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Apollo program | NASA reports | NASA reports
Apollo Program Summary Report (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975
NASA History Series Publications
Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams at the NASA History Program Office
The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal edited by Eric M. Jones and Ken Glover
The Apollo Flight Journal by W. David Woods, et al. |
Apollo program | Multimedia | Multimedia
NASA Apollo Program images and videos
Apollo Image Archive at Arizona State University
Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb, et al., discussing the Apollo agenda (White House Cabinet Room, November 21, 1962)
The Project Apollo Archive by Kipp Teague is a large repository of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings
The Project Apollo Archive on Flickr
Apollo Image Atlas—almost 25,000 lunar images, Lunar and Planetary Institute
The short film The Time of Apollo (1975) is available for free viewing and download at the National Archives.
Apollo (11, 13 and 17) in real time multimedia project
Category:1960s in the United States
Category:1970s in the United States
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Engineering projects
Category:Exploration of the Moon
Category:Human spaceflight programs
Category:NASA programs
Category:Space program of the United States |
Apollo program | Table of Content | Short description, Name, Background, Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies, Political pressure builds, NASA expansion, Manned Spacecraft Center, Launch Operations Center, Organization, Choosing a mission mode, Spacecraft, Command and service module, Apollo Lunar Module, Launch vehicles, Little Joe II, Saturn I, Saturn IB, Saturn V, Astronauts, Lunar mission profile, Profile variations, Development history, Uncrewed flight tests, Preparation for crewed flight, Program delays, Apollo 1 fire, Uncrewed Saturn V and LM tests, Crewed development missions, Production lunar landings, Mission cutbacks, Extended missions, Canceled missions, Mission summary, Samples returned, Costs, Apollo Applications Program, Recent observations, Legacy, Science and engineering, Cultural impact, Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project, Depictions on film, Documentaries, Docudramas, Fictional, See also, Notes, References, Citations, Sources, Further reading, External links, NASA reports, Multimedia |
Assault | Short description | In the terminology of law, an assault is the act of causing physical harm or unwanted physical contact to another person, or, in some legal definitions, the threat or attempt to do so. It is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in criminal prosecution, civil liability, or both. Additionally, assault is a criminal act in which a person intentionally causes fear of physical harm or offensive contact to another person. Assault can be committed with or without a weapon and can range from physical violence to threats of violence. Assault is frequently referred to as an attempt to commit battery, which is the deliberate use of physical force against another person. The deliberate inflicting of fear, apprehension, or terror is another definition of assault that can be found in several legal systems. Depending on the severity of the offense, assault may result in a fine, imprisonment, or even death.
Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal and tort law.
Traditionally, common law legal systems have separate definitions for assault and battery. When this distinction is observed, battery refers to the actual bodily contact, whereas assault refers to a credible threat or attempt to cause battery. Some jurisdictions combined the two offenses into a single crime called "assault and battery", which then became widely referred to as "assault". The result is that in many of these jurisdictions, assault has taken on a definition that is more in line with the traditional definition of battery. The legal systems of civil law and Scots law have never distinguished assault from battery.
Legal systems generally acknowledge that assaults can vary greatly in severity. In the United States, an assault can be charged as either a misdemeanor or a felony. In England and Wales and Australia, it can be charged as either common assault, assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH) or grievous bodily harm (GBH). Canada also has a three-tier system: assault, assault causing bodily harm and aggravated assault. Separate charges typically exist for sexual assaults, affray and assaulting a police officer. Assault may overlap with an attempted crime; for example, an assault may be charged as attempted murder if it was done with intent to kill. |
Assault | Related definitions | Related definitions |
Assault | Battery | Battery
Battery is a criminal offense that involves the use of physical force against another person without their consent. It is a type of assault and is considered a serious crime. Battery can include a wide range of actions, from slapping someone to causing serious harm or even death. Depending on the severity of the offense, it can carry a wide range of punishments, including jail time, fines, and probation.
In jurisdictions that make a distinction between the two, assault usually accompanies battery if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. See common assault. The elements of battery are that it is a volitional act,An act is volitional if it is purposeful and deliberate as opposed to reflexive or involuntary (see Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (London, Sweet & Maxwell 2012) at p 901). For example. a person who has restless leg syndrome kicks his wife while asleep. The contact, although, harmful, would not constitute battery because the act was not willful. done for the purpose of causing a harmful or offensive contact with another person or under circumstances that make such contact substantially certain to occur, and which causes such contact.A criminal battery may also be committed if the harmful or offensive contact is due to the criminal negligence of the defendant. |
Assault | Aggravated assault | Aggravated assault
Aggravated assault is a violent crime that involves violence or the threat of violence. It is generally described as an intentional act that causes another person to fear imminent physical harm or injury. This can include the use of a weapon, or the threat of using a weapon. It is usually considered a felony offense and can carry severe penalties. Aggravated assault is often considered a very serious crime and can lead to long-term prison sentences.
Aggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a stronger form of assault, usually using a deadly weapon. A person has committed an aggravated assault when that person attempts to:
cause serious bodily injury to another person with a deadly weapon
have sexual relations with a person who is under the age of consent
cause bodily harm by recklessly operating a motor vehicle during road rage; often referred to as either vehicular assault or aggravated assault with a motor vehicle.
Aggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants. |
Assault | Defenses | Defenses
Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the following represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault: |
Assault | Consent | Consent
Exceptions exist to cover unsolicited physical contact which amount to normal social behavior known as de minimis harm. Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others.
Consent may be a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault.(RvG ref 6. 1980): see This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity, the most notable case being the Operation Spanner case. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game (mixed martial arts, wrestling, boxing, or contact sports), bodily adornment (R v Wilson [1996] Crim LR 573), or horseplay (R v Jones [1987] Crim LR 123). However, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish law, consent is not a defense for assault. |
Assault | Arrest and other official acts | Arrest and other official acts
Police officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of performing an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary. |
Assault | Punishment | Punishment
In some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial corporal punishment is part of the legal system. The officers who administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault.
In the United States, England, Northern Ireland, Australia and Canada, corporal punishment administered to children by their parent or legal guardian is not legally considered to be assault unless it is deemed to be excessive or unreasonable. What constitutes "reasonable" varies in both statutory law and case law. Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a separate statute for child abuse.
In English law, s. 58 Children Act 2004 limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault. This defence was abolished in Wales in 2022. Section 1. This section came into force two years after the Act received royal assent (see section 5(1)).
Many countries, including some US states, also permit the use of controversial corporal punishment for children in school or home. |
Assault | Prevention of crime | Prevention of crime
This may or may not involve self-defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence. |
Assault | Defense of property | Defense of property
Some jurisdictions allow force to be used in defense of property, to prevent damage either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971 it may be argued that the defendant has a lawful excuse to damage property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter vigilantes and excessive self-help. Furthermore, some jurisdictions, such as Ohio, allow residents in their homes to use force when ejecting an intruder. The resident merely needs to assert to the court that they felt threatened by the intruder's presence. |
Assault | By country | By country |
Assault | Statistics | Statistics
The below table shows the rate of reported serious assault for individual countries according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime for the last available year.
Country Reportedserious assaults per 100,000 Year 5.4 2022 39.1 2022 327.5 2019 3.2 2022 366.9 2022 7.4 2019 288.9 2022 48.4 2022 3.2 2021 878.6 2022 329.1 2008 0.4 2006 326.3 2022 7.4 2019 500.5 2021 310.4 2022 46.0 2017 58.5 2017 107.2 2020 80.1 2022 15.6 2022 745.3 2014 216.8 2020 121.0 2006 46.2 2022 5.2 2014 527.8 2018 19.0 2020 209.6 2022 84.5 2022 249.7 2022 144.4 2022 19.3 2022 14.1 2022 39.7 2022 36.7 2022 1020.1 2022 27.8 2022 37.1 2022 0.4 2011 76.7 2022 England and Wales 950.7 2022 4.4 2022 352.1 2021 31.2 2022 606.3 2022 5.1 2019 173.5 2022 155.1 2021 12.8 2022 1790.5 2022 121.8 2021 3.1 2007 109.0 2016 210.7 2022 11.6 2018 21.4 2022 49.8 2022 136.6 2014 39.2 2022 25.9 2013 12.1 2022 (Central) 0.0 2020 121.3 2022 82.8 2022 106.4 2022 50.0 2008 90.7 2022 15.7 2022 6.6 2022 11.2 2017 41.8 2022 19.0 2021 24.5 2009 0.5 2020 29.1 2022 119.7 2016 364.9 2009 259.4 2022 5.3 2022 107.5 2022 0.1 2022 8.8 2015 12.1 2021 74.9 2017 41.3 2022 20.9 2021 51.0 2022 5.3 2020 535.9 2015 11.1 2021 20.4 2022 155.1 2022 2.3 2009 1.6 2022 374.1 2021 0.2 2016 27.9 2022 932.2 2021 14.7 2019 9.4 2013 6.5 2022 45.1 2022 35.6 2022 0.8 2022 11.6 2022 13.2 2022 112.8 2022 8.4 2022 9.0 2022 1.1 2019 12.9 2022 7.2 2022 108.7 2022 0.4 2021 1.2 2022 13.0 2020 29.7 2013 358.8 2022 850.1 2022 52.7 2019 58.0 2022 2.4 2010 73.4 2022 326.2 2008 7.7 2022 22.9 2022 5.4 2022 212.6 2008 295.5 2017 51.7 2022 42.6 2022 12.7 2019 416.6 2022 99.5 2022 44.0 2022 8.7 2022 0.7 2018 2.2 2011 48.0 2011 4.5 2015 13.5 2022 47.9 2018 101.7 2014 1.7 2006 14.3 2017 3.8 2020 2.2 2022 280.6 2022 15.3 2022 3.9 2021 0.0 2022 6.3 2018 0.1 2009 408.3 2008 |
Assault | Australia | Australia
The term 'assault', when used in legislation, commonly refers to both common assault and battery, even though the two offences remain distinct. Common assault involves intentionally or recklessly causing a person to apprehend the imminent infliction of unlawful force, whilst battery refers to the actual infliction of force..
