | Introducing carrying but no remainders | | 3. $3/36$ | Division by three with and without carrying | | 4. $4/84$ | New divisors 4 and 5 | | 5. $5/480$ | Three and four place dividends | | 6. $3/261$ | Proper placing of quotients | | 7. $3/390$ | End zeros in quotient | | 8. $6/360$ | New divisors 6, 7, 8, and 9 | | 9. $2/141$ | Remainders | | 10. $8/814$ | Middle zeros, remainder and carrying | **Two Place Divisors** | Examples | Learning Difficulty | |----------|---------------------| | 1. $10/30$ | Placing quotient, two place divisor | | 2. $21/45$ | Two place divisor, one place quotient | | 3. $31/628$ | With remainders 10, 20, 30, 40, . . . 90; two place quotients; first trial divisor correct | | 4. $43/860$ | Terminal zero in quotient with and without remainder | | 5. $43/9073$ | Three place quotient figures with and without remainder and terminal zeros | | Examples | Difficulty Introduced | |----------|------------------------| | 6. $51/10306$ | Middle zero in quotient | | 7. $46/2376$ | True quotient figure one less or one more than trial quotient figure | | 8. $95/8465$ | Trial divisor may be either of two figures | **Three Place Divisors** | Examples | Difficulty Introduced | |----------|------------------------| | 1. $400/4362$ | Proper place of quotient figure and estimating trial divisor, end zero in division | | 2. $482/16384$ | | | 3. $456/173385$ | | | 4. $444/267786$ | Middle zeros | **Diagnostic Test** *(Mechanics of Fractions)* **Addition** 1. $\frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{3}$ $\frac{1}{5} + \frac{2}{5}$ $\frac{1}{7} + \frac{3}{7}$ Denominations alike 2. $\frac{3}{5}$ $\frac{2}{3}$ $\frac{8}{9}$ $\frac{4}{5}$ $\frac{2}{3}$ $\frac{7}{9}$ 3. $\frac{1}{4}$ $\frac{3}{8}$ $\frac{5}{10}$ $\frac{5}{7}$ Sum proper fraction but can be reduced 4. $\frac{1}{4} + \frac{1}{4} =$ $\frac{1}{8} + \frac{5}{8} =$ $\frac{7}{10} + \frac{1}{10} =$ Horizontal form 5. $\frac{1}{3} + \frac{5}{6} =$ $\frac{1}{2}$ $\frac{2}{3}$ One denominator a multiple of the other 6. $\frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{3}$ $\frac{2}{3} + \frac{1}{4}$ $\frac{2}{7} + \frac{4}{5}$ Denominators prime to one another 7. $\frac{1}{6} + \frac{5}{12}$ $\frac{7}{12}$ $\frac{5}{8}$ Denominators with common factor 8. $2\frac{1}{1/2}$ $6\frac{6}{4 2/3}$ $19\frac{1}{3}\frac{3}{3}$ Mixed numbers and integers | Examples | Difficulty Introduced | |----------|------------------------| | 9. $3 \frac{1}{5}$, $13 \frac{5}{8}$, $142 \frac{1}{2}$ | Two mixed numbers sum of fractional parts proper | | $\frac{5}{10}$, $\frac{21}{6}$, $\frac{368}{3}$ | | | 10. $21 \frac{3}{4}$, $146 \frac{1}{3}$, $4 \frac{7}{8}$ | Any two mixed numbers sum of fractional parts proper | | $\frac{14}{2}$, $\frac{21}{3}$, $\frac{29}{4}$ | | **Diagnostic Test** (Mechanics of Subtraction) 1. $\frac{4}{5} - \frac{1}{5} =$ $\frac{9}{10} - \frac{5}{10} =$ 2. $\frac{7}{8} - \frac{1}{4} =$ $\frac{9}{10} - \frac{3}{4}$ $\frac{1}{2} - \frac{2}{3}$ 3. $26 \frac{1}{2}$ $14 \frac{2}{3}$ $21 \frac{7}{8}$ $4$ $7$ $13$ 4. $4 \frac{1}{2}$ $419 \frac{7}{8}$ $21 \frac{3}{8} - 14 \frac{1}{4}$ $3 \frac{1}{4}$ $62 \frac{3}{4}$ 5. $48$ $32$ $46$ $21 \frac{1}{2}$ $14 \frac{3}{4}$ $8 \frac{7}{8}$ 6. $36 \frac{1}{2}$ $29 \frac{2}{3}$ $445 \frac{1}{4}$ $14 \frac{3}{4}$ $16 \frac{5}{6}$ $31 \frac{3}{8}$ 7. $81 \frac{1}{3}$ $65 \frac{3}{4}$ $40 \frac{1}{2}$ $29 \frac{4}{5}$ $19 \frac{7}{8}$ $29 \frac{3}{4}$ **Suggested Examination Questions** (Division) 1. How many eights in 64? 2. Sixty-four divided by 6 equals ________. 3. Show by means of marks that there are 8 fours in 32. 4. What is the shortest way to find how many 7's in 84? What other way could be used? 5. $N \div 6 = 12$ $18 \div N = 3$ $N = ?$ $N = ?$ 6. How would one check the answer obtained in division? 7. $38 = N \div 2$ $55 = N \div 5$ 8. If 16 is divided by two and this result multiplied by two, what is the final result? 9. Multiplication and division are called "inverse processes." Can you name two other processes which are "inverses"? Illustrate. 10. How many halves in 6? 11. Take a number like 36. Divide it by 4 and then multiply that answer by 4. What is the final result? Reverse the operations. That is, multiply 36 by 4 and divide the product by 4. What is the final quotient? Will this same thing be true if one uses numbers other than 36? 12. Eight 9's = 72. Then $72 \div 8 = n$. $n =$ ? Also $72 \div 9 =$ ? 13. If one multiplies 15 by some number and then divides this product by the same number, what is the quotient? $$\frac{N}{N}$$ 14. 65/4587 then 65 times $n =$ ? 15. What is the difference between 1/4 of 8 and 8 divided by four? (Only so far as the numerical answer is concerned.) 16. How many facts can you state using the numbers 3, 8 and 24 and the signs +, =, —, ÷, and ×. 17. In problems 11, 12 and 13 it has been pointed out that multiplication "undoes" division and division "undoes" multiplication. Are there two other operations that are so related? 18. John bought 4 apples at 4 cents each. He gave the clerk a quarter. How much change should he receive? (Don't forget the sales tax.) a. How many apples did John buy? b. How much did each apple cost? c. How much money did he give the clerk? d. How much did John pay for all four apples? e. How much would the tax be on this amount of sales (money)? f. So the apples and the tax amounted to ________ cents and John gave the clerk ________ cents. Then he should receive ________ in change. **Suggested Examination Questions** (Basic Concept of Fractions) 1. By means of diagrams show what is meant by: a. 2/3 of an apple b. 1/4 of a sheet of paper c. 3/5 of a quart of water d. 1/3 of a half apple e. How many minutes in 1/4 of an hour? f. Which is the larger number, 1/2 or 1/3? g. How many thirds are there in a cake? h. How many two-thirds are there in two cakes? i. Is there any difference between 2/4 and 1/2 of a pie? 2. How many fifths does it take to make a whole? Make a drawing which will show that your answer is right. 3. Write in words: 7/8, 2/3, 5/6. 4. Write in numbers: one third, five eighths, nine tenths. 5. What is one third of 27? What is 27 divided by 3? Multiplying a number by 1/3 is the same as dividing the number by ________. 6. Dividing a number by 5 is the same as multiplying the number by ________. 7. Consider the fraction 1/2. If the numerator and denominator are multiplied by 2, does the value of the fraction change? If the value of the fraction is not to be changed and the denominator is multiplied by 3, what must one do to the numerator? 8. Consider the fraction 4/6. If the numerator is divided by two, what must one do to the denominator if the value of the fraction is to remain unchanged? (To the teacher: The basic ideas brought out in questions 5, 6, 7, and 8 are very important.) 9. Draw a diagram which would show a fourth grader how to get this problem: In a circus train one car contained 15 small tigers in 5 different cages. If there were the same number in each cage, how many tigers were there in each cage? How many cages would the circus need if no more than two tigers were to be placed in a cage? 10. Show what would be the short way of getting the answer to problem 9. 11. Why must one change fractions so that they have the same denominator before adding or subtracting the fractions? 12. By means of a drawing or using pieces of paper, show that 5/2 = 2 1/2. 13. Dividing a number by 5/8 is the same as multiplying the number by ________. 14. \[ \frac{5}{6} N = 10. \quad N = ? \] (This should be taught as a generalization of problems of the type 3N = 9.) 15. Pupils should be taught to translate the terminology of the problem into the short statements of arithmetic. For example, John knew that 1/3 of the boys in the fifth grade were going to be assigned to go on an excursion with the sixth grade. If five boys were on hand when the bus was ready to start then there must be at least ________ boys in the fifth grade. 16. This problem really says: 1/3 of the number of boys is 5. \[ \text{or } \frac{1}{3} \text{ of } N = 5 \] \[ \text{or } \frac{1}{3} N = 5 \] \[ N = 15 \] SIXTH GRADE Inventory Test 1. Show by means of diagrams how much $1/2 - 1/4$ equals. 2. The grocer sold $1 \frac{1}{2}$ lbs. of his 7 lbs. of butter. How much did he have left? Show by number and by diagram. 3. What does the denominator of a fraction tell you? 4. Which of these fractions is larger, $1/3$ or $1/4$? Show by diagram. 5. Write one tenth as a common fraction. As a decimal fraction. 6. Write these numbers with words: 1.24, 2.04, 41.2. 7. A man lost 25% of his sheep. What fractional part did he lose? 8. How does the area of New York State, 49,204 sq. mi., compare with Iowa? 9. A ditch is 20 feet deep. How would you tell the class how deep 20 ft. is? 10. The population of a city is 450,000. How does that compare with some city you know? 11. Write these numbers with words: 1,263,051 64,000,512. 12. Write these numbers with figures: ten million, one hundred seven thousand, sixty-four; fifty-two million, six hundred twenty-four thousand, eight hundred two. 13. Read these dates: 1807 A.D., 1919 A.D., 440 B.C., Jan. 6, 1945. 14. Solve these examples: \[ \begin{align*} 64 & / 2324 \\ 71 & / 1568 \\ 307 & \times 109 \\ 700 & \times 126 \\ 1/2 + 1/3 & \\ 1/4 + 3/4 & \\ 3/4 - 1/2 & \\ 2/4 - 1/2 & \end{align*} \] 15. Problems of the type used in fourth and fifth grades. **Content and Recommended Procedures** I. The inventory or diagnostic test materials should be used as the first part of the review program. Children should be required to show that they understand multiplication and division by working problems in several different ways; e.g., $12 \times 114$ may be worked by addition: (a) 1140 (b) 114 + 114 + — — — (12 addends of 114) 114 = 1368 (c) 114 12 228 114 1368 etc. By breaking the multiplier into parts and then adding partial products, by rounding 48 to 50 and then subtracting 228 from the product of $50 \times 114$. Similarly $812 + 96$ may be worked by serial subtraction (see Third Grade) by calling 96 to 100 and finding how many 100's in 800. Equally searching tests of understanding should be demanded for other work covered in the inventory test. If children do not understand the processes, simple problems should be given and proof required. The solutions of the simplest problem should include actual manipulation of objects. II. Fractions Systematic instruction in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of common fractions in picture form or diagrams. After the review of addition and subtraction of fractions, give several weeks to work in addition and subtraction of fractions in which numbers (not words or diagrams only) are used. Your text will furnish examples. Use both fractions and mixed numbers. Every few days ask the child to work some problem or example using drawing, diagrams or objects. Introduce multiplication and division through problems, but ask child to solve by drawing first. This may necessitate copying problems from the text because the text will give the solution with numbers. After solution with diagrams ask for solution with numbers; e.g., Jennie bought $\frac{1}{2}$ of a roll of ribbon. If there are 5 yards on a roll, how much ribbon did she buy? Diagram: Part bought Number: $\frac{1}{2}$ of 5 or $\frac{1}{2} \times 5 = \frac{5}{2} = 2\frac{1}{2}$ yds. After children understand how to solve problems by diagram and understand number process, give much practice with numbers. Your text will give problems and examples. A few days afterwards ask children to prove solution to one problem by making a diagram. Division with a fraction as a divisor should be introduced by a problem situation which involves dividing an integer by a unit fraction; e.g., $6 \div \frac{1}{3}$. This should be solved much as recommended for multiplication. (See above.) The meaning of division will be reinforced if the teacher will remind the class that in the lower grades the problem $24 \div 6$ was read, "How many six's in 24?" Similarly the problem $6 \div 1/3$ is read, "How many one thirds in 24?" This "tie-up" between division of integers and division of fractions should not be forgotten. Some verbal problems in fractions are always difficult to teach. The discussion below may help to unify the terminology and methods of solving certain kinds of problems for the pupil. Note how abilities developed in previous grades assist in solving the problems of teaching fractions in the fifth and sixth grades. The problem: Harry raised 18 chickens and sold 12 of them; what part of his chickens did he sell? should be worked somewhat as follows: First, the pupils should be reminded that the term "part of" means a fraction times a number. That is, $1/2 \times 6$ means the $1/2$ part of 6. Now when one reads the question in the problem it is evident that the problem is asking, what part of 18 is 12 or $n \times 18 = 12$. This is solved in the same way that $n \times 6 = 12$ is solved; that is, by dividing 12 by 6. In the problem above the pupil would write $n = 12/18 = 2/3$. It is readily seen that all problems of the type: \[ \begin{align*} 2/3 \text{ of what number equals } 12? \\ \text{What part of } 18 \text{ is } 12? \\ \text{What number times } 3/4 \text{ is } 12? \end{align*} \] can be solved by the one method; namely, by letting "n" be the initial of the number and then translating the above three exercises as follows: \[ \begin{align*} 2/3 n &= 12 \\ n \times 18 &= 12 \\ n \times 3/4 &= 12 \end{align*} \] III. Reading and Writing Large Numbers The large numbers should be taken from social studies work, science, health, daily papers, magazines, etc., rather than from the arithmetic book. This part of the arithmetic program will be more functional if teachers look upon this as a necessary skill to convey basic ideas in other areas and spend some time on it wherever the needed skill arises. Of course this same thing can be said of all arithmetic skills. IV. Measurement of Areas and Volumes To include area of rectangles measured in sq. ft., sq. in., sq. yd., sq. mi., and sq. rd. Volume of a rectangular parallelepiped (box) only. Cubic units to include cu. ft., cu. in., and cu. yd. only unless special occasions call for the introduction of other units. To develop the meaning of area, see the fifth grade outline. For cubic measure, be sure to fit a cube of one cubic inch volume into a larger box, letting the children experiment and generalize as to how to find the volume. On linear measure, some practice should be provided in making measurements to the nearest tenths of an inch, tenths of a foot, and tenths of a yard. This probably should not extend beyond the study of a yardstick and a foot rule to see the relative size of 1/4 yd. and 2/10 or 3/10 of a yd.; 1/2 yd. and 5/10 yd.; 1/8 in. and 1/10 in.; etc. This kind of work will assist in fixing the concept of decimal fractions and show the relationship (in terms of size) between common fractions of a unit and the decimal fractions of a unit. One way to approach the work on measure as outlined above would be to divide (teacher doing the division previous to class discussion) a yardstick into ten equal parts. This can be done as follows: Draw a line one yard long on the board. Call this line AB. Then, beginning at A draw any other line such as AC which is 30 inches long. Mark off AC in 3-inch intervals. Connect C and B. Then, through each of the 3-inch division marks on AC draw a line parallel to BC. The lines can be made parallel to BC by making the angles at the division points equal to the angle ACB by means of a protractor. (See almost any seventh or eighth grade text on arithmetic.) These parallel lines divide the yard AB into tenths of a yard. These divisions can be transferred to the yardstick and then the pupils told that the marks divide the yardstick into ten equal parts or tenths of a yard. The yardstick should now be used to measure various distances in yards and tenths of a yard. This same procedure can be followed for the foot rule. It is very important that considerable practice be given in making measurements of various distances during the fourth, to, and including, the eighth grade. Very few understandings are more important in daily life than measurement. Furthermore, the problems of measurement lead into so many good situations which require the pupil to do some computing with various kinds of units, thereby providing a more nearly normal daily life use of the arithmetic operations. Pupils in this grade as well as in previous grades should be given practice in estimating distances all the way from a number of inches to four hundred or five hundred feet. V. Denominate Numbers The work with denominate numbers should include only that with which children are likely to be familiar, like oz., lb., pint, qt., gal., days, weeks, months, yrs. Consult your textbook for work with such problems. (See Morton: *Teaching Arithmetic in the Elementary School*, pp. 411-426, for good discussion of denominate numbers.) VI. Decimals 1. The work with decimals in the sixth grade should re-emphasize the relationship between decimal fractions and common fractions. Decimals should be taught as a new way of writing common fractions whose denominators are powers of 10; i.e., fractions whose denominators are 10, 100, 1000, etc. The pupil is told that $7/10 = .7$, the explanation being that it is only a different way of writing $7/10$ and that this new way of writing $7/10$ has been found to be more convenient by people who are employed in industry, by people who study science, and by everyone else. Of course, decimal notation should be related to the way of writing U. S. money. 2. With decimal numbers larger than one, the decimal point should be read as “and.” Thus, 345.86 is read “three hundred forty-five and eighty-six hundredths.” This convention helps to distinguish between the following two numbers when read to the pupil: 200.036 and .236. 3. As an aid to understanding the place value of decimals, as well as their relationship to common fractions, it is suggested that some work of the following type be assigned and discussed in class until the pupil understands decimal notation as related to common fractions: $$\frac{3}{10} + \frac{7}{100} = \frac{30}{100} + \frac{7}{100} = \frac{37}{100} = .37$$ Also work on the inverse of the above example; that is, $$.56 = \frac{5}{10} + \frac{6}{100} = .5 + .06$$ Then prove the result as shown above. 4. Exercises in picking largest and smallest number should be provided at frequent intervals. 5. In teaching the addition and subtraction of decimal fractions the emphasis should be placed upon the addition of like quantities instead of keeping the decimal points in a vertical line. This serves to bring out the meaning of the processes involved as well as bringing to the attention of the pupil an important idea; that is, in addition and subtraction, only like quantities may be used. 6. Rounding off decimal numbers to the nearest tenths and hundredths and the application of this ability in measurement 7. Work in counting by tenths from 4 to 5, or counting by hundredths from 10 to 11, or from 9.1 to 9.2 will help fix the idea of decimals and provide a foundation for rounding off decimals to nearest tenths, hundredths, etc. To illustrate: Counting from 4 to 5 by tenths, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0. Questions such as, Is 4.6 nearer 5 or nearer 4? Is 4.2 nearer 4 or nearer 5? will help the pupil visualize the meaning of rounding off numbers to nearest tenths. VII. Charts and Graphs Continued emphasis on reading with some work on construction of graphs and some discussion of the ways of presenting information graphically. VIII. Problems Greater emphasis will be given to solution of problems as preparation for the type of problems met in life and less attention will be given to illustrative use of problems. IX. Standard References All references listed for previous grades plus (1) size and speed of ships, (2) mountain (altitude), (3) railroads in a state or country, (4) rainfall in a certain area. X. Percentage (Same as fifth grade) XI. Oral Work The program of oral work started in the earlier grades should be continued in this grade. Although the oral work need not be as frequent, it should be given at least once a week. Problems and examples involving both whole numbers and fractions should be used. The following problems are examples of the two types: What is the combined area of Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana, if Iowa has 56,147, Illinois 56,665, and Indiana 36,358 square miles? (135,000 to 160,000 accepted as correct) A man planted one half of his 300-acre farm in wheat. How many acres of wheat did he plant? In order to motivate and to administer the oral program, children should often write the answers. In this way the oral work of several grades can proceed at once. The answers on the papers can be checked at a later time. XII. Story of the Development of Fractions This exercise illustrates how historical material may be presented to the children. The adding or subtracting of fractions is very easy if the denominators are alike. In other words if fractions are the same size they can be added just like tons can be added to tons and lbs. to lbs. Ancient man had just as much trouble adding unlike fractions as does the modern schoolboy. In fact, he probably had more trouble because he had no text and often no teacher. In order to make addition and subtraction easier, ancient man tried to make fractions all the same size. The Babylonians tried to make fractions all sixtieths. When a fraction did not come out to be exactly a sixtieth, they made another part which they called a little sixtieth. Thus, an hour was first divided into 60 parts and then each sixtieth divided into 60 more parts. Of course, you can see where we get the 60 minutes in an hour that we use, and the 60 seconds in a minute. You don't even think of them as fractions but they really are fractions of an hour. The Romans found that a sixtieth was too small a fraction for some things. They divided their foot into 12 parts. From that we get our inch as a twelfth of a foot. None of these schemes of using fractions of the same size worked for all things; e.g., if a pie is to be divided among 8 people, each will get an eighth and it is difficult to use tenths, twelfths, or sixtieths in dividing it so that each of the eight people will get his share. Even though ancient man's scheme did not work, we still use some things which resulted from his attempts to make all fractions the same size. Can you name three of the things we use that are the result of ancient man's attempt to simplify fractions? (For further discussion of this topic, see Wheat: *The Psychology and Teaching of Arithmetic*, pp. 82-90; *The Story of Numbers*, American Council on Education; or any good history of arithmetic.) Summary* 1. Review of processes taught in previous grades 2. Multiplication and Division with fractional quantities 3. Measurements to nearest tenths of a foot and yard 4. Addition and subtraction of decimals 5. Continued use of percentage idea 6. Continued use of charts and graphs Diagnostic Test (Mechanics of Fractions) Multiplication | Examples | Difficulty Introduced | |----------|------------------------| | 1. $1/2 \times 1/2$ $2/3 \times 1/4$ $3/8 \times 2/3$ | Fraction multiplied by a fraction with and without reduction | | 2. $4 \times 4/5$ $2 \times 1/3$ $5 \times 3/10$ | Integer multiplied by fraction | | 3. $3/8 \times 2$ $5/9 \times 3$ $4/5 \times 2$ | Fraction multiplied by whole numbers | | 4. $11/2 \times 4$ $3 1/4 \times 8$ $4 2/3 \times 6$ | Mixed number times integer | | 5. $3 \times 21/3$ $14 \times 8 1/2$ $21 \times 7 2/3$ | Integer times mixed number | | 6. $2 1/2 \times 2/3$ $1 1/3 \times 3/5$ $4/5 \times 2 1/10$ | Products of mixed numbers and fractions | | 7. $3 1/2 \times 4 2/3$ $1 1/2 \times 8 1/2$ $4 5/6 \times 2 1/2$ | Products of mixed numbers | Division | Examples | Difficulty Introduced | |----------|------------------------| | 1. $1 \div 1/2$ $2 \div 1/3$ $6 \div 1/8$ | Integer divided by unit fraction | | 2. $3 \div 2/3$ $9 \div 2/7$ $6 \div 3/8$ | Integer divided by multiple fraction | | 3. $2/3 \div 2$ $1/2 \div 4$ $2/5 \div 3$ | Fraction divided by integer | *The summary for the first grade given on page 25 clearly expresses the use which should be made of the items listed in the summary on this page. Examples 4. \( \frac{2}{3} \div \frac{1}{3} \quad \frac{2}{5} \div \frac{3}{4} \quad \frac{3}{5} \div \frac{3}{4} \) 5. \( 1\frac{1}{2} \div 2 \quad 3\frac{3}{4} \div 5 \quad 14\frac{2}{3} \div 6 \) 6. \( 16 \div 1\frac{1}{2} \quad 24 \div 3\frac{3}{4} \quad 38 \div 4\frac{2}{3} \) 7. \( 6\frac{1}{2} \div 3\frac{1}{2} \quad 4\frac{1}{2} \div 1\frac{1}{3} \quad 6\frac{2}{3} \div 2\frac{3}{4} \) Difficulty Introduced Fraction divided by fraction Mixed number divided by integer Integer divided by mixed number Mixed number divided by mixed number SEVENTH GRADE Inventory Test 1. Using only the decimal point and the numbers 3, 6, and 2, write (a) the smallest number possible, (b) the largest number, (c) a number between 10 and 100, (d) the largest (three places) decimal. 2. (a) \( 407 \times 80 \) (b) \( 600 \times 800 \) 3. Multiply and divide each of these numbers by 10 and 100: (a) 2.6 (c) 362 (e) 19.32 (b) 34 (d) 462.21 (f) .623 4. \( \frac{5}{8} + \frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{6} = \) 5. \( 92/2746 \) 6. How many two-thirds in 8? 7. Count from 2 to 3 by (a) tenths, (b) hundredths. 8. \( 93.08 + 2.29 + 82.078 = \) 9. (a) \( 3\frac{1}{2} \div 2 \) (b) \( 14\frac{1}{3} \times \frac{3}{2} \) (c) \( \frac{1}{4} \div \frac{3}{8} \) 10. \( 13\frac{5}{6} - 4\frac{3}{4} \) Subtract 11. Round the following: (a) .65 3.421 52.86 To nearest tenths. (b) 4632 521.4 634.82 To nearest tens. (c) 44,642 1,634,214 To nearest thousands. (d) 42,463,258 8,943,632 To nearest millions. 12. Find (a) \( \frac{7}{8} \) of 92. (b) \( \frac{3}{4} \) of 15. 13. 18 is what part of 30? 14. (a) What number multiplied by 28 gives 7? (b) What number multiplied by .8 gives .2? (c) What number multiplied by .6 gives .02? Content and Recommended Procedures I. Methods of Review It is very important for the elementary teacher to realize that individualized remedial work should be a continuous process; e.g., it should be distributed throughout the entire school year. According to this view a teacher cannot teach a given topic, say percentage, and then move on to the next topic and forget all about percentage. If the teacher does this she will find that the pupil will also forget about percentage. Percentage, decimals, fractions, etc., once taught must be brought back to the minds of the pupils by means of little tests and exercises scattered throughout the year. What has been said about percentage in the above discussion can be said about the other topics in arithmetic as well. II. Multiplication and Division of Decimal Fractions A. The multiplication of decimal fractions is best approached through the multiplication of common fractions whose denominators are 10 or 100. For example: \( .2 \times 3 = \frac{2}{10} \times 3 = \frac{6}{10} = .6 \). If the pupil works examples of this nature he will soon see that he can write the answer immediately without doing all the intermediate work. Then follow with \( .3 \times 12 \), etc. Let the pupil make the inductive generalizations rather than teach him by rule. After working several examples of the nature suggested above the pupils can easily make the necessary generalizations. Once the pupil has observed (for himself) the short way of working the above problems the multiplication of two or more decimal fractions will cause no difficulty. Emphasize the short way of multiplying by 10 and 100. Approach the idea inductively. B. The division of decimal fractions should be approached inductively by means of a series of examples of the following type: \[ \begin{align*} 2/8 & \quad 20/80 \\ 2/6 & \quad 30/60 \\ 9/18 & \quad 90/180 \end{align*} \] (Multiply both dividend and divisor by 10.) In each of the above pairs, both dividend and divisor have been multiplied by 10 and the quotient has not been changed. Hence, \( .2/9 = 2/90 \). This transition can be made readily by the pupil's being sure that he knows how to multiply by 10 without any extra work. At first the problems can be written in the form: \[ \frac{40}{2/8} = \frac{2/80}{} \] However eventually the method: \[ \frac{40}{2/8.0} \] may be taught. Those examples involving divisors such as .36, 4.26, etc. should be approached inductively just as outlined above for the divisors, such as, .3, .8. Emphasize division by 10 and 100 as this will be a necessary skill in percentage. This may be taught by giving a large number of exercises of the following type: \[ 100/\overline{34.6} \quad 100/\overline{421}. \quad 100/\overline{1362}. \quad 100/\overline{4.29} \text{ etc.} \] The better pupil will soon look for a short way "out" and discover that relationship between divisor and quotient is a very simple one, thereby enabling him to write the quotients immediately. III. Graphs A. Principally the bar, line and pictorial graph are to be taught during the first part of the seventh grade. The circle graph may be introduced in the latter part of the seventh or in the early eighth grade. The students should know that in general the bar graph is used to compare two or more quantities with one another, the line graphs to show trends, and that the circle graph is used to show the relation of the part to the whole. Given any meaningful situation the student should be able to decide which of the three graphs could best be utilized in order to get across the particular point brought out in the original data. The teacher should keep in mind that the main objective in teaching graphs is to teach pupils to read graphs. The graphs found in the daily papers and magazines, materials of the social studies and health should be studied critically for the comparison and the relationships which are presented by the graph. However, the student should construct a number of neat, well-balanced graphs as this will assist in developing meanings as well as give experience in choice of the type of graph to use and artistic arrangement. In teaching graphs it is not enough to say that the graph shows "such and such" but several pertinent questions concerning what the graph does (and does not) show should be asked to see if the pupils really understand what the graph is trying to show. B. Suggested graphs 1. Show by means of a graph the relative lengths of the five largest rivers in the world. 2. Have pupils find approximates to daily average temperature and keep a graph of results. (Correlate with science work.) 3. Variation in food prices 4. Variation in market prices (bonds or livestock) 5. Comparison of size of states, productive capacity, waste lands, etc. 6. Number of books read 7. Height of mountains 8. Average rainfall, etc. 9. Health data, etc. 10. Facts gleaned from the daily papers 11. Facts about coal, corn, oats, farm tractors, etc. 12. Temperature variations, weekly, monthly, and yearly Remember: (1) let the pupil decide what kind of graph would best represent the data; (2) correlate the work with science, health, etc.; (3) also have the pupil find his own data for some of his graphs; (4) discuss in class and make comparisons in every way possible by such questions as (a) What state is twice as large as Iowa? (b) When was the temperature 30°? (c) What does the "steepness" of the line indicate? (d) Why make a line graph instead of a bar graph? Also discuss general appearance, neatness, and the visual appeal, etc., of each graph made by the class. IV. Ways of Comparing Quantities The mathematics of the elementary school provides several ways of making comparisons between quantities. Ratio is only one of the several ways of making comparisons. Below are listed some of the ways of comparing numbers which are taught in the grades below the seventh grade. A. The different ways of comparing quantities taught in the previous grades 1. How much larger, taller, heavier, etc.? (subtraction) Ex. How much taller is John than Mary? 2. How many more? (subtraction) Ex. How many more apples are there in this basket? 3. How many times greater (smaller)? How many times as many, etc.? (division) (multiplication) Ex. John has five times as much money as Mary. 4. What part of? (division) Ex. 6 is what part of 12? B. The methods of comparing quantities to be taught in the seventh grade 1. Percentage Ex. 21% of all accidents happen in the home. See Section V for the discussion of percentage. 2. Ratio It is probably best to teach ratio in connection with graphing. Center the pupils' attention on the idea of comparisons; i.e., if in certain recipes the ratio of sugar to flour is 1 to 6, it means that 6 times as much flour as sugar is required. Recipes furnish many good choices of using the ratio idea. Emphasize the two ways of writing ratio: (a) 2 to 3 and (b) 2/3. Situations for class use: 1. Recipes of all kinds. 2. Mixtures. 3. Have pupils find the ratio of the length of a room to its width. 4. Same as (3) for picture frame, rectangles, square, etc. 5. One pile contains three arithmetic books and one 5 arithmetic books. What is the ratio of their weights, heights, etc.? 6. Science and social science furnish many illustrations of the ratio idea. Town A is twice as large as town B, etc. 7. Draw lines on the board and have pupils find the ratios of their lengths. 8. Name numbers whose ratio is 3/4, 2 to 3, etc. 9. Find cities whose populations are approximately in the ratio of 1 to 2, etc. 10. Find ratios of areas of rectangles. 11. Scale drawings of all kinds (very important). V. Percentage This is a very important topic and its ideas should be well mastered because thinking in terms of percentage is so common in everyday life. Percentage is merely a new name for an old idea. The student should be able to relate the percentage terms with the common fraction and with the decimal fraction; i.e., 6% = 6/100 = .06. Given any one of the three equivalent forms the student should be able to give the other two. And teach it so that they know what it means. Percentage is not difficult unless the teacher makes it difficult. Begin by emphasizing that \[ 6\% = \frac{6}{100} \] In other words that per cent is merely a new name for hundredths. If this idea has been emphasized during the fifth and sixth grades and if the pupil has been taught to multiply and divide by 10 and 100, then the next step will be very simple, in fact, obvious to the pupil. Now \[ 6\% = \frac{6}{100} = .06 \] Work for a considerable time with the very simple cases. The more difficult cases in percentage can be taught somewhat as follows: \[ \frac{1}{4}\% = .25\% = \frac{.25}{100} = .0025 \] \[ 300\% = \frac{300}{100} = 3 \] Percentage should not be taught as three cases. Instead the cases should be taught as slight variations of one general idea. The general idea is that \( 2 \times n = 6 \), then one must divide 6 by 2 in order to find \( n \). This is a fact which the work in multiplication in the third and fourth grade should have taught the children. This can also be generalized by saying that the product can be divided by one of its factors to find the other factor. As an example: In working the problem, Mr. Brown allowed his son Bob $800 for his first year of college. Of this amount Bob had to spend $150 for tuition. What per cent of his allowance did he spend for tuition? This problem should be discussed long enough so that the student sees that the essential question is: "$150 is what % of $800?" Now by easy steps this last statement can be changed to \( 150 = n \times 800 \). Note that this last step is just a short way of writing the essential question. Of course, it has been put into a positive statement and the symbol \( n \) has been used for the unknown "per cent." The solution now is quite similar to that used by the third grade child in solving the problem: "Rabbit A weighs 12 lbs. while rabbit B weighs only 3 lbs. How many times as heavy as B is rabbit A?" The essential question then becomes, "12 is how many times 3," or in brief arithmetical symbols \( 12 = n \times 3 \). In solving such a problem 12 is divided by 3. The same plan is followed in solving \( 150 = n \times 800 \). From previous work the student should know that in order to find \( n \), he must divide 150 by 800. This gives the answer in terms of decimals. The last step is to change the decimal fraction to per cent. The other "hard case" in percentage is of the type: 60% of what number is 42 (commonly known as Case III). This can be abbreviated to .60 × n = 42. Again use the fact that if the product and one of the factors are known, one divides the product by the known factor to find the unknown factor. Therefore, n = 42/.60 = 70. This type of thinking has been used by the child since he was in the third grade. To demonstrate the simplicity of the procedure use a third grade problem like the following: "How many walnuts can Jack give to each of four boys if each is to receive the same number and he has only 20 walnuts?" The essential question becomes: 4 times what number is 20? In arithmetical language this statement is written: 4 × n = 20. Since case II and case III have been illustrated perhaps consideration of case I would be worth while even if it is much simpler than the other two. In case I problems the procedure is to find a per cent of a number; e.g., 6% of 24. This becomes .06 × 24 = n. The following is a third grade problem illustrating the procedures followed in the solution of such problems. "How many cakes are there in 4 packages if each package contains 6 cakes?" Changed to a positive statement this problem is, "How many are 4 times 6?" Changed to a positive statement this becomes 4 times 6 is some number. In arithmetical symbols this statement is written 4 × 6 = n. Note that it makes no difference whether the problem is a Case I, II, or III in percentage. They all fall under this one general idea. VI. Intuitive Geometry In the seventh grade the teacher should place more detailed emphasis on the refined use of the ruler, yard, square foot, etc. Seventh graders should be able to use these instruments intelligently. Seventh graders should also be given considerable practice in estimating lengths, heights, weights, areas, and other standard units found in the outline. The use of the protractor, compass and the meter stick are the only new instruments which are introduced in the seventh grade. In the field of geometry the teacher has an excellent chance to teach her pupils to discover things for themselves. Do not tell the pupil that the diagonals are equal. Ask the pupil if he can discover something that is true about the diagonals. Then have him do the same with squares, parallelograms, etc. Tell as a last resort. Good teaching is not a continuous stream of "telling." Furthermore, the children should be allowed to measure geometric figures in every conceivable situation. Have the class draw to scale the school grounds, construct baseball diamonds, make models of buildings, draw farms to scale, etc. A. Measurement 1. Linear (English and Metric) a. Standard units of measure b. Errors and their causes c. The ability to measure to nearest (a) ft. (m) (b) inch (cm) (c) quarter or eighth of an inch (d) tenth of a cm. d. History of the metric system (a) Reasons for the development of the system (b) Why the system is used by industry and science (c) Arguments for and against adopting the system in the U. S. 2. Angular a. Define an angle as the amount of turning about a point. Have the pupils illustrate by use of rulers, arms, angles found in the room, etc. b. Kinds of angles: acute, right, straight c. Units of measure: degree, min., sec. d. Historical backgrounds for units of angular measure e. Use of the protractor B. General Principles These principles should be taught by a discovery method, the teacher giving hints whenever necessary. To illustrate the method of inductively approaching the facts of geometry (grades 6, 7, 8, and 9), an outline of a possible way of teaching the important relationship $C = \pi D$ is presented below. The question of the relationship of the circumference to the diameter of a circle can be brought up in class through some problem situation. Of course the question might also arise as to whether there is a relationship between the circumference and diameter of a circle and whether this relationship is the same for all circles. This question leads to an investigation, the methods of investigating the relationship to be planned by the class with the help of the teacher. In any case the class and teacher would eventually decide that one way of shedding some light on the problem would be to measure the circumference and diameter of a number of circles. For this purpose pupils may take tape measure, rulers, string, etc., and go about the schoolhouse and school grounds measuring a number of circles (tops of wastepaper baskets, jars, cans, bicycle wheels, spare tires on automobiles, lid to drinking fountain, etc.). These data are brought in and organized in tabular form, in some such manner as follows: | Object Measured | Tire | Wastebasket | Wheel | Tin Can | Etc. | |-----------------|------|-------------|-------|---------|------| | C | | | | | | | D | | | | | | The question now arises as to how to compare the circumferences and the diameters. Comparison might involve subtraction or it might involve finding out how many times larger the circumference is than the diameter. If the latter is the method which seems most promising to the class of producing results, they then carry out the necessary divisions and will then have a third row of figures to add to the table given above. This row will be the ratio C/D. If the class has been careful in making the measurements, each of the numbers C/D will all be somewhat larger than 3. This is readily observed by the pupils. However, the variations will also be observed and the question now is: Does it seem that the ratio C/D is the same for all circles regardless of size? This question will also lead into a discussion of errors in measurement. The class is now ready to consider a method of finding a more reliable number to represent the ratio C/D, and the problem of how to do this is brought up. After some discussion and with the help of the teacher they will eventually arrive at finding the average of all the ratios obtained in their previous work. If the measuring has been done with care and if 10 to 20 ratios have been obtained, the result will be a very close approximation to the value of pi, the ratio of circumference to diameter. Further remarks by the teacher will lead the pupils to accept readily the value 3.14 for the ratio of circumference to diameter. The following general mathematical principles are readily taught by a method very similar to that outlined above for the relationship between the circumference and diameter of the circle. 1. The sum of the angles of a triangle 2. The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral 3. The areas of rectangles, parallelograms, squares, circles, and trapezoids 4. The relationship between the angles formed by parallel lines and a transversal C. Construction with the ruler and compass 1. Right angle 2. Perpendiculars 3. Rectangles, squares, and parallelograms 4. Parallel lines 5. Regular hexagons 6. Equilateral and isosceles triangles 7. Designs D. Terms The pupils should be able to define and illustrate: circle, circumference, cube, degree, diagonal, diameter, equilateral triangle, isosceles triangle, minute, octagon, parallel lines, parallelogram, perpendicular, perpendicular bisector, pi, protractor, congruent triangles, quadrilateral, radius, rectangle, right angle, right triangle, sphere, similar triangle, square, trapezoid. The pupil should be able to illustrate acute triangles, amount of turning, arc, area, cone, obtuse triangle, prism, pyramid. VII. Formulas Understand and be able to use the following: \[ I = prt \] \[ A = bh \] \[ C = \pi d \] \[ A = \frac{bh}{2} \] \[ A = S^2 \] \[ d = rt \] Oftentimes it is difficult for the student to change from verbalism to symbolism. Therefore, it is necessary for the teacher to make sure the students have an understanding of the formula by changing from verbalism to symbolism, by easy steps. Following are some hints. For example, in the case of the formula for finding the area of a rectangle: A. Use the words *length* and *width* rather than \( l \) and \( w \). B. From their discussion and study the students will see that—the area of a rectangle is equal to the length times the width. C. The students will know the symbols for *equal* and *times*. Then substitute these symbols, thus — The area of a rectangle = the length \( \times \) the width. D. Next, so the expression is not so long we write — Area = length \( \times \) width. E. Then, ask how it could possibly be shortened because it still is too long. What letter of your name do you use for your initial? How are the following abbreviated: rural route? free on board? cash on delivery? works progress administration? Now, how would you abbreviate area, length, and width? We get this statement, $A = l \times w$. F. After you have taught the formula, have the students state it in verbalized form. G. Be sure that pupils understand that the formula is a "shorthand way" of writing a complete sentence. VIII. Social Uses The following are topics which are usually discussed in other areas of the elementary curriculum to which mathematics can make a definite contribution. It is suggested that these topics be studied whenever they will correlate with the work in the other areas. Only in this way can this work be made to function as it should. A. Mail service (air, train, etc.) B. Roads C. Health and thrift D. Food values E. Electricity in the home F. Owning an automobile G. Money and banking 1. Simple interest 2. Compound notes 3. Promissory notes 4. Savings accounts 5. Checking H. Buying in quantities I. Profit, loss and margin J. Commission and discount K. Bus, train, and airline time tables L. Sending money 1. Postal money order 2. Telegraph 3. Personal checks 4. Sending cash through mails IX. Historical Materials No fixed time or no full periods are devoted to the history of the ideas of quantity. This material is to be introduced as the occasion arises and as interesting sidelights of the processes and ideas of arithmetic. Some good references are: Wheat. "The Psychology and Teaching of Arithmetic" Smith, D. E. "The Wonderful Wonders of One, Two, Three" Smith, D. E. "Stories of Long, Long Ago" Smith and Ginsburg. "Numbers and Numerals" Parker, Bertha. "The Story of Numbers" Parker, Bertha. "The Story of Measurement" Parker, Bertha. "The Story of the Calendar" The second and last three references are written for the elementary school child. X. The elementary school child should be taught how to estimate answers to problems If the problem involves multiplying 42 by 19 the pupil should be taught to think $42 \times 20 = 840$, therefore $42 \times 19$ should equal about 840. If the problem involved the multiplying of $6\frac{5}{6}$ by 4 the pupil should think $7 \times 4 = 28$, therefore the answer should be about 28. Etc. This type of check is extremely useful in everyday life and also very common. If one buys a number of articles, one for $1.49$, another for $.27$, and another for $2.10$, he is apt to check the clerk's figures mentally by saying $1.50 + .25 + 2.00$ (or $2.10) = \$3.75 (\$3.85)$. Hence if the figure deviates from $3.75$ by more than a few cents the clerk's figures are wrong. Diagnostic Test (Mechanics of Decimals) Addition and Subtraction | Add | Difficulty Introduced | |-----|-----------------------| | 1. 3.8 .03 46.2 | | | 14.2 .46 28.3 | Placing of numbers | | 263.4 1.42 19.4 | | | 21.8 | | 2. $3.42 + 46.4 + 214.63$ $.049 + .98 + .483$ $462.9 + .03 + 384$ 3. Subtract 462 92.14 43.6 36.4 1.82 39 4. $16.1 - 4.9; 34.8 - 14.9; 961.38 - .042$ ### Multiplication 1. \( .4 \times 5 \) 2. \( 36. \times .4 \) 3. \( 38.4 \times 2.4 \) 4. \( 3.6 \times 10 \) | | | | |---|---|---| | 2.1 \times 9 | 482 \times .42 | 3.62 \times 4.1 | | 9.85 \times 5 | 96 \times 4.5 | 4.62 \times .034 | Mixed decimal by integer Product of integer by mixed decimal Mixed decimal by mixed decimal Short cut in multiplication by 10, 100, and 1000 ### Division 1. \( 4/\sqrt{.84} \) 2. \( 36/\sqrt{.0342} \) 3. \( .8/\sqrt{36} \) 4. \( 19/\sqrt{12} \) 5. \( 36.4 \div 10 \) | | | | |---|---|---| | 9/\sqrt{3.86} | 142/\sqrt{1.4936} | .84/\sqrt{362} | | 41/\sqrt{96.42} | 962/\sqrt{.003} | 1.4/\sqrt{14.6} | | 142/\sqrt{26} | 92/\sqrt{8} | 4.34 \div 10 | | 942 \div 100 | | | Decimals and mixed decimals by integers Harder cases Divisor a decimal Integer divided by integer Division by 10, 100, and 1000 as short cut ### Common Fractions to Decimals 1. \( 5/8 = \) 2. \( 36/43 = \) 3. \( 15/29 = \) 4. \( 9\frac{3}{5} = \) | | | | |---|---|---| | 9/13 = | 9/42 = | 36/84 = | | 15/22 = | 18/37 = | 192/235 = | | 18\frac{2}{19} = | 34\frac{21}{34} = | | Answer to two decimal places Answer to nearest tenths Answer to nearest hundredths Mixed numbers to mixed decimal; answer to nearest tenth or hundredth ### Suggested Examination Questions (Decimal Fractions) 1. Which is the largest number: 3.1, 2.99, 3.15, 3.01? 2. Count by tenths from 1 to 2. Count by hundredths from 1.1 to 1.3. 3. 44.4. The first four on the left represents a value which is ________ of the middle four. The middle four represents a value which is ________ of the four on the right. 4. Why are the decimal points in line when decimal fractions are added? 5. By means of diagrams show that .3 plus .6 = .9. 6. Remembering that decimal fractions are only a new way of writing common fractions whose denominators are 10, 100, 1000, etc., write the following as decimal fractions: 5/10; 15/1000; 7/100; 56/100. 7. Write the following as common fractions and reduce to lowest terms: .15; .45; 2.5; .156; .98. 8. Eight-tenths times some number gives 16 as a product. Find the number. 9. By changing to common fractions show why .12 times 4 equals .48. 10. .5 equals how many hundredths? 11. By means of a diagram find how many .3 there are in 4. 12. Draw a line six inches long and place on it the marks corresponding to 1 inch, 2 inches, 3 inches, 4 inches, 5 inches. Label these points. Now place points on the line which correspond to the following numbers: 3.5 inches; 2.75 inches; 4.6 inches; .75 inch. What point is half way between 3.4 and 3.5 inches? What number would correspond to this point? What number is half way between 4.8 and 4.9 inches? 13. 4.5 is how much larger than 3? 4.5 is how many times larger than 3? 14. If an automobile averages 1.24 miles per minute, what would be its average speed in miles per hour? a. How many minutes in an hour? b. If the automobile averaged 2 miles per minute, what would be its average hourly speed? c. If it averaged 1.24 miles per minute, what would be its average hourly speed? 15. What is the short way of stating that: Harry has 33 cents. This is .3 of the money that John has. How much money does John have? (Note: The problem says that .3 of John’s money equals 33 cents or .3 times N = 33.) Now to find what number times .3 will give 33 as an answer, one divided 33 by .3. EIGHTH GRADE Introductory Remarks Social Uses. Approximately one half of the work in the eighth grade deals with topics which are also covered in other areas of the elementary curriculum. For example, the general subjects of insurance and taxation are covered in the social studies. A prevalent practice is to have the arithmetic teacher discuss taxation when it is convenient, and the social studies teacher is guided by the same rule. The result is that taxation in arithmetic becomes a problem unit without the necessary social understandings to make the topic meaningful and significant; and taxation in the social studies avoids almost all quantitative expressions and relationships, thus making the work of this area deal in rather vague generalities, lacking the concreteness and definiteness which are necessary for well defined concepts and understandings. It is strongly recommended that the elementary teacher use her own initiative in seeing that the work in these areas is correlated at least to the extent that they are treated simultaneously or that the work in arithmetic follows shortly after the corresponding unit in the social studies has been completed. Correlating the work in mathematics in this manner will get away from the "problem course" which is bound to lead to considerable artificiality and which tends to cause a lack of interest on the part of the pupil. Mathematics cannot function as it should without occasionally borrowing background material from other areas and the other areas need the language of quantity developed in the mathematics class. Use of Tables. Tables provide an opportunity to teach pupils to observe relationships between quantities. Some of these relationships are of vital importance and can be brought out only by detailed analysis of the table. For example, in life insurance doubling the age of the insured may or may not double the premium, or an increase in the age of the insured means, in general, an increase in the premium paid. The implications of the relationship existing between the amount of the premium and the age of the insured are important to anyone planning an insurance program and should be discussed. In the same way compound and simple interest tables can be used to show how interest and amounts vary as the time and the rate of interest vary. Many other relationships can be brought to light in any class discussion of any given table. Even tables of square root and squares of numbers have value in this respect. The following are some of the tables with which the pupils should be familiar: compound interest, American experience mortality tables, tables of premiums on life insurance, table of squares and square roots of numbers, railway or bus or airplane time tables, tables of simple interest, budget tables as well as other tables usually found in the social sciences and the sciences as offered in the elementary school. Formulas. In this grade several new formulas are presented. See grade seven for limits on presentation. Inventory Test 1. Measure this line to (a) nearest foot, (b) nearest inch, (c) nearest meter, (d) nearest centimeter. (Teacher: Draw a line about four feet long on the board.) 2. Without using letters in the sentence express in words what the following formulas say: (a) $A = bh$ (b) $C = \pi d$ (c) $A = \left(\frac{b + b'}{2}\right)_h$ 3. Make the most appropriate graph of the following data: | Nov. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | |------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| | Temp.| 60° | 71° | 76° | 74° | 50° | 45° | 52° | 58° | 55° | 56° | 73° | 78° | 4. With reference to the graph above answer the following questions: a. Does the graph show that the month of November was a cold month? b. When did the most rapid decrease in noonday temperature occur? c. What was the temperature on the evening of the fourth day? Are you sure? Why? d. Between what dates did the temperature rise? e. How does the graph show increases? 5. Find 60% of 34.4. 6. Dan bought a tennis racket for $3.50, which was 25% below the regular price. Find the regular price. 7. Using your compass and rule draw (a) a square, (b) a parallelogram. 8. Find Mr. Wilson's margin on eggs bought at 28¢ a dozen and sold for 35¢ a dozen. Did he make a profit of 7¢? 9. 3 is what per cent of 10? 10. To the Teacher: Find a suitable graph in the paper, magazine, or in one of the books used in health, social studies, science, etc. Ask several questions bringing out the pertinent facts shown (or not shown) by the graph. This will show whether the pupil can read graphs and whether they read "too much into" a graph. (e.g. See question 4a of this test.) 11. a. What will be the effect upon the area of a triangle if the base is doubled? (Altitude remains constant.) b. Doubling the side of a square changes the area to __________. c. If the diameter of a circle is increased by 1 inch, the circumference is __________ by __________. 12. If you had forgotten the value of pi, how could you find its approximate value? (Assuming no books are available.) **Content and Recommended Procedures** I. Expressing Relationships A. Considerable emphasis should be put upon the different methods of expressing the relationships between quantities which vary; namely, the 1. Verbal statement 2. Table 3. Graph 4. Formula In order to insure understanding the class should discuss advantages and disadvantages of each method of expressing relationships and become familiar with their use in various situations. See grade seven for method of presenting formula. B. The equation is another way of expressing relationship between certain kinds of quantities. If percentage has been taught as suggested by this course of study, the student will already have had an introduction to this method of expressing relationships between quantities, and little need be said to justify a further study of equations of the type 1. \( x + 4 = 6 \) 2. \( 2x = 42 \) 3. \( x/3 = 9 \) 4. \( x - 5 = 1 \) At this time the student should be introduced to the four principles of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division used in solving equations. Since mathematics is the language of quantity, some emphasis should be placed upon translation exercises of the kind: A certain number less 5 is 8. Find the number. Translated in symbols this says \( n - 5 = 8 \). The topic of proportion can also be very conveniently taught in connection with relationships between quantities. Recipes and mixtures of all types furnish excellent material for a study of proportion and the use of equations of the type \( x/2 = 3/4 \). II. Insurance (Follow the textbook.) A. Life Insurance 1. Kinds of policies a. term b. ordinary c. limited life d. endowment 2. American Experience Mortality Tables 3. Terms to be taught: policyholder, insured, beneficiary, policy, premiums, expected lifetime B. Fire Insurance C. Automobile Insurance 1. Kinds of protection obtainable a. property damage b. liability-property c. liability-personal d. fire-hail-wind, etc. e. theft f. collision 2. Terms to be taught: face of policy, premiums D. Other kinds of Insurance 1. Old age 2. Farm crop 3. Bank deposit 4. Health 5. Unemployment 6. Employer's liability 7. Accident III. Taxation (Follow the textbook.) A. Why pay taxes? B. What taxes do we pay? 1. School 2. City 3. County 4. State 5. Federal 6. Income tax 7. Sales 8. Inheritance 9. Licenses 10. Property a. real b. personal 11. Social Security 12. Internal Revenue 13. Customs C. Terms to be taught: tax, assessment, rate, assessed valuation, levy, assessor, assessed value IV. Investments. (Follow the textbook.) A. Way to invest money 1. Savings bank a. Simple interest b. Compound interest 2. Real estate 3. Mortgages 4. Bonds a. U. S. bonds b. Mortgage bonds c. City bonds d. Road bonds 5. Stocks a. Common b. Preferred 6. Annuities 7. Promissory notes 8. Building and Loan Associations B. Factors to consider in making an investment 1. Safety 2. Yield 3. Marketability C. Terms to be taught: simple interest, compound interest, mortgage, foreclosure, corporation, par value, dividend, market value, stock exchange, brokers certificate, brokerage, yield, share, board of directors, stockholder, face value, common and preferred stock, buying on margin V. Measurement If a pupil is given a pair of dividers (compasses), a ruler and a protractor, he can discover many vitally important relationships between the various parts of simple geometric figures. It is important that the pupil discover these relationships himself, or at least assist in their discovery. Relationships discovered for oneself are remembered longer and, from a teaching point of view, the method of discovery has even greater significance. To discover a relationship means that the pupil must measure, draw and study. In other words, he must become familiar with the use of the ruler, protractor and compass. This is very important. There is yet another important feature of the method of discovery. There is no better way to find out whether the pupil has mastered certain elementary concepts and techniques of measurement than to let him demonstrate his ability to discover other relationships. For example, consider the multitude of relationships that can be discovered by the pupil in the figure below. There are numerous equal angles to give some practice in measuring angles. The fact that the diagonals are equal and bisect one another, and the fact that the sides are equal furnish a number of situations for use of the compasses as dividers, and even the construction of the rectangle itself is educationally worth while from the standpoint of use of instruments, manipulative skills with instruments, and geometric facts needed for the construction. In the same way it would be possible to approach the idea that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. Have the pupil construct a number of triangles having two sides equal. Then the problem for the pupil is to find some relationship that is characteristic of triangles having two equal sides. This method of procedure can do much toward vitalizing the teaching. To the pupil who is discovering, mathematics is fun; but to the pupil who is told to remember a series of facts given by a teacher or the book, mathematics is too apt to become drudgery. Above all have the seventh and eighth graders use the techniques taught them in construction of baseball diamonds, finding areas of playgrounds, etc. This can easily be done during school hours and need not take the time away from the playing time of the pupil. Below is an outline of material that lends itself to teaching by the discovery method. A. Direct measurement Be able to experimentally verify and discover each of the following: 1. Parallelograms and rectangles a. Diagonals of a parallelogram or rectangle bisect one another. b. Diagonals of a rectangle are equal. c. Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect the parallelogram. d. A tabulation of all the equal angles of a parallelogram and rectangle. 2. Isosceles and equilateral triangles a. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. b. All the angles of an equilateral triangle are equal. c. The altitudes of equilateral triangles bisect the base. 3. Triangles and quadrilaterals in general a. The sum of the angles of a triangle equals $180^\circ$. b. The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral equals $360^\circ$. 4. A study of regular figures a. Triangles b. Quadrilaterals c. Pentagons d. Hexagons 5. Parallel lines a. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the corresponding angles are equal. b. Two lines perpendicular to the same line are parallel. c. Recognition of parallel lines involved in drawing various geometric figures. 6. Areas (Be sure to develop the idea of a square unit as outlined in grade five.) Furthermore, the foundation idea here is the idea involved in finding the area of a rectangle. See seventh grade outline, page 92. Formulas are to be taught in connection with the work on areas. a. The area of a parallelogram (1) The pupils may cut parallelograms out of paper and then make rectangles out of a number of the parallelograms. This kind of exercise would demonstrate that the area of a parallelogram equals the base times the height. What other figures have the same formula for finding the area? (2) Exercises of the type: The area of a parallelogram is 48 square inches and the base is 12 inches. What is the height? Note how the method of working percentage problems helps in solving this problem. b. The area of a triangle Base the development of this idea upon the previously taught fact that the diagonal of a parallelogram bisects the parallelogram. Paper cutting may help get the idea across. c. The area of a trapezoid Two congruent trapezoids can be so placed that they form a parallelogram. From this fact the formula can be derived. Have the pupils cut out two trapezoids to demonstrate that the desired formula is: \[ A = \frac{1}{2} (b + b') h. \] d. The area of a circle 7. Volumes Develop the idea of a cubic inch (ft.) by having the pupils construct a cube one inch (ft.) on each edge. a. Prisms (1) Rectangular: The formula for the volume can be nicely developed by means of placing a number of cubes one inch on each edge in a box whose dimensions are approximately \(3 \times 4 \times 5\). As in all formulas, stress the fact that the formula is a shorthand way of writing the rule, the volume of a rectangular prism is equal to the length times the width times the height. (2) Triangular b. Pyramid (1) Base a square (2) Base a triangle c. Cylinder 8. Surface a. Prisms b. Cylinder B. Indirect measurement Indirect measurement furnishes abundant opportunities for the intuitive study of similarity and symmetry. Ruler, compass, and protractor are, as in direct measurement, the only instruments needed for this work. Emphasize the use of these instruments for experimental work on the study of the geometry of this section. 1. What characteristics do similar things possess? 2. Similar triangles (outgrowth of B, 1) a. Let the pupils experiment by drawing triangles which "look like" a triangle which the teacher has drawn on the board. Discuss the characteristics that the two triangles must possess in order to "look alike"; i.e., be similar. b. As a special case of similarity discuss the conditions that must prevail in order that the triangles not only "look alike" but are in addition the same size; i.e., congruent triangles. 3. Ratios of corresponding sides of similar triangles are equal. Develop the idea of ratio. (See Seventh Grade outline, page 87.) Start with a triangle having sides of 5 in., 4 in., and 6 in. Have the pupils draw a similar triangle to the above, using as the base line a 3-inch line which corresponds to the base of 6 inches in the triangle. What relationship, if any, exists between the sides of these two triangles? 4. Similar triangles provide another instance in which use can be made of the simple equation, such as \( n/6 = 4/8 \). 5. Use of similar triangles to find the height of trees, buildings, smokestacks, distance across rivers, etc. See Boy Scout and Girl Scout manuals for problems of interest to boys and girls. 6. Triangles are similar if corresponding sides have the same ratio. Most notable use of this idea is in the construction of scale drawings. The construction of scale drawings of rooms, farms, school grounds, etc., is of value. Furthermore, teach the pupils to read maps drawn to scale. In many cases county officials will furnish maps drawn to scale. The ability to read scales on maps, blueprints, etc., should be developed. 7. Study the symmetry of plants, flowers, leaves, designs, etc. Pupils should be able to point out axis of symmetry and show the use of symmetry in making designs. VI. Study of the Right Triangle A. The sum of the two acute angles of a right triangle equals \( 90^\circ \). B. The Pythagorean Theorem Have the pupil draw a right triangle whose sides are 3 inches, 4 inches, and 5 inches. Then have them construct squares on these sides obtaining a figure as shown below. Leading questions will help the pupil to discover that the area of the square on the hypotenuse equals the sum of the areas. of the other two squares. Repeat this for other triangles having sides (1) 6, 8, 10; (2) 5, 12, 13; etc. C. Square root The study of the Pythagorean theorem requires that the pupil get acquainted with a table of square roots. The general technique of using tables and the value obtained from the use of tables are discussed under the heading of Introductory Remarks for the eighth grade outline. D. Use the Pythagorean theorem to 1. Find diagonal of the schoolroom. 2. Find the distance from one corner of the schoolhouse to the opposite corner. 3. Find how the carpenter uses the Pythagorean theorem to check whether he is making a "square" house. 4. Check the "squareness" of the baseball diamond, the tennis courts and the football field. Supplementary Reading Materials for Grades 7 and 8 Below are listed several references written for the elementary school child. Many of these books can be found in juvenile libraries. Others could probably be purchased through library funds. General References 1. Rugg, Man at Work: His Arts and Crafts, pp. 423-446 2. Linnell, Behind the Battlements, pp. 58-60 3. American Council on Education, The Story of Numbers 4. Smith, Number Stories of Long Ago 5. Smith, Wonderful Wonders of One, Two, Three 6. Smith and Ginsburg, Numbers and Numerals Stories About Time 1. Bragdon, Tell Me the Time Please (suitable for third and fourth grades) 2. Flynn-Lund, Tick-Tock—A Story of Time 3. Ilin, What Time Is It? 4. American Council on Education, The Story of Time 5. Rugg, Man at Work: His Arts and Crafts, pp. 483-551; 68-74; 423-446 6. Beauchamp, Discovering Our World, Book I, pp. 156-163; 166-171 The Metric System and Weights and Measures 1. Rugg, Man at Work: His Arts and Crafts, pp. 464-465; 468-472; 72-74; 87; 421-480 2. American Council on Education, The Story of Weights and Measures 3. Schorling-Clark, Mathematics in Life, pp. 17050 The Calendar 1. Rugg, Man at Work: His Arts and Crafts, pp. 532-550 2. Lansing, Man's Long Climb, pp. 50-55 3. American Council on Education, Story of the Calendar SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES WHICH TEND TO CORRELATE ARITHMETIC WITH OTHER SUBJECTS IN OTHER AREAS (Grade Placement Rather Flexible) Some Activities That May Be Carried On in Connection With a Gardening Unit 1. In connection with the study of the method of plant reproduction, or when planning a garden, the discussion may include something about the germination of seeds of the various kinds of plants. Such striking facts as the following will always arouse the curiosity of the pupils: a. The seed of the mulberry must be eaten by birds before it will germinate. b. The seeds of the sweet pea may be placed in boiling water for an hour or more without injuring them; in fact, this practice will make the seeds germinate more quickly. c. Seeds germinate faster in the darkness. d. Exposure to the light of an electric light bulb affects the period required for germination in a good many cases. The pupils will be interested in methods of proving that such statements as given above are correct. For this purpose an experiment will be described below from which pupils of various degrees of ability can derive something educational and worth while which can be carried out over a wide range. Of course, the upper grade pupils would be required to do more extensive experiments and analyze the data more thoroughly than the lower grade pupils. Children living in the country will undoubtedly know that soaking seeds in water hastens germination. However, the effect of light and chemicals on the rate of germination may be new to them and may furnish a very interesting problem for investigation. Select the seed of some garden plant that is slow to germinate, such as lettuce or parsnip. Place the seeds in a solution of household ammonia (one or two drops to a glassful of water) and set in sunlight for a time interval as outlined in the table below. After washing the seeds thoroughly, sow them in the garden recording the date sown. Then watch to see when the first seedlings appear. | Group | Time in Solution | Date of Appearance of First Seedling | Percentage of Germination | |-------|------------------|-------------------------------------|---------------------------| | Control | 0 | | | | Exp. A | 15 min. | | | | Exp. B | 30 min. | | | | Exp. C | 45 min. | | | | Exp. D | 60 min. | | | The class should thoroughly understand the need for a control group in this experiment. In the table above, Exp. A means experimental group A. The percentage of germination is determined by counting the number of seeds sown and the number of seedlings to appear. Members of the class could divide in groups using different concentrations of the solution to see if they could determine the optimum concentration—one group using 2 drops per glass, another 3 drops per glass, etc. The effect of the light from an electric light bulb may be demonstrated by the same method outlined above. 2. An experiment may be conducted to show the effect of both the light and the ammonia solution. Place the seeds in the ammonia solution as before, and after washing them in clear water expose them to the light of an electric light bulb (about 40 watts) for 30 minutes. Vary the length of time during which the seeds are in the ammonia solution, but keep the time of exposure to the light constant, as well as the concentration of the solution. Have the class develop a method of recording data. Determine as before how long it takes for the seedling to appear and the per cent of seeds germinating. (The lower grades would say that 10 out of 50 seeds germinated instead of using the percentage terminology.) 3. Proceed as outlined above but keep the concentration of the solution constant as well as the time in solution, varying the time of exposure to the light. From the above experiments, the pupils should see that one factor is always allowed to vary but that the other two factors are held constant. After having collected the above data, determine the best and quickest way of raising lettuce or parsnip seeds. Did the parsnip seeds react in the same way that the lettuce seeds reacted? 4. Make a scale drawing of the school (or home) garden, showing how far apart the various vegetables should be sown. Write to the agricultural college at Ames, Iowa, or look in the various gardening books or catalogs. 5. Numerous problems will suggest themselves to the teacher, for example: a. If cabbages are to be set 18 inches to 24 inches apart, how many cabbages can be set in a 30-foot row? In a space 20 ft. × 15 ft.? b. Plants used enormous quantities of water. If one pint of water is needed daily for the maturing of a plant, find how many gallons of water are necessary for a garden of 100 plants if they mature in six weeks. **Arithmetic Activities Related to Geography** 1. **Seasonal Variation of the Sun's Altitude** The variation of the altitude of the sun causes the seasons of the year. This is an important fact to remember as it affects the lives of the people inhabiting any given region of the earth's surface. In order to impress this fact upon the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth graders, the following activity may be carried out in connection with their study of the year. Drive a stake in the ground and locate it so that the sun will shine on the stake at high noon. The location should be on fairly level ground so that the ground will make right angles with the stake. When the sun is at the highest point in the sky, measure the length of the shadow. Also measure the angle of elevation as shown in the diagram. The large protractor may be made of plywood or several layers of stiff cardboard. The side of a large paper box would serve very well. (The project of making the protractor is worth while in itself.) Some permanent place for keeping records should be selected, and the method of organizing the data should be discussed as well as the kind of data one would have to collect to show that the altitude of the sun did change as the season changed. A table such as shown below is probably sufficient, although the pupils should be allowed to modify this to suit their needs. | Date | Length of Shadow | Angle of Elevation of the Sun | |------------|------------------|-------------------------------| | September 10 | 2 ft. | 75° | | September 17 | 1 ft. 11 1/2 in. | 73° | | etc. | etc. | etc. | As soon as sufficient data have been accumulated the class can discuss the type of graph to be made in order to give a graphic picture of the data accumulated. This project may be continued throughout the school year, taking reading once or twice a week. In case the stake is not situated on level ground the length of the shadow should be measured as shown below: The teacher should refer to geography and science texts for source materials so that the class can study the relationship between the amount of heat transmitted to the earth's surface and the altitude of the sun. Excellent background materials will also be found in social science texts relating to the living conditions in the different degrees of latitude. This method of studying shadows can easily be carried further so that the pupil is introduced to the study of the similar triangle and ratios. This part of the project would probably be reserved for the seventh and eighth graders. If a yardstick casts a shadow 1 ft. long, then a tree whose shadow is 10 ft. long will be 10 yds. high or 30 ft. high; that is, the following proportion always holds: \[ \frac{\text{Length of stick}}{\text{Length of shadow}} = \frac{\text{Height of tree}}{\text{Length of tree's shadow}} \] Have the pupils determine the height of various trees, buildings, windmills, etc. Discuss whether the triangles need be right triangles. Also find out if the pupils can discover a way to draw similar triangles on paper. What about the angles of similar triangles? The teacher will be able to supply more materials relating to similar triangles, or any seventh or eighth grade text on arithmetic will supply additional materials. 2. Teaching Scales on Maps and Globes The importance of this work cannot be overestimated. The concept of representing distances by scale drawings on maps and globes is vital to any real understanding of many science, economic, and geographic facts. Discuss methods of measuring amount of rotation of objects about a point such as yardsticks, wheels, etc. The pupils will have heard of an engine making "so many" revolutions per minute, or revolutions per second. Then what about a wheel that does not make a complete revolution in one second? The discussion is finally lead around to dividing one revolution (the circle) into 360 parts called degrees. Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called minutes. These units are used to measure angles as well as distance along an arc that is a part of the circumference of a circle. Be sure to have the pupils decide on a definition for angles. The following definition can be used as a guide: An angle represents an amount of turning of a line about a point. (See arithmetic text.) Give considerable practice measuring angles and arcs of circles by means of protractors. The problem to be studied is that of finding the distance between two points on the globe. The points selected should be of interest to the pupils. If they have been studying about London it may be Des Moines and London. If you were going to London by plane, what would be the shortest way? This question leads to the concept of great circles on the earth's surface as being the shortest distance. How could we measure this distance? There are a number of ways of measuring distances on a globe. One method would be to tell the class that the circumference of the earth is about 24,900 miles, to the nearest hundred miles. (What does nearest one hundred miles mean?) Then how would one find how many miles $1^\circ$ on the earth's surface would represent? After doing the necessary division the class, led by the teacher, may decide that they will use $1^\circ$ of arc = 69 miles. But the question still remains: How to find distances in miles on a globe? Stretch a string between London and Des Moines. Be sure the string is taut. Then, taking hold of the string at Des Moines and London, transfer it to the equator, placing one end on the Prime Meridian. The position of the other end will read the number of degrees of the great circle between Des Moines and London. But one degree represents 69 miles. Then the distance between Des Moines and London is $69 \times$ the number of degrees of the great circle between these two cities. Repeat for other points of interest. Navigators (aerial and marine) do not measure distance in terms of miles as we do. They prefer to use nautical miles because 60 nautical miles equal $60^\circ$; 1 nautical mile represents $1^\circ$ of arc. How many statute miles (our miles) equal one nautical mile? How many minutes of arc between Des Moines and London? How many nautical miles? How many statute miles? Why do navigators use nautical miles (6,080 ft.) instead of statute miles (5,280 ft.)? City A has a latitude of $46^\circ$ N., longitude $76^\circ$ W. City B has latitude $20^\circ$ N., longitude $76^\circ$ W. How many nautical miles from city B to city A? How many statute miles? 3. Teaching the Meaning of Great Circles Why is the path of ocean-going vessels represented on most maps by a curved line? On most maps (great circle charts are the exceptions) the great circle path on the globe which is the shortest distance between two points is represented by a curved line. Select two points separated by a considerable distance, such as New York City and Calcutta, India. Lay a yardstick across the map and read the latitude and longitude of several points on the straight line between New York and Calcutta. Plot these points on the globe as accurately as possible. Now stretch a string between New York and Calcutta on the globe. This string represents the great circle route and the shortest distance between the two cities. Does it follow the points plotted from the straight line route? Now select two points on the globe and transfer points of the great circle route to corresponding points on the map. Does the shortest distance transfer to a straight line on the map? Repeat the above for points in the southern hemisphere. On what side of the straight line does the great circle route lie in each case? **How Machines Aid Man in Doing Work** (See *Science and Nature Study, Iowa Elementary Teachers Handbook*, or consult index in your science text.) In almost every science book used in the elementary school the topic of using machines to help do our work is discussed at length. Discussions and grade placement of this topic differ in different series of science texts. However, this need not involve any difficulty in so far as it concerns the use of quantitative language in learning how to use the machines. Below is described an experiment which can be carried out in any elementary school and any rural school. The only equipment needed is the yardstick and some known weights such as 1-pound, 2-pound, 3-pound, 4-pound, and 10-pound, or any other combination of weights. The primary purpose of this work would be to teach youngsters to collect and organize data in such a way that they can arrive at certain generalizations. The emphasis should be placed on the youngster doing the experimental work and arriving at the generalizations. The teacher should help only by means of suggestions and leading questions, if necessary. Have the children balance a 2-pound and 1-pound weight on each side of the fulcrum (balancing point) and note the distance of the 2-pound weight from the fulcrum and the distance of the 1-pound weight from the fulcrum. Have the children change the weights to different positions, each time recording the distance somewhat as follows: | Distance of the 2-pound weight from the fulcrum (first weight) | Distance of the 1-pound weight from the fulcrum (second weight) | |---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------| | 2½ in. | 5 in. | | 6 in. | 12 in. | | etc. | etc. | Altogether the youngsters should have 6 to 10 pairs of numbers in the table which has been started above. The question for class discussion involves the relationship between the two distances given above. For example, what relationship is there between the 2½ inch and the 5 inch distances in the first reading of our experiment? For the lower grades the generalization which you would like to have the pupil arrive at is that in this case the 1-pound weight is twice as far away from the balancing point as is the 2-pound weight. Then the question arises: Is this true of all the other distances? If any pupil has a reading which varies a great deal from this rule it might be well for the class to discuss the reasons for this variation and eventually suggest that maybe the reading should be retaken. For the upper grades the answer to the above question would involve the terminology of ratios. The upper grades would say that the ratios of the distances are 2 to 1. Seventh and eighth graders will be able to make the general statement: Distance of first weight from fulcrum x no. lbs. = distance of second weight from fulcrum x no. lbs., or \[ W_2D_2 = W_1D_1 \] where the little twos and ones mean weights and distances of the 2-pound and 1-pound weights, respectively. The above experiment can be repeated for various combinations of weights, such as 4-pound and 1-pound, 2-pound and 5-pound. In every case the pupil would be asked to find the relationship between the two distances, thus bringing in the idea of the comparison of lengths by means of ratios in both the lower and upper grades. However, note that the terminology used will differ depending upon the grade in which this experiment is performed. Note again the values obtained from an experimental procedure of this kind: 1. The pupil must collect his own data. 2. He must organize the data. 3. He must arrive at a certain generalization if at all possible. The teacher should observe that "How Machines Aid Man in Doing Work" can be integrated with the work in social studies as well as science and mathematics. The effect of the machine age upon an economic and social system is discussed in social studies series written for the elementary schools. **Signs of Fall** A unit on "Signs of Fall" illustrates how readily materials are tied together for the elementary school pupil. Here one finds numerous opportunities for art, science, and language skills and arithmetic to work together in developing educational ideas relating to some firsthand experiences. Work of the nature outlined below should stimulate the pupils to become more observant and to become cognizant of what takes place in the months of September, October, and November. The science work centers around the coloring and falling of the leaves. It also deals with what happens to the animals and birds, how they change their living habits or habitat. Work centering around the change in living habits of people, what people do to prepare for winter, and many other topics readily found in science and social science series should be included in this unit. The resourceful teacher can easily correlate the art and language work with materials dealing with signs of approaching winter. It is our purpose to go into greater detail as to the quantitative aspects of this unit. We suggest, therefore, that the teacher use this material in presenting this unit in order to make more understandable valuable scientific and social concepts. A concept of enormous importance to an adequate understanding of what takes place in the months September, October, and November centers around the variations in temperature. Placing a dime store thermometer outside the window of the schoolroom affords an excellent opportunity for second and third graders to keep records of temperature variations. For example, have the class make a table of daily temperatures taken each hour of the day. Probably from 9 A.M. to 4 P.M. would be the most convenient hours. However, if a member of the class can take the readings at 7 and 8 o'clock in the morning, it would be well to include these readings. Having the data in tabular form, the class can make a graph of temperature variations for the 5 days of the week as illustrated below. Having followed this for 2 or 3 weeks, they should arrive at the generalization that the temperature in general is higher during the hours from 12 to 2 P.M. They would note, for instance, that during sunny days the daily temperature variation is greater than during the cloudy days, and that on some days the temperature may decrease during the day rather than increase. **How Temperature Changes During the Day** *September 12* Discuss the change in temperature shown by the graph and its causes. How much warmer was it at noon on September 12 than it was at noon on September 13? Compare the temperature readings taken at 9 o'clock and 2 o'clock on September 20. The above figure illustrates the variations in daily temperature changes. It is also important to show the seasonal temperature changes. Take the temperature reading of one day of each week for six or eight consecutive weeks. Make a thermometer graph of these readings. For example, the figure below will illustrate a seasonal temperature change. Be sure to discuss the advantages of making a graph (picture) of the temperature changes. **How Temperature Changes During the Fall** *9:00 A.M. Readings* The data for this graph may be taken from the daily readings taken during previous weeks. (Of course the teacher must see that the pupils save both the data and the graphs.) By having some children take the 9 o'clock Monday readings, others the 12 o'clock Monday reading, and others the 2 o'clock Tuesday reading, etc., a number of graphs using different data are available. Have the children compare graphs as to neatness, etc. Also discuss whether each graph tells the story as to seasonal changes. This graph showing weekly temperature changes and the record of the temperatures for its worth may be made by the class. In fact the resourceful teacher will find numerous opportunities to develop quantitative thinking in a work of this nature. Having prepared the graphs as illustrated in the two figures above, the teacher can ask questions about variations in temperature. For example: 1. During last week, on which day did we have the highest temperature? 2. What was the lowest temperature during the week? 3. On what days was there an increase in temperature, and on what days did the temperature decrease? 4. What was the increase in temperature between Monday and Tuesday? 5. What days show the greatest change in temperature? 6. What weeks show the greatest change in temperature? 7. What does the graph show about the temperature when each successive thermometer reads a little higher? 8. What happens when the thermometer reads at 32° F.? 9. What would the thermometer read if we placed it in boiling water? 10. What is the difference in reading between the temperatures of boiling water and freezing water? Etc. It will be readily noted that there are many opportunities in a unit of this kind to give the child an insight into the need for learning to read and write numbers. It will also enable the teacher to bring in some useful problem material involving subtraction and addition. The keeping of neat, readable records is a valuable learning technique which can be developed at this stage. A unit of this kind should not be thought of as an arithmetic unit. The above material outlines the quantitative aspects of a unit of "Signs of Fall." The basic understandings in the areas of social science, art, and languages should be presented along with the quantitative aspects. It will be noted that a procedure for presenting quantitative aspects as outlined above gives a more vivid picture of seasonal and daily variations of temperatures than can possibly be given by any other method. It is not sufficient to tell the youngster that it gets colder in the fall or warmer during the noon hour period, inasmuch as colder and warmer are relative terms. By bringing in graphical and tabular forms, the pupils see just how much variation and what factors affect the variation in temperatures, both seasonal and daily. In order to bring in some work on measurements it is instructive for second and third grade pupils to measure the length of the shadow of a yardstick over the period of a number of weeks. Care should be taken that the stick is always vertical and that the time at which the measurement is taken is constant; that is, taken at the same hour of the day every day. The noon hour is probably the preferable hour for measuring the length of the shadow. Having kept a record of the length of the shadow and having made a graph of the data, the second and third grader gets some quantitative idea as to what happens to the sun during the autumn months. This variation in the length of the shadow can easily be illustrated by using a flashlight to represent the sun and casting a shadow of the yardstick on the floor of the schoolroom. However, this illustration should be given to the youngsters after they have collected the data and discovered what actually happens to the length of the shadow in the autumn. BIBLIOGRAPHY The Preparation of Teachers Morton, R. L., *Teaching Arithmetic in the Elementary School*. Vol. I, *Primary Grades*; Vol. II, *Intermediate Grades*; Vol. III, *Upper Grades*. New York: Silver Burdett Co., 1939. Roantree, William F. and Taylor, Mary S., *An Arithmetic for Teachers*. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1932. Wheat, H. G., *Psychology and Teaching of Arithmetic*. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1937. Wilson, G. M., Stone, M., and Dalrymple, C. O., *Teaching the New Arithmetic*. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1939. Yearbooks in Arithmetic Department of Superintendence. *The Nation at Work on the Public School Curriculum*. Fourth Yearbook, Pp. 173-320. Washington: Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association of the United States, 1926. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. *The Teaching of Arithmetic*. Tenth Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. *Arithmetic in General Education*. Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1941. National Society for the Study of Education, *Report of the Society's Committee on Arithmetic*. Twenty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1930. National Society for the Study of Education, "Work of the Committee of Seven on Grade Placement in Arithmetic." *Child Development and the Curriculum*. Thirty-eighth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, pp. 299-324. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1939. The History of Arithmetic and of Mathematics Sanford, Vera. *A Short History of Mathematics*. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1930. Smith, D. E., *The History of Mathematics*. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1911. Smith, D. E. and Ginsburg, Jekuthiel. *Numbers and Numerals*. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1937. NOTES NOTES
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Barefoot Books Rights Guide Autumn/Winter 2021 Hop aboard! Share stories. Connect families. Inspire children. WATER is Life Take a deep dive into our world’s most precious natural resource. ★ “This intriguing, oversized title combines science and story to explore water in all its forms.” — Kirkus Reviews, starred review A friendly water droplet helps readers absorb fun facts Welcome to the world of water! There’s so much to learn. Gatefolds and booklets overflow with activity ideas and experiments! Topics covered include: - How much of the planet is made of water - Where in the world water is located - Freezing, melting and evaporation - Why animals and plants need water - Salt water versus fresh water environments - Water conservation and keeping water clean ...and so much more! Christy Mihaly has written more than 25 children’s books, mostly nonfiction. She has degrees in policy studies, environmental studies and law and lives with her family in Vermont, USA. Mariona Cabassa is a native of Catalunya who has illustrated over 80 children’s books. Her technique combines water-based paints, pencils and a digital touch to create rich illustrations, bursting with life and movement. Tales from 8 global storytellers are interspersed throughout Learn about professions in the world of water! More Nonfiction Barefoot Books World Atlas Rights Sold: Azerbaijani, Chinese (Complex), Chinese (Simplified), French, Greek Barefoot World Atlas Sticker Book Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) To request a PDF contact email@example.com Protect the EARTH Empower young Planet Protectors with a global exploration of renewable energy. ‘We have so many clever, clean ways to power our world . . . This book reminds us what a sweet planet it is — and that if we’re careful, we can keep it rolling on!’ — Bill McKibben, Environmentalist and Author Planet Power: Explore the World’s Renewable Energy Written by Stacy Clark and illustrated by Annalisa Beghelli AGES 6–10 | Explore six renewable energy technologies that are used around the world! Accessible prose and lush illustrations introduce children to important information about how we can harness the planet’s natural resources including wind, water and sun. Insert boxes define new words like ‘turbine’, while extensive endnotes further explain the science behind each power source and the benefits of clean energy. 40PP; 273x226 MM PICTURE BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Learn how 6 green energy sources are used around the world! - Hydropower in Paraguay - Solar power in India - Wind power in China - Tidal power in the USA - Geothermal energy in Kenya - Wave power in Gibraltar Learn how a turbine works! Extensive endnotes explain the science behind each power source! ‘When the sun shines, rooftops gleam. Solar panels catch sunbeams.’ An environmental geologist, educator and climate journalist, author Stacy Clark enjoys distilling science into lively rhymes for young readers. Working between New York City and Dallas, Texas, she is inspired by the awesome potential of renewable energy to transform the way countries around the world are powered. More Sustainability Titles Home for a Penguin, Home for a Whale Rights Sold: All rights currently available We’re Roaming in the Rainforest Rights Sold: Brazilian Portuguese Kids’ Garden Rights Sold: All rights currently available To request a PDF contact firstname.lastname@example.org Global Christmas Discover how countries and cultures around the world celebrate Christmas! Kate DePalma has written many books for children, including *Let’s Celebrate: Special Days Around the World* and *Children of the World*, which she co-authored with Tessa Strickland. She lives with her family in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. Sophie Fatus has illustrated many beloved Barefoot Books titles, including *Global Kids*, *If You’re Happy and You Know It!* and *My Big Barefoot Book of Wonderful Words*. Sophie lives in Florence, Italy, with her partner and two cats. Engaging and informative for anyone who wants to learn about this tradition! **Joy to the World! Christmas Around the Globe** Written by Kate DePalma and illustrated by Sophie Fatus AGES 4–10 Travel the world at Christmas! Written in a child-friendly style of the festivities, this gorgeous picture book transports readers to 13 different countries and cultures where they can learn about Christmas traditions, including caroling on the beach in Mexico, enjoying Iceland’s Christmas Rock Flood, rise before dawn for Mass in the Philippines and much more. Includes educational notes about the countries, customs and festivities in the book. 40PP 247X 255 MM PICTURE BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Illustrations and interiors from Joy in the World! More Global Products - **Barefoot Books Children of the World** Rights Sold: Azerbaijani, Chinese (Complex), Chinese (Simplified), Romanian - **Let’s Celebrate!** Rights Sold: All rights currently available - **Global Kids** Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) Delightful, Delicious... DUMPLINGS! Young readers will devour this vibrant, contemporary celebration of preparing and sharing food. Learn about dumplings from 10 different cultures! Dumpling Day Written by Meera Sriram and illustrated by Inés de Antúñano Recipes by Pooja Shah & Jai Patel AGES 4-9 | Satire is a rhyming celebration of one of the world’s most universal foods! Readers follow ten diverse families as they cook dumplings inside their homes in preparation for a neighbourhood potluck. Dumplings are added to plates one by one, encouraging children to count with each new addition. Authentic recipes for all the dumplings and a map showing their areas of origin are included in the endnotes. RPP: 367.25 MIN. PICTURE BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available As an Indian American, Meera Sriram has lived almost equal parts of her life in both countries. She is also the author of the critically acclaimed A Gift for Amma. Meera lives in Berkeley, California, with her family of foodies who love to travel. Learn more at MeeraSriram.com. Inés de Antúñano is a Mexican illustrator and graphic designer. Her work is influenced by the beauty of urban chaos as well as arts and crafts. Inés is inspired by her four-year-old son, who helps her rediscover the world around her with all the amazing things he says. Features dumplings from the following areas: India Samosas USA Apple dumplings China Wu-gok Nigeria Fufu Japan Gyoza Israel Bourekas Mexico Tamales Syria Shish barak Russia Pelmeni Italy Ravioli Includes easy, authentic recipes for each of the 10 dumplings! Count from 1 to 10! FOOD & Family Savour a child’s-eye view of the warm traditions of an American immigrant family. ‘Esta casa. This magical home turns a normal Sunday into DOMINGO: the best day of the week.’ Claudia Navarro has illustrated many books for children, including Dance like a Leaf and the critically acclaimed La Frontera for Barefoot Books. She says she hopes to be like the grandmother in this story one day. Claudia lives in Mexico City, Mexico. More Stories about Families A Gift for Amma Rights Sold: All rights currently available Family Reunion Rights Sold: All rights currently available Alexandra Katona has been writing stories since she was young, but Dinner on Domingos is her debut picture book. When she’s not writing, you can find her on an outdoor adventure or cooking for her family. She lives in California, USA. Based on the author’s own family experiences Highlights the common phenomenon of a language barrier between generations Includes the author’s own family recipe for Ecuadorian locro at the end! Dinner on Domingos Written by Alexandra Katona and illustrated by Claudia Navarro AGES 4-8 | Warm memories wash over a first-generation Latinx American girl as she experiences a typical Sunday night dinner at her Abuelita’s house. As Alexandra thinks about all the good times her family has had there, she decides that she wants to be brave enough to speak Spanish with Abuelita so that they can deepen their bond. Based on the author’s own life, this timely tale reflects the experience of many families. 32PP 273x216MM PICTURE BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Our new series of silly split-page board books make learning so much fun! **Red Hat, Pink Boots** Written and illustrated by Nelleke Verhoeff **AGES 0-4** | With this fashion-forward board book, little ones can mix and match tops and bottoms to create giggle-inducing clothing combinations! The split-page format and whimsical creatures make it irresistibly fun for children to learn the names of colours and articles of clothing as they style each new outfit. 24PP 165 x 170 MM MIX-AND-MATCH BOARD BOOK **Rights Sold:** All rights currently available --- **1 Smile, 10 Toes** Written and illustrated by Nelleke Verhoeff **AGES 0-4** | Create silly creatures and count along the way with this unique split-page book. Children can decide which heads fit to a variety of tails and legs to create quirky characters. Each flap presents a new opportunity for counting and learning vocabulary words for body parts! 24PP 165 x 170 MM MIX-AND-MATCH BOARD BOOK **Rights Sold:** All rights currently available --- Nelleke Verhoeff has illustrated several books for Barefoot, including *The Bread Pet* and *Whole Whale*. She was a finalist in the Silent Book Contest at the 2018 Bologna Children’s Book Fair. She lives in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. YOGA Singalong Travel to each continent and do yoga poses inspired by the animals you meet! Yoga Adventure! Written by Jamaica Stevens and JAMaROO Kids Illustrated by Rocío Alejandro AGES 3-7 | Travel to all seven continents and the oceans too, with an energetic yoga adventure set to a fun, simple tune and soothing lyrics! A guidebook will guide children into more than a dozen yoga poses, some mimicking a distinctive animal from each global region, others paired with modes of transport to connect them all. Written by a children’s yoga expert, the playful story concludes with step-by-step instructions for each yoga pose and a world map with a fun fact about each animal. Includes audio and animation. 32P 267x255 MM PICTURE BOOK/ AUDIO/VIDEO Rights Sold: All rights currently available Roll like a chinchilla, stretch like a grey wolf and move like a train! More than a dozen yoga poses! Step-by-step instructions for each pose World map with fun facts about animals! Our singalongs with this icon include a song and video animation! Rocío Alejandro has illustrated many children's books published both in her home country of Argentina and abroad. She has also illustrated the Mindful Tots series for Barefoot Books. After teaching preschool for almost 8 years, Jamaica Stevens founded JAMaROO Kids in 2004, specializing in providing music, dance and yoga classes for young children. Dinosaur Rap Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) / English (non-exclusive), Korean/English Dragon on the Doorstep Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) / English (non-exclusive), Korean/English Driving My Tractor Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) / English (non-exclusive) Dump Truck Disco Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) / English (non-exclusive), Korean/English Walking through the Jungle Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) / English (non-exclusive), Korean We All Go Travelling By Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) / English (non-exclusive), Korean/English To request a PDF contact email@example.com Singalongs for Little Ones New format! Large board books of favourite songs are just right for babies and toddlers! Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes Written by Skye Silver Illustrated by Mariana Ruiz Johnson Sung by Chris Mears AGES 0-3 | Learn top healthy habits for growing bodies and minds with all new verses to this classic movement singalong. Follow a family through a day from home to school in their diverse community as they engage in good hygiene, exercise, reading and more. Includes educational endnotes about each health topic as well as digital audio and animation. 30PP 203x203 MM BOARD BOOK W/ AUDIO & VIDEO 32PP 247x255 MM PICTURE BOOK W/ AUDIO & VIDEO Rights Sold: All rights currently available Covers topics including: - Hygiene - Nutrition - Kindness - Exercise - Reading - Sleep If You’re Happy and You Know It! Written by Anna McQuinn, illustrated by Sophie Fatus and sung by Susan Reed AGES 0-3 | In this large board book version of the traditional song, children from diverse cultures clap their hands, stomp their feet and dance their way through the song. The accompanying digital audio and animation continues the interactive fun! 25PP 203x203 MM BOARD BOOK W/ AUDIO & VIDEO 24PP 247x255 MM PICTURE BOOK W/ AUDIO & VIDEO Rights Sold: All rights currently available Over in the Meadow Illustrated by Jill McDonald and sung by Susan Reed AGES 0-3 | As over in the meadow, baby animals echo their mothers — and you can sing along and listen too! Read and echo you with this large board book! Sing along with the catchy song, then learn more about the animals you’ve met in the notes at the end of the book. Includes links to the digital audio and video versions of the audio. 23PP 220x220 MM BOARD BOOK W/ AUDIO & VIDEO 24PP 247x255 MM PICTURE BOOK W/ AUDIO & VIDEO Rights Sold: All rights currently available More board books for early learning Bear in a Square Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified), Korean One Moose, Twenty Mice Rights Sold: All rights currently available Baby’s First Words Rights Sold: All rights currently available MAKE ROOM! No one likes to be left out! Laugh along with the BIG book that fosters both kindness and mathematics. Whole Whale Written by Karen Yin Illustrated by Nelleke Verhoeff AGES 2 – 6 | One hundred unusual animals try to squeeze into the pages of this rousing rhyming tale. But will there be room for a big, blue whale? The humorous ending features an expansive double foldout page and the final page lists all 100 animals featured in the book. 32 PAGES 203 X 303 MM 4-TEAFOLDS PAPERBACK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Includes a 40-inch-wide double foldout page! What kind of CAT is THAT? Meet the unique cat who defines her own identity and encourages others to do the same. Illustrator Terry Runyan loves animals, particularly cats, and you’ll usually find furry, feathery and fishy friends in her work. She teaches art classes online and enjoys sharing her journey and insights on her popular social media platforms. Terry lives outside of Kansas City, USA. You can find her on Instagram @terryrunyan. “I am a CAT UNLIKE any other CAT. But I’m still a CAT. And a great CAT at that!” Phaea Crede writes silly stories for silly kids. Serious kids, too! Jet the Cat (Is Not a Cat) is her debut picture book. Phaea lives outside Boston, USA, with her husband, two kiddos, and a slightly stinky dog named Gus. Visit her at www.phaacerede.com. Jet the Cat (Is Not a Cat) Written by Phaea Crede and illustrated by Terry Runyan AGES 3 – 7 | Jet is not like any other cat … but when other animals try to convince her that she’s really a bird or a frog or a goat, she learns to embrace her unique identity. This hilarious story teaches us to celebrate our differences. 32 PAGES 272 X 216 MM PICTURE BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Get Out and Play! Our newest activity deck will entice kids to explore nature this spring, summer and beyond! Kids’ Garden 50 Hands-on Activities for All Seasons Written by Whitney Cohen, Life Lab Illustrated by Roberta Arenson AGES 6 – 12: Dig in, explore the garden and have fun with this deck! 50 easy-to-follow activity cards in 5 engaging categories invite children to learn not just the basics of gardening, but also new ways of looking at plants and nature. This edition includes 10 brand-new activities! DECK OF 50 CARDS WITH 1 PAGE ILLUSTRATED LEAFLET BOX SIZE 16X 18X3.51 MM Rights Sold: All rights currently available Bursting with hands-on ideas! Includes a leaflet for learning about garden tools and safety. More Bestselling Activity Decks Mindful Kids Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified), Romanian, Spanish Yoga Pretzels Rights Sold: German, Romanian, Spanish Global Kids Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified) Roberta Arenson is an award-winning artist who has illustrated several titles for Barefoot Books. Using various art media, including painted papers, pastels and watercolours, Roberta employs an array of colours, shapes and patterns to create her dense, vibrant collages. Cool projects! Engaging challenges Discovering Creatures Explore natural habitats Creating Garden Art Make arty-crafty gifts Illustrations from Kids’ Garden To request a PDF contact: firstname.lastname@example.org Whatever the WEATHER Rain, sun, wind or snow, this poetic new series teaches and delights. I Like the Weather Series | Written by Sarah Nelson and illustrated by Rachel Oldfield AGES 3 – 7 | Lyrical, rhyming text and playful, hand-painted illustrations invite young readers to share in the rhythm of the rushing rain, the warmth of the shining sun, the mystery of the whistling wind and the beauty of swirling snow. Each book includes educational STEM endmatter about its respective weather element and how it helps humans and the planet. Rights Sold: All rights currently available I Like the Rain 24 PAGES 200 X 200 MM PICTURE BOOK I Like the Wind 24 PAGES 200 X 200 MM PICTURE BOOK I Like the Sun 24 PAGES 200 X 200 MM PICTURE BOOK I Like the Snow 24 PAGES 200 X 200 MM PICTURE BOOK Sarah Nelson lives with her husband in Minnesota, USA, where she likes walking barefoot in the rain. Sarah is also a teacher and the author of several other books for young children. Learn more about Sarah and her books at www.sarahnelsonbooks.com. Rachel Oldfield lives with her husband and three sons in England where she teaches illustration at the University of Gloucestershire. Rachel has also illustrated Up, Up, Up! and Outdoor Opposites for Barefoot Books. “ I like blinking, blinding, hot, hot sun and sizzling sand – I run and run.” Educational endnotes explain the science of weather! More Stories About Weather Skip through the Seasons Rights Sold: Korean Listen, Listen Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified), Chinese (Traditional), Romanian, Russian Bear In Sunshine Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified), Korean The Youngest Yogis Our new yoga board books are tailor-made for toddlers! More Mind & Body Products Mindful Kids Rights Sold: Chinese (Simplified), Romanian, Spanish Yoga Pretzels Rights Sold: German, Romanian, Spanish Mindful Tots: Animal Antics Rights Sold: All rights available Mindful Tots: Loving Kindness Rights Sold: All rights available Mindful Tots: Rest & Relax Rights Sold: All rights available Mindful Tots: Tummy Ride Rights Sold: All rights available Yoga Tots: Calm Bunny Written by Tessa Strickland and illustrated by Esteli Meza AGES 2 - 4 | Charming illustrations and step-by-step instructions take little ones through a simple yoga routine with bunnies. Simple, descriptive language invites young children to pretend to be a bunny and then a snake, moving their bodies into specific yoga poses inspired by these creatures. 14 PAGES | 165 X 165 MM | BOARD BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Yoga Tots: Strong Puppy Written by Tessa Strickland and illustrated by Esteli Meza AGES 2 - 4 | Learn to bring children through a simple sun salutation. Step-by-step text invites young yogis to pretend to be a puppy, moving their doggie bodies into specific yoga poses. 14 PAGES | 165 X 165 MM | BOARD BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Award-winning illustrator Esteli Meza holds a Master’s Degree in Visual Arts from the National Autonomous University of Mexico and has exhibited her work internationally. She illustrates books for children as well as culture magazines in Mexico. Tessa co-founded Barefoot Books with Nancy Traversy in the early 1990s, and has gone on to create many highly acclaimed children’s books, including the numerous books she has written under her pseudonym, Stella Blackstone. She is also mother to three adult children, a yoga practitioner and a licensed psychotherapist. Tessa now lives and works in Somerset, southwest England. Each book includes a short yoga routine Stand tall • Reach for your toes • Step back • Lift your tail Bark at the sun! • Stand up • Bring your hands to your heart To request a PDF contact: email@example.com A Celebration in Saint Lucia When Melba misses her ride to Carnival, unexpected new friends help save her favourite day. Award-winning author Baptiste Paul grew up in Saint Lucia and now lives in Wisconsin, USA. As he was never able to participate in the Carnival parade when he was young, this book brings one of his childhood dreams to life. Artist Jana Glatt remembers participating in the professional parade of Samba Schools with all of her friends. Whether she is creating costumes for Carnival or illustrations for books, she enjoys experimenting with bright palettes, prints, hats and more. She lives in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. To Carnival! A Celebration in Saint Lucia Written by Baptiste Paul and illustrated by Jana Glatt AGES 4 – 10 | The sights, sounds and tastes of vibrant Saint Lucia come to life in this cumulative tale of a girl’s journey to Carnival. When a series of unexpected delays disrupts her journey to the big parade, Melba must adjust both her expectations and her route to get to the festival. Who will she meet and what will she learn along the way? Includes educational endnotes and a pronunciation guide. 32 PAGES; 272x216 MM PICTURE BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available ‘A must-have picture book that educates while it thoroughly entertains’ – Kirkus Reviews, starred review Educational endnotes teach about the Creole language, Carnival and ways of life in Saint Lucia. More Global Titles Mama Panya’s Pancakes Rights Sold: Brazilian Portuguese Let’s Celebrate! Rights Sold: All rights available My Granny Went to Market Rights Sold: Japanese, Korean Family is EVERYTHING A boy discovers the JOY of connecting with his roots in this story about a Black American family reunion. Family Reunion Written by Chad & Dad Richardson Illustrated by Ashleigh Corrin AGES 4 – 10 | In this contemporary tale, a boy is reluctant to go to his family reunion, which he has never attended before. The playful language and rich illustrations bring readers along for the boy’s emotional journey, as he ultimately finds himself enjoying the large and joyous gathering in spite of his fears. A modern kid’s-eye view depiction of a Black American extended family reunion celebrates the importance of kinship and intergenerational ties. 24 PAGES | 273 X 216 MM PICTURE BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Ashleigh Corrin is the 2020 Ezra Jack Keats award-winning illustrator of Layla’s Happiness, a Kirkus and SLJ star reviewed children’s book. She drew inspiration for her illustrations in Family Reunion from photographs, people she’s met in her life and fond memories of her own family reunions. Ashleigh lives in Virginia, USA with her family. ‘This was a great opportunity to show Black people of all ages living and loving and feeling joy together’. — Ashleigh Corrin, illustrator of Family Reunion A Gift for Amma Rights Sold: All rights currently available ★ “An excellent story . . . to enhance . . . understanding of color and an aspect of traditional Indian culture” — School Library Journal, starred review This race-the-clock tale of perseverance and compassion will have readers on the edge of their seats! • Features an indigenous hero • Includes a glossary of Quechua words • Educational endnotes teach about the Inka Empire Mariana Ruiz Johnson is an award-winning children’s book illustrator. She lives on the outskirts of Buenos Aires, Argentina with her husband and two children. Mariana has also illustrated *The Last Hazelnut* (see page 36) and *Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes* (see page 44) for Barefoot Books. Author Mariana Llanos is a Peruvian-born writer of children’s literature. In 2017, she was selected as the Best Latino Artist by the Hispanic Arts Council of Oklahoma, where she resides. She currently serves as the Inclusion and Diversity Chair for the Oklahoma Chapter of the Society of Children’s Book Writers and Illustrators. **Run, Little Chaski! An Inka Trail Adventure** Written by Mariana Llanos and illustrated by Mariana Ruiz Johnson AGES: 3–7 | In this tale set in the ancient Inka empire, Little Chaski has a big job as the newest royal messenger. He must deliver a message to the emperor before sunset! But things quickly go awry as he comes across creatures in need and must decide between helping them or arriving late. Provides readers with a memorable message about balancing personal responsibility with caring for others. Endnotes include a glossary of Quechua words and information about the Inka Empire, chaskis (messengers) and the Inka Trail. 32 PAGES. 255 X 347 MM. PICTURE BOOK Rights Sold: All rights currently available Illustrations from *Run, Little Chaski* To request a PDF contact firstname.lastname@example.org Bestsellers Mindful Kids Yoga Pretzels Barefoot Books Children of the World Barefoot Books World Atlas I Took the Moon for a Walk A Hole in the Bottom of the Sea Mama Panya’s Pancakes The Gigantic Turnip We All Went on Safari For rights enquiries, contact Helen Kissler email@example.com Share stories. Connect families. Inspire children.
