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Acropolis | Differing acropolises | Differing acropolises
The acropolis of a city was used in many ways, with regards to ancient time and through references. Because an acropolis was built at the highest part of a city, it served as a highly functional form of protection, a fortress, and was as well as a home to the royal of a city and a centre for religion through the worshipping of different gods. There have been many classical and ancient acropolises, including the most commonly-known, Acropolis of Athens, as well as the Tepecik Acropolis at Patara, Ankara Acropolis, Acropolis of La Blanca, Acropolis at the Maya Site in Guatemala, and the Acropolis at Halieis.
thumb|left|The Parthenon in Athens
The most famous example is the Athenian Acropolis, which is a collection of structures featuring a citadel on the highest part of land in ancient (and modern-day) Athens, Greece. Many notable structures at the site were constructed in the 5th century BCE, including the Propylaea, Erechtheion, and the Temple of Athena. The Temple is also commonly known as the Parthenon, which is derived from the divine Athena Parthenos. There were often dances, music and plays held at the acropolis, which it served as a community centre for the city of Athens. It became a prime tourist destination by the 2nd century AD during the Roman Empire and was known as "the Greece of Greece," as coined by an unknown poet. Although originating in the mainland of Greece, use of the acropolis model quickly spread to Greek colonies such as the Dorian Lato on Crete during the Archaic Period.
The Tepecik Acropolis at Patara served as a harbor to nearby communities and naval forces, such as Antigonos I Monopthalmos and Demetrios Poliorketes, and combined land and sea. Its fortification wall and Bastion date back to the Classical period. The acropolis was constructed in the fourth century BCE by the Hekatomnids that ultimately led to its seizure in 334 BCE by Alexander the Great. The acropolis contributed significantly to the overall development that took place during the Hellenistic empires. This acropolis was the earliest place of settlement, probably dating back to the third millennium BCE. During excavations that took place in 1989, ceramic items, terracotta figurines, coins, bone and stone objects were found that date to the fourth century BCE. The fortification wall and bastion that are built at this acropolis uses a style of masonry, commonly known as the Greek word (meaning "woven"). This style of masonry was likely used for weight-bearing purposes.
The Acropolis at Halieis dates back to the Neolithic and Classical periods. It included a fortified wall, sanctuary of Apollo (two temples, an altar, a race course), and necropolis (cemetery). This acropolis was the highest point of fortification on the south edge at Halieis. There was a small open-air cult space, including an altar and monuments.
The Ankara Acropolis, which was set in modern-day Turkey, is a historically prominent space that has changed over time through the urban development of the country from the Phrygian period. This acropolis was well known as a spot for holy worshipping, and was symbolic of the time. It has also been a place that has historically recognized the legislative changes that Turkey has faced.ย ย
The Acropolis of La Blanca was created in Guatemala as a small ancient Maya settlement and archaeological site that is located adjacent to the Salsipuedes River. This acropolis developed as a place of residence for the city of La Blanca's rulers. Its main period of usage was during the Classical period of 600 AD to 850 AD, as the city developed as a commercial place of trade among a number of nearby settlements.
The Mayan Acropolis site in Guatemala included a burial site and vaulted tombs of the highest status royal. This funerary structure was integrated into this sacred landscape, and illustrated the prosperity of power between the royal figures of Pedras Negras in Guatemala. |
Acropolis | Modern-day uses | Modern-day uses |
Acropolis | Tourism | Tourism
Acropolises today have become the epicenters of tourism and attraction sites in many modern-day Greek cities. The Athenian Acropolis, in particular, is the most famous, and has the best vantage point in Athens, Greece. Today, tourists can purchase tickets to visit the Athenian Acropolis, including walking, sightseeing, and bus tours, as well as a classic Greek dinner. |
Acropolis | Cultural ties | Cultural ties
thumb|Columbia University in Morningside Heights, Manhattan
Because of its classical Hellenistic and Greco-Roman style, the ruins of Mission San Juan Capistrano's Great Stone Church in California, United States has been called an American Acropolis. The civilization developed its religious, educational, and cultural aspects of the acropolis, and is used today as a location that holds events, such as operas.
The neighborhood of Morningside Heights in New York City is commonly referred to as the "Academic Acropolis" due to its high elevation and the concentration of educational institutions in the area, including Columbia University and its affiliates, Barnard College, Teachers College, Union Theological Seminary and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America; Manhattan School of Music; Bank Street College of Education; and New York Theological Seminary. The analogy is also aided by the neoclassical architecture of the Columbia University campus, which was designed by McKim, Mead & White in the early 20th century. |
Acropolis | Excavations | Excavations
Much of the modern-day uses of acropolises have been discovered through excavations that have developed over the course of many years. For example, the Athenian Acropolis includes a Great Temple that holds the Parthenon, a specific space for ancient worship. Through today's findings and research, the Parthenon treasury is able to be recognized as the west part of the structure (the Erechtheion), as well as the Parthenon itself. Most excavations have been able to provide archaeologists with samples of pottery, ceramics, and vessels. The excavation of the Acropolis of Halieis produced remains that provided context that dated the Acropolis at Halieis from the Final Neolithic period through the first Early Helladic period. |
Acropolis | See also | See also
Acropolis of Rhodes
Acropolis Palaiokastro
Idjang
Tell (archaeology)
Hillfort |
Acropolis | References | References |
Acropolis | External links | External links
Acropolis Museum
Acropolis: description, photo album
The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government website)
The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website)
The Acropolis: A Walk Through History
The Parthenon Frieze (Hellenic Ministry of Culture web site)
UNESCO World Heritage Centre โ Acropolis, Athens
Category:Ancient Greek architecture
Category:Culture of Greece
Category:Archaeological terminology
Category:Ancient Greek fortifications |
Acropolis | Table of Content | short description, Origin, Differing acropolises, Modern-day uses, Tourism, Cultural ties, Excavations, See also, References, External links |
Acupuncture | Short description | Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientific knowledge, and it has been characterized as quackery.
There is a range of acupuncture technological variants that originated in different philosophies, and techniques vary depending on the country in which it is performed. However, it can be divided into two main foundational philosophical applications and approaches; the first being the modern standardized form called eight principles TCM and the second being an older system that is based on the ancient Daoist wuxing, better known as the five elements or phases in the West. Acupuncture is most often used to attempt pain relief, though acupuncturists say that it can also be used for a wide range of other conditions. Acupuncture is typically used in combination with other forms of treatment.
The global acupuncture market was worth US$24.55 billion in 2017. The market was led by Europe with a 32.7% share, followed by Asia-Pacific with a 29.4% share and the Americas with a 25.3% share. It was estimated in 2021 that the industry would reach a market size of US$55 billion by 2023.
The conclusions of trials and systematic reviews of acupuncture generally provide no good evidence of benefits, which suggests that it is not an effective method of healthcare. Acupuncture is generally safe when done by appropriately trained practitioners using clean needle techniques and single-use needles. When properly delivered, it has a low rate of mostly minor adverse effects. When accidents and infections do occur, they are associated with neglect on the part of the practitioner, particularly in the application of sterile techniques. A review conducted in 2013 stated that reports of infection transmission increased significantly in the preceding decade. The most frequently reported adverse events were pneumothorax and infections. Since serious adverse events continue to be reported, it is recommended that acupuncturists be trained sufficiently to reduce the risk.
Scientific investigation has not found any histological or physiological evidence for traditional Chinese concepts such as qi, meridians, and acupuncture points, and many modern practitioners no longer support the existence of qi or meridians, which was a major part of early belief systems. Acupuncture is believed to have originated around 100ย BC in China, around the time The Inner Classic of Huang Di (Huangdi Neijing) was published, though some experts suggest it could have been practiced earlier. Over time, conflicting claims and belief systems emerged about the effect of lunar, celestial and earthly cycles, yin and yang energies, and a body's "rhythm" on the effectiveness of treatment. Acupuncture fluctuated in popularity in China due to changes in the country's political leadership and the preferential use of rationalism or scientific medicine. Acupuncture spread first to Korea in the 6th century AD, then to Japan through medical missionaries, and then to Europe, beginning with France. In the 20th century, as it spread to the United States and Western countries, spiritual elements of acupuncture that conflicted with scientific knowledge were sometimes abandoned in favor of simply tapping needles into acupuncture points. |
Acupuncture | Clinical practice | Clinical practice
thumb|One type of acupuncture needle
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine. It is used most commonly for pain relief, though it is also used to treat a wide range of conditions. Acupuncture is generally only used in combination with other forms of treatment. For example, the American Society of Anesthesiologists states it may be considered in the treatment of nonspecific, noninflammatory low back pain only in conjunction with conventional therapy.
Acupuncture is the insertion of thin needles into the skin. According to the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (Mayo Clinic), a typical session entails lying still while approximately five to twenty needles are inserted; for the majority of cases, the needles will be left in place for ten to twenty minutes. It can be associated with the application of heat, pressure, or laser light. Classically, acupuncture is individualized and based on philosophy and intuition, and not on scientific research. There is also a non-invasive therapy developed in early 20th-century Japan using an elaborate set of instruments other than needles for the treatment of children ( or ).
Clinical practice varies depending on the country. A comparison of the average number of patients treated per hour found significant differences between China (10) and the United States (1.2). Chinese herbs are often used. There is a diverse range of acupuncture approaches, involving different philosophies. Although various different techniques of acupuncture practice have emerged, the method used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) seems to be the most widely adopted in the US. Traditional acupuncture involves needle insertion, moxibustion, and cupping therapy, and may be accompanied by other procedures such as feeling the pulse and other parts of the body and examining the tongue. Traditional acupuncture involves the belief that a "life force" (qi) circulates within the body in lines called meridians. The main methods practiced in the UK are TCM and Western medical acupuncture. The term Western medical acupuncture is used to indicate an adaptation of TCM-based acupuncture which focuses less on TCM. The Western medical acupuncture approach involves using acupuncture after a medical diagnosis. Limited research has compared the contrasting acupuncture systems used in various countries for determining different acupuncture points, and thus there is no defined standard for acupuncture points.
In traditional acupuncture, the acupuncturist decides which points to treat by observing and questioning the patient to make a diagnosis according to the tradition used. In TCM, the four diagnostic methods are: inspection, auscultation and olfaction, inquiring, and palpation. Inspection focuses on the face and particularly on the tongue, including analysis of the tongue size, shape, tension, color and coating, and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge. Auscultation and olfaction involve listening for particular sounds, such as wheezing, and observing body odor. Inquiring involves focusing on the "seven inquiries": chills and fever; perspiration; appetite, thirst and taste; defecation and urination; pain; sleep; and menses and leukorrhea. Palpation is focusing on feeling the body for tender points and feeling the pulse.Cheng, 1987, chapter 12. |
Acupuncture | Needles | Needles
thumb|right|Acupuncture needles
thumb|right|Traditional and modern Japanese guiding tube needles
The most common mechanism of stimulation of acupuncture points employs penetration of the skin by thin metal needles, which are manipulated manually or the needle may be further stimulated by electrical stimulation (electroacupuncture). Acupuncture needles are typically made of stainless steel, making them flexible and preventing them from rusting or breaking. Needles are usually disposed of after each use to prevent contamination. Reusable needles when used should be sterilized between applications. In many areas, only sterile, single-use acupuncture needles are allowed, including the State of California.Department of Consumer Affairs, California Acupuncture Board. Title 16, Article 5. Standards of Practice, 1399.454. Single Use Needles. www.acupuncture.ca.gov/pubs_forms/laws_regs/art5.shtml 1-10-2020. Needles vary in length between , with shorter needles used near the face and eyes, and longer needles in areas with thicker tissues; needle diameters vary from 0 to 0,Aung & Chen, 2007, p. 116. with thicker needles used on more robust patients. Thinner needles may be flexible and require tubes for insertion. The tip of the needle should not be made too sharp to prevent breakage, although blunt needles cause more pain.