Each state has legislation relating to the act of assault, and offences against the act that constitute assault are heard in the magistrates' court of that state or indictable offences are heard in a district or supreme court of that state. The legislation that defines assault of each state outline what the elements are that make up the assault, where the assault is sectioned in legislation or criminal codes, and the penalties that apply for the offence of assault.
In New South Wales, the Crimes Act 1900. defines a range of assault offences deemed more serious than common assault and which attract heavier penalties. These include: |
Assault | Assault with further specific intent | Assault with further specific intent
Acts done to the person with intent to murder
Wounding or grievous bodily harm
Use or possession of a weapon to resist arrest |
Assault | Assault causing certain injuries | Assault causing certain injuries
Actual bodily harm – the term is not defined in the Crimes Act, but case law indicates actual bodily harm may include injuries such as bruises and scratches,. as well as psychological injuries. if the injury inflicted is more than merely transient (the injury does not necessarily need to be permanent)R v Donovan [1934] 2 KB 498; (1934) 5 New Zealand Police Law Reports 247.
Wounding(4). – where there is breaking of the skin;
Grievous bodily harm(2). – which includes the destruction of a fetus, permanent or serious disfiguring, and transmission of a grievous bodily disease. |
Assault | Assault causing death | Assault causing death
Death
Death when intoxicated (in regards to the offender) |
Assault | Canada | Canada
Assault is an offence under s. 265 of the Canadian Criminal Code. There is a wide range of the types of assault that can occur. Generally, an assault occurs when a person directly or indirectly applies force intentionally to another person without their consent. It can also occur when a person attempts to apply such force, or threatens to do so, without the consent of the other person. An injury need not occur for an assault to be committed, but the force used in the assault must be offensive in nature with an intention to apply force. It can be an assault to "tap", "pinch", "push", or direct another such minor action toward another, but an accidental application of force is not an assault.
The potential punishment for an assault in Canada varies depending on the manner in which the charge proceeds through the court system and the type of assault that is committed. The Criminal Code defines assault as a dual offence (indictable or summary offence). Police officers can arrest someone without a warrant for an assault if it is in the public's interest to do so notwithstanding S.495(2)(d) of the Code. This public interest is usually satisfied by preventing a continuation or repetition of the offence on the same victim.
Some variations on the ordinary crime of assault include:
Assault: The offence is defined by section 265 of the Code.
Assault with a weapon: Section 267(a) of the Code.
Assault causing bodily harm: Section 267(b) of the Code.
Aggravated assault: Section 268 of the Code.
Assaulting a peace officer, etc.: Section 270 of the Code.
Sexual assault: Section 271 of the Code.
Sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm: Section 272 of the Code.
Aggravated sexual assault: See aggravated sexual assault.
An individual cannot consent to an assault with a weapon, assault causing bodily harm, aggravated assault, or any sexual assault. Consent will also be vitiated if two people consent to fight but serious bodily harm is intended and caused (R v Paice; R v Jobidon). A person cannot consent to serious bodily harm. |
Assault | Ancient Greece | Ancient Greece
Assault in Ancient Greece was normally termed hubris. Contrary to modern usage, the term did not have the extended connotation of overweening pride, self-confidence or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In Ancient Greece, "hubris" referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich.
Violations of the law against hubris included, what would today be termed, assault and battery; sexual crimes ranging from forcible rape of women or children to consensual but improper activities; or the theft of public or sacred property.MacDowell (1976) p. 25. Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first, in addition to other acts of violence, Meidias allegedly punched Demosthenes in the face in the theater (Against Meidias), and second (Against Konon), when the defendant allegedly severely beat him.
Hubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it not only was proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent, "outrageous treatment", in general.
The meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an "act of hubris", or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. Atë, Greek for 'ruin, folly, delusion', is the action performed by the hero, usually because of their hubris, or great pride, that leads to their death or downfall.
Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honor (timē) and shame. The concept of timē included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honor, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honor is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition to the contemporary concept of "insolence, contempt, and excessive violence". |
Assault | India | India
The Indian Penal Code covers the punishments and types of assault in Chapter 16, sections 351 through 358.
The Code further explains that "mere words do not amount to an assault. But the words which a person uses may give to their gestures or preparation such a meaning as may make those gestures or preparations amount to an assault". Assault is in Indian criminal law an attempt to use criminal force (with criminal force being described in s.350). The attempt itself has been made an offence in India, as in other states. |
Assault | Nigeria | Nigeria
The Criminal Code Act (chapter 29 of Part V; sections 351 to 365) creates a number of offences of assault. Assault is defined by section 252 of that Act. Assault is a misdemeanor punishable by one year imprisonment; assault with "intent to have carnal knowledge of him or her" or who indecently assaults another, or who commits other more-serious variants of assault (as defined in the Act) are guilty of a felony, and longer prison terms are provided for. |
Assault | Pacific Islands | Pacific Islands
Marshall Islands
The offence of assault is created by section 113 of the Criminal Code.Criminal Code [31 MIRC Ch 1] A person is guilty of this offence if they unlawfully offer or attempt, with force or violence, to strike, beat, wound, or do bodily harm to, another. |
Assault | Republic of Ireland | Republic of Ireland
Section 2 of the Non-Fatal Offences against the Person Act 1997 creates the offence of assault, and section 3 of that Act creates the offence of assault causing harm. |
Assault | South Africa | South Africa
South African law does not draw the distinction between assault and battery. Assault is a common law crime defined as "unlawfully and intentionally applying force to the person of another, or inspiring a belief in that other that force is immediately to be applied to him". The law also recognises the crime of assault with intent to cause grievous bodily harm, where grievous bodily harm is defined as "harm which in itself is such as seriously to interfere with health". The common law crime of indecent assault was repealed by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007, and replaced by a statutory crime of sexual assault. |
Assault | United Kingdom | United Kingdom
Piracy with violence Section 2 of the Piracy Act 1837 provides that it is an offence, amongst other things, for a person, with intent to commit or at the time of or immediately before or immediately after committing the crime of piracy in respect of any ship or vessel, to assault, with intent to murder, any person being on board of or belonging to such ship or vessel.
Assault on an officer of Revenue and Customs This offence (relating to officers of HMRC) is created by section 32(1) of the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005.
Assaulting an immigration officer This offence is created by section 22(1) of the UK Borders Act 2007.
Assaulting an accredited financial investigator This section is created by section 453A of the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002.Section 453A was inserted by section 81(2) of the Serious Crime Act 2007 and amended by paragraph 94 of Schedule 7 to the Policing and Crime Act 2009.
Assaulting a member of an international joint investigation team This offence is created by section 57(2) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005.
Attacks on internationally protected persons Section 1(1)(a) of the Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978 (c.17) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm or causing injury on "protected persons" (including Heads of State).
Attacks on UN Staff workers Section 1(2)(a) of the United Nations Personnel Act 1997 (c.13) makes provision for assault causing injury, and section 1(2)(b) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm, on UN staff.
Assault by person committing an offence under the Night Poaching Act 1828 This offence is created by section 2 of the Night Poaching Act 1828.
Abolished offences:
Assault on customs and excise officers, etc. Section 16(1)(a) of the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979 (c.2) provided that it was an offence to, amongst other things, assault any person duly engaged in the performance of any duty or the exercise of any power imposed or conferred on him by or under any enactment relating to an assigned matter, or any person acting in his aid. For the meaning of "assault" in this provision, see Logdon v. DPP [1976] Crim LR 121, DC. This offence was abolished and replaced by the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005.
Assaulting a person designated under section 43 of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 This offence was created by section 51(1) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. It related to officers of the Serious Organized Crime Agency and was repealed when that agency was abolished. |
Assault | England and Wales | England and Wales
English law provides for two offences of assault: common assault and battery. Assault (or common assault) is committed if one intentionally or recklessly causes another person to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. Violence in this context means any unlawful touching, though there is some debate over whether the touching must also be hostile. The terms "assault" and "common assault" often encompass the separate offence of battery, even in statutory settings such as section 40(3)(a) of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 (c. 33).
A common assault is an assault that lacks any of the aggravating features which Parliament has deemed serious enough to deserve a higher penalty. Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 provides that common assault, like battery, is triable only in a magistrates' court in England and Wales (unless it is linked to a more serious offence, which is triable in the Crown Court). Additionally, if a defendant has been charged on an indictment with assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), or racially/religiously aggravated assault, then a jury in the Crown Court may acquit the defendant of the more serious offence, but still convict of common assault if it finds common assault has been committed. |
Assault | Aggravated assault | Aggravated assault
An assault which is aggravated by the scale of the injuries inflicted may be charged as offences causing "actual bodily harm" (ABH) or, in the severest cases, "grievous bodily harm" (GBH).