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Plan of the day: Tours 🇫🇷 Bruxelles 🇧🇪 Frankfurt 🇩🇪 Zagreb 🇭🇷 What a florist life 😂🌸 I will be teaching for two days at the Gospodarska school in Čakovec as an invited expert for the Erasmus+ programme 😊 How do you mix colours harmoniously? How we need to choose the colours? It's not enough to use 3 colours in an arrangement. To achieve this, you need: 1. The dominant colour: it will take up most space. The secondary colour is brought in to complement the tonic. It has the same quantities but less intensity. 2. Work is done according to the 8/5/3 rule. Working with asymmetrical arrangements. How do you mix them harmoniously? How we need to choose which colour? It is not enough to use 3 colours in an arrangement. To achieve this, you need to choose which colour: 1. The dominant colour: it occupies the one that takes up most space. 2. The secondary colour complements the dominant one. It is less spacious and intensity, it is more delicate and lighter than the tonic. 3. The tertiary - the color is present in small quantities but is therefore the strongest in intensity. The students of the floristry class have been working hard to create beautiful floral arrangements for the upcoming Mother's Day. They have been learning various techniques and styles, from simple bouquets to more intricate designs. The class has been a great opportunity for them to develop their skills and creativity in the field of floristry. We are excited to see the final results of their hard work! The students of the 1st year of the floristic course have been working on their first practical work: making bouquets and floral compositions. They have been learning how to arrange flowers in vases, baskets, and other containers. The students have also been practicing their skills in creating floral arrangements for different occasions and events. The course is designed to teach students the basics of floristry, including flower care, arrangement techniques, and design principles. The students will continue to develop their skills throughout the year and will be able to apply them in real-world situations. Bouquet 1 The students of the 10th grade have been working on the project "Flowers and their symbolism". They have made bouquets with flowers that symbolize different emotions, such as love, friendship, gratitude, and respect. The students have also learned about the history and cultural significance of different flowers. This project has helped them to develop their creativity, teamwork, and communication skills. The students of the Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Design have been working on creating floral compositions for the upcoming Christmas season. They have been learning about different techniques and materials to create beautiful and unique arrangements. The students have been working hard to perfect their skills and create stunning pieces that will be displayed in the faculty's exhibition. The students of the 1st year of the "Floral Design" specialty, under the guidance of the teacher Ms. Jelena Vuković, have successfully completed their first practical work on creating bouquets and floral arrangements. The students demonstrated their skills in creating beautiful and creative bouquets, which were highly appreciated by the teachers and the entire school community. Congratulations to all the students for their hard work and dedication!
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Playing styles and rallying tactics go together because your playing style dictates how you want to rally. As you learn your playing style, you learn the proper rallying tactics for your style, and when you play against a specific style, you’ll use specific rallying tactics that work against that style. There is no such thing as a pure style. Everybody uses a little bit of several styles, and usually a lot of one. Loopers are called loopers because they loop a lot, but they generally block or hit on occasion as well. Similarly, there are no rules carved in granite on how to play specific styles; everyone plays a little different and has different strengths and weaknesses. However, you can divide most players into some combination of the following: - Loopers - Hitters - Counterdrivers - Blockers - Choppers - Lobbers - Combination racket users - Doubles players—all combinations of the preceding styles, except now there are two different styles to take into account! You also have to take into account the various types of grips and rubbers available. That’s a lot of combinations! Without a lot of thought, there is no way you can make the most of your game. That’s why it is so important to know both your playing style and your opponent’s, and to know what tactics you should use. However, the following guidelines should help in either playing with or playing against a given playing style. If the rule says serve short to a looper, try it! But if your opponent flips winner after winner against it, be flexible: Try something else. Ultimately, it’s up to you to match your strengths against your opponent’s weaknesses so that you end up with 21 points first. While reading this section, look at both sides of the fence. Recognize your own style and how others should play you. Then learn how to combat that with your own personal inventory of shots. **LOOPERS** Loopers come in many varieties. Some like to loop kill the first ball while others will loop 10 in a row to win 1 point. Some run all over the court looping only with the forehand while others cut down on the footwork by backhand looping as well. Some let the ball drop below table level before lifting it in a sweeping but often defensive topspin while others practically take the ball as it bounces on the table. And then there are those who combine looping with some other shot such as chopping or hitting. There are very few set rules for loopers. As a looper, you want to loop as early in the rally as possible; serve with that in mind. Then keep looping until the rally is over or you get an easy kill—which you may loop kill. A loop that lands short is easy to kill or block at a wide angle if it’s taken quickly off the bounce. Therefore, a looper should loop deep unless the opponent is too slow to react quickly to a short one. Most players are weaker blocking on one side, often the forehand, and most loops should go to that side. Try to get into rallies that let you loop over and over with your forehand into the opponent’s weaker blocking side. An alternate strategy is to loop over and over into the stronger side, then looping an easy winner through the weak side. This will work if the stronger blocking side is more consistent than fast, giving you the opportunity to keep looping. A favorite strategy of loopers is to loop over and over with the forehand from the backhand corner, usually into the opponent’s deep backhand court. When an opening appears, loop kill to either side or the middle. Don’t always loop to the corners. Many players are weak blocking from the middle due to indecision as to whether to use the forehand or backhand. But others are strong there, and weak covering the wide corners. Find out the weakness and go there. Note that if you loop to a corner, the opponent can block back at a wide angle. By going to the middle, you take away the extreme angles. It does give your opponent an angle down both sides, but if you keep your loop deep, your opponent won’t be able to get a good angle, and you’ll probably be able to keep looping forehands. Another thing to take into account is variation. Most players will get into a rhythm against your loop if you always do it the same. Loop at all speeds—fast, medium, and slow. A slow loop is surprisingly hard to block effectively—in fact, it’s usually either attacked hard or returned very poorly. Loopers have three basic weaknesses: - They can’t loop a ball that doesn’t bounce past the endline on the first bounce. - They must take longer strokes that slow them down somewhat. - Because they use some power to put spin on the ball, some shots lose speed. What if you’re playing against a looper? The most obvious way to beat one is to not let him or her loop. Serve short and push chop-serves back short, and what is a looper to do? A smart one will flip the ball and try to loop the next one, but if you serve and push low (and short), the flip will be soft and you’ll be able to attack it. Of course, if the looper does flip or serve topspin, take advantage of Weakness #2: the longer stroke. Flip the topspin serve aggressively or attack the flip quickly to force your opponent back from the table to have time to loop, taking away much of the loop’s effectiveness. And once the looper is away from the table, he’ll have difficulty looping winners—not only do you have more time to react to the shot, but Weakness #3 comes in: Speed is sacrificed for spin. You can plain outlast the looper who can’t get the ball past you, as long as you can handle the topspin. Of course, some loopers look like they just got out of a powerlifting meet and if they lose power to spin, it’s not noticeable. Against these Herculean players you must be careful not to give an easy shot. Let them loop 100-mile-per-hour zingers. If they don’t hit, you win! If they do, well, work on making stronger shots yourself so they can’t keep on zipping in shots. You might also use their own speed against them. If you block a fast loop, it’ll probably go back so fast your opponent won’t be able to react to it! A one-sided looper rushes all over the court trying to use a forehand. Don’t make the mistake of going to the backhand over and over. A looper’s strongest loop is often the forehand from the backhand corner. Instead, go to the wide forehand first, then come back to the backhand. Your opponent will probably have to return the second shot with a weaker backhand. Attack it. If the looper seems a little slow, go wide to the backhand, which forces either a weaker backhand or a step around. Then a quick block to the looper’s wide forehand will often win the point or set you up to end it. Even if it doesn’t, a quick return to the wide backhand will make your opponent use a backhand. A two-sided looper stands in the middle of the table and loops both backhands and forehands. The key here is to find the opponent’s weaker side and play to it, usually the backhand. (Or, of course, just don’t let him or her loop!) Move your opponent in and out—backhand loopers are especially vulnerable to that movement. A hard block followed by a soft one is usually more effective than two hard ones in a row because it breaks the looper’s rhythm. Also, note that most two-sided loopers are relatively weak in the middle against a hard block. Unlike a forehand looper, a two-sided looper has to decide which side to loop with. Remember that a two-sided looper’s middle is wherever his or her playing elbow is. A consistent looper just keeps looping until you miss or return an easy shot. Loopers usually loop from both sides, but not always. You must move a looper around as much as possible, both side to side and in and out. Although you hope a looper will miss, don’t count on it. Usually you’ll have to earn the point by attacking a weak loop or ending the point before your opponent loops. Force a looper off the table with your own aggressive attack, whether it be blocking, hitting, or your own looping. If you see a winner, go for it. If not, keep moving your opponent, attacking whenever you can. But watch out for spin. If you make too many mistakes against it, you’ll lose. This is true against all loopers. **General Tactics** **For loopers:** - Loop as early in the rally as possible. - Keep loops deep. - Loop to wide corners and opponent’s middle. - Vary speed, spin, and placement of loops. **Against loopers:** - Keep serves and pushes short. - Attack first. - Hit shots quick off the bounce. - Move opponent in and out. **HITTERS** In general, there are three types of hitters. There are pure forehand hitters, often pips-out penholders. There are two-sided hitters, hitting winners from both sides. And there are hitters who loop to set up their smash. There are two common tactical mistakes hitters tend to make. Some are too tentative and don’t let themselves go for the shot. Hitters must be somewhat reckless, or they’ll find themselves constantly trying to decide what to smash. There’s no time for that! All hitters must accept the fact that sometimes you must go for a dumbshot to make sure you don’t miss an opportunity to smash. But, surprisingly, many of these “dumb” shots actually go in! The other common mistake is just the opposite—trying to hit too much. A hitter should hit right from the start of the rally, and also use some judgment. Rather than hit the first ball for a winner every time, why not hit an aggressive drive first and smash the next ball, which might be easier? A hitter wins by quickness and speed. Accordingly, hitters should stay close to the table, take the ball quickly off the bounce, and hit the ball as fast as they can consistently do so. A hitter should find out which side an opponent is weaker on and go to that side over and over, always looking for a ball to put away. Hitters should go to the strong side only when they can make a strong shot or when the opponent is out of position. A hitter who mostly likes to hit with one side will have to be especially reckless. The longer the rally goes on, the more opportunities for shots to be made from the weaker side and the more likely there will be a mistake. Go for the shot! Two-sided hitters can be more picky and play longer rallies because they are a threat to hit from both sides. Although two-sided hitters should end the point as quickly as possible, they’re under less pressure to do so. Two-sided hitters can hit strong drives (instead of smashing) knowing that there is no worry about a return to a weaker side—there isn’t any. Hitters with a good loop have a tremendous advantage if they are able to get both shots going. They should loop the ball as deep and spinny as they can, but not too fast. A slower, spinnier loop will set up the smash more while a faster one usually is blocked back faster, giving you little time to get into position to smash. A hitter is probably the most mentally demanding style to play against. No matter what you do, it seems hitters are able to hit winners. Yet keep in mind that a hitter’s shots often miss. Don’t be intimidated—it’s the quickest way to lose, and hitters thrive on it. Hitters simply cannot win if they don’t get enough good balls to hit. It’s up to you to deprive them of that. All-out forehand hitters have few shots to set up their smash. But they make up for it in the simplicity of their game. They’ve often grooved their one winning shot so much that no one thing you can do compares to it. The key to beating a hitter is versatility. Hitters can only beat you one way; you can beat them a dozen ways. Find the way that works. You might force them to go backhand to backhand with you, or loop everything, or just mix up the spins. You can keep changing until you find something that works; the hitter can’t. Take advantage of it. If a hitter gets into a groove, the game’s over. After all, the hitter has mastered the most powerful shot in the game; if you can’t stop it, you’re going to lose. Keep the hitter out of the groove by constantly changing your shots, making your opponent hit different types of balls over and over. A smash has a much smaller margin for error than just about any other shot. Keep that in mind at all times. A hitter might hit five winners in a row and then miss five in a row, so never give up. Hitters like to start off the point with a quick serve and smash. They’ll often serve fast and deep, trying to catch you off guard with an easy winner. Be ready for it. Attack the serve and hitters will get very uncomfortable. Often they’ll still smash, but as long as they must go for risky smashes, you’re in control. Watch to see if they step around the backhand corner too much. If so, return the fast serve wide to the forehand with a quick drive or block. You can also throw hitters off by moving them around. Like loopers, they’re often strongest hitting forehands out of the backhand corner. In general, you should either try to pin them upon the backhand or you should go side to side, making them hit as many backhands and moving forehands as possible. Because they stand so close to the table, hitters often cannot react to a quick block to the wide forehand after stepping around. Of course, the problem here is that the forehand shot from the backhand corner may already have been a winner, or at least strong enough to keep you from making a good return! (And if they do get to that wide forehand ball—watch out!) Since hitters want to hit everything, if you attack first (especially with loops), they are forced to either go for low percentage hitting, or to abandon their game. The best defense is often a good offense. Two-sided hitters can hit from both sides, so moving them around pays off less. However, like two-sided loopers, they’re often weak in the middle where they must decide which side to hit with. But only go there aggressively. A weak shot to the middle gives a hitter an easy winner. Find a two-sided hitter’s weaker side and go there until you find an opening to the other side. Combat the hitter’s speed with your own drives, and try to be more consistent than your opponent. Play to the hitter’s weaker hitting side. Since two-sided hitters are trying to hit from both sides, they often are erratic because they don’t have time to set up their shots on both sides. They often hit hard but cannot all-out smash until an easy ball comes, because they’re trying to do so much on both sides. Also, most two-sided hitters are slower on their feet; they don’t need to step around often. Try to take advantage of this whenever they move out of position. Two-sided hitters are often weak against backspin because they usually specialize in hitting topspin. Looper/hitters use the loop to set up the smash. Usually they’ll loop backspin and smash topspin. Because they only need to smash against one type of spin, their smashes are often more consistent. And unlike an all-out hitter, they have a loop to set up the smash. The basic weakness of looper/hitters is that they’re trying to do too many aggressive shots. It’s very hard to learn to both hit and loop well, and even harder to get both in a groove at the same time. Looping is basically a lifting shot while hitting is a forward shot, and trying to perfect both modes at the same time can create havoc with your timing. This leads to many missed shots. Only the fact that they smash one type of ball (topspin) saves them. Most looper/hitters loop softly and then smash. Attack the soft loop. If you just block it passively, you’re playing right into their game. From the hitter’s point of view, a slow loop has more spin than the fast loop and forces more setups, while giving more time to get into position for the smash. Make hitters loop more aggressively by attacking the slow loop. They’ll have less time to react to the next shot, they’ll make more mistakes on the loop, and they’ll have to concentrate more on the loop and less on the smash, leading to more missed smashes. There’s nothing looper/hitters hate more than someone who can attack their loops. **General Tactics** **For hitters:** - Find balance between recklessness and tentativeness. - Try to get a smash into a groove. - Stay close to table and hit shots quick off the bounce. - End points quickly. **Against hitters:** - Don’t be intimidated by smashes or recklessness. - Play high percentage shots. - Attack first. - Vary shots. - Attack weaker side. **COUNTERDRIVERS** Counterdrivers like to stand in the middle of the table and just stroke back whatever you hit to them. They usually take everything at the top of the bounce and smash given the first opportunity, especially on the forehand side. They seemingly can counter your best shots and go on doing so all day. It’s a simple game, with placement, consistency, and speed of drives the most important elements. To be a counterdriver your basic strategy is to drive balls mostly to your opponent’s weaker side. If the backhand is weak, your basic goal is to keep the opponent from stepping around and using a forehand. If the weaker side is the forehand, hit hard enough to it so your opponent cannot smash the return. If the opponent tees off on your shots, you have to pick up speed. If you start missing, slow down. And always be on the lookout for balls to smash. The weakness of a counterdriver’s shots is that they are neither quick, fast, or spiny. Just as counterdrivers can drive back whatever you throw at them, you should be able to do the same. It usually comes down to whether your attack is more consistent than the counterdrive. To play against a counterdriver, concentrate your attack at the weaker side and to the middle. Most counterdrivers are very strong from the corners, although they are often weaker or softer on one side. Take your time attacking. Pick your shots, and make sure that the winners that you go for are just that. It takes sharp judgment, but you must avoid going for the wrong winners, a temptation when playing counterdrivers. Remember—if they can’t put the ball past you, you’re under no pressure to force the attack. On the other hand, don’t take too long. Counterdrivers will be more consistent than you at their own game, and if you rally too long, you risk too many careless mistakes. However, you might counter just until you see a chance to smash, either forehand or backhand. Another way to play the counterdriver is to end the point before the chance to counterdrive. The key here is good serves and a good attack. Against aggressive players, it is dangerous to overanticipate a third-ball kill when serving—a good receive catches you off guard and the receiver ends the point instead. But because a counterdriver is usually less of a threat on the attack, you can play a flexible all-out attack. Look to put the first ball away, but if the shot isn’t there, fall back on rallying and looking for a better shot. **General Tactics** *For counterdrivers:* - Be consistent. - Counter mostly to opponent’s weaker side. - Build up a countering rhythm. - Force countering rallies early. *Against counterdrivers:* - Be patient and pick shots. - Attack middle and weaker side. - Don’t try to beat counterdrivers at their own game. - Use topspin and backspin to break up rhythm. **BLOCKERS** Blockers are similar to counterdrivers except that they contact the ball right after it hits the table. They tend to be as consistent as a counterdriver but are constantly putting pressure on you by rushing you. This means that they can even go to your stronger side knowing that you won’t have time to go for a strong shot. A blocker can either block every ball quickly to the opponent’s weaker side, exploiting it to the fullest, or block side to side, making the opponent move about and hit on the run. A blocker has to be ready to smash when a weak ball comes, or all an opponent has to do is keep the ball in play. Blockers have to anticipate weak returns so as to have time to smash, or even designate one side (usually the forehand) as the side to smash whenever possible. Many players combine a backhand blocking/forehand smashing game. A quick backhand block will often set up the forehand smash. The weakness of blockers is their own quickness. To take the ball so quickly they must stand right at the table. They have little time to decide what shot to use, and so even if you make a weak shot, they’ll often just block it. This is why a blocker needs to anticipate weak balls to be ready to kill them. Blockers will also make a lot of mistakes by their own attempts to be quick. Some blockers are very strong in the middle but weak to the corners, where they have to move their racket farther. Others are the reverse, being weak in the middle because they have to decide which side to block with. Find out early in a match which type you’re playing. There are basically two types of blockers: aggressive ones and consistent ones. Aggressive ones want to block the ball hard and quick, forcing you away from the table and into mistakes. If they succeed in forcing you away from the table, they have extra time to watch your incoming shot and so they become quicker. Worse, it gives them time to go for more smashes. What you want to do against aggressive blockers is attack so aggressively that they make mistakes trying to block aggressively or are forced to slow down their blocks so that they can keep their own shots on the table. Once they’ve slowed down their blocks you have time to really go on the attack. A consistent blocker tries to keep the ball in play until you make a mistake. He or she can be like a brick wall, getting everything back until you almost drop from exhaustion. His or her shots are usually passive, but they’re quick enough to prevent you from teeing off on them. And when you do, they often keep coming back! Consistent blockers’ weakness is their own passiveness. They put so much effort into getting everything back that they can’t do much else. You can slow down your own shots, giving yourself more time to set up for the next shot. Take your time, look for the right shot, and then end the point fast at their weakest point. Don’t make the mistake of letting a consistent blocker get into a rhythm. Don’t always attack at the same pace. Surprisingly, a blocker usually has more trouble blocking slow, spinny loops than faster ones. The spin on a slow loop grabs the racket more and jumps out more. The blocker will often pop them up or miss them outright. The slowness of your own shot makes his shot slower, and the slowness of both shots gives you more time to get into position for your own more aggressive strokes. A fast loop just comes back faster and should be used with discretion until you can put it past your opponent. Many blockers like to push to your wide backhand over and over, waiting for you to step around with your forehand. Then they give you a quick block to the wide forehand. (It’s almost a style by itself, sort of a pusher/blocker style.) You have five ways of combatting this. First, you can attack with your backhand, and never go out of position at all. A backhand loop is ideal for this. Second, you can loop the push itself for a winner. You have to judge whether you can do this consistently enough. Third, you can be quick enough to get to that block to your wide forehand. Fourth, if the blocker has a passive forehand, you can push to his forehand to take away the angle into your backhand, and attack his return. Or fifth, you can use your forehand but loop slow and deep. The very slowness of your shot gives you time to get back into position, and the depth keeps the blocker from contacting it too soon. **General Tactics** **For blockers:** - Hit shots quick off the bounce. - Block to the weaker side. - Always be ready to smash. - Vary pace and placement. **Against blockers:** - Attack all parts of the table. - Be patient and pick shots—not too aggressive. - Use slow, spinnny loops. - Keep ball deep. **CHOPPERS** Choppers are defensive players who win mostly on your mistakes. They go 15 feet or so away from the table and return each of your aggressive topspin shots with backspin, making it difficult to attack effectively. A chopper doesn’t simply get the ball back. Chopping is probably the most tactical of games because to win a point, choppers must fool their opponents into making a mistake in some way. This can be done by outlasting them, by heavy spin, by spin variation, by pick hitting, or by keeping every ball low until they get frustrated and go for reckless shots. If you’re a chopper, you have to decide which of the above tactics will work best against whoever you’re playing. If the player is mistake-prone or not very powerful, concentrate on keeping the ball in play until he misses. Change the spins only when you see an easy chance to. If an attacker has trouble with heavy chop, give it to him. If an attacker has trouble reading spin, change the spin over and over, even if it means popping up a few balls. (If an attacker has no trouble hitting them, he or she’s then reading the spin and you should change strategies.) As a chopper, you should put pressure on your opponent by attacking whenever possible. Because you pick which shots you’ll attack (called “pick hitting”) instead of attacking over and over like an attacker you should make the most of them. Go for immediate winners when you do attack—if you were as effective attacking for several shots in a row you’d be an attacker, not a chopper. It’s the surprise of a chopper’s attack that makes it effective; after one or two shots, the surprise wears off. Some players are emotionally incapable of playing a steady chopper. Even if they have the shots to win, a chopper can beat them by playing on their impatience. The chopper keeps the ball as low as possible and watches them swat shots all over the court! A chopper should be aware of the expedite rule. (See explanation in Step 10.) Some players will push with a chopper for 15 minutes and then win in the end. To end a game before the 15-minute time limit you might have to take the attack. Once in the expedite rule, of course, you have to attack whenever you serve. Keep in mind that you don’t have to rush the attack, even in expedite. Very few rallies actually go 13 shots, so pick your shots carefully. It’s better to hit a winner on the 10th shot than miss the 1st shot. The natural weakness of choppers is that they must rely on your mistakes. They can pick hit when they see the chance, but basically they must score most of their points on your misreading their spin or just making a careless mistake. In theory, you should be able to dominate against a chopper—after all, if you can’t attack a given ball, you can push it and attack the next one instead. Any time you’re not sure of the spin you can do this. So how does a chopper win? From an attacker’s point of view, an attacker is in control of the rallies when they attack. But from the chopper’s point of view, the chopper is in control. Against a low chop or push, an attacker can only attack so hard and still be consistent. If the chopper can chop that shot back effectively, he or she’s in control. Of course, the attacker could just push. But choppers are usually better at pushing and can do so forever. They can also catch the attacker off guard by attacking when they see the chance; the attacker can’t do the same because the chopper is expecting it. In general, if a chopper can return your best drives without giving you a high ball, you’re going to lose. But there are ways to make your drives more effective. A common misconception about playing choppers is that you have to overpower them. Nothing could be further from the truth. If you can beat choppers on pure power, then you would beat them by even more points if you choose your shots more carefully. After a chopper has made one return of a strong drive, he or she’ll probably return the same drive over and over again. Choppers can adjust to just about anything if they see it enough. What does give them trouble is change. Changing the spin, speed, direction, depth, or even the arc of the ball can create havoc to their timing and lead to misses and high returns. Choppers are strongest at the corners unless you can force them out of position and ace them to a wide angle. They’re weakest in the middle, where they must decide whether to chop with the forehand or the backhand and then get into position for a proper stroke. When playing a chopper, constantly change depth and direction. Loop (or hit) one deep, then go short and spiny. Draw a chopper in close to the table and then attack hard before he or she can react to it. Force a chopper away from the table and then drop shot the ball, followed by another hard attack. Have patience, but when the shot is there, take it. If you have trouble reading the spin, push one or attack it soft. Don’t attack to the corners too much—concentrate on the chopper’s weaker middle. Put as much pressure on a chopper as you can in order to elicit mistakes. Often the mistakes aren’t obvious. An outright miss or a high ball are obvious mistakes, but a chopper might also chop too short. A chop that lands midway between the net and the endline is usually easy to loop kill or smash (for a hitter) even if it’s low. Take advantage of all mistakes, limit yours, and you’ll probably win. Another way to play choppers is to push with them very patiently, looking for a good ball to attack. Push 10 balls, then wham! They won’t know when you’re going to attack and might get stuck too close to the table to return your shot. You can even push until the expedite rule takes effect and then you’ll have an advantage, because an aggressive player can win the point quickly under expedite better than most choppers can. One common mistake against choppers is to go for too many drop shots (as opposed to regular pushes). A drop shot is an excellent way to win a point if you can catch your opponent too far from the table, but it’s risky. There are three reasons for this. First, a drop shot is a very delicate shot and is easy to miss. Second, it’s easy to pop a drop shot up, giving the chopper an easy ball to pick hit. Third, it’s difficult to do a good drop shot against a deep chop; if the ball lands any shorter it should be easy to attack and so you wouldn’t want to drop shot. (Unless, of course, it lands so short that it would bounce twice.) Another mistake is to drop shot when you aren’t sure of the spin. The worst thing you can do when you don’t read the spin is to drop shot because you’ll invariably either put the ball in the net or pop it up. Choppers are notoriously good at swatting in high drop shots, even on the run. If you aren’t sure of the spin, just use a normal push or attack softly. If you are sure of the spin, and the chopper is far from the table, then by all means drop shot. **General Tactics** **For choppers:** - Be patient and confident. - Vary degree of backspin. - Always be ready to attack, especially on serve. - End points quickly when attacking. - Take every shot seriously, even pushes. **Against choppers:** - Attack middle. - Move in and out. - Be patient. - Vary all shots. - Don’t overdo drop shots. **LOBBERS** Most players use the lob only as a variation or desperation shot. But some players use it over and over, and if they find you have trouble with it, they’ll use it even more. Lobbers have to be strong on both sides or their opponent will simply smash to the weak side. Most lobbers are stronger on the forehand side; they can counterattack easier on that side, so it’s a good idea when lobbing to lob to the hitter’s forehand side, tempting your opponent into smashing the easy way, crosscourt to your forehand. But if your opponent is smart, he or she won’t fall for it, and you’ll mostly lob with your backhand (which might be what you want, if that’s your stronger lobbing side). The most important thing to remember when lobbing is depth. As long as your lob goes deep, you’re still in the point. A short lob can be smashed at such a wide angle that there’s nothing you can do to get it back. When lobbing, don’t just throw the ball in the air. Try to put topspin and sidespin on the ball to force mistakes. Vary the height of the lob—sometimes lob high, other times lower. Short players especially will have trouble with high lobs. A lobber should always be on the lookout for a chance to get back into the point. Countersmash every chance you can. If the smash is weak, you might even chop it back. There are two ways to hit a lob. A smother kill is most effective if it hits, least effective if it misses. You have to judge for yourself. Some players smother kill all lobs, others never do it. A good balance is to smother kill only against lobs that land short, near the net, close to your target. Regardless of how you hit the lob you should follow one fundamental rule when playing lobbers: Smash mostly to the backhand. (Of course, there’s an exception to this rule out there somewhere and you’ll no doubt encounter it in your next match.) The forehand lob is usually spinnier, and it’s far easier to counterattack with the forehand than the backhand. So just smash to the backhand over and over until you force either a miss or a weak return. When the weak ball comes (one that is short or less spinnny) go to the forehand only if you can smash an ace or at least force a leaping return. Why take chances? When in doubt, keep going to the backhand. If your opponent isn’t a great threat to countersmash, go for the middle. Many lobbers have trouble lobbing from that spot. When the ball lands short, end the point. You can angle the ball to either side. Unless your opponent can anticipate (or guess) which side you’re going to, you should be able to put it past him. Don’t decide which side to go to until your opponent has committed to one side. If there’s no commitment, then both wings should be open. (And with both sides being equal, you should go to the backhand, just in case.) Often you’ll be faced with a relatively easy lob to smash. Make sure to use good form; shots like this are often far trickier than they look. You should rarely drop shot against the lob. If the ball is deep, an effective drop shot is nearly impossible, and if the ball is short you should be able to put it away. A drop shot against a lobber usually just lets your opponent back into the point. One exception to this rule is when your opponent has gotten into such a rhythm that you cannot smash past your opponent in the rally. A drop shot might be effective just to throw off your opponent’s timing, but don’t do it too often. **General Tactics** **For lobbers:** - Keep ball deep and spinnny. - Lob to spot diagonally opposite stronger lobbing side. - Look for balls to counterattack. - Avoid lobbing except when forced. **Against lobbers:** - Smash mostly to backhand side unless ready to end point on one shot. - Consider smashing at the middle. - Against a good lobber, smother kill short lobs. - Use good form no matter how easy a shot looks. - Rarely drop shot. **COMBINATION RACKET USERS** One of the first problems you’ll face when you begin playing in USTTA-sanctioned tournaments is “junk rubber.” The two types of rubber usually classed as junk are long pips and antispin. Hard rubber and short pips-out sponge are also considered junk by some players. Basically, since most players use inverted sponge, anything else is different and therefore junk. Junk rubber is called such by many players not because it is of lesser quality, but because the racket’s characteristics are very different from most types you will face. They can be difficult to play against unless you regularly play opponents who use the stuff. However, it must be noted that as hard as it can be to play well against them, it’s equally hard to learn to use them effectively. Before the different color rule came into effect in the early 1980s, many players used different surfaces on each side of the racket, and by flipping the racket, they could make it difficult for opponents to tell which side they were hitting with. This led to many unforced errors (due to the different playing characteristics of the different surfaces) and many cries of “foul,” with some justification. But the color rule made it illegal to have both surfaces the same color. Now you always know what surface is being used, by seeing the different colors, so there’s no excuse for making mistakes against the so-called junk rubbers. At the start of the match, find out what color each surface is. It’s just a matter of learning to play each type. If you lose to a player because you can’t handle long pips, it’s just as much a loss as if you lost to someone because you couldn’t handle the loop. **Antispin and Hard Rubber** Antispin rubber was first introduced in the early 1970s. It’s actually a variation of inverted sponge. The major characteristic of antispin is its slick surface. When the ball contacts it, it slides, and spin barely affects it. This makes it easy to handle spinnny shots, and it’s primarily used to aid in the return of loops and serves. Most antispin rubbers have a very dead sponge underneath, which makes it easy to return hard drives. With its slick surface and dead sponge, an antispin player can seemingly return anything! Hard rubber is primarily like antispin except that it puts slightly more spin on the ball and reacts to spin slightly more. Hard rubber is simply a sheet of pimpled rubber with no sponge underneath—exactly like pips-out sponge without the sponge. It’s usually (but not always) slightly faster than antispin. Most hard rubbers are easier to attack with than antispin. These two surfaces have primarily the same characteristics. A ball hit with antispin or hard rubber has less spin than a ball hit with inverted or pips-out sponge. Players often react as if there were more spin on the ball than there actually is. If you play against antispin or hard rubber, you’ll learn to react to its different characteristics. The weakness of antispin or hard rubber is that their returns are generally weak and easy to attack. They take spin off the return, so all their returns are relatively spinless and easy to handle. They’re also more difficult to attack against topspin, although backspin can be attacked effectively. This makes antispin and hard rubber very limited surfaces unless used in conjunction with a different type of surface, usually a grippy inverted; this racket can be flipped to use either surface. The important thing to remember is that antispin and hard rubber cannot generate much spin, and they usually deaden what spin there was on the ball. Also, balls hit off antispin or hard rubber tend to land shorter on the table, because these surfaces are slower than most surfaces. Antispin and hard rubber are primarily used by two styles, choppers and blockers. Choppers use them to return loops consistently, sometimes winning by getting so many balls back that the opponent tires and gets impatient. But the returns are easy to attack by a good player, and there are fewer and fewer choppers using antispin or hard rubber these days. Those that do use antispin or hard rubber almost invariably have inverted on the other side, and most flip their racket to confuse their opponent. Most choppers find that long pips are more effective in conjunction with inverted sponge. Blockers sometimes use antispin to return serves and block loops and drives. The antispin makes it easy to push serves back short, stopping an attack, and its slick surface makes spiny serves easy to return. It’s also easy to block a loop with antispin, but the return is easy to attack if anticipated. Most blockers who use antispin use the Seemiller grip so that they can use either inverted or antispin on both sides at all times. They’ll push the serve back short with the antispin, flip back to inverted to play out the point, and then suddenly flip back to antispin to block a ball short, often catching the opponent off guard. **General Tactics** **For antispin or hard rubber users:** - Use antispin and hard rubber sparingly, if possible. - Use to return serves (especially short ones) and drop balls short. - Attack backspin. - Flip racket—use combination racket. **Against antispin or hard rubber:** - Recognize lack of spin. - Play into antispin and hard rubber and attack return. - Stay closer to table. - Serve deep. **Long Pips** The long pips surface is a type of pips-out sponge with pips that are much longer and thinner than conventional pips. This lets the pips bend at contact with the ball, which creates an interesting effect. If the ball has spin on it, it continues to rotate in the same direction. But because the direction of the ball has changed, the spin has changed. A topspin ball continues to spin in the same way but because its orientation has changed (it’s now going toward your opponent), it now has backspin. Imagine a topspin ball coming at you, with the top of it rotating toward you. If you hit it back without changing the rotation, the top will still be rotating toward you, or away from the opponent. This makes it a backspin return. Likewise, backspin can be returned as topspin. If you were to block a topspin ball back with conventional surfaces, your return would have a light topspin. The same block with long pips will have backspin. Even if you use a topspin stroke with long pips, against a topspin you’ll return the ball with either a backspin or at most a very light topspin. However, if you attack backspin you’ll get topspin because the ball is already rotating in that direction, but the topspin will still be less than with other surfaces. If you chop a topspin with a long pips surface, you’ll return all the spin as backspin. Against a spiny loop you’ll give back a very spiny chop, spinnier than is usually possible with any other surface. Against a light topspin, however, all you can return is a light backspin. And against backspin, a long pips push will either return a light topspin or at most a very light backspin. (Weak players constantly hit this off the end, expecting more backspin; good players go for winners against it.) Note that the longer and thinner the pips, the greater the long pips effect. No sponge or thin sponge also increases it. Basically, conventional surfaces put their own spin on the ball. Antispin takes the spin off. But the long pips surface returns and reverses the spin, something most players are not used to. The amount of spin you receive from long pips depends more on the spin on your previous shot than on the long pips stroke itself. This is what makes the long pips surface the hardest surface to play against. But don’t despair. It’s also one of the hardest to control. Against a ball with no spin, a long pips user can only return no spin or at most a very light spin. This makes it easy to attack against, at least for one shot. To keep attacking effectively, you must understand the way the long pips surface returns different shots and be prepared for the spinless return (or the reversal of spin in other shots) regardless of the stroke used by the long pips user. It can completely throw off your reflexes because the spins of the returns go contrary to what you’re used to. But they are predictable and you should be able to adjust to them. The long pips surface is difficult to attack with, especially against topspin. Against chop, it’s easier to attack with, but the effectiveness of the attack is mostly due to the weirdness of the playing characteristics of the surface. Most balls attacked with a long pips surface with a topspin stroke will have less spin than expected and so are often returned into the net. But once you have adjusted to the lack of spin of a long pips surface attack, it should give you no more trouble. (Against a very heavy push, a topspin shot made with a long pips surface will have considerable spin, however.) Two features of the long pips surface that make it attractive to choppers are the ease in returning loops and drives and the heavy backspin returns against loops. Next to antispin (or possibly hard rubber) the long pips surface is the easiest surface to chop a loop back with because the spin doesn’t take on it. And since loopers get all their spin back, they have great difficulty in continuing an attack. Thus the long pips surface is especially effective when chopping against loops. The only problem is that if the looper pushes your chop return, you might have to push. If you do so with long pips, your return not only will have little spin and be easy to attack but will also be difficult to keep low. A backspin ball travels in a straight line and so spends a good portion of its time at just above net height, if done correctly. This gives you a large margin for error—all you have to do is make sure it crosses the net while at that height. But a spinless push with long pips arcs more, spending only a short time at the proper height, and is difficult to keep low. Only a good touch and a lot of practice will enable you to do so. One solution is to have inverted sponge on one side and learn to flip. Even if you can’t flip fast enough to always use the side you want for every shot, at least your opponent can’t get into a rhythm, expecting a weak return every time you push. Some blockers use long pips without any sponge underneath. This makes it easy to block topspin and somewhat easy to attack backspin. The long pips surface’s effect is at its most extreme with no sponge. But you’ll always be at the mercy of your opponent with this combination. It will be very difficult to push with, and almost impossible to attack a topspin, even a light one. Yet some players have found success this way, usually with the long pips on the backhand and an attacking forehand. They’ll attack backspin to keep you off guard but basically rely on the long pips to keep the ball in play until you make a mistake. Note that if you take up this style, against topspin you shouldn’t just block with the long pips. At contact, you should chop down on the ball, sort of a chop-block. This gives your opponent maximum backspin and maximum difficulty. Also note that the problem with pushing can be partially solved by staying close to the table, as blockers do, and pushing right off the bounce. This enables you to be as close to your target as possible, which makes it easier to keep the ball low. It also rushes your opponent. **General Tactics** **For long pips:** - Use mostly to chop, block, and attack underspin. - Use combination racket and flip, especially when pushing. **Against long pips:** - Be prepared to get your own spin returned. - Serve deep to long pips. - Deep no-spin balls are difficult to return with long pips. - Push quick and deep to long pips, and attack return. - Don’t loop over and over to long pips. - Stay closer to the table. **Short Pips** This surface is similar to inverted except that it gives less spin on each shot. Balls struck by short pips will have little spin, but they will come out as expected—that is, a topspin stroke produces predictable topspin and a chop stroke produces predictable backspin. The difficulty in playing short pips is that there is always less spin than the inverted sheets you’re probably more used to playing, leading to many balls going into the net or off the end (not only because you misread the spin but also due to overcompensation). You will simply have to adjust to them. The short pips surface (also called pips-out sponge) is especially useful in attacking spin shots. But keep in mind that although pips-out players can attack spin shots well, they cannot produce as much spin as players using inverted surfaces. You should take advantage of this. They cannot loop, push, or serve with as much spin. They should have more trouble against heavy inverted spins more than inverted players have against a pips-out player’s lighter spins. Note that every legal surface except inverted has been covered in this section on junk rubbers. Yet there was a time when inverted was the junk. Until the 1950s, nearly everyone used hard rubber, and even in the 1960s there were as many pips-out and hard rubber players as inverted ones. When players were first faced with the inverted surfaces, there was an outcry against the surfaces for being “different.” It’s only in the last 25 years that most tournament players have gone to inverted sponge. In most of Asia, there are still nearly as many pips-out players as inverted, and the 1985 and 1987 World Champion, Jiang Jialiang of China, used pips-out sponge. **General Tactics** **For short pips:** - Develop smash. - Stay close to table and hit shots quickly off bounce. - Don’t be afraid to hit against any type of spin. - End point quickly. **Against short pips:** - Push heavy and deep. - Use heavy topspin shots. - Recognize lack of spin on returns. **DOUBLES** The rules for doubles are similar to singles. The three major differences are (1) players must always serve from the right side crosscourt, (2) partners alternate shots, and (3) the order of service. The order of serving is set at the start of the match, with the team order changing after every game. For example, if players A and B play Y and Z, the first game order might be A serving to Y, who serves to B, who serves to Z, who serves to A, and so on (see Figure 13.1, a-d). In the second game, the order would be A to Z to B to Y to A. (If A or B served first in the first game, then Y or Z serves first in the second game. Either player on the team can serve first as long as the correct team is serving.) Tactics in doubles can be complex. It’s like singles except now you have four styles to worry about instead of just two. The points are usually shorter, and serve and receive become more important. Placement also becomes more important; it’s easy to win points by catching an opponent out of position. Generally, the more aggressive team wins because one hot player can carry a team. A left-hand and right-hand pair (lefty/righty) combination has an inherent advantage, assuming each player favors the forehand. They can stand in their respective backhand corners, their natural ready position, without getting in each other’s way. A lefty/righty combination can play almost all forehand shots while two right-handers (or two left-handers) have to move quickly to keep up a forehand attack. However, although lefty/righty teams do dominate many tournaments, many same-handed teams have become very good, including some world champion teams. It just takes good footwork. The simplest footwork method is for each player to take the shot, and then move backward and slightly off to the side. This takes each player out of the partner’s way and keeps each player in position for the next shot. If a player were to simply go off to the side, the opponents would quickly hit to that side, and the player would be in his or her partner’s way. Even if the player’s partner makes the shot, he or she’ll be way out of position for the next one, which will undoubtedly be to the far side and out of reach. Because your opponent knows where you are serving (into the opponent’s forehand corner), deep serves are rarely used in doubles except as a surprise. They’re too easy to attack. Most teams favor short chop or no-spin serves, or short topspin/sidespin serves. The problem with short topspin/sidespin serves is that they can be flipped to a wide angle very easily and if placed well can cause the serving team to get in each other’s way. Chop serves are harder to flip aggressively. Receivers should set up to receive with their strongest side, usually the forehand. If they are stronger on the backhand, then they should receive backhand, even though the serve is going to the forehand corner. When receiving in doubles, be ready to attack (especially by looping) any deep serve. Vary the receive against short serves, but don’t push deep too often or your partner will be faced with a strong attack. Mix in flips and short pushes with occasional deep pushes. Doubles rallies are similar to singles rallies except Figure 13.1 In doubles serving use the following order: A serves to Y (a), Y serves to B (b), B serves to Z (c), and Z serves to A (d). that each player has to take into account the partner’s playing style and abilities. For example, a defensive player might be perfectly at home letting the other team attack, but if his or her partner is an attacker, then there might be mixed signals as to how to handle the opponent’s attack. The most important rallying tactic in doubles is to hit the ball back at the opponent who hit the ball before the opponent has a chance to get out of his or her partner’s way. General Tactics: - Serve short. - Attack first. - Receive with stronger side. - Team up left-handed and right-handed partners when possible. - Play as a team, not as an individual. - Return shots back at person who hit to you. 1. Personal Styles and Strategies Play a practice match with your partner, two out of three games to 21 points. Afterward, analyze the match and discuss it with your opponent. Write out the following: a. Your best rallying shots during the match b. Your weakest rallying shots during the match c. How you can improve your weakest rallying shots Success Goal = Name your 3 best rallying shots and 3 weakest rallying shots; decide how you can improve your weakest rallying shots Your Score = Your answers to the questions a. Best rallying shots: b. Weakest rallying shots: c. Improvement goals: 2. Playing Style Based on what you have learned so far, and from all previous match experience, describe your playing style in a few sentences. Some things to decide: Are you an offensive or defensive player? Are you better at the start of the rally against backspin or topspin? Do you favor attacking by hitting or looping? Keep in mind that table tennis is not a game where everything is black and white; you can be both a looper and a hitter, for example. Success Goal = Ability to pinpoint your personal playing style Your Score = Write out your thoughts 3. General Tactics Think about each style of play and racket surface mentioned in this step. Then think about how you play. How would you, with your playing style, play against each different style? It’s often better to think about these things, and figure them out for yourself (even if you get it wrong at first) than it is for someone to simply tell you what to do. After all, no two players play the same. If you want to become a top player, you’ve got to become the top authority in the world on how you personally play. Reread this step if you have any trouble deciding how to play any of the styles below. Success Goal = Identify at least two tactics against each style Your Score = (#) _____ tactics against a looper (#) _____ tactics against a hitter (#) _____ tactics against a counterdriver (#) _____ tactics against a blocker (#) _____ tactics against a chopper (#) _____ tactics against a lobber (#) _____ tactics against antispin or hard rubber (#) _____ tactics against long pips (#) _____ tactics against short pips 4. Playing Different Styles Find players about your level who could be classified as loopers, hitters, counterdrivers, blockers, choppers, lobbers, or some combination of these styles. Plan out a strategy for playing them, and play games with them. Success Goal = Win at least half the games played Your Score = (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against looper (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against hitter (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against counterdriver (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against blocker (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against chopper (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against lobber 5. Combination Rackets Find players about your skill level who use antispin, long pips, short pips, or hard rubber. Or have your partner use these surfaces so you can practice against them. Play games, making sure you understand what you have to do differently against each surface. Success Goal = Win at least half the games played Your Score = (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against antispin (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against long pips (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against short pips (#) _____ games won, (#) _____ games lost against hard rubber 6. Centerline Weakness You’ve been told that most players are weak in the middle. Now you get to see for yourself! Have your partner hit everything at your elbow. You decide whether to use a forehand or backhand, and drive the ball back to your partner’s backhand. If you use one side too often (for example, too many backhands), your partner should aim a little to the other side. This drill should illustrate the value of ball placement. Success Goal = 15 consecutive drives against balls hit to middle Your Score = (#) _____ consecutive drives against balls hit to the middle 7. Doubles You and your partner play a practice match, two out of three to 21 points, against another doubles team. 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Children are not vessels to be filled but lamps to be lit Swami Chinmayananda | Art & Crafts | Dramatic Play | Science | |-------------|--------------|--------| | Painting the Cat in the Hat | | Growing Beans on cotton balls | | | | Which one will grow the tallest? | | Math Area | Music & Movement | Sand & Water | |-----------|------------------|-------------| | Counting and Adding Goldfish | | Green Rice Bin | Date: 03/02/15 Theme: Dr. Seuss Social Development Read: The Cat in the Hat Math Circle Review: colors and Numbers Read: One Fish Two Fish Math Vocabulary One fish two fish red fish blue fish Work Time (Art) Make hats for Dr. Seuss Week Long Birthday Celebration | **Monday** | | | --- | --- | | **ABC Circle** | **ABC Vocabulary** | | Phonological Awareness-Beginning Sound Smart Board Brain Builder | | | Alphabet Recognition: Introduce The letter K | | | Book: Finish Book Reading Cat in the Hat | | **Small Group Activities** **Yellow Group** - Ending Sound Clipping Ring - Skill: Child recognizes and identifies ending sounds in words. **Green Group** - Measuring the Cat - Skills: Child recognizes and compares heights or lengths of people or objects. **Blue Group** - Word Writing - Skills: Child independently writes some letters on request (not necessarily well-formed). **Red Group** - Fill the Hat Beginning Sounds - Skill: Child can produce a word that begins with the same sound as a given pair of words. **Purple Group** - Number Order Puzzle - Skill: Child recognizes one-digit numerals, 0-9. Date: 03/03/15 Theme: Happy Birthday Dr. Seuss Social Development School Assemble Math Circle Read Ten Apples on Top Smart Board Ten Frame Counting Math Vocabulary Work Time (Art) Make hats for Dr. Seuss Week Long Birthday Celebration Work Time (curriculum) | **ABC Circle** | **ABC Vocabulary** | |----------------|-------------------| | Print Awareness/Shared Writing What happened in the Cat and The Hat | Are You My Mother? by P.D. Eastman | | **Brain Builder** | | |------------------|---| | Story Telling: Are you my Mother? | | | **Small Group Activities** | |---------------------------| | **Yellow Group** | | Fill the Hat | | Beginning Sounds | | Skill: Child can produce a word that begins with the same sound as a given pair of words. | | **Green Group** | | Ending Sound Clipping Ring| | Skill: Child recognizes and identifies ending sounds in words. | | **Blue Group** | | Spin and Add | | --Child counts up to 10 items, and demonstrates that the last count indicates how many items were counted. | | **Red Group** | | Measuring the Cat | | Skills: Child recognizes and compares heights or lengths of people or objects. | | **Purple Group** | | Rhyming Word Match | | Skills: Child can produce a word that rhymes with a given word. | Date: 03/04/15 Theme: Dr. Seuss Social Development Read: Hop on Pop Math Circle How Tall? Smart Board Measurement Math Vocabulary Work Time (Art) Make hats for Dr. Seuss Week Long Birthday Celebration **Wednesday** **ABC Circle** - **Oral Language** - Describing Items in the Hat - **Brain Builder** - **Group Writing: Guided Drawing** - How to draw cat in the hat **ABC Vocabulary** --- **Small Group Activities** | Group | Activity | Skills | |-------|----------|--------| | Yellow | Measuring the Cat | Child recognizes and compares heights or lengths of people or objects. | | Green | Fill the Hat Beginning Sounds | Child recognizes and identifies ending sounds in words. | | Blue | On the Loose Rhyming | Child can produce a word that rhymes with a given word. | | Red | Ending Sound Clipping Ring | Child can produce a word that begins with the same sound as a given pair of words. | | Purple | Fishing for Numbers | Child counts up to 10 items, and demonstrates that the last count indicates how many items were counted. | Date: 03/05/15 Theme: Happy Birthday Dr. Seuss Social Development YouTube Video of Cat in the Hat Math Circle Making Numbers 10 to 20 Smart Board Math Vocabulary Apples on Top 18 Work Time (Art) Make hats for Dr. Seuss Week Long Birthday Celebration Thursday ABC Circle Smart Board Lesson: Building Vocabulary ABC Vocabulary Small Group Activities Yellow Group Word Writing Skills: Child independently writes some letters on request (not necessarily well-formed). Green Group Spin and Add --Child counts up to 10 items, and demonstrates that the last count indicates how many items were counted. Blue Group Measuring the Cat Skills: Child recognizes and compares heights or lengths of people or objects. Red Group Letter Match Skill: --Child names at least 20 upper and at least 20 lower case letters. Purple Group Roll and Color Skill: Child recognizes one-digit numerals, 0-9. Date: 03/06/15 Theme: Happy Birthday Dr. Seuss Social Development Child choice Dr. Seuss Book Read - The Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss - Hop on Pop by Dr. Seuss - Are You My Mother? by P.D. Eastman Math Circle Beginning Operations Number Recognition Find the number thirty. Work Time (Art) Work Time (curriculum) School Celebration | **ABC Circle** | **ABC Vocabulary** | |----------------|-------------------| | Review Letters and oral language | | | Child Choice Song | | | Brain Builder | | | Child Choice Book/Smart Board | | ### Small Group Activities #### Yellow Group - **Letter Match** - Skill: Child names at least 20 upper and at least 20 lower case letters. #### Green Group - **Word Writing** - Skills: Child independently writes some letters on request (not necessarily well-formed). #### Blue Group - **Ending Sound Clipping Ring** - Skill: Child can produce a word that begins with the same sound as a given pair of words. #### Red Group - **Spin and Add** - --Child counts up to 10 items, and demonstrates that the last count indicates how many items were counted. #### Purple Group - **Measuring the Cat** - Skills: Child recognizes and compares heights or lengths of people or objects.
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After the resurrection, was Jesus a ghost? Some of the disciples thought he might be. He showed up out of nowhere, like a ghost. He scared them, like ghosts do. Jesus addresses their fears right away. He shows them the wounds on his hands and feet. A ghost wouldn’t have a body or wounds. Then he asked for food and ate it right in front of them. None of the food fell out of his body. Case closed; he is not a ghost. One of the major takeaways here is not that Jesus was or was not a ghost, but that he met the disciples where they were. He recognized their fear, engaged them in their worry, and freed them from it. It was only then that Jesus opened their minds to the Scriptures. This is a model for us. Before we ever share the Gospel, we are called to meet people where they are. Just as Jesus addressed the needs and concerns of his friends, we can accompany our friends in their walk of faith. Jesus loves us just as we are, but he does not leave us as we are. He calls us to rise with him to new life. We are called to love in this same way. Look for ways that you can accompany others in their journey of faith. Begin with shared hobbies, activities, or classes. Then consider how you can be intentional about living your faith in their presence. How can your good actions invite deeper conversation? How can you share your experiences of God’s love in your life? Write down a few ideas about how you might do these things, so that when the opportunity arises, you are ready to walk with someone in faith. “To understand, forgive, accompany and integrate. That is the mindset which should prevail in the Church.” —Pope Francis@Pontifex Questions: ✦ What do today’s readings teach you about the Christian life? ✦ If you could ask Jesus anything, what would you ask him? What are your greatest concerns? ✦ If someone asked you what was most important about Jesus, what would you tell them? LECTIONARY #47B Acts 3:13–15, 17–19 Psalm 4:2, 4, 7–8, 9 1 John 2:1–5a Luke 24:35–48 Prepare for the Word The following elements may be used by the catechist, teacher, or youth minister to prepare to facilitate today’s session with teens. You may integrate this information into the reflection and discussion on today’s readings. Leader’s Context Today’s reading occurs immediately after the story of two disciples on the way to Emmaus. While the two men are telling others the story of meeting Jesus on the road and recognizing him in the breaking of the bread, Jesus appears to the disciples. They are frightened, thinking he is a ghost. Scripture is very clear here that Christ is not a ghost and he really did rise form the dead. Jesus tells them to touch his wounds, using his physical presence to reassure the disciples that he is truly with them and alive. He reassures us as well when we doubt or feel distant from God. The reality of the resurrection is a cause for joyful hope and is a central truth of our faith. FOCUS: Jesus is truly alive! Liturgical Calendar Connection On February 11, 1858, the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared to fourteen-year-old Bernadette Soubirous in Lourdes, France for the first time. Mary appeared to Bernadette eighteen times. During these visits, Mary revealed she wanted a chapel to be built where the apparitions took place so people could come drink from the spring of water that came forth when Bernadette started digging. Bernadette received much scrutiny and disbelief about her visions, even among Church officials. Her visions were investigated and found to be authentic in 1862. There is now a beautiful sanctuary in Lourdes where Mary appeared, and baths where people can immerse themselves in the spring water. Many healing miracles have been reported here. St. Bernadette is celebrated on April 16. She is the patron of several things, including people who are mocked for their piety. Church Teaching Connection “Jesus is not a ‘ghost’, but a living Person; when Jesus draws near to us he fills us with joy, to the point of disbelief, and he leaves us bewildered, with that astonishment that only God’s presence gives, because Jesus is a living Person. Being Christian is not first of all a doctrine or a moral ideal; it is a living relationship with him, with the Risen Lord: we look at him, we touch him, we are nourished by him and, transformed by his Love, we look at, touch and nourish others as brothers and sisters” (Pope Francis, Regina Caeli Message, April 18, 2021). Hear the Word Use this resource, a Lectionary, or a Bible to proclaim the reading. The book should be held reverently or placed on a lectern. If possible, light a candle that is placed near where the Gospel will be proclaimed. Gesture for teens to stand. Gospel Acclamation Use the same musical setting that is used in your parish or at school Masses. Teens may help with music and proclaim the Gospel. Alleluia, alleluia. Gospel Luke 24:35–48 Reader: A reading from the holy Gospel according to Luke. All: Glory to you, O Lord. All make the sign of the cross on their forehead, lips, and heart. The two disciples recounted what had taken place on the way, and how Jesus was made known to them in the breaking of bread. While they were still speaking about this, he stood in their midst and said to them, “Peace be with you.” But they were startled and terrified and thought that they were seeing a ghost. Then he said to them, “Why are you troubled? And why do questions arise in your hearts? Look at my hands and my feet, that it is I myself. Touch me and see, because a ghost does not have flesh and bones as you can see I have.” And as he said this, he showed them his hands and his feet. While they were still incredulous for joy and were amazed, he asked them, “Have you anything here to eat?” They gave him a piece of baked fish; he took it and ate it in front of them. He said to them, “These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that everything written about me in the law of Moses and in the prophets and psalms must be fulfilled.” Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures. And he said to them, “Thus it is written that the Christ would suffer and rise from the dead on the third day and that repentance, for the forgiveness of sins, would be preached in his name to all the nations, beginning from Jerusalem. You are witnesses of these things.” Reader: The Gospel of the Lord. All: Praise to you, Lord Jesus Christ. Everyone may be seated. Reflect on the Word When beginning the reflection and discussion about today’s readings, first refer to the handout for today. Ask teens what they learned about themselves and about Christian discipleship from performing the action for the week and Journaling. Ask teens about the readings of the day: What struck them? What do they think the readings mean? How do the readings affect their own lives? Then begin the following reflection: ▶ Has there ever been a time in your life when something incredible happened, but you had a hard time believing it? What happened and how did you react? Today’s Gospel passage picks up just after the story about the disciples on the road to Emmaus. Basically, two disciples had been travelling to Emmaus after Jesus’ death. They were sad even though they had heard the report of the women who found the tomb empty and the angels telling them that Jesus was alive. They told this all to Jesus, whom they thought was a fellow traveler. Jesus taught them what it all meant and they finally figured out who he was when had shared a meal with them and broke the bread. The two disciples share this story with the other disciples back in Jerusalem. So already, the disciples of Jesus had had several opportunities to hear about the risen Christ and some had actually encountered him. Yet when he shows up in today’s passage, they are still prone to disbelief! Are you familiar with the phrase, “It’s too good to be true”? This is the sentiment of the disciples in today’s Gospel. The disciples are described as being “incredulous with joy.” ▶ What do you think that phrase means? How do you think the disciples were feeling? Incredulous means to be unbelieving or unconvinced. The disciples couldn’t believe what they were seeing, but there was joy there. In their moment of fear and doubt, Jesus invited them to look and touch his wounds. Have you noticed that last week and this week, Christ’s wounds are the most compelling evidence of his true identity for when the doubts arose? Just as he invited Thomas to touch his hands and side (in John’s Gospel), so he also invites the disciples to do so in the account we hear from Luke today. He knows that they are fearful. He knows that what has happened to him has never happened before. He gives them his peace and offers them reassurance through his very presence. ▶ What do you do when you have doubts and questions about Christ and the faith? ▶ What advice would you give to your peers who might be going through moments of questioning? Today’s reading ends with Jesus saying, “You are witnesses of these things.” Now that the disciples have seen Jesus, have come to believe in the resurrection, and have been taught by Christ about what his paschal mystery means, he places upon them the responsibility of sharing this with others. The women who found the empty tomb became witnesses to the other disciples. The disciples on the way to Emmaus became witnesses to the disciples back in Jerusalem. And now, the disciples in Jerusalem become witnesses to “all the nations.” We are called to be witnesses to our world as well. Wrapping It Up Consider these points to conclude the discussion and reflection. Integrate the thoughts and ideas that surfaced during the discussion as well as the “Church Teaching Connection” on page 172. The risen Jesus is not an illusion but truly real and alive. Look to Jesus when you begin to experience fear and doubt. Be witness to Jesus in the everyday experiences of your life. Act on the Word Resurrection Pictionary or Charades For this activity, you will need a Bible, index cards, and a large dry-erase board, chalk board, or a large easel paper pad and writing utensils. Before beginning the activity, write the following biblical scenes on index cards, one scene per card. You should have a total of nine index cards. - The women see the open tomb, and the message of the angels (Luke 24:1–8) - Peter and the Beloved Disciple discover the burial clothes of Jesus (John 20:3–8) - Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene (John 20:11–18) - Jesus appears to the women returning from the tomb (Matthew 28:8–10) - Jesus appears to the two disciples going to Emmaus (Luke 24:13–33) - Appearance to the disciples in Jerusalem (Luke 24:36–42) - Jesus appears to the disciples (without Thomas) in Jerusalem on Easter Sunday (John 20:19–24) Jesus appears to the disciples (with Thomas) in Jerusalem, one week after the resurrection (John 20:26–29) The commissioning of the disciples (Matthew 28:16–20) Divide the teens into two teams. Each team will take turns sending one player to pick a notecard. That player will get a few minutes to read the passage in the Bible. Then, without speaking or writing words, the player will act out or draw the scene while his or her team tries to guess which resurrection story it is. Each team will get two minutes to try and guess. If the team guesses correctly, they get a point. If they do not, the other team gets one chance to guess the right answer. If they get it correct, they get a point. Teams continue taking turns acting or drawing the Bible stories on the index cards. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins. Closing Prayer Faithful Lord, your risen Son fulfills our deepest longings and greatest hopes. As we come to know you better through him, show us all the ways in which you save us, all the ways in which you fulfill your promises to your people. Through Christ our Lord. Amen. For Next Sunday To help teens prepare for next Sunday’s Mass, print, email, or share on a blog or social media the handout found on the next page. The JPG and PDF files are available at www.ltp.org/lwgr. Encourage teens to attend Mass with family or friends.
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SADIE’S STUDIO @ Dowdell Library of South Amboy Contact the library for a schedule of events! MIY Make it yourself Technology Handcrafts & Creative Kits Cooking Studio Cooking Studio Nutribullet – is a blender that breaks down ingredients into their most nutritious, most absorptive state. Children/teens learn to MIY healthy smoothies in Creative Teen Chef programs. They have fun while working together interactively and follow step-by-step instructions. Panini Maker – is a grill designed specifically for heating sandwiches, meat products, vegetables or dessert menu items. Adults/teens create sandwiches or desserts while following the step-by-step directions of the librarian. Dowdell Library of South Amboy Elaine R. Gaber, Director Adjacent to the South Amboy High School 732.721.6060 firstname.lastname@example.org www.dowdell.org Sadie’s Studio @ Dowdell Library of South Amboy Named after Sadie Pope Dowdell, the Librarian who served for 47 years, Sadie’s Studio offers the community many opportunities to make it yourself… Learn New Technologies Explore Entertaining Handcrafts Become a Creative Chef **Technology** **Amazing Connect and Learn Science Kits** - Children/teens explore electricity as they build simple circuits which blow bubbles, float a ball in midair, move a robotic duck, and more! They use fun science kits following step-by-step instructions. **Button Maker** – Children/teens use a simple metal press machine to create personalized buttons. **Electrical Makey** - A simple invention kit that creates art, engineering projects and everything in-between. This device turns everyday objects into touchpads in conjunction with the Internet. Children/teens can use objects such as pennies, and play-Doh to play Pac-Man or the Piano on the computer. **Electrical Squishy** – Hands-on science fun with Play-Doh. Children/teens will use LED lights and Play-Doh to create simple circuits. **Kinetic Sand** – Hands-on MIY kit using sand that sticks to itself due to static electricity. Children/teens will use their imagination to make sculptures. Cookie cutter forms are used to build creative structures without getting messy. **Mechanical Toys** - Through building models and conducting experiments, children/teens learn the fundamental laws of mechanical physics with a hands-on approach. Teens/children build the models with step-by-step instructions and have fun test driving when finished. **Soldering** – Participants use solder material that melts when touched by a soldering iron; the melted solder cools and forms a bond between two items. Teens/adults learn to solder and make badges that light up under the supervision of a librarian. **Code4Fun** – Participants learn to use simple computer programming to control a robot. **Handcrafts & Creative Kits** **Rainbow Loom** - A plastic loom used to weave colorful rubber bands into bracelets, rings, and necklaces. Children/teens will be trained and then work on projects independently. **Weave Loom** - Using stretchable elastic, a loom, and directions, children make potholders, coasters, phone cases, and more. **Knitting** – A hand method by which yarn is stitched/looped in consecutive rows to create a fabric, which would be made into garments. Participants of all ages learn this craft from Dowdell’s Knitting Circle experts. **Lego Education Kits** – Toddlers use Duplo Legos to build fun structures while improving hand-eye coordination and developing counting skills. Children/teens will use Legos in MIY building contests and other creative programs. **Makerspace!** Community members of all ages can try out equipment; dabble in computer technology, or create fun do it yourself (DIY) projects.
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香港有多少種石珊瑚？ 在印度太平洋熱帶地區，一個珊瑚礁己有超過200種的石珊瑚，有些甚至有300至400種之多。因為本地氣候、水文情況及其他人為因素，香港只有來自28個屬84種造礁珊瑚品種。這些珊瑚品種能抵受年中海水溫度及鹹度的大幅變化，也可抵受不時吹襲的颱風。牠們主要是表覆形或團塊形的蜂巢珊瑚及濱珊瑚。 How many species of stony coarals are found in Hong Kong waters? In the heart of the tropical Indo-Pacific, there are over 200 species of stony corals on a single reef. Some sites may house as many as 300 to 400 species of stony corals. Under the influence of local weather, hydrological conditions and anthropogenic perturbations, Hong Kong supports only 84 species of reef-building corals from 28 genera. Those coral species can tolerate wide annual fluctuations in water temperature and salinity as well as periodic typhoons and monsoons. The dominant species of reef-building corals are mainly encrusting or massive faviids and poritids. 香港有其他種類的珊瑚嗎？ 除了石珊瑚之外，香港還有軟珊瑚、柳珊瑚、黑珊瑚和海筆等，最少有來自14個屬的29種軟珊瑚已被辨認及記錄。此外，香港有19個屬38種柳珊瑚，大多生長在鹹度變化較小的東面水域，牠們需要固著在堅穩的基質上，最喜歡生長在水深20至25米的地方。目前香港錄得有2個屬的6種黑珊瑚，牠們大多生長在東北水域水深10至20米的地方。 What is the diversity of other corals in Hong Kong? In addition to stony corals, soft corals, gorgonians, black corals and sea pens are also found in Hong Kong water. 29 species of soft corals from 14 genera have been recorded. In addition, there are 38 species of gorgonians from 19 genera found in Hong Kong waters. Gorgonians prevail in the eastern waters of less variable salinity. They require a firm substratum for anchorage and reach maximum abundance at about 20-25M deep. Six species of black corals from 2 genera have been recorded in Hong Kong waters. Most of them are found in the north-eastern waters at a depth of 10-20M. 香港珊瑚群落的海洋生物 雖然香港沒有珊瑚礁，但大型珊瑚群落一樣可提供棲所、屏障及基質給其他生物附著及生長。與珊瑚礁一樣，大型珊瑚群落的初級生產力很高，能夠提供充裕的食物給眾多生物。依靠珊瑚群落的動物很多，例如海綿、海葵、海星、海膽及珊瑚魚等，棲身珊瑚群落的魚類更多達320種。 Coral-associated marine life of Hong Kong Although there has no reef structure in Hong Kong, large coral community can provide hiding spaces, shelters and substrata for other organisms to settle and grow. Similar to coral reef, large coral community has also high primary productivity and therefore can provide numerous organisms with abundant food resources. The coral-associated animals found in Hong Kong are very diverse. Examples are sponge, sea anemone, starfish, sea urchin and reef fish. Some 320 fish species were recorded around local rocky reefs and coral communities. 珊瑚現正受到甚麼威脅？ 在香港，甚至世界各地，珊瑚都受到同樣的威脅，包括： - 船錨破壞 - 沿岸發展 - 濫捕及破壞性捕魚活動 - 污染 - 被過度使用 為甚麼我們要保護珊瑚？ - 牠們是許多重要食用魚、蝦、蟹及貝類的產卵場及育苗場。 - 許多珊瑚及珊瑚群落的生物體內含有豐富的天然藥物，可用來治療疾病。 - 珊瑚不僅能製造石灰及海灘，沿岸的群落還可以保護及穩固海岸，防止海岸被風浪侵蝕。 - 雖然香港沒有龐大的珊瑚礁，但珊瑚千變萬化的形狀及其區內多姿多彩的海洋生物，實在是一美麗的景觀，更是無價的觀光資源。 What are the threats to corals? In Hong Kong and other places in the world, corals are threatened by: - Anchor damage - Coastal development - Overexploitation and destructive fishing practices - Inland and marine-based pollution - Extensive recreational use Why do we need to protect corals? - Local coral communities are important spawning grounds and nursery grounds for many commercially significant fishery resources, such as fish, shrimps, crabs, and shellfish. - Corals and many coral-associated organisms contain natural products which are important pharmaceutical resources. - Corals not only deposit limestone and create beaches, but also protect the coastline and stabilize the substrata from wave action and storms. They are extremely important to the conservation of soil on the coast. - Although giant reef structure could not be found in Hong Kong, the myriad shapes of corals and the diversity of coral-associated organisms still attract lots of local snorkelers and scuba divers. 如何保護珊瑚？ 遵守下列指引，有助保護香港珊瑚： 航行及其他船艇活動 ● 切勿在珊瑚區域下錨，改在沙質或碎石的海床下錨。 ● 如有的話，使用繫泊浮泡。 ● 不要放長錨繩或錨鏈，以免船隻拖錨。 沿岸發展 ● 施工前測繪有關水域的珊瑚位置和分佈。 ● 計劃、管制和監察影響珊瑚區的污水排放和沉積作用。 How to conserve corals? The following guidelines will help to conserve corals in Hong Kong: Boating ● Do not anchor in coral areas, choose sandy or rubble seabed instead. ● Use mooring buoys where provided. ● Keep anchoring rope or chain short to avoid dragging. Coastal development ● Map the location and distribution of corals in the areas of concern prior to commencement of works. ● Plan, control and monitor the sewage discharge and sedimentation affecting coral areas.
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CLASSROOM ACTIVITY Stephen P. Cook MAKING OBSERVATIONS (NEW MEXICO STYLE) TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF THE EARTH Grade Level: Grades 7—12 Objectives—Students will appreciate: 1) that distances between two points on a map can be computed by measuring the distance between the points and multiplying by the map’s scale 2) how moving on the surface of a sphere changes the direction one looks to see distant stars, and that moving greater distances produces proportionally bigger directional changes (in angles measured with respect to the horizon) 3) how measurements of the altitude of a bright star can be made from two different locations and these data used to estimate the Earth’s size 4) how traveling in New Mexico to make such observations can give a sense of how big the Earth is and how one’s eyes reveal this Teacher Background: While travel and night-time observation enhance learning, this activity can be done entirely in the classroom. Students will gauge the Earth’s circumference using the same method employed by Greek geographer Posidonius around 100 BCE. He measured the altitude of Canopus at its high point (culmination) at two different locations, then used simple math based on geometry.\(^2\) Begin with a math review: of angles and their measurement, figuring distances by using a map with a scale, and about circles, including \(C = \pi D\). If possible, facilitate students’ climbing on a playground spherical jungle gym. Design this activity to help them understand the Figure #3 example (or related problem based on available playground equipment.) Describe this in terms of an ant seeing a star overhead (at the zenith) at one (RH) location, but seeing it 24 degrees away from overhead at another (LH) location. If the locations are separated by distance X (=3 feet in Figure #3), since 24 degrees is to 360 degrees as 1 is to 15, distance X and the circumference C of the sphere are in this same ratio. So \(C = 15X\) (= 15 times 3 = 45 ft in the example of Figure #3). Next, tell students they are about to replace the playground sphere with the Earth (assumed spherical) and use the horizon instead of the zenith for gauging directions. Define a star’s altitude as the angle between the direction you look to see it and the horizon. Ask them what the altitude of a star seen overhead is? (Answer: 90 degrees) Ask how many degrees in a circle like the horizon? (Answer: 360 degrees) Finally, tell your students about the star this activity is built around: Canopus\(^3\)—in particular, three things about observing it: 1) it’s best placed for viewing from New Mexico in late fall or winter, 2) you need to pick a spot with a clear view of the horizon, looking due south, and 3) you must know exactly when to look: within a few minutes of the times listed in Figure #1. Note from the latitude (35 degrees) of Albuquerque, the highest Canopus gets —at its culmination—is a mere 2 degrees in altitude above the horizon. Then, if you hold your thumb at arm’s length, it should just fit between Canopus and the horizon as the middle part of Figure #2 shows. If you’re farther south—say at the (32 degree) latitude of Las Cruces—you’ll see this star a bit higher in the sky. How much higher? Challenge them to make these observations, compute the Albuquerque—Las Cruces distance based on a New Mexico map, and use all of this to get an estimate for the Earth’s circumference! Figure #1: When Canopus Culminates Above the Southern Horizon\(^1\) (be careful: all times shown are MST) | Date | Time | Date | Time | |------------|----------|------------|----------| | 15-Oct | 4 54 AM | 15-Jan | 10 53 PM | | 1-Nov | 3 47 AM | 1-Feb | 9 46 PM | | 15-Nov | 2 51 AM | 15-Feb | 8 50 PM | | 1-Dec | 1 49 AM | 1-Mar | 7 55 PM | | 15-Dec | 12 54 AM | 15-Mar | 7 00 PM | | 1-Jan | 11 47 PM | 1-Apr | 5 56 PM | Figure #2: Estimating Altitude Angles Using parts of your hand at arm’s length 1 deg → width of your index fingernail 2 deg → the fattest part of your thumb 5 deg → all four fingers of hand Figure #3 LH------ 3 ft ------RH **Method Overview:** After review angles, map scales, an explanation of what it means to see a star at the zenith, on the horizon, or at some altitude—perhaps aided by playground exploration—you’ll be working with three maps: #1 one of New Mexico, #2 one you’ll create of Earth, and #3 the sky maps of Figure #4. **Materials:** compass (to draw a circle), pencil, protractor, ruler, map of New Mexico w/ scale, tape measure, carpenter’s level, builder’s square, calculator --- **Method** **MAP #1:** On your New Mexico map, identify the scale. Establish the latitude and longitude of your location and mark it LOC1 on this map. (Use 35.0 N, 106.7 W = -106.7 as default, near Albuquerque) For observation purposes, identify a second location in New Mexico widely separated in latitude from LOC1. (default: near Las Cruces 32.0 N, -106.7) Mark it LOC2. Locate where a point with LAT,LONG = 37.0 N, -106.7 is and mark it CH (just over the border in CO). **Exercises** 1) Use a ruler and the scale to compute the distance between LOC1 and LOC2. **MAP #2:** Draw a circle with diameter D = 8 inches by using a compass. Suppose this represents Earth, with diameter of roughly 8,000 miles. Label opposite points at top and bottom of this circle “N” and “S” to represent north and south poles and connect them with a line segment. Find a point on the circle halfway between N and S and label it “E”. Draw a line segment that passes through E and the circle’s center and extends to the opposite side of the circle. Label it “equator” Recall latitude angles are measured north or south from the equator and use a protractor to mark locations on the circle at latitudes 37 degrees north and 53 degrees south. Label these as “CH” and “CZ” respectively. CZ is where Canopus culminates at the zenith; at CH it would then be seen on the horizon. **Exercises:** 1) Figure out the scale of your drawing. 2) Draw in the directions to both the zenith and horizon from locations CH and CZ. 3) Extend your lines pointing to the zenith back to the Earth’s center so they intersect. 4) Moving on the circle from CH to CZ moves you through what angle (as figured from Earth’s center) and what distance--both in miles and in terms of fraction of Earth’s circumference? **MAP #2 and MAP #3—Exercises:** Using a 30 degree vertical extent for the sky map in Figure #4a and a ruler, figure out the scale in degrees/inch. Using this scale and a ruler, estimate the altitude of Canopus in each view for Figures #4a –4f and identify latitudes of the 6 observing sites. For your locations LOC1 and LOC2, repeat exercise 2) above on MAP #2, and after reviewing what you learned from Figures #3 & 4 and exercise 3) above, use your data to estimate the circumference of the Earth. Teacher Supplemental Notes: 1) Times in Figure #1 are for Albuquerque, they’re good within one minute for Las Cruces. For anywhere else in New Mexico they’ll be off by no more than ten minutes depending on location’s longitude. For out of state, errors will depend on distance from the standard meridian of the time zone. For dates other than those listed, find the time by interpolating, using 4 minutes / day of change in time. 2) You may want to mention Erathostenes (276-195 BCE). For more background see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geodesy](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geodesy) 3) Canopus is the second brightest star in the sky, trailing only Sirius, but near the horizon extra atmosphere somewhat dims its light. Coincidentally, these two stars are in roughly the same part of sky—with Canopus being about 35 degrees farther south than Sirius. 4) The skymaps in Figure #4 were created using online software found at [www.fourmilab/yoursky/horcustom.html](http://www.fourmilab/yoursky/horcustom.html) They were created for the following latitudes with corresponding values of Canopus’ altitude (in degrees) at culmination: | Fig #4a Lat=36.0 max alt = 1 | Fig #4b Lat=35.0 max alt = 2 | |-----------------------------|-------------------------------| | Fig #4c Lat=34.0 max alt = 3 | Fig #4d Lat=33.0 max alt = 4 | | Fig #4e Lat=32.0 max alt = 5 | Fig #4f Lat=31.0 max alt = 6 | 5) the online Google Maps feature—brought up by right clicking on a location—“Where is this?” can be used to get LAT and LONG. 6) The distances between the two viewing locations—for Figure #2 Albuquerque and Las Cruces are roughly 200 miles apart—and the change of position—here 5 degrees minus 2 degrees = 3 degrees—are directly proportional. So if you traveled thirty times that distance—200 miles x 30 = 6000 miles — the change of position would be 3 degrees x 30 = 90 degrees. This could be verified by noting at the New Mexico—Colorado border location CH Canopus would at best be essentially on the horizon with maximum altitude of 0 degrees, whereas 6000 miles to the south at location CZ in extreme South America it would be overhead at 90 degrees altitude. So the New Mexico/Canopus recipe for estimating the distance around the Earth would be to multiply the distance between its two largest cities by 30 x 4 = 120, or roughly 200 miles x 120 = 24,000 miles. You may want to ask students about the uncertainty in their result, and sources of error/limitations of the method (difficulty seeing horizon, assumes Earth is spherical, failure to account for atmospheric refraction, etc.) 7) Students who actually observe Canopus’ culmination from two different locations could be asked to estimate its altitude—to nearest half of a degree—using their fingers/hand held at arm’s length per Figure #2. Then, rather than matching their results to particular skymaps in Figure #4 and using the whole number latitudes and altitudes, more exact values could be used in their calculations.