Apart from the usual filiform needle, other needle types include three-edged needles and the Nine Ancient Needles. Japanese acupuncturists use extremely thin needles that are used superficially, sometimes without penetrating the skin, and surrounded by a guide tube (a 17th-century invention adopted in China and the West). Korean acupuncture uses copper needles and has a greater focus on the hand. |
Acupuncture | Needling technique | Needling technique |
Acupuncture | Insertion | Insertion
The skin is sterilized and needles are inserted, frequently with a plastic guide tube. Needles may be manipulated in various ways, including spinning, flicking, or moving up and down relative to the skin. Since most pain is felt in the superficial layers of the skin, a quick insertion of the needle is recommended.Aung & Chen, 2007, pp. 113โ14. Often the needles are stimulated by hand in order to cause a dull, localized, aching sensation that is called de qi, as well as "needle grasp," a tugging feeling felt by the acupuncturist and generated by a mechanical interaction between the needle and skin. Acupuncture can be painful. The acupuncturist's skill level may influence the painfulness of the needle insertion; a sufficiently skilled practitioner may be able to insert the needles without causing any pain. |
Acupuncture | ''{{Lang | sensation
(; "arrival of qi") refers to a claimed sensation of numbness, distension, or electrical tingling at the needling site. If these sensations are not observed then inaccurate location of the acupoint, improper depth of needle insertion, inadequate manual manipulation, are blamed. If is not immediately observed upon needle insertion, various manual manipulation techniques are often applied to promote it (such as "plucking", "shaking" or "trembling").
Once is observed, techniques might be used which attempt to "influence" the ; for example, by certain manipulation the can allegedly be conducted from the needling site towards more distant sites of the body. Other techniques aim at "tonifying" () or "sedating" () qi. The former techniques are used in deficiency patterns, the latter in excess patterns. De qi is more important in Chinese acupuncture, while Western and Japanese patients may not consider it a necessary part of the treatment. |
Acupuncture | Related practices | Related practices
Acupressure, a non-invasive form of bodywork, uses physical pressure applied to acupressure points by the hand or elbow, or with various devices.
Acupuncture is often accompanied by moxibustion, the burning of cone-shaped preparations of moxa (made from dried mugwort) on or near the skin, often but not always near or on an acupuncture point. Traditionally, acupuncture was used to treat acute conditions while moxibustion was used for chronic diseases. Moxibustion could be direct (the cone was placed directly on the skin and allowed to burn the skin, producing a blister and eventually a scar), or indirect (either a cone of moxa was placed on a slice of garlic, ginger or other vegetable, or a cylinder of moxa was held above the skin, close enough to either warm or burn it).Needham & Lu, 2002, pp. 170โ73 .
Cupping therapy is an ancient Chinese form of alternative medicine in which a local suction is created on the skin; practitioners believe this mobilizes blood flow in order to promote healing.
Tui na is a TCM method of attempting to stimulate the flow of qi by various bare-handed techniques that do not involve needles.
Electroacupuncture is a form of acupuncture in which acupuncture needles are attached to a device that generates continuous electric pulses (this has been described as "essentially transdermal electrical nerve stimulation [TENS] masquerading as acupuncture").
Fire needle acupuncture also known as fire needling is a technique which involves quickly inserting a flame-heated needle into areas on the body.
Sonopuncture is a stimulation of the body similar to acupuncture using sound instead of needles. This may be done using purpose-built transducers to direct a narrow ultrasound beam to a depth of 6โ8 centimetres at acupuncture meridian points on the body. Alternatively, tuning forks or other sound emitting devices are used.
Acupuncture point injection is the injection of various substances (such as drugs, vitamins or herbal extracts) into acupoints. This technique combines traditional acupuncture with injection of what is often an effective dose of an approved pharmaceutical drug, and proponents claim that it may be more effective than either treatment alone, especially for the treatment of some kinds of chronic pain. However, a 2016 review found that most published trials of the technique were of poor value due to methodology issues and larger trials would be needed to draw useful conclusions.
Auriculotherapy, commonly known as ear acupuncture, auricular acupuncture, or auriculoacupuncture, is considered to date back to ancient China. It involves inserting needles to stimulate points on the outer ear. The modern approach was developed in France during the early 1950s. There is no scientific evidence that it can cure disease; the evidence of effectiveness is negligible.
Scalp acupuncture, developed in Japan, is based on reflexological considerations regarding the scalp.
Koryo hand acupuncture, developed in Korea, centers around assumed reflex zones of the hand. Medical acupuncture attempts to integrate reflexological concepts, the trigger point model, and anatomical insights (such as dermatome distribution) into acupuncture practice, and emphasizes a more formulaic approach to acupuncture point location.
Cosmetic acupuncture is the use of acupuncture in an attempt to reduce wrinkles on the face.
Bee venom acupuncture is a treatment approach of injecting purified, diluted bee venom into acupoints.
Veterinary acupuncture is the use of acupuncture on domesticated animals. |
Acupuncture | Efficacy | Efficacy
, many thousands of papers had been published on the efficacy of acupuncture for the treatment of various adult health conditions, but there was no robust evidence it was beneficial for anything, except shoulder pain and fibromyalgia. For Science-Based Medicine, Steven Novella wrote that the overall pattern of evidence was reminiscent of that for homeopathy, compatible with the hypothesis that most, if not all, benefits were due to the placebo effect, and strongly suggestive that acupuncture had no beneficial therapeutic effects at all.
Harriet Hall noticed that according to Edzard Ernst, systematic reviews agree that acupuncture works for neck pain, but not for every other painโand that makes its whole enterprise suspicious. |
Acupuncture | Research methodology and challenges | Research methodology and challenges |
Acupuncture | Sham acupuncture and research | Sham acupuncture and research
It is difficult but not impossible to design rigorous research trials for acupuncture. Due to acupuncture's invasive nature, one of the major challenges in efficacy research is in the design of an appropriate placebo control group. For efficacy studies to determine whether acupuncture has specific effects, "sham" forms of acupuncture where the patient, practitioner, and analyst are blinded seem the most acceptable approach. Sham acupuncture uses non-penetrating needles or needling at non-acupuncture points, e.g. inserting needles on meridians not related to the specific condition being studied, or in places not associated with meridians. The under-performance of acupuncture in such trials may indicate that therapeutic effects are due entirely to non-specific effects, or that the sham treatments are not inert, or that systematic protocols yield less than optimal treatment.
A 2014 review in Nature Reviews Cancer found that "contrary to the claimed mechanism of redirecting the flow of qi through meridians, researchers usually find that it generally does not matter where the needles are inserted, how often (that is, no dose-response effect is observed), or even if needles are actually inserted. In other words, "sham" or "placebo" acupuncture generally produces the same effects as "real" acupuncture and, in some cases, does better." A 2013 meta-analysis found little evidence that the effectiveness of acupuncture on pain (compared to sham) was modified by the location of the needles, the number of needles used, the experience or technique of the practitioner, or by the circumstances of the sessions. The same analysis also suggested that the number of needles and sessions is important, as greater numbers improved the outcomes of acupuncture compared to non-acupuncture controls. There has been little systematic investigation of which components of an acupuncture session may be important for any therapeutic effect, including needle placement and depth, type and intensity of stimulation, and number of needles used. The research seems to suggest that needles do not need to stimulate the traditionally specified acupuncture points or penetrate the skin to attain an anticipated effect (e.g. psychosocial factors).
A response to "sham" acupuncture in osteoarthritis may be used in the elderly, but placebos have usually been regarded as deception and thus unethical. However, some physicians and ethicists have suggested circumstances for applicable uses for placebos such as it might present a theoretical advantage of an inexpensive treatment without adverse reactions or interactions with drugs or other medications. As the evidence for most types of alternative medicine such as acupuncture is far from strong, the use of alternative medicine in regular healthcare can present an ethical question.
Using the principles of evidence-based medicine to research acupuncture is controversial, and has produced different results. Some research suggests acupuncture can alleviate pain but the majority of research suggests that acupuncture's effects are mainly due to placebo. Evidence suggests that any benefits of acupuncture are short-lasting. There is insufficient evidence to support use of acupuncture compared to mainstream medical treatments. Acupuncture is not better than mainstream treatment in the long term.
The use of acupuncture has been criticized owing to there being little scientific evidence for explicit effects, or the mechanisms for its supposed effectiveness, for any condition that is discernible from placebo. Acupuncture has been called "theatrical placebo", and David Gorski argues that when acupuncture proponents advocate "harnessing of placebo effects" or work on developing "meaningful placebos", they essentially concede it is little more than that. |
Acupuncture | Publication bias | Publication bias
Publication bias is cited as a concern in the reviews of randomized controlled trials of acupuncture. A 1998 review of studies on acupuncture found that trials originating in China, Japan, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were uniformly favourable to acupuncture, as were ten out of eleven studies conducted in Russia. A 2011 assessment of the quality of randomized controlled trials on traditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture, concluded that the methodological quality of most such trials (including randomization, experimental control, and blinding) was generally poor, particularly for trials published in Chinese journals (though the quality of acupuncture trials was better than the trials testing traditional Chinese medicine remedies). The study also found that trials published in non-Chinese journals tended to be of higher quality. Chinese authors use more Chinese studies, which have been demonstrated to be uniformly positive. A 2012 review of 88 systematic reviews of acupuncture published in Chinese journals found that less than half of these reviews reported testing for publication bias, and that the majority of these reviews were published in journals with impact factors of zero. A 2015 study comparing pre-registered records of acupuncture trials with their published results found that it was uncommon for such trials to be registered before the trial began. This study also found that selective reporting of results and changing outcome measures to obtain statistically significant results was common in this literature.
Scientist Steven Salzberg identifies acupuncture and Chinese medicine generally as a focus for "fake medical journals" such as the Journal of Acupuncture and Meridian Studies and Acupuncture in Medicine. |
Acupuncture | Safety | Safety |
Acupuncture | Adverse events | Adverse events
Acupuncture is generally safe when administered by an experienced, appropriately trained practitioner using clean-needle technique and sterile single-use needles. When improperly delivered it can cause adverse effects. Accidents and infections are associated with infractions of sterile technique or neglect on the part of the practitioner. To reduce the risk of serious adverse events after acupuncture, acupuncturists should be trained sufficiently.Comment in: A 2009 overview of Cochrane reviews found acupuncture is not effective for a wide range of conditions. People with serious spinal disease, such as cancer or infection, are not good candidates for acupuncture. Contraindications to acupuncture (conditions that should not be treated with acupuncture) include coagulopathy disorders (e.g. hemophilia and advanced liver disease), warfarin use, severe psychiatric disorders (e.g. psychosis), and skin infections or skin trauma (e.g. burns). Further, electroacupuncture should be avoided at the spot of implanted electrical devices (such as pacemakers).
A 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews (internationally and without language restrictions) found that serious complications following acupuncture continue to be reported. Between 2000 and 2009, ninety-five cases of serious adverse events, including five deaths, were reported. Many such events are not inherent to acupuncture but are due to malpractice of acupuncturists. This might be why such complications have not been reported in surveys of adequately trained acupuncturists. Most such reports originate from Asia, which may reflect the large number of treatments performed there or a relatively higher number of poorly trained Asian acupuncturists. Many serious adverse events were reported from developed countries. These included Australia, Austria, Canada, Croatia, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, and the US. The number of adverse effects reported from the UK appears particularly unusual, which may indicate less under-reporting in the UK than other countries. Reports included 38 cases of infections and 42 cases of organ trauma. The most frequent adverse events included pneumothorax, and bacterial and viral infections.