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm This offence is created by section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
Inflicting grievous bodily harm Also referred to as "malicious wounding" or "unlawful wounding". This offence is created by section 20 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
Causing grievous bodily harm with intent Also referred to as "wounding with intent". This offence is created by section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
Other aggravated assault charges refer to assaults carried out against a specific target or with a specific intent:
Assault with intent to rob The penalty for assault with intent to rob, a common law offence, is provided by section 8(2) of the Theft Act 1968.
Racially or religiously aggravated common assault This offence is created by section 29(1)(c) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (c. 37), defined in terms of the common law offence.
Racially or religiously aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm This offence is created by section 29(1)(b) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (c. 37), defined in terms of the common law offence.
Assault with intent to resist arrest This offence is created by section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty Section 89(1) of the Police Act 1996 (c. 16) provides that it is an offence for a person to assault a constable acting in the execution of his duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. It is a summary offence with the same maximum penalty as common assault.
Assaulting a traffic officer This offence is created by section/10 section 10(1) of the Traffic Management Act 2004 (c. 18). This offence applies to Traffic Wardens, Civil Enforcement Officers and PCSOs if they have been conferred with road traffic powers by their force.
Assaulting a person designated or accredited under sections 38 or 39 or 41 or 41A of the Police Reform Act 2002 This offence is created by section/46 section 46(1) of the Police Reform Act 2002 (c. 30). Those sections relate respectively to persons given police powers by a chief police officer, such as PCSOs detention officers or contractors retained by police, accredited contractors under a community safety accreditation scheme, and weights and measures inspectors.
Assault on a prison custody officer This offence is created by section 90(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (c. 53).
Assault on a secure training centre custody officer This offence is created by section 13(1) of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (c. 33).
Assault on officer saving wreck This offence is created by section 37 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
Assaulting an officer of the court This offence is created by section 14(1)(b) of the County Courts Act 1984 (c. 28).
Cruelty to persons under sixteen This offence is created by section 1(1) of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 (23 & 24 Geo. 5. c. 12) and applies to a person who has responsibility for the child. In England (but not Wales since 2022), common law provides a defence of "reasonable punishment" to battery (i.e. assaults involving touching); the Children Act 2004 (c. 31) limits the defence to exclude, among other offences, cruelty under the 1933 act, but not battery, which implies that smacking is not always to be considered cruelty.
Sexual assault The offence of sexual assault is created by section 3 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 (c. 42). It is not defined in terms of the offences of common assault or battery. It instead requires intentional touching and the absence of a reasonable belief in consent.
Assault by penetration This offence is defined by section 2 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 (c. 42). Whereas rape consists only of penetration with the perpetrator's penis, assault by penetration can be committed with anything, though unlike rape it excludes penetration of the mouth. It carries the same maximum sentence of life imprisonment.
Assault on an emergency worker The Assaults on Emergency Workers (Offences) Act 2018 (c. 23) makes common assault an either way offence (section 1) when committed against an emergency worker (defined in section 3), with a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment if tried on indictment. The act did not repeal any enactments, so the existing offence of assault on a constable is still available, but that offence cannot be tried on indictment and is therefore limited to six months. |
Assault | Scotland | Scotland
In Scots law, assault is defined as an "attack upon the person of another".MacDonald, Criminal Law (5th edn, 1948) p.155 There is no distinction made in Scotland between assault and battery (which is not a term used in Scots law), although, as in England and Wales, assault can be occasioned without a physical attack on another's person, as demonstrated in Atkinson v. HM Advocate1987 SCCR 534 wherein the accused was found guilty of assaulting a shop assistant by simply jumping over a counter while wearing a ski mask. The court said:
Scots law also provides for a more serious charge of aggravated assault on the basis of such factors as severity of injury, the use of a weapon, or Hamesucken (to assault a person in their own home). The mens rea for assault is simply "evil intent",MacDonald, op. cit, p.155; Smart v. HM Advocate 1975 JC 30 although this has been held to mean no more than that assault "cannot be committed accidentally or recklessly or negligently" as upheld in Lord Advocate's Reference No 2 of 1992 where it was found that a "hold-up" in a shop justified as a joke would still constitute an offence.
It is a separate offence to assault on a constable in the execution of their duty, under section 90 of the Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012 (asp 8) (previously section 41 of the Police (Scotland) Act 1967 (c. 77)) which provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of their duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of their duty. |
Assault | Northern Ireland | Northern Ireland
Several offences of assault exist in Northern Ireland. The Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100) creates the offences of:
Common assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 42;
Aggravated assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 43
Common assault: under section 47
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm: under section 47
The Criminal Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (Northern Ireland) 1968 (c. 28 (N.I.)) creates the offences of:
Assault with intent to resist arrest: under section 7(1)(b); this offence was formerly created by section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100).
That act formerly created the offence of 'Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty'. under section 7(1)(a), but that section has been superseded by section 66(1) of the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 1998 (c. 32) which now provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. |
Assault | United States | United States
thumb|Felony Sentences in State Courts, study by the United States Department of Justice
In the United States, assault may be defined as an attempt to commit a battery. However, the crime of assault can encompass acts in which no battery is intended, but the defendant's act nonetheless creates reasonable fear in others that a battery will occur.
Four elements were required at common law:
The apparent, present ability to carry out;
An unlawful attempt;
To commit a violent injury;
Upon another.
As the criminal law evolved, element one was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most states.
The crime of assault generally requires that both the perpetrator and the victim of an assault be a natural person. Thus, unless the attack is directed by a person, an animal attack does not constitute an assault. However, under limited circumstances the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 treats a fetus as a separate person for the purposes of assault and other violent crimes.
Possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof that may be raised in response to an assault charge include:
Lack of intent: A defendant could argue that since they were drunk, they could not form the specific intent to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail, however, since only involuntary intoxication is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions.
Mutual consent: A defendant could also argue that they were engaged in mutually consensual behavior. For example, boxers who are fighting in an organized boxing match and do not significantly deviate from the rules of the sport cannot be charged with assault. |
Assault | State laws | State laws
Laws on assault vary by state. Since each state has its own criminal laws, there is no universal assault law. Acts classified as assault in one state may be classified as battery, menacing, intimidation, reckless endangerment, etc. in another state. Assault is often subdivided into two categories, simple assault and aggravated assault.
Simple assault involves an intentional act that causes another person to be in reasonable fear of an imminent battery. Simple assault may also involve an attempt to cause harm to another person, where that attempt does not succeed. Simple assault is typically classified as a misdemeanor offense, unless the victim is a member of a protected class, such as being a law enforcement officer.See, e.g., Even as a misdemeanor, an assault conviction may still result in incarceration and in a criminal record.
Aggravated assault involves more serious actions, such as an assault that is committed with the intent to cause a serious bodily injury, or an assault that is committed with a deadly weapon such as a firearm. Aggravated assault is typically classified as a felony offense.
Modern American statutes may define assault as including:
an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another
negligently causing bodily injury to another with a dangerous weapon (assault with a deadly weapon).
causing bodily harm by reckless operation of a motor vehicle (vehicular assault).
threatening another in a menacing manner.
knowingly causing physical contact with another person knowing the other person will regard the contact as offensive or provocative
causing stupor, unconsciousness or physical injury by intentionally administering a drug or controlled substance without consent
purposely or knowingly causing reasonable apprehension of bodily injury in another
any act which is intended to place another in fear of immediate physical contact which will be painful, injurious, insulting, or offensive, coupled with the apparent ability to execute the act.
In some states, consent is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense to an assault charge such that an assault charge is prosecuted as a less significant offense such as a petty misdemeanor.
States vary on whether it is possible to commit an "attempted assault" since it can be considered a double inchoate offense. |
Assault | Kansas | Kansas
In Kansas the law on assault states: |
Assault | New York | New York
In New York State, assault (as defined in the New York State Penal Code Article 120) requires an actual injury. Other states define this as battery; there is no crime of battery in New York. However, in New York if a person threatens another person with imminent injury without engaging in physical contact, that is called "menacing". A person who engages in that behavior is guilty of aggravated harassment in the second degree (a Class A misdemeanor; punishable with up to one year incarceration, probation for an extended time, and a permanent criminal record) when they threaten to cause physical harm to another person, and guilty of aggravated harassment in the first degree (a Class E felony) if they have a previous conviction for the same offense. New York also has specific laws against hazing, when such threats are made as requirement to join an organization. |
Assault | North Dakota | North Dakota
North Dakota law states: |
Assault | Pennsylvania | Pennsylvania
In Pennsylvania, an offender can be charged with simple assault if they:
injure someone else recklessly, knowingly, or purposefully
accidentally injure someone with a firearm or weapon
cause a needle-stick to an officer or correctional employee during a search or arrest
threaten or intimidate someone causing fear of imminent serious bodily injury
A person convicted of simple assault can be ordered to up to two years in prison as a second-degree misdemeanor.