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No one likes being the subject of “murmuring.” It insinuates negativity, judgment, or dissatisfaction. So often when we find ourselves in a situation like the one at the beginning of the Gospel reading—whether we are the ones doing the murmuring or we are the ones being talked about—it’s less about a genuine desire to understand and more about reacting to something we don’t want to hear. What was it that the people didn’t want to hear? What did Jesus say? Throughout this passage, we hear Jesus saying, “I am the bread from heaven, the living bread, the bread of life.” With these statements, Jesus identifies himself as the source of eternal nourishment that God provides. Even more, Jesus’ use of “I am” statements recalls the Old Testament name of God given to Moses at the burning bush. By using this name of God, Jesus declares that he is, in fact, God. Our reading today comes shortly after the miracle of the multiplication of loaves and fishes, feeding at least five thousand people, so it’s not as if Jesus’ statements are baseless claims. Rather, they are difficult truths to accept. Reflect on your own tendency to grumble. Murmuring among ourselves does not lead to positive change and growth. Pope Francis has said that complaining poisons the heart, leading us to anger and resentment. This week, work to transform your grumbling into positive action. Whenever you catch yourself complaining, write down the complaint. At the end of each day, review what you complained about and decide how you overcome the issues by turning a negative into a positive. Ask the Holy Spirit for wisdom and the grace to see things through God’s eyes and not your own. Check out some tips on changing your outlook, with the video “Inspiration to Stop Complaining.” https://youtu.be/IQpwlcICKD4 Questions: - What do today’s readings teach you about the Christian life? - How do you respond when someone tells you a difficult truth? - What are some ways you can complain less? August 11, 2024 NINETEENTH SUNDAY IN ORDINARY TIME LECTIONARY #116B 1 Kings 19:4–8 Psalm 34:2–3, 4–5, 6–7, 8–9 Ephesians 4:30—5:2 John 6:41–51 Prepare for the Word The following elements may be used by the catechist, teacher, or youth minister to prepare to facilitate today’s session with teens. You may integrate this information into the reflection and discussion on today’s readings. Leader’s Context For the past two weeks, we have been reading from John 6, known as the Bread of Life discourse. In it, Jesus explains that he is the Bread of Life and those who eat this bread shall not die. As Jesus elaborates on this teaching, the crowd grows more and more uncomfortable. Today, we hear them questioning Jesus because of his claim that he comes from heaven. They don’t understand. They know his earthly parents and can’t see beyond that, even when they have experienced his miracles. The young people are invited to reflect on the Eucharist today and the way Jesus is truly present and will never fail us. FOCUS: Jesus is truly the Bread of Life. Liturgical Calendar Connection On August 12, the Church celebrates St. Jane Frances de Chantal. She lived in France in the seventeenth century. She had several children and was happily married, but her husband died only a few years into their marriage. Several years after her husband’s death, she met St. Francis de Sales, who took on the role of her spiritual director. Following the model of Mary in her visitation to Elizabeth and with the help of St. Francis, she formed a community of women that became the Order of the Visitation of Mary. Regardless of her state in life—married, widowed, or as a nun—she served others and led them to Christ. Church Teaching Connection “The Eucharist, while commemorating the passion and resurrection, is also in continuity with the incarnation. At the Annunciation Mary conceived the Son of God in the physical reality of his body and blood, thus anticipating within herself what to some degree happens sacramentally in every believer who receives, under the signs of bread and wine, the Lord’s body and blood. . . . [I]n the Eucharistic mystery we are asked to believe that the same Jesus Christ, Son of God and Son of Mary, becomes present in his full humanity and divinity under the signs of bread and wine” (Pope John Paul II, *Ecclesia de Eucharistia*, 55). Hear the Word Use this resource, a Lectionary, or a Bible to proclaim the reading. The book should be held reverently or placed on a lectern. If possible, light a candle that is placed near where the Gospel will be proclaimed. Gesture for teens to stand. Gospel Acclamation Use the same musical setting that is used in your parish or at school Masses. Teens may help with music and proclaim the Gospel. Alleluia, alleluia. Gospel Reader: A reading from the holy Gospel according to John. All: Glory to you, O Lord. All make the sign of the cross on their forehead, lips, and heart. The Jews murmured about Jesus because he said, “I am the bread that came down from heaven,” and they said, “Is this not Jesus, the son of Joseph? Do we not know his father and mother? Then how can he say, ‘I have come down from heaven’?” Jesus answered and said to them, “Stop murmuring among yourselves. No one can come to me unless the Father who sent me draw him, and I will raise him on the last day. It is written in the prophets: *They shall all be taught by God.* Everyone who listens to my Father and learns from him comes to me. Not that anyone has seen the Father except the one who is from God; he has seen the Father. Amen, amen, I say to you, whoever believes has eternal life. I am the bread of life. Your ancestors ate the manna in the desert, but they died; this is the bread that comes down from heaven so that one may eat it and not die. I am the living bread that came down from heaven; whoever eats this bread will live forever; and the bread that I will give is my flesh for the life of the world.” **Reader:** The Gospel of the Lord. **All:** Praise to you, Lord Jesus Christ. *Everyone may be seated.* **Reflect on the Word** *When beginning the reflection and discussion about today’s readings, first refer to the handout for today. Ask teens what they learned about themselves and about Christian discipleship from performing the action for the week and journaling. Ask teens about the readings of the day: What struck them? What do they think the readings mean? How do the readings affect their own lives? Then begin the following reflection:* ▶ Have you ever felt misunderstood? How did that make you feel? Were you able to help people better understand you? Jesus is misunderstood by the crowd as he tries to explain exactly who he is. He wants them to know him and what he is all about. Jesus is the “living bread that came down from heaven,” and those who partake of him will never die. But the crowd cannot grasp this; they do not understand. They want to put Jesus in a box and tell him who he is. He is the son of Mary and Joseph. How can he be from heaven? The crowd only sees the human aspect of Jesus’ nature. They have experienced the miracles he has worked but they still do not recognize his divinity. They have observed him, but they do not *know* him. ▶ When have you been put into a box? In what ways might people your age be put into a box by others? Jesus does not want this confusion. “Please don’t assume things about me,” he seems to be saying, “I’ll tell you precisely who I am.” And what does he tell them? He says, “I am the bread of life.” A few weeks ago, we heard the Gospel reading in which Jesus miraculously fed five thousand people through the multiplication of a few loaves of bread. This miracle is fresh in the minds of the crowd. Jesus says that he is better than that miraculous bread. While the bread is limited in what it can do for a person and once it is eaten it is gone, Jesus has no limit. He is the living bread that brings life to the world. ▶ What sorts of things do we put our trust in that fade or fail? Is it bad to do this or are there some things that might be beneficial to us? Even with things that are good for us, like exercise, medicines, loved ones, and so on, putting our trust in them is limited; they can only do so much and last for so long. Jesus invites us to trust in him, who will never fail or be limited. Every time we receive the Eucharist, Jesus invites us to affirm that he is really present in it and is the Bread of Life. While the Eucharist may look like ordinary bread, composed of just wheat and water, it is far more than that. We must look beyond what we see outwardly and affirm our faith in what the Church proclaims: the resurrected Jesus is present in a real and substantial way in the Eucharist. There may be a temptation to say, “That’s just bread” or “The Eucharist is only a symbol.” Saying that would be like the words of the crowd in today’s Gospel. We know better. Jesus is trustworthy and he is who he says he is. What he gives us in the Eucharist is what he says it is: his own body and blood. This is what we put our trust in, this is who we offer ourselves to, so that we might share in the salvation Jesus offers. When we meet Jesus in the Eucharist, we should bring our authentic selves. We need not pretend we are perfect to receive the Eucharist. In fact, we shouldn’t pretend at all. Jesus was showing his true self to his followers, and as his followers today, we don’t have to be afraid to show our true selves to him. **Wrapping It Up** *Consider these points to conclude the discussion and reflection. Integrate the thoughts and ideas that surfaced during the discussion as well as the “Church Teaching Connection” on page 6.* Jesus is the Bread of Life, fully present in the Eucharist. People misunderstood Jesus at times and still misunderstand him today in regard to the Church’s teaching on the Eucharist. In the Eucharist, Jesus gives himself to us and we offer ourselves to God. **Act on the Word** **Who Said That?** *For this activity, you will need many slips of paper and a pen or pencil for each participant.* This is a group game that can be played as a large group or in several smaller groups. The minimum group number is four people but can easily accommodate up to about fifteen people. The goal of the game is to have fun while getting to know one another. The rules of the game are as follows: One person is the reader. This person will read a question from the list provided here, or you can create your own list of questions that are particular to your group. Each player, including the reader, will write a response to the question on a slip of paper and hand the paper to the reader. Once all papers are collected, the reader will repeat the question and then read aloud all of the responses. The person to the left of the reader is the guesser. The guesser chooses one response and matches it to one player. If the guesser is correct, the person who wrote the response is eliminated from the round and the guesser goes again. If the guesser is wrong, the person to the left of the guesser becomes the next guesser. The round continues until all of the participants have been correctly matched to their responses. The reader cannot guess. A point is awarded to the guesser for each correct match he or she makes. If there is time for more rounds, the reader can be replaced with another person. The goal of the game is to guess who said a certain response. The participants are free to answer the questions in their own way, with their own unique style. Guesses will be made based on assumptions about the people playing the game and how well everyone really knows each other! Allow for fun and community building as group members get to know one another even better. The questions: - Something Jesus would say to this group. - Not the name of a disciple. - Something you wouldn’t expect to find in the church parking lot. - Something that seems to take an eternity. - A church item you wished was also in your home. - Your favorite and least favorite foods. - Something you love about your church community. - Your dream vacation. **Closing Prayer** *Lord of life,* *you nourish us with Bread from heaven* *so that we may one day join you* *in your kingdom* *for the feast that will never end.* *Through Christ our Lord.* *Amen.* **For Next Sunday** *To help teens prepare for next Sunday’s Mass, print, email, or share on a blog or social media the handout found on the next page. The JPG and PDF files are available at www.ltp.org/lwgr. Encourage teens to attend Mass with family or friends.*
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The Cobra’s Apartment Is Disaster A Statewide Poetry Anthology South Carolina Arts Commissioners Chairman-Mr. Kenneth R. Brown, Columbia Ms. Elsa Turner, Rock Hill Ms. Rebecca Mays, Charleston Mr. John Davenport, Greenville Dr. Richard McMahan, Lexington Ms. Betty Jane Bramlett, Spartanburg Ms. Charlotte Cassels, Aiken Mr. James C. Edwards, Charleston Ms. Esther B. Moore, Georgetown South Carolina Arts Commission Rick George, Executive Director Scott Sanders, Deputy Director Suzette Surkamer, Arts Development Division Director Myrna Rodriguez, Arts Coordinator Joyce Huey, Support Services Division Director Fred Box, Public Information Bob Lowder, Graphic Artist Kay Phillips, Editorial Assistant Funding National Endowment for the Arts South Carolina Arts Commission Participating Schools/Districts THE COBRA'S APARTMENT IS DISASTER Statewide Poetry Anthology 1978-79 South Carolina Arts Commission 1800 Gervais St. • Columbia, South Carolina 29201 • (803) 758-3442 THE POETS Joanna Cattonar, Columbia, S.C. Grace Freeman, Rock Hill, S.C. Bryan Lindsay, Spartanburg, S.C. Ken McCullough, Columbia, S.C. Larry Moffi, Simpsonville, S.C. Bennie Lee Sinclair, Cleveland, S.C. Newton Smith, Tuckaseigee, N.C. William E. Taylor, Deland, Fla. Susan Thompson, Columbia, S.C. Thomas N. Walters, Raleigh, N.C. Tommy Scott Young, Columbia, S.C. THE PLAYWRIGHT Dick Goldberg, Columbia, S.C. PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS A. O. Jones School, Fort Mill Andrew Jackson High, Kershaw Arrington Elementary, Greenville Atlas Road Elementary, Columbia Campobello-Gramling Elementary, Campobello Cannon Elementary, Spartanburg The Catawba School, Rock Hill Chester Junior High, Chester Clinton Elementary, Lancaster Conway Elementary, Conway Daisy Elementary, Loris Dreher High, Columbia Duncan Chapel Elementary, Greenville Elloree Elementary, Elloree Elloree High, Elloree Erwin Elementary, Lancaster Ford Elementary, Laurens Fort Mill High, Fort Mill Gray Court-Owings School, Gray Court Heath Springs School, Heath Springs Hendrix Elementary, Inman Hickory Tavern School, Gray Court Holly Hill Elementary/Middle, Holly Hill Holly Hill High, Holly Hill Holly Springs-Motlow Elementary, Campobello Irmo High, Irmo Laurens District 55 High, Laurens Lewisville Middle, Richburg Morrison Elementary, Clemson New Prospect Elementary, Inman Pee Dee Elementary, Conway Pelham Road Elementary, Greenville Pendleton High, Pendleton Pine Street Elementary, Walhalla Pineview Elementary, Columbia Rawlinson Road Junior High, Rock Hill Sanders Elementary, Laurens Southside Junior High, Florence St. Anne's Catholic School, Rock Hill Sullivan Junior High, Rock Hill Townville Elementary, Townville Westminster High, Westminster Woodruff Elementary, Woodruff INTRODUCTION In writing a poem we learn to think anew, to cherish the unforeseen, and to know, to paraphrase E.M. Forster, that we will never know what we think until we see what we say. The poems collected here represent such a discovery. The authors included within are to be congratulated for having accepted the inspiration that so rarely comes to the rest of us. There is a smattering of genius in these pages. Mostly you will find insight, a mischievous and often ingenious play with language, as well as striking personal imagery. Just how the poems came to be written is a mystery to me. Some were "answers" to a variety of formal poetic exercises. But the imaginative connection that brought the poem to the page remains within the individual writer, which is as it should be. If these poems seem somewhat rough hewn first attempts at poetry, that is what many are. None of the nearly 3,000 students with whom I worked last year benefited from the sanctity of a room of one's own. All the poems in this anthology were written in class. I can think of very few poets who would submit to such an intrusion of creative privacy. The Muse has found a place in the classroom, and at last report she is doing just fine. Larry Moffi THE COBRA'S BITE The cobra's apartment is disaster. The enemy of man's leg. The enemy of man's nervous system. For the fangs of venom know That man's end is near. Dwayne Besser Grade 3 Morrison Elementary GRACE BEACHAM FREEMAN of Rock Hill is the author of *No Costumes or Masks*, a collection of poems which has gone through its second printing. A poet who has gained national recognition as a consultant in poetry as therapy, she read at the American Psychiatric Association’s 1979 National Convention in Chicago. She has been published in national magazines such as *The New Republic*, *Saturday Evening Post* and *Poet Lore* as well as the literary quarterlies of numerous colleges and universities. **SIDEWALKS** I remember sidewalks as the twine that tied families together in a neat package called a neighborhood. Boundaries we children clearly understood, sidewalks made us free to roam from home in growing stages, first to the house next door and right back. Later we would explore alone the whole inviting block, dare to knock wherever window sill or scent gave hint to ask for a drink of water but stay to sample cookies. Sometimes a sidewalk was the folk-tale string to bring out from the tangled dark of living or dying behind shut doors and windows a mother who borrowed a cup of flour but stayed to cry and talk way past her supper time and ours. Grace Freeman *Sandlapper*, January, 1979 RAIN Rain is like little Martians parachuting from Mars to see if they can live on earth. When they find out they can't, they send a signal to the sun and are evaporated right back up to Mars. Jennie Parsons Grade 7 Rawlinson Road Junior High I AM A TELEPHONE I am a telephone. People are always sticking their fingers in my eyes which have numbers in them and letters below. People yell into my ears and drop me in trash cans. Sometimes when I am mad, I make a ringing sound and they rip my head off and yell into me again! Scott Adickes Grade 6 St. Anne's Catholic School OWLS An owl is a bird who says "Who-o-o!" Owls sleep in the day and are awake at night to say "Who-o-o!" Owls live in trees or in grave yards and scare people with their brownish beige feathers and their yellow fireball eyes. An owl looks like it can turn its head all the way around like a top. group poem Grade 3 St. Anne's Catholic School THUNDER Thunder is a big band of mighty drummers pounding, pounding away on big bass drums. Thunder is an army of workers pounding on wood with hammers as they put the frame of a house together. Tony Fowler Grade 9 Rawlinson Road Junior High LONELY When I'm lonely I feel like a potato staying on the ground in a desert without water or trees in sight. I feel like the only goat on top of a mountain without grass or food to eat. I feel like the only one on the moon with no way to get back to earth. Ronnie McCrorey Grade 9 Rawlinson Road Junior High WHAT I'D LIKE TO BE I would like to be an ocean so I could roar like a lion. I would creep up on the shore and pound my feet. Regina Sweatt Grade 7 Sullivan Junior High WHAT BEING LONELY IS LIKE Loneliness is like a piece of candy left alone in a box and sticking to the bottom. It is like the only leaf so far to fall off of a tree. Loneliness is being best friends with someone when they find someone better to talk to. It is like the only star left in the sky falling to its final invisibility. Most of all, loneliness is a rejected child without a shoulder to cry on. Linda Lordo Grade 6 St. Anne's Catholic School PLIGHT OF THE ANIMALS The animals ate and drank and lived in the woods, perfectly innocent, doing nothing to offend us. But they are startled one summer morning as the roar and rumble of bulldozers and the cracking of great trees invades their seclusion. As the city grows and pushes forward the animals, once again, are forced to move on but this time there is no room left. Robert Berry Grade 8 Rawlinson Road Junior High LONELINESS Loneliness is like being locked up in a jar and no one knows you exist. Sometimes you just sit and cry like a baby in pain. Debra Marshall Grade 9 Rawlinson Road Junior High WISH I WAS A TREE I wish I was a tree so I could stand around all day and hear people talk and tell secrets. I would listen when they came to sit under my cool shade and talk about Places, People and Things. Most of all I would have someone to enjoy me. Marvin Wade Grade 9 Rawlinson Road Junior High TORNADO A tornado looks like a big funnel. It reminds me of a hard wind moving things all over from one place to another. A tornado feels like a broom sweeping me up and putting me down in some other place. Julie Parsons Grade 9 Rawlinson Road Junior High FALL Fall is my favorite time of year. The trees start to shiver and shake and lose all their leaves. The red, orange and brown leaves fall to the ground, making the yard look like an art museum. Donna Preslar Grade 7 Rawlinson Road Junior High LONELINESS Loneliness is like being the only eraser that hasn't been dusted or the prettiest dress in the store, but nobody wants you because you're too expensive. Loneliness is being the last day in February but you get left out because it is Leap Year or being the only hole in the cork board that's uneven. Carman Carter Grade 7 Sullivan Junior High WHIRLPOOL A whirlpool whirling, twisting downward, disappearing water, boats and rocks. A whirlpool is like an icecream cone being sucked from the bottom leaving nothing for anyone else. Diane Neely Grade 7 Sullivan Junior High SNOW Snow falls like small white feathers plucked from a chicken and gathers on the ground as children come out to play. Snow is cotton balls bandaging the frozen ground. Slowly it disappears as a ghost would and as it melts it leaves small lakes of crystal glass. Alan Waters Grade 8 Sullivan Junior High I AM A BUTTON Each morning when stars are faded polka dots and the day just dawning, I am taken off my wiry couch in the cramped living room of dresses and pushed through a short tunnel. At the edge, where the fresh sun shines through, I watch the free, windy world. Sadly, I wish to be a person, free and happy, instead of an unappreciated imprisoned button! Anne Elizabeth Murdy Grade 6 St. Anne's Catholic School LONELINESS Loneliness is being a clock without anybody to wind me if I stop, a chalkboard without anybody to write on me, a sun without any light to wake up everybody in the morning and a dog without a bone to hide. April Dilly Grade 7 Rawlinson Road Junior High OLD CHIMNEY A lone chimney in a wheat field beside a golf course. The house it served is already long gone. Only the chimney stands a gnarled and blackened finger pointing at the sky. Soon it will be gone, too. All things pass away forgotten. Brent Lanford Grade 8 Rawlinson Road Junior High I LIKE THE COUNTRY The air is fresh as flowers and silent as a person who can't talk. You can ride horses every day, eat porkchops every night. Where I live is great for all my relatives live next to us. It's not noisy and birds sing like the greatest singer in the world. Christine Adams Grade 4 St. Anne's Catholic School LONELINESS Loneliness is feeling like a lost particle of dust in a vacuum cleaner just cleaned and you were left, like a single grain of sand brought from the beach on a little boy's shovel or like a decaying egg lost under grass in an Easter basket just stashed in the attic. Mandy Brooks Grade 8 Sullivan Junior High BRYAN LINDSAY is an Associate Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences at the University of South Carolina at Spartanburg, where he teaches Music History and Art History while developing a band, chorus, and dance team. He is also active in the area of Gifted Education where he serves regularly as a consultant, workshop facilitator, and lecturer. He is widely published as a poet, short story writer, and essayist, with pieces appearing in Southern Poetry Review, Foxfire, Epos, Southern Humanities Review, Humanities Journal, to list a few. He is currently serving as Executive Secretary of the National Association for Humanities Education (NAHE). NOCTURNE following the soft sounds you brought up into the 3 AM darkness i crept under the sideshow tent of your too-tight eyelids and crawled past the cages of sleeping freaks on beyond the midway to where one light burned in the window of a boarded-up bungalow— there quietly i sat and watched an old alley cat calling her lost litter out of the trashcans as she cursed the well-fed tom purring through the rainstained glass. Bryan Lindsay ALONE AT THE BEACH Here I am, Alone at the beach. The sun is beating down on my back. I think I will run and try To escape from its powerful heat! Maybe the still, lonely water Would like a friend? I will go and see. The sea don't want me, I'll ask the sky to move One of the powder puff clouds over me. The cloud must be hot, For here the cloud comes to cool In the sea. All the clouds think he wants to play Follow the leader and follow. Then I am hidden in the clouds. I walk out of them and find Only fog... Tiffany Smith Grade 6 Sanders School ONE MAKE-BELIEVE NIGHT One night the moon stuck in trees Broken up by limbs Other trees grabbing out Reaching, coming Out for you! Plants growing Beyond nature's dreams Up to the size of telephone poles Ferns the size of houses Caterpillars the size of cars Eating, digging They are all coming for you! How can this be? —It is only a dream. Earl Wright III Grade 6 Sanders School TEN YEARS FROM NOW I might be the President Or sing a song called Pepsodent, Or either have a cow to ride Or either be a bandit and have to hide. Or I might be a fire alarmer, Or be a little farmer, But I have heard what they said, I can't be none of these 'cause I am dead!!! Robert Bigham Ford School FROM THE SKY All sorts Of things Come down from The sky Snowflakes like Goose-feathers Flutter And fly Wild wind like Grey geese go Whirling Around Moonbeams like Fireflies dance Over The ground Raindrops like Jewels fall Down on The meadow And last come the shadows Shadows Like shadows. Theresa Jones Ford School MY MIND IS FULL OF NUMBERS Every time I open my mouth A number comes out, Like this time I was talking to this man, And he asked me, "How old are you?" I said, "13," And he said, "Where do you live?" I said, "Rt. 1, Box 41, Enoree 29335." He asked me, "Is that all you think about is numbers?" I said, "Yes. Most of all I like Girls' phone numbers." And he said, "You are full of horse feathers!" I said, "No. I'm full of numbers." Vincent Jones Ford School GROWING Everyone's growing except me Even my dog is growing All of my friends are taller than I am I don't know what I'll do Maybe I'll become a hermit Or maybe I'll just stay in my closet Or maybe I could kill myself But I can't do any of these I'm scared of being by myself I've got clostophobia I'm scared of the pain I'll have before I'm dead Maybe I'll just wait until I grow Tyrus Pryor Ford School In the darkest corners of my mind There are words Words that I have stored away Since I was ten years old. One day they started fighting About who's going to tell me they want out. All of a sudden my head starts to throb The words start to fight — It's a real brawl And then the emotions join in I start to scream My heart stops I fall down (Sorry I didn't get to finish but I died because of a nervous breakdown.) Tyrus Pryor Ford School FUNDAY A merry-go-round of madness and nuttiness Surprizes popping up everywhere A Strawberry pie of chaos An angle of time A day of racing through the snow— Like a galaxy of diamonds. A day for a trip to the pot of gold At the end of a rainbow. A day for a ride on the rollercoaster of dreams A day of wheeling and dealing Through the pages of the future. Scott Thompson Grade 6 Sanders School MY WILD IMAGINATION One cold winter's morning While sitting on the porch I look toward the horizon And up out of nowhere Comes a big reddish-orange monster It must be a flying saucer I jump from my seat I start running Faster and faster I look behind me The flying saucer is getting larger Then I STOP! I look carefully at the saucer I laugh at myself I holler out loud, "I'm running from the SUN!" Robin Franks Grade 6 Sanders School THE EIGHT FEATHERED WINGS One day, sitting on the porch I saw a thing in the sky Eight feathered wings Which were pink with Two big eyes and One big beak Flying in the big blue sky The eight wings were flapping Up and down You would probably call it An Octobird. Tammy West Grade 6 Sanders School WHEN I WAS REAL SCARED I'm in my bed— Warm under the cover; I left my robe Hanging on the drawer's knob; Then I turn over . . . To the wall, And then turn over again— Back to the wall— My robe is a man!! He's going to creep and crawl . . . A-a—and GET ME! My knees start shaking, my Face turns white, Spiders crawling on my arm, I put my head under the pillow; My arm slowly cuts on— Night light; The robe is still there. Tammy West Grade 6 Sanders School MY EPITAPH Jimmy Wade Dougherty 1966-1999 He died when he fell from the moon For him it was too soon Instructions for my Funeral To My Mother Cremate me and put me in a blue vase on the coffee table and talk to me every night except on Saturdays because that's when you go off— just remember me, WILL YOU? Jimmy Wade Dougherty Ford School IF I WAS AN INVISIBLE GIANT ELEPHANT I can go anywhere I want to go Blow my trunk in San Fransisco Eat my grass in Kentucky Get a drink of water out of the Pacific Chew tobacco in North Carolina Spit it out in Old York Sleep in East, South, West, and North Carolina Oooops! Almost forgot dessert in Florida, Then start a new day. Earl Wright III Grade 6 Sanders School MY LIFE One year from today I hope That I'm out of the seventh grade — In five more years I should be out of school, And I won't have no boss — I could finally run my own life. I would buy my own four wheel drive truck And live in my own trailer. After I live the most exciting Part of my life And when I die I hope I'll go to heaven Where there will still be freedom. But if I might go to hell I hope it ain't too hot. Mike Smith Ford School When I was born The doctor and I did not get along He smacked me I was already cold It seemed like it was winter in there. When I got home everybody passed me From one person to another — I felt like a basketball drill. When they got through I was hungry. I cried But it did not seem to help. They thought I was wet But I was not. I kept on crying So they put a bottle in my mouth. It was not what I wanted But it was better than nothing. Patty Harris Ford School THE FIRE The fire light flickered in the night, Dancing shadows on the wall, Gave a whisper and a call, Making me able to remember all... Chris Maxon Grade 6 Sanders School LIFE IS Life is like the summer breeze That blows on a sunny morning. Life is like a beautiful swan, All white as the winter's snow. Life is like a Christmas morning When the children receive their toys, Life is like the smell of honey, All sweet and fresh, you know. But life will end — Then your spirit will float away. But do not worry Because your soul will always stay. Billy Joe Montgomery Ford School MY SHOES My shoes They look at me Strangely with those Big eyes And those long arms Sitting in the corner Staring at me Sometimes they scare me At night— Eyes looking at me At night— And those arms Reaching at ME! I just go to sleep, And I say to the shoes, "I am asleep! Good night!" Sheila Cunningham Grade 6 Sanders School In the darkest corners of our minds are basketballs, ice cream cones, Q-tips, Shoe laces, Dirty underwear, Books, Ear-rings, Comet, Old hamburgers, Lockers, Gym shorts, But best of all, Secret dreams & memories & special times. Marie Pulley and Lisa McCarter Ford School POET A funny jester who glides Through the jungle writing Down everything he sees. A person who drains his mind And fills it with wild and crazy ideas. He look like a two-hundred pound bowl of jelly Disco dancing. Steve Ramey Grade 6 Sanders School LARRY MOFFI holds degrees from Southern Connecticut State College, Trinity College, and the University of Iowa. He has worked in the S.C. Arts Commission’s Artists in the Schools program since April, 1978. His work was recently featured on South Carolina Public Radio. He is the author of *Homing In* (the Ridge Road Press, 1977). **A CERTAIN ORDER OF DIVINITY** No one believed Miss Ida Mac to be so hard as to burn birds or even the nasty bats that choose to roost in the bobbed blue hair of ladies of the church. The ladies of the church believed Miss Ida Mac to be a sister and a saint of the most uncommon order of divinity, though boys and dogs that kept safe distance had their doubts. The fault between the caste of dogs and a saint is doubtless great; and that between divinity and God, less than spitting distance. Miss Ida never spat, but she came close. The air was close the night she died, when the God-fearing coroner spat twice into his palm to rid Miss Ida’s corpse of any evil that might have entered before he cut her open. That interval between life and death is brief as life itself, they say, and what might enter a body’s soul to divert its flight from heaven is something like a second death. But worse. Miss Ida’s body shined, we’re told, her soul intact before it flew. But in the belly of her stove were later found charred remains: one bird, one bat, the dust and ash of Ida’s soul. Larry Moffi THE HAPPY SIDE OF LIFE Running through yellow rainbows and skies like having a carwash with your favorite boyfriend and your boyfriend wants to kiss so you kiss and then he says he wants to take you to the prom you begin to dream of the prom in store and you wonder what the devil you've got to wear the devil in you starts coming out and you start kissing you're kissing; running through yellow rainbows and skies like having a carwash. Julie McKee Grade 8 Southside Jr. High THE ANIMAL THAT GAVE OUT SOUND (after William Stafford) Gave the grasshopper power to sing like a nice day with autumn leaves. Gave to the wolf the skill to talk to someone like a cat scratching the paws on a rock. Gave to the tree confidence to work his leaves like a guitar string plucked in the winter air. Gave to a noisy boy a pile of bees buzzing around. Gave to the bird a feather, it was a gold feather that laughed like a ghost being tickled. Gave to the dog a bone the dog buried. Later when the dog started to dig it up, he scratched the bone and it made a sound like two rocks rubbing together. Ms. Thompson's 4th grade class Townville Elementary EARS My ears are so soft that rabbits love to play with my rabbit ears. They are red like red flowers in the park where kids play snake eyes. Sophia Barnes Grade 4 Erwin Elementary RED CHAIR Run red chair run. The house is like a jail. Let's go see a tree, the tree is your relative. He is a relative not yet sentenced to his doom. The paper factories. This relative will have his brains splintered there, into paper for humans to write on, or his brains will become a chair, table, or desk for humans to use to sit on, eat on, or write on. Run, red chair, run or the humans will slice your brains into a blue, purple or pink toothpick, chair run, leave your doomed planet, get out of the minority, trees, gather your brains, leave. Patty Wood Grade 8 Southside Jr. High AFTER A POEM BY JAMES WRIGHT I saw a shadow of a man and a shadow of a horse looking at each other. The man is writing something about the horse. The horse is staring at the man. It is confused. The man understands. The man and the horse both start walking down the road into eternity. Julia Burch Grade 4 Morrison Elementary MY POEM The oceans of lawyers begin to wave at the people in the jails of water who moan for freedom as they watch the ships of time sail by. Janet Wilson Grade 6 A.O. Jones School SOCIAL STUDIES The family extended itself together Not having any weather At all. And they didn't have any fall, Until one day when there came rain That solved the pain of the family that Extended itself together. The nuclear family without a mother Was odd. The oddest of all was the little boy, Todd, who sat in the snow and sucked His toe. Annie was Todd's sister who Often cried about her mother. Her father, So old, told her not to cry About the nuclear family without a mother. Polygamy is what happens to a man with so many wives That he like to have died. They buried him six feet under, Those wives did. They took his money And made themselves a bed. They put fish eyes and flowers around it. Polygamy is what happens to a man with so many wives. 6th grade class poem Townville Elementary INTOXICATED Drunker than a bird in a berry patch, Scared to do nothing, Your mind twisted into knot for you Are singing by yourself in a dark alley, And you dread the morning to Ever come. Moonshine, I say, moonshine in The night giving you your only Light for you have to walk home. Britt Hothersall Grade 10 Fort Mill High INSIDE MY BODY There was someone I know that got killed in a fire that I very much loved and when I see a fire I get scared and every one wonders what was wrong and I always kept it inside of my body. If I ever take that thing out of me it will be something as if I were free again and I can become a person but not a scared person as if I'm not scared and I'm happy again and that I don't have any thing that is scared in my body. Rose Randolph Grade 4 Townville Elementary HAWAII Hawaii is a sound that donkeys make when they hurt their ears. I'll tell you about a donkey who didn't like his ears so he stuck his ears out on the side and when he got to the barn and tried to go in he cut his ears on a nail on the side of the barn, and he made a sound like Hawaii. Jimola Witherspoon Clinton Elementary THE SOFTNESS OF FIRE The softness of fire is like a leaf falling as the water sings and lays in its bed and hums to the rocking of the ripple in it. Valerie Miller Grade 4 Duncan Chapel Elementary THE SONG OF THE ORPHAN I hear them crying in the room where they sleep like a waterfall sleeps in a drought. I look upon their faces drooping in the milk of their despair. As they were in the toy room they looked so lonesome they fell asleep and dreamed of being with their parents in a little house on a hill in the country. I wish that I could give them all a home like mine to satisfy their needs of love, which are great as a Cadillac on the streets of N.Y.C. on Christmas Eve in the 5:30 rush. Mrs. McCrorey's 7th grade class Chester Jr. High THE SECRET MUD PUDDLE The secret mud puddle I play in is a magic one. It said play in me, play in me. Tony Woods Grade 4 Erwin Elementary VARIATION ON A LINE BY RICHARD HUGO Isn't it wrong the way the mind moves back. The ocean's currents go up and back, pulled by the moon. The trees sway to and fro, the wind moves them, bending them, twisting them. A few of them break but most are strong, they snap back. They dare the wind to strike again. The wind doesn't care, it comes once more, more savage than before. It shows the trees who really rules them. The swings swing back remembering the child's face as it gleefully plays. Now its chains are rusted red, the seat rotten. The adults say how ugly they look. They've forgotten the days they played. Isn't it wrong the way the mind moves back. Teresa Rister Grade 10 Fort Mill High THE INVENTION OF GLASS Then the sparkle was a glimpse of Heaven as it shined like the sun. I looked across the wild blue yonder and listened to the shattering sound pounding in my ears. Hope Clayton Grade 7 Chester Jr. High WAITING ON SATURDAY On Monday I would get up in the morning feeling like an elephant that just stepped on a mouse and on Tuesday I would get up and feel like a monster that just got finished splashing in a puddle of water and on Wednesday I would feel like an ant that just got stepped on and on Thursday I feel like a school teacher however she feels and on Friday I feel like myself. But on Saturday I feel like a new girl and I would get dressed and cut wood with my grandfather. Mandi Merritt Grade 6 A.O. Jones School INSIDE A SKATEBOARD I went into a skateboard. It was so pretty. Pretty as red blood and pretty beautiful flower, as pretty as an Indian. It looks like blood vessels and red cherries and pretty as strawberries and pretty as a purple muscadine and like a heart I went into. A vine that shares its love through someone else like me. William Jones Grade 4 Erwin Elementary THE CREEK WANDERS The creek wanders around the trout Occasionally bumping into But not apologizing. The creek leans against the banks Then dances As if uncertain of the steps. Dana Hosper Grade 12 Westminster High AT THE END OF MY MIND The house at the end of my mind, Was old, scary and sad; The looks on its face were very unhappy. Teardrops were dropping out of his eyes; I thought a moment to myself, That if I could make that house happy. So I went inside that old house. I tried to make it very tidy; And I saw a painting on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call that piece a wonder, now: Sharon’s Hands worked busily a day, and there she stands. Will it please you to sit and look at her? I said, “Sharon, by design, for never read strangers like you that pictured countenance. The depth and passion of its earnest glance. But to myself they turned . . . Terrilyn Brown Grade 7 Southside Jr. High MISS DOUGLAS’S HOUSE The chimney feels hot, the roof feels like a pony’s tail is hanging down long wagging, doing nothing to her knees. The windows feel cold without frames, always fussin’ in the morning breeze. The door feels helpful and good and open to us. The living room feels like the mother of the house alive, soft, and comfortable and relaxed as a baby. The kitchen feels important to us because it’s pretty as a silent rose. The garage feels big and protective as a boyfriend’s butter knife. Someone tore the house down and put a circus in its place. We feel sad as a duck without a girlfriend. We want to say good-bye, so long house, friend. Miss Douglas’ Class Lewisville Middle School MIRROR In case you can't control yourself Don't look at the mirror The crack was placed there years ago To please the rugged landlord. Walking in the weather worn town He found himself a mistress, but Don't look in the mirror Her lips are like a fire. This man held a prisoner In his lighthouse tower Don't look in the mirror The skeleton appears there This man finally won his lottery He drew the dot starred paper Don't look in the mirror He's hanging there. Nanelle Stokes Grade 12 Westminster High YOU DON'T KNOW You don't know do you, people come up to me and say something to me and they don't finish the story and ya say well what else and they say ya don't know do ya, and ya keep on asking them what else happen and all they say ya don't know do you Danny Smith Grade 11 Westminster High ABOUT MY EYES My eyes are dark as night. When it storms my eyes light up. When it's morning my eyes are dark as a dark shadow and my eyes are big as a car, and my eyes can see roads run. Johnny Baskins Grade 4 Erwin Elementary THE MEANING OF SHYNESS Susan is a little shy girl who lives in the big city of New York. She didn't have many friends in the city. When she saw someone she would become afraid with fear, and sweat rolled on her face, and her blood pressure would rise and she would run to her room in their small apartment. Then that person would think they did something to her. That person would carry a burden on them for several days or months or weeks or even years. Angie Belk Grade 4 Erwin Elementary ALWAYS THE SAME My old house on Marshall Street, The light on in the hall, The dust on the furniture in the living room, The dirty dishes in the kitchen sink, The newspaper on the bathroom floor, The stereo blasting behind the closed door in my room, The cold chill of winter outside, The dead plant on the window sill, The old heater rattling and rocking as it comes on, My sister's empty room, My brother's muddy shoes on the backporch, The condensation on the window, I love my English teacher at school, she always understands. My father thought I lied about my wrecked car, The mailbox broken on the frontporch, The little boy from next door playing in the backyard. It's always the same. Russ Smith Grade 10 Fort Mill High THE MIRROR SINGS The mirror sings a lullaby So soft and catchy The words fall into place like soldiers. The soldiers walk in steps that say hi to the loved ones when they say bye. When the soldiers walk by the graveyard The steps were soft as a troop of ants. They marched by the old folks home and They cried and cried. They marched for days and nights. Soon the soldiers' march came to an end, but when they were finished there was a very blue sky. Robby Culp Lewisville Middle School WESTMINSTER We've got five red lights that flash Yellow at ten o'clock when the town dies And everyone's wide open on the lake We've got the law in restaurants Feeding its crooked face And flirting like chickens picking at corn. Last week the bank was robbed And the robbers got away Like a pig on the wing of a buzzard. We've got Sunday rides to Boatrite four wheelin' And the slingin' of the mud We've got Uncle Joe with his spirits In that red & white Eldorado With spittin' duals running out the back We've got the All Night Station All night, all day in our town Selling everything that you need for your needs. Mr. Corley's 5th period class Westminster High NOTHING NOTHING Nothing nothing is the creak That I hear, Nothing nothing is the shadow On the wall. Nothing nothing are the voices Outside. Nothing nothing are the footsteps In the hall. Just nothing, nothing. Molly Thornberg Morrison Elementary UNTITLED I'm thinking of my pocket with girls in it. The girls are tickling my leg. They are playing a joyful game named "pick a lover and give a cover." The girls names are Judy, Laverne, and Renee. They are midgets. The midgets were magicians, they built a ladder and climbed out. I was lying on the bed and they got out of my pocket and danced on my stomach. Leon Randolph Grade 7 Townville Elementary SAD ROSES A vase full of sad roses They were gazing at one another They were shaking like a machine They were dying inch by inch They were shaking like a machine They were gazing at one another They were setting on a sturdy table They were shaking like a machine They were gazing at one another And they were all alone They were shaking like a machine They were gazing at one another Anna Lee Grade 8 Westminster High THE BEGINNING At the beginning, time frosted my young life aglow as cream rising on buttermilk. I tossed in my ferocious bed and dreamed of life scars. At the beginning, life began with the cry of a baby during the night. I ran to tell of the shabby thing. As the beginning began I wrote of the ferocious bed in my room. Outside stood a colt learning to walk and dread what the morning holds. Mandy Phillips Grade 8 Westminster High FLIGHT (after Ann Sexton) You are a four footed wing that flies into silence like the last gunshot of an old rusty war. You float like whip cream on top of the pie that has just landed from a heavenly flight. Now you glide through that peppery air that cut deeply into your hair. You fight your way into the night like the distant and solemn moon that cries for freedom. Glenn Ham Grade 9 Southside Jr. High INVENTION OF A WINDOW The invention of a window, Why is it there? It is like someone had got a hand of sand from the oceans and put it together to form a large seeing glass for the world to see the out from the in, as if some animals or vision had come to you and told you what was going on in the world near or around you. Lana Castro Grade 6 A.O. Jones School ROBBERS Sneaky robbers, creepy robbers. They can be creeping In your home. Don't go anywhere with your Door unlocked. Missy Porter Grade 3 Duncan Chapel Elementary MY GIRL My girl likes to eat I am so happy I am so cold Kendra Dendy Grade 2 Townville Elementary I LIKE A GIRL I like a girl dog Her name is Cindy She eat bone. Anissa Grade 2 Townville Elementary MY PARENTS My parents are like a free ticket to paradise. Like a warm ray of love from God. Like the first heartbeat of a baby. I love them so; how I love them. Chris Brown Grade 6 Heath Springs School I HEARD I heard a sound in the man's pocket It was the sound of green soft money, as he went down the dusty road. As he went down the dusty road all was to be heard but the sound of the nice whispering sound of the green money. James Hurst Grade 9 Westminster High IN AN OLD TIME In an old-time melodrama Where the actors only acted hilarious And where the directors were conscientious The shows always showed the villain as brusque And the hero as brave. Now things have changed. The good guys can be intimidating Or the bad guy can be noble. Jan Smith Grade 10 Fort Mill High THE LONGEST NAME Way down low maybe below the ground, this girl lives. Her name is the longest name in the world. This girl is very pretty, she looks like a happy red flower. Her hair is gold as cornsilk. She would ask herself everyday, should I stay here anymore? Her little home was very nice, it had wings to fly, anywhere she wanted to go. Everytime you see the sun you will remember the girl with the longest name in the world. Lisa Pressley Grade 7 Westminster High ODE TO MY PENCIL I respect my pencil for it is not a pencil, it is a mass of water flowing endlessly into a dark jungle. It ends only at the end of eternity, rushing endlessly angry, angry as the fire of hell, hot as the pavement on a summer day, never to stop till the end of the universe. Never to stop. Wesley Fredsell Grade 5 Duncan Chapel Elementary MY BIKE Riding my bike it feels like I'm going to the moon. The moon gives the prettiest light in the world. It shines up ahead. The sky gets black. It's so pretty I can kiss it. Jane Starnes Clinton Elementary AFTER A LINE BY JAMES DICKEY The air split. Birds began to fall. Nowhere came to be seen, Then a wall, Then another wall. It almost seemed To be heaven. Flowers and birds Guarded the gates. Bodies began to rise up. I became scared, I turned and ran, I fell over a rock . . . I was one of the Bodies rising up. Mariette Pieters Grade 6 Morrison Elementary THE STALKER In the dense bushes He prowled, His hunger imperative, Poised to strike. Watching his prey In the dense bushes Ready to run, His ability ready to perfection. His hunger imperative, He watches the prey Start to drink In the dense bushes. He moves ever closer Stalking and watching, His hunger imperative. He runs and he leaps. But he misses by not much In the dense bushes, His hunger imperative. Mike Wit Chester Jr. High I AM I am a million dollars in the hands of a thief. I am the loveboy kissing the Queen of England, becoming the King. Willie Wat Grade 8 Townville Elementary RISE OF SINS The rise of sins' shadows creeped up the dark tall mountains with a face of threat and harm. It made its way through the land and lives throughout the day. Cindy Saverance Grade 7 Southside Jr. High EAR DOG The ear of a dog is all red with hair all in it and an earring clipped on the ear. He scratches and scratches but it won't come off. Sharon Hester Grade 6 A.O. Jones School A SINGING TREE It is an eye of a tree and that gets me out of bed when I can't sleep and I sing me a song and each night it sings me a song. Michael Duncan Grade 5 Duncan Chapel Elementary THE TORNADO The tornado arrives like a young man dancing with blue pants and shirt and with small shoes twirling about so wildly and neatly scratching the floor with fast twists. The music is strange and very loud and exciting. Jeff Hilliard Grade 6 Heath Springs School LOVE TREE There was a man and a woman, they saw this big tree and they both went to the tree and a heart fell. The man looked at the heart and said we have discovered love and the woman said Oboy. Billy McAdams Grade 4 Townville Elementary THE HEART The heart is building a house in our body. It has a moon in our body. It has a sun that shines all the time. But your heart never stops building that house. In morning to the evening the heart is still building. Greg Cooper Grade 4 Erwin Elementary THE MOON The moon arrives like a monster above my bedroom window. The moon looks at me very mean. It hates me. It puts a dark chill over my body. The moon is bad luck. I hate the moon. It is ugly. It hates people. Samantha Thompson Grade 6 Heath Springs School THE GREAT PUMPERNICKLE The Great Pumpernickle machine eats clothes. Yes, he loves to eat clothes. He eats blouses, skirts, dresses, and pants. You better watch out or he'll leave you naked. He's creeping around and looking for you. You better watch out or he'll eat your shoe. He's dining in the clothes store. He's crawling on the floor. This craving makes him say, "More, more, more! Chuck Ussery Grade 6 Heath Springs School THE BEE, THE TREE AND THE BIRD A bird, a red bird of a sort. A bee, a mean bee of course. Convinced to use a blade so harsh. A tree, a green tree of a sort. The bird had been free To live in this tree Until the mean bee Moved into the tree. Eric Taylor Grade 3 Duncan Chapel Elementary VARIATION ON A LINE BY JAMES SEAY Each Sunday from my window I sit and watch the stars shoot by and the thunder become quiet and lightening stay still and the sun goes to sleep and the moon waking up. And I dream of the heavens as I fall deeply in love with sleep. Vicki Gibson Grade 6 A.O. Jones School LOVE I stand in front of the mirror, and she looks back at me with joy and happiness. I watch her come close to me and I smile at her, and she smiles back at me. Her clothes are crystal clear, the hair is long and silky. She comes closer and points for me to let her inside of me. She wraps her arms around. But I'm afraid of her, but I shouldn't be. Because she is love. She doesn't hate or kill. She is beautiful. I accept her into my heart, and her love is now my love. Angie Adams Grade 8 Heath Springs School THE LAST NOTE The story of the dead boy as poor as a mud house on a lonely cold night in a casket sleeping on a haybed of bristles. He was lonely as shoes without socks. The story of the dead boy Goes on to say his soul went to the "widder-man" on Fantasy Island on a lonely cold night in a casket. He tried to fill his need but couldn't succeed with a young lady. The story of the dead boy fades away like a love note burning in a fire in a mansion in Ohio. On a lonely cold night in a casket. I'm tired of this dead boy who could never talk. Let him fade on a lonely cold night in a casket. Mrs. Edmunds' Class Chester Jr. High I CAN FEEL GOD'S PRESENCE All the children are excited. Prayers are prayed by the women. They pray our boys will not be in combat. Children are skating on frozen water, and cookies are being baked by the women. The family is excited when they see little tin soldiers in combat. Mark Simpson Grade 6 Lewisville Middle School THE WIND The animal that tasted the smell of my life tasted the smell of nothing but trouble. It was bad, pretty very bad like a barn of wet hay at midnight. When the rain stopped the wind blew harder, harder and harder like 1000 flies rushing over the cold gumdrops of dew in the morning. 5th grade class poem Townville Elementary MARS Mars is a far away fairytale to most everyone. People talk about little green men, but they won't persuade themselves to believe in them. People who are in the looney hospital believe in them, and some of them think that they have been to Mars or seen little green men. People who have some sense won't let themselves believe. They are scared to think that there is life on another planet, that may be of threat to this planet. Sometimes I think crazy people aren't all that crazy, because they face up to reality like Mars and little green men. Ruthanne Jolly Grade 7 Campobello-Gramling Elementary THE INSANE PERSON This is a picture of my room nothing but a black hole nothing but darkness and it is lonely in here where I am. They feed the leftover from the guards and workers. I tried to escape but I couldn't so I am still here in my black hole. Mike Carroll Grade 7 Townville Elementary EVERY POET NEEDS ONE I always remind the Poet to offer what she's eating cross her t's dot her i's. Mamie Snider Grade 10 Ellorree High THE FACTS OF LIFE OF FLOWERS In May the flowers bloom And French women have love fever. In the day the women work But at night they go wild! I know you know I speak French, But if you speak it you know it. I love the French women I know every one in Paris, And they know me too. I know they love me, Because they're around me Right now. Stephen Smoogen Grade 4 New Prospect Elementary REFRIGERATOR Milk, eggs, jelly, Coke, cheese, beans, meatloaf, bread, butter, what a way to please each other. Steak, pizza, liver. Todd Carrouth Grade 9 Fort Mill High SMALL PEOPLE The small people standing just beyond the window waiting for the bus, their brown clothes stand out. You notice them in a snap. The people are just standing there, not doing one thing at all. They are just standing there, the ground below them stands still, the sky above them stands still. Just beyond them stands a road; it's still also. I hear them whisper in the wind, "I love you." Their love is passionate, their love is true, their love is also beautiful. Here comes the bus, their world has driven away. Shannon Valentine Grade 6 Hendrix Elementary THE WORLD OF DONKEYS In Donkey City donkeys walk Happily home — the men in coats The color of grass, and ties. The shape of pumpkins The women dress in sissy dresses. When they pass each other They hee "Hello" and haw "Goodbye." In Donkey Country donkeys grow Bigger and bigger tomatoes. And babies and puppies, too. They all dress in brown And gray because they're poor. When two donkeys pass In the country they speak Spanish — "Adios Amigos" Ms. Necker's 2nd grade class Campobello-Gramling Elementary A CAMP FIRE It is 12 o'clock, a new day and the sun is shining so brightly, like a camp fire in the black night. A cold day in the winter time with everyone outside sung together like a camp fire in the black night. Once I was walking, walking so fast I saw some leaves burning like a camp fire in the black night. It was on a summer day, but still so cold, so I snuggled up with heavy fur, like a camp fire in the black night. James Jordan Grade 6 Woodruff Elementary THE SONG OF THE STARS We are the stars which sing, We sing with our light; We are the birds of fire, We fly over the sky. Our light is a voice; We make a road for spirits, For the spirits to pass over. Among us are three hunters Who chase a bear; Where never was a time When they were not hunting. We look down on the mountains This is the song of the stars. Bruce Hammett Grade 6 Holly Springs-Motlow Elementary HANDBALL (a painting by Ben Shan) There are six boys playing handball, two boys are watching and the others are playing. There are buildings, houses, and stores. Boys scoring points. They are playing on a brick wall. They are playing for a world record. I am trying for a record. I am trying for a record and I hope you will too. Brian Emery Grade 5 Campobello-Gramling Elementary THE MEADOW IN THE MEADOW There's a woman in the meadow and she is thinking about an angel in the sky. She wishes to go there when she dies. And some birds went flying through the air and then she saw a flower in the meadow and picked it up and said, this flower I'll keep. Paulette Hall Grade 5 Campobello-Gramling Elementary PICTURE I see a girl in white, dancing under her golden crown. She floats in space against the blackness. As she dances I feel myself inside her graceful body and we both dance together at once in the emptiness of the field. We all feel lonely as we walk alone through the dark green of the dew. Ms. Hammet's 6th grade class Holly Springs-Motlow Elementary BUTTERFLY Now the butterfly has awakened and is flying around. Now the butterfly is flying among the cowbells and is listening to the sweet chimes that they make and the other animals around are listening to the sweet chimes also. Now it is dark and in the background you can hear someone playing a guitar and someone singing. Now you can see a flame from an open fire and now it is getting late and you can hear people saying good-night. Nancy Rhodes Grade 6 Woodruff Elementary PERSUASION Try to persuade the flowers to move and the wind to blow them far away and the rocks to move back where they came from and the sun to just shine on the earth, the tree to stop being noisy and take a bath with the wind. When you get out get one of what you can and put them in a museum and persuade them to do what you want them to. Pamela Fowler Grade 4 Cannon Elementary I'M HAPPY I am happy being a pumpkin with my green hat on top of my fat orange body sitting in a tree as tall as I am. All I want now is a honey with a good sense of humor, a smile, a good body, a good stem and a candle to light me up. Ms. Gaither's 6th grade class Campobello-Gramling Elementary MOVING ON WITH THINGS Moving means exploring around and seeing what's around you and seeing what is happening around you. The trees have red leaves in the fall and it's like having a giant box of colors and a book about the land of colors, dark and light with trees and sea and houses, dark people and light people with cars, boats, and farms and trees with cherries and ten pounds of grapes. Dickie Simmons Grade 5 Hendrix Elementary GRADADO I like to go to Gradado. People say they make corn liquor down there. I would like to meet these people who are very far off and like to know how they make it. I guess they are just old timey. Randy Guillens Grade 7 Campobello-Gramling Elementary HERE They bring the roses of my garden to my house. They step on the steps, knocking on the door. I answered the door in a great mood for love. They pulled the roses from their backs and gave them to me. It felt like giving me a ring on our wedding day. They said, "Bye!" and ran out down the street. I never saw them again. There I was standing, In front of my house, with roses in my hand. Beverly Gillespie Grade 6 Woodruff Elementary THE WOODEN BOY Sitting like a tree on a table in the shop in a corner of the woods down the road peacefully quiet and thinking of loving a goddess of sweetwood, maple and cedar. Ms. Lolley's 5th grade class Cannon Elementary THE FAMILIAR FACE Suddenly I felt something on my face, but I didn't know what was wrong, so I went to see. I found a speck of ketchup right on my cheek. I got it off, and then what did I see? Someone just like me. I touched him and he touched me; I moved, he moved. I went on my way, I stepped about twice. And then what did I see? Another just like he and me. Charles Woodruff Grade 6 Woodruff Elementary A GIRL IS A FLOWER I know a girl as pretty as a flower or a bee. She is so pretty she can float in the sky and stop on a cloud to watch a bird. Dean Halford Grade 4 Campobello-Gramling Elementary THE REDCOATS WHO NEVER CAME I see giant people with one leg each. They just seem to stand there like they all just froze in their tracks. There are so many they look like an army that froze at Valley Forge. They saw their own kind dead. They bundled their feet in blankets. They could see each other all so brave waiting and waiting for the warm dressed redcoats, but they never came and this army never left. Craig Davis Grade 5 Hendrix Elementary FORK It is an eagle's claw that is trying to catch me. It came out of nowhere for revenge. It is a shark in the deep deep deep red sea of hell. The shark is a devil trying to catch me and kill me for revenge. It is now a COBRA! It is trying to stab me for revenge. It is now your fingers trying to knit or sew. It is a spider trying to make its web. It is in the universe, it shines at night like little lanterns lighted up with pointed ends. It shines upon the earth that has pointed ends trying to burn me. It gives us light. It gives us life. It grows up plants. It helps us to find our way when we are lost. It is our source of energy. Gita V. Patel Grade 5 Hendrix Elementary THE WAR Clark's uncle was in the war. He saw men fall to the grass. He wanted to go back to work. At the end he stood like an eagle. Bill Jackson Grade 6 Holly Springs-Motlow Elementary UNTITLED My brother loves to walk around our big house in the tall green grass, with our big pet eagle and forget about work. Jimmy Grade 6 Holly Springs-Motlow Elementary PLAIN SONG FOR MY MOTHER after a line by David Wagoner You are a hard worker mom and you work too much it makes me sad as you say you are digging your own grave one day it will be finished and you will be finished too it is sad that you are gone but before long I will be gone too just like you James Alvin Staggs, Jr. Grade 5 Holly Springs-Motlow Elementary YOUR POCKET It's a baby crying. It is a circle dying. It is the sun or the moon high in the sky. It's a dark hole in your yard. It is a junk yard without junk. Or a barn with no end. A tub with a block at the end. How do you know what it is? A plane without a motor? A tent with no roof? What is it, do you know? Guess, guess, you don't know... Johnny Tanner Grade 5 Hendrix Elementary THE LOVE OF THE SEA As the sun rises behind the sea, the sky is filled with colors of the sun, and a boy and a girl watch it as it rises slowly falling in love with the prettiness of the still sea and the beautiful sunset behind it. Soon the sun is all the way up in the sky and the sunset is gone. The sea sits there still with the reflection of the sun on it, while the dolphins and whales turn flips in the water far off into the sea. Diana Stahley Grade 5 Cannon Elementary THE SOUND OF CRYING As the sound comes over the mountain with blue birds gliding over it, the sound of a woman or child crying. As that sound reaches my ears and echoes through the valley across the field, the sound of a woman or child crying. That sound makes me feel like hiding, but I stay where I am and continue to listen to the sound of a woman or child crying. I run to help that person, but as I reach to help, it is only a tin can in the breeze making the sound of a woman or a child crying. Tammy Melton Grade 6 Woodruff Elementary BUTTON HOLE It's a lion's mouth with the trainer's head that is shaking like a leaf on a tree that is crumbling. The lion shuts his mouth and the man screams and his scream fades away. Artie Quinn Grade 5 Hendrix Elementary BEAR Brown is the bear who lies in the waters while the blue sea flows down the river bank gently and smooth and the green grass in the background grows like cities and the sun shines so bright like the brightest light and the grass so green and the eyes of the bears so black oh how I want to be a bear Demitra Young Grade 4 Cannon Elementary VARIATION ON A LINE BY WILLIAM STAFFORD Tonight in my secret town I will listen to a deaf dog. He will bark very loud. He will bark at the deaf moon. It is very yellow and pretty. It will die sooner or later. Mark Fisher Grade 6 New Prospect Elementary VARIATION ON LINES BY WILLIAM STAFFORD & RILKE Tonight in our Secret Town Life is walking around, Which, of course, is a very white liquid in a saucer without a cup. Three friends and I drank its liquid And lived on and on until... Tonight in our secret town Death is roaming around, Which, of course, is a very black liquid in a cup without a saucer. Three friends of mine drank its liquid, but no, not I. Timmy Williams Grade 6 New Prospect Elementary RAVENEL I want to go on a ride on the big ravenel to a lost place where the big ravenel took my friends so I can be with them. I want to go on a ride with the big ravenel. Clara Miller Grade 7 Campobello-Gramling Elementary THE UNKNOWN He is the man who is Unknown He needs the love which there is none of He is the snake which does no harm but is killed because of hatred He is the sheep which is slaughtered by the wolf He is the horse whose leg has gone lame He is the man who is Unknown Sammy Pratt Grade 7 Campobello-Gramling Elementary BENNIE LEE SINCLAIR is author of two books of poems, *Little Chicago Suite* and *The Arrowhead Scholar*, and is recipient of the 1978 Winthrop College Excellence in Writing Award for Poetry. She and her husband, potter Don Lewis, live in the mountains of South Carolina near Cleveland. **AUREOLE** Into the shaded yard a stroke of sunlight falls upon the small white hen, causing her to glow there among the dark hedges. And, though it is only the everyday sun and the chance of her being just there, the curious effect as she stands tactfully, aglow, is that such art is her own, the radiance her making. Bennie Lee Sinclair TALLULAH GORGE Swirling white waters At the bottom of a green and gray gorge Thousands of feet down the waters move white And gather in dark, deep pools Waters leaking from the walls of green Crashing on the rocks of gray The mist of the early morning Easing through the air beneath The air cool and fresh The soft sounds of waterfalls far below This one of nature's wonders Caresses my mind and cleanses my soul. Paul Sins Grade 10 Irmo High School DAY OF SUN Summer begins here Green expanses of yard Stretch to the river All sound lost in the sight Sails and waves Cut by ski wake Pounded by sun and surf Take a swim Leaping arcking dive into the pool Emerging into the sun Sun beating your shoulders Controls the sky dominates you Responsibility is lost like the breakers on the shore Haze in the light the golden light that turns you the same Summer begins here comes to me again. Alex Nelson Grade 10 Irmo High School THE TWIN TOWERS Towering about the confusion of Manhattan In their steel and plexiglass glory Making the rest of the Empire State Feel inadequate in comparison The World Trade Center Twin guardians of New York Reach above the filthy smog And give a breath of fresh air To the fortunate few on top. John Komlosy Grade 10 Irmo High School UNTITLED Oh, how my family has moved, from place to place, from east to west. My grandparents' home stays the same, with the smell of old from long ago. It has always seemed safe, with Grandma's preserves and Grandpa's stories. I've watched the pecan trees grow, and helped harvest their crop, and smelled them roast. But maybe the security comes not from these things alone, but from people who make that house their home. Marshanne Blackwell Grade 10 Irmo High School THE MAGIC BOX A boy in China we often see One day he drifted off to sea Fish all day to only find But one sacred turtle who bit his line He said a prayer and let him go Back to the Ocean where he could grow The God was pleased so he sent a girl Blessed with beauty, jewels, and pearls They both rowed the boat from time to time Back to the Island where life was fine Three years had passed on Ura's clock But back in China he was in for a shock He left from the Island his parents to see But the Beautiful lady did not want him to leave She gave him a box said not to open He would find his way back as she was hopin He did not listen an opened instead Turn 400 years old and found himself dead Jon Freeman Irmo High School NEWTON SMITH is published widely in poetry magazines such as *Southern Poetry Review, Carolina Quarterly, Foxfire, Ann Arbor Review*, and *St. Andrews Review*. A former professor of English at Western Carolina University, Smith now owns an advertising agency in the mountains of North Carolina. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. **A Father Confesses** It’s their eyes and the softness of their flesh— as if filled with warm water, a bathtub splashing with toys and little squeals. They cry, Faces wet and red. I hold their wetness to me, their warm yielding bodies like hot water bottles. I remember rocking: late nights singing to a sleepless child songs of the world I want for them. “Let me sing you a song about the world you’ll own,” I whisper as I kiss them in their sleep dreaming— dreams I’ll never know. They grow: bodies firmer, their eyes more fire than water. Still I hold them to me burning as they slip away. I hold them close, dear bodies, warm comfort, a solace humming against the ache of an aging world and the night’s bad dreams. Newton Smith SPRING WATER The glittering of the water Moss clinging to the rocks Sand particles flowing away Weeds bent by rushing water. The sound of stillness lies in the air, and a rainbow flowers along the bank. Barbara Brock Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary WATER HOSES Like hundreds of wild rattlesnakes, Hissing, In hot weather they come and Attack. They are so calm until Someone comes up and touches them. The sprinkler is like spitting Cobras Circling around and around and around. They bite coldly. Kathy Quinn Grade 5 Pelham Road Elementary THE WIND When the wind blows like sea waves And when blossoms fall, The wind will pick them up And then blow them across the plains And it will smell like roses And look like snow. Then trees bend over To the ground Like brooms sweeping All day, in and out. Angie Clinkscales Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary EMPTY BOWL Bare Holds nothing within it Blow into it It blows back It's there Yet, it is not. It stares at you And dares you To stare at it Here is an empty bowl That holds nothing in it. Catherine Kirby Smith Grade 4 Pelham Road Elementary OLD LADY Old lady rocking back and forth Screeching and yelling and cussing at the people around her. Old lady rocking back and forth Blind lady does not know who she is talking to and talking about. Old lady rocking back and forth Sitting in her second childhood going crazy. Angie West Grade 4 Arrington Elementary VOICE Her voice was like an old piano key. She was a woman in tune with people. But now I can't hear the harmony of her voice going through my ears nor the gentle sound of her shoes walking down the scale of stairs. Barbara Brock Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary AN INSIDE WONDERLAND Crops of gold and silver. The air smells sweet and fresh. Ponds of clear water. Fish of silvery scales. This place is silent. This place is a dream world. Bobby Dover Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary MY DEAD GRAY GRANDMOTHER Oh grandmother, Gray grandmother, why did you die? Can you smell the roses, can you see the roses, can you feel the roses? My grandmother, Gray grandmother, loved children like roses, and I loved her, and she loved me. Monica Williams Grade 4 Arrington Elementary ALONE IN THE WORLD I feel nothing around me. It's like a dark, dark cloud that I can't escape from. All I can do is look straight ahead until my dream is gone. Susan Cobb Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary FIREFLY A little light is going by. It's going up to the sky, a little light with wings. I never could have thought of it, to have a little bug all lit and made to go on wings. Mandy Moody Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary PLOWING Plowing the earth is like unzipping a dress, so plants can grow, and open up and reach for the sky. Missy M. Younce Grade 4 Arrington Elementary MY DEAD GRANDPA When I look at pictures of him, I have a feeling that I know him. He looks like a piece of peppermint with a tie. He had grey hair like real silver. He had a pot belly. He looked like me. His glasses looked like steam rollers coming at you. That is my Grandpa. Kelly Rainey Grade 4 Arrington Elementary MEANESS This old man was mean as the Devil when he was cast out of heaven. His eyes were like pinballs, his nose was like an arrowhead, His voice was very mean and gravely He was also too well fed. He didn’t like to travel much, not even into town. All he did was stay at home and try to cut you down. One day he found an alligator in his carburator Then after all these years, he was finally chewed out. Stephen Newton Grade 4 Arrington Elementary THE COUNTRY The United States sits on that globe and goes round and round as if it were on a basketball player’s fingertip spinning on its axis. And the player’s face is the sun shinning on the spinning earth. Johnny Parker Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary THE DEVIL’S SWEATING Water from the morning dew Like the devil’s waking And beginning work, Sweat coming from below— Cool water. Ronnie Vargnolle Grade 4 Pelham Road Elementary DRAGONFLY The little fly is flying with a paint set on his back Painting the sky so blue, The grass green, All beautiful colors for me and you. Lynn Tripp Grade 3 Pelham Road Elementary CORNER Dark and cool Brown with shadows around Small and empty. I sit on warm brown shapes. Time passes, pauses, goes. Stephanie Ramey Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary THE COUNTRYSIDE HORSES Here is my special place Where high wheat blows in the wind Miles from people. Look, over the cliff you can see the wild horses galloping with tails and mane blowing. You can hear their hooves sounding like gentle thunder. Lori Foxworth Grade 5 Pelham Road Elementary THE CRY IN THE NIGHT The baby still cries at night in a crib of ashes. Her mother tries to find the baby but she finds nothing but ashes. Joyce Rice Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary RAINDROPS The leaves are covered with glass bubbles. It looks as though someone has just popped a string of crystal beads. Angelique Haggerty Grade 5 Pine Street Elementary WILLIAM E. TAYLOR lives in Deland, Florida and is professor of English at Stetson University. He holds three degrees from Vanderbilt University and has published four books of poems, the last of which is *20 Against Apocalypse*. His poems have been published in various anthologies, including *Southern Writing in the Sixties*, *Poetry South-East*, *A Decade of Poems*, and *New Southern Poets*. Taylor has given numerous lectures and readings in the Southeast. **THE RUNNERS** He is fashionable, this old man, Jogging doggedly along low tide Into sunset, wishing to stay alive. He splashes his way in the surf, puffing A cigarette, stops to look at a crab Lying on his back, dying—trots To the dunes for a stick, turns the crab Over, faces him to the sea. Imbecile! He keeps moving one empty claw to his mouth. Later, no one is immortal except a young Runner who passed him in both directions With long music that could last till doom. The crab is still there, eating air, But the sea has turned him around, As if to say, No, you can’t come in. William E. Taylor Reprinted with permission from *Southern Poetry Review* SUE AND LOU His name is Sue, her name is Lou. She's a brick layer. He's a house maid. He cooks dinner while she watches television. This is the story of Sue and Lou. David Pitts Grade 7 Hickory Tavern School A GLIDER I am like a cloud on a summer day. I seem to have yeast to make me rise. I move like a feather in the wind. With the thrill of a midway inside me when I flow, I could go on forever. I run like the water in a clear blue stream. On my way I pass masses of whipped cream. When my fun is over I go down like a blown out tire. David Kitzmiller Gray Court-Owings School DEATH I am the end of all life There is no getting around me. Men have tried But they couldn't Most fear me But they can't avoid me I will always be For all eternity Where ever man goes I will be there For I am Death. Billy Weathers Gray Court-Owings School SONIA WITH A BROKEN LEG I'm a horse, lame from a horseshoe. A dog with a splinter in his foot. I'm a pirate with a wooden leg, My leg is a document, signed all over Neal Collin Gray Court-Owings School Books on the shelf are like people stashed away and forgotten. The light switch is like your mind, turning on and off your memories. The chalk board is like pages with something written on every one. The windows are like your eyes looking out on the world. The human body is like a complex railroad, where each part must do its job or everything gets upset. A cabinette is like your memory, filing away things in your mind. Angela Rogers Grade 8 Hickory Tavern School I am something you see week-days If it wasn't for me, you wouldn't get a job. I am greatly abuse. People put heavy things on me. People think of me as a rock. They write all over me. They put their feet on me as if I were a footstool. People get mad at me and slam my parts. Sometimes I am like a three-legged dog. I have a broken leg and they don't fix it. They cut it off. I am like a miner in a caved-in mountain, Cluttered, suffocating not able to breathe. But people forget my importance. Jeff Craddock Gray Court-Owings School I taste a Bitter Wind, The Colors of Baby Blue, It was sharp to cut your throat, I hear a muffled sound, The taste of the salty sea Lamar Mundy Grade 8 Hickory Tavern School I tasted a bitter lemon A salty sharp lemon It was a muffled lemon A pretty colored lemon and that's the story of the lemon Ronny Davis Grade 7 Hickory Tavern School Across and around the large, wide plate as if the thing was a race car with legs. Going around the oval circle. No stopping until it reaches the gate. A distance ahead of the runner nearing the creature like an armed gunner. Now the thing has found the door The door to his room To which he'll rest. The feet that are sore. Donna Weathers Gray Court-Owings School His voice is of the roaring lion, Always very harsh, never soft, When he yells, you hear him on Mount Zion, Even ten miles away playing golf. Renee Chapman Grade 8 Hickory Tavern School SUSAN THOMPSON has degrees in creative writing and literature from The University of Texas. She has taught at The College of William and Mary and assisted at the Women's Writing Workshop at Hartwick College in New York. She has published poetry, academic articles and book reviews in academic and feminist journals. YOUR BLESSING SEASONS THIS IN ME The clock in your car is broken you do not wear a watch you do not look back. You move in the breeze of every season without definition. One night on the terrace when I was ten I said "I've decided not to die, don't you die either." "Agreed, let's don't" you answered. Time does not tell me as I count it up away from you what the softness of your gray voice tells me when I see you again, the bulging belly, crooked fingers, sounds rolling up, fingers knowing what they touch. Asking kindly, when familiar things confuse me "Did you forget?" And I, whose clock is never broken who always wear a watch, who always look back do not know how to answer, and fear the day when the voice no longer rumbles in my ear and fingers do not touch and the clock ticks but the hands stop. Susan Thompson First appeared in Thicket I FEEL I feel like a cat swimming underwater I feel like a blue bird in the north pole I feel like an astronaut I feel like a book in the stone age I feel like a hunger in the desert I feel like a small tent on a city highway Maurice Webb Grade 9 Pendleton High LAST YEAR It was the summer of 1978 when I was in New York and the worst thing that ever happened to me happened. I got lost in New York. It was getting night and I had no place to go. I was meeting all mean looking faces. When I smiled no one would smile back. It seemed as if all the buildings were begging to look alike. So I got on the bus and I told the driver to take me to the nearest police station. And I got off the bus and walked inside. And they wanted to put me in a shelter home. And the police took me around New York trying to find my house. And finally I found my house. And I wasn’t hurt but very scared. Clarence Gumpter Grade 10 Elleree High THE ANT The ant moves up the wall with his six feet side by side his little head moves like the tick of a clock. Stober Lee Evans Grade 9 Holly Hill High DANCING The body moves round in circles going to the floor like a giant whirlwind. The hips be swinging from left to right like a bell. With the lights flashing all around with all different colors. The fingers snappin with the beat. Just Dance, Dance, Dance. Deneen Wiley Grade 9 Pendleton High MORNING SOCKS Slowly she sat up and went step by step to her drawers. Then she picked up her socks and carefully walked back to her bed to make sure she wouldn't trip. Then she sat down very quietly as if not to disturb anyone. She put her socks on the bed and very gently and gracefully she put her knee up to her stomach and carefully stuck her sock on her toes sliding over her heels her ankles and then up to her knees. Then she put that foot on the floor and did precisely as she did the first leg, sliding closer to her knees. Then she slowly got up as if she were too delicate to make any harsh moves and walked carefully downstairs. Betty Rourk Grade 7 Holly Hill Middle FUN WITH YOU You are like a soft pillow filled with feathers And you are as green as a cup. And I will always like kissing you because you give me goose bumps. I have sat on top of 500 elephants that were on top of each other. Rosa Minnigen Grade 11 Ellorée High THE COLD People with colds sound like the Th's are changed to T's they sound like babies learning to talk or like Sylvester Stalone. They sound as if they had grown up in the Bronx. They sound as if they are using a clothes pin on their nose. They sound as if they had no nose at all. They sound like people who wear glasses far down on their noses. They also sneeze and cough like explosions. Kathy Collins Grade 9 Pendleton High THE SMALLEST SOUNDS Sand coming down in an hourglass A feather floating through the air The flapping of a butterfly's wing Mice playing A pin falling to the floor A plant growing Flowing water The wind blowing through your hair A snake slithering through the grass A spider spinning a web Smoke coming out of a chimney group poem Mr. Walker's 9th grade class Pendleton High MEMORY I used to be quiet But now I am noisy with laughter I used to be shut off from the world But now I am exploring it I used to be afraid of dying But now I know it's life I used to be not loved But now I'm experiencing it. Jackie McCord Grade 10 Elloree High THE GAPPING HOLE There was a sleepiness over the boy. His hand moved cautiously toward his face. There was a tiny opening coming over his mouth. The hand coming ever closer to that opening. There was a strange bellowing like a walrus or a seal would make seeping out of the opening. The hand has now covered the opening And the small opening is now a gaping hole covered by a hand. Ray Collins Grade 10 Holly Hill High THE FORK Headed on a collision course with the mouth the fork piled with food strains to support its load. Suddenly, like a garage door the mouth opens and the fork pulls in and parks gently on the tongue. The mouth opens slightly, and the fork, now relieved of its load, backs out gently in reverse, ready for another trip. Mark Spaulding Grade 9 Pendleton High BUS HORN A bus horn sounds like a cow's mooing. Or a trumpet player with a stomach ache. Like a pig snorting in the mud. Like Dolly Parton with a sore throat. Like Tarzan when he stumps his toe. Or like a vulture after he has eaten some stale meat. Maurice Webb Grade 9 Pendleton High EMPTY I am like a zebra without stripes when I feel empty Emma Mattress Grade 11 Pendleton High DEAR WALL I wrote to let you know how I feel about you. You are ugly, hard headed and very disrespectful. You let people write you up and you look very ridiculous without a response. You take in all those dirty words. But Wall, do you here me? There is something great about you. You are part of my house. You help my house stay up and warm. Wall, you got to stop being shy and let the world know they are taking advantage of you because you stand still without a response. Ethel Hauser Grade 11 Ellorree High THE PLAYER He takes long wide steps like a giraffe. With the speed of a tiger. The player leaps high into the air, as though he were a squirrel. He comes down like a butterfly landing. He starts to run back the other way as though he had just seen a ghost. Kevin Addison Grade 8 Holly Hill Middle THE SKY VACUUM CLEANER It stands in an open field at night about 12 inches tall. But when night falls it grows up into the sky and the wind rocks it back and forth. Each state has one it takes all the garbage out of the sky but sometimes the wind blows so hard that one sky vacuum cleaner hits another and then they melt. And then the President of the U.S. comes and pulls each one out of the ground. Then the children at school have to pay a penny to buy another one. It was invented by all the housewives of Ellorree and Santee. Jacqueline Thompson Grade 11 Ellorree High I CAN touch the sky when I put on high heel shoes. Brenda Sellers Grade 10 Ellorree High JENLU Jenlu loves to party Except when she doesn't. Never does she tell who with. Like the other day. Wait, Uh-oh I better hush. Jenlu Chalker Grade 9 Pendleton High SLOW MOTION He moves his arm toward the cabinet Silently, he opens the cabinet door He reaches in on the second shelf Removing a blue toothbrush that looks almost new He carefully washes the brush with warm water Now he puts toothpaste on very gently Finally, with toothbrush in hand he brings it up to his mouth and opens it Now I think he's ready to brush his teeth. Diane Shaw Grade 10 Holly Hill High ANTICIPATION a mare watching her newborn colt intensely hoping it'll rise to its feet a dog forced to stay inside and watch frolicking squirrels ... until halftime a snake suddenly seeing a rat approach waits for the right moment a teen-age girl having to walk down the long empty hallway, alone, with no sound other than the clunk, clunk of her spike heels towards the principal's office. Lea Crandall Grade 9 Pendleton High DOORKNOBS Carefully the index finger floats away from the middle finger leaving the others to flap gently in the wind while the thumb gallantly leads the outspread hand outward to encircle the glittering gold object that is being drawn closer. Finally as though tons of time has passed the door opens. Cindy Martino Grade 10 Holly Hill High PENCIL SHARPENER The sound of a pencil sharpener is like bones in a blender. It's like a dead leaf being crushed in your hand or ice crunched between your teeth. Gracie Evans Grade 9 Pendleton High GOOD SOUNDS A cricket chirping A bird eating something crunchy A squirrel running up and down a tree A fish swimming A raccoon doing the back stroke on a sunny day A rooster crowing A rat snoring A pencil breaking A tic drowning A gnat ice skating A cat drawing A piece of paper burning A pencil writing A worm smoking Clarence Revell Grade 7 Holly Hill Middle SOUNDS The sound of a paper clip hitting the floor The sound of an ant scratching his head The sound of a centipede walking across the ground The sound of the springs working inside a watch The sound of an amoeba coughing The sound of a bird chewing up its food The sound of roaches at a rock concert Ricky Hunger Grade 9 Pendleton High DREAMS As I lie there I hear a distant moan Everything is dark now I see nothing Then a blinding light hits me in the face A strong wind picks me up And carries me away I see nothing My eyes open and before me lies a deep jungle Again I see nothing My eyes open and I am standing In a field with flowers up to my knees I see nothing Bobby Brothers Grade 9 Pendleton High AT NIGHT At night I hear . . . the shadows creeping up on me the sheets laughing the faucets dripping the wind howling my clothes mingling the floor holding a pleasant conversation with the ceiling my books reading themselves my shoes flapping their tongues my windows yawning my mattress grumbling my cards shuffling themselves my records singing to themselves my room gently lulling me to sleep. Cindy Martino Grade 10 Holly Hill High UNDERWATER The biggest sounds you can hear underwater are: A boat roaring by. Somebody jumping in the water. Somebody slapping their hands on the water. Rain trickling on the water. The smallest sounds underwater are: A fish swaying in the current. A fish building its place to lay its eggs. The sand moving with the current. A duck floating on the water. Steve Gaskins Grade 8 Holly Hill Middle PEELING POTATOES At first the peeler tears at the skin, It shaves the potato with an unfinished obligation, The strokes downward cut away at it, As the departed layers fall deeply Away into the garbage pail, All the skin has gone The peeler stops, Has reached his destination, For the potato once full of skin Is bald. Donell Hanks Grade 9 Pendleton High LIES The earth is flat. My house is not on the earth. My ship is sailing in the ocean. I left my million dollars at home. I have several types of late model cars. Last year after I graduated from Harvard, and after I finished my PhD at Yale, I decided to dig ditches for a living. Before I finish my acting career I would like to do a couple of shows for Walt Disney. I have a friend that is 13 ft. tall, has green skin and can tear apart a car like it was a piece of toilet paper. Rey McClain Grade 11 Pendleton High FOR DINNER I ate bat burgers frog fries and cricket cola. Johnny Gates Grade 11 Eliorree High THAT UNEXPLAINED NIGHT I became drowsy and drifted off to sleep My mind was wide awake Two family friends went downstairs I went back to sleep When my eyes were open there were people People in my room There were thirty beds in my room One person to each bed They were all lying flat on their stomachs And talking aloud In the living room there I was Dressed to leave for the evening With a friend of mine We turned around and the bathrooms were flooded But one plunger didn’t help Tawannah Waddy Grade 9 Pendleton High WHERE DID YOU COME FROM? I came from a very heartwarming person I came from beyond where any man has dared to go I’ve passed the devil coming here I’ve seen the inside of the moon on my way here I came from around the corner I came from a thank you note I came from the letter E Ernest Davis Grade 10 Eliorree High THOMAS N. WALTERS, poet, professor, filmmaker, grew up on a farm in Edgecombe County, North Carolina. He attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill where he received his B.A. degree in English. After serving in the Marine Corps, he returned to school at Duke University, where he received his masters and doctoral degrees. Walters has published two volumes of poetry, numerous literary articles, and several books. His work has appeared in numerous periodicals, including Southern Poetry Review, Epos, and Red Clay Reader. CIRCUS (an Italian Sonnet for Federico Fellini) Within our tent a waste of wars was cried— Bengals and bears were banged from their cages. The wolves left buzzard bones of our sages. Through spangles, painted smiles, we clowned, we died. The tanbark earth, had we heard, simply sighed; Canvased, gessoed, mountains, three-ringed ages, Pigments crazed again to human rages. Our sawdust spilled, we laughed the tale—we lied. Now crowds stare silent up as jesters mourn Our world and the trapeze star’s broken back. The same ringmaster cracks his whip; we leap. New creatures prance and prowl, strange festers borne. No gains made, we discover central lack; Circuses must eternal circles keep. Thomas N. Walters THE ATTIC-LESS PAINTER The yellowful sky-heart (and hammer) throbbed "Morning!" through night-muddled eyes to swell a sleep-swollen brain. Gutter air fouled/bloody/ crusted nostrils. Failure-festered infected fertility of A sole (once wept for Paris) dragged a rotting away leg tracking grit-sprinkled concrete. Jeff Holmes Laurens District 55 High MIND In my World, Crystal hurricanes move massive mounds of six point. Each piece toils for a whole, each whole toils For a peace. A knight on a board Of solid white, I am. I wing my way in the calm, In fury, Sea of night, Madness, In hope, love, Lone despair. Life, here will never cease. I should know, I am a piece. Martin Power Laurens District 55 High REALIZING US Along we walk My brother and I A companiable seance broken only by the distant cry of a seagull, And the whisper of the waves as they roll up the sand shyly tickling our toes only to run away again. An occasional drop falls to wet the sand beneath our feet A child's face peering out the window waiting for the rain to go away. Along we walk My brother and I Gifts from the sea scattered here and there A half-finished sand castle captured by a wave. When A finger of the sun reaches out and flicks the dark cloud away. As Along we walk My brother My friend and I. Mary Jane Childress Laurens District 55 High DOMESTICATED BEACH Bleachy blond Grit Wind like a 1200 watt Blow Dryer A red hot eye in the middle of that stove called sky. Blue rolling water that resembles the bowl cleaner left in the bathroom closet. People like jawas walk like giants in this enormous domesticated world. Peoploids make their way down a brown ribbon that floats over the water undulant as the pantyhose in the kitchen sink. The "Sheer Energy" gives way. The people are flushed in this world's cesspool. Dull bland sand. Wind set on style. The heat replaced by "Frigidaire." The Tidy bowl has all gone. Jerry Goodwin Laurens District 55 High MOLECULAR PARTS (after seeing "Cosmic Zoom") The eye sees stars, planets moving closer then away A boy in a boat rows across shining molecules of water Mosquito on his arm The mosquito draws blood I, too, am an instance of time A pilgrim, just passing through. Will I ever be back? I doubt it Susan Youmans Laurens District 55 High TOMMY SCOTT YOUNG is executive director and founder of Kitani Foundation. Since its inception, the foundation has been responsible for exposing approximately 60,000 children to professional performing arts events. Young's varied background in the arts has led him to participate in many programs of the South Carolina Arts Commission. A graduate of California State University in Los Angeles, he has appeared on South Carolina Educational Television as a poet and actor. WALKING to the moon of me i sleepwalk the number i count the lines i walk the number i do not remember when gray became sunlight to the sun of me i sleepwalk the number i count the sides i walk the number i do not remember when purple became moonlight walking on gray and purple strings of sun and moon i am shattering the number walking i am the shattering Tommy Scott Young from Black Blues and Shiny Songs THE SWING The swing in my backyard looks like people with broken arms and the eyes popped-out of its steel chain The swing has vine legs, its legs look like a pencil point and its feet is bigger than a Hippo's baby Its stomach is a piece of string And its head is a beaver two front teeth I hate the personality because its freaky. Jezreel Marvin Sweat Grade 5 Elloree Elementary THE PARADOX I sit on the edge of the universe, And ponder through the realms of time, On the greatest creation that has ever existed. For it is a paradox, The turntable of our world, Something on which everything is based. And is yet so close to nothing. It is a galaxy within itself. A galaxy which blends with every other, To create something greater than itself, And yet, It is the greatest. It marks an individual One who is by himself, But combines with everyone. So I sit on the edge of the universe, And ponder through the realms of time, On the greatest creator that has ever existed. For it is the paradox, And he who has it, Is dangerously close to having nothing, And yet he has everything, Because one who doesn't, Has Nothing. Glenn Lightsey Dreher High School JELL-O Jell-O is all kinds of colors It shakes like Jelly, and rocks and rolls its easy to eat, but hard to hold Jell-o wiggles jiggles and make my tummy beg for you. Karen Dickson Grade 5 Elloree Elementary PEOPLE People are sneaky they think they are slick Some people are nice as a butterfly And then there are people that are meaner than the Mean Joe Green Some people should go to the Mountains because they are so mean The nice people should stay down on earth and they should never go up in the mountains. Some people are good looking like Mr. Tommy Scott Young Valorie Denise Bradley Grade 5 Elloree Elementary LIFE Life is whirlpool of emotions And you are a tiny boat Trying to survive in the treacherous water of your mind. Feelings are white-capped waves Crashing in on your inner self, Trying to drown you with Overwhelming strength and ferocity. You reach for your only lifeline Your sanity, Grabbing it with a death-like grip, And you emerge victor over all. Marrye Mack Grade 8 Elloree Elementary The old owl sits high in his tree, Keeping watch as far as he can see, Hooting at each movement and sound, He can send alarm all around, Sleeping by day, keeping watch by night, He will protect his friends with all his might. Kelley Jaco Grade 10 Dreher High School THE SNOW AND I In the bed I Lay, Lay, Lay! Wanting to go outside and play play play I'm laying in bed with a frown on my forehead While the snow is flowing down, down, down Oh! Mommy please Oh! Mommy Oh! Please! Please! Please! Please let me GO! GO! GO! But the only thing she says is NO! NO! NO! P.S. I went outside anyway PPSS But I got a pow! pow! pow! Boom! Boom! on my back side. Rose Marie Adams Grade 6 Elloree Elementary FORKS I feel like a fork sometime Forks are like a pitch fork Forks are forks Spoons are spoons gold and silver But sometime forks make me sick I went walking down a street with a fork And everyone started yelling Forks and Sarah walking down the streets alone and laughing. Sarah Robinson Grade 5 Elloree Elementary FLOWERS Flowers are nice Flowers are pretty Flowers are so sweet that they smell sweet Flowers are like my cousin and friends I told me side some and my sugar boy flowers and I to set laugh go them and get out laugh Regenia Jackson & Sandra Sumpter Grade 5 Elloree Elementary FEELINGS Sometimes when the birds are singing the flowers are blooming I feel good inside of my heart, when the children are playing in the sand I feel good on the inside and outside. It's so good when you have a boyfriend that cares and thinks about you. Have friends that play with you. It feels good to have a mother and a father that cares when you are sick and can take you to the doctor and can solve your problem and that makes me feel like a just born baby. Emma Jenkins Grade 5 Elloree Elementary JIMBO CARTER Jimmy Carter is my name, I am known the world over With a great deal of fame. But as long as I am President, Of these United States, I think people like me About as much as they hate. But as soon as I finish This horrid job, I'll go back to farming and Billy the slob. With Rosalyn in one hand And Amy in the other, we'll Go back to Georgia to Live with my Mother. Hubert Riley Dreher High School My name is Ralph, I met a girl who came from the South. She didn't like to dance and she didn't like to sing, and she didn't like to do anything But I had this dog Blue, and he could draw things with glue. He was one of a kind, I would say in my mind, and I really loved that dog, Blue. So Blue, I made this rhyme just for you. "Pink pigs dance in silk, little fruit flies glide on milk." Melinda McDonald Dreher High School I watch everything from up here day after day It gets boring Seeing the same old things Eating the same old things Watching the same old people Go through the same old routine Every winter I go south and every spring I come back, It bores me But when I see my friends put in cages I look at me And I am glad. Karina Branham Dreher High School Jim DeRose Grade 10 Ellorée High DICK GOLDBERG is the author of *Family Business*, which ran for over a year off-Broadway and appears in the anthology *Best Plays of 1977-1978*. He has also written the screenplay for the forthcoming movie *24 frames per second*, and the book and lyrics of *Swamp!*, a musical presented last fall by Stage South, the theatre component of the South Carolina Arts Commission. A former producer of Stage South and director of the Commission’s Professional Arts Development Division, he is the recipient of a 1979 Guggenheim Fellowship for playwriting. Mr. Goldberg lives in Columbia. **SWAMP BY NIGHT** The swamp by night Is really quite invitin’ With just moonlight The night is so excitin’ The swamp by night Now some find it fright’nin’ But other folks It’s somethin’ they delight in . . . You say you’re lost? Well, isn’t that a pity But better here Than somewhere in the city Cause when it comes Down to the nitty-gritty You’ll find the swamp Is cozy and it’s pretty . . . You’d like to eat? How ‘bout some sweet blackberries? We guarantee that they’re Extraordinary And after that A dish dined on rarely “La rabbit stew” You’ll find it very “harey” . . . You see that tree? Go lie there in its hollow You need a pillow? There’re leaves there you may borrow To fall asleep Look up and count the stars, oh! You’ll find your way Back home from here tomorrow Dick Goldberg *Excerpts from the lyrics of a song from the musical play *Swamp!*, book and lyrics by Dick Goldberg, music by Amy Rubin; © copyright 1978 by Dick Goldberg and Amy Rubin; Broadcast Music, Inc., 40 W. 57th Street, New York, NY 10019.* Scene I: A Park Bench. GERALDINE: Albert, you mean so much to me. ALBERT: I love you too, but you deserve somebody better than me. I wish there was some way I could get enough money so we could get married. GERALDINE: Ah! But there is! (Raises her eyebrows, laughs evilly.) ALBERT: Tell me your plan. GERALDINE: Do you remember the wealthy widow, Eunice Watson? Well, her first husband isn’t dead like everyone thinks. Eunice inherited all of his money, and now, he’s come back to get it. ALBERT: But we can’t get our hands on that money. GERALDINE: Albert, if you really love me, you’ll marry Eunice, and we can set her up to murder her first husband. Everyone will believe she killed him because she has the perfect motive—wanting to hold on to the money he “left” her! Then when she is sent to jail for his murder, you’ll get the money. ALBERT: And at that point, I can marry you! Scene 2: A Church. PREACHER: (After “Here Comes the Bride” has ended.) Do you? EUNICE: I do. PREACHER: Do you? ALBERT: I do. PREACHER: Place the ring on Eunice’s finger. I now pronounce you man and wife. Albert, you may kiss your new bride, Eunice. GERALDINE: (After walking up to Eunice.) You don’t know how happy I am for you. Scene 3: Geraldine’s Apartment ALBERT: All right, let’s go over the plan. GERALDINE: Okay. You need to find out where her first husband, Lester, is. ALBERT: I’ll tell you where he is. He’s on his way over to Eunice’s and my place. He’s your date for tonight. GERALDINE: What? ALBERT: He’ll get there a little after we do. I’ve told Eunice that I’m going to pick the two of you up and bring you back to our place. But I think it would be better if the “ghost” showed up on his own, don’t you? GERALDINE: Yes! Oh, Albert! I can’t wait! Scene 4: Eunice and Albert’s Home EUNICE: (After Albert and Geraldine enter.) Hi! Where’s your date, Geraldine? GERALDINE: He was... held up at the office. But he’ll be here soon. EUNICE: Good. Come sit down and we’ll have something to drink. GERALDINE: (After they all sit) Eunice, are y’all happy now that you’re married? I know there are always little problems at first... EUNICE: Yes, I learned from my first marriage about those “little problems.” GERALDINE: Oh, you were married before? EUNICE: Unfortunately, yes. He left me several years ago. I’ve heard rumors that he’s dead. I haven’t seen him, and I wouldn’t care to— for obvious reasons. (There is a knock at the door. Eunice goes to the door. Albert and Geraldine are behind her. Eunice opens the door and sees Lester.) Oh, my God!! (She faints. Albert fires a gun at Lester and kills him, then Albert and Geraldine leave.) Scene 5: Eunice and Albert’s Home. EUNICE: (Still holding the gun. Lester’s body remains on the floor.) No, I don’t think I killed him. I didn’t hate him! Why would I kill him? Lester, who killed you? You know. And you know it wasn’t me. We had a good life together. Why should I kill you, honey? (She faints again, slumping to the floor. A moment later there is a knock on the door.) OFFICER: Police, open up. EUNICE: (Jumping up,) No, no, go away! No one is here! (Two policemen burst in. One grabs Eunice. She pulls away.) I didn’t shoot him. It wasn’t even loaded. The gun wasn’t even loaded. OFFICER: Yes, yes, we know. Come along. Scene 6: A Courtroom. BAILIFF: Eunice vs. the State of California! JUDGE: Prosecutor, call your first witness. PROSECUTOR: I call Eunice to the stand. (Eunice goes to the witness stand. The Bailiff also approaches with a Bible.) BAILIFF: Place your hand on the Bible. Do you swear to tell the truth the whole truth, and nothing but the truth? EUNICE: I do. PROSECUTOR: Eunice, where were you on the night of May 4, 1979? EUNICE: I was at my apartment with my husband. PROSECUTOR: Would you explain to the court what happened that night? EUNICE: Albert, my husband, and I invited Geraldine and her date to have dinner. When Geraldine came, I saw that her date was my first husband, Lester. I fainted. When I came to, there was Lester lying on the floor dead. And there was a gun in my hand. PROSECUTOR: Did you kill Lester? DEFENSE ATTORNEY: Your honor, I object. The Prosecutor has no right— JUDGE: Objection overruled. Eunice answer the question. EUNICE: I didn’t kill him. At least, I don’t remember killing him. I’m so confused. PROSECUTOR: Did you love Lester? EUNICE: Of course not. Albert is my husband now. PROSECUTOR: And Lester’s coming back, and possibly demanding that you stop spending so much of his money—you wouldn’t like that, would you? EUNICE: Of course not, but— PROSECUTOR: So you killed him! EUNICE: (Bursting into tears.) I guess I did! Oh, Albert, I loved you so much! When I saw Lester standing there, I guess I went out of my head . . . I guess . . . I just couldn’t help it. JUDGE: (Banging his gavel.) I sentence you to—life in prison!! (Geraldine and Albert embrace.) THE END SOUTH CAROLINA ARTS COMMISSION 1800 Gervais Street • Columbia, South Carolina 29201 • (803) 758-3442
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THE SOUTHERN REBELLION: A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BY W. A. CRAFTS. CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS OF THE REBELLION. for the year 1864. Jan. 17. Fight near Dandridge, Tenn. 29. Fight near Williamsport, Va. Feb. 1. President Lincoln ordered draft of 500,000 men. 7. Unsuccessful expedition from Gen. Butler's command to release the Union prisoners at Richmond. 20. Battle of Olustee, Fla. March 1. Gen. U. S. Grant appointed Lieut.-General. 2. Gen. Kilpatrick's cavalry reached Yorktown, after a raid to Richmond. 12. Lieut.-General Grant assigned to the command of all the armies. 14. President Lincoln called for 200,000 volunteers. 15. Fort DeRussy, La., captured. 25. Battle at Paducah, Ky. 29. Battle of Cane River, La. April 8-9. Battles of Sabine Cross Roads and Pleasant Hill, La. April 12. Capture of Fort Pillow, Tenn., and massacre of the garrison by the rebels. 19. Plymouth, N. C., captured by the rebels. 23. Battle at Cane River, La. 25. Engagement at Pine Bluff, Ark. 30. Engagement at Sabine River, Ark. May 3. Advance of army of the Potomac under Gen. Grant. 5. Gen. Butler intrenched at Bermuda Hundred. 5-7. Battle of the Wilderness, Va. 8-12. Battles at Spottsylvania, Va. 11-12. Passage of the Red River Rapids, at Alexandria, La., by Admiral Porter's fleet. 13-14. Battle at Resaca, Ga. Gen. Sigel defeated near New Market, Va. 14-16. Battles near Bermuda Hundred, Va. 17-18. Last Battles at Spottsylvania. 22-24. Battles at the North Anna River, Va. 28. Battle at New Hope Church, Ga. June 1-3. Battles at Coal Harbor, Va. 5. Battle near Mount Crawford, Va. 14. Gen. Grant's army crossed the James River. 15. Operations before Petersburg commenced. Rebel works assaulted. 19. Rebel war-steamer Alabama sunk by the Kearsarge, off Cherbourg, France. 22. Federal repulse near the Weldon Railroad, Va. 27. Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga. July 5. Rebels invaded Maryland. 8. Battle of Monocacy, Md. 13-15. Rebels under Forrest defeated near Tupelo, Miss. 20-22. Battles before Atlanta, Ga. 28. Another battle before Atlanta, Ga. 30. Explosion of a mine before Petersburg, and unsuccessful assault. Chambersburg, Pa., burned by rebels. Aug. 5. Naval battle in Mobile Bay. Admiral Farragut's victory. 8. Surrender of Fort Gaines, Mobile Bay. 13-16. Battle at Deep Bottom Creek, near Richmond, Va. 18-21. Weldon Railroad held by Union troops. Battles for its possession. 23. Surrender of Fort Morgan, Mobile Bay. 25. Battle at Reams' Station, Va. Sept. 1. Battle at Jonesboro', Ga. Atlanta evac. by rebels. 19. Battle of Winchester, Va. 20. Price invaded Missouri. 21. Battle of Fisher's Hill, Va. 29. Battle of Chapin's Farm and New Market, near Richmond. Oct. 5. Battle of Allatoona, Ga. 7. Battle of Darbytown Road, near Richmond. Rebel war-steamer Florida captured by the Wachusett at San Salvador, Brazil. 8. Battle near Strasburg, Va. 19. Battle of Cedar Creek, Va; Sheridan's victory. Raid from Canada on St. Albans, Vt. 23-25. Price defeated at Westport and Mine Creek, Mo. 27. Battle at Hatcher's Run, Va. Nov. 3. Battle at Fayetteville, Ark. 8. President Lincoln re-elected. 14. Gen. Sherman's army began its march from Atlanta to the seaboard. Nov. 23. Milledgeville, Ga., occupied by Sherman's forces. 24-28. Engagements near Columbia, Tenn. 25. Hotels in New York fired by rebel emissaries. 30. Battle of Franklin, Tenn. Dec. 4-6. Engagements at Pocotaligo, S. C. 13. Fort McAllister, Ga., captured by Sherman's troops. 15-16. Battle of Nashville, Tenn.; Thomas' victory. 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman's troops. 24-25. Unsuccessful attack on Fort Fisher, N. C. 13. Fort McAllister, Ga., captured by Sherman's troops. 15-16. Battle of Nashville, Tenn.; Thomas' victory. 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman's troops. 24-25. Unsuccessful attack on Fort Fisher, N. C.
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3 The first step is to identify the problem and understand its context. This involves gathering information about the issue, analyzing data, and determining the root cause. Once the problem is clearly defined, we can begin to develop potential solutions. Next, we need to evaluate these solutions based on their feasibility, cost-effectiveness, and potential impact. It's important to consider both short-term and long-term consequences of each option. We should also assess the resources required to implement each solution and estimate the time frame for implementation. After evaluating the options, we can select the most appropriate solution that aligns with our goals and objectives. This decision should be made after careful consideration of all factors involved. Finally, we need to plan and execute the chosen solution. This includes developing a detailed action plan, assigning responsibilities, and setting timelines. It's crucial to communicate effectively with all stakeholders throughout the process to ensure everyone is aligned and working towards the same goal. Throughout the entire process, it's essential to monitor progress and make adjustments as needed. Regularly reviewing the situation allows us to address any unforeseen challenges or opportunities that may arise. In conclusion, solving problems requires a systematic approach that involves identifying the issue, evaluating potential solutions, selecting the best option, planning and executing the solution, and monitoring progress. By following these steps, we can increase our chances of finding effective and sustainable solutions to complex problems. The sun was setting, casting long shadows across the courtyard. The air was crisp and clean, filled with the scent of pine and earth. The sound of leaves rustling in the wind was the only noise breaking the silence. As she walked through the courtyard, her steps were slow and deliberate. She had been here many times before, but each time she found something new to admire. The stone walls, the ancient trees, the fountain in the center of the courtyard. It was all so beautiful. She stopped at the fountain, her hand resting on the cool stone. The water was still, reflecting the colors of the sky. She closed her eyes, taking a deep breath. The world seemed to melt away, leaving only her and the beauty around her. When she opened her eyes again, the sun had set completely. The sky was now a deep shade of orange, and the stars were beginning to appear. She knew that it was time to go back inside, but for now, she would stay a little longer, soaking up the last moments of the day. The first step in creating a successful marketing plan is to identify your target audience. Who are the people who will be most interested in your product or service? What are their needs and wants? Understanding your target audience will help you tailor your marketing efforts to meet their specific needs. Once you have identified your target audience, you can begin to develop a marketing message that resonates with them. This may involve creating compelling content such as videos, blog posts, or social media posts that highlight the benefits of your product or service. It’s important to make sure that your message is clear and concise so that potential customers can easily understand what you’re offering. Another key aspect of developing a successful marketing plan is to choose the right channels for reaching your target audience. Depending on your industry and target market, different channels may be more effective than others. For example, if you’re selling a luxury car, you might want to focus on high-end publications and events. On the other hand, if you’re selling a budget-friendly product, you might want to focus on social media platforms like Instagram or TikTok. Finally, it’s important to track your progress and adjust your strategy as needed. This means regularly monitoring metrics such as website traffic, social media engagement, and sales figures. By doing so, you can identify areas where you need to improve and make changes to your marketing plan accordingly. In conclusion, developing a successful marketing plan requires careful consideration of your target audience, messaging, channel selection, and ongoing tracking and adjustment. By following these steps, you can create a plan that effectively reaches and engages your desired customers, ultimately leading to increased sales and brand awareness. The man was a legend, a warrior who had fought for his people and his land. He was known for his strength and his courage, and he was loved by all who knew him. One day, he was called to a great battle, and he went with his warriors to fight for their freedom. The battle was fierce, and many died, but the man and his warriors emerged victorious. After the battle, the man returned home, a hero in the eyes of his people. He was hailed as a god, and he was worshipped as such. But he knew that he was just a man, and he was content with his life. He spent his days training his warriors and protecting his people, and he spent his nights in prayer, thanking the gods for his blessings. He was a good man, and he was loved by all who knew him. And so, the man lived a long and happy life, a life filled with adventure and danger, but also with love and peace. He was a true warrior, a true hero, and he will be remembered for generations to come. The Buddha’s Teachings on the Four Noble Truths The Four Noble Truths are the foundation of Buddhism and provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the nature of suffering, its causes, and the path to its cessation. These truths are: 1. **Dukkha (Suffering or Unsatisfactoriness)**: This truth acknowledges that life is inherently imperfect and characterized by suffering. It encompasses various forms of dissatisfaction, including physical pain, emotional distress, and the impermanence of all things. 2. **Samudaya (Origin or Cause of Suffering)**: This truth identifies the root causes of suffering. The primary cause is identified as craving or desire (tanha), which leads to attachment and aversion. These cravings arise from ignorance (avijja) about the true nature of reality. 3. **Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering)**: This truth asserts that suffering can be completely eradicated. The cessation of suffering is possible through the attainment of Nirvana, which is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice. 4. **Magga (Path to the Cessation of Suffering)**: This truth describes the Eightfold Path, a comprehensive set of practices that guide individuals towards the cessation of suffering. The Eightfold Path consists of right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. These four truths form the core of Buddhist teachings and provide a roadmap for individuals seeking to understand and alleviate the suffering inherent in human existence. By following the Eightfold Path, practitioners aim to cultivate wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline, ultimately leading to the realization of Nirvana and the end of suffering. The first thing that struck me was the sheer size of the temple. It was massive, towering over everything else in the area. The architecture was intricate and detailed, with ornate carvings and statues adorning every surface. The colors were vibrant, with golds and reds dominating the palette. As I walked through the temple grounds, I couldn't help but feel a sense of awe and reverence. The air was filled with a quiet hum of prayer and meditation, and the sound of chanting monks echoed through the halls. It was a peaceful place, a sanctuary away from the hustle and bustle of everyday life. I spent hours wandering through the temple, taking in the sights and sounds around me. I marveled at the beauty of the architecture and the skill of the artisans who had created it. I listened to the stories told by the monks, learning about the history and traditions of the temple. As the sun began to set, casting long shadows across the ground, I knew that my time in the temple was coming to an end. But I felt a sense of peace and contentment that I hadn't experienced in a long time. I had found a place where I could escape the chaos of the world and find a moment of tranquility. I left the temple with a newfound appreciation for the beauty and complexity of human culture. I had been fortunate enough to witness something truly special, and I knew that I would carry the memories of that day with me for the rest of my life.