A 2013 review found (without restrictions regarding publication date, study type or language) 295 cases of infections; mycobacterium was the pathogen in at least 96%. Likely sources of infection include towels, hot packs or boiling tank water, and reusing reprocessed needles. Possible sources of infection include contaminated needles, reusing personal needles, a person's skin containing mycobacterium, and reusing needles at various sites in the same person. Although acupuncture is generally considered a safe procedure, a 2013 review stated that the reports of infection transmission increased significantly in the prior decade, including those of mycobacterium. Although it is recommended that practitioners of acupuncture use disposable needles, the reuse of sterilized needles is still permitted. It is also recommended that thorough control practices for preventing infection be implemented and adapted. |
Acupuncture | English-language | English-language
A 2013 systematic review of the English-language case reports found that serious adverse events associated with acupuncture are rare, but that acupuncture is not without risk. Between 2000 and 2011 the English-language literature from 25 countries and regions reported 294 adverse events. The majority of the reported adverse events were relatively minor, and the incidences were low. For example, a prospective survey of 34,000 acupuncture treatments found no serious adverse events and 43 minor ones, a rate of 1.3 per 1000 interventions. Another survey found there were 7.1% minor adverse events, of which 5 were serious, amid 97,733 acupuncture patients. The most common adverse effect observed was infection (e.g. mycobacterium), and the majority of infections were bacterial in nature, caused by skin contact at the needling site. Infection has also resulted from skin contact with unsterilized equipment or with dirty towels in an unhygienic clinical setting. Other adverse complications included five reported cases of spinal cord injuries (e.g. migrating broken needles or needling too deeply), four brain injuries, four peripheral nerve injuries, five heart injuries, seven other organ and tissue injuries, bilateral hand edema, epithelioid granuloma, pseudolymphoma, argyria, pustules, pancytopenia, and scarring due to hot-needle technique. Adverse reactions from acupuncture, which are unusual and uncommon in typical acupuncture practice, included syncope, galactorrhoea, bilateral nystagmus, pyoderma gangrenosum, hepatotoxicity, eruptive lichen planus, and spontaneous needle migration.
A 2013 systematic review found 31 cases of vascular injuries caused by acupuncture, three causing death. Two died from pericardial tamponade and one was from an aortoduodenal fistula. The same review found vascular injuries were rare, bleeding and pseudoaneurysm were most prevalent. A 2011 systematic review (without restriction in time or language), aiming to summarize all reported case of cardiac tamponade after acupuncture, found 26 cases resulting in 14 deaths, with little doubt about cause in most fatal instances. The same review concluded that cardiac tamponade was a serious, usually fatal, though theoretically avoidable complication following acupuncture, and urged training to minimize risk.
A 2012 review found that a number of adverse events were reported after acupuncture in the UK's National Health Service (NHS), 95% of which were not severe, though miscategorization and under-reporting may alter the total figures. From January 2009 to December 2011, 468 safety incidents were recognized within the NHS organizations. The adverse events recorded included retained needles (31%), dizziness (30%), loss of consciousness/unresponsive (19%), falls (4%), bruising or soreness at needle site (2%), pneumothorax (1%) and other adverse side effects (12%). Acupuncture practitioners should know, and be prepared to be responsible for, any substantial harm from treatments. Some acupuncture proponents argue that the long history of acupuncture suggests it is safe. However, there is an increasing literature on adverse events (e.g. spinal-cord injury).
Acupuncture seems to be safe in people getting anticoagulants, assuming needles are used at the correct location and depth, but studies are required to verify these findings. |
Acupuncture | Chinese, Korean, and Japanese-language | Chinese, Korean, and Japanese-language
A 2010 systematic review of the Chinese-language literature found numerous acupuncture-related adverse events, including pneumothorax, fainting, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and infection as the most frequent, and cardiovascular injuries, subarachnoid hemorrhage, pneumothorax, and recurrent cerebral hemorrhage as the most serious, most of which were due to improper technique. Between 1980 and 2009, the Chinese-language literature reported 479 adverse events. Prospective surveys show that mild, transient acupuncture-associated adverse events ranged from 6.71% to 15%. In a study with 190,924 patients, the prevalence of serious adverse events was roughly 0.024%. Another study showed a rate of adverse events requiring specific treatment of 2.2%, 4,963 incidences among 229,230 patients. Infections, mainly hepatitis, after acupuncture are reported often in English-language research, though are rarely reported in Chinese-language research, making it plausible that acupuncture-associated infections have been underreported in China. Infections were mostly caused by poor sterilization of acupuncture needles. Other adverse events included spinal epidural hematoma (in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine), chylothorax, injuries of abdominal organs and tissues, injuries in the neck region, injuries to the eyes, including orbital hemorrhage, traumatic cataract, injury of the oculomotor nerve and retinal puncture, hemorrhage to the cheeks and the hypoglottis, peripheral motor-nerve injuries and subsequent motor dysfunction, local allergic reactions to metal needles, stroke, and cerebral hemorrhage after acupuncture.
A causal link between acupuncture and the adverse events cardiac arrest, pyknolepsy, shock, fever, cough, thirst, aphonia, leg numbness, and sexual dysfunction remains uncertain. The same review concluded that acupuncture can be considered inherently safe when practiced by properly trained practitioners, but the review also stated there is a need to find effective strategies to minimize the health risks. Between 1999 and 2010, the Korean-language literature contained reports of 1104 adverse events. Between the 1980s and 2002, the Japanese-language literature contained reports of 150 adverse events. |
Acupuncture | Children and pregnancy | Children and pregnancy
Although acupuncture has been practiced for thousands of years in China, its use in pediatrics in the United States did not become common until the early 2000s. In 2007, the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) conducted by the National Center For Health Statistics (NCHS) estimated that approximately 150,000 children had received acupuncture treatment for a variety of conditions.
In 2008, a study determined that the use of acupuncture-needle treatment on children was "questionable" due to the possibility of adverse side-effects and the pain manifestation differences in children versus adults. The study also includes warnings against practicing acupuncture on infants, as well as on children who are over-fatigued, very weak, or have over-eaten.
When used on children, acupuncture is considered safe when administered by well-trained, licensed practitioners using sterile needles; however, a 2011 review found there was limited research to draw definite conclusions about the overall safety of pediatric acupuncture. The same review found 279 adverse events, 25 of them serious. The adverse events were mostly mild in nature (e.g., bruising or bleeding). The prevalence of mild adverse events ranged from 10.1% to 13.5%, an estimated 168 incidences among 1,422 patients. On rare occasions adverse events were serious (e.g. cardiac rupture or hemoptysis); many might have been a result of substandard practice. The incidence of serious adverse events was 5 per one million, which included children and adults.
When used during pregnancy, the majority of adverse events caused by acupuncture were mild and transient, with few serious adverse events. The most frequent mild adverse event was needling or unspecified pain, followed by bleeding. Although two deaths (one stillbirth and one neonatal death) were reported, there was a lack of acupuncture-associated maternal mortality. Limiting the evidence as certain, probable or possible in the causality evaluation, the estimated incidence of adverse events following acupuncture in pregnant women was 131 per 10,000.
Although acupuncture is not contraindicated in pregnant women, some specific acupuncture points are particularly sensitive to needle insertion; these spots, as well as the abdominal region, should be avoided during pregnancy. |
Acupuncture | Moxibustion and cupping | Moxibustion and cupping
Four adverse events associated with moxibustion were bruising, burns and cellulitis, spinal epidural abscess, and large superficial basal cell carcinoma. Ten adverse events were associated with cupping. The minor ones were keloid scarring, burns, and bullae; the serious ones were acquired hemophilia A, stroke following cupping on the back and neck, factitious panniculitis, reversible cardiac hypertrophy, and iron deficiency anemia. |
Acupuncture | Risk of forgoing conventional medical care | Risk of forgoing conventional medical care
As with other alternative medicines, unethical or naรฏve practitioners may induce patients to exhaust financial resources by pursuing ineffective treatment. Professional ethics codes set by accrediting organizations such as the National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine require practitioners to make "timely referrals to other health care professionals as may be appropriate." Stephen Barrett states that there is a "risk that an acupuncturist whose approach to diagnosis is not based on scientific concepts will fail to diagnose a dangerous condition". |
Acupuncture | Conceptual basis | Conceptual basis |
Acupuncture | Traditional | Traditional
thumb|right|Old Chinese medical chart of acupuncture meridians
Acupuncture is a substantial part of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Early acupuncture beliefs relied on concepts that are common in TCM, such as a life force energy called qi.Aung & Chen Qi was believed to flow from the body's primary organs (zang-fu organs) to the "superficial" body tissues of the skin, muscles, tendons, bones, and joints, through channels called meridians."๏ผไธ๏ผๅไบ็ป่ ...๏ผๅ๏ผๅฅ็ปๅ
ซ่ ..." [(3.) The Twelve Vessels ... (4.) The Extraordinary Eight Vessels ...] as seen at Acupuncture points where needles are inserted are mainly (but not always) found at locations along the meridians. Acupuncture points not found along a meridian are called extraordinary points and those with no designated site are called points.Aung & Chen, 2007, p. 101.
In TCM, disease is generally perceived as a disharmony or imbalance in energies such as yin, yang, qi, xuฤ, zร ng-fว, meridians, and of the interaction between the body and the environment. Therapy is based on which "pattern of disharmony" can be identified. For example, some diseases are believed to be caused by meridians being invaded with an excess of wind, cold, and damp. In order to determine which pattern is at hand, practitioners examine things like the color and shape of the tongue, the relative strength of pulse-points, the smell of the breath, the quality of breathing, or the sound of the voice. TCM and its concept of disease does not strongly differentiate between the cause and effect of symptoms. |
Acupuncture | Purported scientific basis | Purported scientific basis
thumb|right|Modern acupuncture model
Many within the scientific community consider acupuncture to be quackery and pseudoscience, having no effect other than as "theatrical placebo". David Gorski has argued that of all forms of quackery, acupuncture has perhaps gained most acceptance among physicians and institutions. Academics Massimo Pigliucci and Maarten Boudry describe acupuncture as a "borderlands science" lying between science and pseudoscience.
A 2015 paper by several professors states that acupuncture has "no credible or respectable place in medicine", because it is often considered to be pseudoscience or quackery. |
Acupuncture | Rationalizations of traditional medicine | Rationalizations of traditional medicine
It is a generally held belief within the acupuncture community that acupuncture points and meridians structures are special conduits for electrical signals, but no research has established any consistent anatomical structure or function for either acupuncture points or meridians. Human tests to determine whether electrical continuity was significantly different near meridians than other places in the body have been inconclusive. Scientific research has not supported the existence of qi, meridians, or yin and yang. A Nature editorial described TCM as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action. Quackwatch states that "TCM theory and practice are not based upon the body of knowledge related to health, disease, and health care that has been widely accepted by the scientific community. TCM practitioners disagree among themselves about how to diagnose patients and which treatments should go with which diagnoses. Even if they could agree, the TCM theories are so nebulous that no amount of scientific study will enable TCM to offer rational care." Academic discussions of acupuncture still make reference to pseudoscientific concepts such as qi and meridians despite the lack of scientific evidence. |
Acupuncture | Release of endorphins or adenosine | Release of endorphins or adenosine
Some modern practitioners support the use of acupuncture to treat pain, but have abandoned the use of qi, meridians, yin, yang and other mystical energies as an explanatory frameworks. The use of qi as an explanatory framework has been decreasing in China, even as it becomes more prominent during discussions of acupuncture in the US.