An offender can be charged with aggravated assault if the offender:
demonstrates extreme indifference to the victim's life
injures or threatens to injure a law enforcement officer, correctional officer, firefighter, police officer, or teacher on duty, or for incapacitating any of these individuals
A person convicted of aggravated assault can face up to 10 years in prison as a second-degree felony. However, if the crime is perpetrated against a firefighter or police officer, the offender may face first-degree felony charges carrying a penalty of up to 20 years in prison. |
Assault | Tennessee | Tennessee
In Tennessee assault is defined as follows: |
Assault | See also | See also
Crime statistics
Domestic violence
Gay bashing
Hate crime
Mayhem
Offences Against the Person Act 1861 |
Assault | Citations | Citations |
Assault | General and cited references | General and cited references
|
Assault | External links | External links
A guide to the non fatal offences against the person
Category:Crimes |
Assault | Table of Content | Short description, Related definitions, Battery, Aggravated assault, Defenses, Consent, Arrest and other official acts, Punishment, Prevention of crime, Defense of property, By country, Statistics, Australia, Assault with further specific intent, Assault causing certain injuries, Assault causing death, Canada, Ancient Greece, India, Nigeria, Pacific Islands, Republic of Ireland, South Africa, United Kingdom, England and Wales, Aggravated assault, Scotland, Northern Ireland, United States, State laws, Kansas, New York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, See also, Citations, General and cited references, External links |
Álfheimr | short description | thumb|right|Dancing Elves, by August Malmström, 1866
In Norse cosmology, Álfheimr (Old Norse: , "Land of the Elves" or "Elfland"; anglicized as Alfheim), also called "Ljósálfheimr" ( , "home of the Light Elves"), is home of the Light Elves. |
Álfheimr | Attestations | Attestations
Álfheim as an abode of the Elves is mentioned only twice in Old Norse texts. |
Álfheimr | Grímnismál | Grímnismál
The Eddic poem Grímnismál describes twelve divine dwellings beginning the stanza 5 with:
Old Norse text Bellows translationYdalir call they the place where Ull
A hall for himself hath set;
And Alfheim the gods to Freyr once gave
As a tooth-gift in ancient times.
A tooth-gift is a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth. |
Álfheimr | Gylfaginning | Gylfaginning
In the 12th century Eddic prose Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson relates it in the stanza 17 as the first of a series of abodes in heaven:
Old Norse text Brodeur translationMany places are there, and glorious. That which is called Álfheimr is one, where dwell the peoples called Light-Elves; but the Dark-Elves dwell down in the earth, and they are unlike in appearance, but by far more unlike in nature. The Light-Elves are fairer to look upon than the sun, but the Dark-Elves are blacker than pitch.
Later in the section, in speaking of a hall in the Highest Heaven called Gimlé that shall survive when heaven and earth have died, explains:
Old Norse text Brodeur translationIt is said that another heaven is to the southward and upward of this one, and it is called Andlangr; but the third heaven is yet above that, and it is called Vídbláinn, and in that heaven we think this abode is. But we believe that none but Light-Elves inhabit these mansions now. |
Álfheimr | See also | See also
Álfheimr (region)
Alfheimbjerg
Fairyland, a folkloric location sometimes referred to as Elfame
Svartálfaheimr
Svartálfar (black elves) |
Álfheimr | Citations | Citations |
Álfheimr | Bibliography | Bibliography |
Álfheimr | Primary | Primary
|
Álfheimr | External links | External links
Category:Locations in Norse mythology
Category:Saga locations
Category:Elves
Category:Freyr |
Álfheimr | Table of Content | short description, Attestations, Grímnismál, Gylfaginning, See also, Citations, Bibliography, Primary, External links |
Ask and Embla | Short description | thumb|300px|upright|"Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin create Askr and Embla" (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.
In Norse mythology, Ask and Embla ()—man and woman respectively—were the first two humans, created by the gods. The pair are attested in both the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, composed in the 13th century. In both sources, three gods, one of whom is Odin, find Ask and Embla and bestow upon them various corporeal and spiritual gifts. A number of theories have been proposed to explain the two figures, and there are occasional references to them in popular culture. |
Ask and Embla | Etymology | Etymology
thumb|upright|A depiction of Ask and Embla (1919) by Robert Engels.
Old Norse literally means "ash tree" but the etymology of embla is uncertain, and two possibilities of the meaning of embla are generally proposed. The first meaning, "elm tree", is problematic, and is reached by deriving *Elm-la from *Almilōn and subsequently to ('elm'). The second suggestion is "vine", which is reached through *Ambilō, which may be related to the Greek term (), itself meaning "vine, liana". The latter etymology has resulted in a number of theories.
Linguist Gunlög Josefsson claims that the name Embla comes from the roots + which would mean 'firemaker' or 'smokebringer' inflected for either gender. She connects this to the ancient practice of creating fire through a fire plough which was considered a magical and holy way of fire making in folk belief in Scandinavia long into modern times. She identifies the emergence of fire through the plowing symbolically to the moment of orgasm and hence fertilization and reproduction.
According to Benjamin Thorpe, "Grimm says the word embla, emla, signifies a busy woman, from amr, ambr, aml, ambl, assiduous labour; the same relation as Meshia and Meshiane, the ancient Persian names of the first man and woman, who were also formed from trees."Thorpe (1907:337). |
Ask and Embla | Attestations | Attestations
In stanza 17 of the Poetic Edda poem , the seeress reciting the poem states that Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin once found Ask and Embla on land. The seeress says that the two were capable of very little, lacking in and says that they were given three gifts by the three gods:
Old Norse:
Dronke (1997:11).Benjamin Thorpe translation:
Spirit they possessed not, sense they had not,
blood nor motive powers, nor goodly colour.
Spirit gave Odin, sense gave Hœnir,
blood gave Lodur, and goodly colour.Thorpe (1866:5).Henry Adams Bellows translation:
Soul they had not, sense they had not,
Heat nor motion, nor goodly hue;
Soul gave Othin, sense gave Hönir,
Heat gave Lothur and goodly hue.Bellows (1936:8).
The meaning of these gifts has been a matter of scholarly disagreement and translations therefore vary.Schach (1985:93).
According to chapter 9 of the Prose Edda book , the three brothers Vili, Vé, and Odin, are the creators of the first man and woman. The brothers were once walking along a beach and found two trees there. They took the wood and from it created the first human beings; Ask and Embla. One of the three gave them the breath of life, the second gave them movement and intelligence, and the third gave them shape, speech, hearing and sight. Further, the three gods gave them clothing and names. Ask and Embla go on to become the progenitors of all humanity and were given a home within the walls of Midgard.Byock (2006:18). |
Ask and Embla | Theories | Theories
thumb|upright|"Ask och Embla" (1948) by Stig Blomberg |
Ask and Embla | Indo-European origins | Indo-European origins
A Proto-Indo-European basis has been theorized for the duo based on the etymology of embla meaning "vine." In Indo-European societies, an analogy is derived from the drilling of fire and sexual intercourse. Vines were used as a flammable wood, where they were placed beneath a drill made of harder wood, resulting in fire. Further evidence of ritual making of fire in Scandinavia has been theorized from a depiction on a stone plate on a Bronze Age grave in Kivik, Scania, Sweden.Simek (2007:74).
Jaan Puhvel comments that "ancient myths teem with trite 'first couples' similar to the type of Adam and his by-product Eve. In Indo-European tradition, these range from the Vedic Yama and Yamī and the Iranian Mašya and Mašyānag to the Icelandic Askr and Embla, with trees or rocks as preferred raw material, and dragon's teeth or other bony substance occasionally thrown in for good measure".Puhvel (1989 [1987]:284).
In his study of the comparative evidence for an origin of mankind from trees in Indo-European society, Anders Hultgård observes that "myths of the origin of mankind from trees or wood seem to be particularly connected with ancient Europe and Indo-Europe and Indo-European-speaking peoples of Asia Minor and Iran. By contrast the cultures of the Near East show almost exclusively the type of anthropogonic stories that derive man's origin from clay, earth or blood by means of a divine creation act".Hultgård (2006:62). |
Ask and Embla | Other potential Germanic analogues | Other potential Germanic analogues
Two wooden figures—the Braak Bog Figures—of "more than human height" were unearthed from a peat bog at Braak in Schleswig, Germany. The figures depict a nude man and a nude woman. Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that these figures may represent a "Lord and Lady" of the Vanir, a group of Norse gods, and that "another memory of [these wooden deities] may survive in the tradition of the creation of Ask and Embla, the man and woman who founded the human race, created by the gods from trees on the seashore".Davidson (1975:88—89).
A figure named Æsc (Old English "ash tree") appears as the son of Hengest in the Anglo-Saxon genealogy for the kings of Kent. This has resulted in a number of theories that the figures may have had an earlier basis in pre-Norse Germanic mythology.Orchard (1997:8).
Connections have been proposed between Ask and Embla and the Vandal kings Assi and Ambri, attested in Paul the Deacon's 7th century AD work Origo Gentis Langobardorum. There, the two ask the god Godan (Odin) for victory. The name Ambri, like Embla, likely derives from *Ambilō. |
Ask and Embla | Catalog of dwarfs | Catalog of dwarfs
A stanza preceding the account of the creation of Ask and Embla in Völuspá provides a catalog of dwarfs, and stanza 10 has been considered as describing the creation of human forms from the earth. This may potentially mean that dwarfs formed humans, and that the three gods gave them life.Lindow (2001:62—63). Carolyne Larrington theorizes that humans are metaphorically designated as trees in Old Norse works (examples include "trees of jewellery" for women and "trees of battle" for men) due to the origin of humankind stemming from trees; Ask and Embla.Larrington (1999:279). |
Ask and Embla | Modern depictions | Modern depictions
Ask and Embla have been the subject of a number of references and artistic depictions.