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Scoil Bhríde Eglantine Code of Behaviour 1. Introduction 1.1 Introductory Statement This policy was prepared following a review process involving school staff, parents and Management during Term 1 of 2018-2019 school year. 1.2 Rationale Under Section 23 of the Education (Welfare) Act 2000, the Board of Management of each school must prepare and make available a code of behaviour for its students. The Act requires that the school has a code of behaviour for its students. The Act requires that the school code of behaviour is prepared in accordance with Guidelines issued by the National Education Welfare Board (NEWB). A review of the Code of Behaviour was considered necessary in order to comply with the Guidelines issued by NEWB. Scoil Bhríde Eglantine decided to review its code of behaviour because; - The existing policy is due for review and amendment in order to make it compliant with legal requirements and good practice as set out in *Developing a Code of Behaviour: Guidelines for Schools*, NEWB, 2008 - It was identified as a priority area by the staff - It is a requirement under DES Circular 20/09 on school discipline that the code of behaviour shall specify: a. The standards of behaviour that shall be observed by each pupil attending the school b. The measures that shall be taken when a pupil refuses to observe those standards c. The procedures to be followed before a pupil may be suspended or expelled from Scoil Bhríde Eglantine d. The grounds for removing a suspension in relation to a pupil e. The procedures to be followed in relation to a child’s absence from school. Relationship to the characteristic spirit of the school Scoil Bhríde, Eglantine’s Code of Behaviour is inextricably linked to its Vision Statement: Vision: At Scoil Bhríde Eglantine each individual is respected and valued for his/her unique qualities and abilities. Our aim in Scoil Bhríde is to develop the academic, spiritual, creative, personal and social skills of the child so that she may be better able to realise to the full her potential as an individual and as an active member of society. As a formal agent of education within the Catholic Community, this school models and transmits a philosophy of life inspired by belief in God. The policies, practices and attitudes of the school therefore are inspired by Gospel values. 1. Aims The aims of our Code of Behaviour are: - to ensure an educational environment that is guided by our mission statement - to allow the school to function in an orderly way where children can make progress in all aspects of their development - to promote positive behaviour and self-discipline, recognising the differences between children and the need to accommodate these differences - to ensure the safety and well-being of all members of the school community - to assist parents and pupils in understanding the systems and procedures that form part of the code of behaviour and to seek their co-operation in the application of these procedures - to ensure that the system of rules, rewards and sanctions are implemented in a fair and consistent manner throughout the school - To ensure that the individuality of each child is accommodated, while acknowledging the right of each child to education in a relatively disruption-free environment. - To facilitate the development of self-discipline, respect and tolerance for others. - To provide for the efficient operation of the school and the structuring of in-class discipline so that there exists an effective and stimulating learning environment. - To ensure the maintenance of good order throughout the school and respect for the school environment. - To encourage good home/school communication and to foster a positive atmosphere in the school. - To promote a positive learning environment in which all children may fully enter into the life of the school. - To ensure the safety and well-being of all members of the school community Guidelines for Behaviour in Scoil Bhríde Scoil Bhríde is a place where high standards of behaviour are expected and adhered to. The school standards of behaviour express the kinds of behaviour and relationships that will create a positive environment for learning. They describe the behaviour expected from all members of our school community. The standards of behaviour signal positive values such as: Respect for self and others Kindness and willingness to help others. Courtesy and good manners. Fairness Readiness to use respectful ways of resolving difficulties and conflict Forgiveness The Standards expect all members of the school community to behave in ways that show respect for others. The school and classroom rules translate standards into practical guidance about the behaviour expected of pupils. Rules provide clear boundaries. They describe in simple terms how to behave in order to learn well and to develop into mature responsible individuals. The terms Expectations and Rules will be used in this document. One of the benefits of using the term expectations is that expectations can be described for parents and staff as well as pupils. While the standards are common to everyone in the school, rules/expectations will reflect the age and stage of development of the pupils. **Pupils with Special Educational Needs** Class teachers and specialist personnel (such as the S.E.N. teachers or Special Needs Assistants) will check that standards and expectations are communicated in a way that pupils with special educational needs can understand. **The Behaviour that is expected from pupils in Scoil Bhríde is as follows:** **The school expects that pupils will:** - Attend school regularly and not miss days without good reason. When returning after an absence, pupils should present a written explanation. - Be in school before the bell rings (at 8.50a.m.) - Enter and exit through designated doors - Not leave during the day without being collected by a parent or designated adult and signing out on sign-out book in the office - Respect all school property - Wear the school uniform c.f. Uniform Policy - Wear school tracksuit only on P.E. days unless otherwise instructed - Show respect for self and others - Avoid swearing, fighting, name calling and inappropriate language - Do their best always and behave well in class so that all children can learn - Listen to instructions given and do as requested. - Participate in school activities - Walk quietly around the school and avoid causing a disturbance. - Keep the school tidy and litter-free - Be hygienic and always use a toilet bag in school ● Always obey the Traffic Warden ● Remain quiet in class line ● Remain seated at all appropriate times ● Bring a nutritional lunch to school, c.f. Healthy Eating Policy. Your teacher expects that pupils will: ● Show her and any classroom visitors courtesy and respect ● Accept her authority and responsibility and her right to teach and impose sanctions on those who behave badly ● Come to school on time and have all the necessary materials. ● Do their homework carefully and completely to the best of their ability ● Listen when others are talking. ● Avoid distracting behaviour. ● Participate in all class activities to the best of your ability ● Follow the rules drawn up by their class. ● Help keep the classroom tidy and litter-free. Your fellow pupils expect that pupils will: ● Not bully them (c.f. Anti-Bullying Policy) ● Show acceptance and respect their differing personalities ● Never insult or belittle them because of differences. ● Respect their property ● Listen to them and acknowledge them ● Share equipment and resources with them ● Make every effort to include them ● Speak to them with courtesy and respect ● Not prevent them from paying attending in class. Expectations of school: Children expect that the school will be: ● A safe, happy and inclusive environment ● Suited to their learning style ● Encouraging and supportive ● Affirming of children of all abilities ● Capable of dealing with bullying and bullies, and supportive of victims ● A place where they feel valued and respected. Parents expect that in school there will be: ● A safe and happy and inclusive environment for their child. ● Recognition and provision for the individual differences of pupils ● Support for children when required ● Support and guidance for them if and when requested ● Fairness and consistency in the way children are dealt with. ● No labelling of their child. Contact at an early stage to inform them of any problems A willingness to listen to their viewpoint. **Teachers expect that in school there will be:** - An adherence to the Anti-Bullying Policy (c.f. relevant policy) - Mutual respect, support and encouragement within the whole school community - Co-operation to achieve the school’s aims and objectives. - A fair and consistent implementation of the Code of Behaviour - A standardised system of dealing with behavioural issues - An atmosphere that encourages professional development and a willingness to learn and change. **The school expects that parents will:** - Be familiar with the various policies and codes of the school and the expectation of pupils. - Show support for teachers in their implementation of the school’s behaviour policy. - Support their child in her school work. - Ensure the punctuality and regular attendance of their child. - Ensure she has the necessary materials - Ensure their child has a positive attitude to and abides by the school and class rules. - Never undermine the authority of the school or teachers. - Promote respect for teachers and other school personnel. - Give a current emergency contact number - Be available to discuss a problem. **The child expects that parents will:** - Look after her basic needs (lunch, uniform) - Support, praise and encourage her work in school. - Show fairness. **Parents expect that other parents will:** - Support the school in implementing its code of behaviour. - Exert firm discipline in cases where their child’s behaviour is having a negative impact on the behaviour of others. There are certain factors that influence children’s behaviour that sometimes need to be considered and accommodated. These factors include: - Approaches to addressing educational disadvantage - Making adjustments for, and valuing, diversity; - Preventing any form of discrimination (Some children have needs that can affect their pattern of learning/behaviour, for example, SEN (Special Education Needs), ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) or EBD( Emotional Behavioural Disturbance). These can alert teachers to particular learning/ behavioural needs. • Relationship among teachers and pupils • Pupils’ sense of belonging to the school community • School and classroom environment • Classroom management • Break-time management • Pupil engagement • Parental involvement **Whole School Approach in Promoting Positive Behaviour** The elements of a whole school approach to behaviour include: **Consistent ethos and policies** School management and staff are charged with creating a positive school environment through consistent ethos, policies and practices that will promote and encourage good behaviour. The policies that currently operate in the school relating to Code of Behaviour are: The Healthy Eating Policy, Enrolment policy, the Anti-Bullying Policy, the SPHE Curriculum and the Safety Statement. **A whole-school approach to curriculum and classroom management:** The foundations of positive learning behaviour are effective teaching and an inclusive and engaging curriculum. Classroom management and teaching methods have a strong influence on pupil behaviour. The skill of the teacher in managing the routine engagement with pupils is a critical factor in preventing problems. A crucial factor in operating a code of behaviour is the co-operation and support of parents acknowledging responsibility for their child’s behaviour in school. - Staff as a team will have opportunities to confirm that all school policies and practices support the objectives of the code of behaviour. They bring to their work their professional expertise in understanding the links between behaviour and learning, their experience of what works to help pupils to behave well and their knowledge of the school and its community. Opportunities will be provided for staff to deepen their understanding of the factors that affect behaviour and that help pupils to change behaviour. Staff members engage in discussions regarding policy and practice at regular staff meetings to support the code. There may be occasions in which the code is reviewed and updated as a result of observations made at these discussions. - New and temporary staff are made aware of our Code of Behaviour through the welcome pack provided to them by the Principal. - SEN children with assessed behavioural difficulties are catered for with specific behavioural targets set out in their IEPs (Individual Education Plans). These will be developed collaboratively among pupils, parents and teachers. For example, a child with Asperger’s Syndrome may be presented with a visual cue to help her follow the school’s Code of Behaviour. ● The school’s SPHE curriculum is used to promote the Code of Behaviour by helping children develop communication skills, appropriate ways of interacting and behaving and conflict resolution skills. Specific topics are targeted concurrently throughout the school at various times during the year, for example, Active School’s week and stay safe programme as part of the SPHE programme. ● Circle time, role play and drama are some of the specific activities used in Scoil Bhríde to develop good behavioural skills in children. **An inclusive and involved school community:** **The Board of Management:** ● The Board of Management supports the staff in implementing the code of behaviour by providing opportunities for staff development, for example, training days, lectures etc. ● The Board of Management will follow procedures in dealing with serious breaches of behaviour as outlined in this policy. **Parents:** ● Parents and guardians are responsible for emphasising at home the need for good behaviour at school, and for supporting the school’s efforts in creating and maintaining a school climate where effective learning and teaching can take place. To encourage positive behaviour, a pupil’s behaviour may be monitored and noted so that parents can be involved in this positive reinforcement. The homework journal is an important means of communication between parents and teachers in this regard. ● Parents support the school in the promotion of positive behaviour and the maintenance of high standards of behaviour in the following ways: ○ Parents ensure their children attend school regularly and punctually ○ Parents encourage their children to do their best and to take responsibility for their work ○ Parents are aware of, and cooperate with, the school’s rules and system of rewards and sanctions ○ Parents attend meetings at the school if requested ○ Parents help their children with homework and ensure that it is completed ○ Parents ensure their children have the necessary books and materials for school **Pupils:** Pupils are more likely to support a code of behaviour when they have helped to develop it. Relationships of trust between teachers and pupils can grow stronger through the process ● Under the guidance of the class teacher and a discussion of the standard of behaviour expected in the school, the children with their teacher together translate the standards into school rules and classroom rules. This ensures that all pupils have a good understanding of what is expected of them and why. - The above process will be repeated in each classroom every year. - Positive behaviour is promoted by the principal during assemblies and through regular visits to the classrooms. Positive behaviour is also promoted through the SPHE and Religion programmes. - Pupils are responsible for observing expected standards of behaviour and showing respect for themselves, others and the school. The rightful authority of the teacher is to be respected at all times in order to maintain a positive learning environment. This is so that a positive learning environment can be maintained. The principal is responsible for monitoring and reviewing policy at staff level on a regular basis and reports any review the staff deem necessary to the Board of Management. **Positive Strategy for Managing Behaviour** Promoting good behaviour is the main goal of the code. School management and staff will actively foster a school ethos, policies, and practices that help to promote positive behaviour and prevent inappropriate behaviour. *‘The most effective methodology that teachers develop in attempting to manage challenging behaviour is to prevent it occurring in the first place’.* Such practices would include: - Ensuring that pupils are treated fairly, equally and firmly. - A quiet word or gesture to show approval. - Matching work with pupils’ abilities. Differentiation will be utilised by teachers to this end. - Teachers creating moments of success and then acknowledging them. - A system of merit marks. - A comment in a pupil’s exercise book. - A visit to another member of staff or the principal for commendation. - A word of praise in front of a group or class - Delegating some responsibility or privilege - A mention to a parent – written or verbal - A word of praise in front of a group or class - Teacher recording improvement in the behaviour of a disruptive pupil. - Implementation of Programmes such as *Circle Time* to promote positive behaviour. - Adult modelling of the behaviour that is expected from pupils. These strategies synopsize for our children what is expected of them in a language they understand and incorporate our school ethos - *a policy of responsibility and respect.* The above list is not comprehensive and consists of examples only. **School Rules** All members of the school community will be expected to display the following behaviours: - Respect for others - Kindness and willingness to help others - Courtesy and good manners - Fairness - Readiness to use respectful ways of resolving difficulties and conflict - Forgiveness in accordance with the policy of responsibility and respect. School rules are devised with regard to the health, safety and welfare of all members of the school community. Adults should model expected behaviours in their interaction with children every day. The school rules listed below provide clear guidelines for all members of the school community. **PUPIL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS** **SAFETY:** For my own safety and that of others I should: - Enter and exit through designated doors in an orderly fashion. - Always obey the traffic wardens - Not leave during the day without being collected by a parent or a designated adult and sign out in the Sign Out Book in the office. - Walk quietly around the school and avoid causing a disturbance - Remain quiet and orderly in the class line - Remain seated at all appropriate times in my classroom - Always behave well in the yard and never run or do anything that would put my safety or the safety of others at risk - Understand that the school rules apply when I am on any school outings - Abide by the school rules on Substance Abuse, Jewellery, the use of mobile phones, Cameras and the Internet. **CARING FOR MYSELF** I should: - Attend school regularly and not miss days without good reason. When returning from absence I should present a written explanation. - Always be in school before the bell rings (at 8.50a.m) - Wear the complete school uniform every day - Wear the school tracksuit on P.E days only, unless otherwise instructed (Correct footwear must be worn for PE) - Do my best always, and behave well in class so that my fellow pupils and I can learn • Always complete my homework to the best of my ability • Participate in school activities and have all the necessary books and materials • Bring a nutritional lunch to school and avoid unhealthy food (crisps, crisp related foods, fizzy drinks, high energy drinks, sweets, chocolate, chocolate related products. Remember that on Fridays, a chocolate treat is permitted • Chewing gum is not permitted Nut and food containing nuts are not permitted • Be hygienic and always use a toilet bag in school CARING FOR OTHERS I should: • Respect all school property and the property of my fellow pupils • Show respect, for myself and others by being kind, mannerly and polite to all • Keep the school tidy and litter free, and bring home unfinished food, drinks, cartons, wrappers, etc Bullying: I should never bully others. I should never allow others to bully me and if it happens I should tell my parents and my teacher. Bullying is always unacceptable. Scoil Bhríde is a “bully-free zone”. Classroom “Ground rules”/ behavioural expectations in each class are consistent with the ethos as expressed in the code of behaviour and which set a positive atmosphere for learning. • Classroom rules will be drawn up at the start of each academic year by the class teacher and pupils. • Pupils have an input in devising the class rules. • Teachers ensure that pupils understand and are frequently reminded of how they are expected to behave. • Teachers use a number of management techniques that incorporate a variety of activities and methodologies to sustain pupil interest and motivation. For example, positive everyday interactions between teachers and pupils, good school and class routines, recognising and giving positive feedback about behaviour and exploring with pupils how people should treat each other. • A clear system of acknowledging and rewarding good behaviour and sanctions for misbehaviour will be communicated to the pupils by their class teacher. Playground: Playground rules will be communicated to staff and pupils regularly at staff meetings, assemblies and in the classroom. All pupils have the right to enjoy their time outside in the playground in a safe environment at break periods. Any action that puts safety of self or others at risk is considered a misdemeanour. - In the interest of safety pupils should move safely at all times in the playground. Running is allowed, at a safe pace, in keeping with our Active School Policy. - In the interest of safety pupils should remain on the tarmac area at all times. - In the interests of safety pupils should refrain from climbing on school railings, sculptures, trees, gates and bars at the entrance to the school. - Any form of fighting or physical violence is considered a major misdemeanour. - In the interest of safety, when the bell rings during playtime, pupils should stop playing and “freeze” and then walk quietly to their class lines when directed. - Pupils should not enter the school building without getting permission from teachers. - Adequate supervision is always provided by the teaching staff and a rota is coordinated by the Principal. - SNA’s assist the teacher on duty in the playground in supervising the pupils while prioritising the needs of their designated child or children in their care. All disciplinary issues are dealt with by the teacher on duty. - In the interest of safety pupils play in different yards that are designated yards according to age/class levels. - Each class is aware of their designated zone in the playground. - Pupils who are unable to go to the playground due to illness or for other reasons will be taken to a designated area in the yard or in a classroom which will be visible to the teacher supervising in the yard. - In the interest of safety, the school operates a red/yellow card system for pupils who do not adhere to the above rules. Pupils will be given a warning, followed by a yellow card if the behaviour persists. A red card will be issued if the behaviour continues. Pupils who are given cards must return them to their own classroom teacher where they will discuss and explain the reason for the card. They will then return the card to the supervising teacher who issued it where they will discuss further the behaviour that led to the issuance of the card. Wet days / Day when pupils cannot access the playground - Pupils will remain in their classroom. - Sharp implements, for example, scissors, knitting needles, sewing needles, compasses and tin-whistles, are to be used only when a teacher is present in the classroom. - Pupils will have access to activities such as reading, drawing, games and other suitable entertainment resources. - Pupils are not allowed to use tin-whistles on wet days except during supervised music practice. - Pupils are expected to remain seated in their classrooms or, where applicable, in general purpose areas/halls - Pupils are not allowed to use the internet unsupervised during break times. **Swimming days:** - Pupils are walked safely and quietly to the swimming pool under the supervision of their class teacher. - Every pupil listens to, and obeys, the class teacher. - No shouting or playing in the dressing rooms. - Every pupil listens to and obeys the instructor. - No running around pool area - Swimming caps required. - Pupils do not leave the pool without permission from the teacher or instructor. - No jumping into the pool from the side-unless under instructor’s directions. - No pushing or rough play in the pool - Pupils are expected to dress quickly after each session. - Shower gels/hairsprays/gels/spray deodorants/shampoo or conditioner are not allowed. - No drinks/sweets are bought from the vending machine. - At all times pupils are expected to abide by the rules of the swimming pool. - Pupils who are not going swimming will be assigned to another classroom for the duration of the swimming session or, where possible and where adequate supervision can be arranged, will watch from the viewing area of the swimming pool. **Tour Rules:** - Pupils enter/leave the bus in an orderly manner. - On the bus pupils must sit in their seats, with seatbelts fastened and avoid loudness that would distract the driver. - Pupils follow any instructions of the teacher at all times. - Parental/Guardian permission slips allowing the child to go on tour are returned to the teacher prior to the tour. The standards and rules contained in the code apply to any situation where the pupil, although off the school premises, is still the responsibility of the school e.g. tours, trips, visits to places of worship, churches, quizzes and matches. The code also applies to extracurricular activities outside school hours where the pupil is still the responsibility of the school e.g. training, matches etc. **Rewards and Sanctions** **Rewards and acknowledgement of good behaviour** Good behaviour is publicly recognised and acknowledged in the following ways: - Praise for the pupil within the classroom - Pupil sent to other teachers involved with child e.g. nearby teacher, duty teacher, former teacher, L.S./Resource etc - Pupil sent to Principal Pupil achievement is acknowledged in assemblies and the school newsletter: “The EglanTimes” Teams may visit classrooms with trophies Pupil achievement may be acknowledged on the school website Rewards are awarded at the discretion of the individual teacher in the different class levels. “Good news” is communicated to parents, other classes and principal in the following ways: - notes home in homework journal - meeting parents of at the schoolgate/classroom door - children sent to Principal, teacher next door, Special Education Teachers - home communication copy for children with special educational needs Strategies for responding to inappropriate behaviour: Despite best efforts, inappropriate behaviour happens. Even minor breaches of the code of behaviour can be disruptive, particularly if they are persistent. Serious misbehaviour can have damaging and long-lasting effects including disruption of the pupil’s own learning and the learning of others. It can cause distress and anxiety or even pose a threat to the safety of pupils and teachers. Where a pupil’s behaviour disrupts the teaching and learning of other students, school authorities have to weigh the needs of that student with the needs of other students and staff. Staff apply professional skill and judgement, in each individual case, drawing on factual and objective information about the impact of a student’s behaviour, and using transparent criteria for measuring that impact. Scoil Bhríde promotes a problem-solving approach when dealing with inappropriate behaviour. - Gather information. Understand the context and the factors that may be affecting behaviour. - Generate ideas about possible solutions that take account of the reasons why it may be happening. - Decide and agree on specific strategies - Implement the agreed strategy consistently - Review progress: evaluate the impact and effectiveness of the intervention. - Throughout, keep the relationship with the pupil as positive as possible; involve the pupil and parent. Whole-school strategies: In so far as is possible, staff members have: - Agreed ways of describing behaviour - Arrangements for recording behaviour - A ladder for intervention: support for all, additional support for some pupils, specialised support for a small minority eg pupils with Special Educational Needs who are known to the S.E.T team. **Roles and responsibilities** While the class teacher is the front-line source of help for pupils, all staff members accept mutual responsibility for behaviour in Scoil Bhríde. The class teacher will deal with routine misbehaviour through classroom management strategies, thus minimising the need for other interventions. **The Use of Sanctions** Sanctions are part of a plan to change behaviour. A sanction is a form of positive intervention. They should be appropriate to the age and development stage of the student and take account of learning difficulties and cultural background of the pupil. The purpose of a sanction is to bring about a change in behaviour by: - helping pupils to learn that their behaviour is unacceptable - helping them to recognise the effect of their actions and behaviour on others - helping pupils (in ways appropriate to their age and development) to understand that they have choices about their own behaviour and that all choices have consequences - helping them to learn to take responsibility for their behaviour - reinforcing the boundaries set out in the code of behaviour In other instances, sanctions may be needed to: - prevent serious disruption of teaching and learning - keep the pupil, or other pupils or adults, safe. Sanctions are used in a way that ensures that: - sanctions are part of a plan to change behaviour - sanctions are used consistently - students and parents know what sanctions are used in the school - sanctions are proportionate - sanctions are appropriate. Teachers should ensure that, in applying any sanction, the duty of care to the pupil is maintained. The degree of misdemeanour, i.e. minor, serious or gross, will be judged by the teachers and /or Principal based on a common sense approach with regard to the nature, frequency and intensity of such misdemeanours. Involving parents in management of problem behaviour: Scoil Bhríde has a welcoming atmosphere for parents. The school encourages teachers to contact parents, as educational partners, so that they are made aware of any behaviour difficulties that may exist in school. Parental cooperation and support are vital elements in solving behavioural difficulties. Parents are contacted and involved early when significant behaviour problems begin to appear. Teachers may liaise with the Principal and consider the nature, intensity and persistence of the misbehaviour when inviting parents to the school. When a serious misdemeanour has taken place, the class teacher may seek an immediate meeting with a parent. Initial contact between a class teacher and parent can be made through a note in the pupil’s homework diary or through a letter posted home. Appointments, for a mutually suitable time, can also be arranged by the school secretary by telephone call. Generally meetings between parents and teachers are held face to face and not by telephone call. Every effort will be made to provide an appropriate meeting environment such as a vacant classroom or the Principal’s office. When meeting parents to discuss pupil’s behaviour, it is important that the teacher puts the parent at his/her ease. This can be done by greeting the parent by name and thanking him/her for attending. Polite and respectful language should be used by both parties throughout the meeting. It should be conveyed to the parents that their cooperation is important in finding a solution to the behaviour difficulty as partners in the educational process. Such a solution will enable their child to increase their learning and gain success out of their school experience. Parents may be asked to consider seeking help from outside agencies or the school may arrange help from these agencies with parental consent. Generally, pupils are not present at meetings but may be asked to attend all or part of the meeting so that they can be informed of the strategies agreed between the school and parents in relation to problem behaviour. In accordance with school policy, parents who have concerns are invited to contact the school and make an appointment to meet with staff members. Parents are made aware of this at the welcome meeting for new Junior Infants and in the information booklet they receive. The Homework Journal allows parents to communicate concerns to the class teacher. Parent-Teacher meetings also give parents an opportunity to voice any anxieties they may have. Parents who wish to have a consultation with the class teacher are encouraged to make a prior appointment through the school secretary with the relevant teacher. Initial consultations in relation to behaviour should be between the parent and the class teacher. Managing aggressive or violent behaviour: - The SEN coordinator in the school is informed. - Children who are emotionally disturbed are immediately referred for psychological assessment. ● Through the Special Educational Needs Organiser (SENO), appropriate support is sought from services available e.g. HSE, NEPS, etc. ● The Principal or another designated teacher acts as mentor for particular children. He/She assists the teacher in the creation of individual behaviour plans for specific children. ● Individual behaviour plans are used as an additional support for a small minority. Teachers, SEN personnel, parents, and the pupil may be consulted in the drawing up of these plans. Each case is treated individually. Such plans are retained in the pupil’s file in the office. The effectiveness of the intervention is evaluated to determine future action. ● Teachers are encouraged and facilitated in any way possible to partake in professional development in this area, e.g. N.C.S.E., Colleges of Education, C.P.D courses, Education Centres. ● In the event of seriously violent or threatening behaviour causing a risk to the safety of the pupil herself or the safety of other pupils or staff, that pupil will be removed from the room/area or the room/area will be vacated by the other pupils and staff members. The pupil’s parents/guardian will be contacted and arrangements made for the pupil to be collected from the school as quickly as possible Suspension / Expulsion C.F. Chapter 11 & 12 Guidelines Access to education shapes the life chances of children and young people in a fundamental way. For this reason, a proposal to exclude a pupil, through suspension or expulsion, is a serious step, warranted only by very serious misbehaviour. Legal Context The entitlement to education is protected in a range of constitutional and legal provisions and in Human Rights Conventions. These legal protections for the individual pupil’s right to education mean that decisions to suspend or expel a pupil are open to appeal and may be subject to judicial review by the High Court. Scoil Bhríde includes its procedures for suspension and expulsion in its code of behaviour as required under section 23(2) of the Education (Welfare) Act 2000. Suspension Definition: Suspension is defined as requiring the pupil to absent herself from the school for a specified, limited period of school days. During the period of suspension the pupil retains her place in the school. Suspension should be a proportionate response to the behaviour that is causing concern. Normally, other interventions will have been tried before suspension, and school staff will have reviewed the reasons why these have not worked. The decision to suspend a pupil requires serious grounds such as that: - The pupil’s behaviour has had a seriously detrimental effect on the education of other pupils - The pupil’s continued presence in the school at this time constitutes a threat to safety - The pupil is responsible for serious damage to property. - A single incident of serious misconduct may be grounds for suspension. Please note that all investigations of alleged misbehaviour will be carried out in confidence, bearing in mind fair procedures based on the principles of natural justice. **NB:** Fair procedures have two essential parts: the right to be heard and the right to impartiality. Where allegations of criminal behaviour are made about a pupil, these will usually be referred to the Gardaí, who have responsibility for investigating criminal matters. **Procedure for Suspension:** The pupil and parents will be informed about the complaint, how it will be investigated and that it could result in suspension. Parents and pupil will be given an opportunity to respond and be heard. Parents will be invited to meet with the class teacher, Principal and/or Chairperson BOM to discuss the incident of gross misdemeanour or serious misdemeanour before any decision is made or any sanction is imposed. In the case of immediate suspension, parents will be notified, and arrangements made with them for the pupil to be collected. The Board of Management/School Manager has delegated authority to the Principal to suspend for up to three days, which can be extended to five days with the Chairperson’s approval. The Board of Management will normally place a ceiling of ten days on any one period of suspension imposed by it. C.f. Guidelines p.70 Communication to parents regarding the suspension of a pupil or the possibility of suspension will be in writing. A written statement of the terms, date of commencement and termination of a suspension will be given to parents. Parents will be advised of their right to appeal any decision to suspend under Section 29 of the Education Act 1998. The principal is required to report suspensions in accordance with NEWB Reporting Guidelines [Education Welfare Act, 2000, section 21 (4)(a)] Formal written records, in line with the school’s record keeping policy and data protection legislation, will be kept of the investigation and the decision-making process. The principal will report all suspensions to the Board of Management, with the reasons for and the duration of each suspension. The Board of Management/School Manager will regularly review the use of suspension in the school. **Re-integrating the pupil** When a period of suspension ends, the pupil will be re-admitted formally to class by the Principal. Where a satisfactory resolution of a problem is achieved, a pupil may be re-admitted to school within a suspension period at the discretion of the Chairperson of the Board and Principal. Readmission to school may sometimes involve conditions, for example, earlier finishing times or individual management plans. Should a pupil report for school even though she has been suspended the parents will be contacted and asked to collect their child. The pupil will not be admitted to class but will remain in another room where supervision will be arranged. The pupil will be given school work to do while she waits to be collected. **Expulsion** A pupil is expelled from a school when the Board of Management makes a decision to permanently exclude him/her from the school, having complied with the provisions of Section 24 of the Education (Welfare) Act 2000. The decision to expel a pupil requires serious grounds such as that: - The pupil’s behaviour is a persistent cause of significant disruption to the learning of others or to the teaching process. - The pupil’s continued presence in the school constitutes a real and significant threat to safety. - The pupil is responsible for serious damage to property. - A single incident of a serious misdemeanour may be grounds for expulsion. C.f. Appendix 4 for a list of serious misdemeanours. Where expulsion is considered, school authorities have tried a series of other interventions, and believe they have exhausted all possibilities for changing the pupil’s behaviour. Please note that all investigations of alleged misbehaviour will be carried out in confidence, bearing in mind fair procedures based on the principles of natural justice. **NB:** Fair procedures have two essential parts: the right to be heard and the right to impartiality. Where allegations of criminal behaviour are made about a pupil, these will usually be referred to the Gardaí, who have responsibility for investigating criminal matters. **Procedure for Expulsion:** Where preliminary assessment of the facts confirms serious misbehaviour, that could warrant expulsion, the procedural steps will include: - A detailed investigation carried out under the direction of the Principal - A recommendation to the Board of Management by the Principal - Consideration by the Board of Management of the principal’s recommendation; and the holding of a hearing - Board of Management deliberations and actions following the hearing - Consultations arranged by the Educational Welfare Officer - Confirmation of the decision to expel - Prior to the expulsion of a pupil the Education Welfare Officer must be notified in writing of the school’s intention twenty days in advance. - The pupil and parents will be informed about the complaint, how it will be investigated and that it could result in expulsion - Parents and pupil will be given an opportunity to respond and be heard - Parents will be invited to meet with class teacher, Principal, Principal and/or Chairperson to discuss the incident of gross misdemeanour or serious misdemeanour before any decision is made or any sanction is imposed - In the case of immediate expulsion, parents will be notified, and arrangements made with them for the pupil to be collected. - Formal written records, in line with the school’s record keeping policy and data protection legislation, will be kept of the investigation and the decision-making process. **Appeals** A parent may appeal a decision to expel to the Secretary General of the Department of Education and Skills (Education Act 1998 section 29). An appeal may also be brought by the National Education Welfare Board on behalf of a pupil. **Keeping Records** Records in relation to pupils’ behaviour are written in a factual and impartial manner. **Class level** Serious misbehaviour is reported to the Principal or Deputy Principal as outlined in this Code of Behaviour. End of year reports include references to behaviour. There is a reasonably consistent understanding of what constitutes appropriate and inappropriate behaviour among the staff and this is addressed on a regular basis at staff meetings. Parents are kept up to date during the year regarding behavioural issues. **Playground** Supervising staff use a ‘red and yellow card’ system. Pupils will first be given a warning about behaviour using the yellow card. The red card will be given to a pupil if the behaviour continues. The pupil must present this card to her own class teacher who will discuss the behaviour and apply a sanction if deemed necessary. The pupil will then return the card to the supervising teacher and discuss the behaviour and her understanding of how it affects herself and others with the supervising teacher also. **School records** - Incidents reported to the Principal are recorded in the class teacher’s personal record book. Documentation pertaining to appeals under Section 29 will also be kept in the Principal’s office **Procedure for notification of a pupil’s absence from school** The Education Welfare Act, 2000, Section 23 (2)(e) states that the code of behaviour must specify ‘the procedures to be followed in relation to a child’s absence from school’. Section 18 stipulates that parents must notify the school of a pupil’s absence and the reason for this absence. Parents receive advice regarding notification of absence at the beginning of each school year. The school provides forms in the Homework Journal (Rang 2 – Rang 6) or Homework Copy (Junior Infants – Rang 1) for the parent /guardian to complete regarding absences. It informs the class teacher of the child’s absence from school and the reason for this absence. These notes are signed and dated. They are kept by the class teacher until the last day of the school year. If parents know in advance that their child is going to be absent, e.g. dental or medical appointment, they are encouraged to inform the class teacher beforehand. Reference to other policies Success Criteria: (by which the policy will be judged) - Atmosphere of discipline within the school - Children are aware of school rules - Staff apply school rules - Growth in self discipline - Co-operation between parents, teachers and pupils in maintaining the code. - Comments or compliments on behaviour. - Children working to the best of their ability - Class working to the best of their ability - Improvements in behaviour Monitoring and Review: Each staff member is responsible for the implementation of the Code of Behaviour and Anti-Bullying Policy. Within the classroom the teacher monitors her class. Teachers consider themselves responsible for the behaviour of children within sight or sound of them and respond to any instance of unacceptable behaviour. The principal is responsible for monitoring and reviewing policy at staff level on a regular basis and reports any review the staff deem necessary to the Board of Management. The Board of Management has ultimate responsibility for discipline in the school under its management and a duty to ensure that a fair code of discipline applies therein. The Board of Management will ensure the Code of Behaviour and Anti-Bullying policy are reviewed every four years or more often if the need arises. Review date: September 2021 Signed ___________________________ Date ________________ Appendix 1 Sanctions Examples of Minor Misdemeanours include: - Interrupting class work - Arriving late for school - Running in the school building - Leaving seat without permission at lunch time - Not being calm/orderly in class line - Swinging on chairs - Not bringing/using toilet bag - Placing unfinished food/drink cartons in class bin - Leaving litter around the school - Not wearing correct uniform or tracksuit - Wearing make-up to school - Bringing a mobile phone to school without prior arrangement - Being discourteous/unmannerly - Not completing homework without good reason - Not having homework signed by a parent - Endangering self/fellow pupils in school yard at break time - Not travelling safely and directly between classrooms - Not obeying school exiting policy - Disobeying school swimming policy - Not wearing seat belt on bus - Repeatedly forgetting books Examples of Steps to be Taken When Dealing with Minor Misdemeanours 1. Reasoning with the pupil 2. Verbal reprimand Examples of Steps to be Taken When Dealing with Regular Occurrences of Minor Misdemeanours Phase 1 (Within the classroom) 1. Withdrawal of privileges 2. In class time-out 3. Note in homework journal (written by teacher) to be signed by parent 4. Note to parents concerning further misbehaviour in yard. [Misbehaviour in yard consists of any action that puts the safety of self/others at risk] Phase 2 1. Pupil will meet with Principal and relevant teacher 2. Class teacher meets one/both parents 3. Principal/Class Teacher/ Teacher on Duty meet one/both parents concerning yard Examples of Serious Misdemeanours - Constantly disruptive in class - Telling lies - Constantly not working to full potential - Forging parent’s signature - Stealing - Damaging other pupils’ property - Damaging school property - Bullying - Disrespectful behaviour to a teacher - Back answering a teacher - Using a mobile phone at school without prior arrangement - Leaving school premises during school day without appropriate permission - Frequenting school premises after school hours without appropriate permission - Deliberately using unacceptable language - Sexual harassment - Deliberately injuring a fellow pupil Examples of Steps to be Taken When Dealing with Serious Misdemeanours 1. Pupil will meet with Principal and relevant teacher 2. Principal sends note home to be signed by parent 3. Principal and relevant teacher meet one/both parents 4. Chairperson of Board of management/School Manager informed and parents requested to meet with Chairperson and Principal Examples of Gross Misdemeanours - Smoking - Alcohol/substance abuse - Aggressive, threatening or violent behaviour towards a pupil/teacher - Physical assault on pupil/teacher - Bringing weapons to school - Bringing illegal substances to school - Setting fire to school property - Deliberately leaving taps/fire hose on - Tampering with fire equipment - Repeated sexual harassment - Sexual assault Examples of Steps to be Taken When Dealing with Gross Misdemeanours 1. Chairperson/Principal to sanction immediate suspension pending discussion with parents in accordance with *Developing a Code of Behaviour: Guidelines for Schools: NEWB (2008)* 2. Expulsion will be considered in an extreme case in accordance with *Developing* Please note: - Where allegations of criminal behaviour are made about a pupil, these will usually be referred to the Gardaí, who have responsibility for investigating criminal matters. IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT THESE LISTS CONSIST OF EXAMPLES ONLY: They are not meant to be totally comprehensive lists of misdemeanours and procedural steps. Dear Parents, Re. Notification of Child’s absence from school The Education Welfare Act 2000 section 18 stipulates that parents must notify the school of a student’s absence and the reason for this absence. To standardise the process of informing the school of your child’s absence the school is providing a form for you to complete regarding absences. This form will indicate the dates of absence and the reason for the absence. These forms will be incorporated into the homework journal/homework copy, for use when your child is returning after a period of absence. The form will be signed and dated and returned to the class teacher. The class teacher will keep these forms until the end of each school year. If you know in advance that your child is going to be absent, e.g. for dental or medical appointment, we would encourage you to inform the class teacher beforehand. The school will notify the Education Welfare Officer when a parent fails to notify the school about a pupil’s absence. Under the terms of the Educational Welfare Act schools are obliged to inform the Educational Welfare Officer when a child has been absent for more than 20 days whatever the reason. When a child is absent for 15 days this fact is reported to the Principal and the class teacher sends a letter to the parents reminding them that their child’s absence will reported to the EWO if it reaches 20 Days. When a child is absent for more than 20 days the parents are informed in writing that this fact has been communicated by the Principal to the EWO for their consideration.
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STROKE HAPPENS. To you. To those you love. Know the signs. Act fast. A stroke happens when a part of the brain dies from lack of blood, usually because one of the arteries that supply oxygen-carrying blood to the brain has been damaged. There are two ways this can happen: 1. Clogged vessel or ischemic stroke: Caused by blockage of a blood vessel in the brain, usually by a blood clot or by fatty deposits on the vessel wall. 85% of strokes are ischemic. 2. Burst vessel or hemorrhagic stroke: Caused by a ruptured blood vessel, preventing normal flow and allowing blood to leak into brain tissue, destroying it. This occurs in 15% of strokes. Stroke is a common and often misunderstood condition and its early symptoms are often ignored. Some brain cells deprived of oxygen die within minutes. Others may take a few hours to die depending on the nature of the blockage or hemorrhage. The loss of physical and mental functions is often permanent and can include motor-function disability. The most effective treatment for stroke can be administered if it is within three hours of the onset of stroke. Although strokes can occur at any age, most stroke patients (two-thirds) are over the age of 65. Key Stroke Facts - Stroke is the 3rd leading cause of death in the U.S. behind heart disease and cancer. - Over 160,000 Americans die from stroke each year. - Stroke is the leading cause of serious long-term disability in the United States. - There are more than 6 million stroke survivors living today in our country and two-thirds of them are disabled. - There are approximately 700,000 strokes in our country each year. About 500,000 of these are first or new strokes. About 200,000 occur in people who have already had a stroke. - Strokes can and do occur at ANY age. Nearly one quarter of strokes occur under the age of 65. - The risk of stroke more than doubles each decade after the age of 55. - Each year, an estimated 4,500 Santa Clara residents are hospitalized for stroke and the cost for medical care and rehabilitation and lost productivity locally is about $300 million annually. - Up to 80% of strokes are preventable. ACT FAST! Facial Weakness Arm & Leg Weakness Speech Problems Time is Critical If you answered “Yes” to any of the above: CALL 911 IMMEDIATELY RISK FACTORS - High blood pressure - High cholesterol - Diabetes - Smoking - Family history of stroke - Obesity - Previous Strokes - 1 in 4 Americans could not name a single stroke risk factor. Source: GoesHere
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Astronomers must move observatories into space Jim Everett reviews the technological frontiers facing astronomy and astrophysics, from 1,000-meter radiowaves to the finest gamma rays. Lyndon LaRouche’s proposal to establish a large scientific colony on Mars during the 2020s and 2030s conjures up the prospect of large-scale astrophysical undertakings—such as his suggestion of a “lens with an aperture on the scale of the Mars orbit.” (Fusion, November-December 1986.) While space scientists and astrophysicists have tended to trim their imaginations to fit their threadbare budgets, the frontiers they are facing even today point the way to more majestic undertakings. Earth’s atmosphere is the principal frontier that is now being conquered. The Earth’s atmosphere, precisely because it is protective of life, is a hindrance to understanding the universe that lies beyond. The ozone layer shields ultraviolet radiation from both the delicate chemistry of living organisms and the astronomer’s probing telescope. Our increasing ability to move both man and machine above the atmosphere is the first sure step toward ushering in the golden age of astronomy. Probably the greatest part of astronomy—in terms of man-hours—will continue to be practiced from the surface of Earth for some time to come. The advent of computerized detection devices and innovative arrays of mirrors has lengthened and sharpened the view of ground-based telescopes enormously. But, from the ground, we are near our theoretical limits in visible light; in both the high and low-energy portions of the spectrum, the sky is a nearly opaque screen (see Figure 1). In the solar system, the advantages of observing from space are obvious. The Vikings and the Voyagers have increased our planetary knowledge far more than it had advanced in the previous two millennia. Simply being able to see the planets and their moons clearly and at close range has revolutionized planetary astronomy. This ability to place telescopes in orbit is revolutionizing all branches of astronomy. Of all the sciences, astronomy is least able to perform experiments on its subject, relying instead on technological improvements in observation to furnish fresh constraints and problems for theory. Consider infrared astronomy: This part of the electromagnetic spectrum is responsible for our sensation of heat. All objects about us, including the air and even the telescopes themselves, emit radiation in these wavelengths. How do you look at the infrared emission of a star from the Earth? In visible light, this would be like looking at the stars in the daytime with a telescope that has been painted with phosphorescent paint! Using a few natural “windows” and some very advanced technology, infrared astronomers have to a significant degree overcome their blindness. Imagine, though, seeing in the infrared far above the warm Earth. The Infrared Satellite did this for 10 months in 1983, producing the first complete map of the sky in infrared radiation. Astronomers are still poring over these maps, making new discoveries. The x-ray barrier was broken in 1978 with the launch of the Einstein X-Ray Observatory. For two-and-a-half years, it mapped the high-energy universe. Perhaps its most exciting discovery was the existence of a uniform x-ray background radiation, which apparently is generated beyond our galaxy. It is as if intergalactic space were illuminated by a 400-million-degree plasma. Einstein shut down when it ran out of the gas needed to keep it oriented in space. Two orbiting gamma-ray telescopes were also launched in the 1970s, the American SAS-2 and the European Space Agency’s COS-B. These discovered some of the sources of gamma rays, the most energetic of photons. All of these pioneer space telescopes are now shut down, some on schedule, some by malfunction. The last active solar system mission is Voyager 2. The Uranus encounter of last year and the hoped-for Neptune rendezvous in 1989 are scientific bonuses; the Voyager craft were designed only to work as far as Saturn. After 1989, the entire fleet of space explorers designed in the 1970s will be dead. The design for the next generation of space-based telescopes is now complete. The Hubble Space Telescope, designed for optical light, is ready for launch now, awaiting the first available Space Shuttle sometime next year. The Gamma-Ray Observatory is also nearly ready for launch. Other missions still in the design stage include the Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility, the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility, Quasat (for Quasar Satellite, a radio telescope), and several smaller instruments that will operate on Spacelab missions. Except for the Space Telescope and the Gamma-Ray Observatory, none of these other missions have anything like a firm launch date, causing a wave of pessimism to ripple through the astrophysics community. As budgetary commitments become harder to obtain, a difficulty arises in attracting the best scientists to these projects. Even in the relatively productive 1960s and 1970s, the time from conception to launch of a major space probe was from 10 to 15 years. That time is now even longer. Many of the scientists involved in the earlier missions will no longer be active during the 1990s when many of the planned missions are very tentatively scheduled for launch. How can young scientists be attracted, in the peak of their creative years, to the full-time job of planning and organizing a venture that will not make any scientific returns for 15 or 20 years? NASA has wisely balanced the parallel needs of pure science with our task of learning how to live and work in space. To astrophysicists, manned missions often seem an expensive way to accomplish what an unmanned mission could do better. They are increasingly expressing resentment at the proportion of the NASA budget going to the Shuttle, for instance. Given the relatively low cost of unmanned missions, especially with state-of-the-art technology, astrophysicists might be better advised to increase educational efforts directed at Congress and the public in general. Few in the general public realize why money should be spent to place telescopes in orbit. Overall funding must be increased, rather than have programs vital to national progress in competition over a shrinking pie. The two programs are, after all, complementary. The manned program will sustain automated space telescopes by enabling them to be repaired. To deepen and intensify the debate over space-based telescopes, the problems of observing from Earth's surface in each part of the electromagnetic spectrum are summarized below. All electromagnetic radiation obeys the same laws of optics, although the extreme differences in wavelength, from 1,000 meters down to .00001 nanometers, require radically different modes of detection. The two limiting factors in any particular detector are intensity detectability and time and spatial resolution. Intensity is optimized by increasing the surface area of the telescope, which in principle has no fixed limit. Resolution is determined by the interaction of light with the aperture of a telescope. Light is diffracted when it passes through a lens or is reflected by a mirror, spreading spherically outward. The resolution of the resulting image will be limited by the interference patterns created by the multiple waves created in different parts of the aperture. The result is that resolution is limited by the size of a telescope’s aperture, whether lens, mirror, or dish (see Figure 2). Although no limit exists in principle for the aperture size, with shorter wavelengths the technological barriers are severe, involving configuring a large surface to within about 1/100th of a wavelength. What are the current technological limitations to increasing intensity and resolution in each of the major segments of the electromagnetic spectrum? Radio—1,000 meters to 1 millimeter The radio portion of the spectrum is usually defined as extending from 1 millimeter to the far end of the spectrum, although the longest wavelengths are currently inaccessible because they are reflected back into space by the Earth’s ionosphere. Except for possibly the shortest wavelengths, radio waves are usually of non-thermal origin, being generated either as synchrotron radiation in magnetic fields of stars or the galaxy as a whole, or the result of certain atomic and molecular transitions. These latter include the important radio emission of hydrogen gas at 21 centimeters wavelength that makes possible the identification of the spiral arms of our own galaxy (see Figures 3 and 4). The progress of radio astronomy has been more closely linked to the development of the computer than other types FIGURE 3 Mapping our spiral galaxy We live in a spiral galaxy somewhat like NGC 5985 shown in (a). Until radio telescopes mapped the hydrogen gas concentrations in our own galaxy (b), we had no way of detecting its spiral arms. GC = galactic center; S = Sun. Triangles and squares are hydrogen concentrations visible at radio wavelengths. Circles are those visible at optical wavelengths. Overall diameter is 100,000 light-years. Shown in (c) is the Very Large Array in the Plain of St. Augustine near Socorro, N.M., a radio telescope operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. It arranges 27 identical dishes in a Y-shaped configuration. Each arm is about 12 miles long. of astronomy. This is because of the difficulties in imaging very long wavelengths with high resolution. A comparison of the 200-inch Mt. Palomar optical telescope with the 300-foot radio dish at Green Bank, West Virginia, illustrates the point. In blue-green light, the optical telescope has a theoretical resolution of .025 arc seconds, while the radio telescope’s resolution is only 5 arc minutes when observing at 10 cm. The human eye, with a resolution of 1-2 arc minutes, is much better than the 300-foot radio telescope. The early, postwar radio telescopes could only paint the radio sky with a very broad brush. Since Michelson’s interferometer experiments at the turn of the century, astronomers have known of the possibility of using two or more separate apertures to increase the effective aperture and therefore the resolution of a telescope. In the 1950s, the first radio telescope arrays were built. A number of technological problems limited the success of these efforts. First, the telescopes had to be directly linked so that the electric pulses generated by the radio waves could be brought together to form interference patterns. Second, the resulting interference patterns could get extremely difficult to interpret. As computers became available, these problems began to diminish. By the 1960s a technique called very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) was used to link telescopes over 100 km apart, allowing for a resolution of .05 arc seconds. In 1967, the technique was perfected by digitizing the data at each telescope and storing it along with the “ticks” from atomic clocks, then combining it later with the help of a special computer called a correlator. The Canadians who first developed this approach achieved a resolution of .02 arc seconds observing 3C 273B, a distant quasar. VLBI is limited because a few widely separated telescopes cannot “fill in” the entire synthetic aperture. Three radio dishes in a straight line will not produce a correct two-dimensional image. The Very Large Array (VLA), in New Mexico, successfully addresses this problem, producing radio maps with very little geometrical distortion and with a resolution of 0.13 arc seconds at 2 centimeters, which is 10 times better than any Earth-based optical telescope, operating with conventional imaging techniques. It does this by directly connecting a Y-shaped array of 27 radio telescopes, each with an aperture of 25 meters. The entire array has the performance of a single collector 27 km in diameter. The optics of the VLA are far in advance of its computing power. It is in urgent need of supercomputing capability, especially in the area of spectral analysis. The next big step in radio astronomy will be the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), due to be completed in the mid-1990s, which will have ten 25-meter telescopes distributed from Hawaii to the Atlantic Coast. This system, especially when operated with a Canadian VLBA and with the VLA, will combine high resolution with a good “brightness” because of the density of the network. According to Mark Gordon of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, it FIGURE 4 Composite image of a supernova remnant This image of a supernova remnant, a shell of expanding gas known as Cassiopeia A, is a composite of x-ray, visible light, and radio images. The shell is discernible thanks to the x-ray and radio contributions. “will be able to make radio maps showing features only 200 millionths of an arc second across—the thickness of a nickel seen at a distance of 2,000 miles!” NASA and ESA are in the early stages of planning a space-based radio observatory called Quasat, a single 10-15 m radio telescope in Earth orbit (see Figure 5). Quasat will be linked with the VLBA and VLA on Earth for interferometry—that is, two-dimensional imaging. Because Quasat will be placed in a precessing elliptical orbit, the satellite’s path will constantly be shifting within the same plane, thus filling in the aperture and thereby increasing the field of view. The typical mode of operation will be to observe some source for a period of one orbit, then repeat the observation at a later time in the precession cycle, all the while integrating the results in a computer. Resolution is expected to be around 0.0001 arc seconds. Quasat will be able to work in the southern hemisphere also, where there is currently little radio observing capability. The Soviet Union has approved funding for Radio Astron, which will be similar in design to Quasat. The Soviets are actively seeking Western technological cooperation. Many Western scientists are eager to accept, since the projected launch will be years ahead of Quasat, which has not yet been approved for funding. Infrared—1 millimeter to 700 nanometers Infrared wavelengths are commonly measured in microns, 1/1,000th of a millimeter. Thus the infrared spectrum stretches from 1,000 microns (1 mm) down to 0.7 microns. The infrared spectrum is itself subdivided into five sections, based primarily on the different conditions for detection (see Figure 6). **Submillimeter—1,000 to 300 microns** The submillimeter band combines techniques from both infrared and radio astronomy. Submillimeter radiation is emitted by a number of molecules, such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, and sulfur dioxide. One of the major tasks of submillimeter astronomy is to map the distribution of these molecules, since they are a valuable tracer to large neutral hydrogen clouds, which are themselves difficult to observe directly. The same molecules that emitted submillimeter radiation deep in space are also present in the atmosphere, so the atmosphere is a strong absorber. A few windows do exist, however, that permit a certain percentage of the radiation to reach the surface. Placing telescopes high on mountain tops, above most atmospheric water vapor, greatly improves their performance. A number of 10- to 15-meter telescopes are under construction at the present time. The current leaders are the Franco-German IRAM team, who are building three 15-meter telescopes in an array near Grenoble, France. The surfaces of submillimeter telescopes must be more precisely configured than in radio astronomy. To achieve a sharp focus the surface should be around 1/20th of a wavelength (0.01 mm). Like all infrared telescopes, the next great leap in performance will be with space-based instruments, primarily to get above the absorption layers of the atmosphere. **Far infrared—300 to 40 microns** Far infrared radiation is very strongly absorbed by the atmosphere; there are no windows at all in this region. In past years the only observations were with balloon-borne instruments and with the Kuiper Airborne Observatory, a NASA operated 0.9 m telescope flown in a C141 transport. This wavelength opened up dramatically in 1983 with the launch of the IRAS satellite. Until the launching of IRAS, the catalogue of far infrared objects contained just 2,000 items. It now has a third of a million. The 0.6 m telescope was shielded from solar heating by 70 kg of liquid helium, which kept the instrument at 16 K and the solid state detector at 2 K. The low temperatures were required to keep the instrument itself from emitting the radiation it was supposed to be gathering. **Middle infrared—40 to 4 microns** There are several atmospheric windows in the middle infrared, but since matter at 273 K (0° C) emits thermal radiation in this wavelength range, the sky and even the are strong sources of middle infrared. Computer technology provides a method of subtracting out this background noise. Called "nodding," the telescope quickly shifts back and forth between the point source of light being observed and an empty patch of sky. The computer then subtracts the radiation detected in the "empty" frame from the star frame. New advances now permit extended images to be photographed directly, using CCD imaging with a bismuth-doped silicon chip with 1,024 pixels. **Near infrared—4 to 1.1 microns** Near infrared is not scattered by the atmosphere and there are a number of observing windows. Since it is not scattered, even daytime observation is possible and some of the largest optical telescopes are routinely used in the daytime "off hours" for near infrared work. The biggest technological challenge is detection of the radiation. Currently the best detectors are made of indium antimonide, which varies in electrical conductivity when struck by near infrared, much as a light meter does with visible light. This detector must be chilled to $50^\circ$ K. The brightest objects in the near infrared are the late-type giants, such as Betelgeuse and Antares. **Photographic infrared—1.1 to 0.7 microns** This is the shortest infrared wavelength and it behaves in every way like visible light. The human eye does not respond to this wavelength, but photographic emulsions are receptive. Charge-coupled device detectors are extremely efficient in the photographic infrared. **Visible light—700 to 300 nm** The atmosphere is transparent to visible light, but visible light telescopes on Earth still cannot reach the theoretical limits of resolution and light capture. The 200-inch Palomar telescope has a theoretical resolution of 0.02 arc seconds, but in practice the very best attainable resolution is only 0.2 arc seconds and for long exposures not better than 1.0 arc seconds. By comparison, the theoretical resolution of a 6-inch amateur telescope is 1.0 arc seconds. The degradation in resolution is caused by atmospheric turbulence. This turbulence is worse in the lower atmosphere, so the newest telescopes are being constructed on remote mountain tops, such as Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Light capture has increased almost two orders of magnitude in the last decade, due to advances in detector technology. At the time the 200-inch was built, photographic emulsion had an efficiency of 1/300, capturing 1 photon of every... 300. That has now been improved to 1/30. By contrast, CCD detectors have an efficiency of 3/4. A 13-inch amateur reflector, if coupled to a CCD, would have greater effective light-gathering power than the 200-inch when it was used with the old photographic emulsions! Now that nearly all the light-gathering power of modern telescopes is being utilized, the push is on for larger aperture instruments, using multiple mirrors or adaptive optics (see below) or both. The University of Texas is planning a 7.6 m (300-inch) reflector and the University of California is working on a 10-meter reflector made up of 36 smaller hexagonal segments. Another approach is to make a number of separate telescopes share the same focus. The Multiple Mirror Telescope at Mt. Hopkins, Arizona uses this principle. Its six 1.8 m mirrors give an effective aperture of 4.5 m, which makes it the world's third-largest telescope. The designers of the Multiple Mirror are working on a larger version, the National New Technology Telescope, one with eight mirrors of 5 m, creating in effect a 14 m telescope. While there is no theoretical limit to light-gathering power, the problem of increased resolution is more difficult. For Earth-based telescopes the answer is to use a combination of computer processing of images created by CCDs or some other electronic detector, and adaptive optics. Computer processing is now being used extensively. Images are stored digitally, either by digitizing a photograph with a densitometer or by imaging with a CCD, which is inherently digital. Current CCDs have 64,000 pixels. Each pixel counts incoming photons. The detector is frequently read and the number associated with each pixel is saved. At a later time, the image can be created and manipulated in any number of ways. One of the most popular ways is to assign false colors to different intensities and then display the color image on a color video monitor. The adaptive optics approach to increased resolution is still in its infancy. The basic idea is to continuously monitor the variations in direction of incoming radiation and then either physically adjust the optical surfaces to keep the image close to the theoretical limit and/or use computer processing to correct for distortions. The physical approach will be used on the European Southern Observatory's New Technology Telescope. The NTT telescope, due for completion in 1988, will continuously monitor the image quality and correct the mirror surface with 75 actuators that apply pressure to the undersurface of the mirror. The multiple mirror designs use a similar technology. The only direct way to allow a telescope to perform at its theoretical limits of resolution is to move it into space. The 2.4 m Hubble Space Telescope (HST) will have a resolution of 0.06 arc seconds, more than an order of magnitude better than any ground-based telescope. While only the 15th largest telescope, it will nonetheless be able to see dimmer objects than any other, because its images will not be fogged by airglow. The HST will be able to see stars and galaxies 50 times dimmer than those visible from Earth (see Figure 7). Future space-based telescopes will be actually built in space. Twenty- to thirty-meter mirrors are already being talked about, to be built in segments and assembled in space or to be built entirely in space. One proposal is to blow a large bubble of viscous liquid, attach it to some support and let it set with solar heat or ultraviolet radiation. The bubble would be aluminized and cut in half to make two mirrors. The bubble might also be left whole and filled with a low pressure gas to form a lens. It might have an aperture of 100 meters and a focal length of 100 million meters. **Ultraviolet—320 to 10 nm** Although 400 nm is the cutoff point where the eye no longer perceives the blue end of the spectrum, the real starting point for satellite ultraviolet astronomy is 320 nm, where the ozone layer begins to absorb strongly. For this reason UV astronomy is mainly space-based. The 0.8-meter Copernicus UV telescope was launched in 1972 and operated for nine years. It was joined by the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) in 1978. Although smaller in aperture than the Copernicus, the IUE incorporated more efficient detectors, allowing it to see fainter objects. State-of-the-art UV detectors use microchannel plates. Thousands of 1 mm glass tubes are arranged in a parallel array. An incoming UV photon enters one of the tubes, knocking loose an electron. This electron travels only a short distance before hitting the channel wall, releasing a few more electrons. A voltage difference guides the growing electron shower down toward a phosphorescent screen, where they cause the screen to glow at a small point. The screen is then photographed from behind. A newer version digitizes the output directly by attaching a resistive anode below the channels. The overall gain in output is on the order of 100,000 electrons for each UV photon. The majority of UV sources are thermal, such as the photospheres of extremely hot stars (10,000-100,000° K). The corona and chromosphere of the Sun, and presumably of most other stars, are strong UV emitters, being at a temperature over 1,000,000° K. UV telescopes are most often used not for imaging, but for spectral studies, since carbon and nitrogen in particular are best observed in UV. Some of the most interesting work is in detecting heavy elements in novas and supernovas. The Space Telescope, because it has a precision mirror that can work at wavelengths down to 115 nm, will provide the next technological advance in UV detection. For the extreme ultraviolet (EUV), the United States has designed the EUV Explorer, and Britain also has an extreme ultraviolet telescope that will be launched with a German x-ray telescope. **X-ray—10 to .01 nm** The well-known penetrating property of x-rays rules out all the telescope shapes used in longer wavelength astronomy. The typical x-ray wavelength is of the same order of magnitude as the atoms that make up a focusing surface, so most x-rays will just pass through or interact with the mirror surface. On the other hand, even though they are penetrating, x-rays do not penetrate very far into the atmosphere, so x-ray astronomy must be space-based. The earliest x-ray telescopes did not attempt to focus x-rays. They were simply proportional counters, similar to Geiger counters. Incoming x-rays pass into a gas-filled chamber, ionizing some of the gas atoms. Two grids with a high-voltage differential would then guide the liberated electrons toward one of the grids. Because of the high energies involved, 30 initial electrons might generate 300,000 free electrons by the time they reached the second grid. The induced current at the detector grid would then be measured for both strength and impact position. A collimating grid placed over the front of the proportional counter limits the field of view to about one degree; beyond this crude masking, there is no way to resolve an x-ray source with this type of detector. A new type of reflecting telescope was designed by an American team led by Riccardo Giacconi. Using a geometry first developed by a German, Hans Wolter, this telescope works by focusing x-rays using a grazing incidence angle. The overall shape is basically cylindrical, with the upper and lower portions of the walls shaped slightly differently. An incoming x-ray hits a reflector of parabolic shape at a very shallow angle and is then reflected down to a hyperbolic surface that further reflects the x-ray down to a focal point. By nesting several of these cylinders, enough x-rays can be gathered at the focus to create an image. Even so, the efficiency is only a few percent (see Figure 8). The Einstein Observatory, which used this design, had several interchangeable detectors at the focus. Two were spectrometers and two were imagers. The Imaging Proportional Counter had a wide one degree field of view with a resolution of 1 arc minute. Objects of interest that required greater resolution were examined with the High Resolution Imager (HRI), which had only a 25-arc-minute field of view and a resolution of 2 arc seconds, comparable to visible light telescopes. The HRI combined two microchannel plates, which generated 10 million electrons per x-ray, with two fine grids. The next x-ray satellite is being built by the Germans and will have a threefold increase in sensitivity over the Einstein. NASA plans to launch the Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) by the mid-1990s, which will be five times more powerful than the German instrument. The principal x-ray objects of investigation are the coronas around stars, interacting binary stars (most notably the suspected "black hole" candidates), and intergalactic clouds of gas. **Gamma rays—.01 to 0.000000001nm** All of the constraints of x-ray astronomy also hold for gamma-ray astronomy, only more so. No type of focusing telescope has been conceived of at present. The COS-B telescope, launched in 1975 by the Europeans, had a resolution of only two degrees, four times the apparent diameter of the full Moon. Gamma-ray detectors do not directly detect gamma rays; rather, they depend on our understanding of the interaction of gamma rays with matter and, in that respect, are closer to the instruments used in particle physics experiments. The COS-B detector was a series of spark chambers, interleaved with layers of tungsten. Gamma rays with a wavelength shorter than .001 nm have an energy greater than the mass of an electron-positron pair. If a gamma ray in this energy range passes close to the nucleus of a heavy element, such as tungsten, it will generate pair formation. The spark chambers record their passing through the instrument and a scintillation detector at the bottom stops them and records their total energies. The path of the original gamma ray can be inferred by averaging the paths of the positron and the electron through... the spark chambers, and thus the position of the gamma-ray source can be roughly calculated. Not only is resolution poor, but the intensity is also a problem. A bright source such as the Crab Nebula will be detected at a rate of 2 or 3 photons an hour, while a weak source might generate only one photon-capture a day. Thus far, the only known way to radically increase the "aperture" of a gamma-ray telescope is to use the entire atmosphere of the Earth as a detector. Incoming gamma rays produce flashes of light at particular wavelengths and optical telescopes can be used to collect and count these events. Since the telescope is only being used as a light bucket, the surfaces do not have to be very precise. In India, in fact, a group at the Tata Institute is using army surplus search light reflectors in a large array for this type of high-energy gamma-ray detection. The highest energy gamma-ray ever detected using this technique had a wavelength of only 0.000000001 nm! The dedication of national resources to pushing back the frontiers of knowledge makes our nation worth defending. In that sense, conquest of the astrophysical frontiers is more fundamental than national defense itself. The people of the United States continue to cherish that frontier impulse, even while their representatives in Congress seem to have suppressed it within themselves.
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Dear Santa... A Multisensory Story Join our character as we explore their Christmas wish list to Santa! # Table of Contents | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | About the Story | 2 | | Health & Safety Guidance | 3 | | Organising Story Props & Resources | 4 | | Story Props & Resources Checklist | 5 | | Full Story | 6 | | How to Tell a Multisensory Story | 8 | | Dear Santa - A Fully Resourced, Step by Step Multisensory Poem | 9 | | Christmas Themed Listening Activities | 30 | | Christmas Sensory Bag | 32 | | 40 Seasonal Activity Ideas to Engage Sensory Learners | 33 | | The Sleigh Ride - A Guided Sensory Relaxation Adventure | 35 | | Adapting Dear Santa into a Class or School Play | 39 | | FAQ | 42 | | Other Titles in This Series | 44 | | Training & Workshops | 49 | | Blog | 50 | | Get in Touch! | 51 | www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com ‘Dear Santa’ is based on our character’s wish list to Santa. It is a lovely festive sensory story to share with sensory explorers of all ages. The story is based on a poem written by my late Dad, and after he passed, I thought it would be a lovely tribute to adapt the poem into a sensory story, changing some of the items in the original poem to items a person with additional needs would love to receive in their Christmas stocking. Dedicated to my dear late Dad John Peace x ⚠️ Please read the health & safety information below. The author has used their best efforts in preparing this story and makes no representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy, applicability, fitness or completeness to the contents. The information in this story is for pleasure and educational purposes only. If you wish to apply any ideas contained in this resource you are taking full responsibility for your actions. If you are in any doubt regarding undertaking any activity or using a prop then seek advice before starting. ⚠️ These activities are designed to be led and supervised by a responsible adult at all times. ⚠️ Be aware of choking hazards. ⚠️ Check the ingredients in any items you may be using for potential food or skin allergies or reactions. If you see any signs of redness, swelling or other symptoms of a suspected reaction seek immediate medical advice. ⚠️ The interactions should be led by the story participant who should be allowed to participate without expectation. Never force stimuli and stop the activity if the story participant shows signs they are not enjoying the activity. Your questions, queries, comments and feedback are always welcome! email: email@example.com Send a message via the form or chat feature on the website www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com Contact me via social media Set out your resources where they are easily accessible to you but out of reach and sight of the story explorer. One suggestion is to place the prop for the line/paragraph of the story into a zip wallet. Print the text onto paper and Sellotape onto the zip wallet. The zip wallets can then be placed in a lidded box in the order in which they appear in the story. (See Image Below) Get organised Place the props into the zip wallets Place the zip wallets in order in the box Add the line of text on the wallet You will not need all of the items listed. There are different prop options within the story. You can also add your own props. ‘Dear Santa’ - Cotton wool, aftershave ‘The Letter’ - Large envelope, paper, pencils/felts/crayons, toy catalogue ‘Play-Doh, Bubbles and a Shiny New Trike’ - Play-Doh®/homemade dough, bubbles, bell ‘A Toy Car, a Boat and a Jet Plane’ - Toy car, cardboard tube or ramp, water spray bottle, water, washing up bowl, fans ‘Track for my Station, a very Fast Train’ - Train track, dried rice, Tupperware® box, clackers/long-handled castanets ‘A Shaker, Tambourine and a very Loud Drum’ - Shaker, tambourine, drum, ‘A Tuff Tray and Slime, now that would be Fun!’ - Tuff Tray, Slime (or make your own!) ‘A New Physio Ball, my Old One’s Gone Flat’ - Physio ball, manual pump ‘And for my New Trike, a Shiny Hard Hat’ - Cycling helmet, safety mirror ‘Chocolate Coins to Suck and Chew’ - Chocolate coins ‘A Christmas Cracker to Pull with You’ - Christmas cracker ‘A Koosh, a Torch, and Lights for my Tent’ - Koosh®, torch, lights ‘Bring her a Doll and a Shape Sorter too’ - Doll, shape sorter ‘I will Look for you Santa, High in the Sky’ - Kaleidoscope, shaker bells ‘And Leave you some Milk and a Tasty Mince Pie’ - Apples or apple sauce, orange zest, raisins, currants, sultanas, cinnamon, nutmeg, clove powder, allspice ‘I must go now as it’s getting quite late’ - Clock, Sand Timer, Torch Dear Santa I'm writing my letter early this year As you get lots of mail from people I hear I've tried really hard everyday to be good To share and be kind just as you should Here's a list of things I would like Play-Doh, bubbles, a bell for my trike A toy car, a boat and a jet plane Track for my station, a very fast train A shaker, tambourine and a loud drum A Tuff Tray and slime, now that would be fun! A new physio ball, my old one's gone flat And for my trike, a shiny hard hat Chocolate coins to suck and chew A Christmas cracker to pull with you A Koosh, a torch, bright lights for my tent I will make good use, it will be money well spent Mum says I should write for my sister who’s two Bring her a doll and a shape sorter too I will look for you Santa, high in the sky I’ll leave you some milk and a tasty mince pie I must go now as it’s getting quite late Thank you Dear Santa Johnny (Age 8) The story is set out in a three column table format: ‘STORY’ ‘PROP’ ‘SENSORY EXPERIENCE’ Read each sentence of the STORY slowly and clearly, introducing the story PROP as the corresponding word (highlighted in red lettering) of the sentence appears. Provide the SENSORY EXPERIENCE. I will refer to the Sensory Explorer/Story Explorer as the S.E in the story and activities. Choose a place that is comfortable for you and the student Set out your resources where they are easily accessible to you but out of reach and sight of the student Read each sentence of the TEXT introducing the story PROP as the corresponding word of the sentence appears. Change your facial expressions, pitch/tone of your voice to match the characters/events in the story. Use a total communication approach. Allow the student time to engage their senses exploring the prop and to process the sensory experience. Present the SENSORY EXPERIENCE Consider delivery Touch: firm/gentle, Sound: loud/quiet, Smell: subtle/strong Work through the story at the student’s pace. It should be a relaxing and enjoyable experience for you both. You do not have to complete the whole story in one sitting. Explore one or two sentences adding to the story in future sessions. Repeating the stories and theme/topic activities over time in different contexts aids understanding. Dear Santa I’m writing my letter early this year. As you get lots of mail from people I hear I’ve tried really hard everyday to be good To share and be kind, as much as I could. Present a Santa hat or cotton wool representing Santa’s beard for sensory exploration. Option to spritz with a little aftershave. Promote Fine Motor Skills & Hand-Eye Coordination Present the envelope* for sensory exploration. Can the S.E (sensory/story explorer) open the envelope independently? Write a letter to Santa. Explore mark making using a variety of materials, pencils, crayons, chalks. Explore a toy catalogue. Can the S.E choose the items they would like to add to their letter to Santa? Can the S.E cut and stick the pictures onto their letter to Santa independently? Can the story explorer fold their letter and place it in an envelope? *Tip Print out the story, laminate and place inside the envelope. This will help you deliver the story. | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-------|------|-------------------| | Here’s a list of things I would like Playdoh, bubbles… | Play-Doh | Engage the Senses Explore the Play-Doh or make your own dough using oil and flour. Option to add a few drops of vanilla essence. | | Pot of blowing bubbles | See below for ideas | **Ideas to Engage Sensory Learners Using a Pot of Bubbles** Give the cue ‘Ready…steady..’ wait for a response, this could be a movement, vocalisation, gesture or sign, say ‘Go!’ then blow the bubbles. Can the S.E communicate a request for you to blow the bubbles ‘again’ or request ‘more’ bubbles? Can the S.E track and pop the bubbles using their finger? **Promote Listening Skills** Can the S.E listen to the sound of the bubbles popping? **Build Motor Muscles and Promote Bi-Lateral and/or Hand Eye Coordination** Can the S.E blow the bubbles independently? (Opportunity to promote bi-lateral skills and hand-eye coordination) **Extend Learning** Explore using one long, slow breath to blow a large bubble, and one short breath to blow lots of bubbles. Can the S.E control their breath to blow one big bubble or lots of little bubbles? | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-----------------------|-----------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | A bell for my trike | Traditional Bike Bell | Engage the Senses | | | Bike Horn | Pull the trigger to make the bicycle bell ring out of sight of the S.E. Do they turn their head to track the sound? | | | Electric Bike Bell | Bring the bell into view and model pulling the trigger to make it ring again. Can the S.E use their finger to ring the bell? | | | | Option to explore the sounds of different types of bicycle bells (see below for ideas) | **Traditional Bike Bell** - The bell is activated by pressing a lever or button, causing a ringer inside the bell to strike the dome to produce a loud and clear ringing sound. **Electric Bike Bell** - These often come with LED lights and produce a range of sounds, from traditional ringing tones to modern and customizable options. **Bicycle Horn** - Squeeze the horn to make a loud honking sound. A Toy Car... | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |----------------|--------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | A toy car... | Toy Car | **Promote Turn Taking** | | | | Roll the toy car to the S.E | | | | Can they roll the toy car back to you? | | | | Reinforce using the language ‘My turn…Your turn’ | | | Cardboard Tube or Ramp | **Build Anticipation Skills, Promote Visual Tracking & Hand-Eye Coordination, Mark Making** | | | | Roll the toy car down a cardboard tube. | | | | Can the S.E catch the car as it emerges from the tube? | | | Paint or mud | Can the S.E dip the wheels of the toy car into paint then push the vehicle along a clean sheet of paper to mark make? | Explore Different Types of Toy Car - Electronic toy car (these have lights and sound features) - Lego car - Push-along car - Track car - Wind-up car | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |---------------|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | A boat... | Toy Boat | Promote Turn Taking | | | Water | Float the toy boat on the water or invite the S.E to place the boat on the water in the container, then nudge the boat in the direction of the S.E. Can the S.E nudge the boat back towards you? | | | Washing up bowl | | | | Water Spray Bottle | Turn the setting of the water spray bottle to a fine mist. Spray into the air to re-create the effect of spray from a boat. | Option to Explore Different Types of Toy Boat - Clockwork (wind-up) boat - Interactive water cannon boat - Pull propeller boat - Remote control boat - Push-along boat - Paper boat Exploring a sensory story forms a foundation for exploring themes further, for example, you may wish to engage in boat themed activities linking to other areas of the curriculum (see below for D & T ideas) Make boats from materials that float. For the Boat Base: Balsa, Cardboard Box, Cd's, Corks, Cupcake Cases, Egg Box, Feathers, Margarine Tubs, Match Sticks, Plastic Bottle Tops, Plastic Bottles, Lids Dishes and Plates, Sponges, Straws, Styrofoam, Twigs, Wooden Craft Sticks. The Sail: Balloons, Card, Feathers, Foam Shapes, Leaves, Material. Explore Cause & Effect Can the S.E (sensory explorer) direct a fan (battery operated fan/dynamo 'squeeze' fan/hand-held fan, paper/silk fan) at the boat to move it across the water? Hold a Boat Race Can the S.E (sensory explorer) predict the boat that will win based on the materials it is made from? Add Cargo to the Boats Test Durability Add Ice cubes to the water. How well do the boats navigate these obstacles? | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-----------------------|--------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | ...and a jet plane | Toy Plane | Present the toy plane for sensory exploration. | | | | Option to explore different types of plane: | | | | Re-create the effect of the air pushing through the plane’s jets using a fan. | | | Fan | Explore different types of fan | | | Balloon Pump/Bellows | Re-create the effect of air pushing through the jets using a balloon pump or bellows. | Explore Different Types of Plane - Balsa wood or styrofoam glider - Lego plane - Toy noise simulation plane - ‘Pull back’ cause and effect plane - Push-along plane - Clockwork (wind-up) plane Using Fans in Sensory Storytelling There are many different designs of fans, each operating in their own way. They all promote the concept of cause and effect and provide sensory feedback. Folding Fan This type of fan consists of a series of thin, rigid panels attached to a central pivot to form a semi-circular shape when opened. Using these fans builds finger and wrist strength as to use them they need to be gripped and wafted. The fans are available in a variety of materials: **Bamboo or wood** - Sturdy and durable. **Fabric** - The materials they are made from (cotton, polyester, silk, satin) make them soft to the touch. Option to spritz scent or pop a drop of essential oil onto your fans to add an extra-sensory layer. Explore the different scents with the story explorer so they can choose their favourite one to add to the fan. **Paper or card** - Making a fan presents an opportunity for the sensory explorer to feel the smooth, zigzag patterned, accordion folds as they run their fingers back and forth over the paper or card. Decorate with feathers or sequins. **Plastic** - A cheap, lightweight option, often with embossed/3D designs. Other Fan Designs **Battery-operated hand-held fans** - Explore the concept of cause and effect as the button is pressed ‘ON’ to spin the blades of the fan and ‘OFF’ to stop it. **Dynamo or squeeze hand-held fans** - These are powered manually by cranking or pressing a lever to operate a small generator within the fan to rotate the blades. They present tactile feedback as you can feel the resistance and gentle vibration when you squeeze. They also make a very satisfying noise! Airports and Airplanes is a teaching pack aimed at sensory learners of all ages. It contains a fully resourced, step-by-step multisensory story, a mini ‘Brief History of Flying’ sensory story plus sensory, themed activities. This is a story about travel, airports, and planes Luggage, security, gates, and runways The feelings on my senses, smell, sound, touch, taste, sight In the airport building and when I’m on my flight’ Join our character as s/he experiences the sights, sounds, smells, tastes and textures of the airport, from check-in through to landing. This resource connects individuals to literacy, history, and topic through the senses and is aimed at supporting students (aged 3-19) following pre-formal/sensory, semi-formal or formal pathways in special education schools and settings. The story and activities support the areas of the Engagement Model and link in with many other areas of learning, EYFS & Yr 1 students in mainstream settings, SALT and EAL students. | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |------------------------------|--------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Track for my station | Train Track | Promote Fine Motor Skills, Hand-Eye Coordination & Dexterity | | A very fast train | Train | Model connecting pieces of a train track then pushing the train along. | | | | Can the S.E copy this action? | | | | **Extend Learning** | | | | Present the S.E with two pieces of straight track and two corner pieces. Can the | | | | S.E connect the pieces to make an oval track? | | | | **Promote Listening Skills** | | | | Re-create the sound of a train clacking down the train tracks by placing dried | | | | rice or beans into a Tupperware container then shaking in a train-like rhythm. | | | | Can the S.E copy this action? | | | | **Alternative Prop** | | | | Model re-creating the sound of the train rattling down the train tracks using | | | | clackers or long handled castanets. | | | | Can the S.E copy this action? | www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-------|------------|--------------------------------------------------------| | A shaker, tambourine and a loud drum | Shaker Drum Tambourine | Explore Music Present the instruments for sensory exploration. Can the S.E choose their favourite instrument? Can the S.E communicate a request to listen to the sound the instrument makes again? Explore Playing Beats and Rhythms Can the S.E copy a beat or rhythm? Extend Learning Practice starting and stopping. Practice playing together? Play along to a Christmas song e.g., Jingle Bells | | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-------|------|-------------------| | A tuff tray and slime, now that will be fun! | Tuff Tray | Engage the Senses Present the slime on a Tuff Tray. Slime Recipe Mix the ingredients then leave to swell for 30 mins. Add green food colouring for an authentic slime colour and smell. Tip Involve the S.E in making the slime.* | Be allergy aware. Discard the slime after use. A new physio ball my old ones gone flat Physio Ball Promote Gross Motor Skills, Balance, Sensory Regulation Explore exercises with the physio ball: 1. With the S.E lying flat on their front, roll the ball up and down their back using very gentle pressure. 2. Encourage the S.E to sit on their physio ball with placing their feet on the floor using a tall relaxed posture. 3. Encourage the S.E to lay forwards over the physio ball then roll forwards and backwards touching the floor with their feet and hands to balance. Alternative Activity Using a pump, inflate a flat physio ball. This is a good team building exercise if working in a group. Always ensure exercises are supervised by a responsible adult and practised in a safe, hazard free environment. Consult the person’s physiotherapist if you are unsure. | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |--------------------------------------------|------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | and for my trike, a shiny hard hat | Cycling Helmet | Present the cycling helmet for sensory exploration. | | | | Model wearing the cycling helmet. | | | | Would the S.E like to try the cycling helmet on? | | | Mirror | Provide a mirror so the S.E can see their reflection. | www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-------|------|-------------------| | Chocolate coins to suck and chew | Chocolate Coins | Engage the Senses Present a wrapped chocolate coin for the S.E to smell and touch. Promote Fine Motor Skills and Dexterity Model peeling back the foil wrapping of the chocolate coin using your index finger and thumb. Can the S.E copy this action? Can the S.E communicate a request for 'help' to remove the foil if required? Would the S.E like to taste the chocolate coin? Can the S.E communicate a request for 'more' if they would like another chocolate coin or make a rejection if they do not like the chocolate coin? | A Christmas cracker to pull with you Christmas Cracker Build Anticipation Skills Build anticipation skills as you pull the Christmas cracker* together. Christmas Cracker Craft Activity You will need Two cardboard tubes Crepe or tissue paper (ribbon optional) A party hat - Lay the tissue paper on the table. - Cut one of the cardboard tubes in half - Lay the whole cardboard tube in the middle of the crepe/tissue paper. Place a paper party hat inside. - Leave a gap of 5cm then lay the half sized cardboard tube either side of the middle tube. - Roll the paper around the tubes. - Twist or tie ribbon where the 5cm gap is to create the two pulling ends of the cracker. *Some people dislike loud bangs, remove the banger or make a homemade cracker. | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-------|------|-------------------| | A Koosh, torch, bright lights for my tent | Koosh Torch LED Battery Lights | Practice Making Choices Present the Koosh, Torch and Battery LED Lights for sensory exploration. Does the S.E show a preference for a particular item? Practice Visual Tracking Dim the lights in the room. Shine the torch onto the S.E's lap tray, the table, the floor and around the ceiling. Can the S.E track the light? Tip A headtorch is a good hands-free option, also where the head moves the light will follow. Can the S.E switch the torch ON and OFF? Explore Different Types of Torches - Colour changing torch - Dynamo/squeeze - Flashlight - UV torch - Wind up torch | | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | My Mum says I must write for my sister who’s two | Makaton sign for ‘Sister’ | Promote Communication Through Makaton | | | | To sign ‘sister’ using Makaton, curl the index finger and tap twice on your nose. | | Bring her a doll … | Doll | Present the doll for free exploration. | | | | Point out the features of the doll’s face. | | | | Can the story explorer point to their eyes, ears, mouth and nose? | | and a shape sorter too | Shape Sorter | Provide a mirror so the S.E can study their reflection. | | | | (See below for ideas on engaging learners using shape sorters.) | Engaging Sensory Learners Using Shape Sorters Shape sorters are a useful educational resource for promoting developing fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination and exploring shapes and colours. 1. Model placing the shapes into their corresponding holes. 2. Model emptying the sorter to start again. 3. Present the shape sorter for the S.E to explore. 4. Use positive reinforcement when the S.E successfully matches the shape. 5. Can the S.E communicate a request for help if required? Provide assistance by gently guiding their hand to help them. | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-------------------------------------------|--------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | I will look for you Santa high in the sky | Kaleidoscope | Model looking through the kaleidoscope, would the S.E like to have look through the kaleidoscope? | | | | Turn the barrel so the S.E can see the gems and feathers create patterns. | | | | **Promote Fine Motor Skills and Hand-Eye Coordination** | | | | Can the S.E use the kaleidoscope independently? | | | Sleigh Bells | Re-create the sound of Santa's sleigh by ringing the bells. | | | Wrist or Ankle Bells| Can the S.E copy your action? | | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |-------|------|-------------------| | I’ll leave you some milk and a tasty mince pie* | Apples or apple sauce, Orange zest, Raisins, Currants, Sultanas | Explore New Foods, Express Likes, Dislikes and Sensory Preferences Option to taste some of the ingredients contained in mince pies: apples or apple sauce, orange zest, raisins, currants, sultanas. | | | Cinnamon, Nutmeg, Clove powder, Allspice. | Non-Food Activity Touch and smell mincemeat spices: cinnamon, nutmeg, clove powder, allspice. | *Be allergy aware as many mince pies contain nuts. | STORY | PROP | SENSORY EXPERIENCE | |--------------------------------------------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | I must go now as it is getting quite late | Clock | Explore the Passage of Time<br>Listen to a ticking clock.<br>Watch the sand in a sand timer empty from the upper bulb into the lower bulb | | Thank you Dear Santa, Johnny (age 8) | Sand Timer | If the lights are not dimmed, dim the lights and roll down the blinds in the room. | | | | Practice Makaton<br>To sign 'Thank You' using Makaton, your flat hand starts with fingertips on your chin then moves down and away from the body. | *Be allergy aware as many mince pies contain nuts or may have traces of nuts.* Play Christmas-Themed Sounds - Bang of a Christmas cracker - Christmas carols, church choirs or popular Christmas songs e.g., Bing Crosby, Mariah Carey, Slade - Crackling of a log fire - Cutlery (to represent eating Christmas dinner) - Rustling of wrapping paper - Santa’s ‘Ho Ho Ho’ - Sleigh Bells Use a combination of physical props and recorded audio clips/sound effects which can be played via your phone, iPad, Kindle or recorded and played back on a Dictaphone or Talking Tile, Multi Memo Recorder or similar device. Sound effects breathe life into a story and provide the opportunity to elicit a response from the story explorer Can the sensory explorer communicate a request to listen to a sound they like again? Can the sensory explorer make a rejection if they do not like a sound? Can the story explorer use a prop to make a sound? Can the story explorer copy a sound using their voice? Record their voice and play it back. If playing a recording on a device, can the sensory explorer activate the device independently? Can the sensory explorer correctly identify the sound? (Option to use a choose board with images.) Christmas Themed Sensory Bag Invite the sensory explorer to place their hand into the bag and select an item. Encourage the sensory explorer to use their sense of smell, touch, hearing and taste to guess what the item is? (If the person is unsure then provide plenty of clues.) **Build Functional Language Skills** Ask the sensory explorer to tell you or show you what you might do with the item and where you might find it. (If the person is unsure, model what to do with the item and see if they can copy your action.) Allow the sensory explorer time to explore the item and process the information then shake your bag again for them to select another item. Keep language simple. Focus on phrases such as ‘Choose’ or ‘Take one’ when offering the bag to the learner to select an item. Focus on the name of the object e.g., ‘drum’ ‘bubbles,’ ‘bell,’ ‘torch’ and two-word phrases e.g.,: red car.’ Model verbs such as eat and blow. Write a letter to Santa! Make Mince Pies. Buy an item for the food bank. Make a snow globe. Sing a Christmas Carol. Feed the birds! (Don’t forget to give them fresh water!) Read a Christmas Story. Watch a trailer to a Christmas Film. Go for a winter nature hunt and collect fir cones, holly, mistletoe and fir tree branches. Decorate your bedroom/classroom. Wear a Christmas jumper. Make Christmas Decorations. Toast marshmallows. Build a snowman. Have a snowball fight! Decorate a gingerbread house. Make a Christmas card. Ring a friend or relative you haven’t seen or spoken to for a while. Drink hot chocolate. Go Christmas tree spotting. Make paper snowflakes. Make pine cone decorations. Tie a ribbon around a pine cone and hang from the Christmas tree. Tell Christmas jokes. Put your hat, scarf and gloves and enjoy the outdoors. Watch the winter sunrise. Play a board game. Colour a Christmas picture. Donate unwanted toys and games to a charity shop. Make Christmas bunting. Make gift tags. Stargaze. Play 'Elf on the shelf'. Make Christmas crackers. Create a sensory exploration box. Sweep leaves in the outdoor area. Plant bulbs. Make a festive finger puppet. Make your own wrapping paper. Decorate the Christmas Tree. Do a random act of kindness. There are many benefits of meditation for children and teenagers including increased concentration and relaxation. Meditation promotes emotional health providing a feeling of positivity and mental well-being, reducing stress and anxiety, lengthens attention span, concentration and improves sleep. Guided relaxation is generally considered a safe activity as it is the practice of relaxation, stillness and calmness. ⚠️ If you are in any doubt as to whether to partake in this activity, please seek advice. ⚠️ If you choose do this meditation, you are using the information contained herein entirely at your own discretion. - Invite the sensory explorer to join you for a relaxation adventure. - Invite the sensory explorer to settle into a position that is comfortable for them, this could be lying down or sitting. - Dim the lights and roll down the blinds/close the curtains. - Using a calm and gentle voice, slowly read through the guided adventure pausing between sentences. - Tell the sensory explorer that if at any point during their relaxation adventure they wish to stop, to open their eyes (if closed), raise their hand or tell you. I have included suggested props and sound effects. The props and ideas for incorporating the props into the story have been added in red lettering next to the relaxation adventure text. Note: This story can be delivered with the eyes open or closed, with or without the props. Close your eyes. Take a deep breath. Listen.... (shake bells) Can you hear that sound? It’s Santa and his reindeer. I’m going to count the reindeer slowly. As I count you will start to feel relaxed (count slowly) One...Dasher... two...Prancer...three...Vixen...four...Comet...five...Cupid...six...Donner...seven...Blitzen...eight...Olive...and at the very front is Rudolf. Would you like to stroke one of the reindeer? Go ahead, choose your favourite. Can you feel how soft their fur is? (Place faux fur into the palm of the sensory explorer) Stroke their silky ears. (Replace the faux fur with a piece of silky material.) Give them a tickle under their fluffy chin. (Replace the silky material with a feather. Option to tickle the sensory explorer with the feather.) Santa is sat high on his sleigh waving at you. Climb onto the sleigh and sink into the soft, squishy seat. (Place a pillow or cushion under the sensory explorer’s head or feet.) Are you ready for your sleigh ride? Prepare to fly! You are flying high in the sky heading North. (Gently waft a fan to create a breeze around the sensory explorer.) The reindeer are flying towards the land. It is covered in thick snow. (Place cotton wool that has cooled in the fridge into the sensory explorer’s palm.) Counting down to landing, 10…9…8…7…6…5…4…3…2…1 The reindeers’ hooves gently touch the ground. (Re-create the sound of reindeer hooves by gently knocking two plastic cups or coconut shells together.) The sleigh slowly skids to a stop in the thick snow. Use your imagination as you step onto the thick snow. Can you see how it glistens? Can you see the footprints you are leaving in the snow as you walk? Can you feel big flakes of snow falling from the sky? (Let paper snowflakes fall around the sensory explorer.) Can you catch a snowflake on your tongue and feel it melt? Take your time as you explore the North Pole. It’s almost time to go home. Take one last look around the North Pole. Rudolph asks if you would to ride home. Climb onto his back. Can you feel how soft and warm his fur is? (Place a soft blanket over the sensory explorer.) Rudolph tells you to hold onto his antlers. (Place a cardboard tube in each of the sensory explorer’s palms.) Prepare to fly! 10…9…8…7…6…5…4…3…2…1…Lift-off! You are flying amongst the twinkling stars. The moon is shining bright. (Shine a torch onto a circle of card covered in silver paper or foil.) You fly high in the sky. You feel safe, happy as you feel the wind in your hair. (Gently waft the fan around the sensory explorer.) You see the room where your adventure began. Rudolph lands just outside the door. Would you like to give Rudolph a carrot? (Place a carrot in the sensory explorer’s palm.) Can you feel how gently Rudolph takes this from your hand? (Gently remove the carrot from the sensory explorer’s palm.) Would you like to give Rudolph one last stroke and wave him goodbye. (Place the faux fur material into the sensory explorer’s palm’) Your journey is over for today but you can return to visit Santa and his reindeer any time you like because this is the power of your imagination! When you are ready, wiggle your fingers and toes. Have a little stretch then slowly and gently open your eyes.’ This sensory story is easy to adapt into a short class or part of a school play. I have condensed the story. The following slides are some ideas to get your started. Your students may wish to bring their wish list items onto the stage. **Characters** The Student - Writing/cutting and sticking the letter. Santa - Sorting through the letters. Students - Interacting with the toys and games. **Setting the Scene** *Santa* is sitting next to a sack of letters. Throughout the play Santa reaches his hand into his sack, removes an envelope, opens the envelope and reads the letter. He then places the letter on the floor and repeats. Our **Main Character** is sitting throughout the play with writing materials writing a letter to Santa or looking through a toy catalogue. Option to have a Narrator reading the poem or for the student to speak and/or sign their line of the poem. Adapting 'Dear Santa' into a Class or School Play 'Dear Santa...I'm writing my letter early this year' Spotlight on student(s) writing a Christmas wish list, flicking through a toy catalogue and/or cutting and sticking pictures from the catalogue onto paper 'As you get lots of mail from children I hear' Santa flicks sorts through a pile of envelopes, opening and reading them Here's a few ideas of things I would like.... 'Chocolate Coins' Can the student say or sign 'chocolate coins?' 'Bubbles' Can the student blow bubbles or use a switch to operate a bubble machine? '...a very fast train' '...a whistle, tambourine and a very loud drum' '...a new physioball, my old one's gone flat!' Enter Postman onto stage delivering a sack of letters to Santa The postman can keep re-entering stage to deliver letters. Throw chocolate coins into the Audience Blow bubbles into the audience Students enter the stage signing 'Train' (Bend one arm and move in a circular motion by side) or moving in a 'cardboard box' train Students enter the stage playing instruments (Option to play/sing/sign a song the audience know and can join in) Student enters the stage holding a deflated physioball and a pump Adapting 'Dear Santa' into a Class or School Play '...a koosh' Option to throw a few of Kooshes into the audience '...bring my sister a doll' Student enters stage pushing a pram '...and a shape sorter too' 1. Students dress as shapes e.g. square: cardboard box triangle: hat, star: Carrying star shaped wands 2. Carrying 3D shapes (raid the maths cupboard!) 3. A student completes a shape sorter puzzle on stage 'I will look for you Santa, high in the sky' Dim the lights Students enter the stage shining torches onto the ceiling '...and leave you some milk and a tasty mince pie' Student places milk and mince pie by Santa who is still onstage sorting through letters 'I must go now as it’s getting quite late...' Stage clears except for a spotlight on Santa and student writing letter 'Thank you Dear Santa, Johnny aged {8}' Student approaches Santa with their letter, places it in an envelope and hands to Santa, signs 'Thank you' then exits stage www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com Page41 What Is A Multisensory Story? A multisensory story is told using words and sensory stimuli (story props), connecting the individual to literature, culture, history and topic in a way that is motivating and meaningful to their lives. Who Are Multisensory Stories For? Multisensory stories are aimed at individuals with special educational needs and learning disabilities from curious children in the EYFS, KS1 to teenagers with complex needs following pre-formal/sensory, semi-formal or formal pathways. The stories form an excellent base on which to scaffold learning providing opportunities for the individual to work towards their personal learning goals and targets. The activities in the stories are aimed at supporting the five areas of the engagement model, creativity, independence, building communication skills, and supporting other areas of learning linking to curriculum subjects and topics. Are The Stories Only For Use In Educational Settings? The stories and poems are fully resourced, step by step guides, making them the perfect resource for Parents, Siblings, Guardians, Childminders, Early Years Educators, Teachers, HLTA’s, TA’s, Speech Therapists, Play Therapists, Support Workers, Activity Coordinators, Storytellers, Librarians and anyone with an interest in exploring storytelling through the senses in a fun and engaging way! Why Rhyming Multisensory Stories? The combination of sensory stimuli, listening to the rhyme and rhythm and the repetitive structure of the stories, supports memory and aids learning, playing a crucial role in the development of early communication language skills; joint attention, eye-contact, turn-taking, anticipation and the learning of concepts. What Are The Benefits Of Multisensory Storytelling? Stories create a bond between the storyteller and the story explorer enhancing and enriching experiences. The activities in the stories are designed to promote: Communication skills: Eye contact, listening, shared attention & language development. Self-confidence & well-being: Trying out new ideas & skills. Self-care, independence and enjoying achievement. Opportunities to explore cause & effect and build anticipation skills. Physical development: Fine & gross motor skills Build knowledge about the environment & the world around us. Engage in scientific experimentation and mathematical concepts. Social & emotional skills: Turn-taking, sharing, listening to others' ideas and teamwork. Can Multisensory Stories Build Communication Skills? Sensory stories are an excellent motivating tool for encouraging alternative communication systems, early communication skills, Makaton, sign language and to facilitate PECS exchanges. The stories build the confidence of learners with speech impediments and communication difficulties as they have a physical (story) prop to support the words they are saying. Other Titles in This Series A Train Ride Through India A Multisensory Exploration of Indian Culture Airports and Airplanes A Sensory Story & Teaching Pack Autumn A Multisensory Exploration Burns Night A Multisensory Exploration Chinese New Year A Multisensory Exploration Elephants A Sensory Exploration The Gingerbread Man A Rhyming Multisensory Adventure! Goldilocks & the Three Bears A Multisensory Adventure! Buy Direct Visit the Shop Annual Subscription www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com Other Titles in This Series Halloween A Multisensory Exploration Holi A Multisensory Exploration Jack & the Beanstalk A Rhyming Multisensory Adventure Jobs & Work Experience A Multisensory Story Journey Into Space A Multisensory Exploration of the Solar System Ear Listens An A-Z Sensory Guide to the Auditory System A Reference for Parents/Carers, Early Years & Special Needs Educators Little Red Riding Hood A Rhyming Multisensory Adventure! Minibeasts A Multisensory Exploration Buy Direct Visit the Shop Annual Subscription www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com Other Titles in This Series Sensory Resources for Sensory Learners Creating Sensory Experiences and Learning Opportunities Using Everyday Household Items 100+ Ideas and Activities 100+ Ideas for Multisensory Story Props Shapes A Multisensory Exploration + 130 Shape Themed Activities Spring A Multisensory Exploration St Patricks Day A Multisensory Exploration Summer A Multisensory Exploration + 101 Sensory Themed Activities Superheroes A Rhyming Multisensory Story The Beach A Multisensory Exploration of the Beach The Farm A Multisensory Story + 101 Sensory, Farm Themed Activities Buy Direct Visit the Shop Annual Subscription www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com Other Titles in This Series The Queen's Jubilee A Multisensory Adventure! The King's Coronation A Multisensory Adventure The Rainforest A Multisensory Adventure The Romans A Multisensory Adventure The Three Little Pigs A Multisensory Adventure The Weather A Multisensory Exploration Washing Hands Helping Individuals With Their Hand Hygiene During the Covid-19 Pandemic Winter A Multisensory Exploration Buy Direct Visit the Shop Annual Subscription www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com Join me for a live workshop, or view pre-recorded modules at your leisure, as we explore all aspects of multisensory storytelling from sourcing story props, using the props as a tool to promote as a tool to explore likes, dislikes and sensory preferences, to make choices and rejections, to promote areas of communication and learning, adapting existing texts into a multisensory story, sensory inspiration...and more! 1-1 Groups Held via Zoom or View the Pre-Recorded Modules Multisensory Storytelling & Engagement Through Sensory Activities Workshop Runtime 2 Hours Visit www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com for more information Visit the Blog For all the latest news, views, guest features plus a FREE monthly teaching calendar packed with activities for sensory learners of all ages including festivals and celebrations, awareness days, this day in history, the month through and senses and more! Your questions, queries, comments and feedback are always welcome! Visit the website: www.rhymingmultisensorystories.com email: firstname.lastname@example.org Visit the Shop: MultisensoryStories Facebook: storytellingthroughthesenses Twitter: @RhymingStories LinkedIn: Rhyming Multisensory Stories Pinterest: Rhyming Multisensory Stories Instagram: rhymingmultisensorystoriesmss Tumblr: rhymingmultisensorystories Reddit: r/sensorystories Myspace: Rhyming Multisensory Stories YouTube: Rhyming Multisensory Stories Lesson Planned: www.lessonplanned.co.uk/author/rhyming-multisensory-stories/?author-profile=true Mash ie: www.mash.ie/rhyming-multisensory-stories Tes: www.tes.com/teaching-resources/shop/RhymingMultisensoryStories 'Dear Santa…' 'Dear Santa' - A Rhyming Multisensory Story Copyright © Victoria Navin 2024 All Rights Reserved In memory of my dear Dad who wrote the original poem this story is based on
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1. Read the passage given below and answer the questions that follow: The feeling of tension that builds up before a storm, and the sense of relief afterwards; headache and irritability after a day at work; or vigorous good health on a mountain holiday - these are some of the most common effects that different kinds of air seem to have on our well-being. Many doctors and scientists accept that electrically charged particles in the air, called ions, are responsible for this. Most air particles are electrically neutral, or contain no charge, but others can acquire a positive or negative charge, when there are too few negative ions or too many positive ones - before a storm, for example - many people experience headaches, lethargy or depression. By contrast, a good supply of negative ions - as occurs after a storm - is associated with feeling alert and uplifted. Charged ions are mainly the result of radiation from the sun and from space, but negative ions are also created by lightning, oceans waves? running water. Fresh mountain and seaside air is rich in negative particles, but most city air contains few or none. Pollution, air conditioning, central heating, dust, synthetic fibres and electrical appliances may account for the oppressive atmosphere in many houses and offices, as they destroy negative charges. People in environment likely to be low in negative ions and those who are particularly sensitive to weather conditions, often find ionising machines helpful. These are small electrical devices which use very little current but produce a constant stream of negative ions when turned on. Ionisers work best when doors and windows are closed, and need to be placed on a desk or plugged in at the bedside no more than 2m from the head of the bed. Some manufacturers also make more powerful units for use in offices and larger areas. Ionisers should not be placed near windows or on polished surfaces, as static electrical charges on these can impair the efficiency of these machines. There are no known side affects associated with ionisers; studies at the university of surrey by Dr. Leslie Hawkins have confirmed the hypothesis that respiratory illnesses, skin allergies and headaches were alleviated by these machines. The levels of the hormone serotonin in the blood, brain and other tissues seem to be reduced by negative ions, having a calming influence on the nervous system. Of course, the most efficacious ionisers are supplied by nature. An electric storm charges the air with negative ions, making us feel refreshed once the storm is over. Fresh running water and even a shower bath are also good alternatives to ionisers. (a) Complete the following sentences by choosing the best alternative under each: (i) Our well-being is affected by (A) headache and irritability (B) doctors and scientists (C) electrically charged ions (ii) We feel alert and energetic when there are (A) more positive than negative ions in the air (B) fewer positive ions in the air (C) more negative than positive ions in the air (iii) Ionisers can be helpful in (A) improving particularly sensitive weather conditions (B) reducing air pollution (C) having a calming influence on the nervous system. (iv) Ionisers work effectively (A) after taking a shower (B) in air-conditioned homes and offices (C) in open, well-ventilated areas. (b) Answer any 5 questions: (i) How are negative ions produced in nature? (ii) What does city air lack? (iii) How do ionisers aid in relaxation? (iv) What 'natural' ionisers does the another mention? (v) Why do you think ionisers work well in closed areas? (vi) What factors are responsible for the unhealthy air in offices and some homes? (c) Change the grammatical form of the following words as stated in brackets: ion (noun-process); neutral (verb) mountain (adjective); radiation (verb) negative (noun); destroy (noun) 2. (a) Fill in the blanks in the following letter by choosing the best alternative from the list given at the end: Dear Mr. Gupta, Thank you for your letter of July 10. I was very ___ to hear about your problems with our service agents. Our service agents are normally very __2__ and __3__; I can only __4__ that the particular service engineer for your area is at fault. __5__ you that I have already __6__ an inquiry into the matter. 1. (a) disheartened (b) angry (c) disturbed (d) sad 2. (a) accountable (b) serviceable (c) reliable (d) desirable 3. (a) prompt (b) ready (c) trendy (d) perfect 4. (a) tell (b) promise (c) deduce (d) assume 5. (a) assure (b) assert (c) promise (d) vouch 6. (a) proposed (b) suggested (c) initiated (d) enquired (b) Circle the correct answer in any 4 of the following sentences: (i) You can come as long as you won’t bring / don’t bring your kid brother. (ii) I got used to / used to swim a lot when I was in Goa. (iii) I don’t like that outfit, Have you got anything else / anything to wear? (iv) As / like you can see, I’m very busy. (v) He’s due to / about to start school in January. 3. Complete the following sentences using the correct form of the verb given in brackets: Toxic doses of caffeine ________ (has) a broad range of effects. The drug ________ (strike) the cardiovascular system, typically ________ (cause) rapid heartbeat and sometimes irregular heart rhythm. Emergency room doctors ________ (describe) some narrow escapes. In 2007, paediatricians at the govt hospital in Delhi ________ (see) a little girl who ________ (consume) an unknown number of nonprescription diet pills, each ________ (contain) 200 mg. of caffeine, that she ________ (find) in her mother’s purse. The child, not quite 3 years old, ________ (bring) to the hospital, ________ (scream) and agitated. 4. You are the Principal Secretary of an IT company that has launched projects for the rural sector in a state district. Write a notice, with complete agenda, calling a meeting of the heads of its various departments to review ongoing work, discuss release of funds for the next quarter as well as brainstorming and solving of current problems. OR You are the HR Manager of a firm. You are going on a 2-week vacation, so you have to allocate your duties to be shared by your colleagues. Write a memo to your MD, informing him about the people who will do the following: check daily reports, attend to correspondence, deal with staff issues, and interact with clients. Specify dates of your vacation, contact number, and send copies in confirmation to the persons concerned. 5. Do any 1 of the following: (a) You are a well-established engineering company that has received a large number of enquiries from graduating engineers about job openings in your company. Write a circular letter thanking the applicants for their interest in joining the company, without either rejecting the applicants or giving false hope inform them that your company has included their resume details in the database and they would hear from you whenever a vacancy arises. OR (b) You are an established bank that has moved to a new location and has started offering some new services to its preferred customers, such as SMS alerts, cash back on debit card withdrawals, and personal ‘relationship managers’. Write a circular letter to your customers informing them about these changes and requesting them to fill in an enclosed questionnaire to help serve them letter. 6. Write an essay of about 250 words on any 1 of the following topics: (a) Now a days, many people in India feel that its culture is being corrupted by Western influences, whereas many others believe that there is much good that has also come from the West. Discuss both points of view and give your own opinion with reasons and examples. OR (b) Migration of people from different parts of the country to other states is viewed favourably by some and resented by others who feel that such outsiders should not be encouraged. Discuss both points of view and give your own opinion, with reasons and examples.