Many acupuncturists attribute pain relief to the release of endorphins when needles penetrate, but no longer support the idea that acupuncture can affect a disease. Some studies suggest acupuncture causes a series of events within the central nervous system, and that it is possible to inhibit acupuncture's analgesic effects with the opioid antagonist naloxone. Mechanical deformation of the skin by acupuncture needles appears to result in the release of adenosine. The anti-nociceptive effect of acupuncture may be mediated by the adenosine A1 receptor. A 2014 review in Nature Reviews Cancer analyzed mouse studies that suggested acupuncture relieves pain via the local release of adenosine, which then triggered nearby A1 receptors. The review found that in those studies, because acupuncture "caused more tissue damage and inflammation relative to the size of the animal in mice than in humans, such studies unnecessarily muddled a finding that local inflammation can result in the local release of adenosine with analgesic effect." |
Acupuncture | History | History |
Acupuncture | Origins | Origins
thumb|right|Acupuncture chart from the Ming dynasty ()
Acupuncture, along with moxibustion, is one of the oldest practices of traditional Chinese medicine. Most historians believe the practice began in China, though there are some conflicting narratives on when it originated. Academics David Ramey and Paul Buell said the exact date acupuncture was founded depends on the extent to which dating of ancient texts can be trusted and the interpretation of what constitutes acupuncture.
Acupressure therapy was prevalent in India. Once Buddhism spread to China, the acupressure therapy was also integrated into common medical practice in China and it came to be known as acupuncture. The major points of Indian acupressure and Chinese acupuncture are similar to each other.
According to an article in Rheumatology, the first documentation of an "organized system of diagnosis and treatment" for acupuncture was in Inner Classic of Huang Di (Huangdi Neijing) from about 100ย BC. Gold and silver needles found in the tomb of Liu Sheng from around 100ย BC are believed to be the earliest archaeological evidence of acupuncture, though it is unclear if that was their purpose. According to Plinio Prioreschi, the earliest known historical record of acupuncture is the Shiji ("Records of the Grand Historian"), written by a historian around 100ย BC. It is believed that this text was documenting what was established practice at that time. |
Acupuncture | Alternative theories | Alternative theories
The 5,000-year-old mummified body of รtzi the Iceman was found with 15 groups of tattoos, many of which were located at points on the body where acupuncture needles are used for abdominal or lower back problems. Evidence from the body suggests รtzi had these conditions. This has been cited as evidence that practices similar to acupuncture may have been practised elsewhere in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age; however, The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine calls this theory "speculative". It is considered unlikely that acupuncture was practised before 2000ย BC.
Acupuncture may have been practised during the Neolithic era, near the end of the Stone Age, using sharpened stones called Bian shi. Many Chinese texts from later eras refer to sharp stones called "plen", which means "stone probe", that may have been used for acupuncture purposes. The ancient Chinese medical text, Huangdi Neijing, indicates that sharp stones were believed at-the-time to cure illnesses at or near the body's surface, perhaps because of the short depth a stone could penetrate. However, it is more likely that stones were used for other medical purposes, such as puncturing a growth to drain its pus. The Mawangdui texts, which are believed to be from the 2nd century BC, mention the use of pointed stones to open abscesses, and moxibustion, but not for acupuncture. It is also speculated that these stones may have been used for bloodletting, due to the ancient Chinese belief that illnesses were caused by demons within the body that could be killed or released. It is likely bloodletting was an antecedent to acupuncture.
According to historians Lu Gwei-djen and Joseph Needham, there is substantial evidence that acupuncture may have begun around 600ย BC. Some hieroglyphs and pictographs from that era suggests acupuncture and moxibustion were practised. However, historians Lu and Needham said it was unlikely a needle could be made out of the materials available in China during this time period. It is possible that bronze was used for early acupuncture needles. Tin, copper, gold and silver are also possibilities, though they are considered less likely, or to have been used in fewer cases. If acupuncture was practised during the Shang dynasty (1766 to 1122ย BC), organic materials like thorns, sharpened bones, or bamboo may have been used. Once methods for producing steel were discovered, it would replace all other materials, since it could be used to create a very fine, but sturdy needle. Lu and Needham noted that all the ancient materials that could have been used for acupuncture and which often produce archaeological evidence, such as sharpened bones, bamboo or stones, were also used for other purposes. An article in Rheumatology said that the absence of any mention of acupuncture in documents found in the tomb of Mawangdui from 198ย BC suggest that acupuncture was not practised by that time. |
Acupuncture | Belief systems | Belief systems
Several different and sometimes conflicting belief systems emerged regarding acupuncture. This may have been the result of competing schools of thought. Some ancient texts referred to using acupuncture to cause bleeding, while others mixed the ideas of blood-letting and spiritual ch'i energy. Over time, the focus shifted from blood to the concept of puncturing specific points on the body, and eventually to balancing Yin and Yang energies as well. According to David Ramey, no single "method or theory" was ever predominantly adopted as the standard. At the time, scientific knowledge of medicine was not yet developed, especially because in China dissection of the deceased was forbidden, preventing the development of basic anatomical knowledge.
It is not certain when specific acupuncture points were introduced, but the autobiography of Bian Que from around 400โ500ย BC references inserting needles at designated areas. Bian Que believed there was a single acupuncture point at the top of one's skull that he called the point "of the hundred meetings." Texts dated to be from 156 to 186ย BC document early beliefs in channels of life force energy called meridians that would later be an element in early acupuncture beliefs.
Ramey and Buell said the "practice and theoretical underpinnings" of modern acupuncture were introduced in The Yellow Emperor's Classic (Huangdi Neijing) around 100ย BC. It introduced the concept of using acupuncture to manipulate the flow of life energy (qi) in a network of meridian (channels) in the body. The network concept was made up of acu-tracts, such as a line down the arms, where it said acupoints were located. Some of the sites acupuncturists use needles at today still have the same names as those given to them by the Yellow Emperor's Classic. Numerous additional documents were published over the centuries introducing new acupoints. By the 4th century AD, most of the acupuncture sites in use today had been named and identified. |
Acupuncture | Early development in China | Early development in China |
Acupuncture | Establishment and growth | Establishment and growth
In the first half of the 1st century AD, acupuncturists began promoting the belief that acupuncture's effectiveness was influenced by the time of day or night, the lunar cycle, and the season. The 'science of the yin-yang cycles' ( ) was a set of beliefs that curing diseases relied on the alignment of both heavenly () and earthly () forces that were attuned to cycles like that of the sun and moon. There were several different belief systems that relied on a number of celestial and earthly bodies or elements that rotated and only became aligned at certain times. According to Needham and Lu, these "arbitrary predictions" were depicted by acupuncturists in complex charts and through a set of special terminology.
Acupuncture needles during this period were much thicker than most modern ones and often resulted in infection. Infection is caused by a lack of sterilization, but at that time it was believed to be caused by use of the wrong needle, or needling in the wrong place, or at the wrong time. Later, many needles were heated in boiling water, or in a flame. Sometimes needles were used while they were still hot, creating a cauterizing effect at the injection site. Nine needles were recommended in the Great Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion from 1601, which may have been because of an ancient Chinese belief that nine was a magic number.
Other belief systems were based on the idea that the human body operated on a rhythm and acupuncture had to be applied at the right point in the rhythm to be effective. In some cases a lack of balance between Yin and Yang were believed to be the cause of disease.
In the 1st century AD, many of the first books about acupuncture were published and recognized acupuncturist experts began to emerge. The Zhen Jiu Jia Yi Jing, which was published in the mid-3rd century, became the oldest acupuncture book that is still in existence in the modern era. Other books like the Yu Gui Zhen Jing, written by the Director of Medical Services for China, were also influential during this period, but were not preserved. In the mid 7th century, Sun Simiao published acupuncture-related diagrams and charts that established standardized methods for finding acupuncture sites on people of different sizes and categorized acupuncture sites in a set of modules.
Acupuncture became more established in China as improvements in paper led to the publication of more acupuncture books. The Imperial Medical Service and the Imperial Medical College, which both supported acupuncture, became more established and created medical colleges in every province. The public was also exposed to stories about royal figures being cured of their diseases by prominent acupuncturists. By time the Great Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion was published during the Ming dynasty (1368โ1644ย AD), most of the acupuncture practices used in the modern era had been established. |
Acupuncture | Decline | Decline
By the end of the Song dynasty (1279ย AD), acupuncture had lost much of its status in China. It became rarer in the following centuries, and was associated with less prestigious professions like alchemy, shamanism, midwifery and moxibustion. Additionally, by the 18th century, scientific rationality was becoming more popular than traditional superstitious beliefs. By 1757 a book documenting the history of Chinese medicine called acupuncture a "lost art". Its decline was attributed in part to the popularity of prescriptions and medications, as well as its association with the lower classes.
In 1822, the Chinese Emperor signed a decree excluding the practice of acupuncture from the Imperial Medical Institute. He said it was unfit for practice by gentlemen-scholars. In China acupuncture was increasingly associated with lower-class, illiterate practitioners. It was restored for a time, but banned again in 1929 in favor of science-based medicine. Although acupuncture declined in China during this time period, it was also growing in popularity in other countries. |
Acupuncture | International expansion | International expansion
thumb|Acupuncture chart from Shisi jing fahui (Expression of the Fourteen Meridians) written by Hua Shou (, Ming dynasty). Japanese reprint by Suharaya Heisuke (Edo, 1. year Kyลhล = 1716).
Korea is believed to be the first country in Asia that acupuncture spread to outside of China. Within Korea there is a legend that acupuncture was developed by emperor Dangun, though it is more likely to have been brought into Korea from a Chinese colonial prefecture in 514ย AD. Acupuncture use was commonplace in Korea by the 6th century. It spread to Vietnam in the 8th and 9th centuries. As Vietnam began trading with Japan and China around the 9th century, it was influenced by their acupuncture practices as well. China and Korea sent "medical missionaries" that spread traditional Chinese medicine to Japan, starting around 219ย AD. In 553, several Korean and Chinese citizens were appointed to re-organize medical education in Japan and they incorporated acupuncture as part of that system. Japan later sent students back to China and established acupuncture as one of five divisions of the Chinese State Medical Administration System.
Acupuncture began to spread to Europe in the second half of the 17th century. Around this time the surgeon-general of the Dutch East India Company met Japanese and Chinese acupuncture practitioners and later encouraged Europeans to further investigate it. He published the first in-depth description of acupuncture for the European audience and created the term "acupuncture" in his 1683 work De Acupunctura. France was an early adopter among the West due to the influence of Jesuit missionaries, who brought the practice to French clinics in the 16th century. The French doctor Louis Berlioz (the father of the composer Hector Berlioz) is usually credited with being the first to experiment with the procedure in Europe in 1810, before publishing his findings in 1816.
By the 19th century, acupuncture had become commonplace in many areas of the world. Americans and Britons began showing interest in acupuncture in the early 19th century, although interest waned by mid-century. Western practitioners abandoned acupuncture's traditional beliefs in spiritual energy, pulse diagnosis, and the cycles of the moon, sun or the body's rhythm. Diagrams of the flow of spiritual energy, for example, conflicted with the West's own anatomical diagrams. It adopted a new set of ideas for acupuncture based on tapping needles into nerves. In Europe it was speculated that acupuncture may allow or prevent the flow of electricity in the body, as electrical pulses were found to make a frog's leg twitch after death.
The West eventually created a belief system based on Travell trigger points that were believed to inhibit pain. They were in the same locations as China's spiritually identified acupuncture points, but under a different nomenclature. The first elaborate Western treatise on acupuncture was published in 1683 by Willem ten Rhijne. |
Acupuncture | Modern era | Modern era
thumb| An ancient Acupuncture statue at the lobby of the Emperor's College clinic, California
In China, the popularity of acupuncture rebounded in 1949 when Mao Zedong took power and sought to unite China behind traditional cultural values. It was also during this time that many Eastern medical practices were consolidated under the name traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).