A sculpture depicting the two, created by Stig Blomberg in 1948, stands in Sölvesborg in southern Sweden.
Ask and Embla are depicted on two of the sixteen wooden panels by Dagfin Werenskiold on Oslo City Hall.
Ask to Embla is the title of a poem, parts of which are quoted, by R. H. Ash, one of the protagonists in A. S. Byatt's novel Possession: A Romance, which won the Booker prize in 1990.
In the video game Fire Emblem Heroes, the two main warring kingdoms are Askr and Embla, which is where the Summoner, the player, finds themselves in, as the kingdom has been at war with the Emblian Empire when the game starts. It is later revealed both kingdoms are named after a pair of Ancient Dragons; with Askr being male and Embla female.
In the videogame Valheim, the developers named an armor set after Embla, as stated in their development blog entry on November 21, 2023: "we have named this set after one of the two first humans in Norse mythology: Embla". |
Ask and Embla | See also | See also
Líf and Lífþrasir
Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology |
Ask and Embla | Bibliography | Bibliography |
Ask and Embla | Notes | Notes |
Ask and Embla | References | References
Bellows, Henry Adams (Trans.) (1936). The Poetic Edda. Princeton University Press. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation.
Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2006). The Prose Edda. Penguin Classics.
Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1975). Scandinavian Mythology. Paul Hamlyn.
Hultgård, Anders (2006). "The Askr and Embla Myth in a Comparative Perspective". In Andrén, Anders; Jennbert, Kristina; Raudvere, Catharina (editors).Old Norse Religion in Long-term Perspectives. Nordic Academic Press.
Dronke, Ursula (Trans.) (1997). The Poetic Edda: Volume II: Mythological Poems. Oxford University Press.
Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics.
Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press.
Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell.
Puhvel, Jaan (1989 [1987]). Comparative Mythology. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Schach, Paul (1985). "Some Thoughts on Völuspá" as collected in Glendinning, R. J. Bessason, Heraldur (Editors). Edda: a Collection of Essays. University of Manitoba Press.
Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907). The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson. Norrœna Society.
Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1866). Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða: The Edda of Sæmund the Learned. Part I. London: Trübner & Co.
Category:Legendary progenitors
Category:Mythological first humans
Category:People in Norse mythology
Category:Mythological duos
Category:Fraxinus excelsior
Category:Mythological lovers |
Ask and Embla | Table of Content | Short description, Etymology, Attestations, Theories, Indo-European origins, Other potential Germanic analogues, Catalog of dwarfs, Modern depictions, See also, Bibliography, Notes, References |
Alabama River | short description | The Alabama River, in the U.S. state of Alabama, is formed by the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about north of Montgomery, near the town of Wetumpka.
Over a course of approximately , the river meanders west towards Selma, then southwest until, about from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee, forming the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay. |
Alabama River | Description | Description
The run of the Alabama is highly meandering. Its width varies from , and its depth from . Its length as measured by the United States Geological Survey is ,U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. The National Map , accessed April 27, 2011 and by steamboat measurement, .
The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state. Railways connect it with the mineral regions of north-central Alabama.
After the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, the principal tributary of the Alabama is the Cahaba River, which is about long and joins the Alabama River about below Selma. The Alabama River's main tributary, the Coosa River, crosses the mineral region of Alabama and is navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia, to about above Wetumpka (about below Rome and below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa. The channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government.
The navigation of the Tallapoosa River – which has its source in Paulding County, Georgia, and is about long – is prevented by shoals and a fall at Tallassee, a few miles north of its junction with the Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year.
The river played an important role in the growth of the economy in the region during the 19th century as a source of transportation of goods, which included slaves. The river is still used for transportation of farming produce; however, it is not as important as it once was due to the construction of roads and railways.
Documented by Europeans first in 1701, the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa rivers were central to the homeland of the Creek Indians before their removal by United States forces to the Indian Territory in the 1830s. |
Alabama River | Lock and dams | Lock and dams
The Alabama River has three lock and dams between Montgomery and the Mobile River. The Robert F. Henry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 236.2, the Millers Ferry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 133.0, and the Claiborne Lock & Dam is located at river mile 72.5.Courtesy U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Mobile District These dams create R.E. "Bob" Woodruff Lake, William Dannely Reservoir, and Claiborne Lake respectively. |
Alabama River | Gallery | Gallery |
Alabama River | See also | See also
List of Alabama rivers
Tallapoosa River
Coosa River
Mobile River
South Atlantic-Gulf Water Resource Region |
Alabama River | References | References |
Alabama River | External links | External links
Allrefer.com
Category:Alabama placenames of Native American origin
Category:Rivers of Autauga County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Monroe County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Montgomery County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Wilcox County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Dallas County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Mobile County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Elmore County, Alabama
Category:Rivers of Alabama |
Alabama River | Table of Content | short description, Description, Lock and dams, Gallery, See also, References, External links |
Alain de Lille | short description | Alain de Lille (Alan of Lille; Latin: Alanus ab Insulis; 11281202/1203) was a FrenchAlain de Lille WRITTEN BY: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica theologian and poet. He was born in Lille some time before 1128. His exact date of death remains unclear as well, with most research pointing toward it being between 14 April 1202 and 5 April 1203. He is known for writing a number of works based upon the teachings of the liberal arts, with one of his most renowned poems, De planctu Naturae ("The Complaint of Nature"), focusing on sexual conduct among humans. Although Alain was widely known during his lifetime, little is known about his personal life.Wetherbee, Winthrop. "Alan of Lille, De planctu Naturae: The Fall of Nature and the Survival of Poetry". The Journal of Medieval Latin 21 (2011): 223–51. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45019679/
As a theologian, Alain de Lille opposed scholasticism in the second half of the 12th century. His philosophy is characterized by rationalism and mysticism. Alain claimed that reason, guided by prudence, could discover most truths about the physical order without help; but in order to understand religious truth and to know God, the wise must be believers. |
Alain de Lille | Life | Life
Little is known of his life. Alain entered the schools no earlier than the late 1140s; first attending the school at Paris, and then at Chartres. He probably studied under masters such as Peter Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Thierry of Chartres. This is known through the writings of John of Salisbury, who is thought to have been a contemporary student of Alain of Lille. Alain's earliest writings were probably written in the 1150s, and probably in Paris. He spent many years as a professor of theology at the University of Paris and he attended the Lateran Council in 1179. Though the only accounts of his lectures seem to show a sort of eccentric style and approach, he was said to have been good friends with many other masters at the school in Paris, and taught there, as well as some time in southern France, into his old age. He afterwards inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes called Alanus de Montepessulano), lived for a time outside the walls of any cloister, and finally retired to Cîteaux, where he died in 1202.
He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime, and his knowledge caused him to be called Doctor Universalis. Many of Alain's writings cannot be exactly dated, and the circumstances surrounding his writing are often unknown as well. It does seem clear that his first notable work, Summa Quoniam Homines, was completed between 1155 and 1165, with the most conclusive date being 1160, and was probably developed through his lectures at the school in Paris. Among his numerous works two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin literature of the Middle Ages; one of these, the De planctu Naturae, is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity. He created the allegory of grammatical "conjugation" which was to have its successors throughout the Middle Ages. The Anticlaudianus, a treatise on morals as allegory, the form of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity. |
Alain de Lille | Theology and philosophy | Theology and philosophy
As a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against the scholastic philosophy. His mysticism, however, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In the Anticlaudianus he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, Ars catholicae fidei, as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason. Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the Christian creed. This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms not generally used in such a connection (axiom, theorem, corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent originality.
Alan's philosophy was a sort of mixture of Aristotelian logic and Neoplatonic philosophy. The Platonist seemed to outweigh the Aristotelian in Alan, but he felt strongly that the divine is all intelligibility and argued this notion through much Aristotelian logic combined with Pythagorean mathematics. |
Alain de Lille | Works and attributions | Works and attributions
One of Alain's most notable works was one he modeled after Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy, to which he gave the title De planctu Naturae, or The Plaint of Nature, and which was most likely written in the late 1160s. In this work, Alan uses prose and verse to illustrate the way in which nature defines its own position as inferior to that of God. He also attempts to illustrate the way in which humanity, through sexual perversion and specifically homosexuality, has defiled itself from nature and God. In Anticlaudianus, another of his notable works, Alan uses a poetical dialogue to illustrate the way in which nature comes to the realization of her failure in producing the perfect man. She has only the ability to create a soulless body, and thus she is "persuaded to undertake the journey to heaven to ask for a soul," and "the Seven Liberal Arts produce a chariot for her... the Five Senses are the horses". The Anticlaudianus was translated into French and German in the following century, and toward 1280 was re-worked into a musical anthology by Adam de la Bassée.A. J. Creighton, Anticlaudien: A Thirteenth-Century French Adaptation (Washington: 1944).Andrew Hughes, "The Ludus super Anticlaudianum of Adam de la Bassée". Journal of the American Musicological Society 23"1 (1970), 1–25. One of Alan's most popular and widely distributed works is his manual on preaching, Ars Praedicandi, or The Art of Preaching. This work shows how Alan saw theological education as being a fundamental preliminary step in preaching and strove to give clergyman a manuscript to be "used as a practical manual" when it came to the formation of sermons and art of preaching.