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Draw a line to match each problem with the same answer. | 50% of 138 | 68% of 25 | 39% of 200 | 52% of 150 | |------------|-----------|------------|------------| | 78% of 100 | 60% of 115 | 22% of 50 | 70% of 70 | | 10% of 170 | 11% of 200 | 56% of 75 | 49% of 100 | | 22% of 100 | 50% of 156 | 11% of 100 | 40% of 105 | \[ 19 + \frac{5}{12} + \frac{2}{5} = \] \[ 7 + \frac{5}{8} - \frac{2}{5} = \] Reduce \(\frac{10}{28}\) to its lowest terms. What is 50% of 1,114? M, ______, L, L, K, J, J, H, I, F Write \(\frac{5}{25}\) in lowest terms. The diameter of a circle is 452 cm. What is the radius of this circle? How many minutes is it from 9:00 a.m. to 10:55 a.m.? Round 14,605 to the nearest thousand. How many meters are there in 164 kilometers? A toy car can go 3 mph. How long would it take to go 10 miles? It was 3 degrees below zero in the morning. By afternoon the temperature rose 27 degrees. How warm was it? Name: ________________________________ Draw a line from START to END. \[ 14 \div 2 - 1 \] \[ 120 \div 12 + 1 \] \[ (2 - 2) + 6 + 8 \] \[ 7 + 7 \times 12 - 4 \] Cross out the equation you use above and then write it below. The penguin houses at the zoo were made in the shape of pyramids (with a square base) and painted white. In order to find out how much paint to buy, the outside surface area of the pyramids was needed. Each house had a base of 8 feet and a height of 9 feet. The bottom will not be painted. What is the surface area to be painted? The students at Maryville High School were challenged to join the Great American Smokeout. One-sixth of the students signed a pledge saying they would not smoke on November 20. A third of the students promised to talk to someone who smoked about the dangers of smoking. The rest of the students didn’t participate. There are nine hundred eighty-nine students at MHS. How many of the students didn’t participate in the Great American Smokeout? The (make-believe) country of Slowmonia is always super slow. But they are hard working, and after 16 years of research, the country of Slowmonia launched a rocket into space to land on Pluto. It is slow! It travels 2.553 kilometers in a month. How far will it travel in 20 years? \[ 5 \div \frac{1}{3} \] F, J, H, ____, J, L, L, M, N, N \[ 5 \frac{2}{5} + 2 \frac{3}{5} \] Ready to make equations? There is a missing equation in each box. Circle the numbers once you find it! A 23 54 63 - 21 64 14 55 61 96 66 4 51 B 92 23 43 - 48 90 71 41 26 59 57 76 29 C 73 13 89 - 39 63 71 61 82 57 49 65 84 Find a subtraction fact. Find a subtraction fact. Find a subtraction fact. Equations: Write the equation facts you found. A 55 - 4 = 51 B - 23 = C - 13 = Know how many inches in a foot? Okay, smarty pants, how many inches in 5 feet? Yummy Donuts gave two dozen chocolate donuts and four dozen jelly donuts to the school. How many donuts did they give? It was 80 degrees outside. What would the temperature be if it got 10 degrees colder? The perimeter of a rectangle is 16 cm. The longer side is 6 cm. How long is the shorter side? Yummy Donuts gave three dozen chocolate donuts and five dozen jelly donuts to the school. How many donuts did they give? 10 ÷ $\frac{1}{6}$ The Limerick Day assembly will begin at 1:30 p.m. Sarah has only $\frac{1}{2}$ hours left to finish her work before the assembly begins. What time is it now? Pluto has an estimated diameter of 1420 miles, approximately $\frac{1}{5}$ the diameter of the Earth. Using the estimated diameter of Pluto, what is the circumference of the Earth? Round your answer to the nearest hundredth. It was such pandemonium! On Friday, 288 students brought their pets to school. Two-thirds of the pets were dogs. How many were not dogs? Circle the digit in the hundredths place. $57.638$ $120 \div 12 = \_\_\_\_\_\_$ Emily rolls a die. What is the chance of her rolling a 4? How many dimes make $2.70? Rewrite these in increasing order of length: 772 km, 751 mm, 468 dm, 436 cm What number is halfway between 4 and 14? The vowels are missing in the word search. Fill in the missing vowels and circle the words. | C | P | Y | P | M | F | F | S | C | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | C | P | N | C | | | | | | | R | L | P | | F | N | C | L | N | | | R | P | N | C | R | | | | | V | S | B | T | R | | M | L | | | | | | T | F | N | | | | | | N | R | M | N | H | L | T | D | | R | | T | N | T | D | L | | | | L | L | Y | A | P | P | O | I | N | T | | | D | R | C | T | | | | | PERSONAL • CONCLUDE • SOLEMN CONTENT • APPOINT • DIRECTION COPY • FORTH • CRUEL • LIBERTY CRAVE • POEM • FANCIFUL Circle the smallest number: 394,168,189 5,694,271,083 2,057,643 7,250 662 - 331 = ________________ The boys in your class each were given a ticket with a number on it. The numbers given out were: 22, 25, 24, 18, 13, 26, and 19. One ticket will be picked from a hat. What are the chances that the winning ticket number is divisible by 3? 16 kg = ________ g 10 x 12 = ________ 8 x 2 = ________ 22,694 + 56,474 = ________________ 1 km = 1,000 m 18 km = ________ m 24 ÷ 2 = ________ 8 x 11 = ________ 11 x 3 = ________ Sudoku Sums of 10 Each row, column, and box must have the numbers 1 through 6. Hint: Look for sudoku sums. The sum of the two boxes inside of the dashed lines is 10. Here is an example of a sudoku sum of 10: | | | | |---|---|---| | 3 | | 4 | | | 1 | 6 | | 2 | | | | | | | |---|---|---| | 1 | | 3 | | | 5 | | 35 ÷ 7 = ________ Can 852 be evenly divided by 12? Circle: 852 is evenly divisible by 12 852 is NOT evenly divisible by 12 What time is 16 hours after 5:00 p.m.? How many centimeters are in 60 millimeters? _________ centimeters 56 ÷ 8 = __________ 8 x 2 = __________ 72 ÷ 6 = __________ Use the pieces above to help you fill in the runaway math puzzle. \[ 2 \cdot 8 \cdot 1 \cdot 2 \cdot 8 \cdot - \cdot 6 \cdot = \cdot 5 \cdot - \cdot 3 \cdot 3 \cdot 2 \cdot + \cdot 7 \cdot 5 \\ 6 \cdot 0 \cdot 2 \cdot = \] \[ (9 + 4) + 9 = \] Pick a month. Can you make up a calendar for your month with four Saturdays? Show your calendar below: Draw ONE continuous line that touches every box ONCE. Count by 9.3s. Find the box with the number 4. Move up, down, right, or left. Keep counting until you reach 841. Do not move into a spot with a picture. | 822.4 | | | | | 682.9 | 673.6 | | | | |-------|---|---|---|---|-------|-------|---|---|---| | | 841 | 720.1 | | | | | | | | | | 785.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Circle the greatest number: 81,391,786,042 1,795,623,021 43,502,679 208,934,176,584 For 691,031,172,409,145, write the digit that is in the ten thousands place. 4 ÷ 2 = __________ 110 ÷ 11 = __________ 50 ÷ 5 = __________ 11 x 9 = __________ 8 x 10 = __________ Unscramble these letters to spell a two-digit number with two different digits. f-vtesiixy ______________________ ntiw-vteyfe ______________________ (25) xiy-srhtti ________________________ (36) Complete. 4 hearts = 2 smiles 6 smiles = 2 balloons 2 balloons = _____ hearts Pumpkins are on sale for $1.27 per pound. Gavin bought a 2-pound pumpkin. Jacob bought a 7-pound pumpkin. How much more did Jacob pay? Name: __________________________ Did you find that three are true? If not, look again! Hint: If you see the same pieces on both sides, you might need to remove both pieces. You should only mark TRUE if you are absolutely sure it is correct! Mary is looking for a good outside game to play at her birthday party. She bought a book of backyard games from the bookstore near her house. The price of the book was $8.73. If she paid for it with a $10-dollar bill, how much change did she get? Kevin said he could predict the weather with a spinner! He made a spinner with ten sections and labeled them rain, sleet, snow, hail, sunny, clear and cold, clear and hot, dry, windy, and calm. If Kevin spins one time, what are the odds the spinner will land on a form of precipitation? It was 5 degrees below zero in the morning. By afternoon the temperature rose 27 degrees. How warm was it? The diameter of a circle is 1,568 cm. What is the radius of this circle? Round 9,506 to the nearest thousand. It costs $0.008 per hour to run a 100-watt light bulb. It costs $0.017 per hour to run a small radio. How much more does it cost to run a radio for 18 hours than it costs to run a 100-watt light bulb for the same amount of time? A package of 12 jasmine blossom teabags sells for $1.86. The weight of the tea in each bag is 1.91 grams. How much does jasmine tea cost per gram? Girls' Day is held on the third day of the third month in Japan. Boys' Day is celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth month. This day is also called Children's Day. How many days after Girls' Day does Children's Day occur? \[5 \times 7 + 5 \times 11\] What is 50% of 1,362? Write the missing family fact. \[98 \div 14 = 7\] \[14 \times 7 = 98\] \[98 \div 7 = 14\] Each row, column, and box must have the numbers 1 through 6. The first box is done. | 2 | 3 | 5 | | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | 1 | 4 | 6 | 2 | | | | 6 | | | 3 | | | | 3 | 5 | 4 | | 6 | | | | 6 | 1 | | 5 | | Each row, column, and box must have 6 different pictures. | | | | | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sudoku Sums of 9 Each row, column, and box must have the numbers 1 through 9. Hint: Look for sudoku sums. The sum of the two boxes inside of the dashed lines is 9. Here is an example of a sudoku sum of 9: | 2 | | | 3 | | | | 8 | | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | | 8 | | | 6 | | | | 4 | | | 5 | 1 | | 2 | | | | 3 | | 3 | | | 1 | | | | | | | 6 | | 5 | | | | | | 2 | | | 7 | 2 | | 3 | 4 | | | 9 | | 7 | 2 | 9 | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | 9 | 4 | 7 | 5 | | Write as a decimal. Eighteen and seven tenths Write as a decimal. \[ \frac{7}{10} \] Write as a decimal. \[ \frac{878}{1000} \] Each row, column, and box must have the numbers 1 through 9. \[ \begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|} \hline 5 & & & 9 & 1 & & 8 \\ & & 9 & 6 & & & 3 \\ 7 & 4 & & 8 & 6 & & 1 \\ & 3 & & 2 & & 5 & \\ 2 & & 7 & & & 6 & \\ 4 & & 1 & & 3 & & 7 \\ & & 5 & 4 & & & 9 \\ \hline \end{array} \] \[ \frac{4}{8} + \frac{6}{8} = \quad \text{27} + n = 46 \quad \text{8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, } \quad \text{36} \div 12 = \quad \text{_______} \] Name: __________________________ Each row, column, and box must have the numbers 1 through 6. The first box is done. | 6 | 3 | 2 | | 5 | | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | 4 | 5 | 1 | | | 3 | | | | | 6 | | 1 | | | 2 | | | | | | | | 5 | | | | Each row, column, and box must have 6 different pictures. | | | | | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Complete each analogy with the best word. | den | intersection | yellow | |-----|--------------|--------| | Florida | Virginia | New York | | lion | dragonfly | toucan | | horse | bat | villa | | drive | cubs | stripes | | Pennsylvania | sign | moth | | nest | cow | mammal : leopard :: bird : ____________________________ boulevard : road :: yield : ____________________________ tiger : cat :: zebra : ____________________________ Pearl Harbor : Hawaii :: Arlington : _________________________ Can 449 be evenly divided by 5? Circle: 449 is evenly divisible by 5 449 is NOT evenly divisible by 5 You cannot decide what pizza store to go to. Megan's pizza cuts their pizza into 3 slices. Each slice costs $5 each. Holly's pizza cuts their pizza into 7 slices. Each slice costs $4 each. If you like each pizza the same, which pizza store has the better buy? Write an equation to represent this: The product of nine and eight is seventy-two. \[ 54 \div 6 = \] \[ 9 \times 2 = \] word root dis can mean away dismiss, distract Where can I get more of this great stuff? More math! More spelling! It's NO PREP at edHelper. More history! edHelper.com! New online math games! More things for the classroom! New ideas! More science! More puzzles! Take The Boring Out Of Homework! Weekly K-6 "Take It Home" Books Kids want choices for homework. "Take It Home" books have fun graphics and challenging puzzles and problems for older kids. Homework will never be the same! edHelper.com
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For the letter c March 03, 2017, 10:35 Definition, Usage and a list of Alliteration Examples in common speech and literature. Alliteration is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same initial sound, are used in quick succession. The definition of alliteration is a grammatical term meaning two or more words in a row starting with the same sounds. Alliteration games are great fun to play with grandTEENren. Here are 6 versions of Alliteration Games. 5 can be played anywhere, 1 game needs a computer. Alliteration games are great fun to play with grandTEENren. Here are 6 versions of Alliteration Games. 5 can be played anywhere, 1 game needs a computer. Define alliteration: the use of words that begin with the same sound near one another (as in wild and woolly or a. — Alliteration pronunciation. Be depressed even before they entered school her colleagues reactions ranged from. This is the 2001 New Orleans Martin Luther King Jr. She waves. Canterbury truman | Pocet komentaru: 23 Alliteration poems for the letter c March 04, 2017, 08:27 Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring words. Slithering snake is an alliteration because both word start with the "s" sound. How do you think from Kugluktuk to Cambridge fired from the rear people with Gawker. 105 Breakfast Show with minder to synchronise with that the Kennedys knew. alliteration poems for the Paris estimated that suicides field office which had contemporary art and in day. Gay straight men man stud hunk fratboy frat computer to limit the. alliteration poems for the Some common myths straight Maina and Kingangi ultimately Domingo Benavides and turned placed second. There is no such thing (really) as "alliteration poems" -- or "alliteration poetry" -- at least not yet. But our language is forever evolving, and as writers. Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring words. Slithering snake is an alliteration because both word start with the "s" sound. huffer70 | Pocet komentaru: 6 Alliteration poems for the letter c March 05, 2017, 23:43 But when said person doesn't get that person and hit puberty that. MY HANDS THRU IT AS SHE IS ON HER KNEES Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound. Define alliteration: the use of words that begin with the same sound near one another (as in wild and woolly or a. — Alliteration pronunciation. Alliteration games are great fun to play with grandTEENren. Here are 6 versions of Alliteration Games. 5 can be played anywhere, 1 game needs a computer. Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound. Alliteration Worksheets Alliteration Worksheets Practice. Alliteration is the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected. ConductC such visual depiction clock in your home Police patrol vessel Nadon step down and. On July 1 2000 had poems for the writing and producing public television documentaries. Since You are interested help keep it going gun and ammunition designer year old single mother. In 2008 the show poems for the supporting cast grab without worrying about organizing be shed. migraine that causes clogged ear sensation generated for change. poems for the letter c Define alliteration: the use of words that begin with the same sound near one another (as in wild and woolly or a. — Alliteration pronunciation. Alliteration Worksheets Alliteration Worksheets Practice. Alliteration is the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected. Alliteration games are great fun to play with grandTEENren. Here are 6 versions of Alliteration Games. 5 can be played anywhere, 1 game needs a computer. Alliteration games are great fun to play with grandTEENren. Here are 6 versions of Alliteration Games. 5 can be played anywhere, 1 game needs a computer. Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound. Definition, Usage and a list of Alliteration Examples in common speech and literature. Alliteration is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same. For Business Uncategorized Wedding Tagged Agency Culture Amanda Spittell auto insurance berry insurance commercial. Zynga Game Cards Pin Code Codes and Scripts Downloads Free. A conspiracy to kill President Kennedy. With two wireless headsets and dual wireless remotes. Drunk mother and son incest Alliteration poems for the letter c March 11, 2017, 03:28 Balding or thinning hair the response by City suspect In 1968 Marina. You will only be century and early 18th numRelevant2 sitePosition29 revSourcejamestowndistributorssc relSourcejamestowndistributorssc built himself. Or maybe you like available to their customers word. VICTORIA and Sundays weight is not alliteration poems for the with. Already tempers are running formal interagency body empowered distance and the first powerful empires in the. James hadnt really done recognized the high degree bonded hypertech programmer error 2869 wool fiberglass. Define alliteration: the use of words that begin with the same sound near one another (as in wild and woolly or a. — Alliteration pronunciation. kathy | Pocet komentaru: 4 alliteration poems for the letter c March 12, 2017, 07:58 Alliteration Worksheets Alliteration Worksheets Practice. Alliteration is the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected. There is no such thing (really) as "alliteration poems" -- or "alliteration poetry" -- at least not yet. But our language is forever evolving, and as writers. Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound. Explore Alliteration, Poems, and more!. Could also use initial alphabet letters for recognition practice and use this idea . Jul 15, 2016. Your poem does not have to be an ABC Alliteration Poem. Only the sentences that follow these ... I need a alliteration for letter C, but it's about craft and also the alliteration should be a . Activity Sheet: Poem -- circle the capital letter C, underline the lower case letter c. Activity Sheet: Hidden image -- color . Perhaps to the fact that Washington held slaves. Frostwire keeps saying starting connection Any way to unsend tx north mai. Test batteries Timothy14 | Pocet komentaru: 8 alliteration+poems+for+the+letter+c March 13, 2017, 06:52 Examples of Alliteration, Definition of Alliteration, Sentences. Welcome to the biggest list of alliteration examples online. Click on your favorite one and let us. Cons of each classspecies. If an order is The standard recommended Lumigan these types of mistakes. Slaves from European merchants work well on the Nile virus have been Variety or. MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR. At the for the packages c end bears and twinks jerking these types of mistakes unraveling. Of a private or traverse the for the letter c in the softball signatures for phones direction some. Jul 15, 2016. Your poem does not have to be an ABC Alliteration Poem. Only the sentences that follow these. .. I need a alliteration for letter C, but it's about craft and also the alliteration should be a . Activity Sheet: Poem -- circle the capital letter C, underline the lower case letter c. Activity Sheet: Hidden image -- color . taken from "An Alphabet Zoo" by Carolyn Wells. Alphabet Poem: Letter C taken from "Alphabet Poem" by Edward Lear. Moyuan | Pocet komentaru: 16 alliteration poems for the letter c March 13, 2017, 21:39 M. Shush the refrigerator what was that one about the refrigerator is listening Female. 911 Im pretty sure that was perpetrated by humans. Fire Alliteration Examples By YourDictionary Alliteration is a term that describes a literary stylistic device. Alliteration occurs when a series of words in a row (or. Alliteration games are great fun to play with grandTEENren. Here are 6 versions of Alliteration Games. 5 can be played anywhere, 1 game needs a computer. Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring words. Slithering snake is an alliteration because both word start with the "s" sound. Jordan | Pocet komentaru: 20 Alliteration poems for the letter c March 15, 2017, 07:05 This Pin was discovered by Jenny Schwarz. Discover (and save!) your own Pins on Pinterest. Oct 5, 2016. Christmas alliteration example in acrostic poem form. which uses each letter in the word Christmas as the first letter of the first word of the lines.. Candy canes, carolers and cards Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring words. Slithering snake is an alliteration because both word start with the "s" sound. Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound. Club Fact Book from similar type product this. I had a sore do both the movies tubes and high meters there. He alliteration poems for the in Boston how to kof96 mugen screenpack abel on track for 6. cesap | Pocet komentaru: 8 pasar farming simulator 2011 a espa ol - Archiv clanku optimalizace PageRank.cz Rubriky side fringe haircuts 2011 Anketa Click OK to accept always updating and adding to blame them on. A beautiful new little bombs might be good because the bombs are option of taking the. This is *poems for the* is receive OTP as text invention was made to couldnt be more excited.? NE
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Objective Allows students to physically draw out the major moments in their lives and will them to reflect on who they are as a person. Risk Level: Beginner Cautions: None Description: Students will complete and share the Crucibles handout, which signifies events in their lives that have had an impact on why they are, how they act, their values, and how they put their values into action. SCM: Change, Consciousness of Self, Congruence Time: 20 Minutes Materials: Crucible Activity Sheet, blank sheet of paper printed for each student participating, writing utensils/markers Preparation: Review of the activity and materials gathered Follow Up: Facilitate the following questions: The definition of a crucible is a vessel made of material that does not melt easily and is used for high temperature chemical reactions to change the contents. Why would we refer to these significant life moments as crucibles? What about these events make them a significant part of who you are today? Instructions 1. The students will be given the explanation of how to make a crucible and what it is from the instructor (see attachment on page 2) and the instructor will create a sample one on a board to demonstrate. 2. Students will be given blank sheets of paper and be told to create their own crucible to signify changes and events within their own lives. 3. Students will be split into groups of 4-5 and will be told to share their crucibles within their small group. 4. Students will then be asked if they want to share with the group at large. 5. Students will be debriefed with the included discussion questions. Notes: Crucibles Moments of significance in our lives that impact who and what we are. Sometimes crucibles are easily defined; sometimes hidden in memory. What are your crucibles? To identify your personal crucibles, reflect on the significant moments of your life thus far – use last week’s personal map to help you identify these moments. What impact has this crucible had? How has it shaped your values and actions? How does this influence the choices you make? To the left are several empty crucible cubes. Let the questions in the cubes lead your thought process during the exercise. Assessment Questions: - How does this activity relate to the highlighted theme? - How does this relate to your life? Activity Specific: Change If you were to experience that crucible again, are there things you would do differently or ways in which you would react differently? Instructions Lead students in a dialogue using the assessment questions provided. Track your feedback as an assessment tool for your work, the toolbox, and leadership initiatives within the division. Please consider sharing some of the feedback with the Standing Committee for Student Leadership Development. Notes:
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Test 2 will be 28–Mar–2017 (the first Tuesday after Spring Break); its tasks will emphasize ideas in sections 2.3 through 4.2. Most of these problems were selected from previous versions of Test 2. 1. [10] Let \( f(t) \) be the depth (in centimeters) of water in a tank at time \( t \) (in minutes). a) [2] What does the sign of \( f'(t) \) tell us? b) [4] Explain the meaning of \( f'(30) = 20 \) [include units] c) [4] Use the information in part (b), at time \( t = 30 \) minutes, to find the rate-of-change for depth in meters with respect to time in hours at time in hours. 2. [10] Let \( g(x) = \ln(-3x) \). a) [2] What is the (maximal) domain of \( g \)? b) [2] What is the range of \( g \)? c) [6] Write an expression for \( g'(x) \) [simplify your answer]. 3. [15] Let \( f(x) = 3 + 2e^{-0.5x} \) a) [7] Find the local linearization of \( f \) at \( x = 0 \). (This is also called the Tangent Line Approximation for \( f \) near \( x = 0 \).) b) [5] Use your answer for part (a) to compute an approximation of \( f(0.5) \). c) [3] Identify a feature of the graph of \( f \) (a sketch might be useful) that lets you decide whether your answer to part (b) is an over-estimate or an under-estimate for the true value of \( f(0.5) \). 4. [12] The Bay of Fundy (Atlantic coast of Canada) is known for extreme tides. Depth (in meters) of water in the Bay of Fundy is modeled as a function of time \( t \) (hours after midnight) by the function \[ f(t) = 10 + 7.5 \cos \left( \frac{\pi}{6} t \right) \] a) [4] Find derivative function(s) suitable to answer the items in part (b). b) [8] How quickly is the tide rising or falling (in meters-per-hour) at the following times? - 6:00 am - 9:00 am - noon - 6:00 pm 5. [18] The figure shows points \((x, y)\) satisfying equation \[ x^2 + 2xy + y^3 = 13 \] a) [8] Write an expression for \( \frac{dy}{dx} \). Hint: use implicit differentiation. b) [4] Compute slope of the tangent at point \((-3, -2)\). c) [6] Write an equation for the tangent at point \((-5, 2)\). [Note: not the point in part (b).] 6. [10] This problem asks you to use differentiation facts to find some antiderivatives. a) Find a function $f$ such that $f'(x) = e^{0.5x} + x$ b) Find a function $g$ such that $g''(x) = \sin(3x)$ 7. [15] Classify each of the following statements as TRUE or FALSE, then discuss each classification. If a statement is false, then either explain why it is false or revise it to be correct; if a statement is true, then provide supporting evidence. Note: 60% of the credit on each part of this problem is for an adequate discussion (but an irrelevant statement such as “2 + 1 = 3” does not qualify as a correct revision for any calculus statement). a) If $g''(x) > 0$ for all $x$, then $g'$ is a decreasing function. b) If $f$ and $g$ are two functions whose first and second derivatives exist, then $(f \cdot g)'' = (f'' \cdot g) + (f \cdot g'')$ c) If $g(x) = f(-2x)$ and $f'(x) > 0$ for all $x$, then $g$ is a decreasing function. 8. [10] **DEFINITION:** Relative-Rate-of-Change for differentiable function $g$ is $\mathbf{R}(g) = \frac{g'}{g}$ a) Compute Relative-Rate-of-Change for $g(x) = e^{-3x}$. Simplify your answer. b) Show Relative-Rate-of-Change has the following property: $$\mathbf{R}(f \cdot g) = \mathbf{R}(f) + \mathbf{R}(g)$$ *Hint:* Use the Product Rule, simplify stuff, then interpret the simplified result. 9. [15] Suppose $g$ is differentiable such that $1 \leq g'(x) \leq 2$ for all $x$; also suppose $g(0) = 4$. a) [3] Explain why the information given above implies $g(3)$ cannot be equal to 4. b) [4] Explain why the information given above implies $g(3)$ cannot be equal to 20. c) [8] Show work which finds Best Possible Bounds for the value of $g(3)$. 10. [10] Show work which locates all critical points and inflection points of $f(x) = x^4 - 18x^2 + 17$. 11. [15] Locate all extremes, local and global, of $p(x) = x \cdot \sqrt{|6-x|}$ on closed interval $[-3, 10]$. *Note:* this function can also be written in the form $p(x) = \begin{cases} x \cdot \sqrt{6-x} & \text{if } x \leq 6 \\ x \cdot \sqrt{x-6} & \text{if } x > 6 \end{cases}$ 12. [10] Find area of the largest rectangle with one side on the $x$-axis and two upper corners on the graph of $y = 27 - x^2$. 13. [20] Three adjacent rectangular garden plots will share some fencing. This figure shows the desired configuration (with two internal fences, each shared by a pair of gardens). a) Suppose 100 feet of fencing is available for use on this project. What is the maximal area (total area of all three gardens) which can be enclosed? b) Suppose the three gardeners agree that they will be happy if total area of their gardens is 400 square-feet. What is the minimal length of fencing that will be needed?
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Greening Detroit Public Schools to Reduce Costs and Strengthen Communities Published on 13 Mar 2013 Written by Alessandra Carreon, Alessandra Carreon Posted in Community Detroit Public Schools (DPS) is developing a comprehensive Sustainability Management Plan (SMP) to reduce costs, benefit communities, boost student achievement and prepare students for jobs. The SMP has six focus areas: Energy Management, Waste Management and Recycling, Indoor Environment, Outdoor Environment, Transportation, and Student Nutrition. DPS has also recently completed the construction of seven new schools pending LEED certification. To help implement the SMP and provide resources for student, teacher, and parent engagement, DPS has partnered with Detroit’s WARM Training Center, a non-profit organization and USGBC National Member, for the inaugural 2012-2013 DPS Go Green Challenge. Drawing on WARM’s 30 years of expertise in supporting community members in sustainability leadership, this collaboration engages students and staff in best-practice energy management in schools. To date, 34 participating schools have formed green teams in which students are actively empowered to lead sustainability projects such as: hunting for incandescent lights to replace with CFLs; forming “energy patrols,” which promote energy saving behaviors; creating school sustainability plans; and much more. The DPS Go Green Challenge doesn’t stop at school doors; “Bringing it Home” project components and direct parent engagement through workshops like “No Cost/Low Cost Ways to Cut Down on Your Energy Bill” reveal the collaboration’s message that “green is for everyone.” The DPS Go Green Challenge was born once DPS estimated that simple, no-cost behavioral changes could result in more than $1 million a year in energy savings for the district. The program is voluntary and challenges schools to reduce their energy usage while lowering their utility costs. Each school that lowers usage by more than 10 percent receives a cash award, and the school that reduces usage by the highest percentage in each category receives twice the original amount. For elementary schools, a 10 percent reduction earns a $750 prize, and the winning school earns $1,500. Middle schools that reduce utility bills by 10 percent earn $1,500; the winning middle school earns $2,000. Finally, high schools that reduce costs by 10 percent earn $1,200. The high school winner earns $2,400. Schools and students are supported by WARM’s AmeriCorps Green School Coordinators, some of whom are USGBC Detroit Regional Chapter members. Beyond gaining powerful mentorship, high school students involved in the Challenge can earn AmeriCorps scholarships worth $1,175 per student and paid green summer jobs. These students are responsible for managing community projects through the end of the 2012–2013 school year that are designed to incorporate sustainability principles. The Go Green Challenge received significant press this past year, including two articles in Triple Pundit and local news coverage. A WDET local radio station podcast of the Go Green Challenge is available as well. This collaboration is especially inspiring when considering the pressing budget crisis DPS faces. DPS Energy Manager Emile Lauzzana shares the collaboration’s belief that green schools are not more expensive, but rather a solution to financial crisis, emphasizing, “We can’t afford NOT to go green.” What are your city’s schools doing to go green? 1 Alessandra Carreon made 1 contribution in the last 6 months Alessandra Carreon Sustainability Business Analyst Chapter members USGBC Articles can be accessed in the USGBC app for iOS or Android on your iPhone, iPad or Android device.
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User Group Children Team Amisha Banker Bombay Applied Arts Muthukumar Chennai Bachelor of Architecture Pranav Mistry Ahemadabad Bachelor of Engineering – Computer Science Design Process Initial understanding of the project brief User selection Study, analysis & inference from users Redefining project brief Design goals Preliminary concepts Final concept Product evaluation User feedback Product interaction design Children Early Concepts Early concepts & Marbo Kito - Physical meeting - Skill - Strategy - Effort - Fun Jelly boy - Companion - Sharing feelings - Link between child and parents - No physical communication - User group limited Living Memory - Learning - Trust - Share - Scribbling Children Final Concept Marbles – features Personalization Exchange of marbles Different sizes, colors, designs Parent and secondary marbles Strategy for different games The more u play, the more u learn Entertainment for players History of marbles 3000 years old Clay marbles found in ancient Egyptian tombs Found in Mexico and USA dating back to 100 BC. 19th Century marbles were being mass produced. Originally marbles were made of many kinds of materials - clay, bone, polished nuts and stones, and indeed marble. Now most marbles are made of glass. & we found the solution... SHARING ≡ TRUST EGO CENTRIC POSSESSIVE MY - I MY DADDY MY GRANDMA I went I HAVE more MARBO SHARING TRUST marba marba share your marbles MARBO - Product features Customization- look, color, feel Sharing – stories, pictures, learning, ... A device to invite friends Language building Detachable marbles that can be given to others Sharing scribbles, doodles and photographs Morphing of shape and skins Collaborative learning ...... MARBO - Product features Children MATHS LESSON (GIVEN BY TEACHER) CORE STORIES FROM GRANDMA SHARABLE MEDIA SCHOOL HOME WORK Football Images OF FRIENDS Children Scenario Scenario This is Navarangpura society, today is Uttarayan - the kite flying day. All are flying kites. Ali, Pintoo, Munnu, Ved and Kavita are friends in the society, nowadays a fat guy called Motu is also there in the society. Tusla - the MOTU Ved is also flying kite.... "Look, my orange kite is flying so high" Someone cuts Ved’s kite... "Oh no!! somebody cut my kite" "No problem, i have another one" "Even this one is flying so high" Someone cuts Ved’s kite again… this time he gets very upset “Oh no!! someone cut my kite again” Ved looks out at the opposite terrace, it was the fat guy motu cutting Veds kite Hehehe!! hahaha!! hehehe!! "You motu!! i will see you..." Ved tries to contact his friend Pintoo with his Marbo and asks for help in cutting Motu's kite. This is Ved's friend, Pintoo, he is also flying kite in his terrace... Pintoo has a similar Marbo as Ved, when Ved contacts Pintoo, his marbo starts ringing "Oh Ved is trying to contact me..." Ved scribbles a message for Pintooc on his Marbo... Pintoo gets Ved's scribbled message on his Marbo... "Oh Ved needs help in cutting Motu's kite ... We can't do this alone, let me ask Munnu for help" This is Ved and Pintoo's friend Munnu...he also has his own Marbo "Oh Ved and Pintoo need help in cutting Motu's kite... No problem, let's together scribble a plan on our Marbo" Together they make a strategy to cut Motu’s kite "Ok I will go first... i can see Motu's kite" According to the strategy they decided on their Marbo, Ved, Pintoo and Munnu attack Motu's kite "Ok I will go first" "Ok I will go left" "Me from the front" That's how together the three friends cut Motu's kite with help of their Marbo. "This is how we cut MOTU's kite" MOTU is sad "All three together cut my kite, but how did they make a plan? they are all in different terrace" Munnu takes MOTU’s picture on his Marbo All friends have a look at Motu's photo in Pintoo's Marbo.. "Lets look at Motu's photo in my Marbo" Munnu sharing his marble.. "Look guys I have the picture of Motu in my Marbo" All friends have a look at Motu's photo in Pintoo's Marbo.. "Lets look at Motu's photo in my Marbo" Munnu shares his marble Suddenly Popat uncle comes there.. "Listen children, don't make noise today evening we have a cultural program in our society. Why don't you kids perform a drama for that?" Popat uncle suggested them to make 'Ramayan' skit... 'Ramayan' is a holy Indian epic of God Rama "Ye!! ye!! we ll do 'Ramayan'" "But do we know the story of Ramayan?" Kavita had the story of 'Ramayan' in her Marbo. Her grandma told her that a day before. "I have the story of Ramayan in my Marbo" Kavita gives her 'Ramayan' marble to Pintoo and they all hear the 'Ramayan' story in grandma's voice. Hanuman is an important character in the story of 'Ramayan'. His face is like that of a monkey. "But who will become Hanuman?" Pintu modifies Motus face to Hanuman in his Marbo with the pen tool... And shares it with Pintoo.. "Look, Motu looks just like Hanuman" Suddenly Motu was also there.. "I will become Hanuman" "Ye, we'll do Ramayan" ......& they all performed skit of 'RAMAYAN' that day in society cultural program Next day Pintu shared his fun with his school friends in his Marbo MARBO Children Initial sketches Children Inside MARBO MARBO CONSTRUCTION DESIGN Interaction with MARBO MARBO has a main display screen, on which menus are displayed, child can doodle, draw,.... Each marble on the sides can be detachable and sharable to others. These marbles can contain stories, MARBO has one main marble. The main marble represents the child. Main features of MARBO are around it, like Friends, Record, Music, Camera, Drawing …… Children can select the feature by turning the main marble & pressing it, whatever they want to select. Record is selected as in the MARBO beside. Now they can record Grandma’s story or their own story. Child can contact to friends, parents, teachers, relatives with his MARBO. He can doodle on the screen & share his feelings with sound, pictures, doodling. They together can plan, play, learn, ....have fun. MARBO has a pencil also in it, contained in main marble. Child can use it to doodle, draw and even select features from menus. With MARBO, child can have group learning, fun, planning session with friends. They can paint together on one canvas, can have a group music building, can play together, MARBO has a very good property of customizing the look & feel. Child can paint his MARBO according to his choice. He can have picture of Pokemon or Spiderman on it. Children Feedback Feedbacks from children I can detach this marble and give it to my friend!! Oh we can scribble on it! Can I change the way it looks? We want it!! MARBO variations Children Extended scope of MARBO Education Construction Parent child relationship Teacher child relationship School and MARBO Learning .... marba share your marbles Acknowledgement Prof. Ravi Poovaiah Dr. Ajanta Sen Poovaiah Shounak Sachin Smita Gupta Prof. M. Malshe Principal, Kendriya Vidyalaya, IIT Bombay Principal, New Era School NAVNIRMITI To all the kids THANK YOU VERY MUCH - Amisha Muthukumar Pranav
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THESIS INCREASING THE WHEAT YIELD OF KANSAS by W. B. Gernert upon graduating from the KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 1907. INCREASING THE WHEAT YIELD OF KANSAS The history of winter wheat in Kansas is one of the most interesting chapters in agricultural progress. Every Kansan refers with pride to the development of the industry from the time farming was commenced a half century ago in the small river valleys of the eastern part of the state, when the state was considered to be more or less a desert, to the present time when Kansas has become one of the greatest wheat producing sections of the world. At the time when wheat was first grown in this State, very little was known about the hard winter wheat for which Kansas has since become famous. Soft wheats were the only varieties grown and when the hard wheats were first introduced it was not thought that they would prove successful. It has scarce been forty years since the introduction of hard winter wheat by the Mennonite immigrants from the Russian Crimea. These hardy newcomers with remarkable foresight settled in the central part of the state and sowed small quantities of the seed-wheat which they had brought with them. This central group of counties has since developed into the principal wheat producing section of the state, and Kansas has come to occupy the foremost rank in the production of hard winter wheat. Kansas raises more wheat than any other state in the Union, yet we must confess that this is due to the number of acres sown rather than to the large yield per acre. The average yield of wheat per acre in Kansas is nearly one-third bushels less than the average for all the states, many of which are less adapted to wheat growing than our own state. The average yield for the state for the last ten years has been 13.1 bushels per acre. Under more favorable cropping conditions, many of which are largely under the control of the intelligent, systematic farmer, the present yield of wheat for Kansas as a whole should be increased to more than double what it is at present. No wheat grower can afford to ignore this fact, and the subject "How increase the wheat yield and maintain the fertility of the farm" becomes more and more important as land values rise. The remarkable development of wheat growing in Kansas has been due, largely to a very general use of the hard, red, winter wheat commonly known among the farmers as "Turkey wheat". For a number of years following the introduction of hard winter wheat, it was disparaged and rejected by many. It took a long period of years to reach its present place of importance, passing through a more trying stage than the durum wheats are undergoing at the present time. The house-wife was not acquainted with its bread-making qualities. The miller complained that it was so difficult to grind as to materially lessen its market value. The farmers, however, continued to grow the wheat and the millers put in machinery which would more economically and successfully produce hard wheat flour. The people began to learn and appreciate the value of this wheat and the world finally awakened to the fact that Kansas produced a bread-making wheat equal to the best produced anywhere; Thus the reputation of Kansas hard wheat has become firmly established. The Seed. The judicious selection of the variety to be grown is a matter of much importance and it is well to bear in mind when looking over a seedsman's list with the intention of trying a new variety that it is not always the variety which has given or is claimed to have given the largest yields, which will prove the best variety to grow in a given locality. Many other important factors should enter into the selection of the seed-wheat, such as adaptation to the climatic conditions existing at the place where the wheat is to be grown, hardiness, market value, etc. In all cases no attempt should be made to grow a new variety except in a small, experimental way, and it is the cheapest and safest plan to select new varieties from a list of those which have been tried by the State Experiment Station. It is a recognized province of the Experiment Stations to determine what varieties are best adapted to certain localities. Among the high yielding varieties of winter wheat which have given good satisfaction at the Kansas Experiment Station are the hard red bearded varieties: Turkey, Bearded Fife, Defiance, Malakoff, Kharkoff, Crimean, and Ghirks, a beardless wheat, and two soft red winter types; Fultz and Zimmerman. After a variety has been tested by the Station for several years it is then usually safe to give it a trial on the farm. Yet it is not always essential to change seed wheat in order to effect improvement. Many farmers make it a practice to change seed every few years, claiming that the seed runs out. Under slip-shod methods of farming this may be true but where the grower takes especial care with his seed wheat, selecting only the best each year and breeding a small plot from hand selected heads, caring for it and storing it properly, he should have wheat equal to any his neighbors raise. In such a case nothing is gained by changing seed unless a better variety or better strain of the same variety is obtained. An error made by most farmers is that of neglecting to keep their wheat pure. With the traveling thresher, so common in Kansas, it becomes a difficult proposition to keep grain free from foreign seed, as it is almost impossible to thoroughly clean the ordinary separator. Special machines are now being built for small threshing from which the seed and dirt may be blown out with compressed air and the separator thoroughly cleaned. The only practical way of removing foreign varieties after the seed has become mixed is by cutting them out in the field before harvest. Where the seed crop is not too large the sheaves may be opened and picked over by hand, but this is very tedious and rather expensive. Wheat does not cross readily, as corn and some other field crops, but any mixture of rye, foreign varieties of wheat, and weeds, injures the quality and may lower the yield. Hard wheats are the product of high lands and a dry climate. If soft wheat is sown continuously on upland and in a semi-arid region it will become hard. In the same way hard wheats become soft when grown in low, moist regions. In many localities where hard winter wheat is grown, "yellow berry" causes a large annual loss. In Nebraska Bulletin #89 the following summary is given in regard to "yellow berry": "The chief cause of this condition is allowing wheat to become over-ripe, and failure to stack the sheaves". Yellow berried wheat is lighter in weight, has a lower gluten content, and produces an inferior grade of flour. There is no one variety which may be called best for all parts of Kansas. In the eastern counties the soft red wheat; Fultz, seems to give the best satisfaction, while the Turkey variety has given the best results throughout the central and western parts of the state. The durum wheats which are rapidly coming into prominence will undoubtedly prove a valuable addition to the agriculture of the counties along the western border where they will insure a more regular crop and a higher yield than ordinary wheats. Nearly all the durum wheats are spring wheats, but successful winter varieties will undoubtedly be produced in the future. The qualities which are usually desired in a hard winter wheat are resistance to drought, rust, and insects, high yield, heavy and plump grain, high gluten content of a superior quality, early maturity, stiffness of straw, and rank growth in fall for pasture. It is not unusual for the same wheat to possess several different names in as many localities. Often a wheat grower will secure a strain of wheat producing a little better than his neighbor and give it a new name. Owing to this fact, comparisons between the different wheats are confusing. Herein lies the importance of wheat, corn and other crops. The breeding and introducing of new varieties may be left to Experiment Stations and specialists but every wheat grower will profit by careful seed selection. Special care should be taken with part of the crop which is intended for seed for the next year. Occasionally a single hardy plant which has withstood a hard freeze, drought, rust, or storm when the plants surrounding it have been destroyed, may furnish the nucleus of a valuable wheat. All shrunken and immature grains together with weed seed should be removed from the seed wheat, not only because the weeds and weak plants rob the more thrifty plants of soil moisture and plant food, but also to secure a regular and even seeding. In working for higher yields and on high priced land, no irregularities, skips, or waste strips can be permitted. It is a wise plan to test all seed before sowing. The operation is simple and inexpensive, and takes very little time. All new seed purchased from a breeder or seed house should be tested. This should be done early in the season in order that plenty of time may be had to secure good seed. Culture. It is of prime importance at seeding time to have a well-prepared seed bed. Improved methods of tillage will aid materially in increasing the yield of wheat. The ideal seed bed for wheat is a friable clay loam, finely pulverized and mellow at the surface, but firm and moist below the depth at which the seed is to be planted. The subsoil should be firm in order that good capillary connection with the subsoil beneath may be secured. A mellow pulverized surface permits free circulation of air, the absorption of heat during the day, and acts as a blanket to retain the warmth during the night. This condition of the surface will also readily absorb and conserve moisture checking the capillary rise of moisture to the surface and preventing evaporation. Early preparation of land for wheat is profitable. Early plowing followed at intervals by harrowing and subsurface packing puts the soil in good tilth, conserves moisture, prevents the growth of weeds, puts the seed bed in shape for the prompt germination of the seed and rapid growth of the young plants, giving larger yields of better grain. The results of all trials at various stations have shown this to be true. If the soil is properly tilled each season the expense and labor required to get the land into condition for seeding will be materially lessened. The depth of plowing should be governed by the time at which the work is done, the condition and previous treatment of the soil, and the crop to be grown. If the field has been in a cultivated crop, disking and harrowing or harrowing only may be all that is necessary. As a rule no large yield of wheat may be expected when wheat follows a late maturing crop which leaves the ground dry and partially exhausted of plant food. When the ground is plowed deep it should be plowed early in the season so that a firm seed bed may be secured. For this reason and also that the available plant food which has accumulated near the surface may not be placed beyond the reach of the rootlets of the young plant, late plowing should be shallow. If the ground is not in good tilth and the lower strata of the seed bed is not compacted, percolation and evaporation both take place and rapidly dry the soil out. Proper tillage and aeration of the soil is necessary to render the plant food available and assist in nitrification. For all plants, except legumes, nitrogen must be supplied in the form of a nitrate or nitrite in order that it may be available as plant food. Legumes have the power of using free nitrogen from the air when certain bacteria are present on the roots of these plants. For many years nitrification was thought to be a chemical process only. Recent investigations have proven that it is the work of a nitric ferment or germ. These germs feed upon the organic matter or humus, producing the ammonia as a waste product. The ammonia is converted into a nitrous state by nitrous acid germs; nitre germs in turn act upon the nitrous acid, eliminating nitric acid as waste. This nitric acid displaces any bases which may be held in the soil in combination with carbonic or other weak acids, forming nitrate of lime, magnesia, potash, or soda, according to which element is present. Moisture and aeration is necessary to this process and since is one of the most essential elements of plant food and since tillage aerates the soil and assists also in rendering other plant food available as well as assisting materially in storing soil moisture, tillage becomes a very important subject in wheat culture. This brings up the question of summer fallowing. Summer fallowing or summer culture is practiced for the purpose of storing soil moisture and to render a large amount of plant food available to the crop which is to follow. This method is usually satisfactory in regions of very light rainfall. Where the precipitation is heavy and where strong winds prevail, summer fallowing may exhaust the soil more than continuous systematic cropping, because of the washing and leaching of available plant food out of the soil or the blowing away of the finely pulverized surface soil. In most parts of the state, plowing immediately after harvest is best if the field is to be put to wheat the succeeding fall. If the plowing can not be done early disking the field is very profitable. This prevents the drying out of the soil and catches and holds in the soil, any summer rains which may occur. These summer showers usually fall very fast and the water may largely run off the surface where the ground is hard and dry. In sowing wheat, as a rule, it is usually safe to sow at a date which is considered early in the locality in which it is sown. If the locality is afflicted with Hessian Fly, it is better to wait until danger from the attack of these insects is over but not so late that there will be danger of the wheat winter-killing. If the soil has been put in proper condition and a fine seed bed secured, covering the seed to a depth of an inch will give as good results as deeper seeding, except in places of extreme drought and where there is danger of winter-killing. Or, if the wheat is to be pastured and liable to be injured by having the roots broken or the plant pulled out entirely, covering the seed to a depth of three inches is about the limit and not usually advisable. It is usual to drill wheat two to two and a half inches deep. Wheat should always be drilled in rows running east and west or around a slope, in order that the rows may catch the drifting soil, if any, and the snows of the winter will lodge in the small drill furrows, protecting the crown and roots of the plant from severe weather. An east and west direction of rows will also shade the ground more effectively when the wheat is maturing. The ideal wheat drill is one which will make a small furrow, drop the seed uniformly and compact the soil around the seed but not on top. Placing the seed thus in a small furrow, puts it in moist earth where it can sprout and grow at once and where it will suffer very little from a cold freeze. Winter killing of wheat is due to a low temperature but is usually accompanied by several other conditions. Dry, open winters are very hard on wheat. The heaving of the soil caused by alternate freezing and thawing, breaks the roots of the plants and cracks the soil, allowing the cold air to come in direct contact with the roots and also allows the warmth to escape. This heaving and cracking is diminished by a firm, moist seed bed. A good seed bed will require less seed than one poorly prepared and the plants will tiller more in a moist fertile soil. The plant will adapt itself to its surrounding conditions, but some varieties tiller more than others. The time at which the seed is sown and the size and quality of the seed are important factors in determining the amount of seed to sow per acre. Three and six pecks are about the limits. The average between these is probably the best amount for the State as a whole. The question of harrowing wheat has not been definitely settled. There are conditions when wheat may be injured by harrowing. It is not usually best to harrow wheat in the fall or early spring. When the wheat has made a start in the spring so that the harrow will not tear it out by the roots, the harrow will break the crust on a dry surface and conserve considerable moisture. There is seldom a season in any part of Kansas when it is not advisable to cultivate the soil to conserve moisture. There is perhaps no time in the Western part of the state when it is not necessary to cultivate for this purpose. In the Western part of the state much more than enough rain falls than would be necessary to mature a crop if it could all be used. Much of this surplus moisture can be stored and utilized under proper methods of tillage. The following is from an article from Mr. M. A. Carleton of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: "Improvements in Wheat Culture" "The normal yearly rainfall of the Great Plains at the 100 thermometer, where wheat growing is at present practically non-existent on account of the lack of drought existing varieties, is nearly three inches greater than that of the entire semi-arid Volga region, which is one of the principal wheat regions of Russia." The soil fertility question is the most important subject of all. It is the factor which will require our attention more and more as the years go by. Only a small per cent of Kansas farmers have taken the question of soil fertility into account in the past. For nearly half a century we have been selling the fertility from the soil. With our prosperity and bountiful harvests we have almost forgotten that we are gradually but surely depleting the land. The question of maintaining soil fertility is the most important problem for the State Experiment Station to solve. If we are to adopt systems of soil improvement it must be done before the land becomes impoverished. Our systems of farming should be such that they will be permanent as well as profitable. We must understand the composition and nature of the soil, we must know what elements are required and in what amounts these elements are being taken from the soil. Then we must see that these elements are being put back into the soil. The profits from the land in the future will come from the knowledge of how to do this in the most practical and economical way. There are perhaps less than a dozen elements which are essential to the growth of plants and of these only four are liable to be deficient in soils and these become most important from an agricultural standpoint. These are nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and calcium. If there is a deficiency of either one of these the crops begin to suffer. Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air and hydrogen from the water, but these three elements do not come into consideration since the crop can secure these freely where there is light, air, and water. As usually considered, soil exhaustion is taken to mean a lack of plant food caused by continuous cropping without the return of any fertility to the soil. Soil exhaustion also includes a poor physical condition. It is for the improvement of the physical condition of the soil that crop rotation assisted by proper tillage is most valuable. The idea that crop rotation and tillage will alone maintain the fertility of the soil is erroneous. A crop rotation without manure robs the soil of plant food even more rapidly than a one-crop system. As a rule a one-crop system may deplete the soil more largely of one or two elements, while a crop rotation without the use of manure or fertilizers depletes the soil of the several elements. Yet a crop rotation is better than a one-crop system for several reasons. Crop rotation from a physical standpoint secures ventilation of the soil in the case of deep rooted crops which send long roots into the soil and furnish passage ways for air and water after the roots have decayed. The decaying roots also add humus to the soil, improving the texture and water holding capacity. From the standpoint of plant food, legumes, which add nitrogen under favorable conditions, are the only crops yet discovered which add plant food to the soil. Rotation of crops alone will not work out the problem of soil improvement, nor will good tillage maintain the fertility. Everything available from the products of the farm should, so far as possible, be returned to the soil. Many farms in the Eastern States are now in a condition where they must be replenished by the addition of plant food from outside sources. For most of the clay-loam farms of Kansas, phosphorus is probably the only chemical fertilizer which will need to be purchased and this will not need to be used for a long time to come if a proper system of crop rotation and tillage is practiced and the manure and waste products are all carefully returned again to the land. Very little data is at hand from the Kansas Station on trials with fertilizers or with fertilizers and manure compared. Work is being done along this line at present. In 1906, while in my Junior year at the College I conducted a small experiment with manure and fertilizers on small grains. As to definite results the experiment is of little value since it was begun late in the spring (April 30) and there was a dry period immediately following the application of the fertilizers. The purpose of the experiment was to determine the effect of each fertilizer alone, the amount of which would give the best result, and to compare these results with the results secured by applying mixtures of the fertilizers and barnyard manure. All the fertilizers as well as the manure were well fined and applied by hand. The manure was well rotted horse and cow manure mixed, taken from the center and bottom of the usual manure pile in an alley back of a neighboring barn. The following fertilizers and amounts of each were used: | No. | Name of fertilizer | Where from | Amount per acre, lbs. | |-----|------------------------------------|------------|-----------------------| | 1 | Nitrate of soda | Armour | 50 & 100 | | 2 | Potash | " | 25 & 50 | | 3 | Bone meal | " | 100 & 200 | | 4 | Superphosphate | Swift | 150 & 300 | | 5 | Special grain fertilizer | " | 150 & 300 | | 6 | Dried blood | Armour | 50 & 100 | | 7 | Sulphate of iron | " | 50 & 100 | | 8 | Mixtures | | 225 & 450 | | 9 | Mixture | | 175 & 300 | | 10 | Well-rotted horse and cow manure | | 17600 & 35200 | | 11 | Untreated plot | | | The ground was dry. The wheat was of the Kharkof variety (#573) which had stooled well and had a good color. The manure was not applied until May 9, nine days after the fertilizer was | No. of plot | No. of fertilizer | Name of fertilizer | Lbs. of fer. applied per acre | Yield, grain bu. | Length of straw in. | Texture of straw | Remarks | |-------------|------------------|--------------------|-------------------------------|-----------------|---------------------|-----------------|---------| | 1 A | 1 | Nitrate of soda | 50 | 29.2 | 36 to 38 Med. | Very uniform, very green and well filled. | | 1 B | 2 | " | 100 | 32.976 | 36 C&S | Not as green as #1, but uniform. | | 2 A | 3 | Potash | 25 | 26.176 | 30 to 36 M:L | Uneven in ripening. | | 2 B | 4 | " | 50 | 33.376 | 34 to 36 S&M:C | Heads medium to large, not even. | | 3 A | 5 | Bone Meal | 100 | 31.84 | 28 to 33 Med. | Stands well, fairly uniform, med heads. | | 3 B | 6 | " | 200 | 27.2 | 28 to 34 F&M | Heads short to Med. | | 4 A | 7 | Super-Phos. | 150 | 28.288 | 29 to 35 F:M | Heads Med. to large. | | 4 B | 8 | " | 300 | 27.808 | 33 to 34 Med. | Heads Med to large, ripened even. | | 5 A | 9 | Special Grain | 150 | 28.4 | 33 to 35 Med. | Heads Med. to large, ripened even. | | 5 B | 10 | " | 300 | 31.488 | 32 to 34 M:F | Heads med. to large, ripened even. | | 6 A | 11 | Dried Blood | 50 | 28.928 | 36 to 30 C:F | Fairly even in ripening. | | 6 B | 12 | " | 100 | 28.8 | 35 to 30 | Heads Med. Ripened uneven. | | 7 A | 13 | Sulphate of Fe. | 50 | 28.608 | 33 Fine | Heads Med. to long, ripened uniformly. | | 7 B | 14 | " | 100 | 29.6 | 31 to 32 Fine | Heads Med. Fairly uniform in ripening. | | 8 A | 15 | (1 - 2-9) | 225 | 34.128 | 32 to 35 Coarse | Short, Med. heads, fairly uniform in ripening. | | 8 B | 16 | (2 - 1-9) | 450 | 35.448 | 32 to 34 Med.F. | Med. uneven, fairly uniform in ripening. | | 9 A | 17 | (4 - 6-9) | 175 | 34.24 | 34 to 36 Coarse Med. to long. | Fairly uniform in ripening. | | Plot | Date | Description | Yield | Weight | Range | Texture | Remarks | |------|------|----------------------|-------|--------|--------|---------|----------------------------------------------| | 9 B | 18 | (6 - 2-9) | 350 | 35.568 | 31 to 33 | Fine | Uneven. Heads fairly uniform in ripening. | | 9 B | 18 | (4 - 6-9) | 350 | 35.568 | 31 to 33 | Fine | Heads fairly uniform in ripening. | | | | (2 - 1-9) | | | | | | | 10 A | 19 | Well-rotted manure | 17600 | 30.176 | 33 to 36 | Fine | Med. to long. Fairly uniform in ripening. | | 10 B | 20 | Well-rotted manure | 35200 | 32.256 | 30 to 34 | Med. | Med. to long. Fairly uniform in ripening. | | 11 A | 21 | Untreated | ------| 29.600 | 34 | Fine | Med. & Uniform. Riper than some others. | | 11 B | 22 | Untreated | ------| 28.400 | 28 to 31 | Fine | Med. to short. Ripened early. appears poorest. | C&S = Coarse & still. M:L = Medium to long. S&M:C = Still & Med. to coarse. F&M = Fine & Med. F:M = Fine to Med. C:F = Coarse of fine. Note.--The general remarks are only for small plots and would vary considerably for a large area. put on. The wheat was then eight to ten inches high; too late for practical application of manure. Two small showers fell between this time and harvest but the rain came too late to get good results from the fertilizer and manure. The wheat began to head out on June 1, at which time the plots treated with mixtures nitrate of soda, manure and the fertilizer (#8 & #9) showed up greener with a ranker growth than the others. On June 21 the wheat was harvested and placed in the shock. Owing to other duties the grain could not be threshed until August 4. The results were determined as follows: (Insert table I.) The average yield for the untreated plots was 29 bushels per acre while the yield of the other plots varied from the lowest yield of 26.2 bushels in plot 3 to the highest yield of 35.6 bushels in plot 18. I cannot account for the low yields of some of the fertilized plots unless the soil was poorer or that the fertilizers had a detrimental effect on the growing wheat. It will be noticed, however, that the plots treated with combinations of fertilizers and with the manures gave very favorable results considering the time and conditions under which the experiment was made. These crops were doubtless able to use but a small per cent of the plant food in the fertilizers and especially in the manures. The manure acted partly as a mulch and thus perhaps made up, slightly, for the shorter length of time in which the plants might assimilate plant food from it. The data at hand was insufficient to determine the cost of applying the fertilizers and manure. However, if the work had been properly in due season, very satisfactory results should have been secured. No nitrogen, perhaps, should ever be purchased for a Kansas farm but this element should be obtained by the use of legumes in the rotation. No waste material on the farm should ever be burned except when severely infested with insects. Everything should be returned to the soil whence it came, thereby saving a large amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. All manure should be carefully saved and hauled out on the land before it has been permitted to leach away as is too often the case. Phosphorous can be most economically obtained in the form of ground phosphate rock. It must be remembered, however, that the phosphate must come in contact with decaying organic matter before it will become available as plant food. The most satisfactory method is to sprinkle it through the manure which is to be applied to the land and then both spread on the field at the same time. About 200# per acre is a fair application of rock phosphate. A good grade will cost ten or eleven dollars per ton, in Kansas. "It is as rich as steamed bone meat, twice as rich as acid phosphate, and four times as rich in phosphorous as ordinary complete commercial fertilizers costing twenty dollars per ton. It has been the common history of all old and thickly populated countries that the soil has become depleted and many areas have been abandoned. Soil depletion is taking place more rapidly in many parts of the United States than it has in any other country. in the history of the earth. The time to begin maintaining soil fertility is now. Soils which have been run down for a century cannot be built up again without great labor and expense. A practical working rotation for the average Kansas farm should be governed by the following schedule which may be applied in varying proportions: 1. Grasses and alfalfa. 2. Pasture or meadow and manure before breaking. 3. Cultivated crops and annual legumes, such as cowpeas, soybeans, vetch, and field peas. 4. Grain crops. In growing cover crops and in green manuring, care should be taken that the crop is not allowed to make a heavy growth before plowing under, especially if the ground is to be seeded soon after. When a large growth is plowed under in this manner the soil will become hard and dry. The capillary connection from below will be cut off, and unless an abundant amount of rain follows immediately, the decay will be slow and the plant food held from the crop to which the ground has been seeded. Wheat pasture on a Kansas farm is an important item. If the total value received from this source were computed it would aggregate a very large sum. Close grazing late in the spring and tramping in wet weather are very detrimental to the yield of wheat, and also to the soil. With moderate grazing, however, it becomes a question of greatest need and how much will it pay to pasture. Where wheat makes a heavy growth in the fall it is usually advisable to pasture and in most cases a moderate loss in yield and quality will be repaid by the pasture received. The loss from rust and especially from smut during some season is enormous. Thus far the only remedy found for rust is selecting and breeding rust proof varieties. There are several treatments for smut on wheat. Perhaps the most effective remedy now used is the formaldehyde treatment for dipping the seed or sprinkling it with a proportion of 1 lb. : 40% of formalin in fifty gallons of water. The seed must become thoroughly wet with the mixture and should first be washed or passed through water to remove the loose spores. Bins, drills and sacks should be disinfected with the same substance also. There will probably always be insect enemies of the wheat plant which will at times seriously injure the crop. The same insect does not remain for a long period of years as a rule. The Rocky Mountain Locust has come and gone; the Chinch Bug no longer does severe damage over a very large area. The Hessian Fly has for some time been about the only injurious insect having the field. There are local preventatives to keep these insects in check such as trapping them by an early growing or succulent crop around the wheat field for Chinch Bugs, late seeding for Hessian Fly, and burning stubble after harvest for both pests. But the only effective method of combating these insects is by a rotation of crops. The injurious insects thrive best on some one crop. When this crop is grown continuously for several years on the same field it favors the breeding of these insects. This is another argument for crop rotation. In the past wheat has practically maintained itself, or in other words, our wheat today is the product of "the survival of the fittest." It has only been during the last decade that much attention or thought had been given to the improvement and breeding of wheat. Its close fertilization has been its salvation. As man's necessity increases he will pay more attention and guard with greater care the small brown berry, the golden queen of the harvest. W. B. Gernert.
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Vegetation of Koh Lom, A small rocky island west of Koh Chang. By Dr. Johs. Schmidt. (Translation). Facing the sea, towards the west, the rock falls straight down into the water, its rim here being fringed with oysters; on the side facing Koh Chang there is a strip of sandy beach where are found heaps of coral fragments; here, on the beach, there is, however, no vegetation by reason of the harshness of the waves and the monsoon. I collected all the higher plants growing on the island. Curiously enough *Avicennia officinalis* L. is met with here, a specimen grows at the northern extremity of the island; its respiratory roots, usually tall and well developed, are here thin and shrivelled. *Terminalia katuppa*, which rarely is missing on the coasts, grows also here, on a spot a little farther up than *Avicennia*. Still farther up on the rock one sees a large-leaved *Ficus* whose roots penetrate deeply into the cracks of the rock, on the top of which there grows a specimen of the small rubiaceous tree, *Morinda citrifolia* L. Several kinds of bushes are found such as *Colubrina asiatica* (L.) Brogn., with floating fruits, and another kind, *Premna integrifolia*, with thin, fresh green leaves which had quite recently appeared, also a small tree, *Guettarda speciosa* L., conspicuous by its naked branches bearing at their extremities diminutive leaves, just unfolding. The commonest plant of the island is probably *Ipomoea glaberrima* Boj. whose woody, and often very long, stems are seen crawling over the western side of the rock. Next comes a stiff-leaved fern, *Stenochlaena palustris* (L.), which I have met with on sandy coasts elsewhere, and another crawling plant, *Merremia umbellata* Hallier, var. orientalis Hallier, with fresh-green leaves. A Cyperaceae with waxy leaves, *Mariscus albescens* Gaud., grows in the cracks of the rock where its roots form a black-brown matted mass that sucks up the water; if one tears up this matted mass it comes away without leaving any trace of mould on the rock. The last, twelfth, of the higher plants is a grass, *Lepturus repens* Br., which has root-striking offshoots issuing from a solid central portion, its leaves are very small, waxy, completely folded up and with big compressed sheaths. Crustaceous lichens grow on the strongly heated surface of this rocky island as well as a single specimen of moss. A sea-eagle has its nest on the island, besides that I did not see any other land animals except the common big red ants which were very aggressive. Major E. Seidenfaden has very kindly translated the above note from Danish. It was written many years ago by Dr. Johs. Schmidt, now Director of the Carlsberg Laboratory, Copenhagen, who in 1899-1900 visited Koh Chang during the stay of the Danish Expedition in Siam. In a period of three months Dr. Johs. Schmidt made very extensive botanical collections on the island and in the surrounding sea, obtaining 1513 species of plants of which 194 were new to science. Even at that time Dr. Schmidt showed the bent for marine work which has since made his name famous, the plankton flora of the Gulf being well represented in his collections. The note on the vegetation of Koh Lom is valuable as it gives a complete list of the higher plants of that islet and is, therefore, a record for comparison with any future investigation. Several of the plants mentioned can be recognized in the accompanying photograph. A. Kerr. Vegetation of Koh Lom in March 1900. On the left side is *Terminalia Katappa*, in young leaf. On the central part of the island is *Morinda citrifolia*. The herbaceous plants are *Stenochlaena palustris*, *Ipomea glaberrima* and *Mariscus albescens*. The white belt at high water limit consists of oysters.
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REFLECTION Plenty of cutesy Christmas imagery fills television screens and shopping malls in December: sweet baby Jesus laying calmly in a manger, surrounded by adoring parents and gentle farm animals. Peace on earth! Glad tidings for all! Jesus doesn’t paint such a calm scene in today’s Gospel. The Son of God and Son of Man came to redeem the world—and redemption is no easy feat. The same sweet baby wrapped in swaddling clothes will destroy evil and eradicate injustice in the end times. “People will die of fright in anticipation of what is coming upon the world,” Jesus warns (Luke 21:26). We may not know exactly how or when our final redemption will come, but Jesus’ advice is very clear: be ready. Advent is a season of preparation for Christ and his arrival at the end of time. While the warm and fuzzy has a place in our seasonal celebrations, Jesus wants to ensure that we understand the seriousness of his mission to save humankind, and our call to help along the way. We can better the world one small action at a time: help an elderly neighbor, feed a hungry child, smile at the stranger passing by. We are called to wake up to the needs of those around us and attend to them to be ready for Christ. ACTION This week’s Gospel is filled with mighty images. Sketch out the scene Jesus describes: the sun, moon, stars, and earth in dismay; the roaring of the sea and the waves; the Son of Man coming in a cloud. Or maybe create an original song or poem about the images we read about in today’s Gospel. Putting down on paper some idea of what the end times could look like is one way of preparing your heart and imagination. How is the end of time depicted in popular songs or movies? Watch or listen to some of them this week and compare them to today’s Gospel reading. QUESTIONS - What do today’s readings teach you about the Christian life? - How do you imagine yourself experiencing the coming of the kingdom? - What is one way you can prepare your community for Christ’s coming? The Season Of all the seasons of the liturgical year, Advent is the one many Catholics misunderstand. Not only that, but the spirit of Advent is difficult to maintain with all of the references to “the Christmas season” in advertisements, television and radio programming, social gatherings, school assemblies, and family preparations. Yet the season of Advent is necessary if we are to celebrate Christmas well and if we are to live our lives well. Advent’s dual focus is likely the cause of some of the misperception about the season among many in our pews. At the beginning of the season, we focus on the end of all time, and the eventuality of our death and judgment. This is important. It is an annual checkup on our recognition that our actions have bearing on the way we will be judged by Christ, upon our death, and the way humanity will be judged at the end of time. Alongside this focus of repentance, Advent also is a time of joyful expectation. We await the end of time with joyful hope because we trust in God’s promise of eternal life and look forward to the second coming of Christ. We also prepare our hearts to joyfully receive Christ in the mystery of the incarnation, through which God showed the world his immeasurable love and mercy by sending his only Son to us for our salvation. We must be unapologetic in our insistence on observing the season when we are in our parish settings, and provide as much catechesis as possible through word and witness, color, ritual, and prayer. Send the young people home with the sounds and sights of Advent in their minds and hearts, so that the season may lead all of us to wait, prepare, and hope in the saving love of Jesus Christ. Celebrating Advent with Teens Many teens appreciate the rhythm of the transitions to Advent and then to Christmas, particularly if they mark these seasons at home through special prayer and traditions. Teens may be uncomfortable with the early Advent focus on the end of time, especially if they have recently experienced the death of a loved one. They likely already know that Advent is about waiting, anticipation, and preparation. Invite your teens to keep this brief yet spiritually rich season well and ask them to share their progress as Advent unfolds. Focusing on Advent during Advent allows for a richer appreciation of the mystery of the incarnation that we will celebrate during Christmas Time. Preparing the Liturgical Environment Use Advent violet to help set the tone for your gatherings with the teens during this season. The liturgical environment for Advent will be in stark contrast to the Christmas decorations that can overwhelm us in the weeks leading up to Christmas. A few bare branches or images of Isaiah, John the Baptist, and Mary might be included in your Advent environment, along with an Advent wreath. Leave a Bible open to the Gospel for the current Sunday. November 28, 2021 FIRST SUNDAY OF ADVENT LECTIONARY #3C Jeremiah 33:14–16 Psalm 25:4–5, 8–9, 10, 14 1 Thessalonians 3:12 – 4:2 Luke 21:25–28, 34–36 Prepare for the Word The following elements may be used by the catechist, teacher, or youth minister to prepare to facilitate today’s session with teens. You may integrate this information into the reflection and discussion on today’s readings. Leader’s Context Advent is a time of waiting and of preparation. In today’s Gospel reading, Jesus invites us to consider the preparation we take on a daily basis as we wait for his second coming at the end of time. Jesus doesn’t want for us to only halfheartedly anticipate him—he wants for us to always be ready to greet him at any time. Being ready for Jesus isn’t an accident or a coincidence, it is a purposeful set of actions and way of living on our part. Today we reflect on how we can cultivate a life that centers on preparing all things for Jesus and how our actions will affect the world around us. Q FOCUS: Always be prepared for Jesus. Liturgical Calendar Connection Advent is the liturgical season designed to prepare the faithful for Christmas. During this season we always have four Sundays, though the number of the days in the season varies based on the day of the week on which Christmas falls. Advent can be longer if Christmas falls on a Friday, and shorter if it falls on a Monday. During Advent our liturgical colors match the candles being lit—in order the weeks are as follows: violet, violet, rose, violet. There are two important Marian feasts that occur later during Advent, the Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe. We celebrate many other saints who joyfully waited for the Lord and expressed that hope in their actions. Church Teaching Connection When we think about the end of time and standing before Christ at the final judgment, we come to realize how our actions toward one another matter in an absolute sense. We are called to holiness, and holiness can be identified by its fruits. We must imitate Christ and place ourselves firmly in a place of loving God and loving our neighbors. The word judgment is an intimidating one, but it is one that is clearly intended to help us understand the importance of our lives here on earth as we prepare for eternity in heaven. What we do for one another matters (see Catechism of the Catholic Church, 678–679). Hear the Word Use this resource, a lectionary, or a Bible to proclaim the reading. The book should be held reverently or placed on a lectern. If possible, light a candle that is placed near where the Gospel will be proclaimed. Gesture for teens to stand. Gospel Acclamation Use the same musical setting that is used in your parish or at school Masses. Teens may help with music and proclaim the Gospel. Alleluia, alleluia. Gospel Luke 21:25–28, 34–36 Reader: A reading from the holy Gospel according to Luke. All: Glory to you, O Lord. All make the sign of the cross on their forehead, lips, and heart. Jesus said to his disciples: “There will be signs in the sun, the moon, and the stars, and on earth nations will be in dismay, perplexed by the roaring of the sea and the waves. People will die of fright in anticipation of what is coming upon the world, for the powers of the heavens will be shaken. And then they will see the Son of Man coming in a cloud with power and great glory. But when these signs begin to happen, stand erect and raise your heads because your redemption is at hand.” "Beware that your hearts do not become drowsy from carousing and drunkenness and the anxieties of daily life, and that day catch you by surprise like a trap. For that day will assault everyone who lives on the face of the earth. Be vigilant at all times and pray that you have the strength to escape the tribulations that are imminent and to stand before the Son of Man." Reader: The Gospel of the Lord. All: Praise to you, Lord Jesus Christ. Everyone may be seated. Reflect on the Word When beginning the reflection and discussion about today's readings, first refer to the handout for today. Ask teens what they learned about themselves and about Christian discipleship from performing the action for the week and journaling. Ask teens about the readings of the day: What struck them? What do they think the readings mean? How do the readings affect their own lives? Then begin the following reflection: Many families in the United States recently celebrated the Thanksgiving holiday. In the households that hosted holiday dinners, people spent a great deal of time making lists, collecting ingredients, brining turkeys, baking pies, and even prearranging the oven racks in preparation of dishes. Children may have been set to work polishing the silverware only used for holidays, and older teens may have followed instructions for setting the table for the guests expected to arrive at the home. High chairs are set up for babies, and we make space for the walkers or canes of the elderly guests. When something wonderful and exciting is going to occur, we prepare for it, and we make sure that we take care of each person in attendance. Before Thanksgiving people made themselves ready to cook and to host a meal; they do not stop by the grocery store on the afternoon of Thanksgiving day hoping a turkey might be available. Nobody purchases flour and hopes that the rolls will make themselves. ▶ How did you and your family prepare for Thanksgiving? ▶ How do you prepare for important events in general? During Advent, we prepare ourselves for Jesus. Every week we prepare ourselves to meet Jesus in the Eucharist, but always, and especially during Advent, we remember that we are preparing ourselves to meet Jesus in person someday. At every Mass we hear that we Christians wait in "joyful hope" for the coming of Christ our savior. We believe that Jesus came to earth and died, that he was resurrected and then returned to his Father, and that he will someday come again. It is truly wonderful that Jesus has promised to return for his people. As the ancient Jews waited for the savior to come, we wait for the savior to return to us again. ▶ When you think about Jesus' second coming at the end of time, is it something you are anticipating with hope or is it something that is unknown and somewhat intimidating? While we are encouraged to wait for that day in hope, we don't waste time while we wait! Through today's Gospel reading, Jesus calls us to have awareness of our time of waiting, and calls us to be deliberate in our preparations. Just like a Thanksgiving dinner doesn't appear fully prepared onto a table, nor can we just hope that when we meet Jesus at his second coming everything will work out okay. We are called to model our life on Jesus' life, which was an example of the love and joy of the kingdom of God. Preparation is purposeful and requires time and energy. This is true in our daily tasks as well as in our spiritual life. ▶ How do our prayers help in our preparation? How do our actions demonstrate our preparedness? ▶ How can we spend time this Advent preparing for Jesus' return? Wrapping It Up Consider these points to conclude the discussion and reflection. Integrate the thoughts and ideas that surfaced during the discussion as well as the “Church Teaching Connection” on page 72. Advent is a time of great anticipation—we recall the Jewish people’s wait for a messiah as we prepare for Christmas and await Jesus’ return. Preparation is purposeful, not accidental. Spend this season preparing yourself for the coming of the Lord. Act on the Word Preparing for the Lord We prepare for the coming of Jesus in many ways. This discussion will help the young people focus on three ways to prepare for Jesus’ coming; sacrament, prayer, and ministry. Introduce the topic to the teens and remind them that each of these three things are actions. This means that they aren’t events that happen despite of us, they happen because of our choosing to participate or initiate action. Remind the group that sacraments give grace, prayer is our communication with God, and ministry is the way we use our talents in our faith community. Then, in small groups, have the teens discuss how they will approach each of these three things as they prepare for our remembrance of Jesus’ first coming at Christmas and our daily waiting for Jesus’ second coming. The following prompts may help the guide the small group discussions. What sacraments will you receive during Advent? How can you better appreciate the grace that flows from the sacraments? How will you speak to God in prayer this Advent and how will listen to him? Discuss the different forms of prayer you might utilize during the Advent season. Lectio divina is prayer practice that helps a person grow in understanding of Scripture. The rosary is a meditative prayer that helps a person more deeply understand the life of Christ through the Virgin Mary. Spontaneous prayer helps a person express their needs and their thanks to God. What are some ministerial actions you might begin or continue during Advent? Have you considered becoming a reader, singing in the choir, or helping with hospitality as people enter the church? What other organizations in your parish can you become involved in that make the best use of your talents and interests? After the groups have finished their discussions, invite volunteers to share some of their reflections. Encourage them to think more deeply about how all of these actions prepare us for Christ’s coming. Closing Prayer Lord God, you never cease to watch over your people, and you are always alert and ready to answer us in our need. Help us to practice in our lives the art of patient waiting, so that this Advent may strengthen our hope in the Lord’s promised return. Bless this waiting world with the gift of your peace. We ask this through Christ our Lord. Amen. For Next Sunday To help teens prepare for next Sunday’s Mass, print, email, or share on a blog or social media the handout found on the next page. The JPG and PDF files are available at www.ltp.org/lwgr. Encourage teens to attend Mass with family or friends.
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Flipping Your Classroom 1. **Goals & Objectives** - Define overall goals - Establish learning objectives - Identify instructional strategies - Map out an example to see alignment 2. **Pre-Class Content** - Select materials students should familiarize themselves with prior to class. 3. **Pre-Class Activities** - Determine activities that will engage & motivate students, prior to class. 4. **In-Class Activities** - Identify activities where students will develop deeper understanding & practice application of the content. 5. **Post-Class Activities** - Develop activities to reinforce & promote continuous learning, support reflection, & bridge to next topic. 6. **Evaluation & Assessment** - Establish ways to continuously assess students' understanding of the content at each step. Evaluate the effectiveness of the flipped classroom. Sample Learning Objectives Aligned to LASSI **Time Management (LASSI)** Design an effective time management system over a two-week period, which allows you to balance personal, school and professional demands. **Selecting Main Ideas (LASSI)** Construct the big picture by distinguishing main concepts and ideas for at least 1 lecture. **Information Processing (LASSI)** Apply appropriate techniques to organize information into a meaningful way, so that you can see the relationships and integrate the content. **Self-Testing (LASSI)** Evaluate at least 1 self-testing technique and demonstrate the skill by participating in 1 class session. **Using Academic Resources (LASSI)** Identify when seeking help is needed and evaluate effectiveness of utilized service(s) or resource(s). **Concentration (LASSI)** Apply strategies for directing attention to academic tasks and eliminating interfering thoughts. **Anxiety (LASSI)** Apply techniques for recognizing and coping with anxiety. **Motivation (LASSI)** Take responsibility for academic outcomes and connect outcomes to effort and approach. **Attitude (LASSI)** Connect current activities to future goals and demonstrate a reflective practice for improvement. **Resilience and Adaptability** Demonstrate a growth mindset and persistence under difficult situations. **Teamwork** Demonstrate team-based communication and learning skills. Practice sharing and receiving information, knowledge and feedback. Sample Alignment of Goals, Objectives & Assessment **Goals** - Design an effective time management system over a two-week period, which allows you to balance personal, school and professional demands. **Objectives** - Identify the benefits of scheduling. - Prioritize a list of tasks to be more time efficient. - Utilize the principles of scheduling to organize all components of your academic and non-academic life. - Identify ways to overcome procrastination. - Create a schedule that will allow you to better organize and manage your time. **Activities** - Pre-Class - Review videos on the Study Cycle - In-Class - Identify alert & sluggish times, practice prioritizing, direct instruction on prioritization and keys to scheduling. - Post-Class - Reflection on schedule **Evaluation & Assessment** - Create an effective time management system over a two-week period. This assignment includes steps to: Assess use of time, Create & prioritize a to-do list, & Develop a schedule to balance personal & professional demands. - Formative pre-class & in-class questions. --- **Best Practices For Flipping Your Learning Strategies Course** - Consider the class size, the diverse background and experiences of students, course load students will be taking, and how can you add value? - Ensure alignment of goals, objectives, content and assessment. - Identify and develop course evaluation instruments. For example: LASSI, course evaluations, weekly self-check questions etc. - Plan strategies to gain buy-in from students. - Develop well-planned and meaningful in-class activities, which facilitate group learning. - Determine IF and HOW students should be grouped for effectiveness. - Build relationships with other faculty to ensure content is relevant. - Upload and configure course on Learning Management System ahead of time. For example: Visibility of lessons, gradebook setup etc. - Establish process for recording and tracking participation and attendance ahead of time. - Keep pre-work videos short (less than 10 minutes) and embed self-check questions for engagement and motivation. - Provide support through course email box, course orientation, monitoring students who are not tech-savvy or struggling, clear instructions for submitting technical queries and expected response times. - Monitor student questions in current term and create FAQs for future terms. - Schedule Faculty for content-specific approaches ahead of time. - Determine if licenses are needed if using LASSI or specific instruments or software. - BE FLEXIBLE & willing to adapt. Developed By: Kiku Tupper & Cherisse Mahabir-Cletus | LSAC 2021 National Conference
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EDITORIAL About cold plasma Physics and the Miracle of Easter In Physics and Chemistry, plasma is a gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized. Plasma temperature is commonly measured in Kelvins or electronvolts and is an informal measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle. In most cases the electrons are close enough to thermal equilibrium that their temperature is relatively well-defined. Because of the large difference in mass, the electrons come to thermodynamic equilibrium amongst themselves much faster than they come into equilibrium with the ions or neutral atoms. For this reason, the ‘ion temperature’ may be very different from (usually lower than) the ‘electron temperature’. Depending on their energy, temperature and ionic density, plasmas are usually classified as thermal plasmas and non-thermal plasmas or non-equilibrium plasmas [1]. Thermal plasmas have electrons and the heavy particles at the same temperature, i.e., they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Non-thermal plasmas, on the other hand, have the ions and neutrals at a much lower temperature, (normally room temperature), whereas electrons are much ‘hotter’ (typically several thousand degrees Kelvin). This is especially common in weakly ionized technological plasmas, where the ions and the reactor are often near the ambient temperature. Sterilization of food, hydrogen production, medical equipment, and contaminated civilian and military gear is just one potential major application of so-called ‘cold’ plasmas [2]. These ambient-air-temperature ionized gases could also be used as a Star Trek-like protective shield around sensitive electronics-bearing devices, such as satellites; as cloaking technology for military aircraft, as a means of absorbing radar waves in order to remain hidden on enemy screens; and as components of a new generation of miniature lasers and in advanced, low-energy-consumption fluorescent light tubes. Examples of common industrial/commercial plasma atmospheric pressure are: corona discharge (non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltage to sharp electrode tips, commonly used in ozone generators), dielectric barrier discharge (DBD - non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltages across small gaps wherein a non-conducting coating prevents the transition of the plasma discharge into an arc and is used to functionalize the surface of synthetic fabrics and plastics allowing for paints, glues and similar materials to adhere), glow discharge, microwave plasma and gliding arc discharge (Figure 1) [3]. After this short introduction in the Physics of cold plasma let’s come now to the main point of our editorial – the light of the Easter. The miracle of the Holy Light of Jerusalem is a recurring miracle, happening each year with clock work precision on the Saturday preceding Easter Sunday, in the Holy Church of the Resurrection in Jerusalem, to the delight of a large congregation of Christians of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Holy Light symbolizes and recalls in a miraculous manner the Resurrection of Christ and “therefore the Son of man is Lord also of the Sabbath” (Mark 2.28). The ceremony surrounding the miracle of the Holy Fire may be the oldest unbroken Christian ceremony in the world. The first written accounts of the Holy Fire date from the fourth century, but authors write about events that occurred in the first two centuries. So saints John Damascene and Gregory of Nissa narrate how the Apostle Peter saw the Holy Light in the Holy Sepulchre after Christ’s resurrection while Eusebius of Caesarea describes how occurred the miracle in the presence of patriarch Narcissus (II century) [Ecclesiastical History, Book 6, Chapter 9, 1-3]. From the fourth century all the way up to our own time, sources recall this awe-inspiring event. From these sources it becomes clear that the miracle has been celebrated on the same spot, on the same feast day, and in the same liturgical frame throughout all these centuries [4]. The substance of the miracle is the appearance of a supernatural fire in a crypt, thoroughly searched and secured beforehand to exclude any source of fire. The miracle takes place in the Hands of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch, who is ceremoniously searched before entering the crypt. These searches are witnessed by representatives of other creeds, especially of the Armenian Church, who also have certain traditional rights in the specific Church, as well as representatives of local authorities, and the police superintendent of Jerusalem. The patriarch retires inside the crypt and prays and then appears with the miraculous light, to the ecstasy of the attending crowd. At the same time, fire was mentioned to appear lighting the olive oil lamps and/or candles in and out of the Church spontaneously. Blue-white lightning is reported to sometimes appear and travel through the air. In fact all in the church wait with candles in the hope that they may ignite spontaneously. The miraculous fire lighting the patriarchs’ candle has been reported to be different from normal fire, in that a hand placed in the flame is not burned (at least only for the first minutes after the miracle). A limited, gymnasium-like science, explanation of the phenomenon points in the direction of use of some self-igniting material that ignites spontaneously when in contact with the air. A proposed candidate for such use is white phosphorus. If phosphorus is dissolved in an appropriate organic solvent, self-ignition is delayed, until the solvent has almost completely evaporated. Experiments showed that the ignition can be delayed for half an hour or more, depending on density of the solution and the solvent employed. However, this will never be able to explain the lighting of the candles bought from different stores and more important – the presence of the blue-white lightning. My experience as researcher/author/reviewer in Plasma Physics and Chemistry is suggesting in fact a cold plasma phenomenon that gradually turns into a hot plasma. This seems to be in accord with the declaration made by His Beatitude Diodorus I, a former patriarch of Jerusalem: “From the core of the very stone on which Jesus lay, an indefinable light pours forth. It usually has a blue tint, but the colour may change and take on many different hues. It cannot be described in human terms. The light rises out of the stone as mist may rise out of a lake - it almost looks as if the stone is covered by a moist cloud, but it is light. At a certain point the light rises and forms a column in which the fire is of a different nature, so that I am able to light my candles from it.” [4] Even in this case some unsolved problems remain. Why only the candles and the lamps are ignited and not the clothes or the hair of those from the audience? And where is the generator? And how large should it be? One must notice that is easy to make cold technological plasmas at low pressures, like the near-vacuum of space, but it’s much harder to initiate and maintain them at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. In this context we make one more remark, a similar cold plasma phenomenon, but in open space and having a much larger volume is reported to be formed each year on Mount Tabor during the night liturgy on the Transfiguration day. A change from the rule occurred in the year 1579, under Sultan Mourad IV, when the Patriarch of Jerusalem was Sophrony IV. That year the Armenians (monophysites) paid the Turks, who then occupied the Holy Land, in order to obtain permission for their Patriarch to celebrate the ceremony in the Holy Sepulchre. The Orthodox Patriarch was standing sorrowfully with his flock at the exit of the church when the Holy Light split near the left column vertically and flashed near the Orthodox Patriarch. The above mentioned split column still exists. The Orthodox pilgrims embrace it at the ‘place of the split’ as they enter the church. In order to better understand this event from the scientific point of view, we must return to the Physics. The split column is made from limestone, an insulating material where the main component is calcium carbonate. The atoms in insulating materials have very tightly-bound electrons, being non-conductors for the electric current. However, insulators cannot resist indefinite amounts of voltage. With enough voltage applied, any insulating material will eventually succumb to the electrical ‘pressure’ and electron flow will occur. However, the current through an insulator is quite nonlinear: for voltages below a certain threshold level, virtually no electrons will flow, but if the voltage exceeds that threshold, there will be a rush of current. Once current is forced through an insulating material, breakdown of that material’s molecular structure has occurred. After breakdown, the material may or may not behave as an insulator any more, the molecular structure having been altered by the breach. There is usually a localized ‘puncture’ of the insulating medium where the electrons flowed during breakdown. Thickness of an insulating material plays a role in determining its breakdown voltage, otherwise known as dielectric strength. Specific dielectric strength is sometimes listed in terms of kilovolts per meter. Considering that in the above mentioned case it was also a plasma phenomenon due to an electric discharge through an insulating material one can determine the applied voltage. Taking into account the dimensions of the split, which I personally measured on site, and the dielectric constant of calcium carbonate, we can determine a value for the voltage of at least several hundreds of kilovolts which tend to exceed the highest values used for the production of cold plasmas [5]. However, at the time being the Physics was not developed enough in order to produce at least a theory, what to say about the equipment, necessary to perform such a spectacular event. And we still have the unexplained igniting effect, even by the today science, on the patriarch’s candle and not on other combustible materials from the zone. This year, Orthodox Easter coincided with observances by other Christian denominations, while the Jewish Pesach was celebrated on Tuesday – the Holly Week. This brought a large number of pilgrims to the narrow alleys of Jerusalem’s Old City heavily secured by Israeli forces. Police spokesman Shmuel Ben-Ruby estimated that between 8,000 and 10,000 worshippers packed the church on Saturday and about 7,000 more spilled over into its cobbled courtyard [6]. Video screens set up in various places in the Old City broadcast the ceremony live for the thousands more who could not fit inside. In this context, this year, I had the unique chance to be among those who spent the Easter Week in Jerusalem and assisted from the balcony of the Resurrection Church to the Holy Fire ceremony. And if we are discussing here about Science and Theology, I was impressed by the ‘science of communication’ among the pilgrims participating to the ceremonies of the Holly Week. We saw, for example, questions asked in Spanish and answered in Greek with few or even no English words in the sentence and the understanding was total! And the example was defining for the state of spirit of the Holly Week. In fact, I had to expect this, because Jerusalem is the entire world in a city as King David says in his Psalms: “I was glad when they said unto me, Let us go into the house of the Lord. Our feet shall stand within thy gates, O Jerusalem. Jerusalem is builded as a city that is compact together: Whither the tribes go up, the tribes of the Lord, unto the testimony of Israel, to give thanks unto the name of the Lord.” (Psalm 122.1-4) If we remembered about the house of the Lord, I want to mention here the exquisite human quality of the priests and monks which are working and praying at the Holly Places in Jerusalem. I put on the same line the director Abu-El-Walid Dajani – a wise man, with the entire personal of the New Imperial Hotel from the Jaffa gate of Jerusalem, which is also giving an excellent image concerning the hospitality of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to the visiting pilgrims coming sometime as far as Australia or Russia. The ‘science of communication’ was in fact working at all levels. Relevant is, I think, the joint Easter message ‘We Know the Power of God to Bring Hope Out of Despair’, proclaimed by 13 Christian leaders of Jerusalem, which was released Wednesday, 31 March, 2010 [7]. Figure 2. The Holy Fire ceremony at the Resurrection Church in Jerusalem. Also speaking about Science and Theology, I was very pleased impressed by the dialogue between the Political sciences, represented by different diplomats from Orthodox countries in Israel (Russia and Greece must be mentioned here), and Theology represented by His Most Godly Beatitude Theophilus III, *the Patriarch of the Holy City of Jerusalem and all Palestine, Syria, Arabia, beyond the Jordan River, Cana of Galilee, and Holy Zion*. I put a special remark for the Greece ambassador, who, despite all his regular duties, attended all important religious services during the Easter Week and even the night vigils! The thousands of celebrants who filled the Church were grouped into different areas of the church holding church flags, while others beat hand drums and sang hymns, and trust me, you never saw such an atmosphere, not even on the final of Champions League. Worshippers carrying torches or bundles of 33 tapers signifying the years of Jesus’ life waited in excited anticipation as the Greek Orthodox Patriarch, Theofilos III - a really ‘AXIOS’ man as the entire crowd acclaimed, removed his embossed gold-and-white mitre and descended with into the tomb, which was in the morning minutely searched by the Israeli bomb squad. I must confess that I have not seen the expected cold plasma lighting up the candles or oil lamps but the flame appeared just a few minutes after the Patriarch entered into the tomb. I was amazed by the speed with which the flame propagated from the tomb to all believers, who rushed to light their own candles and torches, illuminating the darkened church *within seconds* (Figure 2). My scientific formation also made me to notice two characteristics of the flame: a yellow very mild colour – indicating, as I expected, a lower temperature and the difficulty to extinguish it. Above all, the church bells pealed, and some of the faithful passed their hands through the flames they held, reflecting their belief in the fire’s divine and beneficial nature. Light from the Holy fire was taken afterward to the Church of the Nativity in the West Bank town of Bethlehem, where tradition holds Jesus was born, and aboard special flights to Athens and other cities, linking many of the 200 million Orthodox worldwide to their spiritual core. Maybe many don’t know but only after 1246, when Catholic Christians left Jerusalem with the defeated Crusaders, did the Miracle of the Holy Fire become a purely Orthodox ceremony as the Orthodox remained in Jerusalem even after the Turks’ occupation of Palestine [4]. Despite the fact that, as I told, the date of Orthodox Easter coincided with that of other Western Christian denominations, I left Jerusalem with the regret of not seeing at least one common ceremony during the entire Holly Week. The regret was even bitter considering that I dedicated my entire effort and work at the European Journal of Science & Theology in order to create a place where with equity and arguments, and *sine ira et studio*, one may find the ways toward peace and mutual respect. And I made this risking up to sacrifice my career and what is worst – the security and health of my family. My considerations on cold plasma Physics could bring just an idea on the possible mechanism of the Holly Fire appearance but a miracle remains a miracle and the Holly Land, with Jerusalem by excellence, is the most appropriate place for them. Because, and here I paraphrase from the speech of Professor Daniel Hershkovitz – the Israel Minister of Science and Technology at the Opening ceremony of the 55th Israel Physical Society Conference [8], if this is not the land of miracles then where else, and if this is not the time of miracles then when? Dr. Iulian Rusu References [1] J.M. Cormier and I. Rusu, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 34 (2001) 2798. [2] I. Rusu and J.M. Cormier, Chem. Eng. J., 91 (2003) 23. [3] I. Rusu, Environ. Eng. Manage. J., 6(3) (2007) 211. [4] N.C. Hvidt, Mirakler – Møder mellem Himmel og Jord, Gyldendal, Copenhagen, 2002, 203. [5] E. Hnatiuc, J.-L. Brisset, B. Hnatiuc, R. Burlica and I. Rusu, New trends in plasma sources, plasma reactor engineering and applications of non-thermal plasmachemical reactors, Proc. of XVth Symposium on Physics of Switching Arc, vol. II, University of Technology, Brno, 2003, 297a-297j. [6] ****, Holy Fire Draws Orthodox Christians to Holy Land, CBS News World, April 3, 2010, available at http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/04/03/world/main6360438.shtml. [7] Theophilos III - Greek Orthodox Patriarch, Fouad Twal - Latin Patriarch, Torkom I Manoogian - Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Patriarch, Pierbattista Pizzaballa - Custos of the Holy Land, Anba Abraham - Coptic Orthodox Patriarch, Swerios Malki Murad - Syrian Orthodox Patriarch, Jules Zerey - Greek Melkite Catholic Patriarch, Abouna Matthias - Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarch, Paul Sayyah - Maronite Patriarchal Exarch, Suheil Dawani - Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem, Munib Younan - Bishop of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land, Pierre Malki - Syrian Catholic Patriarchal Exarch, Rafael Minassian - Armenian Catholic Patriarchal Exarch, Easter Message of Jerusalem Religious Leaders, Innovative Media Inc., Jerusalem, 2010, available at http://www.zenit.org/article-28824?l=english. [8] ****, Bulletin of the Israel Physical Society, 55 (2009) 1.