New practices were adopted in the 20th century, such as using a cluster of needles, electrified needles, or leaving needles inserted for up to a week. A lot of emphasis developed on using acupuncture on the ear. Acupuncture research organizations such as the International Society of Acupuncture were founded in the 1940s and 1950s and acupuncture services became available in modern hospitals. China, where acupuncture was believed to have originated, was increasingly influenced by Western medicine. Meanwhile, acupuncture grew in popularity in the US. The US Congress created the Office of Alternative Medicine in 1992 and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) declared support for acupuncture for some conditions in November 1997. In 1999, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine was created within the NIH. Acupuncture became the most popular alternative medicine in the US.
Politicians from the Chinese Communist Party said acupuncture was superstitious and conflicted with the party's commitment to science. Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong later reversed this position, arguing that the practice was based on scientific principles. During the Cultural Revolution, disbelief in acupuncture anesthesia was subjected to ruthless political repression.
In 1971, New York Times reporter James Reston published an article on his acupuncture experiences in China, which led to more investigation of and support for acupuncture. The US President Richard Nixon visited China in 1972. During one part of the visit, the delegation was shown a patient undergoing major surgery while fully awake, ostensibly receiving acupuncture rather than anesthesia. Later it was found that the patients selected for the surgery had both a high pain tolerance and received heavy indoctrination before the operation; these demonstration cases were also frequently receiving morphine surreptitiously through an intravenous drip that observers were told contained only fluids and nutrients. One patient receiving open heart surgery while awake was ultimately found to have received a combination of three powerful sedatives as well as large injections of a local anesthetic into the wound. After the National Institute of Health expressed support for acupuncture for a limited number of conditions, adoption in the US grew further. In 1972 the first legal acupuncture center in the US was established in Washington DC and in 1973 the American Internal Revenue Service allowed acupuncture to be deducted as a medical expense.
In 2006, a BBC documentary Alternative Medicine filmed a patient undergoing open heart surgery allegedly under acupuncture-induced anesthesia. It was later revealed that the patient had been given a cocktail of anesthetics.
In 2010, UNESCO inscribed "acupuncture and moxibustion of traditional Chinese medicine" on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List following China's nomination. |
Acupuncture | Adoption | Adoption
Acupuncture is most heavily practiced in China and is popular in the US, Australia, and Europe. In Switzerland, acupuncture has become the most frequently used alternative medicine since 2004. In the United Kingdom, a total of 4 million acupuncture treatments were administered in 2009. Acupuncture is used in most pain clinics and hospices in the UK. An estimated 1 in 10 adults in Australia used acupuncture in 2004. In Japan, it is estimated that 25 percent of the population will try acupuncture at some point, though in most cases it is not covered by public health insurance. Users of acupuncture in Japan are more likely to be elderly and to have a limited education. Approximately half of users surveyed indicated a likelihood to seek such remedies in the future, while 37% did not. Less than one percent of the US population reported having used acupuncture in the early 1990s. By the early 2010s, more than 14 million Americans reported having used acupuncture as part of their health care.
In the US, acupuncture is increasingly () used at academic medical centers, and is usually offered through CAM centers or anesthesia and pain management services. Examples include those at Harvard University, Stanford University, Johns Hopkins University, and UCLA. CDC clinical practice guidelines from 2022 list acupuncture among the types of complementary and alternative medicines physicians should consider in preference to opioid prescription for certain kinds of pain.
The use of acupuncture in Germany increased by 20% in 2007, after the German acupuncture trials supported its efficacy for certain uses. In 2011, there were more than one million users, and insurance companies have estimated that two-thirds of German users are women. As a result of the trials, German public health insurers began to cover acupuncture for chronic low back pain and osteoarthritis of the knee, but not tension headache or migraine. This decision was based in part on socio-political reasons. Some insurers in Germany chose to stop reimbursement of acupuncture because of the trials. For other conditions, insurers in Germany were not convinced that acupuncture had adequate benefits over usual care or sham treatments. Highlighting the results of the placebo group, researchers refused to accept a placebo therapy as efficient. |
Acupuncture | Regulation | Regulation
There are various government and trade association regulatory bodies for acupuncture in the United Kingdom, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Canada, and in European countries and elsewhere. The World Health Organization recommends that an acupuncturist receive 200 hours of specialized training if they are a physician and 2,500 hours for non-physicians before being licensed or certified; many governments have adopted similar standards.
In Hong Kong, the practice of acupuncture is regulated by the Chinese Medicine Council, which was formed in 1999 by the Legislative Council. It includes a licensing exam, registration, and degree courses approved by the board. Canada has acupuncture licensing programs in the provinces of British Columbia, Ontario, Alberta and Quebec; standards set by the Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture Association of Canada are used in provinces without government regulation. Regulation in the US began in the 1970s in California, which was eventually followed by every state but Wyoming and Idaho. Licensing requirements vary greatly from state to state. The needles used in acupuncture are regulated in the US by the Food and Drug Administration. In some states acupuncture is regulated by a board of medical examiners, while in others by the board of licensing, health or education.
In Japan, acupuncturists are licensed by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare after passing an examination and graduating from a technical school or university. In Australia, the Chinese Medicine Board of Australia regulates acupuncture, among other Chinese medical traditions, and restricts the use of titles like 'acupuncturist' to registered practitioners only. The practice of Acupuncture in New Zealand in 1990 acupuncture was included into the Governmental Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) Act. This inclusion granted qualified and professionally registered acupuncturists the ability to provide subsidised care and treatment to citizens, residents, and temporary visitors for work- or sports-related injuries that occurred within the country of New Zealand. The two bodies for the regulation of acupuncture and attainment of ACC treatment provider status in New Zealand are Acupuncture NZ, and The New Zealand Acupuncture Standards Authority. At least 28 countries in Europe have professional associations for acupuncturists. In France, the Acadรฉmie Nationale de Mรฉdecine (National Academy of Medicine) has regulated acupuncture since 1955. |
Acupuncture | See also | See also |
Acupuncture | Notes | Notes |
Acupuncture | References | References |
Acupuncture | Bibliography | Bibliography
|
Acupuncture | Further reading | Further reading
FRONTLINE: The Alternative Fix - "What is acupuncture?" (4 November 2003). PBS Video.
Category:Alternative medicine
Category:Chinese inventions
Category:Energy therapies
Category:Pain management
Category:Pseudoscience
Category:Traditional Chinese medicine |
Acupuncture | Table of Content | Short description, Clinical practice, Needles, Needling technique, Insertion, ''{{Lang, Related practices, Efficacy, Research methodology and challenges, Sham acupuncture and research, Publication bias, Safety, Adverse events, English-language, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese-language, Children and pregnancy, Moxibustion and cupping, Risk of forgoing conventional medical care, Conceptual basis, Traditional, Purported scientific basis, Rationalizations of traditional medicine, Release of endorphins or adenosine, History, Origins, Alternative theories, Belief systems, Early development in China, Establishment and growth, Decline, International expansion, Modern era, Adoption, Regulation, See also, Notes, References, Bibliography, Further reading |
Adder (disambiguation) | wiktionary | Vipera berus, the common European adder, is a snake found in Europe and northern Asia.
Adder may also refer to:
AA-12 Adder, a Russian air-to-air missile
Adder (electronics), an electronic circuit designed to do addition
Adder Technology, a manufacturing company
Armstrong Siddeley Adder, a late 1940s British turbojet engine
Blackadder, a series of BBC sitcoms
Golden Axe: The Revenge of Death Adder, a video game
HMS Adder, any of seven ships of the Royal Navy
Any of several groups of venomous snakes
USS Adder, a US submarine |
Adder (disambiguation) | See also | See also
Addition, a mathematical operation |
Adder (disambiguation) | Table of Content | wiktionary, See also |
Aeneas | short description | thumb|Aeneas flees burning Troy, Federico Barocci, 1598 (Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy)
In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas ( , ; from ) was a Trojan hero, the son of the Trojan prince Anchises and the Greek goddess Aphrodite (equivalent to the Roman Venus). His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy (both being grandsons of Ilus, founder of Troy), making Aeneas a second cousin to Priam's children (such as Hector and Paris). He is a minor character in Greek mythology and is mentioned in Homer's Iliad. Aeneas receives full treatment in Roman mythology, most extensively in Virgil's Aeneid, where he is cast as an ancestor of Romulus and Remus. He became the first true hero of Rome. Snorri Sturluson identifies him with the Norse god Vรญรฐarr of the รsir.The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson Translated by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur [1916] Prologue II at Internet Sacred Texts Archive. Accessed 11/14/17 |
Aeneas | Etymology | Etymology
thumb|Coinage of Aenea, with portrait of Aeneas. c. 510โ480 BCE.
Aeneas is the Romanization of the hero's original Greek name (Aineรญas). Aineรญas is first introduced in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite when Aphrodite gives him his name from the adjective
(,
"terrible"), for the "terrible grief" () he has caused her by being born a mortal who will age and die."His name will be Aineias [Aeneas], since it was an unspeakable [ainos] akhos that took hold of me โ grief that I had fallen into the bed of a mortal man." (Nagy 2001, 198โ99)Nagy, Gregory, trans. (2001) Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, edited by C. Duรฉ Hackney. Houston: University of Houston. It is a popular etymology for the name, apparently exploited by Homer in the Iliad.Andrew Faulkner, The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite: Introduction, Text, and Commentary (2008) p. 257 Later in the Medieval period there were writers who held that, because the Aeneid was written by a philosopher, it is meant to be read philosophically.Desmond, Marilynn (1994), Reading Dido: Gender, Textuality, and Medieval Aeneid. pp. 85โ86. As such, in the "natural order", the meaning of Aeneas' name combines Greek ("dweller") with ("body"), which becomes or "in-dweller"โi.e. as a god inhabiting a mortal body.John of Salisbury, Polycraticus 8.24โ25; Bernard Sylvestris of Tours, Commentum supra sex libros Eneidos Vergilii However, there is no certainty regarding the origin of his name. |
Aeneas | Epithets | Epithets
In imitation of the Iliad, Virgil borrows epithets of Homer, including: Anchisiades, magnanimum, magnus, heros, and bonus. Though he borrows many, Virgil gives Aeneas two epithets of his own, in the Aeneid: pater and pius. The epithets applied by Virgil are an example of an attitude different from that of Homer, for whilst Odysseus is ("wily"), Aeneas is described as ("pious"), which conveys a strong moral tone. The purpose of these epithets seems to enforce the notion of Aeneas' divine hand as father and founder of the Roman race, and their use seems circumstantial: when Aeneas is praying he refers to himself as pius, and is referred to as such by the author only when the character is acting on behalf of the gods to fulfill his divine mission. Likewise, Aeneas is called pater when acting in the interest of his men.Parry, Milman (1971), The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry, edited by Adam Parry. p. 169 |
Aeneas | Greek myth and epos | Greek myth and epos |
Aeneas | Homeric ''Hymn to Aphrodite'' | Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite
upright=1.5|Venus and Anchises by William Blake Richmond (1889 or 1890)|thumb
The story of the birth of Aeneas is told in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, one of the major Homeric Hymns. Aphrodite has caused Zeus the king of the Gods to fall in love with mortal women. In retaliation, Zeus decided to put a desire over her heart for the mortal Prince Anchises, who is tending his cattle among the hills near Mount Ida. When Aphrodite saw him, she was immediately smitten. She adorns herself as if for a wedding among the gods and appears before him. He is overcome by her beauty, believing that she is a goddess, but Aphrodite identifies herself as a Phrygian princess. After they make love, Aphrodite reveals her true identity to him and Anchises fears what might happen to him as a result of their liaison. Aphrodite assures him that he will be protected and tells him that she will bear him a son to be called Aeneas. However, she warns him that he must never tell anyone that he has lain with a goddess. When Aeneas is born, Aphrodite takes him to the nymphs of Mount Ida, instructing them to raise the child to age five, then take him to Anchises. According to other sources, Anchises later brags about his encounter with Aphrodite, and as a result is struck in the foot with a thunderbolt by Zeus. Thereafter he is lame in that foot, so that Aeneas has to carry him from the flames of Troy.Virgil, Aeneid |
Aeneas | Homer's ''Iliad'' | Homer's Iliad
thumb|left|Aeneas carrying Anchises, black-figured oinochoe, 520โ510ย BCE, Louvre (Fย 118)
Aeneas is a minor character in the Iliad, where he is twice saved from death by the gods as if for an as-yet-unknown destiny but is an honorable warrior in his own right. Having held back from the fighting, aggrieved with Priam because in spite of his brave deeds he was not given his due share of honor, he leads an attack against Idomeneus to recover the body of his brother-in-law Alcathous at the urging of Deiphobus. He is the leader of the Trojans' Dardanian allies, as well as a third cousin and principal lieutenant of Hector, son and heir of the Trojan king Priam.