Alain wrote three very large theological textbooks, one being his first work, Summa Quoniam Homines. Another of his theological textbooks that strove to be more minute in its focus, is his De Fide Catholica, dated somewhere between 1185 and 1200, Alan sets out to refute heretical views, specifically that of the Waldensians and Cathars. In his third theological textbook, Regulae Caelestis Iuris, he presents a set of what seems to be theological rules; this was typical of the followers of Gilbert of Poitiers, of which Alan could be associated. Other than these theological textbooks, and the aforementioned works of the mixture of prose and poetry, Alan of Lille had numerous other works on numerous subjects, primarily including Speculative Theology, Theoretical Moral Theology, Practical Moral Theology, and various collections of poems.
Alain de Lille has often been confounded with other persons named Alain, in particular with another Alanus (Alain, bishop of Auxerre), Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to him, as well as some of their works: thus the Life of St Bernard should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the Commentary upon Merlin to Alan of Tewkesbury. Alan of Lille was not the author of a Memoriale rerum difficilium, published under his name, nor of Moralium dogma philosophorum, nor of the satirical Apocalypse of Golias once attributed to him; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the Dicta Alani de lapide philosophico really issued from his pen. On the other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of the Ars catholicae fidei and the treatise Contra haereticos.
In his sermons on capital sins, Alain argued that sodomy and homicide are the most serious sins, since they call forth the wrath of God, which led to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. His chief work on penance, the Liber poenitenitalis dedicated to Henry de Sully, exercised great influence on the many manuals of penance produced as a result of the Fourth Lateran Council. Alain's identification of the sins against nature included bestiality, masturbation, oral and anal intercourse, incest, adultery and rape. In addition to his battle against moral decay, Alan wrote a work against Islam, Judaism and Christian heretics dedicated to William VIII of Montpellier. |
Alain de Lille | List of known works | List of known works
Anticlaudianus
Rhythmus de Incarnatione et de Septem Artibus
De Miseria Mundi
Quaestiones Alani Textes
Summa Quoniam Homines
Regulae Theologicae
Hierarchia Alani
De Fide Catholica: Contra Haereticos, Valdenses, Iudaeos et Paganos
De Virtutibus, de Vitiis, de Donis Spiritus Sancti
Liber Parabolarum
Distinctiones Dictionum Theologicalium
Elucidatio in Cantica Canticorum
Glosatura super Cantica
Expositio of the Pater Noster
Expositiones of the Nicene and Apostolic Creeds
Expositio Prosae de Angelis
Quod non-est celebrandum bis in die
Liber Poenitentialis
De Sex Alis Cherubim
Ars Praedicandi
Sermones |
Alain de Lille | References | References
Attribution: |
Alain de Lille | Translations | Translations
Alan of Lille, A Concise Explanation of the Song of Songs in Praise of the Virgin Mary, trans Denys Turner, in Denys Turner, Eros and Allegory: Medieval Exegesis of the Song of Songs, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1995), 291–308
The Plaint of Nature, translated by James J Sheridan, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1980)
Anticlaudian: Prologue, Argument and Nine Books, edited by W. H. Cornog, (Philadelphia, 1935) |
Alain de Lille | Further reading | Further reading
Alain de Lille: De planctu Naturae, ed. Nikolaus M. Häring, Studi Medievali 19 (1978), 797–879. Latin edition of the De planctu Naturae.
Dynes, Wayne R. 'Alan of Lille.' in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 32.
Alanus de insulis, Anticlaudianus, a c. di . M. Sannelli, La Finestra editrice, Lavis, 2004.
Evans, G. R. (1983), Alan of Lille: The Frontiers of Theology in the Later Twelfth Century, Cambridge: Cambridge. .
|
Alain de Lille | External links | External links
(Latin) Alanus ab Insulis, Anticlaudianus sive De officiis viri boni et perfecti
(Latin) [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/alanus/alanus1.html Alanus ab Insulis, Liber de planctu Naturae]
(Latin) Alanus ab Insulis, Omnis mundi creatura
(Latin) Alanus ab Insulis, Distinctiones dictionum theologicalium
(English) Alain of Lille, The Complaint of Nature. Translation of Liber de planctu Naturae''
Category:1110s births
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Category:Writers from Lille
Category:12th-century writers in Latin
Category:12th-century Christian mystics
Category:Scholastic philosophers
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Category:12th-century French Catholic theologians
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Alain de Lille | Table of Content | short description, Life, Theology and philosophy, Works and attributions, List of known works, References, Translations, Further reading, External links |
Alemanni | Short description | thumb|upright=1.6|Area settled by the Alemanni, and sites of Roman–Alemannic battles, third to sixth centuries
The Alemanni or AlamanniThe spelling with "e" is used in Encyc. Brit. 9th. ed., (c. 1880), Everyman's Encyc. 1967, Everyman's Smaller Classical Dictionary, 1910. The current edition of Britannica spells with "e", as does Columbia and Edward Gibbon, Vol. 3, Chapter XXXVIII. The Latinized spelling with a is current in older literature (so in the 1911 Britannica), but remains in use e.g. in Wood (2003), Drinkwater (2007).The Alemanni were alternatively known as Suebi from about the fifth century, and that name became prevalent in the high medieval period, eponymous of the Duchy of Swabia. The name is taken from that of the Suebi mentioned by Julius Caesar, and although these older Suebi did likely contribute to the ethnogenesis of the Alemanni, there is no direct connection to the contemporary Kingdom of the Suebi in Galicia. were a confederation of Germanic tribes
on the Upper Rhine River during the first millennium. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Roman emperor Caracalla of 213 CE, the Alemanni captured the in 260, and later expanded into present-day Alsace and northern Switzerland, leading to the establishment of the Old High German language in those regions, which by the eighth century were collectively referred to as Alamannia.in pago Almanniae 762, in pago Alemannorum 797, urbs Constantia in ducatu Alemanniae 797; in ducatu Alemannico, in pago Linzgowe 873. From the ninth century, Alamannia is increasingly used of the Alsace specifically, while the Alamannic territory in general is increasingly called Suebia; by the 12th century, the name Suebia had mostly replaced Alamannia.
S. Hirzel, Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde 6 (1888), p. 299.
In 496, the Alemanni were conquered by the Frankish leader Clovis and incorporated into his dominions. Mentioned as still pagan allies of the Christian Franks, the Alemanni were gradually Christianized during the seventh century. The is a record of their customary law during this period. Until the eighth century, Frankish suzerainty over Alemannia was mostly nominal. After an uprising by Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia, however, Carloman executed the Alamannic nobility and installed Frankish dukes.
During the later and weaker years of the Carolingian Empire, the Alemannic counts became almost independent, and a struggle for supremacy took place between them and the Bishopric of Constance. The chief family in Alamannia was that of the counts of , who were sometimes called margraves, and one of whom, Burchard II, established the Duchy of Swabia, which was recognized by Henry the Fowler in 919 and became a stem duchy of the Holy Roman Empire.
The area settled by the Alemanni corresponds roughly to the area where Alemannic German dialects remain spoken, including German Swabia and Baden, French Alsace, German-speaking Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Austrian Vorarlberg. The French-language name of Germany, , is derived from their name, from Old French aleman(t),recorded as aleman in c. 1100, and with final dental, alemant or alemand, from c. 1160. Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé s.v. allemand. and from French was loaned into a number of other languages, including Middle English, which commonly used the term Almains for Germans.F.C. and J. Rivington, T. Payne, Wilkie and Robinson: The Chronicle of Iohn Hardyng, 1812, p. 99.H. Kurath: Middle English Dictionary, part 14, University of Michigan Press, 1952, 1345. Likewise, the Arabic name for Germany is (Almanya), the Turkish is Almanya, the Spanish is Alemania, the Portuguese is Alemanha, the Welsh is Yr Almaen and the Persian is (Alman). |
Alemanni | Name | Name
According to Gaius Asinius Quadratus (quoted in the mid-sixth century by Byzantine historian Agathias), the name Alamanni (Ἀλαμανοι) means "all men". It indicates that they were a conglomeration drawn from various Germanic tribes. The Romans and the Greeks called them as such (Alamanni, all men, in the sense of a group composed of men of all groups in the region). This derivation was accepted by Edward Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and by the anonymous contributor of notes assembled from the papers of Nicolas Fréret, published in 1753.Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, avec les Mémoires de Littérature tirés des Registres de cette Académie, depuis l'année MDCCXLIV jusques et compris l'année MDCCXLVI, vol. XVIII, (Paris 1753) pp. 49–71. Excerpts are on-line at ELIOHS.
This etymology has remained the standard derivation of the name.It is cited in most etymological dictionaries, such as the American Heritage Dictionary (large edition) under the root, *man- .
An alternative suggestion proposes derivation from *alah "sanctuary"."the name is possibly Alahmannen, 'men of the sanctuary'" Inglis Palgrave (ed.), The Collected Historical Works of Sir Francis Palgrave, K.H. (1919), p. 443 (citing: "Bury's ed. of Gibbon (Methuen), vol. I [1902], p. 278 note; H. M. Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation [1907]").