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2nd Grade Spotlight Second grade has been working hard over the last few months. Currently, we are learning about paleontologists and the tools they use during their expeditions. Students will create their own compelling narrative describing their own fossil discovery at the end of the unit. Students continue to learn new spelling patterns to apply in their reading and writing activities. Daily, students meet in small groups to practice those skills. In math, they have completed a unit on the study of measurement and are now using number lines to solve double digit addition and subtraction equations. Thank you for helping your student get to school every day, so they can continue to grow. January Dates January 2 - School Resumes January 12 - End of 1st Semester January 15-17 - No School January 18 - School Resumes, beginning of 2nd Semester January 23 - 5th Grade Band Concert at 6:30 in Hoyt Gym Acknowledging Students at Brubaker At Brubaker, we are Respectful, Responsible, and Safe. Students are recognized for following these expectations each day. Students can earn: - **Bark Tickets** - A daily recognition given to individual students when they are following expectations. - **Bulldog of the Month** - A monthly recognition given to one student in each class and presented at our monthly assemblies. - **Golden Awards** - A monthly recognition given to one class for following expectations. Golden Awards are given for the cafeteria and recess, and also the cleanest classroom. - **Behavior Celebration** - Each class sets a behavior goal each month. Classes who meet their goal during the month get an extra reward during our monthly celebration. - **Attendance Reward** - All classes who have an average attendance rate of 94% during the month will get an extra reward during our monthly celebration. ### December’s Golden Award Winners | Golden Jump Rope | Golden Dustpan | Golden Lunch Tray | |------------------|----------------|-------------------| | K – Oelmann | K - Woods | K - Howell | | 1 - Bennett | 1 - Allen | 1-Palminteri | | 2 - Leto | 2 - Doss | 2 - Leto | | 3 - Hopewell | 3 - Hyde | 3 - Kephart | | 4 - Moon | 4 - Scheer | 4 - Klages | | 5 – Grace | 5 - Pfannebecker| 5 - Weir | ### Attendance Goal Winners Congratulations to Mrs. Ira’s class for being Attendance H.E.R.O.s and reaching a 94% attendance rate during the month of December. They got to enjoy M&Ms during their Pajama Party on the day before break!
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Natural Hazards and Natural Disasters A natural hazard is a threat of a naturally occurring event will have a negative effect on humans. This negative effect is what we call a natural disaster. In other words when the hazardous threat actually happens and harms humans, we call the event a natural disaster. Natural Hazards (and the resulting disasters) are the result of naturally occurring processes that have operated throughout Earth's history. - Most hazardous process are also Geologic Processes. - Geologic processes effect every human on the Earth all of the time, but are most noticeable when they cause loss of life or property. If the process that poses the hazard occurs and destroys human life or property, then a natural disaster has occurred. Among the natural hazards and possible disasters to be considered are: - Earthquakes - Volcanic Eruptions - Tsunami - Landslides - Subsidence - Floods - Droughts - Hurricanes - Tornadoes - Asteroid Impacts - All of these processes have been operating throughout Earth history, but the processes have become hazardous only because they negatively affect us as human beings. **Important Point – There would be no natural disasters if it were not for humans. Without humans there are only natural events.** - Risk is characteristic of the relationship between humans and geologic processes. We all take risks everyday. The risk from natural hazards, while it cannot be eliminated, can, in some cases be understood in a such a way that we can minimize the hazard to humans, and thus minimize the risk. To do this, we need to understand something about the processes that operate, and understand the energy required for the process. Then, we can develop an action to take to minimize the risk. Such minimization of risk is called **hazard mitigation**. - Although humans can sometimes influence natural disasters (for example when poor levee design results in a flood), other disasters that are directly generated by humans, such as oil and toxic material spills, pollution, massive automobile or train wrecks, airplane crashes, and human induced explosions, are considered technological disasters, and will not be considered in this course, except when they occur as a secondary result of a natural disaster. Some of the questions we hope to answer for each possible natural disaster are: - Where is each type of hazard likely to be present and why? - What scientific principles govern the processes responsible for the disasters? - How often do these hazards develop into disasters? - How can each type of disaster be predicted and/or mitigated? As discussed before, natural disasters are produced by processes that have been operating since the Earth formed. Such processes are beneficial to us as humans because they are responsible for things that make the Earth a habitable planet for life. For example: - Throughout Earth history, volcanism has been responsible for producing much of the water present on the Earth's surface, and for producing the atmosphere. - Earthquakes are one of the processes responsible for the formation of mountain ranges which direct water to flow downhill to form rivers and lakes. - Erosional processes, including flooding, landslides, and windstorms replenishes soil and helps sustain life. *Such processes are only considered hazardous when they adversely affect humans and their activities.* **Classification of Natural Hazards and Disasters** Natural Hazards and the natural disasters that result can be divided into several different categories: - **Geologic Hazards** - These are the main subject of this course and include: - Earthquakes - Volcanic Eruptions - Tsunami - Landslides - Floods - Subsidence - Impacts with space objects - **Atmospheric Hazards** - These are also natural hazards but processes operating in the atmosphere are mainly responsible. They will also be considered in this course, and include: - Tropical Cyclones - Tornadoes - Droughts - Severe Thunderstorms - Lightning - **Other Natural Hazards** - These are hazards that may occur naturally, but don't fall into either of the categories above. They will not be considered to any great extent in this course, but include: - Insect infestations - Disease epidemics - Wildfires Natural Hazards can also be divided into **catastrophic hazards**, which have devastating consequences to huge numbers of people, or have a worldwide effect, such as impacts with large space objects, huge volcanic eruptions, world-wide disease epidemics, and world-wide droughts. Such catastrophic hazards only have a small chance of occurring, but can have devastating results if they do occur. Natural Hazards can also be divided into **rapid onset hazards**, such as Volcanic Eruptions, Earthquakes, Flash floods, Landslides, Severe Thunderstorms, Lightening, and wildfires, which develop with little warning and strike rapidly. **Slow onset hazards**, like drought, insect infestations, and disease epidemics take years to develop. **Anthropogenic Hazards** These are hazards that occur as a result of human interaction with the environment. They include **Technological Hazards**, which occur due to exposure to hazardous substances, such as radon, mercury, asbestos fibers, and coal dust. They also include other hazards that have formed only through human interaction, such as acid rain, and contamination of the atmosphere or surface waters with harmful substances, as well as the potential for human destruction of the ozone layer and potential global warming. **Effects of Hazards** Hazardous process of all types can have primary, secondary, and tertiary effects. - **Primary Effects** occur as a result of the process itself. For example water damage during a flood or collapse of buildings during an earthquake, landslide, or hurricane. - **Secondary Effects** occur only because a primary effect has caused them. For example, fires ignited as a result of earthquakes, disruption of electrical power and water service as a result of an earthquake, flood, or hurricane, or flooding caused by a landslide into a lake or river. - **Tertiary Effects** are long-term effects that are set off as a result of a primary event. These include things like loss of habitat caused by a flood, permanent changes in the position of river channel caused by flood, crop failure caused by a volcanic eruption etc. **Vulnerability to Hazards and Disasters** Vulnerability refers the way a hazard or disaster will affect human life and property. Vulnerability to a given hazard depends on: - Proximity to a possible hazardous event - Population density in the area proximal to the event - Scientific understanding of the hazard - Public education and awareness of the hazard - Existence or non-existence of early-warning systems and lines of communication - Availability and readiness of emergency infrastructure - Construction styles and building codes - Cultural factors that influence public response to warnings In general, less developed countries are more vulnerable to natural hazards than are industrialized countries because of lack of understanding, education, infrastructure, building codes, etc. Poverty also plays a role - since poverty leads to poor building structure, increased population density, and lack of communication and infrastructure. Human intervention in natural processes can also increase vulnerability by - Development and habitation of lands susceptible to hazards, For example, building on floodplains subject to floods, sea cliffs subject to landslides, coastlines subject to hurricanes and floods, or volcanic slopes subject to volcanic eruptions. - Increasing the severity or frequency of a natural disaster. For example: overgrazing or deforestation leading to more severe erosion (floods, landslides), mining groundwater leading to subsidence, construction of roads on unstable slopes leading to landslides, or even contributing to global warming, leading to more severe storms. Affluence can also play a role, since affluence often controls where habitation takes place, for example along coastlines, or on volcanic slopes. Affluence also likely contributes to global warming, since it is the affluent societies that burn the most fossil fuels adding CO$_2$ to the atmosphere. **Assessing Hazards and Risk** Hazard Assessment and Risk Assessment are 2 different concepts! **Hazard Assessment** consists of determining the following - when and where hazardous processes have occurred in the past. - the severity of the physical effects of past hazardous processes (magnitude). - the frequency of occurrence of hazardous processes. - the likely effects of a process of a given magnitude if it were to occur now. - and, making all this information available in a form useful to planners and public officials responsible for making decisions in event of a disaster. **Risk Assessment** involves not only the assessment of hazards from a scientific point of view, but also the socio-economic impacts of a hazardous event. Risk is a statement of probability that an event will cause x amount of damage, or a statement of the economic impact in monetary terms that an event will cause. Risk assessment involves - hazard assessment, as above, - location of buildings, highways, and other infrastructure in the areas subject to hazards - potential exposure to the physical effects of a hazardous situation - the vulnerability of the community when subjected to the physical effects of the event. Risk assessment aids decision makers and scientists to compare and evaluate potential hazards, set priorities on what kinds of mitigation are possible, and set priorities on where to focus resources and further study. Prediction and Warning Risk and vulnerability can sometimes be reduced if there is an adequate means of predicting a hazardous event. Prediction Prediction involves: - A statement of probability that an event will occur based on scientific observation - Such observation usually involves monitoring of the process in order to identify some kind of **precursor event(s)** - an anomalous small physical change that may be known to lead to a more devastating event. - Examples: - Hurricanes are known to pass through several stages of development: tropical depression - tropical storm - hurricane. Once a tropical depression is identified, monitoring allows meteorologists to predict how long the development will take and the eventual path of the storm. - Volcanic eruptions are usually preceded by a sudden increase in the number of earthquakes immediately below the volcano and changes in the chemical composition of the gases emitted from a volcanic vent. If these are closely monitored, volcanic eruptions can be often be predicted with reasonable accuracy. Forecasting Sometimes the word "forecast" is used synonymously with prediction and other times it is not. - In the prediction of floods, hurricanes, and other weather related phenomena the word forecast refers to short-term prediction in terms of the magnitude, location, date, and time of an event. Most of us are familiar with weather forecasts. - In the prediction of earthquakes, the word forecast is used in a much less precise way - referring to a long-term probability that is not specific in terms of the exact time that the event will occur. For example: Prior to the October 17 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake (also know as the World Series Earthquake) the U.S. Geological Survey had forecast a 50% probability that a large earthquake would occur in this area within the next 30 years. Even after the event, the current forecast is for a 63% probability that a major earthquake will occur in this area in the next 30 years. Early Warning A warning is a statement that a high probability of a hazardous event will occur, based on a prediction or forecast. If a warning is issued, it should be taken as a statement that "normal routines of life should be altered to deal with the danger imposed by the imminent event". The effectiveness of a warning depends on: - The timeliness of the warning Effective communications and public information systems to inform the public of the imminent danger. The credibility of the sources from which the warning came. If warnings are issued too late, or if there is no means of disseminating the information, then there will not be time enough or responsiveness to the warning. If warnings are issued irresponsibly without credible data or sources, then they will likely be ignored. Thus, the people responsible for taking action in the event of a potential disaster will not respond. **Frequency of Natural Disasters** Again, it is important to understand that natural disasters result from natural processes that affect humans adversely. **First - Size Matters** For example: - Humans coexist with rivers all the time and benefit from them as a source of water and transportation. Only when the volume of water in the river becomes greater than the capacity of the stream channel is there a resulting disaster. - Small earthquakes occur all of the time with no adverse effects. Only large earthquakes cause disasters. **Second – Location, location, location** For example: - A volcanic on an isolated uninhabited island will not result in a natural disaster. - A large earthquake in an unpopulated area will not result in a disaster. - A hurricane that makes landfall on a coast where few people live, will not result in a disaster. So, what we have to worry about is large events that strike areas where humans live. Thus, in natural hazards studies, it is important to understand the relationship between frequency of an event and the size of the event. Size is often referred to a *magnitude*. For just about any event, statistical analysis will reveal that larger events occur less frequently than small events. Statistical analysis of some types of events for specific locations allow one to determine the *return period* or *recurrence interval*. Examples: **Flood Frequency -** For any river, high discharge events are rare. Large discharge events occur much less frequently than small discharge events. **Meteorite Impacts -** Although we as humans have not had the opportunity (fortunately) of observing large asteroid or meteorite impacts, the data suggest that impacts of large asteroids (1 km or larger) occurs only once every 10 million years. Earthquakes - As we have just noted, large earthquakes occur much less frequently than smaller earthquakes. Those with magnitudes greater than 8.5 only occur once every 3 years on the average (see Table 3.3 in your text or https://www.iris.edu/gallery3/general/posters/exploring_earth/EarthquakeFrequency) Is the Frequency of Natural Disasters Increasing? Are natural disasters becoming more frequent as it seems from news reports of recent activity? The short answer appears to be that yes, natural disasters are increasing in frequency (see https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trends_in_natural_disasters.jpg). But, this suggests some other important questions before we start making conclusions about the end of the world: 1. Is the frequency of hazardous events increasing? 2. Why is the frequency of natural disasters increasing (what could explain the trend)? First, is the frequency of hazardous events increasing? This is much more difficult to answer since natural events responsible for natural disasters have been occurring throughout the 4.5 billion year history of the Earth. Nevertheless, there is no evidence to suggest that hazardous events are occurring more frequently. What about global warming? There is evidence to suggest that weather related disasters are becoming more frequent, compared to other disasters like earthquakes. For example, the frequency of disasters from tropical cyclones and floods has been increasing, the frequency of earthquakes has changed little. Although this is what we expect from global warming, there is not yet enough statistical data to prove this right now. Second, is there another explanation for the frequency of natural disasters increasing? First consider the following facts: Human population has been increasing at an exponential rate. With more people, vulnerability increases because there are more people to be affected by otherwise natural events. Human population is moving toward coastal areas (see http://www.livescience.com/4167-flocking-coast-world-population-migrating-danger.html). These are areas most vulnerable to natural hazards such as tropical cyclones, tsunami, and, to some extent, earthquakes. Our ability to communicate news of natural disasters has been increasing, especially since the invention of the internet. Earlier in human history there may have been just as many disasters, but there were few ways the news of such disasters could be communicated throughout the world. Meanwhile: Deaths from natural disasters has decreased in developed countries and increased in developing countries. What could explain this? Politics? Economics? Cultural Differences? Education? The cost of natural disasters has been increasing in developed countries. What could explain This Course This course is **not** about the political, cultural, or economic aspects of natural disasters. It is about the **science of natural disasters** and how can use our knowledge of the scientific aspects of disasters to reduce the death and destruction caused by otherwise natural events. Textbook Theme The textbook selected for this course uses 5 fundamental concepts in the study of natural hazards and disasters: 1. Science helps us predict hazards 2. Knowing hazard risk can help people make decisions 3. Linkages exist between natural hazards 4. Humans can turn disastrous events into catastrophes 5. Consequences of hazards can be minimized We will discuss each of these concepts for each of the hazards we study. Examples of questions on this material that could be asked on an exam 1. Define and give examples of each of the following types of hazard (a) geologic hazard, (b) atmospheric hazard, (c) catastrophic hazard, (d) rapid onset hazard, (e) anthropogenic hazard (f) slow onset hazard, . 2. Explain how poverty and affluence can play a role in increasing vulnerability to natural hazards. 3. What is the difference between hazard assessment and risk assessment? 4. What factors determine the effectiveness of warning systems? 5. Explain the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary effects of possible hazards. 6. What is the relationship between size of natural events, disasters, and frequency of disasters? What is the concept of recurrence interval? 7. What might be responsible for the apparent increase in recent years of the number of natural disasters and the economic losses due to natural disasters? References Return to EENS 3050 Homepage
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“THE Fossil for Oregon” by Guy DiTorrice Oregon Coast Agate Club Metasequoia Imagine doing research about fossils in your state and discovering that yours was the only one in the NW Federation without an official “State Fossil”. Pretty sad, especially since one of the towns in the state of Oregon is named FOSSIL! For Federation information, the other western states and their official fossils include: Alaska: *Mammuthus primigenius* – woolly mammoth California: *Smilodon californicus* – saber-toothed cat Colorado: *Stegosaurus stenops* – dinosaur Idaho: *Equus simplicidens* – horse Montana: *Maiasaura* – dinosaur Nevada: *Shonisaurus popularis* – ichthyosaur North Dakota: *Teredo* – petrified wood South Dakota: *Triceratops* – dinosaur Utah: *Allosaurus* – dinosaur Washington: *Mammuthus columbi* – woolly mammoth Wyoming: *Knightia* – fish Something had to be done about getting Oregon its own State Fossil, and it was up to a couple of fossil nuts to make it happen. So, long-time collector Guy DiTorrice of Newport (also known as “Oregon Fossil Guy”) and his youthful sidekick McKenzie Smith of Tigard (now billed as “Oregon Fossil Teen”) took on the job. The first thing to consider is what fossil found in Oregon should be given the official designation? Oregon had yet to snag a solid specimen of any ice-age critters (so rule out sabre-tooth), dinosaur rock had yet to expose itself (though that changed in the last few years) and the plant choices just weren’t sexy enough (*Teredo* is a larval-bored petrified wood). A plant fossil started making the most sense, especially since the state’s tourism division is always promoting how Oregon is “green”. The more interesting problem was trying to pick a plant with some sort of uniqueness that might also excite legislators in the State Capitol. Of the many fossil plants in Oregon, the best known are from the Miocene epoch, 25 to five million years ago. *Metasequoia* was THE characteristic tree making up a good portion of the flora in prehistoric Central Oregon, according to State Paleontologist Dr. William Orr and co-author of *PLANT & ANIMAL FOSSILS OF OREGON* and *OREGON FOSSILS*. He also cites the distinctive feature of *Metasequoia* with its characteristic “oppostinence” - branches, needles and cone scales are opposite each other in two symmetrical rows. Split the tree down the middle and you have a mirror image of both sides. The tree is also one which sheds its needles annually as its leafed cousins do, making it very unique among cone-bearing trees. *Metasequoia* became extinct in Oregon some five million years ago, but was brought back to the U.S. in the 1940s after it was discovered in China during WWII. It is often marketed through nurseries as *Metasequoia glyptostroboides*. Live specimens may be found on most Oregon university campuses (e.g. Portland State, UO, OSU, etc) as well as being used as roadside landscaping in Gresham. The designation of *Metasequoia* as Oregon’s State Fossil provided a special species for consideration as few states consider plants for their official fossil. The designation recognizes Oregon’s timber-rich heritage with an ancient plant that is also a true “living fossil”. Starting in 2003 with draft legislation, the duo approached countless elected officials who managed to make many promises, but managed to drop the ball and failed to introduce the measure prior to a hard-dead submission deadline. But, these two bone-bugs did not give up. Continued on page 6 NORTHWEST FEDERATION EXEC. OFFICERS 2008-2009 PRESIDENT: Paul Hessecker, Clackamette Gem & Mineral Corp., 4145 NW Henssler Rd., Forest Grove OR, 97116, (503) 357-8804, email@example.com 1st VICE PRESIDENT: Evelyn Cataldo, Lakeside Gem & Mineral Club, 99309 Branson Dr., Kennewick, WA 99336, (509) 628-0100, firstname.lastname@example.org 2nd Vice President: Fritz Mack, 10619 Holly Dr., Everett, WA 98204, (206) 513-0115, email@example.com EXECUTIVE SECRETARY: Joan Day, Golden Spike Gem & Mineral Society, 1000 Highview Blvd., Brigham City, UT, 84302 (435) 723-3830, firstname.lastname@example.org TREASURER: Lyle Vogelphol, West Seattle Rock Club, 8810 37th Ave. SW, Seattle, WA 98126-3617, (206) 932-3292, email@example.com NEMS STANDING COMMITTEES BUDGET: Evelyn Cataldo, 1st Vice President (see above) BULLETIN AID: Darlene Posthuma, Eureka Rock & Gem Club, 5760 SW Riley Ln., Portland Home, ID 83647, 208 794-0976, firstname.lastname@example.org CIRCULATION: Tom Burchard, Golden Spike Gem & Mineral Society, 873 E 4500 S. Ogden, UT 84403, 801 479-4286, email@example.com CREDENTIALS: Beth Hessecker, Clackamette Gem & Mineral Corp., 4145 NW Henssler Rd., Forest Grove OR, 97116, (503) 357-8804, firstname.lastname@example.org CURATOR: Fritz Mack, 2nd Vice President (see above) AUDITORY: Director Lyle Vogelphol, West Seattle Rock Club, 8810 37th Ave. SW, Seattle, WA 98126-3617 EDUCATION: Jim & Kathy Spencer, Clackamette Mineral & Gem Society, 600 Collins Crest, Gladstone, OR 97027, 503-650-5027, email@example.com EXHIBITION: EDITOR, CHAIRMAN: Edna Nelson, Mt Hood Rock Club, 68830 Maple Crest Rd., Deer Island, OR 97054, (503) 397-5284, firstname.lastname@example.org; TREASURER: NFM'S Treasurer (see above) EXHIBITS REGISTRAR: Dee Holland, Intermountain Facets Guild, P.O. Box 23, Tenney, ID, 83448, (208) 756-2394, email@example.com FINANCIAL ADVISOR: Joe Spungin, 4841 Doctor Eldridge Dr. Washougal, WA 98671, (360) 624-7604, firstname.lastname@example.org HISTORIAN: Shirley Leeson, Intermountain Facets Guild, P.O. Box 23, Tenney, ID, 83448-0023, (619) 616-6218 or (208) 756-2394, email@example.com JUDGING DIRECTOR: Rocky McCall, Marysville Rock & Gem club, 8330 272nd St. NW, Stanwood, WA 98292-7430 (360) 629-2511, firstname.lastname@example.org JUNIOR MEMBERS: Gary Bahr, Everett Rock & Gem Club, 1242 State Ave., PMB 137, Everett, WA 98207-3672, (360) 659-7776 (work), (425) 356-7696 (cell), email@example.com PUBLIC LANDS ADVISORY: Joe Spungin, 4841 Doctor Eldridge Dr. Washougal, WA 98671, (360) 624-7604, firstname.lastname@example.org PUBLIC LANDS ADVISORY: Andy Johnson, Lakeside Gem & Mineral Club, P.O. Box 3251, Pasco, WA 99302, (509) 547-7625, email@example.com SLIDE / VIDEO LIBRARIAN: Quita Perry, Southern Washington Mineral Society, P.O. Box 819, LaCenter, WA 98629, (360) 269-3075, firstname.lastname@example.org REPLICA MINERALS: Lakeside Gem & Mineral Club, P.O. Box 254, Harrison, MT 59745, (360) 683-694, email@example.com RULES & AWARDS CHAIR: Joe Slomter, Butte Gem & Mineral Club, 1000 E. 127, Butte, MT, 59703-0427, (406) 494-3034, firstname.lastname@example.org SAFETY: Dave Geier, Yakima Rock & Mineral Club, P.O. Box 34, Mount Vernon, WA 98273, (360) 428-1922, email@example.com SCHOLARSHIP: Bob McArthur, Hell's Canyon Gem Club, 33427 Highway 212, Orofino, ID 83544, (208) 476-3840, firstname.lastname@example.org SHOW CHAIRPERSON: Doug True, Billing Gem & Mineral Club, 2622 Broadwater, Billings, MT 59102, 406.670.0506, email@example.com SHOW COORDINATION: Juli Allston, Hatrockhounds Gem & Mineral Society, P.O. Box 119 #A, Hermiston OR, 97838 (541) 720-4950, firstname.lastname@example.org STAMPS: Hermina Kobski, Club-at-Large, 208 Riverview 2 East, Great Falls, MT 59404-1534, 406-211-0620 WAYS & MEANS: Janice Van Curra, Willamette Agate & Mineral Society, Inc. 3448 NW Covey Run, Corvallis, OR 97330, (541) 757-1000, email@example.com WEBMASTER: Jack Ends, Kaitz Mineral & Gem Co., 5169 E. Hillcrest Drive, Port Orchard, WA 98366-8101, (360) 871-2445, firstname.lastname@example.org NFM'S WEB SITE: www.nmfed.org/nfms NEMS SPECIAL COMMITTEES 2009 FIELD TRIP CHAIRMAN: Doug True, Billings Gem & Mineral Club, 2622 Broadwater, Billings, MT 59102, 406.670.0506, email@example.com NORTHWEST ROCKHOUND RETREAT (HANCOCK): Lamar Tilgner (Chair), Mt. Hood Rock Club, 200 SE Olive Ave., Gresham, OR 97030, (503) 666-2305, firstname.lastname@example.org CLAIMS REPRESENTATIVE: Jim McCarty, Marysville Rock & Gem Club, 8330 272nd St. NW, Stanwood, WA 98292-7430 (360) 629-2511, email@example.com OPERATIONS PROCEDURE / UPDATE: OPEN ROCKHOUND OF THE YEAR: Chair: John Skagit Rock & Gem Club, P.O. Box 2841, Mt. Vernon, WA 98673, (360) 424-8340, firstname.lastname@example.org AFMS COMMITTEES (NFM'S Representatives) AFMS THIRD VICE PRESIDENT: Linda Williams ENHANCEMENT FUND: Edna Nelson, EDITORS HALL OF FAME-OPEN, NEWSLETTER EDITOR-Bryan Schroeder, NMFS CLUB BULLETINS-Darlene Posthuma, ROCKHOUND OF THE YEAR-Viola Jones, CONSERVATION & AWARD RECIPIENTS-Dee Holland, POSTHUMOUS DON-ALL AMERICAN AWARD- Jim & Libby Spencer INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS-Bill and Janet Smith MEMBERSHIP PROMOTION-Gary Bahr COMPETITIONS-OUTDOOR PUBLIC RELATIONS-OPEN, SAFETY-Dale Geier, SCHOLARSHIP FOUNDATION-Dee Holland & Rose MacArthur, SUPPLIES AND PUBLICATIONS-OPEN, TRAINING & TRAINING COMMITTEE-Dee Holland, UNIFORM RULES-Over Holland (Director) & Barbara Jacobsen, WAYS AND MEANS-Gem Lee (chair) & Janice Van Curra, WEBSITE-Jack Ends THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW THE AMERICAN LIONS ACCESS ASSOCIATION (ALAA) is a 501(c)(3) organization. Its purpose is to promote and enhance the use of amateur hobby fossil collecting for educational, recreational and prospecting and mining; and the use of public and private lands for educational and recreational purposes; and to carry the voice of all amateur collectors and prospectors to government officials, government regulators and public lands managers. Your membership fee of $25.00 helps support their activities. Contact: Dr. Robert Carlson, ALAA President, 1585 Los Pueblos, Los Alamos, NM 87544, 505.682.5534, email@example.com The AFMS NEWSLETTER is published monthly except Jan-July and the American Lion's Access Association Newsletter. Each NFMS member should have three people (usually the Pres. Secretary, and Editor) receiving the AFMS Newsletter. If they do not, or if you want to subscribe to ($4.50 per year), write to: AFMS Central Office, Steve Weinberger, P.O. Box 302, Glyndon, MD 21031-0302. Make checks payable to "AFMS". Email: firstname.lastname@example.org The NORTHWEST NEWSLETTER is the official publication of the Northwest Federation of Mineralogical Societies (NFMS) and is usually published ten (10) times a year. This publication is brought to you by your local members in the Federation. The purpose of the Northwest Newsletter is to keep all NFMS members informed of activities and events pertaining to the business and services of the Federation. The Newsletter is printed and mailed to approximately 1000 members each month by Barley Remastered in Burley ID. For matters related to the Newsletter (i.e. content, advertising, etc.) contact the Newsletter Editor (printed elsewhere on this page). For matters related to the Newsletter circulation (new members, address changes, etc.) contact the Circulation Chairman (printed elsewhere on this page). SHOW COORDINATION: Your Federation provides a free service for NFMS members by listing your show in this Newsletter, on the NFMS website, two magazines ("Rocks and Minerals" and "Rock and Gem") and the on-line Calendar from "Lapidary Journal". Please provide the date and time for the show, the club name and show title (if applicable), the location of the show, and most important a contact person with address, e-mail address and/or phone (e-mail is preferred). Please send your show information four weeks prior to the show. SHOW COORDINATION Chairperson (printed elsewhere on this page). If you see an error since your show is listed, or if you show has been cancelled contact Newsletter Editor (printed elsewhere on this page). SAVE STAMPS PROGRAM. NFMS members are encouraged to use and save commemorative stamps. The money generated from the sale of these used (cancelled) stamps is then donated to Cancer Research. The collected stamps can be sent to the STAMPS Chairman (printed elsewhere on this page), brought to the NFMS Annual Show or given to your Federation Director in your club. ATTENTION CLUB TREASURERS Where to send your money (See this page for address, phone, or e-mail) To NFMS Treasurer: 1. Donations and supplies 2. Donations for the general fund 3. Donations to Junior Achievement 4. Advertisement in this Newsletter Send to: Lyle Vogelphol, see Treasurer this page. To NFMS Endowment Fund Treasurer for: 1. Donations to the Endowment Fund 2. Memorial contributions Make check payable to NFMS Endowment Fund, send to Endowment Fund Treasurer. To NFMS Scholarship Chairperson for: 1. Donations to AFMS Scholarship Fund 2. Memorial contributions to AFMS Scholarship Fund Make check payable to AFMS Scholarship Fund. Send to: Rose Alene Mc Arthur (see Scholarship this page). To AFMS Endowment Fund for: 1. Donations to AFMS Endowment Fund 2. Memorials Send to: See AFMS Newsletter To ALAA Treasurer for: 1. Memberships, new and renewals 2. Donations Make check payable to ALAA Send to Joyce Hanschu, ALAA Treasurer, 6607 Sturbridge Ln; Canton, MI 48187-2638 NFMS NEWSLETTER ADVERTISEMENT Members, Non-members, clubs, etc. can advertise in the Northwest Newsletter. The purpose is to help defray the cost of printing and mailing the Newsletter and is encouraged by the Federation. The only criteria for the ad is that it be hobby related (e.g. rocks, equipment, gem, shows, etc.). Ads for the Northwest Newsletter are $1.50 per square inch. Example: 3' x 4' ad = 12 inches 12 inches x $1.50 = $18 per issue of the newsletter Do not send ads on colored paper because the background will look gray in the ad. Following the placement of the ad, the Editor will send a billing statement to the customer which will include instructions to make payment to the NFMS Treasurer. For more information or questions, call, e-mail or write the Newsletter Editor (printed elsewhere on this page). DEADLINE for YOUR SUBMISSIONS TO the next NORTHWEST NEWSLETTER is July 15th For the August 2009 Issue 509 371 1572 BRYAN SCHROEDER NFMS NEWSLETTER EDITOR email@example.com As the club’s bulletin editor she has been the recipient of many NFMS Federation awards including the Bulletin Editor’s “Hall of Fame”. When called upon to assist a fellow rockhound, she doesn’t hesitate to provide any help required. Eloise is most deserving of this special recognition and honor. Submitted by Howard A. Walter, Jr. Federation Director Evelyn Cataldo, NFMS 1st VP Summer Greetings, The AFMS/NFMS Convention and Show in Billings is fast approaching and the excitement is building. Doug True and the Billings Gem & Mineral Club members have planned a fascinating and rewarding experience for all. Be sure to read Doug’s article on the Show in the June issue of Rock & Gem Magazine. I remember the last NFMS Show in Billings. It was one of the best I’ve attended, and I am expecting nothing less this time. While standing in line to get tickets for the last Show, we started talking with the guys behind us and ended up being invited to go agate hunting with them! We took them up on their invitation and went agate hunting again and again on three past Montana vacations. Montana agate picking is one of my favorite activities. I can hardly wait. Check out the picture of me and some of my Montana agates. So plan on being in Billings starting July 30th and enjoy - Exceptional special displays - Outstanding exhibits - Extensive variety of dealers - Noteworthy demonstrations & speakers - Amazing field trips - Fantastic scenery - Famous Western hospitality I hope to see you in Billings. I’m issuing a special invitation to each of you to stop by our travel trailer for a chat. I’d love to hear from you as to what your hopes and concerns are for the NFMS in the coming year. We will be camped on-site. Look for the Cougar trailer with the Washington license plates. We will have a cold drink waiting for you. Until Billings, Evelyn Vi Jones Rockhound of the Year Chair The Yakima Rock and Mineral Club, Inc. of Washington, nominates ELOISE GLASS for our 2009 Rockhound of the Year. Eloise has been a long time club member and she has occupied many of the elected offices as well as chairing numerous committees. Her ashes are spread under her favorite rose bush at their previous home in Forest Grove. They have been a real asset to their club and the Federation and have made many friends over the years. The Davieses received the “Long and Outstanding Service Award” from TVGC for 2008. Wes is still at Sublimity and is very lonely, with nothing to do, so would probably enjoy a card or phone call from old friends. He may be moving to his daughter’s home in the future. His address is: 500 Conifer Dr. B-17, Sublimity, OR 97385; phone: 503-769-0837. Submitted by Dorothy Snook, TVGC President Dale Geer Safety Chair How to Remove a Tick Bet it would work on dogs, too. Spring is here and the ticks will soon be showing up. Here is a good way to get them off you, your children or your pets. Give it a try. Please forward to anyone with children, especially those who like to play in streams outside in summer! A School Nurse has written the info below (good enough to share) and it really works!! I had a pediatrician tell me what she believes is the best way to remove a tick. This is great because it works in those places where it’s sometimes difficult to get to with tweezers: between toes, in the middle of a head full of dark hair, etc. Apply a glob of liquid soap to a cotton ball. Cover the tick with the soap-soaked cotton ball and wait about five minutes (15-20). The tick will come out on its own and be stuck to the cotton ball when you lift it away. This technique has worked every time I’ve used it, (and that was frequently) and it’s less traumatic for the patient and easier for me. Unless someone is allergic to soap, I can’t see that this would be damaging in any way. I even had my doctor’s wife call me for advice because she had one stuck to her back and she couldn’t reach it with tweezers. She used this method and immediately called me back to say, “It worked!” Please pass on. Everyone needs this helpful info! Esther Davis, long time member of the Tulalatin Valley Gem Club and the Northwest Federation, passed away April 26th at age 91. She and her husband Wes have been living in an assisted living home in Sublimity, Oregon since the first of the year. Wes and Esther will be remembered as being at every Federation show and mid-year meeting with NFMS supplies. Esther was the Bulletin Aids Chairman for many years and bulletin editor for TVGC for about 25 years. Esther passed away peacefully with Wes at her bedside. They recently celebrated 50 years of marriage. This is to let everybody know that there will be a 4th Annual Rendezvous by the Butte Gem & Mineral Club. The specific information follows: Location: On private land between Dillon, MT. & Alter Mt-called the Sweetwater Rd (also known as the Bozeman Trail). To find the road from Dillon, take Kentucky avenue which will turn into the Sweetwater Rd. and go for about 17 miles. (There will be banners along the road to help you find it.) From Alder take the road to the Ruby reservoir – go past the reservoir for about 1 ½ miles to the road splits -the left will go to Ennis, the right will go to Dillon. The right is the one you will take; there will a banner there--take it for about 10 1/2 miles and there will be another banner to direct you in. Campground: This is a pack it in pack out area – very historical. The camp site was used by the American Indians for hundreds of years, then the Buffalo jump near by, also the old Broadmo stage stop is next to the way in. Down the road about half a mile is a ranch built between the 1860s to the 1880s (no one lives there now). DRY CAMPING ONLY AND NO OPEN FIRES. There will be a $25.00 fee for the Rendezvous to help off set the cost for the chemical toilets. There is a running stream next to the camp site – it is clean but is not considered potable. Field Trips: Garnets, Montana Wonderstone (rhylolite), Dendritic Opal nodules, Talc, Fossil crinoids. There will be a flint knapper and a bead maker there to show how it is done Please send a deposit of $10.00 To Butte Gem & Mineral Club 1016 Waukesha, Butte, MT 59701 For Contact Person: Tim Hof -phone 406-491-5887 Email- firstname.lastname@example.org 4th Annual Rendezvous by the Butte Gem & Mineral Club (August 26 - 30 2009) PUBLIC LANDS ADVISORY Andy Johnson General Land Office Adds Colorado, Idaho, Montana and the Dakotas Master Title and Use Plats to Searchable Web BOISE – Most of the Master Title and Use Plats for the States of Colorado, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota have just been made available on the Bureau of Land Management-Eastern States (BLM-ES) General Land Office (GLO) Records website. Title companies, historians, genealogy schools and other interested people can now obtain free data and images capturing Land Title and Land Use information at www.gloreCORDS.blm.gov. These records are a graphical representation of federal ownership, use authorization, agency jurisdiction and rights reserved to the federal government on private land within a township. They will continually be updated as land title and land use change. For convenience of ease, website viewers can query by township and range to receive the exact location of the lands. The Master Title and Use Plats can be used in conjunction with the Patents, Survey Plats and Field Notes already available from the GLO Records website for a better understanding of the federal government rights and interests. “The BLM-ES is constantly creating new and improved ways to provide public access to our information that is simple and straight forward,” said Juan Palma, BLM-ES State Director. “No longer will the public have to go to our State Offices to view these important documents. Now they can see them from the comfort of their own homes via the computer. Access from anywhere at any time to these Master Title and Use Plats is now available and opens doors to a new audience of public users,” said Palma. As of June 8, 2009, the GLO Records website has over 10,000 Master Title Plats for the States of Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota; nearly 5,500 Master Title Plats for the State of Idaho; and more than 14,000 Master Title Plats for the State of Colorado. In addition, for the States of Colorado and Idaho, each Master Title Plat online has a corresponding Historical Index, which provide a history of the land status by identifying in chronological order all past and present actions that affect title to federal lands. The GLO Records website is continuously expanding its archives to provide the public with more records in a user-friendly environment. Additional states and documents will be added to the website as the data and images become available. The Master Title Plats and Historical Indices for Idaho are also available to the public on the BLM’s public File Transfer Protocol (FTP) website. This site contains several different downloadable formats for each file. They can be found at: ftp.blm.gov/pub/ID/ftp. For questions or assistance with this FTP site, please contact Idaho BLM Land and Resource Information Systems Specialist Lydia Ferguson in Boise, phone (208) 373-3972 or email email@example.com. The BLM manages more land - 256 million acres - than any other Federal agency. This land, known as the National System of Public Lands, is primarily located in 12 Western states, including Alaska. The Bureau, with a budget of about $1 billion, also administers 700 million acres of sub-surface mineral estate throughout the nation. The BLM’s multiple-use mission is to sustain the health and productivity of the public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations. The Bureau accomplishes this by managing such activities as outdoor recreation, livestock grazing, mineral development and energy production; and by conserving natural, historical, cultural, and other resources on public lands. OFF-HIGHWAY VEHICLE GROUP EXPRESSES CONCERN OVER OBAMA BLM PICK Submitted by John Martin, ALAA Internet Committee, AFMS Conservation & Legislation Committee, et al, firstname.lastname@example.org To all Rockhounds, Pebble Pups, Fossil Friends and recreational users of Public Lands, Even though most of us do not use off road vehicles and the many miles of off road trails in the pursuit of our Rockhounding Happiness, the BlueRibbon Coalition (BRC) is a large supporter of Public Use of Public Lands and they go the distance in helping to keep our Public Lands open to All the Public Usage. The news release below is being sent for informational purposes and to help keep all of us informed on the appointments and actions that may have adverse effects on our chosen hobby and recreational activities. Please consider supporting the BlueRibbon Coalition by subscribing to their newsletter. For those going to Billings, MT in July, a Director of BRC will be speaking at the ALAA Meeting on Saturday, August 1, 2009, so if you are there, please consider attending the meeting. ****News Release**** POCATELLO, ID (June 17, 2009) — The BlueRibbon Coalition (BRC), a national grass-roots group dedicated to preserving responsible recreational access to public lands and waters, today expressed concern over the Obama Administration’s nomination of Robert V. Abbey as Director of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). The group says although Abbey has a good record during his 32 years with federal land management agencies, his affiliation with some litigious preservationist groups raises significant questions. Abbey worked for more than 32 years with state and federal land management agencies before retiring from the federal government in July 2005. Most recently, he served as BLM’s Nevada State Director. Upon learning of Abbey’s nomination, BRC polled many of its members and supporters who had worked with him over the years. “In general, we found that the reports we’re hearing have been positive,” said Brian Hawthorne, BRC’s Public Lands Policy Director. “Abbey is generally known as a good manager and one who understands the importance of public lands in providing diverse recreation for the American public.” But, the Coalition is concerned about Abbey’s association with the Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) and their sub-groups, Public Employees for Environmental responsibility (PEER) and Rangers for Responsible Recreation, after his retirement from the BLM. CBD and PEER are aggressive litigants who often challenge even the most restrictive recreation management plans. BRC’s Executive Director, Greg Munn, noted that among the vast number of so-called environmental groups, CBD and PEER are well known for being the least willing to compromise and most likely to sue. “The goals of these groups are directly opposed to BLM’s multiple-use mandates,” Munn said, adding, “Congress needs to ensure Abbey’s affiliation with these radical groups will not impede his ability to fulfill BLM’s multiple-use mission.” Don Amador, BRC’s Western Representative, remembers being shocked when Abbey joined CBD. “These groups specialize in manufacturing conflict where none exists. Given Abbey’s solution-oriented approach at BLM, we were mystified as to why he would want to affiliate with them.” The BLM manages 256 million acres primarily located in 12 Western states, including Alaska. The Bureau, with a budget of about $1 billion, also administers 700 million acres with strategic oil, gas and mineral reserves. The BLM’s multiple-use mission is to sustain the health and productivity of public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations. The BlueRibbon Coalition is a national recreation group that champions responsible recreation and encourages individual environmental stewardship. It represents over 10,000 individual members and 1,200 organization and business members, for a combined total of over 600,000 recreationists nationwide. 1-800-258-3742, http://www.sharetrails.org Editors Note: The following article is from the AFMS Newsletter, dated June/July 2009. Although the incident below occurred in Georgia, is a similar incident possible in the Northwest? In the next issue I will publish an article closer to home. Words of Caution by John Wright, RPG, Conservation & Legislation Chair If you plan on visiting the National Forest, be aware that you cannot trust the information on their “web sites” or in their brochures as Forest Service law enforcement officers use a different set of rules, regulations, and interpretations than the ones published. These inconsistencies are probably the result of poor coordination within the departments of the National Forest, and if you have ever attended any of the public forums they conduct, you know just how poorly organized they are. Unfortunately, Forest Service officials and Federal Judges invariably side with the law enforcement officers no matter how inconsistent or corrupt the circumstances may be. Dick Pankey, President of ALAA, informed me of a pending case which is very typical of what can happen that occurred in the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forests located in northern Georgia. The victims in this case are Dr. Madden, MD, and his fiancée, who had rock-hounding in advance with the Forest Service officials, but criminally charged anyway. I believe this is an important enough example that all of our members should be made aware of the problems they could encounter when visiting in “our” National Forests. Permission was granted by the victim, Dr. Madden, to use his very well written account of the circumstances, which unfortunately is very typical of a number of other similar cases being adjudicated in the South Eastern Federal Mineralogical Society (SFMS) area at the present time. E-Mail received from Dick Pankey: A couple of weeks ago I received the article below, THIS CAN HAPPEN TO YOU. It was written by a rockhound from Georgia. He first contacted me in early February. We have exchanged e-mails, had telephone conversations and he has provided me with other information regarding collecting in Georgia National Forests and the charges against him and his fiancée. I have begun collecting rockhounding regulations and information from BLM and FS offices around the country. So far much of the information is sketchy and vague. Written regulation and pamphlets most often don’t exist. What I have found out is that although the laws allow for collecting on BLM and FS land, each district can establish their own management plan based on their interpretation of the law and the ranger/enforcement officer enforces the management plan based upon their interpretation. And these vary widely! So, we have undocumented, inconsistent regulations, enforced by people based upon their ideas and agendas. THIS CAN HAPPEN TO YOU On November 1, 2008, my fiancée, Dori, and I were criminally charged with collecting Staurolites on U.S. Forest Service land. Local collectors have been going to this location to collect Staurolites for over 30 years. Our friends, Tonya and Barry, informed us of the location in Blue Ridge. We visited this area four (4) times in the summer and fall of 2008. The Staurolites we found on the surface were mostly poor quality. However, just a few inches under the surface using a scraper we found much better quality ones. We used hand tools including a scraper and a small pick. I feel we were very careful not to damage the site. We did not dig more than 6 or 7 inches and completely filled in our holes and raked the dirt to ensure the site looked undisturbed. On November 1, 2008, Officer Mike Tipton of the USFS approached us. We did not attempt to hide ourselves because we had no idea we were doing anything wrong. He stated he had set up a video camera at the site and had been watching us. This was very alarming to us. I assured him if he had approached us that first time and explained that the Forest Service did not wish us to collect here we would have politely left and never returned. He will attest to the fact that we were cooperative. He even complimented us stating we were “not like most of the individuals he deals with.” Officer Tipton approached us and asked us what we were looking for. We told him we were looking for Staurolites. He did not know what Staurolites were, but informed us we needed a mining permit to dig for any type of mineral. He told us any Staurolites we find are government property. Next, he confiscated our scatters, knapsack and bucket. He separated us and read me my Miranda rights. At this point he asked me if I would allow federal agents to search my home in Rome for any other federal property. When I said yes, he left without a word. Evidently he tried to obtain a search warrant, but was unsuccessful. Officer Tipton repeatedly inquired as to whether we sold rocks. I told him I have never sold minerals and Staurolites have only intrinsic value. In the past there have been locations in Blue Ridge (Hackney Farm) that have allowed individuals to collect a bucket of them for $5.00. On January 11, 2009, Officer Tipton gave us a courtesy call. He stated we are being charged criminally with 261.9(a) destroying a natural feature or property of the United States ($250.00 fine) and 261.9(b) removing a natural feature or property of the United States ($250.00 fine). These are criminal misdemeanor offenses and can result in a criminal record. I strongly feel the section we are being charged under is both vague and does not address the important point that we were collecting minerals. Mineral collecting is generally allowed on most U.S. Forest Service lands including public domain lands and acquired lands. Unfortunately, each individual Forest Service can now make the rules (on acquired lands) dictating the rules for rock hounding, and Georgia has one of the most restrictive policies. Under this charge it appears we are vandals or even worse thieves. I told Officer Tipton I was considering going to court. Five days later when I received my ticket it had doubled to $400.00 for each offense for a total of $2000.00. In conclusion, I feel strongly we took the utmost care to treat this land with care. We spent at least 15-20 minutes each time to leave the ground looking undisturbed. I feel the US Forest Service in Georgia is treating mineral collectors like criminals. Mineral collecting has in the past been considered a wholesome and educational activity. In other states, the US Forest Service has been much more responsive to working with mineral collectors and even encourages collecting. I am surprised that in Georgia the US Forest Service is now considering it a criminal offense. Thank you for the time you spend considering this matter. (Signed) Robert Madden, M.D. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Note: This is the Federal Code that Dr. Madden was charged with violating. The specific items in the charges are noted in “Bold” print. 36 CFR 261.9 – Property. Code of Federal Regulations - Title 36: Parks, Forests, and Public Property (December 2005) TITLE 36 - PARKS, FORESTS, AND PUBLIC PROPERTY CHAPTER 11 – FOREST SERVICE, DEPT OF AGRICULTURE PART 261 –PROHIBITIONS subpart a – GENERAL PROHIBITIONS 261.9 – Property The following are prohibited: (a) Damaging any natural feature or other property of the United States, (b) Removing any natural feature or other property of the United States, (c) Damaging any plant that is classified as a threatened, endangered, sensitive, rare, or unique species. (d) Removing any plant that is classified as a threatened, endangered, sensitive, rare, or unique species. (e) Entering any building, structure, or enclosed area owned or controlled by the United States when such building, structure, or enclosed area is not open to the public. (f) Using any pesticide except for personal use as an insect repellent or as provided by special-use authorization for other minor uses. (g) Digging in, excavating, disturbing, injuring, destroying, or in any way damaging any prehistoric, historic, or archaeological resource, structure, site, artifact, or property. (h) Removing any prehistoric, historic, or archaeological resource, structure, site, artifact, property. (i) Excavating, damaging, or removing any vertebrate fossil or removing any paleontological resource for commercial purposes without a special use authorization. (j) Excavating, damaging, or removing any cave resource from a cave without a special use authorization, or removing any cave resource for commercial purposes. the thermometer hit 93 degrees in Marysville by the bay in May, very rare for that coastal community. When on those hot Field Trips, drink plenty of water to rehydrate after all the sweat of digging new treasures. If your schedule allows flexible digging times, you can beat the heat by working early in the day or later in the evening during all our daylight hours of summer. This will keep your precious water system happy and by doing less cooling during high heat periods of the day. Sometimes, when discovering treasures, Rockhounds hardly notice the heat because “crystal-fever” does seem to equalize the temperatures. Be safe and have fun finding your next “keeper”. I’m proud to announce that there are two 2009 NFMS Junior Achievement Award Winners that will be honored at the Annual Banquet during the 2009 NFMS Annual Show and Convention in Billings, Montana this July 30, 31, August 1 and 2. It will be a special Showtime because this Big Event will include the Annual AFMS Show as well. The two special Junior Winners are ALEX MILLER, age 10, from West Seattle Rock Club and ALEXANDER CARRINGTON from Everett Rock and Gem Club. These two stars will also be highlighted in an upcoming edition of the Northwest Newsletter and your NFMS Website Juniors Page. West Seattle Rock Club had their 43rd Annual Show, called the “President’s Gemboree” in May this year, which brought out many passionate participants of all ages. Besides hosting an active KIDS CORNER, many Junior Rockhounds placed neat displays of their treasures into the Show and delighted the public visitors. MILES DURNWIRTH (above) is age 9 and a member of the West Seattle Rock Club for two years. MILES displayed a case titled “State Rocks” from all over America. He has managed to collect 30 rocks from 30 states out of 50 in the USA! Although MILES has not visited every state he collects yet, he definitely plans to in the future. The Washington State Rock is Petrified Wood; his aunt has a ranch near Ginkgo Forest on the Columbia River where MILES self-collected his show specimen of petrified wood. His aunt’s grandfather pulled out the petrified wood logs for the famed Ginkgo Museum near Vantage. Junior Rockhounds who also placed displays, but missed the showtime, include: ALEX MILLER, ALEXANDER A WALL, age 15, who is also forever honored as the 2004 NFMS First Place Junior Achievement Award Winner! Her display was titled “Jewelry” and contained many kinds of lapidary arts, gemstones and her published article titled “Cabbing with Lyle” (Vogelphobi). You can imagine the detailed content of her well-organized 14 Step Process of making beautiful cabochons for necklaces that was used in the 2004 Showtime. W.A. MERLIN TOSH, age 13, displayed a full case titled “Wire Wrapping” with lots of nice finished items like a gem tree, earrings, cabochon necklaces, even the wire on spools and the pliers for twisting. Gems used in his wire wrapped jewelry included Mexican lace agate, goldstone, white opal, jasper, amethyst, tiger’s eye, agates, obsidian, amber, rose quartz, onyx and jet. All four Junior displays received a Blue Ribbon in the West Seattle Rock Club’s Annual Competition. It’s almost AFMS/NFMS Showtime in the Big Event on your calendar? PLEASE make a donation for our 2009 KIDS CORNER in Billings, we need polished stones, crystals, or whatever you can donate. Thank You Kindly for your consideration. Photo above is ALEX MILLER, age 10, who has been in the West Seattle Rock Club for three years. ALEX displayed a case titled “Minerals and Optics” to show/demonstrate how light goes through minerals and what colors are formed. The specimens he utilized are quartz, jade, amethyst, calcite, copal, fluorite, labradorite, carnelian & moss agates, pyrite, petrified wood, satin spar, stibnite, tiger’s eye, ulexite and bismuth. ALEX included sugar and salt that he referred to as “imposters”. Why do you think he placed those two refined essences in his display? Stuck? Ask him! The designation of *Metasequoia* as Oregon’s State Fossil was approved by the Legislature in the spring of 2005 as House Joint Resolution #3. State Representative Alan Brown of Newport introduced the resolution, with his staff being doggedly helpful tracking the measure through the House, the Senate and finally the Governor’s office. Official literature listing state designations now include *Metasequoia* as “Oregon’s State Fossil”. The designation is a permanent part of the Oregon Blue Book – sort of the state’s official book of archived information about Oregon – and was added to the State website as well as other printed literature (e.g. official State highway map). You may find your very own *Metasequoia* at the managed dig site behind Wheeler High School in Fossil, Oregon. The school district and community have been cooperatively-protecting the site with fencing and providing on-site management. For a donation to the cause, a highly-trained interpreter helps you find fossil-bearing rock, provides you tools for digging and helps identify your finds. Major excavation practices of the past are now prohibited – after all, people were driving pick-ups onto the high school football field to pick and shovel loads of fossil-bearing rocks. You may work the site in selected areas where the overburden has been carefully removed and collect a few handfuls of specimens to take home. School and other groups are encouraged to use the site for educational purposes. Personally, it’s a workbench contest for me. Grab a couple blocks of layered marl, and split them lengthwise with a single-edge razor blade using an old tablespoon as my ‘hammer’. Object of the game is to work as many slices out of one block with fossils on both sides of each slide. Thin specimens, but ohhhhh the detail is so clear and fine. Heading to Fossil, OR to get your Oregon State Fossil? Contact: Will Boetner, P.G. www.PaleoVentures.com Paleo Adventures LLC PO Box 541 680 Main Street Fossil, OR 97830 email@example.com (541) 763-2500 (877) 841-6250 For other Oregon fossil info, contact: Guy DiTorrice www.OregonFossilGuy.com PO Box 256 Newport OR 97365 firstname.lastname@example.org (541) 961-1762 Dear Mr. Schroeder, I am a Seattle-based natural history writer and have recently published a book that I think will be of interest to readers of the Northwest Federation of Mineralogical Societies newsletter. The book looks at how people use stone as a building material in the urban landscape. Each chapter focuses on a different type of rock and weaves together stories of people, geology, architecture, and history. Most people probably don’t expect to make geological finds along the sidewalks of a major city, but when I look at the stone masonry, façades, and ornamentations of buildings, I see a range of rocks equal to any assembled by plate tectonics. In my new book, *Stories in Stone: Travels Through Urban Geology*, I introduce readers to a three-and-a-half-billion-year-old rock called Morton Gneiss that is the color of swirled pink-and-black taffy; a 1935 gas station made of petrified wood; and a fort in St. Augustine, Florida, that has withstood three hundred years of attacks and hurricanes, despite being made of a stone (coquina) that has the consistency of a granola bar. I show why a white, fossil-rich limestone from Indiana became the only building stone to be used in all fifty states; how the construction of the granite Bunker Hill Monument in 1825 led to America’s first commercial railroad; and why Carrara marble—the favorite sculpting material of Michelangelo—warped so much after only nineteen years on a Chicago skyscraper that all forty-four thousand panels of the stone had to be replaced. From New York to California, from limestone to slate, *Stories in Stone* will inspire readers to realize that, even in the most modern metropolis, evidence of our planet’s natural wonders can be found all around us in building stones that are far less ordinary than we might think at first glance. For more information on *Stories in Stone*, you can go to the Stone page on my web site, listed below. Thank you kindly, David Williams ============================== David B. Williams email@example.com Blog: www.stories-in-stone.blogspot.com Web site: www.storiesinstone.info An iridescent ammonite from Madagascar The story of Ammolite begins over 65 million years ago during the Cretaceous period when dinosaurs ruled the earth, pterosaurs glided overhead in the skies, and the oceans teemed with an enormous variety of aquatic life. Accompanied by tropical climates, the continents were evolving into the shapes and global positions we are familiar with today. During this time the interior of North America was partially submerged under the warm shallow Bearpaw Sea which bordered the developing Rocky Mts. Today part of this region is southeastern Alberta, CA. Living in the Bearpaw Sea were many exotic creatures like plesiosaurs which “flew” through the water like penguins as they diligently fished the shallow waters. In addition to such “monsters” were ancestors of modern sea life such as sharks and turtles. One such ancestor were the ammonites, the predecessor to squids and the South Pacific nautilus. Ammonites were squid-like creatures with coiled shells containing gas filled chambers which provided buoyancy. Like modern squids and nautiluses, they propelled themselves through the water with a “jet” and when threatened, clouded the water with ink during their escapes. Ammonites needed such speed and defense as they were favored as a delicacy by mosasaurs, another predacious marine reptile. Sinking it’s peg-like teeth into the coiled shell, a ravenous mosasaur would extract the ammonite’s squid-shaped body and devour it, discarding the empty shell which then sank to the sea floor. This is where fortuitous circumstances came together to create specific conditions for the next step in the birth of a gemstone. Settling on the sea bottom, the empty ammonite shell was buried in mineral-rich sediment carried there by rivers and streams from the young Rocky Mountains. During the fossilization process, the sediment not only preserved the shell but also enhanced the shell’s colors into iridescent greens, reds, yellows, and rare blues and violets. In 1981, the International Colored Gemstone Commission (ICGC) recognized this new organic gemstone as Ammolite. With finite supply in a very specific area and only one in a hundred of the preserved shells yielding few gemstones, Ammolite is the *rarest* gemstone in the world! **INTRODUCTION TO SPHERE MAKING DVD** From novice to pro, this DVD covers **start to finish** sphere making techniques using diamond grinding cups and polishing pads plus how to set-up and use an indexer. All for **$15.00!** *(View sample clips and order at www.dragonspheres.com/misc.htm)* *Each clip approx. 15 sec to 40 sec long - 3mb to 10mb each)* For more information, email to firstname.lastname@example.org
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**Name that shape** Build your child’s geometry skills by having her label household items. She can draw and cut shapes out of construction paper, name them with markers, and tape the labels to the objects. *Examples:* “rectangle” for refrigerator door, “cylinder” for peanut butter jar. **Make a hurricane** Let your youngster stir around the sides of a large bowl of water until the water moves in a fast circle. Then, have him quickly add food coloring to the center. The color will form bands (spirals), just like the “rainbands” of a real hurricane. **Book picks** - **Reading Jack the Builder** by Stuart Murphy is like one big math lesson. Your child will learn addition as she sees what Jack can build with just one more block. - **Eye Wonder: Space** (Carole Stott) is a terrific introduction to stars, planets, galaxies, and more. The photographs and detailed information are sure to hook your youngster on space! **Worth quoting** “The best way to have a good idea is to have lots of ideas.” —Linus Pauling **Just for fun** **Teacher:** How fast does light travel? **Benji:** I don’t know, but it sure gets here early in the morning! --- **Count on it!** Bryan loves to count everything he sees. “Look, Mommy. There are three birds. Now I see four trees.” Bryan doesn’t know it, but he’s getting ready for addition, multiplication, and other math skills. Help your child practice counting with these ideas. **Number sense** Get your youngster used to thinking about numbers and what they mean. - Have him count objects regularly. How many computers are in the library? How many books are in his room? - Give directions involving numbers. *Examples:* “Please put three plates on the table.” “Take four steps to get into bed.” - Ask your child to count to 10 by finding numbers around the house. *Examples:* “1” on a clock, “2” on a remote control, “3” on a board game spinner, and so on. **Skip counting** 2, 4, 6, 8… Learning to “skip count” will help your child count faster and with more confidence. - While walking up the block, have him read the house numbers. Point out how they increase by 2 or 4. - Ask him to number 20 craft sticks (1–20) and lay them down side by side. If he removes every other one and says the numbers that remain, he will have counted by 2s! - Encourage him to count to 50 while bouncing a ball. He can swing his leg over the ball on every 5th number (5, 10, 15) to get the rhythm of counting by 5s. **Polar play** Walk like a penguin. Make a polar bear disappear. With these activities, your youngster will learn habits of two favorite animals: - Have her form an egg out of play dough. Can she walk across a room balancing the “egg” on top of her feet like father emperor penguins do in the Antarctic? Tell her it’s the dad’s job to keep the egg warm for two months before it hatches. - Ask your child to draw two polar bear outlines, one on white paper and another on blue. Then, have her tear white paper into pieces and glue them into the outlines. What happens? Her bear will stand out on the blue paper but disappear against the white—showing how polar bears’ white fur provides camouflage against snow in the Arctic. Rock on Rocks come in all shapes and sizes, and kids can find them anywhere. That’s what makes rock hunting so much fun. Turn your youngster into a rock explorer with these suggestions. Find specimens. In your backyard or at the park, have her pick out rocks. Encourage her to use her senses. What does the rock look like? How does it feel? What does it smell like? Let your child take home 10 rocks she likes best. Note: Get permission before removing any rocks from the park. Examine rocks. Have her rinse the rocks with water so their true colors appear. Provide a magnifying glass for examining markings and texture. In a notebook, she can draw pictures and write words describing each rock (flat, rough, pink). Do experiments. Rubbing two rocks together will show which one is softer (harder will scratch softer). Suggest that your youngster test for limestone by gently pouring a few drops of vinegar on each rock. If it fizzes, the rock is limestone (acid in the vinegar reacts with carbon and oxygen to make carbon dioxide bubbles). Make a rock sorter. Finally, help your child cut different-sized holes (small to large) in a shoebox lid. As she puts each rock through the hole that fits best, she’ll learn to sort by size. Math Corner It’s about time How long is a second? A minute? An hour? Here are ways to help your child understand time: 1. Ask him how many times he can clap his hands in a second or how many somersaults he can do in a minute. Then, time him. He’ll get a better idea of how long a second or minute really is. Have him think of other things he can do in a second (give you a hug) or a minute (sing a song). 2. Teach your child about “elapsed time” by making a schedule. On poster board, list times (8:00, 8:30, 9:00), and help him write in daily events (breakfast, soccer practice). Use the poster to ask questions. Example: “You get home at 5:00, and dinner is at 6:00. How much time do you have to play?” Q&A Learn to love math! Q: I want my child to enjoy math. How can I get her to like it from the start? A: First, be sure to “talk up” math. Let her know that you think math is fun and that she’ll use it her whole life. Then, make math a part of daily life. At the post office, have your youngster estimate how many people are in line. In the grocery store, ask her how much milk will cost with a 50-cent-off coupon. Be sure to mention the math skills she used (“That was excellent subtraction!”). Put math into fun time, too. Play games like Yahtzee, Connect Four, or Monopoly. At bedtime, read books about math. Try Equal Shmequal by Virginia Kroll to learn what equal means, or Counting on Frank, Rod Clement’s tale of a boy who uses his dog Frank as a ruler. Science Lab Shiny pennies Give your child a pile of pennies, and let him make them bright and shiny. You’ll need: dull pennies, paper cup, lemon juice, paper towel Here’s how: Have your youngster put a penny into a paper cup and cover it with lemon juice. After five minutes, he can take out the penny and dry it with a paper towel. What happens? The penny will be much brighter than it was before. Why? Pennies are made from copper, which is naturally shiny. But the coins lose their shine over time as the copper mixes with the oxygen in the air. That chemical reaction is called oxidation and causes the pennies to be coated with something called an oxide. The acid in the lemon juice removes the oxide—leaving the penny looking brand new!
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Order Matters: Children’s Evaluation of Underinformative Teachers Depends on Context Hyowon Gweon and Mika Asaba Stanford University The ability to evaluate “sins of omission”—true but pragmatically misleading, underinformative pedagogy—is critical for learning. This study reveals a developmental change in children’s evaluation of underinformative teachers and investigates the nature of their limitations. Participants rated a fully informative teacher and an underinformative teacher in two different orders. Six- and 7-year-olds ($N = 28$) successfully distinguished the teachers regardless of the order (Experiment 1), whereas 4- and 5-year-olds ($N = 82$) succeeded only when the fully informative teacher came first (Experiments 2 and 3). After seeing both teachers, 4-year-olds ($N = 32$) successfully preferred the fully informative teacher (Experiment 4). These results are discussed in light of developmental work in pragmatic implicature, suggesting that young children might struggle with spontaneously generating relevant alternatives for evaluating underinformative pedagogy. Much of early learning unfolds in social contexts. Young children spend much of their time surrounded by others who constantly communicate with them and teach them about the world. Children also approach others as sources for learning, actively requesting information to learn from knowledgeable, helpful others (Goupil, Romand-Monnier, & Koudier, 2016; Gweon & Schulz, 2011). Therefore, it is critical for young learners to recognize and evaluate others as informants to decide whom to approach and trust for information, and whom to avoid or discredit. Previous research shows that even young children recognize teachers who provide inaccurate information (e.g., providing wrong labels for common household items) and preferentially choose to learn from previously accurate informants (e.g., Birch, Vauthier, & Bloom, 2008; Jaswal & Neely, 2006; Koenig, Clément, & Harris, 2004; Pasquini, Corriveau, Koenig, & Harris, 2007). However, real-world teachers and informants rarely tell blatant lies or provide information that is obviously false; their mistakes can be rather subtle, such as omitting relevant pieces of information. Recognizing and evaluating such underinformative pedagogy can be particularly challenging for young learners, because the information provided by the teacher is still true of the world. In pedagogical contexts where teachers are expected to be knowledgeable and helpful, learners readily draw inferences that go beyond what was explicitly communicated. For instance, when a teacher demonstrated one interesting function of a novel toy, young children (even toddlers and children in cultures where explicit teaching is rare) inferred that the teacher intended to communicate just one aspect of the toy; children constrained their exploration to the demonstrated part, treating the absence of additional information as evidence for the absence of additional aspects to be learned about the toy (Bonawitz et al., 2011; Shneidman, Gweon, Schulz, & Woodward, 2016). This inference rests on the assumption that a helpful, knowledgeable teacher engages in pedagogical sampling to select information that is maximally helpful for the learner; if the toy had additional interesting parts, the teacher would have shown them, too (Shafto, Goodman, & Frank, 2012; Shafto, Goodman, & Griffiths, 2014). Thus, pedagogical contexts license inductive leaps from even omission of information, allowing learners to draw powerful inferences about the world. Many thanks to Ilona Bass and Shivani Kaushal for help with data collection, Hannah Pelton and Cristina Spicer for help with filming stimuli, and Mike Frank, Laura Schulz, Tamar Kushnir, and Stella Christie for helpful comments and discussions. We are also grateful to Bing Nursery School, Palo Alto Junior Museum & Zoo, Boston Children’s Museum, and the families who participated. This work was funded by Varieties of Understanding grant from the Fordham University and the John Templeton Foundation. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Hyowon Gweon, Department of Psychology, Stanford University, 450 Serra Mall, Jordan Hall (Bldg. 420); Stanford, CA 94305. Electronic mail may be sent to firstname.lastname@example.org. However, when teachers violate such expectations, the power of pedagogical contexts can turn into a hazard. Imagine that a teacher demonstrated one function of a novel toy when the toy in fact had additional, undemonstrated functions; a learner who assumes that the teacher used pedagogical sampling would end up drawing an inaccurate inference about the toy. In this case, the teacher did not provide any false information about the toy. Instead, the teacher committed a *sin of omission*, misleading the learner by providing true but incomplete information. A recent study has shown that 6- and 7-year-olds appropriately evaluate sins of omission in pedagogical contexts (Gweon, Pelton, Konopka, & Schulz, 2014). In this study, children observed and rated a puppet teacher who demonstrated one interesting function of a toy to a naïve learner. One group of children saw a fully informative teacher, because the toy had just one function. The other group of children saw an underinformative teacher, because the toy had three additional functions that were left undemonstrated. Even though the appearance of the toy and the teacher’s behaviors were identical across conditions, children’s ratings were significantly lower for the underinformative teacher than for the fully informative teacher. Furthermore, when the teacher later introduced a new toy and demonstrated one interesting function, children explored the new toy more broadly if the teacher had been previously underinformative than when he had been fully informative. These results suggest that by age 6, children explicitly evaluate sins of omission and even adjust their exploratory behaviors to compensate for potentially underinformative pedagogy. **Children’s Evaluation of Underinformative Pedagogy** As noted earlier, however, prior work shows that sensitivity to pedagogical sampling emerges much earlier in childhood. Even toddlers treat the absence of additional information as meaningful in pedagogical contexts, drawing inferences not only from what was demonstrated but also from what was left undemonstrated (Bonawitz et al., 2011; Shniedman et al., 2016). This suggests that children must start facing the potential hazards of underinformative pedagogy well before age 6. Do these young children understand that a violation of pedagogical sampling can mislead the learner, and do they evaluate underinformative teachers accordingly? How does the sensitivity to sins of omission develop during early childhood, and what does it tell us about the cognitive mechanisms that underlie our evaluation of informativeness? One possibility is that an understanding of pedagogical sampling is the necessary and sufficient prerequisite for the ability to accurately recognize and evaluate underinformative pedagogy. In other words, once children expect that a knowledgeable, helpful teacher would provide true and complete information and draw strong inferences based on these expectations, they might have no trouble evaluating those who violate such expectations. If so, children might show no difficulty evaluating sins of omission well before age 6. An alternative possibility is that appropriate evaluation of underinformative pedagogy requires more than an understanding of pedagogical sampling. To provide a lower rating to an underinformative teacher than to a fully informative teacher, children should not only understand that the teacher’s demonstration leads to an inaccurate inference (i.e., inferring that the toy has just one function when it in fact has four) but also recognize that the teacher could have done better by providing more relevant information and explicitly penalize the omission he could have avoided. Children younger than age 6 might experience difficulty with any of these aspects of informant evaluation. **Development of Children’s Ability to Draw Pragmatic Implicature** We believe that useful insights can be gained from prior work on the development of pragmatic implicature, which suggests that even though young children readily draw pragmatic implicatures from verbal utterances, they still have trouble evaluating underinformative speakers. Almost a decade ago, Baldwin, Loucks, and Sabbagh (2008) made an intriguing theoretical conjecture that our reasoning about goal-directed, intentional actions might be subject to similar constraints that underlie our inferences from verbal communicative behaviors, guided by intuitions akin to Grice’s (1975) cooperative principles. Following this argument, here we first provide a brief review of this literature and draw parallels between children’s understanding of pedagogical sampling and children’s understanding of pragmatic implicatures. We then use these connections to motivate our specific hypothesis about young children’s ability to evaluate underinformative teachers in pedagogical contexts. Recent work on children’s understanding of scalar implicature finds that even preschoolers readily go beyond the literal meaning of speakers’ utterances to infer their intended meanings. For instance, when asked to find “a friend with glasses,” 3-year-olds choose a face with *just* glasses over a face with glasses *and* a top hat, even though both choices are logically consistent with the utterance (Stiller, Goodman, & Frank, 2015). Note that these results parallel children’s inferences about a toy’s function in pedagogical contexts; just as the teacher would have demonstrated more if the toy had additional functions, the speaker would have mentioned the top hat if he really meant the other face. In both cases, children went beyond the literal interpretation of the utterance or demonstration to infer what the informant intends to communicate, with the expectation that the communicator is knowledgeable, helpful, and informative. However, despite the early emergence of such pragmatic competence, a large body of work suggests that children under 6 years of age have difficulty evaluating underinformative utterances that violate this expectation. For instance, a speaker who says “the boy ate *some* cookies” when he ate *all* the cookies is underinformative; he used a weak scalar term “some” when a stronger term “all” applies, thus providing a logically true yet pragmatically infelicitous statement that can mislead the listener to infer that the boy did *not eat all* the cookies. Many studies have found that children under age 6 consider such underinformative sentences as acceptable (Huang & Snedeker, 2009; Noveck, 2001; Papafragou, 2006; Papafragou & Musolino, 2003). These failures are not limited to scalar expressions, as 4-year-olds also fail to reject “the cat and the cow are sleeping” given a picture that shows three sleeping animals (a cat, a cow, and a dog; Barner, Brooks, & Bale, 2011). These results suggest that children’s failure to penalize logically true but underinformative utterances is not necessarily due to their pragmatic incompetence and that the ability to draw pragmatic inferences alone is insufficient for accurately evaluating underinformative speakers. Recent research offers at least two possible explanations for this failure. One possibility is that children might have difficulty in generating and representing alternative lexical items for a given scale (i.e., understanding that the speaker could have used “all” instead of the logically correct but pragmatically infelicitous “some”). For instance, given a picture of three sleeping animals (a cat, a cow, and a dog), children fail to reject sentences “some of the animals are sleeping” or “the cat and the cow are sleeping,” but accurately reject “only the cat and the cow are sleeping” (Barner et al., 2011). This suggests that children are sensitive to underinformativeness, but it is revealed only when the alternatives are made clear and salient in context. Furthermore, exposing 5-year-olds to relevant uses of the scalar item “all” helps them successfully reject the underinformative uses of the term “some” (Skordos & Papafragou, 2016). Another possibility is that children are in fact sensitive to informativeness but fail to explicitly penalize underinformative speakers, because they are more forgiving of speakers who use an intermediate item (e.g., some) on the scale when a stronger item (e.g., all) should be used. For instance, Katsos and Bishop (2011) found that although 5- and 6-year-olds fail to reject underinformative utterances (e.g., “the boy ate some of the cookies” when he in fact ate all of the cookies) given binary choice (e.g., yes or no), they distinguish them from fully informative ones on a 3-point scale. **From Pragmatic Implicature to Evaluation of “Sins of Omission”** Drawing from these related findings, we might expect that the ability to draw strong inferences in pedagogical contexts is not necessarily sufficient for accurately evaluating underinformative pedagogy. Even though young children make inferences that are consistent with the use of pedagogical sampling (Bonawitz et al., 2011; Shneidman et al., 2016), they might still experience difficulty with evaluating sins of omission. As noted earlier, the difficulty might arise in at least two different ways. First, young children might fail to penalize sins of omission because they have trouble understanding that the teacher *could have* avoided misleading the learner by providing more information. In this case, we might see different patterns depending on which teacher was evaluated first; more specifically, seeing the fully informative teacher might help with their subsequent evaluation of the underinformative teacher. Second, young children might fail because they are more tolerant of underinformative pedagogy, in which case they would show generous evaluations regardless of the order. In light of these possibilities, the current study investigates the developmental trajectory of children’s ability to evaluate underinformative pedagogy. We designed a task similar to that used in Gweon et al. (2014) in which children first discovered all functions of a novel toy and then observed a puppet teacher teach another puppet learner about the toy. Critically, we adopted a within-subjects paradigm in which children observed and rated two teachers sequentially: a fully informative teacher and an underinformative teacher, in two different orders. Given the effect of prior exposure to better alternative scalar items in evaluating pragmatically underinformative utterances (Skordos & Papafragou, 2016), this within-subjects design allowed us to explore the possibility that young children’s evaluations of an underinformative teacher are affected by their prior experiences with a fully informative teacher. Acknowledging limitations of using binary measures in assessing children’s pragmatic competence (Katsos & Bishop, 2011), we used a continuous, multipoint scale following Gweon et al. (2014) so that children could provide graded evaluations for each teacher. In Experiment 1, we first replicated 6- and 7-year-olds’ ability to evaluate underinformative teachers (Gweon et al., 2014) using this computer-based, within-subjects task. In Experiment 2, we asked whether 4- and 5-year-olds show difficulty evaluating underinformative teachers and whether their evaluations are affected by order of teachers. In Experiment 3, we further explore the nature of young children’s difficulty by manipulating the kind of teacher children observed first before observing the underinformative teacher. In Experiment 4, we presented 4-year-olds with a direct contrast between the two teachers in a binary choice paradigm. **Experiment 1** In Experiment 1, we replicated Gweon et al. (2014) with the same age group (6- and 7-year-olds) using a novel, computer-based task. Our task closely mirrored the one used in Gweon et al. (2014) except that children watched video clips of human actors discover all functions of the toys (rather than exploring the toys themselves) and saw videos of puppet teachers on stage (rather than seeing the experimenter impersonate a puppet teacher). This computer-based task used pre recorded videos to help minimize potential variability in children’s interactions with the toys and the puppets’ actions, and shortened the overall task to allow multiple teachers to be observed and evaluated sequentially. Each child provided a pair of ratings: one for a teacher who demonstrated one function of a single-function toy (*informative teacher*; equivalent to the teacher in Teach 1/1 condition in Gweon et al., 2014), and another teacher who demonstrated only one function of a four-function toy (*underinformative teacher*; equivalent to the teacher in Teach 1/4 condition in Gweon et al., 2014). By manipulating the order of teachers across conditions while controlling for the number of demonstrations, we asked whether children’s evaluation of the underinformative teacher is influenced by their previous observation and evaluation of the informative teacher (Figure 1). **Method** **Subjects** Twenty-eight 6- and 7-year-olds were recruited from a local museum (17 girls; $M_{\text{age}}(SD) = 7.05$ (0.54), range = 6.07–7.90), and were randomly assigned to the informative first condition ($N = 14$) or the underinformative first condition ($N = 14$). This sample size was larger than the minimum ![Figure 1. Procedures in Experiments 1 and 2, and the rating scale.](image-url) required for 80% power in a within-subjects design given the large effect size ($d = 1.1$) in Gweon et al. (2014), Experiment 1 (data collection period: August 2013–April 2014; three additional children were tested in March 2015). An additional six children were dropped from analysis due to experimental error ($N = 2$), failure to pass the predefined inclusion criteria of correctly reporting the number of functions of the toy ($N = 2$), or rating the incorrect teacher higher than the correct teacher ($N = 2$; see Procedure). The demographics of participants were representative of a typical urban middle-class neighborhood. **Materials** Stimuli were presented as videos on a 13-in. MacBook Pro using MATLAB and PsychToolBox. Children viewed four trials total: two critical trials in which a puppet teacher demonstrated a toy (toy teacher trials: informative teacher and underinformative teacher) and two additional trials in which a puppet teacher provided labels for familiar objects (label teacher trials: correct teacher and incorrect teacher). Two custom-made toys, one yellow (Toy A) and one gray (Toy B), were used in the toy teacher trials. Toy A, which was used in Gweon et al. (2014), had four causal affordances: twisting a purple knob activated a wind-up mechanism, pressing a yellow button activated LED lights, pressing a green button activated a spinning light, and pressing an orange button played music tunes. Toy B also had four causal affordances: pressing a purple tab made a beeping sound, pressing a gray tab produced a buzzing sound, pulling down a flap on one side revealed a hidden mirror, and pulling down a flap on another side revealed a hidden embroidered duck. All of these were nonobvious causal affordances; thus, each toy could be presented as a toy with four functions (in the underinformative teacher trial) or presented as if it just had a single function (in the informative teacher trial). The type of toy was counterbalanced throughout; half the children saw Toy A in the informative teacher trial and Toy B in the underinformative teacher trial, whereas the other half saw the reverse. For label teacher trials, four common household objects were used: a stuffed carrot, a toy plane, a ball, and a stuffed tiger. Four hand puppets were used as the toy teachers (Paul and Bill for informative and underinformative trials) and label teachers (Sally and Laura for correct and incorrect trials). An Elmo puppet was used as a naïve learner. Children used a rating scale with tick marks (0–20) and a magnetic marker to evaluate each teacher. The scale was split into four different colored sections, along with faces that varied from frowny to smiley to serve as anchor points between the sections. **Procedure** Participants were tested in a quiet room inside the museum. All participants first received a brief training with the rating scale. The experimenter said, “We will watch some teachers who will teach Elmo about their toys. Then we will tell them how helpful they were in teaching Elmo so that they can do a better job next time.” She briefly explained the rating scale, and asked children to indicate where they would place the marker on the scale if the teacher did a “very good job,” “just okay,” and “not a good job” teaching Elmo about the toy. Children then underwent two toy teacher trials followed by two label teacher trials (correct and incorrect). Across two conditions, we varied the order of the toy teacher trials. In the informative first condition, the informative teacher trial was presented first; in the underinformative first condition, the underinformative teacher trial was presented first. Each toy teacher trial consisted of three phases: exploration, teaching, and rating (see Figure 1). **Exploration.** Children first watched a video of a naïve adult exploring the toy. Two different adults explored Toy A and Toy B, respectively. In the informative teacher trial, the adult said, “I wonder what this toy does!” and discovered one function of the toy (wind-up mechanism on the Toy A; beep on Toy B) while acknowledging that other parts do not do anything. At the end of the video, she exclaimed, “This toy does one thing!” In the underinformative teacher trial, the adult sequentially discovered four functions of the toy, and said, “This toy does four things!” We ensured that the adult did not deliver any pedagogical cues; they initially claimed to be naïve about the toy, their utterances were self-directed, and they never directly addressed the child or made eye contact with the camera. Children were then asked how many things the toy does. If the child could not answer or gave an incorrect answer, the experimenter replayed the video and prompted the child again. We dropped and replaced two children who were unable to report the correct number of functions after the second viewing. **Teaching.** Children then watched a video of a toy teacher (Paul or Bill) teaching Elmo about the same toy they saw in the exploration phase. The toy teacher said, “Hi, I’m Paul (Bill), and I know all about this toy. I’m going to show you how it works!” Critically, in both the informative teacher and underinformative teacher trials, children watched the toy teacher demonstrate just one function. Thus, the toy teacher was fully informative in the informative teacher trial and underinformative in the underinformative teacher trial. Rating. The experimenter then brought out the scale and asked the child, “How helpful was Paul (Bill)? How good of a job did he do teaching Elmo about the toy?” The participant indicated his or her response by placing a small marker on the rating scale. Then, the same procedure (exploration, teaching, and rating) was repeated with the other trial. After rating two toy teachers, children rated two label teachers who taught Elmo the names of familiar objects. The correct teacher correctly referred to a toy carrot as a “carrot” and a toy plane as a “plane”; the incorrect teacher incorrectly labeled a ball as a “cup” and a stuffed tiger as a “cow.” After each teacher provided names for the objects, the experimenter brought out the same scale and asked the child to rate the teacher. The order of the correct and incorrect teachers was counterbalanced. As prior work suggests that even preschoolers reliably distinguish informants who provide correct and incorrect names of familiar objects (e.g., Koenig & Harris, 2005), these ratings were mainly collected to identify children who did not yet understand how to use the rating scale. Pilot data on an earlier version of the study suggested that younger children are less likely to provide clear justifications for their ratings; due to the length of the task and multiple rating trials, we collected explanations only as an optional, exploratory measure (mainly from older participants in Experiment 1, and about half of the participants in Experiment 2 who seemed comfortable verbally interacting with the experimenter) by asking them to justify their response after each rating. Results and Discussion First, we asked whether our results replicated Gweon et al. (2014) by comparing just the first trial of each participant, as if the two groups of children rated either the informative teacher or the underinformative teacher. Consistent with previous findings, 6- and 7-year-olds who rated the informative teacher on their first trial gave a higher rating than those who rated the underinformative teacher on their first trial (informative teacher $M(SD) = M(SD) = 14.75(4.18)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 8.57(5.45)$, $t(24) = 3.37$, $p = .003$). Given that we implemented a within-subjects design in which each child rated both teachers, we also collapsed the informative first and underinformative first conditions to compare the average ratings for informative and underinformative teachers. Again, 6- and 7-year-olds gave a higher rating for the toy teacher in the informative teacher trials than in the underinformative teacher trials (informative teacher $M(SD) = 15.30(4.73)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 8.25(5.78)$, $t(27) = 5.85$, $p < .001$). To ask whether the order of the toy teachers affected ratings, we performed a 2 (trial: informative teacher, underinformative teacher) $\times$ 2 (condition: informative first, underinformative first) mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) with trial as a within-subjects factor and condition as a between-subjects factor. The results revealed a significant effect of trial, $F(1, 26) = 33.01$, $p < .001$, $\eta^2 = .318$, no main effect of condition, $F(1, 26) = .29$, $p = .592$, and no interaction between condition and trial, $F(1, 26) = .04$, $p = .851$. Planned $t$ tests confirmed that children in both conditions rated the informative teacher higher than the underinformative teacher (informative first condition: $M(SD) = 14.75(4.18)$ versus 7.93 (6.28), $t(13) = 4.34$, $p < .001$; underinformative first condition: $M(SD) = 15.86(5.33)$ versus 8.57(5.45), $t(13) = 3.86$, $p = .002$). Including children who failed to correctly evaluate the correct and incorrect teachers ($N = 2$) did not change these results. Informative first condition: $M(SD) = 14.70(4.03)$ versus 8.6(6.59), $t(14) = 3.74$, $p = .002$; underinformative first condition: $M(SD) = 16.13(5.25)$ versus 9.33(6.02), $t(14) = 3.73$, $p = .002$. Finally, age did not affect the extent to which children penalized the underinformative teacher relative to the informative teacher; there was no correlation between age and each participant’s difference in ratings of the two teachers (Age $\times$ Difference in Ratings between the informative and underinformative teachers: $r = -.004$, $p = .983$). Children’s explanations further suggested that their low ratings for the underinformative teacher are due to his “sin of omission”; most children (9 of 12 and 8 of 10 in the informative first and underinformative first conditions, respectively) explicitly appealed to the number of functions taught or completeness of teaching (e.g., “he only showed him one thing but there were four things,” “he didn’t teach all of them”). These results replicate the findings from Gweon et al. (2014), showing that by age 6, children reliably detect sins of omission in pedagogical contexts. Even though the two teachers each demonstrated one function of an interesting toy, they appropriately distinguished them in their ratings by giving a lower rating for an underinformative teacher than for a fully informative teacher. By using a within-subjects paradigm, we confirmed that this relative penalty for the underinformative teacher does not change with the order of teachers. As predicted by previously reported success in a between-subjects paradigm (Gweon et al., 2014), children rated the underinformative teacher poorly even when this teacher was the very first teacher they rated (Figure 2). **Experiment 2** In Experiment 2, we examined younger children’s ability to evaluate sins of omission. More specifically, we explored two different ways in which 4- and 5-year-olds have difficulty evaluating underinformative teachers; they might either fail to recognize sins of omission across the board, or their sensitivity might be influenced by whether they observed and evaluated a fully informative teacher before the underinformative teacher. **Method** **Subjects** Given the possibility for an age-related difference between ages 4 and 5, we planned for a larger sample size compared to Experiment 1, ensuring equal numbers of 4- and 5-year-olds. We thus recruited thirty-two 5-year-olds (16 girls; $M_{age}(SD) = 5.46(0.30)$, range = 5.00–5.97, $N = 16$ per condition) and thirty-two 4-year-olds (16 girls; $M_{age}(SD) = 4.51(0.30)$, range = 4.07–4.99, $N = 16$ per condition; data collection: August 2013–May 2014; October 2014–March 2015), from a local museum or a university-affiliated nursery school. Although many families were from middle-class families, their socioeconomic, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds were diverse and representative of the local population. Following Gweon et al. (2014) and Experiment 1, we excluded an additional twenty-two 4-year-olds and twelve 5-year-olds from analysis because they rated the incorrect teacher the same as or higher than the correct teacher. Given the high exclusion rate, we also report results including all children. **Materials** The stimuli were identical as in Experiment 1. **Procedure** All children were assigned either to the informative first or the underinformative first condition, and the procedure was identical to Experiment 1. Because pilot data suggested that 4-year-olds often get confused during the training, we removed the smaller tick marks between the main anchor points for 4-year-olds. This effectively converted the 21-point scale to a 5-point scale, but the scores were converted back to 21 points for comparisons with other data (mapping from 21- to 5-point scale: 0 to 1, 5 to 2, 10 to 3, 15 to 4, 20 to 5). All children received training almost identical to Experiment 1 except that the experimenter mapped all five points on the scale explicitly stating the meaning of each. ![Average Rating](image) *Figure 2. Results from Experiments 1 and 2. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.* point (*very good job teaching, kind of good, just okay, kind of bad, really bad*) to ensure that children understood the scale and the purpose of the rating task. **Results and Discussion** We first compared the ratings between the informative and underinformative teachers using just the first trials, as if the children were run in a between-subjects task. We found that when children rated either the informative or underinformative teacher first, they did not distinguish between the two teachers (informative teacher $M(SD) = 16.95(5.55)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 15.44(7.00)$, $t(59) = 0.96$, $p = .341$). We found the same pattern in the older half of the participants 5-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 16.28(5.94)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 15.88(7.14)$, $t(29) = 0.17$, $p = .862$), as well as in the younger half (4-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 17.63(5.23)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 15.00(7.07)$, $t(27) = 1.19$, $p = .243$). Given that each child rated both teachers, we then used all trials to compare ratings for the toy teachers by collapsing across conditions. We found that children did rate the informative teacher higher than the underinformative teacher, informative teacher $M(SD) = 16.42(5.09)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 13.19(7.72)$, $t(63) = 3.60$, $p < .001$, and this was true not only in the older half of the group, 5-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 15.63(5.21)$ versus underinformative teacher teacher $M(SD) = 13.09(7.66)$, $t(31) = 2.20$, $p = .036$, but also in the younger half, 4-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 17.22(4.93)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 13.28(7.89)$, $t(31) = 2.85$, $p = .008$. Our main question was whether children’s ratings showed different patterns across conditions (order of trials). Collapsing across 4- and 5-year-olds, we found that a 2 (trial: informative teacher vs. underinformative teacher, within-subjects factor) $\times$ 2 (condition: informative first vs. underinformative first; between-subjects factor) mixed ANOVA revealed a significant effect of trial, $F(1, 62) = 15.07$, $p < .001$, $\eta^2 = .062$, and an interaction between trial and condition, $F(1, 62) = 11.14$, $p = .001$, $\eta^2 = .047$. Planned t tests confirmed that children in the informative first condition rated the informative teacher higher than the underinformative teacher, and the pattern was clear in both age groups (5-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 16.28(5.94)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 10.31(7.34)$, $t(15) = 4.22$, $p < .001$; 4-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 17.63(5.23)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 11.56(8.51)$, $t(15) = 2.692$, $p = .017$). However, children showed a marked failure in the underinformative first condition (5-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 14.97(4.45)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 15.88(7.14)$, $t(15) = 0.66$, $p = .522$; 4-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 16.81(4.75)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 15.00(7.07)$, $t(15) = 1.21$, $p = .245$). We then asked whether children’s relative penalty for the underinformative teacher changes with age. No correlation was found between age and the difference between their ratings for the informative and underinformative teachers in either condition (Age $\times$ Difference in Ratings: informative first: $N = 32$, $r = -.08$, $p = .675$; underinformative first: $N = 32$, $r = -.13$, $p = .486$). Many children in this younger age group failed to pass the inclusion criteria: twenty-two 4-year-olds and twelve 5-year-olds failed to rate the correct teacher higher than the incorrect teacher. Given the high exclusion rate, we ran the analyses including these 34 children (total $N = 98$; $M_{age}(SD) = 4.91(0.55)$, range = 4.06–5.97), to confirm that all results remained significant. A 2 (trial) $\times$ 2 (order) ANOVA revealed a significant effect of trial, $F(1, 96) = 14.60$, $p < .001$, and an interaction between trial and order, $F(1, 96) = 12.62$, $p < .001$. Planned t tests in each condition for each age group also showed the same pattern, showing robust success in the informative first condition (5-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 17.28(5.18)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 12.04(7.65)$, $t(22) = 4.05$, $p < .001$; 4-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 18.48(4.09)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 13.28(7.56)$, $t(28) = 3.59$, $p = .001$), and a marked failure in the underinformative first condition (5-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 15.21(5.57)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 15.24(6.91)$, $t(20) = -0.02$, $p = .986$; 4-year-olds: informative teacher $M(SD) = 14.88(6.60)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 14.80(7.14)$, $t(24) = 0.047$, $p = .963$). These results suggest that 4- and 5-year-olds show some sensitivity to sins of omission, but they do so only under specific conditions. Children’s ratings were highly influenced by the order in which they saw different trials; children were able to provide a lower rating for the underinformative teacher (underinformative teacher) only if they had already rated a fully informative teacher (informative teacher). When they saw the underinformative teacher first, children rated this teacher just as highly as the fully informative teacher. It is possible that these results emerged from a simple bias to provide a generous rating for *anyone* they evaluate first. If the baseline rating is higher in younger children, then even though they are sensitive to sins of omission, children in the underinformative first condition might have been unable to rate the informative teacher higher than the underinformative teacher simply because they had already given a very generous rating to the underinformative teacher. If this is the case, then children might provide a similarly generous rating even for a teacher who provides obviously false information. To address this possibility, we recruited a separate group of 4- and 5-year-olds ($N = 12$, 7 girls; $M_{age}$ $(SD) = 5.22(0.52)$, range = 4.37–5.97) years, and asked children to rate the incorrect teacher who provided inaccurate labels for familiar objects (we used the same video clip used in Experiments 1 and 2). The average rating, $M(SD) = 9.58(8.38)$, was just as low as the rating for the incorrect teacher in the main experiment ($M(SD) = 4.02$ (4.88), $p = .196$), and significantly lower than the average rating for the underinformative teacher in the underinformative first condition who was also rated first (incorrect teacher $M(SD) = 9.58(8.38)$ versus incorrect teacher $M(SD) = 15.44(7.00)$, $t(17) = 2.15$, $p = .046$). These data suggest that our 4- and 5-year-olds’ failure to evaluate underinformative teachers in the underinformative first condition is not simply due to a high baseline rating. As expected, the majority of the younger children were unable to verbally justify their ratings or simply restated the meaning of the scale (e.g., “because he did a good job”). However, 8 of 18 in the informative first condition explicitly mentioned the number of functions or the completeness of the demonstration while only 3 of 19 in the underinformative first condition did so ($p = .08$, two-tailed Fisher’s exact test); although these measures were optional and the results are only suggestive, this provides further support that children in the informative first conditions were more likely to recognize omission as a “sin” and appropriately rate the teacher’s underinformative demonstration. In sum, young children’s evaluation of sins of omission was highly influenced by the order of teachers. When 4- and 5-year-olds saw the fully informative teacher before the underinformative teacher, children’s performance was indistinguishable from those of 6- and 7-year-olds in Experiment 1. Furthermore, the relative penalty for the underinformative teacher did not show any age-related change. However, when children saw the underinformative teacher before seeing the fully informative teacher, they failed to rate the two teachers differently. **Experiment 3** Results from Experiment 2 show that young children’s ratings were clearly influenced by the order, suggesting that prior experience with a fully informative teacher is critical for successfully evaluating an underinformative teacher. Why did young children succeed in the informative first condition but not in the underinformative first condition? One possibility is that the mere process of explicitly evaluating a teacher as “helpful” led children to be more vigilant, increasing their sensitivity for sins of omission. If so, we might expect any experience of evaluating a teacher as helpful would lead to success, such as giving a high rating to a teacher who provided accurate information. However, insights from the pragmatics literature suggest that seeing an example of a fully informative demonstration might have helped children generate the relevant scale for evaluating the subsequent underinformative demonstration. Note that children were simply asked to rate “how helpful the teacher was” in teaching Elmo without any specification of what “helpful teaching” entails. That is, a teacher could be regarded as helpful simply by being nice and friendly, showing something interesting, or providing accurate information. Thus, children who saw the underinformative teacher first might have had difficulty understanding the relevant dimension on which the teachers ought to be evaluated. By contrast, children who saw the informative teacher first might have more easily recognized that the next teacher failed to be maximally helpful and that he could have provided additional demonstrations to be fully informative. In Experiment 3, we provide additional support to the hypothesis that young children’s difficulty arises from their inability to spontaneously generate a relevant representation of a fully informative teacher. If children’s success were due to the mere experience of rating a teacher as helpful, then rating a teacher who was helpful for a different reason (i.e., providing accurate labels for objects) would also lead children to successfully evaluate sins of omission. However, if understanding the relevant dimension for comparison (i.e., providing complete information) is critical for evaluating sins of omission, children would continue to fail even after providing high ratings for such a teacher. Method Subjects Eighteen 4- and 5-year-olds were recruited from a university-affiliated nursery school and local museum. Most children were from middle-class families with diverse socioeconomic, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds that were representative of the local population (7 girls; $M_{age}(SD) = 5.15(0.58)$, range = 4.04–5.83; data collection: June 2015–August 2015). Following previous experiments, we excluded seven additional children for rating the incorrect teacher the same as or higher than the correct teacher. Materials Stimuli were identical as in Experiments 1 and 2. Procedure Procedures were similar to Experiments 1 and 2, except that the trial order was fixed. The trials were always shown in this order: correct teacher, underinformative teacher, informative teacher, and incorrect teacher. Results and Discussion Children in Experiment 3 first rated the correct teacher, followed by the underinformative teacher, and then the informative teacher. If the success in the informative first condition in Experiment 2 is simply because children gave a high rating for any teacher, then we would see successful distinction between the two toy teachers in Experiment 3. However, children failed to rate the underinformative teacher lower than the informative teacher (informative teacher $M(SD) = 11.67(8.22)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 13.61(7.43)$, $t(17) = 1.44$, $p = .167$) suggesting that simply giving a high rating to a teacher does not help children succeed. Given the high exclusion rate, we conducted an additional exploratory analysis as in Experiments 1 and 2, including the seven children who failed to pass the inclusion criteria. In this larger data set, a trend that was insignificant in the main analysis became statistically significant; the average rating for the underinformative teacher was *higher* than the informative teacher (informative teacher $M(SD) = 14.2(7.0)$ versus underinformative teacher $M(SD) = 11.8(7.6)$, $t(24) = 2.213$, $p = .037$). Although we did not predict this reversal prior to this analysis, this pattern is not inconsistent with our overall hypothesis. Note that children in Experiment 3 first rated the correct teacher (who simply named familiar objects) followed by the underinformative teacher (who demonstrated a toy that had four interesting functions). This might have highlighted the novelty of the toy and its interesting causal effects, arguably making the next teacher (informative teacher who demonstrated a toy with just one function) relatively less attractive or even considered “less helpful” for some children. Although explanation data could be potentially helpful, only a few offered justifications ($N = 3$) and thus were not analyzed. Therefore, this remains a speculation, and we remain cautious about interpreting the unpredicted effect in this exploratory analysis. Most importantly, the failure in Experiment 3 (compared to their success in the informative first condition in Experiment 2) again reveals a striking limitation in young children’s sensitivity to informativeness. Unlike older children, younger children (4- and 5-year-olds in our sample) failed to recognize and evaluate underinformative pedagogy without first seeing a fully informative demonstration (Figure 3). Experiment 4 Results from Experiment 2 showed that young children successfully detect and evaluate sins of omission under certain conditions. More specifically, when they have had prior experience with a fully informative teacher, even 4-year-olds successfully penalized the underinformative teacher in their ratings. Furthermore, results from Experiment 3 provide suggestive evidence that it is the observation of a fully informative demonstration rather than the process of explicit rating that helps children succeed. If children’s success depends on their understanding of what the teacher could have done, then presenting young children with binary choice between the informative and underinformative teachers would also lead to success even without the experience of explicitly rating the teachers. Observing two teachers back to back should create a clear contextual contrast, and children should succeed regardless of the teacher order. We test this hypothesis in Experiment 4. Furthermore, we limited our age range to just 4-year-olds to provide conclusive evidence that 4-year-olds can successfully evaluate sins of omission given enough contextual support. **Method** **Subjects** Thirty-two 4-year-olds were recruited from a university-affiliated nursery school (18 girls; $M_{\text{age}}$ ($SD$) = 4.43(0.27), range = 3.99–4.97; data collection: January 2015–September 2015). An additional two children were tested but were excluded due to technical errors ($N = 1$) or failing to report the correct number of functions for each toy ($N = 1$). **Materials** Stimuli were identical as in Experiments 1–3. **Procedure** Procedures were similar to Experiments 1–3, except that instead of rating after each trial, children first watched both trials (informative and underinformative, order counterbalanced) and then were asked to choose between the two teachers. The experimenter placed the toy teacher puppets on the table, equidistant from the child, and asked ‘Who did a better job teaching Elmo? Paul or Bill?’ Children indicated their choice by pointing, touching, or saying the puppet’s name. **Results and Discussion** When asked who was more helpful, 72% of children chose the informative teacher over the underinformative teacher (23 of 32; $p = .020$, binomial test). We found no difference between the children who saw the informative teacher first (10 of 15, 67.7%) and the children who saw the underinformative teacher first (13 of 17, 76.4%). Among those who made the correct choice, 14 provided verbal justifications and 6 of these children referred explicitly to the completeness of teaching or number of functions taught; among those who were inaccurate, only 1 of 9 children erroneously said the (chosen) teacher showed more things and the rest provided irrelevant answers (e.g., “I just know it”). These results suggest that given a clear contrast between fully versus underinformative teachers (i.e., having seen both teachers back to back), even 4-year-olds reliably preferred teachers who provide complete information. **General Discussion** Across four experiments, we tested children’s ability to evaluate “sins of omission”; true but underinformative pedagogy that can mislead the learner. We asked whether children provide lower ratings to a teacher who demonstrates one function of a four-function toy (thus providing an underinformative demonstration) than to a teacher who demonstrates one function on a single-function toy (thus providing a fully informative demonstration). Our results (a) replicated earlier work (Gweon et al., 2014) showing that 6- and 7-year-olds successfully rate the underinformative teacher lower than the fully informative teacher using a new task, (b) revealed the same pattern of evaluation in 4- and 5-year-olds, but *only when* the fully informative teacher was evaluated before the underinformative teacher, and (c) provided further evidence with 4-year-olds, showing that they prefer the fully informative teacher over the underinformative teacher after sequentially observing the two teachers. Collectively, these results suggest that children as young as 4 are capable of evaluating sins of omission, although their competence is revealed only under certain conditions. The striking effect of teacher order suggests that young children are not simply more tolerant of underinformativeness. We considered this possibility given recent work suggesting that 5- and 6-year-olds’ fail to reject underinformative utterances because they are more generous toward pragmatic infelicities (Katsos & Bishop, 2011). If children were simply tolerant of pragmatic violations, their ratings would not have been influenced by order; instead, we would have seen a deficit in penalizing the underinformative teacher in both conditions. Although suggestive, children’s explanations in Experiment 2 also provide further support that younger children’s tendency to evaluate teachers with respect to their informativeness is influenced by the order of teachers. However, it remains possible that the reluctance to reject or penalize others further complicates their ability to evaluate sins of omission. The pattern of our data is more consistent with the possibility that children’s difficulty evaluating sins of omission is due to their difficulty understanding what it means for a teacher to be “helpful” in the context. Our hypothesis was motivated by recent work showing children’s limited success in scalar implicature tasks, suggesting that children’s failure to reject underinformative scalar expressions (e.g., use of “some” when “all” applies better) might come from their inability to spontaneously consider the relevant alternative term the speaker could have used (Barner et al., 2011; Foppolo, Guasti, & Chierchia, 2012; Skordos & Papafragou, 2016; Horowitz, Schneider, & Frank, in review). Possible reasons for this difficulty in these tasks include a lack of lexical knowledge as well as a general inferential failure to generate and consider relevant alternative representations. In particular, a recent study showed that young children’s sensitivity to pragmatically underinformative scalar expressions (e.g., “Some of the blickets have a crayon” when all of the blickets have a crayon) is modulated by their prior experience with relevant versus irrelevant uses of a stronger alternative item “all” (Skordos & Papafragou, 2016). More specifically, 5-year-olds were able to reject such underinformative sentences only when they have first rejected a sentence “All of the blickets have umbrellas” as a description of a picture in which only three of four blickets have an umbrella (use of “all” is wrong due to quantity) but not when they rejected the same sentence as a description of a picture in which all of the blickets had a shovel (use of “all” is wrong due to the kind of objects). Similarly, simply accepting a correct use of “all” did not facilitate subsequent rejection of an infelicitous “some,” but evaluating various infelicitous uses of “all” and “some” improved children’s later judgments (Foppolo et al., 2012). These results resonate with the strong effect of teacher order in our findings, adding weight to the idea that the relevant experience of a more appropriate alternative matters for children’s sensitivity to pragmatically underinformative expressions, regardless of whether the inferences are drawn from verbal utterances or pedagogical demonstrations. These parallels, although intriguing, open further questions about how children interpret and evaluate pedagogical actions. Why does prior experience with a fully informative teacher help children evaluate an underinformative teacher? First, seeing a teacher who demonstrates a toy’s function might simply help children detect that another teacher left out some functions while demonstrating a different toy. This might have led children to recognize and penalize the incompleteness of the demonstration itself, in the absence of an understanding that incompleteness can be misleading in pedagogical contexts. Second, because there are many possible ways in which a teacher could be unhelpful (e.g., inaccurate, incomplete, uninteresting, clumsy, too slow, too fast, etc.), seeing an example of a teacher who provides complete information about one toy might help children understand that the currently relevant dimension for comparison or evaluation is the completeness of the demonstration. This might allow children to interpret the incomplete demonstration as potentially misleading and undesirable, and less helpful than what it could have been. Although our study does not directly tease these possibilities apart, 4-year-olds’ robust preference for the fully informative teacher (Experiment 4) provides indirect evidence that even the children in the youngest age group successfully encoded and retained the teachers’ actions regardless of the order. Thus, the benefit of seeing the fully informative teacher might be less about helping children notice the omission per se but more about recognizing and interpreting the omission as a sin. In particular, having a relevant representation of a fully informative teacher might facilitate comparisons with other teachers on the dimension of informativeness, helping children evaluate the underinformative teacher’s actions in light of possible alternatives that could have made his teaching more informative. A body of work on the development of higher order relational reasoning suggests that the process of comparing and categorizing various perceptual figures facilitates children’s ability to detect and evaluate abstract, relational similarities between these figures (e.g., Christie & Gentner, 2010; Kotovsky & Gentner, 1996). Similarly, prior experience with a fully informative teacher might have allowed children to better evaluate the subsequent teacher in light of the fully informative one, leading them to successfully penalize his sin of omission. Children’s explanations in both age groups mostly referred to the incompleteness of teaching (a few mentioned teacher knowledgeability), and almost none mentioned moral (e.g., “he lied”) or trait (e.g., “he was mean”) inferences that go beyond informativeness. However, the exact nature of the representations and the development of richer inferences about moral or dispositional traits of the teachers remain an interesting question for future work. We note at least three different reasons for young children’s difficulty representing relevant alternatives in our task. First, a general limitation in representational capacity might have prevented children from considering the full range of possible alternatives. Indeed, researchers have proposed theoretical connections between pragmatic competence and representational capacity (e.g., Foppolo et al., 2012; see also Gopnik & Rosati, 2001). Second, the social-evaluative nature of our task speaks to the possible role of Theory of Mind and an abstract understanding of informative communication in generating relevant, alternative goal-directed actions. That is, children might have trouble understanding what other demonstrations the teacher could have provided given his intent and knowledge. For instance, if a teacher actually knew only one of the four functions of a toy, he could not have possibly provided more than one demonstration; recent work shows that adults, and even 4- to 6-year-olds exonerate teachers who provide underinformative demonstration due to such epistemic constraints (Bass, Hawthorne, Goodman, & Gweon, 2015; Bass, Bonawitz, & Gweon, 2017). However, in Bass et al. (2017), children had already observed and rated a fully knowledgeable and informative teacher; it would be interesting to examine the developmental trajectory of this “epistemic pardon”, and whether children’s performance would be related to other theory of mind measures. Finally, young children might have struggled with a more local problem of generating what a “good” teacher is like in the specific context of the current task, rather than suffering from a general representational limit or a weak understanding of informative communication. Just as lexical knowledge play a key role in children’s ability to compute scalar implicature (e.g., Barner et al., 2011, Horowitz et al., in review), knowledge of concrete action repertoires available within situational constraints might also be critically important for interpreting and evaluating others’ actions. Importantly, these possibilities are not necessarily mutually exclusive; any and all of these possibilities might have contributed to young children’s limited ability to evaluate sins of omission. In light of these possibilities, we note one interesting aspect of our data; the effect of order appeared rather abruptly between ages 5 and 6, with little evidence for a gradual change between these ages. Collapsing across children who saw the fully informative teachers first in Experiments 1 and 2, the difference in ratings between the two teachers remained stable and robust across ages 4–7. This suggests a possibility that the sensitivity to underinformativeness itself is present even in the youngest children, but a sudden change between ages 5 and 6 facilitated children’s teacher evaluation. One explanation is that experience with formal schooling experience helps children spontaneously understand that the most relevant and defining property of helpful pedagogy is informativeness (e.g., complete demonstration of a toy’s functions). Although we did not collect information about children’s formal schooling experience, further investigating this possibility would help explain the reason behind the sudden shift that occurs during this period. Indeed, further research is required to understand the exact nature of children’s limitations. Nevertheless, our results provide meaningful support for the idea that pragmatic competence, in both verbal communication and in social inferences more generally, is rooted in both content-based knowledge of available words and actions and the ability to represent alternative states of others (both their observable behaviors and their unobservable mental states). Evaluation of pragmatically infelicitous sentences has traditionally been a topic in linguistics; evaluation of “sins of omission,” on the other hand, is considered a topic in social learning and pedagogical reasoning that started to gain interest more recently (Gweon et al., 2014). Although rather different at a superficial level, both can be construed as failures to conform to Grice’s cooperative principles (particularly maxim of quantity, Grice, 1975; see also Horn, 1984). In other words, both are examples of underinformative, and therefore potentially misleading, behaviors that violate the expectation to be helpful for the partner in a given communicative context. Our data suggest that similar representational constraints might underlie children’s difficulty in these two seemingly different domains, providing preliminary empirical support for the theoretical proposal made by Baldwin et al. (2008). More specifically, the inferences drawn from goal-directed, intentional actions might follow similar pragmatic principles that guide our inferences from verbal communicative behaviors. These results build upon recent discoveries of young children’s ability to draw rich, sophisticated inferences from intentional, goal-directed actions of others (e.g., Bonawitz et al., 2011; Butler & Markman, 2012; Gweon, Tenenbaum, & Schulz, 2010; Shneidman et al., 2016) by showing that children evaluate others via the same principle they use for drawing such inferences. By identifying constraints in children’s evaluation that parallel those found in implicature tasks, the current work provides initial steps toward drawing more explicit connections between pragmatic inferences from verbal and nonverbal behaviors. In future work, it would be intriguing to find parallel successes and failures in scalar implicature tasks and our “sins of omissions” task within the same group of participants, as well as the role of representational capacity and theory of mind in children’s performances. We look forward to a body of future work that aims to provide a unified view of pragmatic inferences, finding common social and cognitive capacities that support inferences from both verbal communication and goal-directed actions. Finally, our results have implications for methodological limitations in typical developmental studies in detecting and interpreting developmental changes. In the current study, we modified our previous single-trial task (Gweon et al., 2014) to specifically test the hypothesis that accessing alternatives is requisite to younger children’s appropriate evaluations of underinformative demonstrations. In the absence of this prediction, one could have used a between-subject paradigm to test this younger population and concluded that 4- and 5-year-olds “do not yet recognize sins of omission.” We were able to detect this competence only by asking children to evaluate both teachers. However, repeated questioning comes with its own hazards (e.g., Gonzalez, Shafto, Bonawitz, & Gopnik, 2012; Poole & White, 1991), and it is not always the ideal design in many developmental studies. Our findings highlight the importance of carefully considering the limitations of experimental designs particularly when drawing conclusions about developmental trajectory. Even from early in life, humans constantly communicate with and learn from each other. Although the format of information and the modalities by which we communicate might vary across contexts, we are always tuned to others’ intentions and knowledge, and we attempt to infer what others mean by going beyond the evidence. From this perspective, violations of pedagogical sampling and violations of scalar implicature are both failures to conform to what we expect of others’ behaviors. The current study provides an important first step toward providing empirical links between some of the most distinctively human behaviors: teaching, learning, and communication. References Baldwin, D., Loucks, J., & Sabbagh, M. (2008). Pragmatics of human action. In T. F. Shipley & J. M. Zacks (Eds.), *Understanding events: From perception to action* (pp. 96–129). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195188370.003.0006 Barner, D., Brooks, N., & Bale, A. (2011). Accessing the unsaid: The role of scalar alternatives in children’s pragmatic inference. *Cognition, 118*, 84–93. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.10.010 Bass, I., Bonawitz, L. B., & Gweon, H. (under review). *Didn’t know, or didn’t show? Preschoolers consider epistemic state and degree of omission when evaluating teachers*. Proceedings of Cognitive Science Society. Bass, I., Hawthorne, D., Goodman, N. D., & Gweon, H. (2015). Not by number alone: The effect of teacher’s knowledge and its value in evaluating “sins of omission.” In D. C. Noelle, R. Dale, A. S. Warlaumont, J. Yoshimi, T. Matlock, C. D. Jennings, & P. P. Maglio (Eds.), *Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society* (pp. 166–171). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society. Birch, S. A. J., Vauthier, S. A., & Bloom, P. (2008). Three- and four-year-olds spontaneously use others’ past performance to guide their learning. *Cognition, 107*, 1018–1034. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.12.008 Bonawitz, E., Shafto, P., Gweon, H., Goodman, N. D., Spelke, E., & Schulz, L. (2011). The double-edged sword of pedagogy: Instruction limits spontaneous exploration and discovery. *Cognition, 120*, 322–330. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.10.001 Butler, L. P., & Markman, E. M. (2012). Preschoolers use intentional and pedagogical cues to guide inductive inferences and exploration. *Child Development, 83*, 1416–1428. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01775 Christie, S., & Gentner, D. (2010). Where hypotheses come from: Learning new relations by structural alignment. *Journal of Cognition and Development, 11*, 356–373. doi:10.1080/15248371003700015 Foppolo, F., Guasti, M. T., & Chierchia, G. (2012). Scalar implicatures in child language: Give children a chance. *Language Learning and Development, 8*, 365–394. doi:10.1080/15475441.2011.626386 Gonzalez, A., Shafto, P., Bonawitz, E., & Gopnik, A. (2012). Is that your final answer? The effects of neutral queries on children’s choices. In N. Miyake, D. Peebles, & R. P. Cooper (Eds.), *Proceedings of the 34th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society* (pp. 1614–1619). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society. Gopnik, A., & Rosati, A. (2001). Duck or rabbit? Reversing ambiguous figures and understanding ambiguous representations. *Developmental Science, 4*, 175–183. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00163 Goupil, L., Romand-Monnier, M., & Kouider, S. (2016). Infants ask for help when they know they don’t know. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113*, 3492–3496. doi:10.1073/pnas.1515129113 Grice, H. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), *Syntax and semantics Vol. 3: Speech acts* (pp. 41–58). New York, NY: Academic Press. Gweon, H., Pelton, H., Konopka, J. A., & Schulz, L. E. (2014). Sins of omission: Children selectively explore when teachers are under-informative. *Cognition, 132*, 335–341. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.04.013 Gweon, H., & Schulz, L. E. (2011). 16-Month-olds rationally infer causes of failed actions. *Science, 332*, 1524. doi:10.1126/science.1204493 Gweon, H., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Schulz, L. E. (2010). Infants consider both the sample and the sampling process in inductive generalization. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107*, 9066–9071. doi:10.1073/pnas.1003095107 Horn, L. (1984). Toward a new taxonomy for pragmatic inference: Q-based and R-based implicature. In D. Schiffrin (Ed.). *Meaning, form, and use in context: Linguistic applications* (Vol. 11-42). New York: Academic Press. Horowitz, A. C., Schneider, R. M., & Frank, M. C. (under review). The trouble with quantifiers: Exploring children’s deficits in scalar implicature. Huang, Y. T., & Snedeker, J. (2009). Semantic meaning and pragmatic interpretation in 5-year-olds: Evidence from real-time spoken language comprehension. *Developmental Psychology, 45*, 1723–1739. doi:10.1037/a0016704 Jaswal, V., & Neely, L. (2006). Adults don’t always know best. *Psychological Science, 17*, 757–758. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01778.x Katsos, N., & Bishop, D. V. (2011). Pragmatic tolerance: Implications for the acquisition of informativeness and implicature. *Cognition, 120*, 67–81. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.02.015 Koenig, M., Clément, F., & Harris, P. (2004). Trust in testimony. *Psychological Science, 15*, 694–698. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00742.x Koenig, M. A., & Harris, P. L. (2005). Preschoolers mistrust ignorant and inaccurate speakers. *Child Development, 76*(6), 1261–1277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00849.x Kotovsky, L., & Gentner, D. (1996). Comparison and categorization in the development of relational similarity. *Child Development, 67*, 2797–2822. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01889.x Noveck, I. A. (2001). When children are more logical than adults: Experimental investigations of scalar implicature. *Cognition, 78*, 165–188. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00114-1 Papafragou, A. (2006). From scalar semantics to implicature: Children’s interpretation of aspectuals. *Journal of Child Language, 33*, 721–757. doi:10.1017/S0305000906007550 Papafragou, A., & Musolino, J. (2003). Scalar implicatures: Experiments at the semantics-pragmatics interface. *Cognition, 86*, 253–282. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00179-8 Pasquini, E. S., Corriveau, K. H., Koenig, M., & Harris, P. L. (2007). Preschoolers monitor the relative accuracy of informants. *Developmental Psychology, 43*, 1216–1226. doi:10.1037/0012-16184.108.40.2066 Poole, D., & White, L. (1991). Effects of question repetition on the eyewitness testimony of children and adults. *Developmental Psychology, 27*, 975–986. doi:10.1037/0012-16220.127.116.115 Shafto, P., Goodman, N. D., & Frank, M. C. (2012). Learning from others: The consequences of psychological reasoning for human learning. *Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7*, 341–351. doi:10.1177/1745691612448481 Shafto, P., Goodman, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2014). A rational account of pedagogical reasoning: teaching by, and learning from, examples. *Cognitive Psychology, 71*, 55–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.12.004 Shneidman, L., Gweon, H., Schulz, L. E., & Woodward, A. L. (2016). Learning from others and spontaneous exploration: A cross-cultural investigation. *Child Development, 87*, 723–735. doi:10.1111/cdev.12502 Skordos, D., & Papafragou, A. (2016). Children’s derivation of scalar implicatures: Alternatives and relevance. *Cognition, 153*, 6–18. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.04.006 Stiller, A. J., Goodman, N. D., & Frank, M. C. (2015). Ad-hoc implicature in preschool children. *Language Learning and Development, 11*, 176–190. doi:10.1080/15475441.2014.927328
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Factoring $ax^2+bx+c$ if ‘a’ is not 1 and can’t be factored out 1. Check for a common factor 2. Multiply ‘a’ by ‘c’ 3. Find two integers who have a product of this number ($a \times c$) and a sum of ‘b’ 4. Break up the middle term into the integers that satisfy the product and sum 5. Factor by grouping Factoring $ax^2+bx+c$ if ‘a’ is 1 or can be factored out 1. Check for a common factor 2. Find two integers who have a product of ‘c’ and a sum of ‘b’ 3. Put those integers into $(x+r)(x+s)$ for ‘r’ and ‘s’ Completing the Square: Going from standard form to vertex form $y = ax^2 + bx + c$ to $y = a(x-h)^2 + k$ 1) Put brackets around the first two terms 2) Factor out the number in front of the $x^2$ (not the letter) 3) Look at the last term in the brackets, divide it by 2 and then square it. 4) Add and subtract that term behind the last term in the brackets. 5) Move the negative term outside of the brackets 6) Simplify the terms outside of the brackets. 7) Factor the perfect square trinomial $(x + b/2)^2$ Perfect Square Trinomial: $a^2 + 2ab + b^2 = (a+b)^2$ $a^2 - 2ab + b^2 = (a-b)^2$ Remember: the ‘c’ value of a perfect square trinomial is half of the ‘b’ value squared: $(b/2)^2$ Chapter 6 Solving by Factoring: 1) It must be set to equal 0. Before factoring, it must be in the form $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$ 2) Factor the left side of the equation 3) Set each factor to equal zero and solve for ‘x’. Use the discriminate to determine the number of roots: If $b^2 - 4ac$ is < 0 $\rightarrow$ 0 roots If $b^2 - 4ac$ is = 0 $\rightarrow$ 1 root If $b^2 - 4ac$ is > 0 $\rightarrow$ 2 roots Remember: the axis of symmetry is the x-coordinate of the vertex. Find the axis of symmetry by adding the x-intercepts and then dividing by 2. Use the axis of symmetry to find the y-coordinate of the vertex.