Aeneas's mother Aphrodite frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield, and he is a favorite of the Sun God Apollo. Aphrodite and Apollo would frequently rescue Aeneas from combat with Diomedes of Argos, who nearly kills him, and carry him away to Pergamos for healing. Even the Sea God Poseidon, who usually favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue after he falls under the assault of Achilles, noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people.
Bruce Louden presents Aeneas as an archetype: The sole virtuous individual (or family) spared from general destruction, following the mytheme of Utnapishtim, Baucis and Philemon, Noah, and Lot. Pseudo-Apollodorus in his Bibliotheca explains that "...ย the Greeks [spared] him alone, on account of his piety." Heinrich Schliemann wrote that it seemed "extremely probable that, at the time of Homer's visit [to the Troad], the King of Troy declared that his race was descended in a direct line from รneas." |
Aeneas | Other sources | Other sources
The Roman mythographer Gaius Julius Hyginus ( โ CE 17) in his FabulaeHyginus, Fabulae 115. credits Aeneas with killing 28 enemies in the Trojan War. Aeneas also appears in the Trojan narratives attributed to Dares Phrygius and Dictys of Crete. |
Aeneas | Roman myth and literature | Roman myth and literature
thumb|Aeneas and Anchises
The history of Aeneas was continued by Roman authors. One influential source was the account of Rome's founding in Cato the Elder's Origines. The Aeneas legend was well known in Virgil's day and appeared in various historical works, including the Roman Antiquities of the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus (relying on Marcus Terentius Varro), Ab Urbe Condita by Livy (probably dependent on Quintus Fabius Pictor, fl. 200 BCE), and Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus (now extant only in an epitome by Justin). |
Aeneas | Virgil's ''Aeneid'' | Virgil's Aeneid
thumb|Venus as Huntress Appears to Aeneas, by Pietro da Cortona
The Aeneid which is 12 books of the legendary foundation of Lavinium which explains that Aeneas is one of the few Trojans who were not killed or enslaved when Troy fell. Aeneas, after being commanded by the gods to flee, gathered a group, collectively known as the Aeneads, who then traveled to Italy and became progenitors of the Romans. The Aeneads included Aeneas's trumpeter Misenus, his father Anchises, his friends Achates, Sergestus, and Acmon, the healer Iapyx, the helmsman Palinurus, and his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus, Julus, or Ascanius Julius). He carried with him the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to Italy.
Several attempts to find a new home failed; one such stop was on Sicily, where in Drepanum, on the island's western coast, his father, Anchises, died peacefully.
thumb|right|Aeneas tells Dido about the fall of Troy, by Pierre-Narcisse Guรฉrin
After a brief but fierce storm sent up against the group at Juno's request, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at Carthage after six years of wanderings. Aeneas had a year-long affair with the Carthaginian queen Dido (also known as Elissa), who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. A marriage of sorts was arranged between Dido and Aeneas at the instigation of Juno, who was told that her favorite city would eventually be defeated by the Trojans' descendants. Aeneas's mother Venus (the Roman adaptation of Aphrodite) realized that her son and his company needed a temporary respite to reinforce themselves for the journey to come. However, the messenger god Mercury (the adaptation of Hermes) was sent by Jupiter (who was Zeus in this version) and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, compelling him to leave secretly. When Dido learned of this, she uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Rome, an enmity that would culminate in the Punic Wars. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself with the same sword she gave Aeneas when they first met.
After the sojourn in Carthage, the Trojans returned to Sicily where Aeneas organized funeral games to honor his father, who had died a year before. The company traveled on and landed on the western coast of Italy. Aeneas descended into the underworld where he met Dido (who turned away from him to return to her husband) and his father, who showed him the future of his descendants and thus the history of Rome.
thumb|left|Aeneas defeats Turnus, by Luca Giordano, 1634โ1705. The genius of Aeneas is shown ascendant, looking into the light of the future, while that of Turnus is setting, shrouded in darkness
Latinus, king of the Latins, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled Trojans and let them reorganize their lives in Latium. His daughter Lavinia had been promised to Turnus, king of the Rutuli, but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land โ namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of Juno, who was aligned with King Mezentius of the Etruscans and Queen Amata of the Latins. Aeneas's forces prevailed. Turnus was killed, and Virgil's account ends abruptly. |
Aeneas | Other sources | Other sources
thumb|the twin sons Romulus and Remus suckling off of a she-wolf
The rest of Aeneas's biography is gleaned from other ancient sources, including Livy and Ovid's Metamorphoses. According to Livy, Aeneas was victorious, but Latinus died in the war. Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, Anna Perenna, who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. After Aeneas's death, Venus asked Jupiter to make her son immortal. Jupiter agreed. The river god Numicus cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and Venus anointed him with ambrosia and nectar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god Jupiter Indiges.Titus Livius. The History of Rome (Rev. Canon Roberts, trans.), Vol. I, J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London, 1905 It's also been stated that Prince Aeneas is the ancestor to the founders of Rome, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus; the two orphan boys who are seen suckling from a she-wolf. |
Aeneas | English mythology | English mythology
The Brut Chronicle tells the story of Britain's settling by Brutus of Troy, son of Aeneas. Belief in this story was once widespread, but by the time of the Renaissance had begun to fade. |
Aeneas | Further reading | Further reading
One surviving version of the Brut Chronicle is a late Middle Ages manuscript, known as the St Albans Chronicle. |
Aeneas | Medieval accounts | Medieval accounts
Snorri Sturlason, in the Prologue of the Prose Edda, tells of the world as parted in three continents: Africa, Asia and the third part called Europe or Enea.Edda Snorra Sturlusonar GUรNI JรNSSON bjรณ til prentunar. Prologus 2 Snorri also tells of a Trojan named Munon (or Mennon), who marries the daughter of the High King (Yfirkonungr) Priam called Troan and travels to distant lands, marries the Sybil and got a son, Tror, who, as Snorri tells, is identical to Thor. This tale resembles some episodes of the Aeneid.The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson Translated by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur [1916] Prologue III at Internet Sacred Texts Archive. Accessed November 14, 2017
Continuations of Trojan matter in the Middle Ages had their effects on the character of Aeneas as well. The 12th-century French Roman d'Enรฉas addresses Aeneas's sexuality. Though Virgil appears to deflect all homoeroticism onto Nisus and Euryalus, making his Aeneas a purely heterosexual character, in the Middle Ages there was at least a suspicion of homoeroticism in Aeneas. The Roman d'Enรฉas addresses that charge, when Queen Amata opposes Aeneas's marrying Lavinia.
Medieval interpretations of Aeneas were greatly influenced by both Virgil and other Latin sources. Specifically, the accounts by Dares and Dictys, which were reworked by the 13th-century Italian writer Guido delle Colonne (in Historia destructionis Troiae), colored many later readings. From Guido, for instance, the Pearl Poet and other English writers get the suggestion that Aeneas's safe departure from Troy with his possessions and family was a reward for treason, for which he was chastised by Hecuba. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th century) the Pearl Poet, like many other English writers, employed Aeneas to establish a genealogy for the foundation of Britain, and explains that Aeneas was "impeached for his perfidy, proven most true" (line 4). In Marie Boroff's translation, edited by Laura Howes, the treacherous knight of line 3 is identified as Antenor, incorrectly, as Tolkien argues. |
Aeneas | Family and legendary descendants | Family and legendary descendants
thumb|right|Aeneas and the god Tiber, by Bartolomeo Pinelli
Aeneas had an extensive family tree. His wet-nurse was Caieta,Vergil Aeneid 7.1โ4 and he is the father of Ascanius with Creusa, and of Silvius with Lavinia. Ascanius, also known as Iulus (or Julius),Vergil, Aeneid 1983 1.267 founded Alba Longa and was the first in a long series of kings. According to the mythology used by Virgil in the Aeneid, Romulus and Remus were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother Rhea Silvia, making Aeneas the progenitor of the Roman people.C.F. L'Homond Selections from Viri Romae p.1 Some early sources call him their father or grandfather,Romulus by Plutarch but once the dates of the fall of Troy (1184 BCE) and the founding of Rome (753 BCE) became accepted, authors added generations between them. The Julian family of Rome, most notably Julius Cรฆsar and Augustus, traced their lineage to Ascanius and Aeneas,Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities I.70.4 thus to the goddess Venus. Through the Julians, the Palemonids make this claim. The legendary kings of Britain โ including King Arthur โ trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, Brutus.Charles Selby Events to be Remembered in the History of Britain pp. 1โ2 |
Aeneas | Character and appearance | Character and appearance
thumb|upright|Dido and Aeneas, from a Roman fresco, Pompeian Third Style (10 BCE โ 45 CE), Pompeii, Italy
Aeneas's consistent epithet in Virgil and other Latin authors is pius, a term that connotes reverence toward the gods and familial dutifulness. There is significant scholarly debate, however, over the degree to which this epithet is genuine within the poem, and to what extent its deployment by Virgil is sarcastic.
In the Aeneid, Aeneas is described as strong and handsome, but neither his hair colour nor complexion are described.Mark Griffith, "What Does Aeneas Look like?", Classical Philology, Vol. 80, No. 4 (Oct., 1985), p. 309. . . In late antiquity however sources add further physical descriptions. The De excidio Troiae of Dares Phrygius describes Aeneas as "auburn-haired, stocky, eloquent, courteous, prudent, pious, and charming. His eyes were black and twinkling".Dares Phrygius, History of the Fall of Troy 12 There is also a brief physical description found in the 6th-century John Malalas' Chronographia: "Aeneas: short, fat, with a good chest, powerful, with a ruddy complexion, a broad face, a good nose, fair skin, bald on the forehead, a good beard, grey eyes."Lowden, John. Illuminated prophet books: a study of Byzantine manuscripts of the major and minor prophets Penn State Press, 1988, p. 62Malalas, Chronography 5.106 |
Aeneas | Modern portrayals | Modern portrayals |
Aeneas | Literature | Literature
Aeneas appears as a character in William Shakespeare's play Troilus and Cressida, set during the Trojan War.
Aeneas is a major character in Christopher Marlowe's play Dido, Queen of Carthage.
Aeneas and Dido are the main characters of a 17th-century broadside ballad called "The Wandering Prince of Troy". The ballad ultimately alters Aeneas's fate from traveling on years after Dido's death to joining her as a spirit soon after her suicide.English Broadside Ballad Archive, ballad facsimile and full text
In modern literature, Aeneas is the speaker in two poems by Allen Tate, "Aeneas at Washington" and "Aeneas at New York". He is a main character in Ursula K. Le Guin's Lavinia, a re-telling of the last six books of the Aeneid told from the point of view of Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus of Latium.
Aeneas appears in David Gemmell's Troy series as a main heroic character who goes by the name Helikaon.
In Rick Riordan's book series The Heroes of Olympus, Aeneas is regarded as the first Roman demigod, son of Venus rather than Aphrodite.