Walafrid Strabo in the ninth century remarked, in discussing the people of Switzerland and the surrounding regions, that only foreigners called them the Alemanni, but that they gave themselves the name of Suebi.Igitur quia mixti Alamannis Suevi, partem Germaniae ultra Danubium, partem Raetiae inter Alpes et Histrum, partemque Galliae circa Ararim obsederunt; antiquorum vocabulorum veritate servata, ab incolis nomen patriae derivemus, et Alamanniam vel Sueviam nominemus. Nam cum duo sint vocabula unam gentem significantia, priori nomine nos appellant circumpositae gentes, quae Latinum habent sermonem; sequenti, usus nos nuncupat barbarorum. Walafrid Strabo, Proleg. ad Vit. S. Galli (833/4) ed. Migne (1852); Thomas Greenwood, The First Book of the History of the Germans: Barbaric Period (1836), p. 498.
The Suebi are given the alternative name of Ziuwari (as Cyuuari) in an Old High German gloss, interpreted by Jacob Grimm as Martem colentes ("worshippers of Mars").Rudolf Much, Der germanische Himmelsgott (1898), p. 192. Annio da Viterbo a scholar and historian of the 15th century claimed the Alemanni had their name from the Hebrew language, as in Hebrew the river Rhine was translated into Mannum and the people who live at its shores were called Alemannus. This was refuted by Beatus Rhenanus, a humanist of the 16th century. Rhenanus argued the term Alemanni was meant for the whole Germanic people only in late antiquity and before it was only meant to designate the population of an island in the North Sea. |
Alemanni | First appearance in historical record | First appearance in historical record
thumb|Alamannia is shown beyond Silva Marciana (the Black Forest) in the Tabula Peutingeriana. Suevia is indicated separately, further downstream of the Rhine, beyond Silva Vosagus.
Early Roman writers did not mention the Alemanni, and it is likely that they had not yet come to exist. In his Germania Tacitus (AD 90) does not mention the Alemanni. He uses the term Agri Decumates to describe the region between the Rhine, Main and Danube rivers. He says that it had once been the home of the Helvetians, who had moved westwards into Gaul in the time of Julius Caesar. The people living there in Caesar's time are not Germanic. Instead, "Reckless adventurers from Gaul, emboldened by want, occupied this land of questionable ownership. After a while, our frontier having been advanced, and our military positions pushed forward, it was regarded as a remote nook of our empire and a part of a Roman province."Tac. Ger. 29.
thumb|Alemannic belt mountings, from a seventh-century grave in the grave field at Weingarten
The Alemanni were first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213. At that time, they apparently dwelt in the basin of the Main, to the south of the Chatti.
Cassius Dio portrays the Alemanni as victims of this treacherous emperor. They had asked for his help, according to Dio, but instead he colonized their country, changed their place names, and executed their warriors under a pretext of coming to their aid. When he became ill, the Alemanni claimed to have put a hex on him. Caracalla, it was claimed, tried to counter this influence by invoking his ancestral spirits.
In retribution, Caracalla then led the Legio II Traiana Fortis against the Alemanni, who lost and were pacified for a time. The legion was as a result honoured with the name Germanica. The fourth-century fictional Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Caracalla, relates (10.5) that Caracalla then assumed the name Alemannicus, at which Helvius Pertinax jested that he should really be called Geticus Maximus, because in the year before he had murdered his brother, Geta.
Through much of his short reign, Caracalla was known for unpredictable and arbitrary operations launched by surprise after a pretext of peace negotiations. If he had any reasons of state for such actions, they remained unknown to his contemporaries. Whether or not the Alemanni had been previously neutral, they were certainly further influenced by Caracalla to become thereafter notoriously implacable enemies of Rome.
This mutually antagonistic relationship is perhaps the reason why the Roman writers persisted in calling the Alemanni "barbari," meaning "savages." The archaeology, however, shows that they were largely Romanized, lived in Roman-style houses and used Roman artefacts, the Alemannic women having adopted the Roman fashion of the tunica even earlier than the men.
Most of the Alemanni were probably at the time, in fact, resident in or close to the borders of Germania Superior. Although Dio is the earliest writer to mention them, Ammianus Marcellinus used the name to refer to Germans on the Limes Germanicus in the time of Trajan's governorship of the province shortly after it was formed, around 98–99 AD. At that time, the entire frontier was being fortified for the first time. Trees from the earliest fortifications found in Germania Inferior are dated by dendrochronology to 99–100 AD.
Ammianus relates (xvii.1.11) that much later the Emperor Julian undertook a punitive expedition against the Alemanni, who by then were in Alsace, and crossed the Main (Latin Menus), entering the forest, where the trails were blocked by felled trees. As winter was upon them, they reoccupied a
"fortification which was founded on the soil of the Alemanni that Trajan wished to be called with his own name".munimentum quod in Alamannorum solo conditum Traianus suo nomine voluit appellari.
In this context, the use of Alemanni is possibly an anachronism, but it reveals that Ammianus believed they were the same people, which is consistent with the location of the Alemanni of Caracalla's campaigns. |
Alemanni | Conflicts with the Roman Empire | Conflicts with the Roman Empire
thumb|upright=1.6|The Limes Germanicus 83 to 260 CE
The Alemanni were continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire in the third and fourth centuries. They launched a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy in 268 when the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion of the Goths from the east. Their raids throughout the three parts of Gaul were traumatic: Gregory of Tours (died ca 594) mentions their destructive force at the time of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260), when the Alemanni assembled under their "king", whom he calls Chrocus, who acted "by the advice, it is said, of his wicked mother, and overran the whole of the Gauls, and destroyed from their foundations all the temples which had been built in ancient times. And coming to Clermont he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue," martyring many Christians (Historia Francorum Book I.32–34). Thus sixth-century Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of Roman temples and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni.
In the early summer of 268, the Emperor Gallienus halted their advance into Italy but then had to deal with the Goths. When the Gothic campaign ended in Roman victory at the Battle of Naissus in September, Gallienus' successor Claudius Gothicus turned north to deal with the Alemanni, who were swarming over all Italy north of the Po River.
After efforts to secure a peaceful withdrawal failed, Claudius forced the Alemanni to battle at the Battle of Lake Benacus in November. The Alemanni were routed, forced back into Germany, and did not threaten Roman territory for many years afterwards.
Their most famous battle against Rome took place in Argentoratum (Strasbourg), in 357, where they were defeated by Julian, later Emperor of Rome, and their king Chnodomarius was taken prisoner to Rome.
On January 2, 366, the Alemanni yet again crossed the frozen Rhine in large numbers, to invade the Gallic provinces, this time being defeated by Valentinian (see Battle of Solicinium). In the great mixed invasion of 406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau. The crossing is described in Wallace Breem's historical novel Eagle in the Snow. The Chronicle of Fredegar gives the account. At Alba Augusta (Alba-la-Romaine) the devastation was so complete, that the Christian bishop retired to Viviers, but in Gregory's account at Mende in Lozère, also deep in the heart of Gaul, bishop Privatus was forced to sacrifice to idols in the very cave where he was later venerated. It is thought this detail may be a generic literary ploy to epitomize the horrors of barbarian violence. |
Alemanni | List of battles between Romans and Alemanni | List of battles between Romans and Alemanni
thumb|upright=1.6|Europe at the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD
259, Battle of MediolanumEmperor Gallienus defeats the Alemanni to rescue Rome
268, Battle of Lake BenacusRomans under Emperor Claudius II defeat the Alemanni.
271
Battle of PlacentiaEmperor Aurelian is defeated by the Alemanni forces invading Italy
Battle of FanoAurelian defeats the Alemanni, who begin to retreat from Italy
Battle of PaviaAurelian destroys the retreating Alemanni army.
298
Battle of LingonesCaesar Constantius Chlorus defeats the Alemanni
Battle of VindonissaConstantius defeats the Alemanni.
356, Battle of ReimsCaesar Julian is defeated by the Alemanni
357, Battle of StrasbourgJulian expels the Alemanni from the Rhineland
368, Battle of SoliciniumRomans under Emperor Valentinian I defeat an Alemanni incursion.
378, Battle of ArgentovariaWestern Emperor Gratianus is victorious over the Alemanni.
451, Battle of the Catalaunian FieldsRoman General Aetius and his army of Romans and barbarian allies defeat Attila's army of Huns and other Germanic allies, including the Alemanni.
457, Battle of Campi CanniniAlemanni invade Italy and are defeated near Lake Maggiore by Majorian
554, Battle of the VolturnusByzantine General Narses defeats a combined force of Franks and Alemanni in southern Italy. |
Alemanni | Subjugation by the Franks | Subjugation by the Franks
thumb|upright=1.15|Alemannia (yellow) and Upper Burgundy (green) around 1000
The kingdom of Alamannia between Strasbourg and Augsburg lasted until 496, when the Alemanni were conquered by Clovis I at the Battle of Tolbiac. The war of Clovis with the Alemanni forms the setting for the conversion of Clovis, briefly treated by Gregory of Tours. (Book II.31) After their defeat in 496, the Alemanni bucked the Frankish yoke and put themselves under the protection of Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths but after his death they were again subjugated by the Franks under Theudebert I in 536. Subsequently, the Alemanni formed part of the Frankish dominions and were governed by a Frankish duke.