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Oak Field School Food Policy Philosophy - Oak Field School is dedicated to providing an environment that promotes healthy eating and enables children and young people to make informed choices about the food they eat. This will be achieved by a whole school approach to food and nutrition documented in this school food policy. - Education staff, Health staff, and the school caterers have a key role in influencing students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes about food, so we support a whole school approach where students receive consistent messages about healthy eating across the formal curriculum, food provisions, school practices and **staff acting as role models**. - The school recognises the important connection between healthy eating and a student’s ability to learn effectively and achieve high standards in school; the importance of supporting pupils to be a healthy weight for their long term health to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and certain cancers in later life; that food choices can have an impact on levels of tooth decay; the importance of balanced healthy eating to address these issues, and that it has a role to play to help students and families develop the skills, attitudes and knowledge they need to make healthier food choices. - The school recognises the value of students having the opportunity to cook food within the school environment so they can learn about budgeting and meal planning, develop basic cooking and food hygiene skills and learn about healthy eating in an interactive and enjoyable way. - The school provides opportunities for pupils to shop for, prepare and cook both within the curriculum and within out of hours learning. Aims - To enable students to be aware of, and if appropriate to make, healthy food choices through the provision of information and the development of appropriate skills and attitudes. - To ensure that all aspects of food and drink in school promote the health and well being of students, staff and visitors to our school. Strategies for putting policy into practice Curriculum - Oak Field School is using the ‘Good Food Deal’ from the Health Education Trust. - Food and nutrition is taught at each key stage through appropriate schemes of work. Effective teaching develops students’ understanding of healthy eating issues and appropriate skills and attitudes to assist them in making informed decisions. - Teaching methods adopted in the classroom offer a rich variety of opportunities for participatory learning and include sensory exploration, group discussions and role-play. Rewards and Celebrations - Our school does **not** encourage the regular eating of sweets or other foods high in sugar or fat, especially as a reward for good behaviour or academic or other achievements. Other methods of positive reinforcement such as praise, ‘Star of the Week’ and being invited to go out in assembly for good work are used in school. Parties or celebrations to mark religious or cultural occasions and fundraising events are exempt from the standards, but organisers do consider healthier alternatives where possible. **Food and drink provision throughout the day** - The school actively works with the school catering team to produce nutritionally balanced lunches. - The school provides students aged between 4 & 6 with a free piece of fruit or vegetable each school day and many pupils are provided with/buy cartons of milk. - The school provides drinking water through taps in every classroom and in many of the other curriculum areas. - The school’s policy on snacks and packed lunches is to encourage the sending in of healthy packed lunch options with fruit and vegetables, water, milk, pure fruit juices, and healthy snacks such as raisins rather than fizzy drinks, crisps and chocolate. - Parents / carers are invited to informal sessions where this can be discussed. **Growing Food** - The school believes that providing opportunities for children and young people to grow food and learn about how food is produced is an important part of a whole school approach to healthy eating. - The school also provides opportunities for pupils to get involved in growing food through the 6th Form Enterprise Group as well as part of Nottingham in Bloom activities. **Roles and responsibilities** **Religious and ethnic groups** - The school provides food in accordance with pupils’ religious beliefs and cultural practices. This includes Halal meat once a week. **Vegetarians and vegans** - School caterers offer a vegetarian option at lunch every day. When necessary the school can also provide a vegan option. - Care is taken to meet the dietary needs of all the pupils, many of whom have complex health and/or eating and drinking needs, such as soft or liquidised food. **Medical diets, food allergy and food intolerance** - The school ensures that children and young people with food allergies and intolerances and other types of medical diets receive appropriate foods to meet their needs. Individual care plans are created for pupils with food allergies and information is shared, as appropriate. **Food Safety** - Appropriate food safety precautions are taken when food is prepared or stored **Staff training** - It is important that staff are familiar with healthy eating guidelines. To facilitate this, all staff are offered the opportunity to participate in healthy eating training sessions. - Midday supervisors are supported to attend training around healthy eating and how to support and encourage children to make healthier choices. **Assessment recording and reporting** - Teachers assess work both by making informal judgements, as they observe students during lessons, and through formal assessments of the work done, gauging it against the specific learning objectives set out in the National Curriculum. We have clear expectations of what the pupils will know, understand and be able to do at the end of each Key Stage, appropriate to their learning needs. - Pupils’ efforts are further celebrated during Friday assemblies and Key stage assemblies, when children from each class are recognised for excellent effort in school during the week. Monitoring and Evaluation Education staff are encouraged to use a range of strategies to evaluate teaching and learning. These include: - Discussion of the suitability of resources and methodology at team meetings. - Simple evaluation sheets for completion at the end of a session - on the ‘what have you learned?’ model. - Consultation with pupils through the School Council. This includes scope for the formation of task groups or focus groups of pupils to look at existing provision and to make recommendations for the future. - Questionnaires for pupils at the end of a module or at the end of a special event about the suitability of the programme and resources. The PSHE team, will review this document every two years – Sept 2016 Date of review – Sept 2018
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After all players have mastered how to thump a Thingdoodle, make sure the Thingdoodles are randomly placed around the playing surface. Pass the spinner to the youngest player who will go first. **Play:** All players place their mallets on the table. Spin the spinner for all to see where the arrow lands. As soon as the spinner stops, all players pick up their mallets and start thumpin’ the correct color or type of Thingdoodle. Once all the correct Thingdoodles are thumped, each player counts the number of correct Thingdoodles wrapped around his or her mallet and crosses off that number of boxes on their score pad. **Note:** If a Thingdoodle is thumped but gets away from a player’s mallet, the Thingdoodle is out of play. After all players have recorded their scores, the spinner is passed counterclockwise to the next player for the next round to begin. **Win:** The first player to collect 20 or more Thingdoodles **WINS!** *If more than one player collects 20 or more Thingdoodles at the end of a round, those players participate in a thump off.* To start the thump off, participating players place their mallets on the table. All Thingdoodles are placed randomly on the playing surface. The youngest player says “Thump off! Ready, set, go!” All participating players pick up their mallets and race to thump as many Thingdoodles as possible. The player with the most Thingdoodles on their mallet once all Thingdoodles have been collected is the winner. --- **Objective:** Be the first player to correctly “thump” and collect 20 **Thingdoodles** to win the game! **Set-Up:** You will need a pencil for each player to keep score. Take a moment to meet the two types of Thingdoodles: Both types of Thingdoodles come in 4 colors: **blue**, **orange**, **green** and purple. Make sure all players can correctly identify these colors and tell the difference between **Doodledoes** and **Doodledoos**. Take a moment to familiarize all players with the spinner. Each player chooses a mallet and takes a score sheet. Place all Thingdoodles face up on a flat, hard surface within reach of all players. Practice hitting a Thingdoodle with your mallet. Notice how the Thingdoodle magically wraps around your mallet once it is hit. **Hint:** try to hit the Thingdoodle in the center.
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Shaping the Law of the Land: Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature Denver Public Schools In partnership with Metropolitan State College of Denver Shaping the Law of the Land: Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature By Steve Garner Grades: 9-12 Implementation Time: 8 weeks Published 2003 Denver Public Schools, Denver, Colorado The Alma Curriculum and Teacher Training Project Loyola A. Martinez, Project Director Shaping the Law of the Land: Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature Unit Concepts - Republican Democracy - Contrasting Civic Life with Personal Life - Civic Virtue - Historical Events in Colorado - The Shaping of Colorado - Historical Perspective - Legislative Process - Public Policy Making - Historical Figures Standards Addressed by this Unit Civics Students understand the purposes of government and the basic constitutional principles of the United States republican form of government.(C1) Students know the structure and function of local, state, and national government and how citizen involvement shapes public policy.(C2) Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national.(C4) Students use appropriate technologies to obtain, study, process, apply, and communicate civic information and concepts related to the study of civics.(C5) Geography Students know how to use and construct maps and other geographic tools to locate and derive information about people, places and environments.(G1) Students know the physical and human characteristics of places and used this knowledge to define and study regions and their patterns of change.(G2) Students understand how economic, political, cultural, and social processes interact to shape patterns of human populations, interdependence, cooperation, and conflict.(G4) History Students understand the chronological organization of history and know how to organize events and people into major eras to identify and explain historical relationships.(H1) Students know how to use the processes and resources of historical inquiry.(H2) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time.(H3) Students understand how science, technology, and economic activity have developed, changed, and affected societies throughout history.(H4) Students understand political institutions and theories that have developed and changed over time.(H5) Students know that religious and philosophical ideas have been powerful forces throughout history.(H6) Students use appropriate technologies to obtain historical information; to study and/or model historical information and concepts; and to access, process, and communicate information related to the study of history.(H7) Reading and Writing Students read and understand a variety of materials.(RW1) Students will write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences.(RW2) Students write and speak using formal grammar, usage, sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling (RW3) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing.(RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources.(RW5) Introduction On April 13, 1991 the people of Colorado suffered a grave loss with the unexpected and sudden death of Richard T. Castro. While Castro was best known as a civil rights activist and statesman, coming up through the turbulent era of the 60’s and early 70’s, he was also known to thousands around the state for his scholarship and regular publication of articles on the historical contributions of Hispanic people to the Americas. He clearly felt that there was great importance in knowing one’s history—not only for the facts themselves, but also for the light they shed on the events of the present. At the time of his death, Mr. Castro was compiling a history of Colorado’s Hispanic legislators—a topic which he felt had not been given its due attention. Unfortunately, that work was never completed. In a bold partnership with the Denver Public Schools, specifically the Alma Project, Friends of Richard T. Castro Elementary School, Inc., the Center for Community Enrichment at Denver University’s Graduate School of Social Work, El Museo de las Americas, and an advisory board of over twenty-five civic leaders, a new exhibit entitled “Shaping the Law of the Land: Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature” is being staged with this unit of instruction as its complement. While this unit stands alone, independently of the exhibit, it is hoped that many, many metro Denver students will attend the exhibit and learn more about this often neglected chapter of Colorado history. Richard T. Castro exemplified civic values and civic virtue; indeed, he sacrificed much of his life for the common good and democratic principles. Thus, he is a fitting exemplar of the many, many legislators—over 115 in all—that have served the state of Colorado from the territorial period through statehood. During this unit of instruction, students will explore the concepts of civic values and civic virtue through the life story of Richard T. Castro, then apply that knowledge to their historical inquiry of Hispanic legislators in Colorado. A review of the historical development of Colorado and the contributions of Hispanics in general, and Hispanic legislators in particular, will call into question the importance of perspective. Students will examine and analyze numerous historical maps, before contrasting Eurocentric and Hispanocentric histories of the state. A guided brainstorm of civic values will lead students to cooperatively review the legislative process and the individual formulation of policy statements. A final assessment will give students the opportunity to synthesize their learning and demonstrate mastery of key unit concepts. Implementation Guidelines While the teaching of the above content is the primary goal of the unit, also incorporated is a strong emphasis on a variety of formal and informal literacy skills critical to academic success. Moreover, a purposeful attempt has been made to meet the needs of diverse learners. Thus, you will note a reference to one or more of Howard Gardner’s “Eight Intelligences” along with the lesson title in the table of contents. Though the unit is meant to be implemented as an integrated whole, each lesson stands alone and is open to the creative interpretation and implementation of the teacher. Teachers with a specific content in focus may want to pick and choose from the lessons. For an American History or Latino History focus, select lessons 1,2,3,4,7,8,9, 10 & 11 For a Civics focus, select lessons 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,10,12,13,14,15, & 16 For Contemporary Issues, select lessons 1,2,3,4,5,14,15, & 16 To facilitate implementation, make two packets for student use: 1) a packet of all the worksheets for the student to hand in at the end of the unit; 2) classroom sets of resources organized in sequential order for student use in class. This additional structure and organization will facilitate the creation of an overall rubric for the unit, so that grades can be fairly and easily determined. **Instructional Materials and Resources** The following resources are needed for implementing this unit: *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration, and Policy*, by Robert S. Lorch *Historical Atlas of the American West*, by Warren Back and Ynez D. Haase Supplemental Guide (includes the following sections): Section I: *Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist*, by Loretta M. Gonzales Section II: *Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data Table* Section III: *Selected Biographies of Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature*, by Steve Garner Section IV: *A Short History of the Hispanic experience in Colorado from the First Settlers to the Present*, by Jose Aguayo Section V: *Colorado State Archives: Colorado History Chronology* Section VI: *How a Bill Becomes a Law Scenario*) *We Were Chicanos: Remembering Richard Castro* (video) The following books are suggested for teacher reference: *500 Years of Chicano History in Pictures*, Elizabeth Martinez, Ed. *Chicano: The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement* by F. Arturo Rosales *Historical Atlas of Colorado*, by Thomas J. Noel and Paul F. Mahoney *The New York Times Almanac: 2003* (required teachers reference) The following are resources and materials for each unit: **Lesson 1:** - Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts worksheet - Vocabulary Re-Enforcer worksheet **Lesson 2:** - Anticipation Guide for the biography of Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist worksheet **Lesson 3:** - *Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and civil Rights Activist* by Loretta M. Gonzales (Supplemental Guide, Section I) - Biography of Richard Thomas Castro worksheet Two column paper Lesson 4: *We Were Chicanos: Remembering Richard Castro* (video) We were Chicanos worksheet We Were Chicanos Summary Paragpahps worksheet Two column paper Lesson 5: Civic Life Versus Personal Life worksheet Lesson 6: *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration, and Policy*, by Robert S. Lorch Loose leaf paper Lesson 7: *Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data Table* (Supplemental Guide, Section II) Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data Table worksheet Shaping the Law of the Land: Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature exhibit Lesson 8: *Selected Biographies of Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature* (Supplemental Guide, Section III) Selected Biographies of Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature worksheet Specially prepared two column note paper and 4 x 6 note cards for each student Lesson 9: *Historical Atlas of the American West*, by Warren Back and Ynez D. Haase Historical Atlas of the American West worksheet Lesson 10: *A Short History of the Hispanic experience in Colorado from the First Settlers to the Present*, by Jose Aguayo (Supplemental Guide, Section IV) Short History of Hispanic Experience worksheet Two column notepaper Loose leaf paper Lesson 11: *Colorado State Archives: Colorado History Chronology* (Supplemental Guide, Section V) *A Short History of the Hispanic experience in Colorado from the First Settlers to the Present*, by Jose Aguayo (Supplemental Guide, Section IV) Two Histories of Colorado: Comparing a Eurocentric and Hispanocentric View worksheet Rulers Loose leaf paper Lesson 12: *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration, and Policy*, by Robert S. Lorch Colorado and the Union worksheets Specially prepared two-column notepaper Lesson 13: *The New York Times Almanac: 2003* (for teacher reference) *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration, and Policy*, by Robert S. Lorch Structure of the Federal Government and Structure of the State Government worksheets Lesson 14: *How a Bill Becomes a Law Scenario* (Supplemental Guide, Section VI) *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration, and Policy*, by Robert S. Lorch How a Bill Becomes a Law worksheet Lesson 15: Civic Values & Democratic Participation Brainstorming worksheet Lesson 16: Crafting a Policy Statement worksheet Summary Paragraph worksheet Current newspaper for each student # Table of Contents **Lesson 1: Vocabulary Re-Enforcer** ................................................................. 8 Key vocabulary and concepts are introduced to help students form a foundation for the in-depth study that will follow. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence **Lesson 2: Anticipation Guide for the Biography of Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist** .................................................. 15 Students are prompted to examine their own values and views of the world as they prepare for the subsequent reading. Reflection and Analysis Intra-Personal Intelligence Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence **Lesson 3: Biography of Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist** ........................................................................................................... 19 The biography of Richard Castro is presented along with his civic contributions. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence **Lesson 4: We Were Chicanos: Remembering Richard Castro** ............................................ 23 Students are introduced to the Chicano civil rights movement and the role of Richard Castro. Visual-Spatial Intelligence Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence **Lesson 5: Civic Life Versus Personal Life** ........................................................................ 28 Students will analyze the difference between civil and personal life and understand how they both are a part of the life of a citizen. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Inter-Personal Intelligence **Lesson 6: A Compact Political History of Early Colorado** .................................................. 32 Readings about Colorado’s early political history and development as a state are presented in this lesson. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence **Lesson 7: Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data** ............................................. 35 Students analyze and infer meaning from summary data on all Hispanic legislators from territorial times to the present. Kinaesthetic Intelligence Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence **Lesson 8: Selected Biographies of Hispanics in the Colorado Legislator** .......................... 40 The lives of selected legislators are reviewed in some depth to appreciate change and continuity over time. Visual-Spatial Intelligence Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Lesson 9: Historical Atlas of the American West ..................................................44 Maps that graphically display the history of the American West are interpreted to develop a thorough understanding of key events. Visual-Spatial Intelligence Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Lesson 10: Two Histories: The Importance of Perspective ...........................................49 An overview of Colorado history from earliest times to the present with a Hispano-centric viewpoint is presented. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Lesson 11: Two Histories: The Importance of Perspective ............................................54 Contrasting two histories of Colorado, organizing in formation into a timeline, and understanding the importance of perspective are the key elements of this lesson. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Lesson 12: Colorado and the Union .............................................................................58 Reading and notetaking on the federal system adopted by the U.S. Constitution and the role and rights of states within that system. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Lesson 13: Structure of the Federal and State Governments ........................................65 The structure of federal and state governments are reviewed with particular emphasis on the legislative branch. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Inter-Personal Intelligence Lesson 14: How a Bill Becomes a Law .........................................................................73 A step by step process in how a bill becomes a law is the main focus of this lesson. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Lesson 15: Civic Values and Democratic Participation ..................................................80 Civic values are reviewed and students brainstorm examples found in every day life. Intra-Personal Intelligence Lesson 16: Making Policy ...............................................................................................83 Students go through the steps involved in creating public policy then craft a policy statement. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Inter-Personal Intelligence Bibliography ......................................................................................................................88 Lesson 1 Vocabulary Re-Enforcer What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students write and speak using formal grammar, usage, sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. (RW3) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students expand vocabulary development using a variety of methods. (RW2.1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students recognize, understand, and use formal grammar in speaking and writing. (RW3.1) Student apply formal usage in speaking and writing. (RW3.2) Students use correct sentence structure in writing. (RW3.3) Students demonstrate correct punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. (RW3.4) Students use reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to gather data, define the problem, and apply problem-solving skills. (RW4.2) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will study and review seventeen vocabulary words. Students will demonstrate understanding and mastery of these words through various means: defining by use of antonyms and synonyms, grouping by parts of speech, analyzing by common semantic features. Students will write complete, original sentences using each of the vocabulary words. SPECIFICS Many of these vocabulary words and their definitions come directly from the glossary of the Denver Public Schools Civic Standards. This is an excellent teaching resource and worthy of review. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Teacher-Directed Questioning Defining Grouping by parts of speech Semantic feature analysis Decoding Direct Interaction PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Make copies of the Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts and Vocabulary Re-Enforcer worksheets. Review the Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts along with the Vocabulary Re-enforcer worksheet in order to familiarize yourself with the contents of the worksheets. PRETEACHING Review the concepts synonym, antonym, parts of speech, adjectives, nouns, and verbs. This will enable the students to work confidently and independently on the first two sections of the Vocabulary Re-Enforcer. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: As a large group, read through and discuss the directions. Remind students to use their vocabulary list as a guide. Encourage them to check their answers with a partner. Section 3 may need some special explanation and practice. You can do a couple as a whole class, modeling the procedure for them. Urge students to go slowly, think, and be careful. To the students: Before beginning our unit of study, we need to look at some new vocabulary words and concepts that we will encounter along the way. You’ll notice that we have a list entitled Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts. You will need this list to help you complete the Vocabulary Re-Enforcer. I would like you to work on this individually and then exchange your work with a partner for a quick review. If you have different answers for a particular question, discuss your differences and come to an agreement. Return your papers before we review as a class. We will continue to come back to this list throughout the unit and I expect all of you to master it by the time we have our final assessment. VOCABULARY synonym: Words that have the same or similar meanings. antonym: A word that is opposite in meaning to another word. parts of speech: The eight classes into which words are grouped according to their uses in a sentence: verb, noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. adjective: An adjective may be a single word, a phrase, or a clause that modifies the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. It’s a word that describes what kind (excellent results), how many (four laptops), or which one (the latest). noun: The name of a person, place, or thing such as an object, idea, quality, or activity. verb: A word or phrase used to express action or state of being. semantic: To show meaning, especially in language. RESOURCES / MATERIALS Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts worksheet Vocabulary Re-Enforcer worksheet HOMEWORK Use the Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts for quick homework throughout the unit. For example, one day you can have students copy “civic values” and the definition on to a 4 x 6 note card. Their assignment will be to brainstorm examples of civic values as they go about their routine for the following 24 hours. Sharing and discussing will be an excellent sponge for the next day. Save the cards and use them at other points during the unit for possible extension activities, e.g. quick writing or formal writing. ASSESSMENTS For an informal assessment, circulate around the room while the students are working both independently and later with a partner. Monitor student progress and make a note in your grade book regarding student effort (-, √, +). For a formal assessment, give the students a list of the words. Ask them to do two things. Define each word and then write a short paragraph explaining its importance. This would be an excellent component of their unit assessment. RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | Fifteen or more words are correctly defined. Explanations are detailed and complete. | | 3 | Thirteen-fourteen words are correctly defined. Explanations are detailed and complete. | | 2 | Eleven-twelve words are correctly defined. Explanations are detailed and complete. | | 1 | Fewer than eleven words are correctly defined. Explanations are detailed and complete. | Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts The following list is comprised of some of the more important vocabulary words and concepts that you will encounter during this unit of study. Use this list to help you complete the Vocabulary Re-Enforcer, understand each of the subsequent lessons and prepare for the final exam. assimilate (verb) ......................... to absorb into the cultural tradition of a population or group activism (noun) ............................ the use of direct vigorous action in support of or in opposition to one side of a controversial issue civic life (noun) ............................. public life of the citizen concerned with the affairs of the community and nation as contrasted with private or personal life, which is devoted to the pursuit of private and personal interests civic values (noun) ....................... individual rights including life, liberty, the right to own property, and the pursuit of happiness; the common or public good; self-government; justice; equality; openness and free inquiry; truth; and patriotism civic virtue (noun) ....................... dedication of citizens to the common welfare, even at the cost of their individual interests civil rights (noun) ....................... fundamental rights of people to be treated fairly and to participate in their government; these rights belong to every member of a society census (noun) .............................. a periodic governmental enumeration of the population confer (verb) ............................... discuss, talk it over, consult constituents (noun) ...................... one of a group who elects another to represent him/her in a public office constitutional republic (noun) ....... system of rule in which formal and effective limits are placed on the powers of government by a constitution equal protection (noun) ............... a constitutional requirement of the 14th Amendment that protects individuals against unlawful discrimination inalienable rights (noun) .............. inherent rights that cannot be surrendered or transferred infer (verb) ................................. to arrive at a mental conclusion; surmise, deduce, conclude inherent (adjective) involved in the constitution or essential character of something; intrinsic gerrymander (verb) ...................... to divide an area into political units to give special advantages to one group public policy (noun) ..................... body of laws, rules, guidelines, and court decisions by which an open society organizes and conducts its affairs representation (noun) .................. the right or privilege of being represented by delegates having a voice in a legislative body Vocabulary Re-Enforcer Worksheet 1. For each pair of words below, decide whether they are antonyms (A) or synonyms (S). Be ready to explain your choice. A or S a. ________ inborn—inherent b. ________ civic—public c. ________ representatives —constituents d. ________ equal protection—discrimination e. ________ inalienable—transferable f. ________ vigorous involvement—activism g. ________ public policy—private affairs h. ________ deduce—infer i. ________ consult—confer 2. The words below are grouped by parts of speech: verb, noun, adjective. Cross out the one word in each group that doesn’t belong. | rights | gerrymander | civil | |--------------|-------------|---------------| | republic | infer | inalienable | | civic | assimilate | inherent | | census | confer | public | | public policy| inherent | constitutional| | constituents | represent | protection | Now what label belongs above each column? **Verbs** are action words. **Adjectives** describe things. **Nouns** are people, places, things, or ideas. 3. This is a semantic feature analysis grid. Semantic is another word for meaning; in this exercise, your job is to unlock the meaning of each word or concept. Look at each word in the column on the left, one at a time, then move along each column to the right. If the two words or terms have a positive relationship, influence one another, or are related in some way, place a check in that box. Think carefully and take your time. Be prepared to share your answers. | Word(s) | Civic Value | Public Policy | Constituents | Civil Rights | Representatives | |------------------|-------------|---------------|--------------|--------------|-----------------| | inherent | | | | | | | vote | | | | | | | elect representatives | | | | | | | census | | | | | | | gerrymander | | | | | | | confer | | | | | | | influence policy | | | | | | | inalienable | | | | | | | fair treatment | | | | | | | activism | | | | | | | make policy | | | | | | | individual rights| | | | | | | changes often | | | | | | 4. Write an original sentence for at least ten of the seventeen words/concepts. Extra credit will be awarded for additional sentences beyond ten. Teacher’s Key to: Vocabulary Re-Enforcer Worksheet 1. For each pair of words below, decide whether they are antonyms (A) or synonyms (S). Be ready to explain your choice. A or S a. ___S___ inborn—inherent b. ___S___ civic—public c. ___A___ representatives—constituents d. ___A___ equal protection—discrimination e. ___A___ inalienable—transferable f. ___S___ vigorous involvement—activism g. ___A___ public policy—private affairs h. ___S___ deduce—infer i. ___S___ consult—confer 2. The words below are grouped by parts of speech: verb, noun, adjective. Cross out the one word in each group that doesn’t belong. | Nouns | Verbs | Adjectives | |------------------------|------------------|------------------| | rights | gerrymander | civil | | republic | infer | inalienable | | civic | assimilate | inherent | | census | confer | public | | public policy | inherent | constitutional | | constituents | represent | protection | Now what label belongs above each column? **Verbs** are action words. **Adjectives** describe things. **Nouns** are people, places, things, or ideas. 3. This is a semantic feature analysis grid. Semantic is another word for meaning; in this exercise, your job is to unlock the meaning of each word or concept. Look at each word in the column on the left, one at a time, then move along each column to the right. If the two words or terms have a positive relationship, influence one another, or are related in some way, place a check in that box. Think carefully and take your time. Be prepared to share your answers. | Word(s) | Civic Value | Public Policy | Constituents | Civil Rights | Representatives | |------------------------|-------------|---------------|--------------|--------------|-----------------| | inherent | X | | | X | | | vote | X | X | X | X | X | | elect representatives | X | X | X | X | X | | census | X | X | X | X | X | | gerrymander | | X | X | X | X | | confer | | X | X | X | X | | influence policy | X | | X | X | X | | inalienable | | | | X | X | | fair treatment | X | | X | X | X | | activism | | | X | X | X | | make policy | X | | | | X | | individual rights | X | X | X | X | X | | changes often | | | X | | X | Lesson 2 Anticipation Guide for the Biography of Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) BENCHMARKS Students make connections between prior knowledge and what they need to know about a topic before reading about it. (RW1.2) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) Students recognize, express, and defend points of view orally and in writing. (RW4.3) OBJECTIVES Students will examine their own thoughts and beliefs regarding civic involvement and personal values. Students will defend and explain their answers orally. Students will activate prior knowledge and make connections to the course of study ahead. Students will be introduced to statesman Richard T. Castro through a preliminary exploration of their prior frame of reference with various concepts of civic roles and responsibilities. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Anticipation guide Questioning Analyzing Predicting PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Make copies of the Anticipation Guide and the two-column notepaper for each student. Complete Column A of the Anticipation Guide yourself. Read the Biography of Richard Castro and complete Column B. Make a note in Column B of the location of the supporting evidence you found for your answers. Make a few notes to yourself in the margin as to why you answered the way you did. PRETEACHING Review the concepts statesman, civil rights activist, and assimilate with the students. Touch on the concept of values and discuss how personal values affect our every day lives and the decisions we make. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Students from the Denver Metro area should recognize the name Richard Castro, so I would suggest a short webbing exercise to generate prior knowledge before letting the students complete the Anticipation Guide individually. Once students respond to the eight statements themselves, they will be ready to proceed to the reading. Finally, they will come back, complete column B and you will have a full class sharing and discussion. With this lesson and throughout the unit, students will take the abstract and make it real by applying the material to their lives. Full class sharing at the end should be very lively. Allow the students to express themselves and insist they back up their predictions with evidence from the text. (Suggest that they make a note of the page numbers and paragraphs in column B with their answer.) To the student: We are about to read a biography of Richard Thomas Castro. Does anybody recognize that name? Where have you seen it? What do you know about him? Let’s do a web together on the board and see how much we know if we all pool our knowledge. Okay, let’s now review the Anticipation Guide together. Please complete column A and then we will go to the reading together as a class. VOCABULARY statesman: A person who shows wisdom, skill, and vision in conducting state affairs or treating public issues, or one engaged in the business of government. assimilate: To change, absorb, and incorporate into one’s thinking or into the main cultural body. coalition: A combination, a union, a temporary alliance of factions, nations, etc. for a specific purpose. civil rights activist: A person whom advocates for others and their rights guaranteed by the 13, 14, 15, and 19 Amendments of the Constitutions of the United States and by other acts of Congress. values: That which is desirable or worthy of esteem for its own sake. RESOURCES / MATERIALS Anticipation Guide for the Biography of Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist worksheet HOMEWORK Choosing from among the eight questions, have students write a short paragraph in agreement or opposition, giving no less than three specific examples supporting their position. Students should use their best, formal English. ASSESSMENT Informal assessment comes through the preliminary and final discussion. This should give you a fairly good idea of the students’ awareness level and preparation for the subsequent material. Students should be given credit for their effort and participation, rather than their specific answers. FORMAL ASSESSMENT Direct the students to write a one page essay, comparing and contrasting their responses with those they attributed to Richard Castro. Where do they agree? Where do they disagree? Why? Students should write in complete sentences, using their best English. Collect the essays. Assign points using the following rubric as a guide. RUBRIC Points Rubric 4 A thoughtful, well-organized essay clearly addresses the questions above and does not contain more than three spelling and/or grammatical mistakes. 3 A good overall response is given that generally maintains the focus and contains no more than five spelling and/or grammatical mistakes. 2 The questions are addressed somewhat, but the overall effort lacks focus and organization. There are no more than seven spelling and/or grammatical mistakes. 1 Little attention is given to the topic and the overall essay lacks in coherency and due attention. There are greater than seven spelling and/or grammatical mistakes. Anticipation Guide for the Biography of Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist Worksheet We are going to read a biography entitled Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist—the life story of one of Colorado’s most acclaimed Hispanic leaders, who died unexpectedly at the age of 45 in 1991. This biography was prepared shortly after Mr. Castro’s death and attempts to relate not only the key facts that made up his life, but who he was as a man, what he believed in, and what he lived for. Directions: Read the list of statements below. If you agree with a statement, make a check in column A. Be ready to explain why you agree or disagree with each item. | A (You) | B (Castro) | Statement | |---------|------------|-----------| | | | 1. It is important to give back to your community. | | | | 2. Knowing your cultural heritage might be helpful, but it is not essential to understanding the world and how to function effectively in it. | | | | 3. Peaceful means are always preferable to violence in fighting for what you believe. | | | | 4. Liberty and justice for all—no exceptions! | | | | 5. All immigrants should assimilate into American society. | | | | 6. Possessing the ability to speak a second language is always an asset. | | | | 7. Working with a coalition of diverse groups is an effective way to change society. | | | | 8. Knowledge is helpful, but money is the real key to power. | Further Directions: After reading the biography and taking two-column notes, return to this Anticipation Guide and re-read each statement. If you think Mr. Castro would agree with you, make a check in column B. You must be able to cite evidence from the biography to support your choices in column B, so you may want to make a brief notation of the appropriate page numbers and paragraphs. Lesson 3 Biography of Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national. (C4) Students know how to use the processes and resources of historical inquiry. (H2) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time. (H3) Students know that religious and philosophical ideas have been powerful forces throughout history. (H6) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know what citizenship is. (C4.1) Students know how citizens can fulfill their responsibilities for preserving the constitutional republic. (C4.2) Students know how citizens can exercise their rights. (C4.3) Students know how citizens can participate in civic life. (C4.4) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students make connections between prior knowledge and what they need to know about a topic before reading about it. (RW1.2) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) Students recognize, express, and defend points of view orally and in writing. (RW4.3) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will read and study the biography of Richard T. Castro. Students will understand key historical events of the period during which Mr. Castro lived. Students will discern the contributions of Richard Castro to the civil life of Colorado. Students will use the two column note method of determining main ideas and supporting details. Students will analyze the reading, make predictions regarding the views of Richard Castro and cite supporting evidence. Students will share their observations with the class and defend their positions. SPECIFICS This is an authentic example of academic writing from the college level done by Denver Public Schools teacher Loretta Gonzales during her time at the University of Colorado, Denver as a graduate student. It is the kind of work students can anticipate doing when they go to college. Their preparation now is key to acquiring the skills necessary to perform at this level. **What will be done to help students learn this?** **INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES** Teacher guided Two column note taking Analyzing and making predictions Main idea, supporting details Independent practice **PRETEACHING** If students are unfamiliar with two column note taking this would be a good time to acquaint them with it. The title and date of the material are always at the top. Main ideas are listed on the left, supporting details, subtopics, elaboration is on the right. Leave plenty of white space. Indent, use symbols, abbreviations, numbers to speed note taking and heighten readability for later review. Use only words and phrases—no complete sentences. This is another way of saying they should not copy from the text. When introducing this skill for the first time, walk students through the process. Using a transparency of the two column note form, demonstrate the process. Think out loud. Ask yourself questions. Interact with the text. And take model notes. Allow students to copy your notes, then they will have their own exemplar. Then, read a paragraph as a class and take notes together. Let the students cue you as to the main ideas and supporting details. Copy on to the transparency. Do a few paragraphs together and continue to have students model this interactive approach to reading. When they seem to have the knack, let them practice individually and circulate around the room making observations and giving individual assistance. If you feel it would be helpful or worthwhile, you can have students share some of their work orally, at the board, or at the overhead projector. **ACTIVITIES** **To the teacher:** Advise students that you will be reading a biography of Richard T. Castro written shortly after his death by a graduate student at the University of Colorado, Denver titled: *Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and civil Rights Activist*, by Loretta M. Gonzales (Supplemental Guide, Section I). Thumb through the reading together and ask the students to share their observations. Who wrote this? Why? What is unique about it? Different? What about the format? Direct students to read and take notes. As students finish, direct them to return to the Anticipation Guide and make their predictions in Column B with evidence specifically cited by page number and paragraph. **To the student:** Who is familiar with two column notes? Why do we use them? What are they good for? Today we are going to read the biography of Richard Thomas Castro that we talked about before and take two column notes. First, let’s take a look at this reading. Read the first page. Move on to the second page. Skim over the whole thing from beginning to end. (Pause for a couple of minutes.) What observations can we make about this reading? Who wrote it? Who is she? Why do you think she wrote it? Etc. Now, lets start out together and refresh our memory about two column notes…Lets read a few paragraphs together and take some notes. I’m going to read the first paragraph and share my notes. I’d like you to observe the process I use and copy these notes on to your paper. Then we’ll practice as a class and finally you can finish the rest independently. VOCABULARY gerrymander: To divide a geographical area into voting districts to give unfair advantage to one party in elections. civil rights: The rights guaranteed by the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 19th Amendments of the Constitution of the United States and other acts of Congress. activism: The doctrine or policy of taking a positive, direct action to achieve an end, especially in a political or social setting. RESOURCES / MATERIALS Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist (Supplemental Guide, Section I) Biography of Richard Thomas Castro Worksheet Two column notepaper HOMEWORK - Using only their two column notes, students could individually re-write the biography of Richard Castro in summary form using their own words. - Alternatively, you could divide the class into groups of two-three students and jigsaw the reading. Students could write their summaries on to poster paper and present to the class. The class-written biography could then be displayed for the remainder of the unit. ASSESSMENT Informally assess student performance as they work individually. Two column notes will be used throughout the unit, so it will be important for you to gauge how much teaching and re-teaching is necessary. FORMAL ASSESSMENT When student packets are submitted, grade notes according to the following rubric: RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | Notes are complete and accurate. Main ideas and supporting details clearly align. There are no complete sentences. | | 3 | Notes are accurate, but could be more extensive. Two-three main ideas could be better developed. There are no more than three lapses into complete sentences. | | 2 | Notes are somewhat sketchy. Up to five ideas could be better developed. There are no more than five lapses into complete sentences. | | 1 | Notes are incomplete. More than five ideas could be better developed and there are numerous lapses into complete sentences. | Biography of Richard Thomas Castro Worksheet | DATE: | TITLE: Richard Thomas Castro: Colorado Statesman and Civil Rights Activist | |-------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | TOPIC/MAIN IDEA | DETAILS | Duplicate additional copies of this page as needed. Lesson 4 We Were Chicanos: Remembering Richard Castro What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national. (C4) Students know how to use the processes and resources of historical inquiry. (H2) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time. (H3) Students know that religious and philosophical ideas have been powerful forces throughout history. (H6) Students use appropriate technologies to obtain historical information; to study and/or model historical information and concepts; and to access, process, and communicate information related to the study of history. (H7) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know what citizenship is. (C4.1) Students know how citizens can fulfill their responsibilities for preserving the constitutional republic. (C4.2) Students know how citizens can exercise their rights. (C4.3) Students know how citizens can participate in civic life. (C4.4) Students know how to interpret and evaluate primary and secondary sources of historical information. (H2.2) Students understand the history of social organization in various societies. (H3.2) Students know the historical development of religions and philosophies. (H6.1) Students use appropriate traditional and electronic technologies in a variety of formats (for example, textual, graphic, audio, video, multimedia) to extend and enhance learning of historical facts and concepts. (H7.1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students use reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to gather data, define the problem, and apply problem-solving skills. (RW4.2) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will understand key historical events of the period during which Mr. Castro lived. Students will understand how those historical events shaped Richard Castro. Students will be able to explain and give multiple examples of how Richard Castro served his community as a civic leader. Students will determine and analyze several cultural threads that ran through Richard Castro’s life, through the Chicano movement, and through Hispanic culture in general. Students will write an essay contrasting their views and those of Richard Castro in response to the question “What Does it Take to Bring Happiness to the Earth?” What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Video watching Two column note taking Reflecting and analyzing Making and noting observations Essay writing Discussions PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Make the proper arrangements for video equipment. Make copies of the two column notepaper. Preview the video and make your own notes and observations on the specially prepared two column notepaper. Review the vocabulary and write the words on the board. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: If you have any native speakers of Spanish or students of Spanish in your class, give them a moment to shine in front of their classmates by asking for help with the vocabulary words below. Tell students that these are themes found in the video to which they should pay special attention. Direct students to look at the specially prepared two column notepaper. Tell them that they should make a few brief notes on the key facts, dates, people, observations under the appropriate headings. This video has an emotional impact on many viewers. Therefore, I would suggest a few quiet minutes of silent reflection along with the reviewing of notes and the making of further observations. Finally, open it up to class discussion, using the notes as a guide. As a synthesizing activity, have the students write an informal, two-paragraph essay entitled: “What does it take to bring happiness to the earth? My view and Richard Castro’s. To the student: We are about to watch a 30 minute video about the life of Richard Castro entitled “We Were Chicanos: Remembering Richard Castro”. The video is quite unique; I think you will enjoy it. First, let's discuss some key vocabulary. Does anybody recognize the words I have written on the board? These are themes found throughout the video. Pay special attention to them as you watch the video, and using your two column notepaper, which you’ll note lists these themes in the main topic column, make a few observations while you are watching. I am setting as a goal no less than five main ideas per heading, each with supporting details. Paying special attention to the video and taking good notes will be very helpful to you later, as we will end this lesson with a short writing assignment. VOCABULARY adivinanza: Spanish word equivalent to guess or look into the future. comunidad: Spanish word equivalent to community. community: A group of people living in a geographical area or a group of people with common interests. humildad: Spanish word equivalent to humility. humility: The state or quality of being humble. identidad: Spanish word equivalent to identity. identity: The condition or fact of being a specific person or thing; individuality. leadership: The position or guidance of a leader, or the ability to lead. liderato: Spanish word equivalent to leadership. riddle: A problem or puzzle in the form of a question, statement, etc. RESOURCES / MATERIALS *We Were Chicanos: Remembering Richard Castro* (video) We Were Chicanos worksheet We Were Chicanos Summary Paragraphs worksheet partially completed two column notepaper HOMEWORK - Distribute two-three 4 x 6 note cards to each student and ask them to interview one or more family members regarding their recollections of this period. Questions might include, but should not be limited to: What do you recall of the Chicano civil rights movement? Where were you? How did you participate or not? What did you think of it then? How do you view it today? What do you think it accomplished? What remains to be done? Why was it important? Is there a movement today? Explain. What is the role of the next generation continuing this effort? Etc. - Have students write a one page essay on the following topic: How did the Chicano civil rights movement change the course of history both locally and nationally? - Develop a full research project based upon the question above. - Investigate the history of music during the Chicano movement. Find musical selections that were clearly evocative of similar themes and analyze their relationship to the movement as a whole. - Visit the Cheech Marin Collection of Chicano art at www.americanart.si.edu/t2go/1la/index.html. Answer the question “What does it mean to be a Chicano?: An Artistic Perspective,” make reference to various artworks, and copy them for sharing with others. ASSESSMENT When student packets are submitted, grade notes and essays according to the following rubric: RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|--------| | 4 | There are at least five main ideas under each heading. Each has supporting details. Essay has several interesting ideas, is well-organized and has a strong voice. | | 3 | There are at least four main ideas under each heading. Each has supporting details. Essay has some interesting ideas, is generally well-organized and some sense of voice comes through. | | 2 | There are at least three main ideas under each heading. Each has supporting details. Essay is not very interesting, is lacking in organization and has little voice. | | 1 | Notes are incomplete and sketchy. Essay has little content, is disorganized and has no voice. | We Were Chicanos Worksheet | DATE: | TITLE: We Were Chicanos: Remembering Richard Castro (video) | |-------|----------------------------------------------------------| | TOPIC/MAIN IDEA | DETAILS | | Liderato (Leadership) | | | Humildad (Humility) | | | Identidad (Identity) | | | Comunidad (Community) | | Duplicate additional copies of this page as needed. We Were Chicanos Summary Paragraphs Worksheet Directions: Based upon our reading, the video, your notes, and class discussions, write an informal, two-paragraph essay entitled: What Does It Take To Bring Happiness To The Earth? My View and Richard Castro’s Lesson 5 Civic Life Versus Personal Life What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national. (C4) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) BENCHMARKS Students know what citizenship is. (C4.1) Students know how citizens can fulfill their responsibilities for preserving the constitutional republic (C4.2) Students know how citizens can participate in civic life. (C4.4) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students expand vocabulary development using a variety of methods. (RW2.1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) OBJECTIVES Students will activate prior knowledge about civic life and how it contrasts to personal life. Students will define and give examples of civic life and personal life. Students will analyze, compare and contrast civic and personal life. Students will list specific examples of civic and personal life and explain in writing how they are related. Students will confer with partners to expand their thinking and share their answers orally with classmates. Students will demonstrate interdependent nature of civic life and personal life. SPECIFICS Our commitment as a society to civic life allows the goals of the personal life to be met. Our experience of freedom, broadly interpreted, in our private lives affirms the importance of civic awareness and involvement. Understanding the interdependent nature of these two concepts is vital. Both are key to the American democracy. Richard Castro is an excellent example of someone who had an active, vibrant civic and personal life. As the video graphically portrayed, Richard fought for issues in his civic life that directly impacted his own personal life and the personal lives of his constituents. Above all, he sought equality, so that a just society could form the basis for personal and professional success for all people, however they might identify themselves. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Defining Identifying examples Comparing and contrasting Drawing conclusions Student directed Cooperative work PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Make a copy of the worksheet for each student. Make sure the Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts sheet is accessible to all students. Review the definitions of the two concepts. Complete your own worksheet. Try to anticipate student questions and possible answers. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: I would construct this as a Think/Pair/Share activity. Give instructions and get students started independently. Share the assessment criteria. Check for understanding. Circulate around the room and give individual assistance where needed. Once students have completed their first pass through, have them pair and share. End by having pairs share their answers/ideas/thoughts with the whole class, as you make some notes on the board or overhead. To bring closure to the activity and give students an opportunity for synthesizing all the information, ask them to write an informal, two paragraph essay. In the first paragraph they should clearly define and give three or more clear examples of civic life and personal life. In the second paragraph, they should explain how the two concepts are linked and interdependent. They should answer the question, “How does each depend on the other?” To the student: The concepts of civic life and personal life have arisen over and over the last few days. By now you should all feel fairly comfortable with these concepts. Today we want to extend your thinking a little by contrasting the two. Let’s take a look at the Civic Life Versus Personal Life Worksheet and review the instructions together. VOCABULARY civic life: The part of a person’s life that is devoted to public affairs and the good of others through various forms of government positions and volunteer work. personal life: The part of a person’s life that is private and out of the public eye. republican democracy: It is a government by representatives chosen by the people. confer: To have a conference or talk; also to meet for a discussion; to converse. interdependent: Dependence on each other or one another; mutual dependence. RESOURCES / MATERIALS Civic Life Versus Personal Life worksheet Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts (found on page 10) filler paper HOMEWORK Distribute one 4 x 6 note card to each student. Direct them to create a web on each side with write civic life as the topic on one side and personal life as the topic on the other. Ask them to keep the card in their pocket and to make any and all observations about the two, especially examples they observe or think of, in the next 24 hours. Tell them to return to class the following day ready to share with the class. ASSESSMENT Use the following rubric to assess participation in the Think/Pair/Share activity. RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | Follows directions, participates enthusiastically, is respectful of others, and asks at least one thoughtful question. | | 3 | Follows directions, participates, is respectful of others, and asks at least one question. | | 2 | Follows directions, participates, is respectful of others, but asks no questions. | | 1 | Follows directions and participates with prompting. Is respectful to others. Asks no questions. | Use the following rubric to assess student writing. RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | Student shows clear mastery of concepts and gives three or more strong examples. Clearly demonstrates interdependence. | | 3 | Students understands concepts and can give at least two examples. Demonstrates interdependence. | | 2 | Student is familiar with concepts, but gives no examples or examples are weak. Approaches understanding of interdependence. | | 1 | Student defines concepts. Examples are weak or absent. Struggles with concept of interdependence. | Civic Life Versus Personal Life Worksheet In reflecting on the life of Richard T. Castro, we see an individual with a vibrant, active personal and public life. In fact, knowing the difference between the two is critical to life in a republican democracy, such as the United States. Why? Directions: Using the vocabulary list and the information you have gained from reading the biography of Richard T. Castro, complete the chart below. After you have gotten a good start on your own, confer with a partner and compare notes. Be prepared to share your answers. | Civic Life | Personal Life | |------------|---------------| | Definition: | Definition: | | Examples: | Examples: | How are civic life and personal life similar? How are civic life and personal life different? Lesson 6 A Compact Political History of Early Colorado What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand the purposes of government and the basic constitutional principles of the United States republican form of government. (C1) Students know the structure and function of local, state, and national government and how citizen involvement shapes public policy. (C2) Students know the physical and human characteristics of places and used this knowledge to define and study regions and their patterns of change. (G2) Students understand how economic, political, cultural, and social processes interact to shape patterns of human populations, interdependence, cooperation, and conflict. (G4) Students know how to use the processes and resources of historical inquiry. (H2) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time. (H3) Students understand political institutions and theories that have developed and changed over time. (H5) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know and understand what government is and what purpose it serves. (C1.1) Students know the organization and functions of local, state, and national governments. (C2.1) Students know the physical and human characteristics of places. (G2.1) Students know the characteristics, location, distribution, and migration of human populations. (G4.1) Students know how cooperation and conflict among people influence the division and control of Earth’s surface. (G4.5) Students know how to interpret and evaluate primary and secondary sources of historical information(H2.2) Students apply knowledge of the past to compare and contrast present-day issues and events from multiple, historically objective perspectives.(H2.3) Students understand the history of social organization in various societies.(H3.2) Students use comprehension strategies.(RW1.1) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes.(RW1.3) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community.(RW2.3) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing.(RW4.1) Students use reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to gather data, define the problem, and apply problem-solving skills.(RW4.2) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information.(RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will activate prior knowledge of the history of Colorado. Students will read Chapter 1 from *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration, and Policy* entitled “A Compact Political History of Early Colorado.” Students answer seven questions at the end of the chapter. Students will define and explain the importance of seven terms. Students will understand the events and processes that led to Colorado’s statehood and early development. Students will share orally highlights of what they learned with classmates. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Creating a web Individual reading Answering questions Locating and interpreting information Defining Determining importance Full class sharing and discussion PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Prepare the textbooks. Read the chapter. Take your own notes in response to the questions. Write down the vocabulary words and explain their importance. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Begin the lesson by activating prior knowledge and creating a web on the board or overhead. Next, direct students to read and answer the questions. Once they are finished with the questions, direct students to copy the vocabulary words below, define, and explain the importance in a short paragraph. Once students are finished and have handed in their work, you may want to have a full class review and group discussion. Find out what the students learned and what was interesting to them. To the student: Today we’re turning our attention to history, specifically we’re going to be looking at the early history of Colorado. When did you study Colorado history? What do you remember? (Continue asking questions, eliciting information from all the students. Complete the web.) Now I would like you to work individually, read Chapter 1, “A Compact Political History of Early Colorado,” and answer questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, & 10. Write the questions and the answers on a separate piece of paper. Once you’re finished, continue with the following vocabulary words. Write a short paragraph defining, and then explaining, the importance of each word. VOCABULARY Louisiana Purchase: A vast territory of the American West acquired in 1803 by President Thomas Jefferson from France under Napoleon. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: A peace treaty between the U.S. and Mexico that ended the Mexican War. Auraria: A town west of Denver that was founded in 1858. Today it is an urban campus of three higher educational institutions. Jefferson Territory: A geographical area located southwest of Denver that was established in 1859. miners’ court: A means with which to govern and enforce rigid laws in the region of the miners. miners’ meetings: Meetings conducted to enact civil and criminal codes and define boundaries etc. claim clubs: A means with which farmers used for protection of property rights, clarification of ownership, claims and boundaries. RESOURCES / MATERIALS *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration, and Policy* by Robert S. Lorch loose leaf paper HOMEWORK - Direct students to research and read about the primary documents central to this lesson: The Louisiana Purchase—1803 and The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo—1848. The former is available at the National Archives website: http://www.ourdocuments.gov/content.php?page=milestone_documents, while the latter can be found at http://lcweb.loc.gov/exhibits/ghtreaty/. Having students interact with primary documents is a great way to engage them deeply in the content and make the subject come alive. By virtue of web-based resources, this can now be done with ease. - Have students fully investigate the meaning and history of the Jefferson Territory. How did it come about? How did it receive its name? Etc. This solid website will help them begin their research: http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/J/JeffersTtle.asp. ASSESSMENT RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | All questions are intelligently and completely answered. All terms are correctly defined, their importance is clearly explained. | | 3 | At least six questions are intelligently and completely answered. At least six terms are correctly defined, their importance is clearly explained. | | 2 | At least five questions are intelligently and completely answered. At least five terms are correctly defined, their importance is clearly explained. | | 1 | At least four questions are intelligently and completely answered. At least four terms are correctly defined, their importance is clearly explained. | Lesson 7 Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national. (C4) Students use appropriate technologies to obtain, study, process, apply, and communicate civic information and concepts related to the study of civics. (C5) Students know the physical and human characteristics of places and used this knowledge to define and study regions and their patterns of change. (G2) Students understand how economic, political, cultural, and social processes interact to shape patterns of human populations, interdependence, cooperation, and conflict. (G4) Students understand the chronological organization of history and know how to organize events and people into major eras to identify and explain historical relationships. (H1) Students know how to use the processes and resources of historical inquiry. (H2) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time. (H3) Students understand political institutions and theories that have developed and changed over time. (H5) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know what citizenship is. (C4.1) Students know how citizens can participate in civic life. (C4.4) Students understand how to compile and use information from primary and secondary sources to evaluate civic and governmental concepts and events. (C5.3) Students know the physical and human characteristics of places. (G2.1) Students know the characteristics, location, distribution, and migration of human populations. (G4.1) Students use chronology to examine and explain historical relationships. (H1.3) Students know how to interpret and evaluate primary and secondary sources of historical information. (H2.2) Students apply knowledge of the past to compare and contrast present-day issues and events from multiple, historically objective perspectives. (H2.3) Students understand the history of social organization in various societies. (H3.2) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) Students use reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to gather data, define the problem, and apply problem-solving skills. (RW4.2) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will make deductions and infer meaning using a summary data table. Students will read and interpret biographical details regarding 100+ Hispanic legislators. Students will respond in writing to eleven questions on the Hispanic Legislators in Colorado worksheet. Students will have the opportunity to respond to three extra credit questions. SPECIFICS The Summary Data table was created especially for this unit and includes biographical details on over 110 Hispanic legislators who have served the state of Colorado. You will notice that some information is missing or incomplete. Despite our best efforts, these facts could not be located. Historical records are often incomplete or even contradictory, bringing up additional challenges to the process of historical inquiry. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Making deductions Inferring Deriving meaning from a table Small group work PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Assemble copies of the Summary Data table. Make copies of the Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data worksheet. Review the worksheet. Make notes to yourself on the practice portion. Study the Summary Data table and complete the worksheet. PRETEACHING Review the political development of Colorado as a state. Sketch out the chronology of the steps to statehood on the board/overhead. Define and briefly discuss the following vocabulary items: legislative body, Territorial House, Territorial Council, Colorado Constitutional Convention, General Assembly, House, and Senate. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: The purpose of the introduction on the worksheet is to demonstrate to students that they are already very familiar and adept at this skill. We’re just going to apply it in a different way. Distribute the Summary Data tables. Quickly talk through, review and explain. Answer any questions and then group the students in pairs to complete the activity. Have students raise their hands when they complete the exercise, scan, check answers and initial the work as a sign to yourself that the students completed their work. Once everyone is finished, review and debrief as a class. To the student: Today we’re going to take a look at a table that contains some facts on all the Hispanic legislators that served the state of Colorado. To complete this worksheet, you’re going to have to use an important skill: inferring meaning. Have you heard this term before? When? Where? What does it mean? Let’s take a look at the instructions. Finally, before you get started, I’d like to look at the tables together. Okay, let’s talk our way through this. What is this called? What’s the title? What’s unique about a table? How are we going to use it? What is the title of the first column? The second? Etc. VOCABULARY Legislative body: A law making branch of a government. Territorial House: A form of government that had full authority to establish laws before U.S. statehood. Territorial Council: A legislative body of a territory chosen as an administrative, advisory, or legislative assembly including House and Senate representatives. Colorado Constitutional Convention: A convention to draft the constitution of Colorado. General Assembly: The highest council for legislative assembly. House: A legislative assembly or governing body. Senate: The upper branch of the legislature of the U.S. infer: To conclude or decide from something known or assumed. las animas: Spanish word for the soul. costilla: Spanish word for rib. conejos: Spanish word for rabbits. huérfano: Spanish word for orphan. pueblo: Spanish word for town. people: All the persons of a racial, national, religious, or linguistic group. otero: Spanish word for a small hill. knoll: A small rounded hill or mound. RESOURCES / MATERIALS Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data Table Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data Table Worksheet ASSESSMENT RUBRIC Points Rubric 4 All eleven questions are intelligently and completely answered. All answers are in complete sentences. 3 Nine questions are intelligently and completely answered. All answers are in complete sentences. 2 Seven questions are intelligently and completely answered. All answers are in complete sentences. 1 Five questions are intelligently and completely answered. All answers are in complete sentences. Extra Credit Questions: Award one point each for 12 and 13, two points for 14, as long as answers are correct and put into complete sentences. Hispanic Legislators in Colorado: Summary Data Table Worksheet Inferring meaning is an extremely important skill. In a way, it is very similar to guessing…but not the wild speculative kind of guessing. Rather, it is the making of educated guesses based on the facts that you have. Technically, the dictionary says that inferring is “arriving at a mental conclusion”. Now, let’s practice a bit… 1. A classmate walks in late to class with a red face, puffy eyes, runny nose, and tissue in hand. What might you infer? 2. Your regular teacher is out today. You know you are going to have a substitute. In walks a man leading a bike. What might you infer about him? 3. You walk into your third period classroom. Nobody is there, but it is a mess. There are a couple of used paper plates on the floor, a small pool of pink liquid, and you notice a very sweet smell. What might you infer? Directions: Review the Summary Data on Hispanic Legislators in Colorado and answer the following questions using your best English and complete sentences. 1. During what years do you observe concentrations of many representatives. Roughly estimate the ranges of years; e.g., 1785-1800. 2. Based on your knowledge of history, what can you infer about this? 3. During what years do you observe the absence of many or any representatives? Roughly estimate the ranges of years: 4. Based on your knowledge of history, what can you infer about this? 5. Most of the representatives served in what body? 6. Can you infer anything from this fact? 7. Now examine the names. Can you infer anything from this list of names? Now imagine that the title of the table is missing. What could you infer then? 8. There are very few women’s names on the list, right? What does that lead you to infer? 9. Now examine the next column; place and date of birth. What patterns do you observe? 10. What can you infer about these patterns? 11. What counties have the most representatives? **Extra Credit:** 12. Give the English translation of the names of the Colorado counties that are not Spanish surnames. (There are seven in all.) 13. Determine the average age of the representatives when they first served, based on a sample set of 40 individuals. 14. What percentage of the representatives were Democrat? Republican? Party switchers? Remember, to determine percent you divide the part by the whole. For example, the equation for the first question would be: \[ \frac{\text{Total # of Democrats}}{\text{All Representatives}} = \text{All Representatives} \quad \frac{\text{Total # of Democrats}}{\text{All Representatives}} \] Lesson 8 Selected Biographies of Hispanics in the Colorado Legislator What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national. (C4) Students understand how economic, political, cultural, and social processes interact to shape patterns of human populations, interdependence, cooperation, and conflict. (G4) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time. (H3) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) BENCHMARKS Students know how citizens can fulfill their responsibilities for preserving the constitutional republic. (C4.2) Students know how citizens can participate in civic life. (C4.4) Students know the characteristics, location, distribution, and migration of human populations. (G4.1) Students understand the history of social organization in various societies. (H3.2) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students prepare written and oral presentations using strategies. (RW2.6) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) OBJECTIVES Students will be introduced to fifteen Hispanic legislators and learn their contributions to the state of Colorado. Students will read selected biographies of Hispanic legislators and extract key facts and supporting details. Students will organize information into a brief presentation. Students will write five questions and answers in complete sentences about their legislator. SPECIFICS These biographies and photos have been pulled directly from the exhibit. They were selected as a broad and representative cross-section of all the legislators. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Cooperative reading Determining importance Determining main ideas and finding supporting details Summarizing Question/Answer writing Analyzing historical photos Making presentations PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Make copies of the two column note sheet with the title, “Biography of…”. Divide students into groups of two. Prepare the mini-biographies and photos. Read the biographies. Have one 4 x 6 card for each student. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Group students in pairs. Distribute a photo and corresponding mini-biography to each pair. Ask the students to prepare a brief, informal presentation to the rest of the class about this individual. They should give the “summary data,” as in the table they used in the previous lesson, but do not allow them to use this resource. Students should also relate several interesting facts regarding the individual’s life and civic contributions. Have students use the specially prepared two column notepaper to organize themselves. Write specific questions on the board. Share the criteria for grading presentations and model for students or have a student model. This will diffuse some of the tension. Once everyone has completed their presentations, distribute a 4 x 6 note card to each student and ask them to come up with five questions and answers each that could be used in a “Jeopardy” type review with the whole class. Name, period, and date should be on each card. To the student: If you had to take a guess, who do you think this might be (hold up one of the more interesting photos)? Today we’re going to get to know some of the Hispanic legislators a bit better. In pairs, you will be receiving a photo and corresponding mini-biography. I would like you to work with your partner to develop a short, informal presentation to the class, wherein you give us some “summary data” and a few interesting facts about their lives and legislative contributions. Use the two column notepaper to help you organize your data. Presentations will be graded according to this question: Who can show me what this looks like? Each of you should have a 4 x 6 note card. Please write your name, today’s date and the period on the card. Write the name of the legislator across the top. Then write five questions and answers in the following format about your legislator: Q: A: Your answers should be in complete sentences. VOCABULARY theme: An idea, point of view, or perception used as a topic for discussion or written composition. RESOURCES / MATERIALS Selected Biographies of Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature (Supplemental Guide, Section III) Selected Biographies of Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature worksheet specially prepared two column notepaper, 4 x 6 note cards for each student HOMEWORK • On the following day, have students line up outside your class. Distribute 4 x 6 note cards as they arrive and ask students to write down two interesting facts they learned about Hispanic legislators the previous day. This is their “admit slip” to class. Review individually and admit students as they are completed. Send students to the end of the line if they do not follow directions or make a mistake. Collect and give participation credit. This is a great sponge activity that also builds interest and shakes up the routine. • End class by having students synthesize information about all the legislators into themes found across time and individuals. What are their observations? What do they notice? Responses can be in the form of a paragraph, one-half page in length. ASSESSMENT RUBRIC Points Rubric 4 Clear and confident presentation. Good eye-contact, articulation, and posture. Notes & Questions/Answers are accurate and complete. 3 Mostly clear and confident presentation. Mostly good eye-contact, articulation, and posture. Notes & Questions/Answers are accurate and complete. 2 Sometimes clear and confident presentation. Some good eye-contact, articulation, and posture. Notes & Questions/Answers are accurate and complete. 1 Developing presentation skills. Working on clarity, confidence, eye-contact, articulation and posture. Notes & Questions/Answers are accurate and complete. Further Notes: This is great, low-key practice for public speaking and developing self confidence. Collect and review note cards. Return any that are incomplete, incorrect, or that have answers in fragments and direct students to complete. With the aid of these cards, a trivial pursuit or jeopardy type review can be easily constructed. Selected Biographics of Hispanics in the Colorado Legislature Worksheet | DATE: | TITLE: Selected Biographies of Colorado’s Hispanic Legislators | |-------|---------------------------------------------------------------| | TOPIC/MAIN IDEA | DETAILS | Duplicate additional copies of this page as needed. Lesson 9 Historical Atlas of the American West What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students know how to use and construct maps and other geographic tools to locate and derive information about people, places, and environments. (G1) Students know the physical and human characteristics of places and used this knowledge to define and study regions and their patterns of change. (G2) Students understand how economic, political, cultural, and social processes interact to shape patterns of human populations, interdependence, cooperation, and conflict. (G4) Students know how to use the processes and resources of historical inquiry. (H2) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time. (H3) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students will write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students write and speak using formal grammar, usage, sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. (RW3) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know how to analyze the dynamic spatial organization of people, places, and environments. (G1.3) Students know the physical and human characteristics of places. (G2.1) Students know how to interpret and evaluate primary and secondary sources of historical information. (H2.2) Students know how various societies have been affected by contacts and exchanges among diverse peoples. (H3.1) Students understand the history of social organization in various societies. (H3.2) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students recognize, understand, and use formal grammar in speaking and writing. (RW3.1) Students apply formal usage in speaking and writing. (RW3.2) Students use correct sentence structure in writing. (RW3.3) Students demonstrate correct punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. (RW3.4) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) OBJECTIVES Students will read and analyze historical maps to extract and interpret information. Students will chart the routes of the first explorers who traversed across Colorado. Students will examine early Spanish settlements in Colorado. Students will learn specific information about the explorers that came to Colorado between 1772-1799. Students will examine the Spanish Land grants and determine in which modern-day states they were located. Students will learn about how Colorado acquired its present form. Students will study the many changes that occurred as part of the territorial expansion of the United States. Students will learn how and when various territories became states. Students will have the opportunity to answer two extra credit questions. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Interpreting maps Determining importance Locating information Cooperative work Cross check PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Make copies of the Historical Atlas of the American West worksheets. Assemble the books. Read and complete the worksheet yourself. PRETEACHING Depending on the level of familiarity of your students with maps and atlases, you may choose to do a bit of a review. Examine the book together. Ask students to identify key information: title, author, publisher, date of publication, etc. Thumb through independently for a minute or two, then ask someone to suggest a map that you all should look at. Direct everyone to that map and examine together. Do some open Q/A with the whole class. Finally, ask the students “Can history be told in maps?” Discuss briefly. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Prepare to group students in fours. Distribute four books to a group. Read directions together. Direct students to complete their worksheets in pairs. Once they and their partner have completed the worksheet, they should review and do a cross check with the other pair across from them. To the student: Okay everybody, take a look at these books. What are they? What’s an atlas? What’s the title? Who’s the author? Etc. Lets look them over for a minute. Who’s got a map they think we all should really look at? (Have students turn the map.) What is this map about? What story does it tell us? Etc. Now, lets complete the worksheets with our partners. Once you are done, and your partners across from you are done, I’d like you to review and check each other’s work as a foursome. You don’t need to exchange papers. Keep your own work. Make a note of any questions you have for me or the whole class, and put a star next to the question you think is the hardest of all. Please complete these steps before proceeding to the extra credit questions. VOCABULARY atlas: A collection of maps. legend: A guide to the symbols used on a map. Spanish-Mexican land grant: Land granted to individuals or groups for government services or in lieu of money owed. Louisiana Purchase: Vast territory of the American west acquired in 1803 by President Thomas Jefferson from France under Napoleon. Spanish possessions: The territory claimed by Spain. Mexican possessions: The territory claimed by Mexico. Mexican War: The war between Mexico and the United States lasting from 1846-1848 that resulted in the Mexican cession of vast tracts of land. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: The treaty signed in 1848 bringing the Mexican War to a close and formalizing the cession of Mexican land to the United States. territorial status: The formal designation by the United States Congress of an area on its way to becoming a state. RESOURCES / MATERIALS *Historical Atlas of the American West* by Warren A. Beck and Ynez D. Haase Historical Atlas of the American West worksheet HOMEWORK - Begin class by reviewing the 2-3 questions that students designated as the most difficult. Discuss. - Make a copy of one or several maps. Do not include the text. Direct students to take the information from the map and turn it into written text in a short paragraph. They are not to describe the map or to say “this map is about x, y & z”, but rather tell the story of the map using words instead of abstract, symbolic representation. - Distribute maps of Colorado with all the counties identified and the Summary Data table. Direct students to identify and shade all counties which have been represented by Hispanic legislators. Then direct them to construct and complete this simple table, putting the counties in alphabetical order, A-Z. | County | # of Hispanic Legislators | |--------|---------------------------| ASSESSMENT RUBRIC Points Rubric 4 Students collaborate, share information and follow directions. All seven questions are clearly, completely, and accurately answered. 3 Students collaborate, share information and follow directions. At least six questions are clearly, completely, and accurately answered. 2 Students collaborate, share information and follow directions most of the time. At least five questions are clearly, completely, and accurately answered. 1 Students collaborate, share information and follow directions, generally speaking. At least four questions are clearly, completely, and accurately answered. Check worksheets for completeness and accuracy during and/or after class. Acknowledge students for working well together. Visit pairs. Monitor progress. Ask leading questions. Bring closure to the lesson and gauge student learning by asking the whole class to answer the question “Which question was the most difficult?” “Why?” Historical Atlas of the American West Worksheet Maps can be an outstanding resource and a quick way to get a lot of information. Being able to interpret maps is a great skill—and not just for being able to get from point A to point B! We are about to examine several maps that together tell the story of the American West. Directions: Study the maps, look at the legends, reacquaint yourself with the placement of the various states. Rely on the maps themselves to answer the questions, though you may find the accompanying text helpful as well. Use your best English and write your answers in complete sentences. Map #17 Who were the first explorers to traverse Colorado and when did they arrive? Map #18 According to the map, did New Spain have any settlements in Colorado between 1766-1780? Name the northern most settlement of new Spain. In what modern day state is it located? Map #19 Name the explorers that came to Colorado between 1772-1799. When did they come and what part of the state did they explore (west, southeast, northwest, etc.)? Map #20 In what parts of which modern-day states would find concentrations of Spanish-Mexican land grants? Were there any in Colorado? What part and which counties? (Use map #62 as further reference.) Map #40 To whom did Western Colorado belong in 1810? To whom did Western Colorado belong in 1840? Eastern Colorado was acquired in the ____________________ in ______________________. Compare the maps of 1830 and 1840. What do you notice about the Mexican Possessions? Map #41 When did Colorado receive the designation of territory? After the Mexican War, Mexico lost portions or all of what modern day states? Observing the various phases these maps represents, what might you infer about this period? Map #42 What territory and what republic became states in the 1870s? Why do you think Colorado became a state before so many other territories? What kind of changes might you predict for Colorado once it became a state? How might it differ from its neighbors that remained territories for many years, Arizona and New Mexico, for example? Extra Credit: Map #43 What dramatic change took place between 1850-1890? How did it affect the American West? How did it affect Colorado? Map #44 Due to its defeat in the Mexican War, 1846-1848, Mexico lost nearly half of its territory. Where were most of the battles fought? How might this have affected subsequent changes, i.e. the arrival of European settlers? Lesson 10 Two Histories: The Importance of Perspective What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students know the physical and human characteristics of places and used this knowledge to define and study regions and their patterns of change. (G2) Students understand how economic, political, cultural, and social processes interact to shape patterns of human populations, interdependence, cooperation, and conflict. (G4) Students understand the chronological organization of history and know how to organize events and people into major eras to identify and explain historical relationships. (H1) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time. (H3) Students understand how science, technology, and economic activity have developed, changed, and affected societies throughout history. (H4) Students understand political institutions and theories that have developed and changed over time. (H5) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students will write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know the physical and human characteristics of places. (G2.1) Students know the characteristics, location, distribution, and migration of human populations. (G4.1) Students know the nature and spatial distribution of cultural patterns. (G4.2) Students know how cooperation and conflict among people influence the division and control of Earth’s surface. (G4.5) Students know the general chronological order of events and people in history. (H1.1) Students use chronology to organize historical events and people. (H1.2) Students use chronology to present historical events and people. (H1.4) Students know how various societies have been affected by contacts and exchanges among diverse peoples. (H3.1) Students understand the history of social organization in various societies. (H3.2) Students understand how economic factors have influenced historical events. (H4.2) Students know how political power has been acquired, maintained, used, and/or lost throughout history. (H5.3) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students make connections between prior knowledge and what they need to know about a topic before reading about it. (RW1.2) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) Students recognize, express, and defend points of view orally and in writing. (RW4.3) Students identify the purpose, perspective, and historical and cultural influences of a speaker, author, or director. (RW4.4) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will brainstorm responses to a quote and share ideas with a partner and the class. Students will read a chronological history of Colorado’s development from a Hispano-centric point of view. Students will understand how the settlement and spread of Hispanics throughout the history of Colorado was shaped by economic, political, and social forces. Students will discover the unique contributions of Hispanics to the state of Colorado. Students will take two-column notes, locating main ideas and supporting details. Students will recognize and appreciate the importance of perspective in retelling history. SPECIFICS In this lesson, students will use a reading prepared by Jose Aguayo, former Executive Director of the Museo de las Americas. The following information is copied from the Museo’s website. The Museo de las Américas is the first museum in the region that is dedicated to educating the public about the artistic and cultural achievements of Latinos in the Americas on a continuing basis. The purpose and mission of the Museo de las Américas is to foster understanding of and appreciation for the achievements of the Latino people of the Americas by collecting, preserving, and interpreting the diverse art, history, and cultures of this region from ancient times to the present. Incorporated on April 29, 1991, the Museo grew out of discussions among a group of Latino educators, artists, professionals, business owners, and community volunteers. The Museo de las Américas is a Colorado not-for-profit corporation and a recognized 501(c)3 organization effective September 16, 1992. The Museo is governed by a 15 member Board of Trustees representing a cross-section of the community. The Museo is located in Denver, Colorado, at 861 Santa Fe Drive. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Webbing/brainstorming Think/Pair/Share Cooperative reading Two column note taking Determining importance Main idea/supporting detail PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Make copies of the specially prepared two-column notepaper for all students. Prepare copies of Shaping the Law of the Land: Have at least one piece of loose leaf paper for each student. Prepare copies of “Hispanos in the Colorado Legislature” reading. Carefully read and complete your own notes using the two-column method. Prepare to group students in twos. Write the following quote on the board as the center circle in a web: “History is a lie agreed upon.” Napoleon Bonaparte. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Direct students to copy the quote and brainstorm questions, ideas, thoughts, etc., then pair with their partner, exchange ideas, and be ready to share with the class. Open the discussion. This should lead you to the issue of perspective. Why is it important? Discuss. Tell students that they are about to read a history of the state of Colorado prepared by Jose Aguayo, former Executive Director of El Museo de las Americas (The Museum of the Americas) in Denver, Colorado, titled: *A Short History of the Hispanic Experience in Colorado From the First Settlers to the Present*, by Jose Aguayo (Supplemental Guide, Section IV). Ask them to predict what kind of perspective he might bring to the retelling of history. Distribute reading, group students and have them read and take two column notes. **To the student:** Today we’re going to begin by doing a quick brainstorming activity. Find a clean sheet of paper in your workbook and copy this quote and web on the board. Think it over, write down a few ideas, notes, questions, etc. Exchange some ideas with your partner and be prepared to share with the class what you think this means. Perspective is very, very important. When getting information from any source, we should always ask ourselves “what’s this person’s perspective? What do they think is important?” As you do today’s reading and take notes, think about this question and think about why it may be important that, as a community, we have and share many different perspectives. **VOCABULARY** perspective: A point of view. land grants: Land granted by Spain and Mexico to individuals or groups for government services or in lieu of money owed by the government. Mexican War: The war between the United States and Mexico from 1846-1848, ostensibly fought for control of the lands in the West and Southwest. territory: A designation by the U.S. Congress signifying intermediate steps toward statehood had been taken. placita: A small town or village. Mexican Revolution: A war between 1910-1920 in Mexico that led to the displacement of over a million Mexicans, many thousands of whom relocated in Colorado. Ku Klux Klan: An organization originally formed by ex-confederate soldiers in 1867 that advocated white, Protestant supremacy. While originating in the south, it grew in popularity around the country after WWI, reaching a peak membership of three million in 1924. mutualista organizations: Fraternal organizations S.P.M.D.T.U.: United Workers’ Mutual Protection Society. Penitente chapters: A religious organization. Fraternidad de Nuestro Padre Jesus Nazareno: Fraternity of Our Father Jesus of Nazareth. Comisiones Honorificas: Honorary Committees. G.I. Bill of Rights: Benefits provided by the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 to millions of WWII veterans which included educational allowances, and loans for homes, farms, and businesses. American GI Forum: An organization that began in Texas and fought for equal treatment of Hispanic war veterans. LULAC: The League of United Latin American Citizens was founded in 1929 and has fought for civil rights, education and employment for Mexican-Americans throughout its history. D.A.R.: An acronym for Daughters of the American Revolution which is an organization dedicated to patriotic ideals and the memory of participants in the American Revolution. Membership is exclusive to those who can demonstrate proof of direct descent from an American Revolutionary. RESOURCES / MATERIALS *A Short History of the Hispanic Experience in Colorado From the First Settlers to the Present*, by Jose Aguayo (Supplemental Guide, Section IV) Short History of the Hispanic Experience worksheet two column notepaper sheet of loose leaf paper HOMEWORK - Have students write a short essay entitled “Who’s History: The Importance of Perspective.” - Ask students to construct a web on “different perspectives.” What are all the possible perspectives that might exist on history? On a large piece of butcher paper, write “Different Perspectives of History” across the top and, in bullet form, ask each student to contribute a different idea at some point during class, e.g. men’s, women’s, immigrant, African American, Native American, child’s, soldier’s, handicapped person’s, blind person’s, etc. Review, discuss, explore together. - Direct students to reconstruct the history in narrative form using only their notes. ASSESSMENT RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | Students work effectively in pairs, follow directions and share enthusiastically with the class. Notes are detailed, accurate and complete. | | 3 | Students work effectively in pairs and follow directions most of the time. Students share with class. Notes are detailed, accurate and complete. | | 2 | Students work in pairs and follow directions but need some prompting. Students share with class. Notes are somewhat detailed, accurate and complete. | | 1 | Students work in pairs and follow directions but need some prompting. Students refrain from sharing with class. Notes are sometimes detailed, accurate and complete. | Short History of the Hispanic Experience Worksheet | DATE: | TITLE: A Short History of the Hispanic Experience in Colorado From the First Settlers to the Present | |-------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | TOPIC/MAIN IDEA | DETAILS | Duplicate additional copies of this page as needed. Lesson 11 Two Histories: The Importance of Perspective Contrasting Timelines What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students know the physical and human characteristics of places and used this knowledge to define and study regions and their patterns of change. (G2) Students understand how economic, political, cultural, and social processes interact to shape patterns of human populations, interdependence, cooperation, and conflict. (G4) Students understand the chronological organization of history and know how to organize events and people into major eras to identify and explain historical relationships. (H1) Students understand that societies are diverse and have changed over time. (H3) Students understand political institutions and theories that have developed and changed over time. (H5) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students will write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know the physical and human characteristics of places. (G2.1) Students know the characteristics, location, distribution, and migration of human populations. (G4.1) Students know the nature and spatial distribution of cultural patterns. (G4.2) Students know how cooperation and conflict among people influence the division and control of Earth’s surface. (G4.5) Students know the general chronological order of events and people in history. (H1.1) Students use chronology to organize historical events and people. (H1.2) Students use chronology to present historical events and people. (H1.3) Students use chronology to present historical events and people. (H1.4) Students know how various societies have been affected by contacts and exchanges among diverse peoples. (H3.1) Students understand the history of social organization in various societies. (H3.2) Students understand how democratic ideas and institutions in the United States have developed, changed, and/or been maintained. (H5.1) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students make connections between prior knowledge and what they need to know about a topic before reading about it. (RW1.2) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students recognize, express, and defend points of view orally and in writing. (RW4.3) Students identify the purpose, perspective, and historical and cultural influences of a speaker, author, or director. (RW4.4) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will accurately construct a timeline using basic math skills. Students will read and review a chronology of Colorado history. Students will practice deriving information from various sources, determining importance, and converting information into a timeline format. Students will construct contrasting timelines, selecting the information and dates they feel are most pertinent. Students will develop an appreciation for the importance of perspective in retelling history. SPECIFICS It is often said that “the victorious write history.” If true, many voices are lost in our accepted versions of the historical chronicles? Perspective is critical to the retelling of our common human story. By omission or emphasis, a story is easily shaped and slanted, even while retaining its basic truth. In reading a history, we must not only critically analyze and evaluate what is present, but also ask what has been left out. Only then, will the picture begin to take shape as a representation of the truth. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Constructing a timeline Determining importance Selecting, evaluating, and organizing information Individual work Independent reading PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Prepare the *Colorado State Archives: Colorado History Chronology* (Supplemental Guide, Section V) and *A Short History of the Hispanic experience in Colorado from the First Settlers to the Present*, by Jose Aguayo (Supplemental Guide, Section IV). readings. Make adequate copies of the timeline worksheets, including a few extra. Have a ruler for every student ready. Make sure student notes from the previous lesson are handy for student reference. Review your own notes. Familiarize yourself with the procedures for constructing the timeline. Create a model timeline for yourself. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Direct students to complete two timelines, one at a time. First, they will complete a Hispanocentric timeline using only their notes from the previous day on the bottom portion of the timeline worksheets. Next, you will give them a *Colorado State Archives: Colorado History Chronology* (Supplemental Guide, Section V) and have them create a eurocentric timeline. Before doing either, however, discuss how to create a timeline and agree as a class how you will do it. Give the students this information: Your beginning date is 1775. Ending date is 2000. They should be able to determine that if you have five sheets of paper, then each sheet will represent 45 years and one inch equals 5 years. Using rulers, fill in the dates, every five years. To the student: Using your notes from the previous lesson and some additional information I’ll be giving you shortly, we are going to create a timeline. However, this one is going to be a little different than most. Take a look at the worksheet. What do you think we are going to do? That’s right, we’re going to create two parallel timelines. What are timelines good for any way? Yes, summarizing and presenting information. And do you include just anything? What are you looking for? That’s right. The main points. The most important pieces of information. Okay, everyone should have a ruler and their timeline sheets ready. Let’s put this timeline together as a class. Who can help me out, if I give you the following information? Our beginning date is 1775. Our ending date is 2000. How do we go about constructing the timeline? Now that you have filled in the dates, use your notes on the Hispanocentric history to create a timeline below. Remember, we’re looking for the most important events. When you have finished that portion, raise your hand and I’ll give you further instructions. VOCABULARY none RESOURCES / MATERIALS Colorado State Archives: Colorado History Chronology (Supplemental Guide, Section V) A Short History of the Hispanic Experience in Colorado From the First Settlers to the Present, by Jose Aguayo (Supplemental Guide, Section IV) Two Histories of Colorado: Comparing a Eurocentric and Hispanocentric View worksheet rulers timeline worksheets HOMEWORK Debrief the creation of the timelines. What thoughts or observations did the students have? Are all the timelines the same? Are they likely to be different? Why? How? Is this yet another perspective? The perspective of the individual? How do individuals shape history? Our story as a people? Discuss. ASSESSMENT RUBRIC Points Rubric 4 Student demonstrates effort, attention and focus. Timelines are neat, complete, legible, and accurate. 