Will Adams' novel City of the Lost assumes that much of the information provided by Virgil is mistaken, and that the true Aeneas and Dido did not meet and love in Carthage but in a Phoenician colony at Cyprus, on the site of the modern Famagusta. Their tale is interspersed with that of modern activists who, while striving to stop an ambitious Turkish Army general trying to stage a coup, accidentally discover the hidden ruins of Dido's palace. |
Aeneas | Opera, film and other media | Opera, film and other media
thumb|upright=1.25|Lea Desandre performs an aria from Purcell's Dido and Aeneas with Les Arts Florissants in 2020
Aeneas is a title character in Henry Purcell's opera Dido and Aeneas (), and Jakob Greber's (Aeneas in Carthage) (1711), and one of the principal roles in Hector Berlioz' opera Les Troyens (), as well as in Metastasio's immensely popularWilliam Fitzgerald "Vergil in Music" in
"A Companion to Vergil's Aeneid and its Tradition" Joseph Farrell, Michael C. J. Putnam eds, p.344 : "Metastasio's Didone Abbandonata was set over eighty times in the period between 1724 and 1824" opera libretto Didone abbandonata. Canadian composer James Rolfe composed his opera Aeneas and Dido (2007; to a libretto by Andrรฉ Alexis) as a companion piece to Purcell's opera.
Despite its many dramatic elements, Aeneas's story has generated little interest from the film industry. Ronald Lewis portrayed Aeneas in Helen of Troy, directed by Robert Wise, as a supporting character, who is a member of the Trojan Royal family, and a close and loyal friend to Paris, and escapes at the end of the film. Portrayed by Steve Reeves, he was the main character in the 1961 sword and sandal film Guerra di Troia (The Trojan War). Reeves reprised the role the following year in the film The Avenger, about Aeneas's arrival in Latium and his conflicts with local tribes as he tries to settle his fellow Trojan refugees there.
Giulio Brogi, portrayed as Aeneas in the 1971 Italian TV miniseries series called Eneide, which gives the whole story of the Aeneid, from Aeneas escape from to Troy, to his meeting of Dido, his arrival in Italy, and his duel with Turnus.
The most recent cinematic portrayal of Aeneas was in the film Troy, in which he appears as a youth charged by Paris to protect the Trojan refugees, and to continue the ideals of the city and its people. Paris gives Aeneas Priam's sword, in order to give legitimacy and continuity to the royal line of Troy โ and lay the foundations of Roman culture. In this film, he is not a member of the royal family and does not appear to fight in the war.
In the role-playing game Vampire: The Requiem by White Wolf Game Studios, Aeneas figures as one of the mythical founders of the Ventrue Clan.
in the action game Warriors: Legends of Troy, Aeneas is a playable character. The game ends with him and the Aeneans fleeing Troy's destruction and, spurned by the words of a prophetess thought crazed, goes to a new country (Italy) where he will start an empire greater than Greece and Troy combined that shall rule the world for 1000 years, never to be outdone in the tale of men (the Roman Empire).
In the 2018 TV miniseries Troy: Fall of a City, Aeneas is portrayed by Alfred Enoch. He also featured as an Epic Fighter of the Dardania faction in the Total War Saga: Troy in 2020. |
Aeneas | Depictions in art | Depictions in art
Scenes depicting Aeneas, especially from the Aeneid, have been the focus of study for centuries. They have been the frequent subject of art and literature since their debut in the 1st century. |
Aeneas | Villa Valmarana | Villa Valmarana
The artist Giovanni Battista Tiepolo was commissioned by Gaetano Valmarana in 1757 to fresco several rooms in the Villa Valmarana, the family villa situated outside Vicenza. Tiepolo decorated the palazzina with scenes from epics such as Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid.Michael Collins, Elise K. Kirk ed. Opera and Vivaldi p. 150
thumb|upright|Aeneas Introducing Cupid Dressed as Ascanius to Dido, by Tiepolo (1757).thumb|upright|Venus Appearing to Aeneas on the Shores of Carthage, by Tiepolo (1757).thumb|upright|Mercury Appearing to Aeneas, by Tiepolo (1757).thumb|upright|Venus and Vulcan, by Tiepolo (between 1762 and 1766). |
Aeneas | Aeneas flees Troy | Aeneas flees Troy
thumb|Flight of Aeneas from Troy, by Girolamo Genga (between 1507 and 1510).thumb|Aeneas and his Father Fleeing Troy, by Simon Vouet (c. 1635).thumb|Aeneas & Anchises, by Pierre Lepautre (c. 1697).thumb|Aeneas fleeing from Troy, by Pompeo Batoni (c. 1750). |
Aeneas | Aeneas with Dido | Aeneas with Dido
thumb|Dido and Aeneas, by Rutilio Manetti (c. 1630)thumb|The Meeting of Dido and Aeneas, by Nathaniel Dance-Holland (1766)thumb| Landscape with Dido and Aeneas, by Thomas Jones (1769)thumb|Dido meeting Aeneas, by Johann Heinrich the Elder Tischbein (3 January 1780) |
Aeneas | Family tree | Family tree |
Aeneas | See also | See also
Cumaean Sibyl
Lacrimae rerum
The Golden Bough
Latin kings of Alba Longa |
Aeneas | Notes | Notes |
Aeneas | References | References |
Aeneas | Sources | Sources
Homer, Iliad II. 819โ21; V. 217โ575; XIII. 455โ544; XX. 75โ352.
Apollodorus, Bibliotheca III. xii. 2; Epitome III. 32โIV. 2; V. 21.
Virgil, Aeneid.
Ovid, Metamorphoses XIII. 623โ715; XIV. 75โ153; 581โ608.
Ovid, Heroides, VII.
Livy, Book 1.1โ2.
Dictys Cretensis.
Dares Phrygius. |
Aeneas | Further reading | Further reading
Cramer, D. "The Wrath of Aeneas: Iliad 13.455โ67 and 20.75โ352." Syllecta Classica, vol. 11, 2000, pp.ย 16โ33. .
de Vasconcellos, P.S. "A Sound Play on Aeneas' Name in the Aeneid: A Brief Note on VII.69." Vergilius (1959โ), vol. 61, 2015, pp.ย 125โ29. .
Farron, S. "The AeneasโDido Episode as an Attack on Aeneas' Mission and Rome." Greece & Rome, vol. 27, no. 1, 1980, pp.ย 34โ47. . .
Gowers, E. "Trees and Family Trees in the Aeneid." Classical Antiquity, vol. 30, no. 1, 2011, pp.ย 87โ118. . .
Grillo, L. "Leaving Troy and Creusa: Reflections on Aeneas' Flight." The Classical Journal, vol. 106, no. 1, 2010, pp.ย 43โ68. . .
Noonan, J. "Sum Pius Aeneas: Aeneas and the Leader as Conservator/ฮฃฯฯฮฎฯ" The Classical Bulletin. vol. 83, no. 1, 2007, pp.ย 65โ91.
Putnam, M.C.J. The Humanness of Heroes: Studies in the Conclusion of Virgil's Aeneid. The Amsterdam Vergil lectures, 1. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2011.
Starr, R.J. "Aeneas the Rhetorician: 'Aeneid IV', 279โ95." Latomus, vol. 62, no. 1, 2003, pp.ย 36โ46. .
Scafoglio, G. "The Betrayal of Aeneas." Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, vol. 53 no. 1, 2013, pp.ย 1โ14.
Schauer, M. Aeneas dux in Vergils Aeneis. Eine literarische Fiktion in augusteischer Zeit. Zetemata vol. 128. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2007. |
Aeneas | External links | External links
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (about 900 images related to the Aeneid)
Category:Trojan Leaders
Category:Characters in the Aeneid
Category:Greek mythological heroes
Category:Children of Aphrodite
Category:Characters in Roman mythology
Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy
Category:Katabasis in classical mythology
Category:Demigods in classical mythology
Category:Legendary progenitors
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Deified men |
Aeneas | Table of Content | short description, Etymology, Epithets, Greek myth and epos, Homeric ''Hymn to Aphrodite'', Homer's ''Iliad'', Other sources, Roman myth and literature, Virgil's ''Aeneid'', Other sources, English mythology, Further reading, Medieval accounts, Family and legendary descendants, Character and appearance, Modern portrayals, Literature, Opera, film and other media, Depictions in art, Villa Valmarana, Aeneas flees Troy, Aeneas with Dido, Family tree, See also, Notes, References, Sources, Further reading, External links |
April 13 | pp-pc | |
April 13 | Events | Events |
April 13 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
1111 โ Henry V, King of Germany, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
1204 โ Constantinople falls to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade, temporarily ending the Byzantine Empire.
1455 โ Thirteen Years' War: the beginning of the Battle for Kneiphof. |
April 13 | 1601โ1900 | 1601โ1900
1612 โ Samurai Miyamoto Musashi defeats Sasaki Kojirล in a duel at Funajima island.
1613 โ Samuel Argall, having captured Pocahontas in Passapatanzy, Virginia, sets off with her to Jamestown with the intention of exchanging her for English prisoners held by her father.
1699 โ The Sikh religion is formalised as the Khalsa โ the brotherhood of Warrior-Saintsby Guru Gobind Singh in northern India, in accordance with the Nanakshahi calendar.
1742 โ George Frideric Handel's oratorio Messiah makes its world premiere in Dublin, Ireland.
1777 โ American Revolutionary War: American forces are ambushed and defeated in the Battle of Bound Brook, New Jersey.
1829 โ The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 gives Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom the right to vote and to sit in Parliament.
1849 โ Lajos Kossuth presents the Hungarian Declaration of Independence in a closed session of the National Assembly.
1861 โ American Civil War: Union forces surrender Fort Sumter to Confederate forces.
1865 โ American Civil War: Raleigh, North Carolina is occupied by Union forces.
1870 โ The New York City Metropolitan Museum of Art is founded.
1873 โ The Colfax massacre: More than 60 to 150 black men are murdered in Colfax, Louisiana, while surrendering to a mob of former Confederate soldiers and members of the Ku Klux Klan. |
April 13 | 1901โpresent | 1901โpresent
1909 โ The 31 March Incident leads to the overthrow of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.
1919 โ Jallianwala Bagh massacre: British Indian Army troops led by Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer kill approximately 379โ1,000 unarmed demonstrators including men and women in Amritsar, India; and approximately 1,500 injured.
1924 โ A.E.K., a major Greek multi-sport club, is established in Athens by Greek refugees from Constantinople.
1941 โ A pact of neutrality between the USSR and Japan is signed.
1943 โ World War II: The discovery of mass graves of Polish prisoners of war killed by Soviet forces in the Katyล Forest Massacre is announced, causing a diplomatic rift between the Polish government-in-exile in London and the Soviet Union, which denies responsibility.
1943 โ The Jefferson Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C., on the 200th anniversary of President Thomas Jefferson's birth.
1945 โ World War II: German troops kill more than 1,000 political and military prisoners in Gardelegen, Germany.
1945 โ World War II: Soviet and Bulgarian forces capture Vienna.
1948 โ In an ambush, 78 Jewish doctors, nurses and medical students from Hadassah Hospital, and a British soldier, are massacred by Arabs in Sheikh Jarrah. This event came to be known as the Hadassah medical convoy massacre.
1953 โ CIA director Allen Dulles launches the mind-control program Project MKUltra.
1960 โ The United States launches Transit 1-B, the world's first satellite navigation system.
1964 โ At the Academy Awards, Sidney Poitier becomes the first African-American man to win the Best Actor award for the 1963 film Lilies of the Field.
1970 โ An oxygen tank aboard the Apollo 13 Service Module explodes, putting the crew in great danger and causing major damage to the Apollo command and service module (codenamed "Odyssey") while en route to the Moon.
1972 โ The Universal Postal Union decides to recognize the People's Republic of China as the only legitimate Chinese representative, effectively expelling the Republic of China administering Taiwan.