In 746, Carloman ended an uprising by summarily executing all Alemannic nobility at the blood court at Cannstatt, and for the following century, Alemannia was ruled by Frankish dukes. Following the treaty of Verdun of 843, Alemannia became a province of the eastern kingdom of Louis the German, the precursor of the Holy Roman Empire. The duchy persisted until 1268. |
Alemanni | Culture | Culture |
Alemanni | Language | Language
thumb|The traditional distribution area of Western Upper German (Alemannic) dialect features in the 19th and 20th centuries
The German spoken today over the range of the former Alemanni is termed Alemannic German, and is recognised among the subgroups of the High German languages. Alemannic runic inscriptions such as those on the Pforzen buckle are among the earliest testimonies of Old High German. The High German consonant shift is thought to have originated around the fifth century either in Alemannia or among the Lombards; before that, the dialect spoken by Alemannic tribes was little different from that of other West Germanic peoples.
Alemannia lost its distinct jurisdictional identity when Charles Martel absorbed it into the Frankish empire, early in the eighth century. Today, Alemannic is a linguistic term, referring to Alemannic German, encompassing the dialects of the southern two-thirds of Baden-Württemberg (German State), in western Bavaria (German State), in Vorarlberg (Austrian State), Swiss German in Switzerland and the Alsatian language of the Alsace (France). |
Alemanni | Political organization | Political organization
The Alemanni established a series of territorially defined pagi (cantons) on the east bank of the Rhine. The exact number and extent of these pagi is unclear and probably changed over time.
Pagi, usually pairs of pagi combined, formed kingdoms (regna) which, it is generally believed, were permanent and hereditary. Ammianus describes Alemanni rulers with various terms: reges excelsiores ante alios ("paramount kings"), reges proximi ("neighbouring kings"), reguli ("petty kings") and regales ("princes"). This may be a formal hierarchy, or they may be vague, overlapping terms, or a combination of both.Drinkwater (2007) 118, 120 In 357, there appear to have been two paramount kings (Chnodomar and Westralp) who probably acted as presidents of the confederation and seven other kings (reges). Their territories were small and mostly strung along the Rhine (although a few were in the hinterland).Drinkwater (2007) 223 (map) It is possible that the reguli were the rulers of the two pagi in each kingdom. Underneath the royal class were the nobles (called optimates by the Romans) and warriors (called armati by the Romans). The warriors consisted of professional warbands and levies of free men.Speidel (2004) Each nobleman could raise an average of c. 50 warriors.Drinkwater (2007) 120 |
Alemanni | Religion | Religion
thumb|The gold bracteate of Pliezhausen (sixth or seventh century) shows typical iconography of the pagan period. The bracteate depicts the "horse-stabber underhoof" scene, a supine warrior stabbing a horse while it runs over him. The scene is adapted from Roman era gravestones of the region.Michael Speidel, Ancient Germanic warriors: warrior styles from Trajan's column to Icelandic sagas, Routledge, 2004, , p. 162.
Harald Kleinschmidt, People on the move: attitudes toward and perceptions of migration in medieval and modern Europe, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003,
, p. 66.
thumb|The seventh-century Gutenstein scabbard, found near Sigmaringen, Baden-Württemberg, is a late testimony of pagan ritual in Alemannia, showing a warrior in ritual wolf costume, holding a ring-spatha.
The Christianization of the Alemanni took place during Merovingian times (sixth to eighth centuries). We know that in the sixth century, the Alemanni were predominantly pagan, and in the eighth century, they were predominantly Christian. The intervening seventh century was a period of genuine syncretism during which Christian symbolism and doctrine gradually grew in influence.
Some scholars have speculated that members of the Alemannic elite such as king Gibuld due to Visigothic influence may have been converted to Arianism even in the later fifth century.Schubert, Hans (1909). Das älteste germanische Christentum oder der Sogenannte "Arianismus" der Germanen. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr. p. 32. Cf. also Bossert, G. "Alemanni" in: Jackson, S.M. (Ed.). New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. 1, p. 114: "[the Alamannic] prince, Gibuld, was an Arian, probably converted by Goths".
In the mid-6th century, the Byzantine historian Agathias records, in the context of the wars of the Goths and Franks against Byzantium, that the Alemanni fighting among the troops of Frankish king Theudebald were like the Franks in all respects except religion, since
He also spoke of the particular ruthlessness of the Alemanni in destroying Christian sanctuaries and plundering churches while the genuine Franks were respectful towards those sanctuaries. Agathias expresses his hope that the Alemanni would assume better manners through prolonged contact with the Franks, which is by all appearances, in a manner of speaking, what eventually happened.R. Keydell, Agathiae Myrinaei historiarum libri quinque Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae. Series Berolinensis 2. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1967, p. 18f.
Apostles of the Alemanni were Columbanus and his disciple Saint Gall. Jonas of Bobbio records that Columbanus was active in Bregenz, where he disrupted a beer sacrifice to Wodan. Despite these activities, for some time, the Alemanni seem to have continued their pagan cult activities, with only superficial or syncretistic Christian elements. In particular, there was no change in burial practice, and tumulus warrior graves continued to be erected throughout Merovingian times. Syncretism of traditional Germanic animal style with Christian symbolism is also present in artwork, but Christian symbolism became more and more prevalent during the seventh century. Unlike the later Christianization of the Saxons and of the Slavs, the Alemanni seem to have adopted Christianity gradually, and voluntarily, spread in emulation of the Merovingian elite.
From c. the 520s to the 620s, there was a surge of Alemannic Elder Futhark inscriptions. About 70 specimens have survived, roughly half of them on fibulae, others on belt buckles (see Pforzen buckle, Bülach fibula) and other jewellery and weapon parts. The use of runes subsides with the advance of Christianity.
The Nordendorf fibula (early seventh century) clearly records pagan theonyms, logaþorewodanwigiþonar read as "Wodan and Donar are magicians/sorcerers", but this may be interpreted as either a pagan invocation of the powers of these deities, or a Christian protective charm against them.
A runic inscription on a fibula found at Bad Ems reflects Christian pious sentiment (and is also explicitly marked with a Christian cross), reading god fura dih deofile ᛭ ("God for/before you, Theophilus!", or alternatively "God before you, Devil!"). Dated to between AD 660 and 690, it marks the end of the native Alemannic tradition of runic literacy. Bad Ems is in Rhineland-Palatinate, on the northwestern boundary of Alemannic settlement, where Frankish influence would have been strongest.Wolfgang Jungandreas, 'God fura dih, deofile †' in: Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur, 101, 1972, pp. 84–85.
The establishment of the bishopric of Konstanz cannot be dated exactly and was possibly undertaken by Columbanus himself (before 612). In any case, it existed by 635, when Gunzo appointed John of Grab bishop. Constance was a missionary bishopric in newly converted lands, and did not look back on late Roman church history unlike the Raetian bishopric of Chur (established 451) and Basel (an episcopal seat from 740, and which continued the line of Bishops of Augusta Raurica, see Bishop of Basel). The establishment of the church as an institution recognized by worldly rulers is also visible in legal history. In the early seventh century Pactus Alamannorum hardly ever mentions the special privileges of the church, while Lantfrid's Lex Alamannorum of 720 has an entire chapter reserved for ecclesial matters alone. |
Alemanni | Genetics | Genetics
A genetic study published in Science Advances in September 2018 examined the remains of eight individuals buried at a seventh-century Alemannic graveyard in Niederstotzingen, Germany. This is the richest and most complete Alemannic graveyard ever found. The highest-ranking individual at the graveyard was a male with Frankish grave goods. Four males were found to be closely related to him. They were all carriers of types of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b. A sixth male was a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b1a1 and the maternal haplogroup U5a1a1. Along with the five closely related individuals, he displayed close genetic links to northern and eastern Europe, particularly Lithuania and Iceland. Two individuals buried at the cemetery were found to be genetically different from both the others and each other, displaying genetic links to Southern Europe, particularly northern Italy and Spain. Along with the sixth male, they might have been adoptees or slaves. |
Alemanni | See also | See also
Annales Alamannici
List of rulers of Alamannia
List of confederations of Germanic tribes
Armalausi
Varisci
Helvetii
Charietto |
Alemanni | References | References |
Alemanni | Sources | Sources
Ammianus Marcellinus, passim
O. Bremer in H. Paul, Grundriss der germanischen Philologie (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1900), vol. iii. pp. 930 ff.
Dio Cassius lxvii. ff.
Ian Wood (ed.), Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective (Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology), Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2003, .
Melchior Goldast, Rerum Alamannicarum scriptores (1606, 2nd ed. Senckenburg 1730)
Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, book ii.
C. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme (Munich, 1837), pp. 303 ff. |
Alemanni | External links | External links
The Agri Decumates
The Alemanni (archived)
The Military Orientation of the Roman Emperors Septimius Severus to Gallienus (146–268 C.E.) (archived)
Brauchtum und Masken Alemannic Fastnacht
Category:Early Germanic peoples
Category:Germanic tribal confederacies
Category:History of Swabia
Category:History of Alsace
Category:Medieval history of Switzerland |
Alemanni | Table of Content | Short description, Name, First appearance in historical record, Conflicts with the Roman Empire, List of battles between Romans and Alemanni, Subjugation by the Franks, Culture, Language, Political organization, Religion, Genetics, See also, References, Sources, External links |