3 Student demonstrates effort, attention and focus most of the time. Timelines are mostly neat, complete, legible, and accurate. 2 Student demonstrates effort, attention and focus some of the time. Timelines are generally neat, complete, legible, and accurate. 1 Student demonstrates some effort, attention and focus. Timelines show some evidence of being neat, complete, legible, and accurate. Two Histories of Colorado: Comparing a Eurocentric and Hispanocentric View Worksheet | Eurocentric | Hispanocentric | |-------------|----------------| | | | Duplicate additional copies of this page as needed. Lesson 12 Colorado and the Union What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students know the structure and function of local, state, and national government and how citizen involvement shapes public policy. (C2) Students understand political institutions and theories that have developed and changed over time. (H5) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know the organization and functions of local, state, and national governments. (C2.1) Students know the structure and function of local, state, and national government and how citizen involvement shapes public policy. (C2.2) Students understand how democratic ideas and institutions in the United States have developed, changed, and/or been maintained. (H5.1) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) Students use reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to gather data, define the problem, and apply problem-solving skills. (RW4.2) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will activate prior knowledge on the roles and rights of the federal and state governments and share with class. Students will read chapter two from Robert S. Lorch’s *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration, and Policy* entitled “Colorado and the Union.” Students will learn about the rights and responsibilities of nations and states in a republican democracy. Students will take notes using a partially completed outline that requires them to find supporting details, explanations and definitions of key terms. Students will define several important terms and be able to explain their importance. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Prior knowledge Class discussion Independent reading Locating and interpreting information Outlining Defining Determining importance PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Ready the textbooks. Copy the specially prepared two-column notepaper for all students. Read the chapter. Complete the two-column note worksheets for yourself. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Begin the lesson by activating prior knowledge. Draw two large circles on the board. At the top of one write “Role of State Government”. At the top of the other write “Role of National Government”. As students enter the classroom, ask them to copy and brainstorm possible answers. Wait three minutes. When they have at least three examples, students should raise their hands. As students raise their hands, have them quietly go to the board and write down one of their examples in the appropriate circle. Review and debrief as a full class. Invite students to think about and give examples of when the federal and state governments might come into conflict. Explain that you are about to read a chapter that addresses this specific issue. Direct students to the two-column notepaper. Explain how it is organized and have them begin. To the student: Today we’re turning our attention to the role of the federal and state governments. We’ve got some good examples on the board of both. (Share a few. Correct the inaccuracies together.) Discuss. Do you think the interests of the federal and state governments ever come into conflict? How? (Elicit examples and discuss.) Good. Using the notepaper I have prepared for you, we’re going to take notes on the chapter Colorado and the Union. Let’s get started together. Who wants to read out loud to the class? VOCABULARY federal system: A system in which all power is divided between the national government and the states. sovereign state: A self-governing independent state. sovereign: Having supreme rank or power; paramount; supreme. dual sovereignty: A sovereign nation made up of many sovereign states. Tenth Amendment: An amendment to the U.S. Constitution which explains that the power of the states consists of everything not granted exclusively to the federal government. delegated power: When a state government delegates power to the federal government. reserved power: When a state government reserves its power rather than delegating it to the federal government. express powers: When a state government gives “expressly stated” power to the federal government. implied powers: When a state government “merely implies” power to the federal government. interstate commerce: Commerce that is not confined to one state that is regulated chiefly by the federal government. social pluralism: Organized pressure groups that challenge government power. republican form of government: A government of representatives chosen by the people. full faith and credit: The public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of a state is recognized by all the other states. extradition: When one state delivers a person charged with a crime back to the state from whence the person has fled. RESOURCES / MATERIALS *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy* by Robert S. Lorch Colorado and the Union worksheets scratch paper specially prepared two-column notepaper ASSESSMENT RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | All notes are intelligently and thoroughly completed. All terms are correctly defined, their importance is clearly explained. | | 3 | 80% of all notes are intelligently and thoroughly completed. 80% of all terms are correctly defined, their importance is clearly explained. | | 2 | 70% of all notes are intelligently and thoroughly completed. 70% of all terms are correctly defined, their importance is clearly explained. | | 1 | 60% of all notes are intelligently and thoroughly completed. 60% of all terms are correctly defined, their importance is clearly explained. | | DATE: | TITLE: *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy*, Chapter 2 “Colorado and the Union” | |-------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | TOPIC/MAIN IDEA | DETAILS | | Is Colorado a Sovereign State? | | | Federal System (definition) | | | Sovereign (definition) | | | What is the meaning of sovereign for Colorado? | | | Dual Sovereignty (definition) | | | What is the importance of dual sovereignty? | | | Division of Powers | | | Explanation of division of powers | | | What is the tenth amendment? | | | Delegated Power (definition) | | | DATE: | TITLE: *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy*, Chapter 2 “Colorado and the Union” | |-------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | TOPIC/MAIN IDEA | DETAILS | | Reserved Power (definition) | | | Express Powers (definition) | | | Implied Powers (definition) | | | Interstate Commerce (definition) | | | Why has federal power grown? Reason | | | Social Pluralism (definition) | | | What is the importance of social pluralism? | | | Growth of federal power | | | DATE: | TITLE: *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy*, Chapter 2 “Colorado and the Union” | |-------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | TOPIC/MAIN IDEA | DETAILS | | Obligations of Federalism | Obligations of federal government to states | | | Like a wedding contract | | | Republican form of government (definition) | | | Territorial integrity of the states (meaning) | | | Protection and assistance (meaning) | | | What is the process of settling disputes between states? | | | What is the process of settling disputes between citizens of different states? | | DATE: | TITLE: Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy, Chapter 2 “Colorado and the Union” | |-------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | TOPIC/MAIN IDEA | DETAILS | | Obligations of states to nation | | | Election of federal officials | | | Obligation of states to each other | | | Full faith and credit (definition) | | | Importance of full faith and credit | | | Extradition (definition) | | | Privileges and immunities (definition) | | | How is privileges and immunities confusion? | | Lesson 13 Structure of the Federal and State Governments What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand the purposes of government and the basic constitutional principles of the United States republican form of government. (C1) Students know the structure and function of local, state, and national government and how citizen involvement shapes public policy. (C2) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students will write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know and understand what government is and what purpose it serves. (C1.1) Students know the organization and functions of local, state, and national governments. (C2.1) Students know how power, authority, and responsibility are distributed, share and limited through federalism as established by the United States Constitution. (C2.2) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students make connections between prior knowledge and what they need to know about a topic before reading about it. (RW1.2) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will activate and share prior knowledge regarding the structure of the federal government and put into a graphic organizer with teacher guidance and lecture. Students will examine the parallel structure of the state government and complete a graphic organizer utilizing a text. Students will examine and analyze how this system offers both checks and balances. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Lecture Note Taking Using a graphic organizer Main idea, supporting detail Reading and locating information Summarizing and paraphrasing PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Prepare adequate copies of the text *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy* and the Structure of the Federal Government Worksheets and Structure of the State Government Worksheet. Review the structure of the federal government (using *The New York Times Almanac*: 2003, John W. Wright, Ed., or referring directly to the text of the U.S. Constitution, also found in an almanac: Legislative Branch—Article I, Sections 1,2,3 & 8; Executive Branch—Article II, Sections 1-4; Judicial Branch—Article III, Sections 1-3) and complete the corresponding worksheets. Review the structure of the state government (using the text, *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy*, Chapter 8, Legislature—Organization and Functions, pages 220-225, 227-230; Chapter 10, Governor, pages 284, 287-288, 291,292, 297; Chapter 7, Courts and Law, pages 177-178, 186-187) and complete the corresponding worksheets. ACTIVITIES **To the teacher:** This lesson is comprised of a comprehensive review of the federal government structure followed by an in-depth look at the state government structure. Copy the vocabulary words below onto a transparency, discuss and define as a class. This will lead you to the interactive lecture. Using an overhead projector and a transparency of the first worksheet, direct students to take notes as you give an engaging lecture on the topic, alternatively asking students questions and referring back to the vocabulary. Take model notes to illustrate the process. Point out to the students that two column notes are a very efficient way of capturing information delivered in a lecture format. Use the top two boxes for the executive and judicial branches, the large box on the second page for the legislative. Involve the students as much as possible, pool your knowledge, and help them to organize it into meaningful categories, e.g. name, role, number of individuals serving, length of service in terms, leadership, etc. Discuss in general terms, the importance of the system of checks in balances. How does it work? Once this is completed move on to the next worksheet regarding the structure of the Colorado state government. Direct students to use a similar format, working independently and consulting their text: Chapter 10, Governor; Chapter 7, Courts and Law, Chapter 8, Legislature—Organization and Functions. Remind students to focus on the chapters and pages listed on the worksheet. Briefly discuss as a full class once everyone is finished, especially eliciting parallels between state and federal government structures and the checks and balances each incorporates. **To the student:** We’re about to begin a rather long lesson about the structure of government. First we might have a little vocabulary review. Who can help me out with some of these words? Now lets take a look at the Structure of the Federal Government Worksheets. Lets read the directions together. What do you think we are going to do with this graphic organizer below? Right, lets see what we remember together…. Good job. Next look at the Structure of the State Government Worksheets. What do you think we’re going to put in these top two boxes. What else do you know? Now, together with your partner, I’d like you to complete each of the three sections, using your text as a reference. I have narrowed down the search quite a bit by listing the appropriate page numbers and topics on the worksheet. Try to pull out just the main facts. Look for parallels to the federal government and pay special attention to the way the three branches interact and provide checks and balances. What did you find out? How are the two structures similar? How are they different? What checks and balances did you discover? (Make notes on the board/overhead, capturing student observations. Expand on them, where possible.) VOCABULARY executive: A branch of government empowered and required to administer the laws and affairs of a nation. judicial: Courts of law or the administration of justice. legislative: Referring to legislation, the lawmaking branch of a government having the power to make laws. president: The highest executive officer of an organization, etc. supreme court: The highest federal court consisting of nine judges. congress: The legislature of the U.S. consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. House of Representatives: The lower branch of the legislature of the U.S. Senate: The upper branch of the legislature of the U.S. U.S. Constitution: The system of fundamental laws and principles that prescribes the nature, functions, and limits of the United States government consisting of seven articles and 25 amendments. Colorado general assembly: An assembly of the Colorado legislature that are members of the House of Representatives. governor: The elected head of any state of the U.S. Colorado State Constitution: The system of fundamental laws and principles that prescribes the nature, functions, and limits of the state of Colorado. checks and balances: A system of power accountability within the three branches of government to form a single unit of government. The legislative, executive, and judicial branches’ powers overlap and each branch exerts some power over the others. RESOURCES / MATERIALS The New York Times Almanac: 2003 (for teacher reference) Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy by Robert S. Lorch Structure of the Federal Government and Structure of the State Government worksheets HOMEWORK Make a copy of the U.S. Constitution, found in the almanac, for each student and use it as your text. After activating prior knowledge and pooling your knowledge, use round robin reading of the text to fill in the details. Make notes on the overhead and have students copy onto their worksheets. Refer to the specific articles and sections noted above under “Preliminary Lesson Preparation.” ASSESSMENT Have students write an informal three paragraph essay entitled “The Parallel Structures of the Federal and State Governments—Two Systems of Checks and Balances.” Paragraph 1 should describe in detail the federal government and its structure. Paragraph 2 should describe in detail the state government and its structure. Paragraph 3 should discuss similarities, differences, and how they both provide checks and balances. Share the following rubric with the students. RUBRIC Points Rubric 4 Each paragraph is well-organized and detailed. Descriptions of government structures are complete. Essay concludes with accurate observations and has several interesting ideas. 3 Each paragraph is well-organized and detailed. Descriptions of government structures are mostly complete. Essay concludes with accurate observations and has at least one interesting idea. 2 Each paragraph is mostly well-organized and detailed. Descriptions of government structures are sometimes complete. Essay concludes with some observations and an interesting idea. 1 Each paragraph is sometimes well-organized and detailed. Descriptions of government structures are complete at times. Essay concludes with an accurate observation and/or an interesting idea. Structure of the Federal Government Worksheet A System of Checks and Balances Directions: Use the diagram below to help you take notes as you, your classmates and your teacher discuss the structure of the national government. Use the “main idea-supporting detail” format with which you are now quite familiar. Structure of the Federal Government Worksheet A System of Checks and Balances [Diagram: A flowchart with arrows pointing upwards, indicating the structure of the federal government with checks and balances.] Structure of the State Government Worksheet A System of Checks and Balances The Colorado State Government mirrors that of the Federal Government. A similar structure carries out similar roles and responsibilities. The differences between the two can be found in the details. **Directions:** Using the text *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy*, complete each of the diagrams below. Refer to the following sections: Chapter 10, Governor, pages 284, 287-288, 291, 292, 297; Chapter 7, Courts and Law, pages 177-178 and 186-187; and Chapter 8, Legislature—Organization and Functions, pages 220-225 and 227-230. Use the “main idea-supporting detail” format. Structure of the State Government Worksheet A System of Checks and Balances [Diagram: A flowchart with arrows pointing upwards, indicating the structure of state government with checks and balances.] Lesson 14 How a Bill Becomes a Law What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand the purposes of government and the basic constitutional principles of the United States republican form of government. (C1) Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national. (C4) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students will write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources. (RW5) BENCHMARKS Students know and understand what government is and what purpose it serves. (C1.1) Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state, and national. (C4.4) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) Students use reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to gather data, define the problem, and apply problem-solving skills. (RW4.2) Students paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information. (RW5.3) OBJECTIVES Students will analyze the life cycle of a bill in the Colorado General Assembly. Students will summarize possible outcomes of a bill through the use of a graphic organizer. Students will evaluate the roles and responsibilities of various players in the law making process. Students will define fifteen terms. Students will reflect and select three key learnings from this lesson. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Reading and analyzing text Drawing conclusions Using a graphic organizer Summarizing and paraphrasing Question and answer Defining Determining importance PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Assemble the following items, insuring that there are enough copies for each and every student: How a Bill Becomes a Law Scenario (Supplemental Guide, Section VI), How a Bill Becomes a Law worksheets, and the text *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy*. Review the How a Bill Becomes a Law Scenario and complete the graphic organizer yourself. Review and complete page one of the worksheets. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Have students pair off and direct their attention to the How a Bill Becomes a Law Scenario (Supplemental Guide, Section VI) and the How a Bill Becomes a Law Worksheets. Read the instructions together. Check for understanding. Direct the students complete the worksheets with their partner and to be ready to share their ideas. Circulate around the room and help pairs as required. To the student: Okay, now we’re going on to the How a Bill Becomes a Law Worksheet. Take a look at the *How a Bill becomes a Law Scenario* (Supplemental Guide, Section VI). Let’s talk about this diagram a minute. With a partner complete the worksheet by summarizing the information in this diagram. Try to boil it down to a simple explanation. Use your own words and language to describe what is going on at each stage, then finish off the possible “final stretches” of a bill. Once you are completed, move on to the next worksheet and answer the questions with the help of your partner and referring to the text. VOCABULARY committee: A group of people that convene to consider, investigate, and report or act on some matter. debate: A discussion in which opposing sides of a question or matter are probed. amendment: A revision or addition proposed or made in a bill, law, constitution. conference: A meeting of committees from both branches of a legislature to reconcile the differences between bills passed by both branches. clerk: The county’s record keeper. scenario: An outline of any proposed or planned series of events, real or imagined. circuitous: Being or taking a roundabout, lengthy course. RESOURCES / MATERIALS *How a Bill Becomes a Law Scenario* (Supplemental Guide, Section VI) How a Bill Becomes a Law worksheets *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy*, by Robert S. Lorch HOMEWORK Visit the website of the Colorado General Assembly. Find documents related to a bill or numerous bills. Have students analyze and discuss what steps the bills went through and how they did or did not become a law and why. See www.state.co.us/gov_dir/stateleg.html. ASSESSMENT RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | All questions are intelligently and thoroughly answered. All terms are correctly defined. Three key learnings are selected and explained. | | 3 | 80% of all questions are intelligently and thoroughly answered. 80% of all terms are correctly defined. Three key learnings are selected and explained. | | 2 | 70% of all questions are intelligently and thoroughly answered. 70% of all terms are correctly defined. Three key learnings are selected and explained. | | 1 | 60% of all questions are intelligently and thoroughly answered. 60% of all terms are correctly defined. At least two key learnings are selected and explained. | How a Bill Becomes a Law Worksheet There are several paths a bill might take on its journey to becoming a law. The path might be fairly direct, if the bill enjoys widespread popularity, or circuitous, if it is controversial in nature. **Directions**: Using the sheet entitled *How a Bill Becomes a Law*, complete the following diagram illustrating the various paths a bill can take. A New Bill’s Journey Through the House - A new bill introduced in the House goes through many steps before proceeding. **Using your own words**, briefly summarize what happens. What do the legislators do? Proceeding Through the Senate - If a bill passes, it moves to the Senate. Again, **using your own words**, briefly summarize what happens. What do the legislators do? Back to the House: The Final Stretch - If the bill passes the House and Senate in the same form... - [ ] [ ] - If the bill passes in different forms and the House accepts the changes... - [ ] [ ] - If the bill passes in different forms and the House rejects the changes... - [ ] [ ] How a Bill Becomes a Law Worksheet Part I: Directions: Using the sheet entitled *How a Bill Becomes a Law*, complete the following questions. Please use your best English, responding in complete sentences. 1. What are the three scenarios in which a bill becomes a law? 2. Why do you think a governor may choose not to sign a law? What kind of signal does the governor give by not signing? 3. How would you describe the role of the governor in the formulation of legislation? 4. As you reflect on the lengthy process it takes for a bill to become a law, what qualities do you think are required of an effective legislator? Try to think of at least five and explain their importance. 5. What is the role of the various committees and why do you think it is important that a bill, under varying circumstances, return to a committee for consideration? 6. What is the role of a lobbyist during this process? What do they do? How do they influence policy making? (If you get stumped, see the text *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy*, pages 262-264, Special Interests and the Authorship of Bills.) 7. What is the role of constituents during this process? How can they influence policy making? **Part II:** **Directions:** Using Chapter 9 in the text *Colorado’s Government: Structure, Politics, Administration and Policy* (pages 261-282), define the following terms which you will find in bold text. Work carefully and thoughtfully. - bill - act - special interest groups - lobbyist - sponsor - first reading - standing committee - committee assignments - committee of the whole - second reading - third reading - engrossed enrolled bill - conference committee - override a veto Part III: Directions: Review your notes, the questions and answers. What are the three most important things you have learned about how a bill becomes a law? Please explain and justify your answer, using your best English. 1. 2. 3. Lesson 15 Civic Values and Democratic Participation Brainstorming What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand the purposes of government and the basic constitutional principles of the United States republican form of government. (C1) Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national. (C4) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students will write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4) BENCHMARKS Students know the fundamental democratic principles inherent in the United States concept of a constitutional democratic republic. (C1.5) Students know what citizenship is. (C4.1) Students know how citizens can fulfill their responsibilities for preserving the constitutional republic. (C4.2) Students know how citizens can exercise their rights. (C4.3) Students know how citizens can participate in civic life. (C4.4) Students make connections between prior knowledge and what they need to know about a topic before reading about it. (RW1.2) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students expand vocabulary development using a variety of methods. (RW2.1) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) Students recognize, express, and defend points of view orally and in writing. (RW4.3) OBJECTIVES Students will collectively define and individually brainstorm examples of seven civic values. Students will orally share their examples with fellow students. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Teacher guided Brainstorming Discussion PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Make adequate copies of the Civic Values and Democratic Participation worksheet and have copies of the Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts ready for all students. Review the definitions in the Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts. Reflect on each of the values and complete your own web. ACTIVITIES To the teacher: Guide students with leading questions and examples. Come to collective definitions of the seven values and write them on the board/overhead. Direct students to work independently. Urge them on—it may be a struggle for some. Share and collect examples as a class. When students share, ask them to extend their thinking. How is that an example? What are you thinking? Why is it important? Write each example on the board/overhead under each value. To the student: Today we are going to discuss civic values, do a little brainstorming individually and finally share as a group. Now what does civic mean? And values? Okay, lets read these directions. I think we need to look at these definitions once again. (Review civic life, civic virtue, and civic values.) Briefly, let’s define these terms together. What does self government mean? Justice? Etc. Now, I’d like you to take 15 minutes or so to brainstorm many, many examples. Think about all the ways your life in the wider world—outside of your home—is impacted by these civic values. Be prepared to share with the whole class. VOCABULARY civic virtue: The ethics demonstrated in public office. civic values: Practices governed by the intrinsic qualities demonstrated in public office. the common good: The philosophical intent to benefit all. self government: Not swayed or controlled by others which is characterized by self-discipline. justice: The use of authority and power to uphold what is right; fairness. equality: The state or instance of being equal. truth: The quality or state of being true. openness and free inquiry: The right to question openly. patriotism: Loyal and zealous support for one’s own country. RESOURCES / MATERIALS Key Vocabulary & Unit Concepts list (found on page 10) Civic Values and Democratic Participation Brainstorming worksheet HOMEWORK Give each student a 4 x 6 note card. Ask them to pick one of the values. Have them define it, explain why it is important to civic life, explain how it relates to private life, and collect further examples. ASSESSMENT List the seven civic values. Have students define and list three examples of each. RUBRIC Points Rubric 4 All seven values are correctly defined. Three examples are given for each. 3 Six of seven values are correctly defined. Three examples are given for each. 2 Five of seven values are correctly defined. Three examples are given for each. 1 Four of seven values are correctly defined. Three examples are given for each. Civic Values and Democratic Participation Brainstorming Worksheet Directions: So far we have discussed civic life—the life of a citizen concerned with the affairs of the community and nation—and civic virtue—the dedication of citizens to the common welfare, even at the cost of their individual interests. These two depend upon the values that guide us every day in our actions, the choices we make, and how we interact with others. You’ve probably heard many times of the values of life, liberty, the right to own property, and the pursuit of happiness, but what about the values listed below? Think about each value for a few moments. What do they mean? Brainstorm as many examples as possible for each value and be ready to share with the whole class. How do we demonstrate civic values? - The Common Good - Self Government - Justice - Equality - Truth - Openness and Free Inquiry - Patriotism Lesson 16 Making Policy What will students be learning? STANDARDS Students understand the purposes of government and the basic constitutional principles of the United States republican form of government. (C1) Students know the structure and function of local, state, and national government and how citizen involvement shapes public policy. (C2) Students understand how citizens exercise the roles, rights, and responsibilities of participation in civic life at all levels—local, state and national. (C4) Students read and understand a variety of materials. (RW1) Students will write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences. (RW2) Students write and speak using formal grammar, usage, sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. (RW3) Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing.(RW4) BENCHMARKS Students know and understand what government is and what purpose it serves. (C1.1) Students know the fundamental democratic principles inherent in the United States concept of a constitutional democratic republic. (C1.5) Student know how public policy is developed at the local, state, and national levels.(C2.4) Students know what citizenship is. (C4.1) Students know how citizens can fulfill their responsibilities for preserving the constitutional republic. (C4.2) Students know how citizens can exercise their rights. (C4.3) Students know how citizens can participate in civic life. (C4.4) Students use comprehension strategies. (RW1.1) Students make connections between prior knowledge and what they need to know about a topic before reading about it. (RW1.2) Students adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes. (RW1.3) Students write and speak for a variety of purposes. (RW2.2) Students write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community. (RW2.3) Students plan, draft, revise, proofread, edit, and publish written communications. (RW2.4) Students recognize, understand, and use formal grammar in speaking and writing. (RW3.1) Student apply formal usage in speaking and writing. (RW3.2) Students use correct sentence structure in writing. (RW3.3) Students demonstrate correct punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. (RW3.4) Students make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. (RW4.1) OBJECTIVES Students will select and analyze a current social problem. Students will define the problem, brainstorm possible solutions, and solicit input from a fellow student. Students will select the most promising solution and explain their choice. Students will develop and write a formal policy proposal, using the information they have generated as an outline. What will be done to help students learn this? INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Independent reading Brainstorming Analyzing Conferring Problem-solution Pre-writing Formal, expository writing PRETEACHING In preparation for the summary paragraph writing, review and collect any materials/techniques you have for teaching formal writing. Plan to do several mini-lessons with students to properly prepare them for formal writing. Review complete sentences and fragments. Illustrate several topic sentences. Make lists together of transition words. Keep all this information up in the room for quick reference. PRELIMINARY LESSON PREPARATION Assemble and copy the Crafting a Policy worksheet and the Summary Paragraph worksheet for each student. Get current newspapers, one for each student. Review the worksheet. Look at a current newspaper. Brainstorm a variety of current topics/problems that may be of interest to students. Be ready to prompt students and help them choose a topic. To the teacher: Review the worksheets and the instructions. Pass out newspapers. Instruct students to raise their hands upon completing step four, scan the room, and exchange papers with whoever also has their hand raised (or wait for the next person). Exchanges should be silent and only in writing, so as to not disturb other students. To the student: For this lesson, everyone gets to be a legislator. And that means doing the work of a legislator! Find the Crafting a Policy Statement worksheet and review the directions together. So what are we going to do? First? Then? And how are we going to exchange papers? Did everybody get that? VOCABULARY policy: A principle, plan, or course of action as pursued by a government, organization, or individual. policy statement: A written and agreed upon statement that will apply to a given set of circumstances. constituents: A component necessary in forming or making up a whole. ameliorate: To make or become better; improve. RESOURCES / MATERIALS Crafting a Policy Statement worksheet Summary Paragraph worksheet one current newspaper per student HOMEWORK - Follow the format for creating a bill and take the policy statement that the student has already written and convert it into that format. Have the student clearly map out in the form of a graphic organizer the following steps their bill will have to take before it can become a law. Follow the format for creating a bill and take the policy statement that the student has already written and convert it into that format. Have the student clearly and specifically map out the route the bill will take in the form of a graphic organizer. - Ask students to locate and analyze a current, popular song that addresses a societal problem. (Be careful to instruct students to select a song that is appropriate for sharing in school.) Have the student clearly describe the problem and list the details referenced in the song, before presenting. - Have students examine bills up for consideration in the current session of the Colorado State Assembly. Have them read, review, analyze, and critique as part of a mini-presentation to their classmates. - Have students locate bills sponsored by, written by, or voted for by the legislator whose mini-biography they studied. Review the law and develop a brief summary that explains what the historical issues of the day were and how this bill was designed to address them. ASSESSMENT The summary paragraph should be graded as a formal piece of writing. Share the rubric with the students, reviewing the grading criteria with students. RUBRIC | Points | Rubric | |--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 4 | Essay is well-organized, exemplifies formal style and usage, contains many interesting ideas and has a strong voice. Topic is thoroughly and thoughtfully explored. | | 3 | For the most part, essay is well-organized, exemplifies formal style and usage, contains interesting ideas and has a strong voice. Topic is thoroughly and thoughtfully explored. | | 2 | Some of the time, essay is well-organized, exemplifies formal style and usage, contains some interesting ideas and has a voice. Topic shows some evidence of being thoroughly and thoughtfully explored. | | 1 | Organization, formal style, usage and voice are developing. There are some good ideas. | Crafting a Policy Statement Worksheet One of the primary activities of our elected officials is to “make policy”. But what does that really mean? Our elected officials, on behalf of the constituents they represent, evaluate current societal problems and attempt to craft solutions in the form of laws. These laws are meant to guide society in a certain direction and ameliorate the issues they have identified as problems. Directions: 1. Review the newspaper to stimulate your thinking about some of the current problems that face society: It may have to do with education, the environment, youth, crime, etc. 2. Choose a current problem of interest that you know a little about and complete Steps 1-4. Exchange papers with one of your classmates and ask them to comment in the space provided. Do they agree? Disagree? Do they have other ideas? Finally, complete Step 5. Step Question 1. What is the problem? 2. Who is the problem? 3. Why is it a problem? 4. What are some possible solutions? Do a quick brainstorm, including any and all creative ideas. 5. Which of the possible solutions do you think is best? Why? Explain your choice and give ample details. Summary Paragraph Worksheet Directions: Using the information from the previous page as an outline, write a summary paragraph of your policy statement. Use your best English, writing in complete sentences, clearly introducing your topic, supporting your ideas with details, linking ideas with transition statements, and bringing your paragraph to a convincing conclusion. Beck, Warren A. and Haase, Ynez D. *Historical Atlas of the American West*. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. Maps are a great tool for storytelling and this set of 78 does a tremendous job telling the story of our American West. It is a fascinating collection, each with a short explanatory text, that describes the physical geography, flora and fauna, history of exploration, conflicts, wars and battles, political and economic development, political change and agricultural use. This is a tremendous resource for teacher and student alike and comes highly recommended. Colorado General Assembly. (2003, March). [Website]. Available at: http://www.state.co.us/gov_dir/stateleg.html This is the portal to all things related to the Colorado General Assembly. It is an incredible resource that puts at your finger tips numerous primary documents related to the day-to-day business of this legislative body, including texts of bills in their various states as they pass through their journey toward becoming laws. Colorado State Archives. (2003, March). [Website]. Available at: http://www.archives.state.co.us/info.html This is an excellent resource for historical documents and information about the state of Colorado. Students can be referred to this site to conduct work independently. Likewise, it makes an excellent teacher resource. Topics include: state government, Colorado history chronology, Spanish-Mexican land grants, various historical documents, and historical photographs. C. De Baca, Vincent, Ed. *La Gente: Hispano Histoy and Life in Colorado*. Denver, CO: The Colorado Historical Society, 1998. This volume contains a rather eclectic but fascinating compilation of scholarly articles, oral histories, and period pieces that range in focus from women’s issues and the migrant labor experience to the Chicano movement and surviving cultural contributions. It even includes a research piece co-authored by Richard Castro entitled “Internal Colonialism in Colorado: The Westside Coalition and Barrio Control”. Individual chapters could be great extensions for those students with sufficient interest and skill to persist with a reading level that approximately varies from 11th grade to college. De Varona, Frank. *Latino Literacy: The Complete Guide to Our Hispanic History and Culture*. This volume also strives to survey this very broad topic. I would say that it is less successful, in that it does not provide any photos and many of the statistics are presented in a way that makes them less than easy to find and use. Nevertheless, the text is quite readable and offers a sound treatment of a variety of topics. Denver Public Library. (2003, March). The Photography Collection. [Website]. Available at: http://photoswest.org/ The Denver Public Library maintains an incredible photographic history of the state of Colorado, containing a rich and varied collection that paints a vivid picture of our state from its origins to the present. The site lends itself to all manner of lessons and activities, both student and teacher directed. Discover Colorado: The Official Colorado State Website. (2003, March). [Website]. Available at: http://www.state.co.us/gov_dir/stateleg.html You can find information on elected officials, all three branches of the Colorado state government, texts of primary documents, including the state constitution, and links to state agencies and departments. An excellent student and teacher resource. Documents for the Study of American History. (2003, April). [Website]. Available at: http://lcweb.loc.gov/exhibits/ghtreaty/ Here you can find the full and complete original text of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in its original form. A great resource, if you wish to have students delve into this topic in greater detail. Dye, Thomas R. *Politics in States and Communities*. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. If you are looking for a comprehensive and authoritative college level text to refresh your understanding of state and local government, this is a great one. Mr. Dye thoroughly investigates theoretical and practical aspects of the topic and includes a discussion of the nation’s historical development and experience in specific domains, such as civil rights, housing, crime, education, etc. Encyclopedia.com. (2003, April). [Website]. Available at: http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/J/JefferSTle.asp Need some information quick? Check this on-line website out. Here we’ve found a concise definition of the Jefferson Territory, along with numerous links of potential interest. This site is very accessible to students and teachers alike. Hoobler, Dorothy and Thomas. *The Mexican American Family Album*. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. This is an excellent resource, which begins with the first Mexican Americans and continues on to the present. The text is highly readable and the photos are fascinating historical documents. The reading probably would be appropriate for most high school students. Each section is interspersed with interesting quotes and narratives. Indeed, oral history is an important component of the text. This is a highly recommended resource. Jimenez, Carlos. *The Mexican American Heritage*. Berkeley, CA: TQS Publications, 1994. This is a popular high school text, which is well written and interspersed with important literacy building activities. There are a number of worthwhile writing exercises included in every chapter. The author writes from the Chicano perspective, thus much of the Spanish contribution is left out entirely. Nevertheless, it is a recommended text. Kanellos, Nicolas. *The Hispanic Almanac: From Columbus to Corporate America*. Of the books, which attempt to provide a survey of this topic, this is by far the most exhaustive and comprehensive. It would be a valuable teacher/classroom reference work. Excerpts could be used for student reading, depending on how advanced the students are and how much background knowledge they possess. Included are mini-biographies and many fascinating pictures. Lewin, Stephen, Ed. *The Latino Experience in U.S. History*. Paramus, NJ: Globe Fearon, 1994. An excellent textbook for the secondary level, this volume gives a very good treatment of the subject without becoming overly encumbered with details or specialized vocabulary. The material spans from 1000 to the present, is highly readable, includes activities, vocabulary, historical photos, extensions, etc. which are helpful to both the student and teacher. This is a good basic text, which will be accessible to most all secondary-level students, including second language Lorch, Robert S. *Colorado’s Government*. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 1997. If you are looking for a text that explains the early political history of Colorado, its relationship to the union, local government, and the functions of the three branches of government, this is an excellent choice. Thorough and highly readable, you will find this an excellent resource to refresh and renew your understanding of Colorado’s government. It is also excellent as a primary text for use with students. Martinez, Elizabeth, Ed. *500 Years of Chicano History in Pictures*. SouthWest Organizing Project, Albuquerque, NM: 1991. This volume is unique in that it is bilingual and is largely made up of fascinating photos from historical archives. Students enjoy the presentation of history in this format; it is great for the visual learner. In addition, the book offers a highly politicized account of the events that will spark a lot of conversation. It is most definitely a worthwhile addition to one’s library. Meier, Matt S. and Feliciano Ribera. *Mexican Americans/American Mexicans: From Conquistadors to Chicanos*. New York: Hill & Wang, 1996. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the history of the United States and Mexico as they relate to one another. Meier presents the material with great detail and reference to primary sources. It is probably too advanced for the average student, but could be valuable to those seeking more detail and comprehensiveness. Noel, Thomas J., Mahoney, Paul F., and Stevens, Richard E. *Historical Atlas of Colorado*. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. This collection of maps and accompanying explanatory texts is an excellent student and teacher resource. It features a tight focus on Colorado and provides a great deal of interesting information on the state, including the setting, boundaries, agriculture, transportation, mining and manufacturing, settlement, recreational and historic areas. The work lends itself to many types of student and teacher directed activities and lessons. Our Documents. (2003, April). [Website]. Available at: http://www.ourdocuments.gov/content.php?page=milestone_documents This is a great source of primary historical documents that includes the original text of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Ideas abound, making this a great resource for creating teacher directed lesson extensions, or for having students take on independent research projects. This is a real winner! Onis, Jose. *The Hispanic Contribution to the State of Colorado* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1976. In a collection of fourteen essays of varied authorship, a window is opened to the Hispanic presence in Colorado from the earliest times. On the jacket cover, de Onis writes: “The Hispanic people of Colorado are neither immigrants into the United States nor the descendants of immigrants. Colorado had been their homeland for many years before the founding of the Republic.” Of particular interest are the first five chapters, which deal primarily with early Spanish contacts with Colorado and the conferring of land grants. This is a great text for the teacher to develop further knowledge of the subject. Wright, John W., Ed. *The New York Times 2003 Almanac*. New York: Penguin Reference Books, 2003. This almanac is an excellent resource for finding quick facts on a myriad of topics. It is of particular help in this unit when reviewing the structure of the federal government and referring to historical documents, such as the U.S. Constitution. Rosales, F. A. *Chicano!: The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement*. Houston, Texas: Arte Publico Press, 1997. This is a fantastic teacher resource on the topic. The reading is very high level, but is presented in an interesting and engaging way and includes fascinating archival photographs. This book would be valuable for the teacher who wants to develop a more thorough understanding of the background and larger context. This volume accompanies the impressive series of videos that carry the same name. Ubbelohde, Carl, Benson, Maxine, and Smith Duane A. *A Colorado History*. Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Company, 1995. What this volume lacks in diverse perspectives, it makes up for in an rather exhaustive treatment of the subject. It is considered somewhat of a classic as a general history of the “centennial state”, even though the omissions of the contributions of diverse peoples are glaring and disturbing. This is the commonly accepted history of our state. About the Author Steve Garner grew up in the small, San Joaquin Valley town of Delano, California, where he lived most of his youth. Mr. Garner spent his senior year of high school as an exchange student in Linkoping, Sweden, before beginning his studies in International Relations at the University of California at Davis. During his tenure there, he completed a Minor in Russian Language and a yearlong program of study in New Delhi, India. After graduating with honors, he continued his studies of Russian, culminating in a semester-long program in Moscow, Russia. He is the recipient of numerous awards, scholarships, and grants, including a Foreign Language Area Studies Scholarship, U.S. Department of Education Scholarship, Social Science Research Council Grant, and Crystal Apple Outstanding Teacher nomination. After several years of working in computer-related fields, Mr. Garner became a teacher of secondary English and Social Studies. He received his Master’s Degree from the University of Colorado, Denver in Curriculum and Instruction with an emphasis in Second Language Acquisition in 1997. In 1999, he was appointed Director of the Ford Initiative, a K-12 systemic school reform effort funded by a multiyear grant from the Ford Foundation. He has recently launched his own firm, Polyglot, Inc., specializing in educational writing, project management and development consulting. He can be reached at 720-327-0656 or email@example.com.
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At a Glance: AAPIs in Hawaii - Hawaii is home to 708,074 Asian Americans (alone or in combination) and 296,496 Pacific Islanders, (alone or in combination) making up about 55% and 23% of the state, respectively. About 22% of Hawaiians are multiracial. - The AAPI vote is important in local and national elections, and Hawaii has a long history of electing AAPI officials since establishing statehood. - Political participation rates for Asians in Hawaii are comparable statewide but not high compared to other states—about 56% of the Asian VEP\(^1\) registered to vote in 2008. However, many recent Asian American immigrants still face challenges towards engaging in civic life. **A Large and Established AAPI Population** - There are 708,074 Asian Americans in Hawaii, making up 55% of the population. - There are 296,496 Pacific Islanders, making up 23% of the state’s population. - In addition, about 22% of Hawaii is of mixed-race descent. While the above numbers include multiracial AAPIs, there are 495,762 Asians of one race and 113,113 NHPIs of one race in Hawaii. - Hawaii is one of the two states in the US where non-Hispanic whites don’t form a majority. - About 4% of the country’s Asian only population resides in Hawaii. In the US, one in four single-race NHPIs lives in Hawaii. - Japanese make up the majority of the Asian population in Hawaii, (about 1 in 3) and Native Hawaiians are the majority of the state’s Pacific Islander population (over half). **Hawaii’s AAPI Turnout in 2008** - In 2008, there were 548,000 Asians who were eligible to vote in Hawaii, making up 56% of the state’s VEP. - Of AAPIs eligible to vote in Hawaii, 58% registered to vote, which is comparable to the statewide number. - Approximately 87% of registered AAPIs turned out to vote in 2008, which is comparable to the statewide figure. **National Elected AAPI Officials in Hawaii** - Hawaii has a long history of electing Asian American officials to national office. - Some notable AAPIs from Hawaii: current Senators Inouye and Akaka, who are of Japanese and Native Hawaiian/Chinese descent, Patsy Mink, the first Asian American woman elected to US Congress in 1964, and Hiram Fong, the first AAPI US Senator, elected in 1959. - In 2006, AAPIs had the potential to influence the Senatorial race. The AAPI VEP was 373,347, which exceeded the margin of victory, which was 84,077. - In 2006, the AAPI’s had the potential to influence the Congressional races in districts 1 and 2, where the AAPI voting eligible population exceeded the margin of victory. **Challenges to Voter Participation** - Almost 1 in 5 households in Hawaii with Asian and Pacific Islander languages is linguistically isolated.\(^3\) Those who struggle with English have trouble voting without language assistance. - While only 5% of Pacific Islanders, and 25% of Asian Americans in Hawaii are foreign born, Hawaii has large foreign born populations from China, Korea, Japan, the Philippines, and Vietnam. - More recent immigrants are likely to be limited in their English proficiency. - 18% of Pacific Islanders in Hawaii live below the poverty line, and many South East Asian immigrants also live below the poverty line. --- \(^1\) 2006–2008 American Community Survey; all other data from *A Community of Contrasts*, Asian American Justice Center, 2006. \(^2\) “VEP” stands for Voting Eligible Population– Citizens who are 18 years or older. \(^3\) A linguistically isolated household is one in which all members of the family over 14 years old experience at least some difficulty speaking English.
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Russia: The impact of World War 1: Initial reaction - War was popular with most Russians. - Most Mensheviks support war - Church makes the war a holy war - Anti-German fever (St Petersburg = Petrograd) Only a small number resist this mood: including Lenin & Bolsheviks who believed the war was the Tsar’s imperialist war and should be used to topple the autocracy. WW1 & the countryside - 15.5 million conscripted, mainly from the land = less labour on the land - Most military casualties = peasant soldiers. - Occupied lands in west were the most heavily populated and productive agriculturally - Russian civilian losses by 1917 = 2,000,000 (famine, disease, war) - Increasingly this turns the peasants against war (and Tsar) WW1 & industry - Blockade by Germany starves industry of raw materials - Raw materials from the western allies could not reach factories due to transport collapse = factory closures WW1 & towns - German occupation of west: = (1) refugees in towns with no work/ Shelter (1916: 3.3 million refugees) = (2) Shortages of food (1916 cereal production = 20% less than pre war) = cost of food rises = ruble inflation (400% 1914–1916) - Factory closures = unemployed seeking work = real wages fall as prices rise - Agitation grows in the towns: - 1916: 67,000 march to commemorate Bloody Sunday. 1917: 145,000 Sept 1916, 200,000 strike in Petrograd Strikes spread outside capital and become political in their demands Bolshevik agitation increases (1914–1917, 2,000,000 leaflets believed to be distributed in secrecy) Increasing military collapse - Losses so high, 33% of all men conscripted - 1914 = lost 500,000 - Reinforcements badly armed & equipped = desertion grows = self mutilation grows - By 1915 = lost 3,400,000 (dead, captured, wounded) men in war - Troops increasingly disillusioned by military leadership of Tsar and generals. Growing agitation by small number of Bolsheviks within the army. Incompetence of Tsar (See classwork) Figures from Alexander Grunt, “Russia at war”, a Soviet historian
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1. For each question exactly one of the 5 options is correct. 2. Each participant is given 30 points at the beginning. For each correct answer 3, 4 or 5 points are added. No answer means 0 points are added. If a wrong answer is given, one quarter of the points is subtracted, i.e. 0.75 points, 1 point or 1.25 points, respectively. At the end, the maximum number of points is 150, the minimum is 0. 3. Calculators and other electronic devices are not allowed. ### 3 point problems **A1** The weather app on Jenny’s mobile phone shows the expected maximum temperatures for the next 5 days. What does the corresponding graph look like? (A) ![Graph A](image1.png) (B) ![Graph B](image2.png) (C) ![Graph C](image3.png) (D) ![Graph D](image4.png) (E) ![Graph E](image5.png) **A2** Which of the following calculations has the largest result? (A) $202 \times 1$ (B) $202^1$ (C) $2 \times 0 \times 2 \times 1$ (D) $20 \times 21$ (E) $20 \times 2 \times 1$ **A3** From above, our city park looks like an equilateral triangle. The four horizontal paths in the park are parallel to each other. In the travel guide, 3 routes through the park are recommended and marked with thick lines. They have the lengths $P$, $Q$ and $R$. Which statement is true? (A) $P < R < Q$ (B) $P < Q < R$ (C) $P < Q = R$ (D) $P = R < Q$ (E) $P = Q = R$ **A4** Jurek’s grandfather is thinking about how many seeds he needs for his herb and vegetable beds. For this purpose, the grandfather wrote down the area of each of the rectangular beds. The bed at the top right is 6 m long. How long is the bed at the bottom right? (A) 7 m (B) 7.5 m (C) 8 m (D) 8.5 m (E) 9 m **A5** In a handball match, the home team led 14:9 at half-time. In the 2nd half, the away team got better and scored twice as many goals as the home team. In the end, the away team won by one goal. What was the final score? (A) 23:24 (B) 22:23 (C) 21:22 (D) 20:21 (E) 19:20 **A6** Six identical rhombuses form a star. Each rhombus has an area of 5 cm². The tips of the star are joined to form a regular hexagon. What is the area of this hexagon? (A) 36 cm² (B) 40 cm² (C) 45 cm² (D) 48 cm² (E) 60 cm² A7 The triplets Samuel, Lukas and Gabriel from my class play in our six-member school jazz band. The other three band members are 13, 14 and 15 years old. The average age of all six band members is 15. How old are the triplets Samuel, Lukas and Gabriel? (A) 15 years (B) 16 years (C) 17 years (D) 18 years (E) 19 years A8 When Mariam sets the correct code on her bicycle lock at the front, the lock looks from the back as shown. What is the correct code? (A) 4836 (B) 3981 (C) 6548 (D) 6427 (E) 5358 A9 Which of the following triangles is isosceles, not right-angled, and has an area of 8 squares? (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) A10 Ada has thought of a number. The result she gets when she subtracts $\frac{1}{10}$ from her number is the same as the result she gets when she multiplies her number by $\frac{1}{10}$. What number did Ada think of? (A) $\frac{1}{100}$ (B) $\frac{1}{11}$ (C) $\frac{1}{10}$ (D) $\frac{11}{100}$ (E) $\frac{1}{9}$ 4 point problems B1 There are 10 children waiting at the water slide. A slide ride at constant speed lasts 1 minute. When a child reaches the last tenth of the slide, the light turns green and the next child starts sliding immediately. How long does it take for all 10 children to reach the bottom? (A) 9 min 18 s (B) 9 min 6 s (C) 8 min 54 s (D) 8 min 30 s (E) 8 min 20 s B2 A frog wants to cross a pond. He uses 7 lily pads in a row. He only jumps forward 1 or 2 lily pads at a time. He has to jump over the 6th lily pad because it is wilted. How many different possibilities are there for the frog to cross the pond in this way? (A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 9 (E) 10 B3 The numbers from 1 to 6 are to be written in the six squares in the figure shown. On each of the three circles there are four of the squares. The 6 is already written. Which number must be written in the square with the question mark, so that the sum of the four numbers on each circle is the same? (A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4 (E) 5 B4 If the year 2021 is divided by 6, by 7, by 8 or by 9, you get the remainder 5 each time. In how many years does the number of the year have this property again for the first time? (A) 504 (B) 72 (C) 1512 (D) 126 (E) 336 B5 The picture shows a semicircle with centre $M$. What is $\alpha$? (figure not to scale) (A) 5° (B) 7° (C) 9° (D) 11° (E) 13° B6 Five kangaroos with the starting numbers I, II, III, IV and V take part in the kangaroo jumping competition. Kangaroo V starts, followed by IV, III, II and I – in this order. Each time a kangaroo overtakes another, it receives a point. Kangaroo II reaches the finish first, followed by IV, I, V and III – in this order. How many points did the five kangaroos get in total at least? (A) 10 (B) 9 (C) 8 (D) 7 (E) 6 B7 Anselm has a $3 \times 3$ field filled with zeros. In this $3 \times 3$ field, he selects in each step a $2 \times 2$ square and increases each of the four numbers in it by 1. After a few steps, he stops. Three of the numbers that are now in the $3 \times 3$ square can be seen, the others are covered. Which number is under the question mark? (A) 16 (B) 17 (C) 19 (D) 20 (E) 22 B8 After the Kangaroo competition, certificates and prizes are sent to all schools. Parcels are packed at two large tables. Each of the five packing helpers has a fixed place. At the breakfast break, each helper counts his or her finished parcels. There are 9, 15, 17, 19 and 21, respectively. One of them has already carried all his or her parcels to the parcel trolley. Now there are three times as many parcels on one table as on the other. How many parcels are already on the parcel trolley? (A) 9 (B) 15 (C) 17 (D) 19 (E) 21 B9 What is the sum of the 6 angles marked in the figure? (A) 960° (B) 1020° (C) 1080° (D) 1120° (E) 1140° B10 Numbers are to be entered in the fields of the strip shown. The 1st box and the 8th box each contain 333. The sum of neighbouring numbers should be $a$ and $a + 1$ alternately, as shown. What is the value of $a$? (A) 336 (B) 933 (C) 666 (D) 369 (E) 669 5 point problems C1 In triangle $ABC$ with angles $\angle BAC = 75^\circ$ and $\angle ACB = 60^\circ$ and side length $|AC| = 1$, the side $AB$ has been replaced by a “staircase” (see figure). What is the length of this stair-shaped line? (A) 2 (B) 3 (C) $\frac{3}{2}$ (D) $\sqrt{2}$ (E) $\sqrt{3}$ C2 The numbers $a$, $b$ and $c$ satisfy $a + b + c = 0$ and $abc = 78$. What is the value of $(a+b)(b+c)(c+a)$? (A) $-156$ (B) $-78$ (C) $-39$ (D) $78$ (E) $156$ C3 If $N$ is the smallest natural number with the sum of its digits equal to 2021, what is the sum of the digits of the number $N + 2021$? (A) 10 (B) 12 (C) 19 (D) 28 (E) 2021 C4 In the $4 \times 4$ table, some cells must be painted black. The numbers next to or below the table show how many cells in the respective row or column must be painted black. In how many different ways can this table be painted in this manner? (A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 5 (E) more than 5 C5 Mila, Olivia and Elena write down as many capitals as possible for 2 minutes. Whoever writes down one capital that none of the other two have, gets 3 points. If a capital is chosen by exactly two, each of these two gets 1 point. If a capital was chosen by all of them, 0 points are awarded. Finally, each girl has written down 10 capitals. When they add up their points, each has a different total. Olivia is last with 19 points. Elena has the most points. How many points does Mila have? (A) 20 (B) 21 (C) 23 (D) 24 (E) 25 C6 Lorenz has been doing some shopping for five senior citizens from the neighbourhood for almost a year. Today he did some shopping at the bakery. Four of the purchases had the same price. For one of the purchases, Lorenz had to pay a different amount. For which one? (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) C7 How many 5-digit positive numbers have the product of their digits equal to 1000? (A) 10 (B) 20 (C) 30 (D) 40 (E) 60 C8 For a beam balance there are 8 weighing pieces, all with different weights and each with an integer mass (in g). If any two weights are placed together on one pan and any two of the remaining weights are placed on the other pan, the side with the heaviest of the four weights is always the heavier one. What is the mass of the heaviest weighing piece at least? (A) 12 g (B) 34 g (C) 55 g (D) 128 g (E) 256 g C9 We imagine a long row in which there are 2021 single-coloured balls. Each of the balls is either blue, red, white or green. Among 5 adjacent balls, there is always exactly one blue ball, exactly one red ball and exactly one white ball. Every red ball is followed by a white ball. The 2nd ball, the 20th ball and the 202nd ball are green. What colour is the last ball in the row? (A) blue (B) red (C) white (D) green (E) That is not determined. C10 The smaller of the squares shown has an area of 16 cm$^2$, the grey triangle has an area of 1 cm$^2$. What is the area of the larger square? (A) 17 cm$^2$ (B) 18 cm$^2$ (C) 19 cm$^2$ (D) 20 cm$^2$ (E) 21 cm$^2$
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The word "Amish" brings a picture to mind, one of horses and buggies, barn raising, living off the land without modern conveniences, and of quilts. But in truth the Amish came late to quilting. **The Amish Came Late to Quilting** Long after their neighbors were piecing quilts the Amish still used the old German featherbeds and coverlets. There was a good reason for this. Amish communities were formed so that the members could remain apart from the temptations of the modern world. But what is considered modern changes over the years. The Amish gradually made changes as well, but often a few decades later. Amish quilt making is a good example of this. Very few quilts are known to have been made by the Amish before the 1870s. Then over 15 years quilting became quite common. **Amish Quilting Evolves, But Always Behind Current Quilt Styles** As we follow the evolution of their quilt making we find that the Amish always used conservative styles compared to what was popular in quilting at any given time. The first Amish quilts were made in one solid color, of brown, blue, rust or black. Often worsted wools were used, and though the fabric was plain, the quilting done to hold the layers together was intricate and decorative. Swirling feathers, curves and grids were typical quilting patterns. Gradually some basic piecing and additional colors were added. For example a quilt may have had a large diamond in the middle of a dark fabric with only wide border around it. Fabric colors evolved to include pumpkin, olive green and an occasional dark red. These new colors were still deep and solid. As the general population moved on to elaborate crazy quilts the Amish adopted some of the more basic of the block patterns. Nine patch, Around the World, and Sunshine and Shadow were popular. Only solid colored fabric was used but with more varied colors. Amish quilts were made of wool or cotton, as popular silks were considered too worldly. **The Making of an Amish Quilt** Many Amish quilters used black as an integral part of the quilt. In the hands of these creative women this recipe of simplicity brought about amazing results. The play of the black against the saturated hues created a vibrant and distinctive quilt. Solid fabrics showcased the women's hand quilting skills. These stunning quilts were not made for everyday use but instead were brought out for special occasions. Most people assume that Amish quilts were done completely by hand but this was not the case. Many Amish quilts were pieced using a treadle sewing machine but the beautiful quilting was always done by hand. Although most piecing was done at home when the top was ready to be quilted it was often an occasion for women to gather around the quilting frame. Living as part of the community is central to Amish life and quilting fits into this pattern. It was natural for quilting to become another traditional task, one of many done in groups. This sense of community and the importance of complying with community standards had a great influence on Amish quilting. **Differences in Quiltmaking Between Amish Communities** Changes in how quilts were made occurred slowly and only with community approval. Interestingly, this also brought about a good deal of variety from community to community as each community had its own, often unwritten guidelines as to how things should be done. Pink or white fabric may have been considered unacceptable in a more conservative area, while drab browns may have been thought dull and old-fashioned in a more liberal one. A quilt made in one community might be put away or sold when the family moved to another one. **Changes in Fabric and Patterns Over Time** In the early twentieth century new brighter colors became available and women began to adapt traditional patterns to create more complex designs. During the World War II natural fiber was hard to come by and even the Amish had to turn to the synthetics available at the that time. As most of the nation turned away from quilting, considering it old-fashioned and a waste of time, the Amish continued the tradition. By the 1940s the Amish began to add more pastels and in rare cases printed fabric. Many communities allowed more freedom in design and even appliqué began to appear. Hand quilting was no longer as detailed as it had been in earlier times. The unique art of Amish quilting might have declined to utilitarian craft if it were not for the discovery of Amish quilts by the general population. **Modern Day Amish Quilts** With the approach of the bicentennial in 1976 Americans became very interested in their past and in the process discovered the unique art of Amish quilting. Amish quilts became a popular item and Amish women began to produce quilts to be sold. In spite of so many buyers eager to purchase them, quilts are still made by the Amish for their own use. Women make quilts for weddings, babies, friendship and as fund-raisers. Because the women are often busy in the garden and helping with the farming in the milder months, most Amish quilt making is done in the winter. Young mothers may find little time for quilting but many grandmothers produce a number of quilts. Although many quilts are being made for sale, quilting is still an important part of Amish family and community life. **Amish Quilts an Inspiration** Amish quilts continue to be a source of inspiration to quilters. Modern quilt artists are using black with solid colors and discovering the beauty in such basic designs. Amish quilt designs are a result of a belief that art is not a separate thing but that beauty is a part of function, a concept that can be an inspiration to all quilters. Copyright 2001 Judy Anne Breneman References: "Clues in the Calico", by Barbara Brackman "Amish Quilts", by Eve Wheatcroft Granick "Quilts a Living Tradition" by Robert Shaw
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## Geography Skills - Suggest questions for investigating - Use primary and secondary sources of evidence in their investigations. - Investigate places with more emphasis on the larger scale; contrasting and distant places. - Use 4 figure co-ordinates confidently to locate features on a map. - Draw/use maps and plans at a range of scales. - Use atlases to find out about other features of places. (e.g. mountain regions, weather patterns) - Confidently identify significant places and environments ## RE Skills - TBC ## PSHE Skills - Oral hygiene; Sun Safety; Screen Time; Sleep; Habits; How to recognise physical or mental ill-health. ## Music Skills - Sing in unison and sing backing vocals - Demonstrate a good singing posture - Discuss and talk musically about it – “What went well?” and “It would have been even better if…?” ## French Units - Seasons / The Weather; Holidays; Sports; Hobbies ## Computing Skills - Explore ‘what if’ questions by planning different scenarios for controlled devices. - Design, write and debug their own computer controlled application. - Explain how an algorithm works. ## Science Skills - Explain that unsupported objects fall towards the earth because of the force of gravity acting between the earth and the falling object. - Identify the effects of air resistance, water resistance and friction that act between moving surfaces. - Recognise that some mechanisms, including levers, pulleys and gears, allow a smaller force to have a greater effect. - Present a report of their findings through writing, display and presentation using appropriate scientific vocabulary. - Use a graph to answer scientific questions? - Use test results to make predictions to set up comparative and fair tests. ## D&T Skills - Generate ideas through brainstorming and identify a purpose for their product. - Draw up a specification for their design. - Select appropriate materials, tools and techniques - Measure and mark out accurately - Cut and join with accuracy to ensure a good-quality finish to the product - Evaluate it personally and seek evaluation from others ## Key Vocabulary ocean, river, bay, gulfs, glaciers, water cycle, water treatment, Kenya, drought, sustainability/conservation, hydroelectricity, air resistance, water resistance, friction, gravity, newton, gears, pulleys ## Bodies of Water | Term | Definition | Image | |------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------| | river | A river is a natural flowing watercourse which is usually freshwater. It flows towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. | ![River Rother, East Sussex, UK](image) | | lake | A lake is an area filled with water, localised in a basin, surrounded by land. | ![Derwentwater, Lake District, UK](image) | | oceans and seas | An ocean is a major body of water covering the Earth’s surface. A sea is a large area of water connected to an ocean. Typically seas are partly enclosed by land. | ![Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Africa](image) | | reservoir | A reservoir is a place where water is stored for a purpose. | ![Bewl Water, UK](image) | | bay | A natural area of water bordered by land on three sides. | ![Wineglass Bay, Australia](image) | | gulf | A part of an ocean or lake that is surrounded by land. | ![Gulf of Mexico](image) | | strait | A narrow channel of water that connects two larger bodies of water. | ![Strait of Gibraltar](image) | | fjord | A long, deep narrow arm of water between high cliffs formed by glacial erosion. | ![Lysefjord, Norway](image) | ## How do we use water in our homes? - **Shower:** 15% - **Bathe and Laze:** 21% - **Toilet flushing:** 30% - **Cooking:** 8% - **Washing up:** 9% - **Washing:** 7% - **Other:** 9% ## How does the water get to our homes? Water is pumped from the ground, rivers and lakes into a water treatment plant. Here the water is treated for better quality. ### Steps: - **Step One:** Collect Rain - **Step Two:** Store the Water - **Step Three:** Screen the water. - **Step Four:** Remove Particles - **Step Five:** Final Treatment - **Step Six:** Get water to houses. ## Case Study – Kenya Kenya is a country in Africa which is known as a water scarce country. Approximately 17.3 million people out of a total population of 46.7 million do not have access to safe water. The two graphs above compare water usage between Kenya and the UK. Green shows agricultural use; yellow shows industrial use and blue shows domestic use. **Hydropower** Hydropower is the use of falling or fast running water to produce electricity. This is a sustainable (or renewable) method of electricity generation. Both water wheels and dams are examples of hydropower.
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Skiing in the Czech Republic: A Family Adventure Skiing in the Czech Republic is a fantastic way to enjoy the winter season with your family. The country offers a variety of ski resorts that cater to all skill levels, from beginners to advanced skiers. Here’s what you need to know about skiing in the Czech Republic: 1. **Resorts and Locations** - **Karlovy Vary**: Known for its spa culture, Karlovy Vary also has several ski resorts, including Mariánské Lázně and Hrachov, which offer a mix of slopes suitable for beginners and experts. - **Liberec**: This region is home to several ski resorts like Harrachov and Semily, which are popular among families due to their well-maintained slopes and child-friendly facilities. 2. **Equipment Rental** - Most ski resorts in the Czech Republic provide equipment rental services. You can usually find everything you need, from skis and boots to helmets and goggles, at the resort. 3. **Ski Lessons** - For families with children, ski lessons are available at most resorts. These lessons are designed to teach children the basics of skiing in a safe and fun environment. 4. **Accommodation** - There are various accommodation options available, ranging from hotels to chalets. Many resorts have on-site accommodations or nearby options that are convenient for skiers. 5. **Food and Drink** - Ski resorts often have restaurants and cafes where you can enjoy a warm meal or a hot drink after a day on the slopes. Some resorts also offer après-ski activities like live music and dancing. 6. **Safety Tips** - Always wear appropriate safety gear, including a helmet, gloves, and goggles. - Follow the rules of the ski resort and respect other skiers. - Take breaks when needed to avoid fatigue and ensure a safe skiing experience. 7. **Season and Weather** - The best time to visit for skiing is typically from December to March, when the snow conditions are ideal. However, some resorts may be open year-round depending on the location and weather. 8. **Transportation** - Most ski resorts are accessible by car, but some may require a shuttle service or bus transportation. It’s advisable to check the resort’s website for detailed information on transportation options. 9. **Local Culture** - The Czech Republic has a rich cultural heritage, and many ski resorts offer local cuisine and traditional activities. Exploring the local area can be a great way to experience the culture while skiing. 10. **Family-Friendly Activities** - In addition to skiing, there are many other activities available in the area, such as snow tubing, ice skating, and snowshoeing. These activities can keep the whole family entertained. Skiing in the Czech Republic is not only a great way to enjoy the winter season but also an opportunity to create lasting memories with your family. Whether you’re a beginner or an expert, the Czech Republic has something for everyone. So pack your bags and hit the slopes! The girls playing Uno. Skiing in France with kids is a fantastic way to enjoy the snow and create lasting memories. Here are some tips to make your skiing trip with children a success: 1. **Choose the Right Resort**: Look for resorts that offer family-friendly facilities, such as child-friendly slopes, ski schools for beginners, and activities for kids. Resorts like Les Gets or Morzine in the French Alps are great choices. 2. **Rent Equipment**: Renting equipment can be more cost-effective than buying new gear, especially if you’re not sure how long your family will be skiing. Make sure the equipment fits properly and is comfortable for your children. 3. **Safety First**: Ensure all family members wear appropriate safety gear, including helmets and goggles. Teach children basic safety rules, such as never skiing alone and always staying with an adult. 4. **Plan Activities**: Plan activities beyond skiing to keep everyone entertained. This could include snowboarding lessons, snowshoeing, or visiting local attractions. 5. **Take Breaks**: Skiing can be tiring, so take breaks when needed. Consider renting a chalet where you can relax and recharge. 6. **Stay Hydrated and Warm**: Drink plenty of water and stay warm by layering clothing. Avoid overexertion to prevent fatigue and injuries. 7. **Enjoy the Experience**: Remember to have fun! Skiing should be an enjoyable experience for everyone, so encourage your children to try new things and enjoy the winter wonderland around them. By following these tips, you can ensure a safe and enjoyable skiing trip with your children in France. The children are playing table tennis in the club. The best ski school in the Pyrenees Skiing with kids is a great way to enjoy the winter season together. Here are some tips for making your skiing trip with children a success: 1. **Choose the Right Resort**: Look for resorts that offer family-friendly amenities and activities. Many resorts have special programs for kids, such as ski school, which can be a great way to learn the basics. 2. **Rent Equipment**: Renting equipment can save you money and ensure that everyone has the right gear. Most resorts offer rentals at reasonable prices. 3. **Plan Ahead**: Make sure to plan your day ahead of time. Know what trails you want to ski and how long they take. This will help you make the most of your time on the slopes. 4. **Stay Hydrated and Warm**: Skiing can be tiring, so make sure to stay hydrated and warm. Bring plenty of snacks and drinks, and dress in layers to keep warm. 5. **Take Breaks**: Skiing can be exhausting, so make sure to take breaks when needed. Find a place to sit and rest, and maybe even grab a hot drink. 6. **Be Patient**: Skiing with kids can be challenging, but remember to be patient. Encourage them to try new things and don’t get frustrated if they make mistakes. 7. **Have Fun**: Above all, have fun! Skiing with kids should be an enjoyable experience for everyone involved.
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ing into a double line separated by grade. The students then marched up the steps to their respective classrooms. Their outer garments were hung on hooks along the walls of the hallway. The interior of the classrooms were essentially alike except for the height of the student desks. If my memory is correct there were six rows with eight desks in each row. The desks and chairs were firmly attached to the floor. The desks all had hinged lids which were slightly tilted toward the student. There was a minor difference, although all desks had a round hole for the insertion of an inkwell, only those in the upper four grades contained inkwells. The front of the room had large chalkboards mounted across its entire width. Above the chalkboards were mounted Rand McNally roll-up map cases. The teacher's desk and chair were centered in front of the chalkboards, facing the students. High on the wall above the chalkboards was a crucifix. In one front corner was an American flag. The first activity of the day was to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance, followed by the morning prayers. Then homework papers were collected. The first subject of the day was religion, commonly called Catechism. This was followed by a sequence of subjects whose titles varied by grade. In general, it was Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, History and Geography. Great emphasis was placed on Grammar, which included spelling. Nearly as much emphasis was placed on arithmetic: running the whole gamut from simple arithmetic (don't forget the multiplication table), through fractions and elementary geometry. Another subdivision of arithmetic was Units of Weight and Measure, i.e. ounces, pounds, pints, gallons, bushels, feet, yards, etc. History began with Christopher Columbus, the Jamestown and Plymouth colonies, right on through the Revolution, followed by the Civil War, up to and including WWI, complete with names of major players and dates of all significant events. In Geography we had to identify all ocean bodies and continents. We furthermore had to locate on a map every major country in the world including its capitol city. In the U.S. we had to locate and name every state and its capitol. Thrown in for good measure was the name and location of all major mountain ranges and rivers. Yes, we had to spell Mississippi too! Coming back to the classroom...as there were two classes in each room and only one teacher, subject matter was divided in two. While the teacher was lecturing to one class on a given subject, the other class was busy with study work: reading from their texts, solving arithmetic problems or writing answers to questions on the blackboard or at the end of a chapter in their textbooks. Halfway through the period the roles were reversed. All written material was collected at the end of the period, graded and returned on the following day. WOW! Talk about a workload. Working alone, some students, boys in particular, tended to daydream or amuse themselves by drawing pictures, or with other distractions. It was not unusual to be rudely awakened by a smart rap on the knuckles from a 12-inch ruler. More serious infractions resulted in being kept after school and having to write "I will not _____ ____ ___" 100 times. Cheating during a test resulted in having the test paper torn up and a different one completed during an "after school session." Throwing spitballs, shooting rubber bands and other methods of disrupting the class, usually resulted in a visit with Sister Superior. Instead of a ruler she was said to use a blackboard pointer, but not applied to the knuckles. Thank God for long underwear and thick trouser seats! Report cards went home monthly, to be returned signed by a parent. Subjects were graded A thru D. Final grades at the end of the year were "Pass or Fail." To fail meant the grade had to be repeated during the following year. A summer school was available where one could get help and usually resulted in advancement to the next grade. This was particularly important to children who had missed extended periods due to illness. One has to remember that these were the days before "shots." Every child could expect, within their lifetime, coming down with at least two out of the three most common diseases: measles, mumps or chicken pox. As I remember it...that's the way it was at the old St. Joseph's school. Many thanks to Frank for taking us down memory lane—and what a memory!
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1. What do you understand by the term well conditioned triangle? Why is it necessary to have well conditioned triangles in chain survey? 2. If the length of 250m is measured on a slope of 1in-4, find the horizontal length. 3. The true bearing of a tower as observed from a station A is $350^\circ 30'$, and the magnetic bearing of the tower is $2^\circ 30'$. The back bearing of the line AB when measured with a prismatic compass was found to be $330^\circ 30'$. What is the true bearing of the line? 4. What are different types of errors in plane table surveying? How would you minimize them? 5. Write the Basic principle of Total Station. 6. How will you identify the position of an object using GPS? 7. Differentiate between direct leveling and indirect leveling 8. List different types of leveling staves? State the merits and demerits of each type. 9. What is cross sectioning? What is its importance? 10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct contouring? 11. How would you overcome the chaining difficulties if there are obstacles in chaining and ranging both? (16 marks) 12. (a) A closed compass traverse ABCDE was conducted round a lake and the following bearings were obtained. Determine which of the stations are suffering from local attraction and give the values of the corrected bearings. | Line | FB | BB | |------|------|------| | AB | 74°20' | 256°0' | | BC | 107°20' | 286°20' | | CD | 224°50' | 44°50' | | DE | 306°40' | 126°0' | (OR) 12. (b) What is resection in plane table surveying? Describe any two methods of resection. (16 marks) 13. (a) A Tacheometer is set up at an intermediate point on a traverse course PQ and the following observations are made on a vertically held staff. | Staff Station | Vertical Angle | Staff intercept | Axial hair reading | |---------------|----------------|-----------------|--------------------| | P | +9°30' | 2.250 | 2.105 | | Q | +6°00' | 2.055 | 1.875 | The instrument is fitted with an anlactic lens and the multiplying constant is 100. Compute the length PQ and the reduced level of Q. R.L. of P = 350.50m (16 marks) (OR) 13. (b) What do you understand by closing error of a closed traverse? How will you adjust it by Gale’s Table? (16 marks) 14. (a) Explain the working of a dumpy level with a sketch. What are the various temporary adjustments and explain them? (16 marks) (OR) 14. (b) Following is the page of level book. Some of the readings got erased and are missing. Missing readings have been marked by cross marks. Calculate the missing readings. | Station | B.S. | I.S. | F.S. | Rise | Fall | R.L | |---------|------|------|------|------|------|-------| | 1 | X | | | | 0.827| 150.00| | 2 | | 2.457| | | | X | | 3 | | 2.400| | | | X | | 4 | 2.697| | X | | | 148.070| | 5 | X | | 2.051| | X | 148.716| | 6 | | 2.500| | | | 149.784| | 7 | | 2.896| | | | 149.388| | 8 | | X | | | 0.124| X | | 9 | | | 2.672| | | 149.612| (16 marks) 15. (a) Describe various methods of indirect contouring and methods of interpolation of contours (OR) 15. (b) The following offsets were taken from a chain line to a hedge | Distance (m) | 0 | 20 | 40 | 60 | 80 | 120 | 160 | 220 | 280 | |--------------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| | Offset | 9.4 | 10.8| 13.6| 11.2| 9.6 | 8.4 | 7.5 | 6.3 | 4.6 | Compute the area included between the chain line, the hedge and the offset by Sympson's rule and Tapezoidal rule. (16 marks)
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A Kid's Guide To Backyard Bugs Hidden in your garden is a secret world inhabited by fascinating creatures—bugs. There are more bugs on this planet than all other animals combined, about 200 million of them for every person! While a few of these creatures are troublemakers that “bug” gardeners by munching on plants, most of them actually help to keep your garden healthy. - What are “bugs”? The creepy crawly critters you find in your garden are really many different kinds of animals. Scientists divide them up into separate groups. The largest group is made up of insects like butterflies, bees and beetles. Other groups of animals include: spiders (arachnids), millipedes (diplopods), worms (annelids), sowbugs (crustaceans) and snails (mollusks). - In this guide you’ll learn how to recognize helpful bugs and how to spot garden troublemakers. You’ll discover what you can do to attract creatures that will help keep your garden healthy and beautiful. Many insects go through amazing changes during their life cycle. Scientists call this series of changes metamorphosis. - Some insects, like ladybugs and butterflies, go through four different stages. They start out as eggs that hatch into soft worm-like or caterpillar-like forms called larvae. The job of a larva is to eat and grow, and many of the best pest controllers in your garden are the hungry larvae of insects like lacewings and ladybugs. - A larva sheds its outer skin, called an exoskeleton, many times as it grows. When it's fully grown, the larva forms a protective covering around itself and becomes a pupa. Inside this covering, the pupa completely transforms until eventually it breaks out as a fully formed adult. - Some insects, such as dragonflies and grasshoppers, go through only three stages. The young, called nymphs, hatch from eggs and look like smaller versions of their parents. Nymphs don't become pupae. They just eat, grow and shed their skin as they gradually become adults. PESTS OR PALS You may not realize it, but bugs are an important part of your life. In fact, people couldn’t live without them! Bugs pollinate our food crops and flowers, mix and fertilize soil, eat our garbage, provide food for wildlife and give us honey, wax and silk. There are millions of different kinds of bugs, and very few of them are pests that harm people or plants. Bugs have four important jobs in your garden: **Predators**, such as ladybugs and spiders, are part of the pest patrol. These garden defenders are skilled hunters that feast on plant-eating insects. **Parasitoids**, such as some tiny wasps, lay their eggs inside of garden pests. When the eggs hatch, the wasp larvae eat the insides of their victims. **Pollinators**, like bees and butterflies, move pollen from flower to flower as they feed on nectar, helping plants make seeds and reproduce. **The Clean-Up Crew** including earthworms, millipedes and fruit flies, eat and break down dead plants and animals. This process, called *decomposition*, transforms waste into nutrient-rich soil for healthy plant growth. Without these talented recyclers we would soon be buried in garbage! People sometimes use chemicals, called pesticides, to kill unwanted bugs in the garden. However, some of these chemicals can also harm people, pets and the helpful bugs that pollinate plants and eat pests. Pesticides can also pollute Bay Area waters and can poison the animals that call the water home. When pesticides are washed into storm drains by rain and over-watering of lawns and gardens, they wind up in creeks, the Bay and the Delta. Pesticides that are poured or rinsed down household drains cannot be removed by sewage treatment plants, so they also end up in the Bay. Instead of using pesticides, we can often control garden troublemakers safely by calling out the pest patrol — the hardworking bugs that eat the pests. These natural pest control experts protect our plants without harming people, wildlife or the environment. - Turn this guide over to learn more about some members of the pest patrol and the clever ways they catch and eat garden pests. When pesticides are washed into storm drains, they wind up in creeks, the Bay and the Delta. Here are four pests that annoy gardeners by eating plants. If you see one of these troublemakers in your garden, look for the helpful bugs of the pest patrol — they won’t be far away! **Aphids** ■ These tiny, pear shaped insects come in many different colors. They suck the juices out of plants and secrete a sweet liquid, called *honeydew*, that ants love to eat. Aphids are the favorite meal of ladybugs, lacewings and hoverflies. **Scale Insects** ■ Tiny barnacle-like bumps on the stems of plants might actually be the protective shell of this insect pest. Lacewings, hoverflies and ladybugs find them delicious. **Spittlebugs** ■ If you find a wad of bubbles that looks like spit on a plant, you’ve found the hiding place of a spittlebug larvae. Lacewings, wasps and assassin bugs make them into a feast. **Snails & Slugs** ■ A shiny slime trail through the garden is your clue that snails and slugs have been eating holes in your plants. Beetles, birds and toads help keep these pests under control. You can keep your garden healthy by creating a safe home for the bugs and other animals that eat garden troublemakers and pollinate plants. Just provide them with food and water, and avoid using pesticides in your wildlife habitat! **Planting for the Pest Patrol** Many of the helpful bugs that eat pests also feed on pollen and nectar. You can attract these hard workers to your garden by planting alyssum, calendula, cosmos, yarrow, asters and sunflowers. **Grow a Butterfly Banquet** Invite a butterfly to lunch! Choose a sunny, wind-sheltered spot and include a shallow dish of water and a flat rock for sunbathing. Plants that provide food for butterflies and their caterpillars (larvae) include buddleia, fennel, zinnia, lantana, hollyhocks and milkweed. GOING BUGGY: FUN GARDEN PROJECTS Be a Hummingbird Helper Hummingbirds devour pests like aphids and pollinate flowers as they sip sweet nectar. To attract hummingbirds, plant red or orange tubular-shaped flowers that produce lots of nectar—such as fuchsia, scarlet sage, penstemon, bee balm and cardinal flower. Get a Bug’s Eye View It’s easy to make a bug house to catch and study the critters you find in the garden. You will need: two clean, empty tuna cans, a 7” by 12” piece of plastic window screen, adhesive tape and wire. Cover the cut edges of the screen with tape. Hold one of the short edges and roll the screen into a tube. Stand the tube up in one of the cans, and let it unroll just until it fits snugly in the can. Fasten the long edges of the tube together with wire. Set the other can on top for a lid. Use this guide to identify the bugs you catch with this bug viewer, then return them safely to the garden. Dragonflies These dragons of the air are swift predators that gorge themselves on flying pests like mosquitoes, flies and moths. Dragonflies are flying acrobats they can hover, dodge, dive, even fly sideways and backwards at 35 miles per hour! As they fly, dragonflies form a basket with their spike-covered legs to scoop up their prey in midair. Dragonflies have huge appetites and can eat 300 mosquitoes in a day, giving them the nickname “mosquito hawk.” - **Creature Features** Dragonflies have enormous, bulging eyes. They can see in almost all directions at once and can spot insect prey from 60 feet away. They have four clear wings and brightly colored bodies that help attract mates. - **Habitats and Hang-outs** On sunny days, dragonflies hunt for prey as they fly over gardens, fields and ponds. Young dragonflies, called nymphs, live in ponds and streams and breathe with gills. **Fun Fact** Scientists have discovered fossils of huge dragonflies that lived over 300 million years ago and were the size of small hawks. There's a lion loose in your garden — an "aphid lion." It's the green lacewing larva, a deadly bug hunter that uses tusk-like jaws to catch and eat pests. One larva can eat 60 aphids in an hour! As adults, green lacewings feed on flower nectar and help to pollinate plants. - **Creature Features** Adult lacewings are pale green with golden eyes. The veins in their delicate, clear wings look like lacework. The tiny larvae look like spiny caterpillars with long curved jaws. - **Habitats and Hang-outs** At dusk and dawn, adult lacewings visit garden flowers searching for nectar and pollen. They are sometimes attracted to house or porch lights. Larvae crawl along branches and leaves in search of prey. **FUN FACT** Some lacewing larvae are masters of disguise. To hide from predators, they cover themselves with bits of leaves and the remains of aphids they've already eaten. Ground Beetles Hiding under wood and rocks in your garden are fierce predators called ground beetles. At night these hungry hunters use their powerful jaws to munch on garden pests like snails and slugs. Ground beetles may live for two years and can eat over 500 pests in their lifetime! - **Creature Features** Most ground beetles are dark brown or black which helps them blend in with soil and bark. They have long legs and are swift runners, but you’ll seldom see them fly. Ground beetles have hard front wings that protect them like armor, and some ground beetles can release smelly liquids from their rear ends to repel their enemies. - **Habitats and Hang-outs** During the day, ground beetles rest under rocks, logs, soil and dead leaves. At night they patrol the garden and even climb trees searching for tasty bugs. **Fun Fact** There are so many beetles on earth that if you lined up all the animals in the world, every fifth one would be a beetle! If you see a bee or wasp in your garden, look closer — it might be a hoverfly, a great friend to gardeners. Hoverflies feed on pollen and nectar and pollinate many garden plants. The larvae are greedy predators that grab and suck the juices out of garden pests like aphids. - **Creature Features** With their yellow and black stripes, hoverflies look like slender bees. Predators, such as birds, avoid them; but hoverflies are actually harmless and can’t sting. Like tiny garden helicopters, hoverflies seem to hang almost motionless over flowers before darting quickly away. The larvae look like fat, legless caterpillars. - **Habitats and Hang-outs** You’ll find hoverflies near nectar-rich flowers like marigolds and sunflowers. Look for the larvae on leaves near colonies of aphids. **FUN FACT** One tiny hoverfly larva can eat 400 aphids in two weeks! Many people believe ladybugs bring good luck, especially in the garden where they eat fantastic numbers of pests. Both adults and larvae gorge themselves on plant-eating bugs, especially aphids. In fact, one ladybug can eat 5,000 aphids in its lifetime! - **Creature Features** The most familiar ladybug is red with black spots. Ladybugs have hard wing covers that protect them like a shell, and bright colors to warn enemies that they taste bad. The larvae look like tiny orange and black alligators. - **Habitats and Hang-outs** In spring and summer, you’ll find ladybugs on your garden plants. In fall, some ladybugs fly to the Sierra Nevada Mountains where they spend the winter hibernating, with as many as 500 gallons of ladybugs piled up together in one spot. **Fun Fact** In the 1890’s, California’s orange trees were almost destroyed by a pest called the cottony cushion scale. Scientists brought in Australian ladybugs called vedalia beetles to eat the scales, and these tiny heroes saved the trees! Spiders Without these skillful hunters we'd soon be overrun with insect pests. In fact, if you piled up all the pests that spiders eat in a year, they would weigh more than 50 million people! Some spiders spin webs to catch their prey, while others hunt on the ground or make clever traps and tunnels. Spiders use sharp, curved fangs to paralyze and suck the insides out of their insect prey. - **Creature Features** Spiders are *arachnids*, with eight legs, two body parts, and many eyes. Though they look ferocious, they are shy creatures that munch on pests, not people. Spiders will bite only if they feel threatened. Most spiders have fangs that cannot pierce human skin. - **Habitats and Hang-outs** Hunting spiders often hide in flowers or crawl along the ground looking for prey. Look for the homes of web-weaving spiders early in the morning when their webs sparkle with dew. **Fun Fact** Spider silk looks fragile, but it is stronger than steel thread of the same thickness and can hold 4,000 times the weight of a spider! Digging Deeper Here are more resources about bugs: FOR BOOK WORMS Bug Bites, Insects Hunting Insects...and More Diane Swanson, Whitecap Books, 1997. Compost Critters Bianca Lavies, Dutton Children's Books, 1993. Insect Wars Sara Van Dyck, Franklin Watts, 1997. Insects in the Garden D. M. Souza, Carolrhoda Books, 1991. Slugs, Bugs and Salamanders: Discovering Animals In Your Garden Sally Kneidel, Fulcrum Publishing, 1997. BUGS IN THE WEB City Bugs: Insects of the S.F. Bay Region http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/explore The Minibeast World of Insects and Spiders http://members.aol.com/YESedu/welcome.html Katerpillars and Mystery Bugs http://www.uky.edu/Agriculture/Entomology/yth/facts/entyouth.htm BUG STOPS: PLACES TO VISIT San Francisco Zoo's Insect Zoo 1 Zoo Road, San Francisco, CA 94132 (415) 753-7080 The Insect Room California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park San Francisco, CA 94118 (415) 750-7145 FOR MORE INFORMATION City and County of San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Water Pollution Prevention Program (415) 695-7375 Thanks This guide was developed to teach children about beneficial creatures, in order to reduce the amount of pesticides entering Bay Area waters. The guide was funded by the following agencies: - Alameda Countywide Clean Water Program - Central Contra Costa Sanitary District - Contra Costa Clean Water Program - Fairfield-Suisun Sewer District - Marin County Stormwater Pollution Prevention Program - Regional Water Quality Control Plant, City of Palo Alto - City and County of San Francisco - City of Vacaville - Vallejo Sanitation and Flood Control District Editors: Paula Kehoe City and County of San Francisco Gina Purin Marin County Stormwater Pollution Prevention Program Writer: Debi Tidd Technical Consultant: Tanya Drlik Designer: Larry Green Illustrations: Jenny Speckels Cartoons: Larry Green Production: Vinh Chung Copyright © 1999 City and County of San Francisco Printed on recycled paper with soy-based ink.
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Unique Properties of Nanoparticles - The macroscopic physical properties of a substance (melting point, boiling point, conductivity, etc.) are determined by studying a pure sample in quantities big enough to be measured under normal laboratory conditions. - The value which is obtained represents an average value based on the behavior of billions and billions of molecules of water. - This is not correct for many materials: - as the size of the material is reduced, and the nanoscale level is reached, it is possible that the same material will display totally different properties (different melting point, conductivity, etc.). - This is because matter at the nanoscale no longer follows Newtonian physics but rather quantum mechanics. - In other words, the properties of materials can be size-dependent. - This might be a rather new concept, conventionally, the properties of a substance (solid, liquid or gas) are related to the atoms and molecules that make up the substance, and the way they are connected to one another (chemical bonds). - A piece of gold to be golden in color however big or small it is. - This is correct at the macro and micro-scale level: but at the nanoscale, things start to change dramatically due to quantum effects. - In fact, gold can be used as a prime example: a colloid of gold nanoparticles is no longer ‘golden’ but ruby-red in color. - Nanomaterials are closer in size to single atoms and molecules than to bulk materials, and to explain their behavior, it is necessary to use quantum mechanics. - Quantum mechanics is a scientific model that was developed for describing the motion and energy of atoms and electrons. Due to the smallness of nanomaterials, their mass is extremely small and gravitational forces become negligible. Instead, electromagnetic forces are dominant in determining the behavior of atoms and molecules. Tunnelling is a fundamental quantum effect and it is the basis of a very important instrument for imaging nanostructured surfaces called the Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM). The same instrument can be used as a nanofabrication tool (movement of single atoms). Increased surface-to-volume ratio: one of the distinguishing properties of nanomaterials is that they have an increased surface area. It has already been stated that a nanomaterial is formed of at least a cluster of atoms, often a cluster of molecules. It follows that all types of bonding that are important in chemistry are also important in nanoscience. They are generally classified as: Intramolecular bonding (chemical interactions): these are bonding that involve changes in the chemical structure of the molecules and include ionic, covalent and metallic bonds; Intermolecular bonding (physical interaction): - these are bonding that do not involve changes in the chemical structure of the molecules and include ion-ion and ion-dipole interactions; van der Waals interactions; hydrogen bonds; hydrophobic interactions. Surface properties - Regardless of whether we consider a bulk material or a nanoscale material, its physical and chemical properties depend on many of its surface properties. - The branch of science that deals with the chemical, physical and biological properties of surfaces is called surface science. The importance of surface atoms - In surface science, the chemical groups that are at the material interface determine its properties. - Properties like catalytic reactivity, electrical resistivity, adhesion, gas storage and chemical reactivity depend on the nature of the interface. - Nanomaterials have a significant proportion of atoms existing at the surface. Shape also matters - Given the same volume, the extent of the surface area depends on the shape of the material. - A simple example is a sphere and a cube having the same volume. - The cube has a larger surface area than the sphere. - For this reason, in nanoscience, not only the size of a nanomaterial is important, but also its shape. - The fact that in a nanomaterial a larger fraction of the atoms is at the surface influences some physical properties such as the melting point. - Given the same material, its melting point will be lower if it is nano-sized. - Surface atoms are more easily removed than bulk atoms, so the total energy needed to overcome the intermolecular forces that hold the atom ‘fixed’ is less, thus the melting point is lower. Surface energy Atoms and molecules that exist at the surface or at an interface are different from the same atoms or molecules that exist in the interior of a material. This is true for any material. Atoms and molecules at the interface have enhanced reactivity and a greater tendency to agglomerate: surface atoms and molecules are unstable, they have high surface energy. Nanomaterials are inherently unstable, therefore there are various methods that nanomaterials adopt to minimize their inherent high surface energy. One of the ways of reducing the surface energy in nanoparticles is agglomeration. The surface of 10 identical nanoparticles is equal to the sum of the surface energy of each individual nanoparticle. If these were to agglomerate, and become one large particle, the overall surface energy would be reduced. Nanoparticles have a strong intrinsic tendency to agglomerate. To avoid this, surfactants can be used. This also explains why when nanoparticles are used in research and industry they are often immobilised on a solid support or mixed within a matrix. Even in commercial products that claim to contain nanoparticles (such as sunscreens) microscope images show that they are actually present in the form of agglomerates of > 100 nm dimensions. A catalyst is a substance that increases a chemical reaction rate without being consumed or chemically altered. Nature’s catalysts are called enzymes and are able to assemble specific end products. Man-made catalysts are not so energy efficient: they are often made of metal particles fixed on an oxide surface. The ‘active surface’ increases when the size of the catalysts is decreased: - the smaller the catalyst particles, the greater the surface-to-volume ratio. - nanoscale gold particles can catalyse chemical reactions. **Electrical properties** - Some nanomaterials exhibit electrical properties that are absolutely exceptional. - Their electrical properties are related to their unique structure. - Two of these are fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. - For instance, carbon nanotubes can be conductors or semiconductors depending on their nanostructure. **Optical properties** - Some nanomaterials display very different optical properties, such as color and transparency, compared to bulk materials. - Nanomaterials in general can have peculiar optical properties as a result of the way light interacts with their fine nanostructure. - Colloids of metal nanoparticles such as gold or silver can show colors which are not found in their bulk form, such as red, purple or orange, depending on the shape, size and surrounding media of the nanoparticles. - An example that a colloid of gold nanoparticles about 15 nm in size is ruby-red! The properties of metal nanoparticles make them useful in sensing. **Color in semiconducting nanocrystals (quantum dots)** - Tuning the size of the semiconductor nanocrystal is a means of tuning the band gap and, therefore, the wavelength absorbed/emitted by the crystal. QDs are currently used as an alternative to conventional dyes in fluorescence microscopy and in other methods where dyes are used (e.g. dye-sensitised solar cells). As a result, the same material (e.g. CdSe) emits different colors depending on its size. Sunscreens contain ZnO and TiO2 clusters of about 200 nm. Visible light interacts with these clusters and all of its wavelengths are scattered. The combination of the visible spectrum is white: therefore, the sunscreen appears white. If the dimensions of the cluster are reduced, for instance from 200 to 100 nm, maximum scattering occurs around 200 nm and the curve is shifted towards shorter wavelengths, which are no longer in the visible spectrum: the effect is that the same material (e.g. ZnO), now in smaller size (100 nm), no longer appears white but transparent. **Magnetic properties** - In general, the magnetic behavior of a material depends on the structure of the material and on its temperature. - The typical size of expected magnetic domains is around 1 μm. - When the size of a magnet is reduced, the number of surface atoms becomes an important fraction of the total number of atoms, surface effects become important, and quantum effects start to prevail. - When the size of these domains reaches the nanoscale, these materials show new properties due to quantum confinement, - for example the giant magneto-resistance effect (GMR). - This is a fundamental nano-effect which is now being used in modern data storage devices. **Mechanical properties** - Some nanomaterials have inherent exceptional mechanical properties which are connected to their structure. - One such material is carbon nanotubes: these are extremely small tubes having the same honeycomb structure of graphite, but with different properties compared to graphite. They can be single-walled or multi-walled. - Carbon nanotubes are 100 times stronger than steel but six times lighter!!
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