1972 โ Vietnam War: The Battle of An Lแปc begins.
1975 โ An attack by the Phalangist resistance kills 26 militia members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, marking the start of the 15-year Lebanese Civil War.
1976 โ The United States Treasury Department reintroduces the two-dollar bill as a Federal Reserve Note on Thomas Jefferson's 233rd birthday as part of the United States Bicentennial celebration.
1976 โ Forty workers die in the Lapua Cartridge Factory explosion, the deadliest industrial accident in modern Finnish history.
1996 โ Two women and four children are killed after Israeli helicopter fired rockets at an ambulance in Mansouri, Lebanon.
1997 โ Tiger Woods becomes the youngest golfer to win the Masters Tournament.
2006 โ The United Front for Democratic Change's attack on the Chadian capital of N'Djamena is repelled by the Chadian army
2009 โ A fire destroys a homeless hostel and kills at least 22 people in Kamieล Pomorski, Poland.
2013 โ Salam Fayyad resigns as Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority following an ongoing dispute with the President Mahmoud Abbas.
2014 โ Three people are killed in a shooting in Overland Park, Kansas.
2023 โ The house of Jack Teixeira is raided in an investigation into leaked Pentagon documents; he is arrested on the same day.
2024 โ Six people and the perpetrator are killed and twelve others injured in a mass stabbing at Westfield Bondi Junction shopping centre in Sydney, Australia.
2025 โ Rory McIlroy wins the Masters Tournament, becoming just the sixth person to complete the Grand Slam in golf. |
April 13 | Births | Births |
April 13 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
1229 โ Louis II, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1294)
1350 โ Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (d. 1405)
1506 โ Peter Faber, French priest and theologian, co-founded the Society of Jesus (d. 1546)
1519 โ Catherine de' Medici, Italian-French wife of Henry II of France (d. 1589)
1570 โ Guy Fawkes, English soldier, member of the Gunpowder Plot (probable; d. 1606)
1573 โ Christina of Holstein-Gottorp (d. 1625)
1593 โ Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1641) |
April 13 | 1601โ1900 | 1601โ1900
1618 โ Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy, French author (d. 1693)
1636 โ Hendrik van Rheede, Dutch botanist (d. 1691)
1648 โ Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon, French mystic (d. 1717)
1713 โ Pierre Jรฉlyotte, French tenor (d. 1797)
1729 โ Thomas Percy, Irish bishop and poet (d. 1811)
1732 โ Frederick North, Lord North, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1792)
1735 โ Isaac Low, American merchant and politician, founded the New York Chamber of Commerce (d. 1791)
1743 โ Thomas Jefferson, American lawyer and politician, 3rd President of the United States (d. 1826)
1747 โ Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orlรฉans (d. 1793)
1764 โ Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, French general and politician, French Minister of War (d. 1830)
1769 โ Thomas Lawrence, English painter and educator (d. 1830)
1771 โ Richard Trevithick, Cornish-English engineer and explorer (d. 1833)
1780 โ Alexander Mitchell, Irish engineer, invented the Screw-pile lighthouse (d. 1868)
1784 โ Friedrich Graf von Wrangel, Prussian field marshal (d. 1877)
1787 โ John Robertson, American lawyer and politician (d. 1873)
1794 โ Jean Pierre Flourens, French physiologist and academic (d. 1867)
1802 โ Leopold Fitzinger, Austrian zoologist and herpetologist (d. 1884)
1808 โ Antonio Meucci, Italian-American engineer (d. 1889)
1810 โ Fรฉlicien David, French composer (d. 1876)
1824 โ William Alexander, Irish archbishop, poet, and theologian (d. 1911)
1825 โ Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Irish-Canadian journalist and politician (d. 1868)
1828 โ Josephine Butler, English feminist and social reformer (d. 1906)
1828 โ Joseph Lightfoot, English bishop and theologian (d. 1889)
1832 โ Juan Montalvo, Ecuadorian author and diplomat (d. 1889)
1841 โ Louis-Ernest Barrias, French sculptor and academic (d. 1905)
1850 โ Arthur Matthew Weld Downing, Irish astronomer (d. 1917)
1851 โ Robert Abbe, American surgeon and radiologist (d. 1928)
1851 โ William Quan Judge, Irish occultist and theosophist (d. 1896)
1852 โ Frank Winfield Woolworth, American businessman, founded the F. W. Woolworth Company (d. 1919)
1854 โ Lucy Craft Laney, American founder of the Haines Normal and Industrial School, Augusta, Georgia (d. 1933)
1860 โ James Ensor, English-Belgian painter, an important influence on expressionism and surrealism (d. 1949)
1866 โ Butch Cassidy, American criminal (d. 1908)
1872 โ John Cameron, Scottish international footballer and manager (d. 1935)
1872 โ Alexander Roda Roda, Austrian-Croatian journalist and author (d. 1945)
1873 โ John W. Davis, American lawyer and politician, 14th United States Solicitor General (d. 1955)
1875 โ Ray Lyman Wilbur, American physician, academic, and politician, 31st United States Secretary of the Interior (d. 1949)
1879 โ Edward Bruce, American lawyer and painter (d. 1943)
1879 โ Oswald Bruce Cooper, American type designer, lettering artist, graphic designer, and educator (d. 1940)
1880 โ Charles Christie, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded the Christie Film Company (d. 1955)
1885 โ Vean Gregg, American baseball player (d. 1964)
1885 โ Juhan Kukk, Estonian politician, Head of State of Estonia (d. 1942)
1885 โ Gyรถrgy Lukรกcs, Hungarian philosopher and critic (d. 1971)
1885 โ Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy, Dutch politician (d. 1961)
1887 โ Gordon S. Fahrni, Canadian physician and golfer (d. 1995)
1889 โ Herbert Yardley, American cryptologist and author (d. 1958)
1890 โ Frank Murphy, American jurist and politician, 56th United States Attorney General (d. 1949)
1890 โ Dadasaheb Torne, Indian director and producer (d. 1960)
1891 โ Maurice Buckley, Australian sergeant, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1921)
1891 โ Nella Larsen, Danish/African-American nurse, librarian, and author (d. 1964)
1891 โ Robert Scholl, German accountant and politician (d. 1973)
1892 โ Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet, English air marshal (d. 1984)
1892 โ Robert Watson-Watt, Scottish engineer, invented Radar (d. 1973)
1894 โ Arthur Fadden, Australian accountant and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1973)
1894 โ May Brodney, Australian labour activist (d. 1973)
1896 โ Fred Barnett, English footballer (d. 1982)
1897 โ Werner Voss, German lieutenant and pilot (d. 1917)
1899 โ Alfred Mosher Butts, American architect and game designer, created Scrabble (d. 1993)
1899 โ Harold Osborn, American high jumper and decathlete (d. 1975)
1900 โ Sorcha Boru, American potter and ceramic sculptor (d. 2006)
1900 โ Pierre Molinier, French painter and photographer (d. 1976) |
April 13 | 1901โpresent | 1901โpresent
1901 โ Jacques Lacan, French psychiatrist and psychoanalyst (d. 1981)
1901 โ Alan Watt, Australian public servant and diplomat, Australian Ambassador to Japan (d. 1988)
1902 โ Philippe de Rothschild, French Grand Prix driver, playwright, and producer (d. 1988)
1902 โ Marguerite Henry, American author (d. 1997)
1904 โ David Robinson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1987)
1905 โ Rae Johnstone, Australian jockey (d. 1964)
1906 โ Samuel Beckett, Irish novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)
1906 โ Bud Freeman, American saxophonist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1991)
1907 โ Harold Stassen, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of Minnesota (d. 2001)
1909 โ Eudora Welty, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2001)
1911 โ Ico Hitrec, Croatian footballer and manager (d. 1946)
1911 โ Jean-Louis Lรฉvesque, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 1994)
1911 โ Nino Sanzogno, Italian conductor and composer (d. 1983)
1913 โ Dave Albritton, American high jumper and coach (d. 1994)
1913 โ Kermit Tyler, American lieutenant and pilot (d. 2010)
1914 โ Orhan Veli Kanฤฑk, Turkish poet and author (d. 1950)
1916 โ Phyllis Fraser, Welsh-American actress, journalist, and publisher, co-founded Beginner Books (d. 2006)as per Social Security Death Index under the name Phyllis C Wagner
1917 โ Robert Orville Anderson, American businessman, founded Atlantic Richfield Oil Co. (d. 2007)
1917 โ Bill Clements, American soldier, engineer, and politician, 15th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense (d. 2011)
1919 โ Roland Gaucher, French journalist and politician (d. 2007)
1919 โ Howard Keel, American actor and singer (d. 2004)
1919 โ Madalyn Murray O'Hair, American activist, founded American Atheists (d. 1995)
1920 โ Roberto Calvi, Italian banker (d. 1982)
1920 โ Claude Cheysson, French lieutenant and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2012)
1920 โ Liam Cosgrave, Irish lawyer and politician, 6th Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 2017)
1920 โ Theodore L. Thomas, American chemical engineer, Patent attorney and writer (d. 2005)
1922 โ Heinz Baas, German footballer and manager (d. 1994)
1922 โ John Braine, English librarian and author (d. 1986)
1922 โ Julius Nyerere, Tanzanian politician and teacher, 1st President of Tanzania (d. 1999)
1922 โ Valve Pormeister, Estonian architect (d. 2002)"Valve Pormeister 13. IV 1922 โ 27. X 2002", Sirp.ee. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
1923 โ Don Adams, American actor and director (d. 2005)
1923 โ A. H. Halsey, English sociologist and academic (d. 2014)
1924 โ John T. Biggers, American painter (d. 2001)
1924 โ Jack T. Chick, American author, illustrator, and publisher (d. 2016)
1924 โ Stanley Donen, American film director and choreographer (d. 2019)
1926 โ Ellie Lambeti, Greek actress (d. 1983)
1926 โ John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough, English businessman (d. 2014)
1927 โ Rosemary Haughton, English philosopher, theologian, and author (d. 2024)
1927 โ Maurice Ronet, French actor and director (d. 1983)
1928 โ Alan Clark, English historian and politician, Minister of State for Trade (d. 1999)
1928 โ Gianni Marzotto, Italian racing driver and businessman (d. 2012)
1929 โ Marilynn Smith, American golfer (d. 2019)
1931 โ Anita Cerquetti, Italian soprano (d. 2014)
1931 โ Robert Enrico, French director and screenwriter (d. 2001)
1931 โ Dan Gurney, American race car driver and engineer (d. 2018)
1931 โ Jon Stone, American composer, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1997)
1932 โ Orlando Letelier, Chilean-American economist and politician, Chilean Minister of National Defense (d. 1976)
1934 โ John Muckler, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2021)
1937 โ Col Joye, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist
1937 โ Edward Fox, English actor
1937 โ Lanford Wilson, American playwright, co-founded the Circle Repertory Company (d. 2011)Fox, Margalit. "Lanford Wilson, Pulitzer Prize-Winning Playwright, Dies at 73" The New York Times, March 24, 2011.
1938 โ Klaus Lehnertz, German pole vaulter
1939 โ Seamus Heaney, Irish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)
1939 โ Paul Sorvino, American actor and singer (d. 2022)
1940 โ Mike Beuttler, Egyptian-English racing driver (d. 1988)
1940 โ J. M. G. Le Clรฉzio, Breton French-Mauritian author and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
1940 โ Vladimir Cosma, French composer, conductor and violinist
1940 โ Jim McNab, Scottish footballer (d. 2006)
1940 โ Max Mosley, English racing driver and engineer, co-founded March Engineering, former president of the FIA (d. 2021)
1940 โ Ruby Puryear Hearn, African-American biophysicist
1941 โ Michael Stuart Brown, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
1941 โ Jean-Marc Reiser, French author and illustrator (d. 1983)
1942 โ Bill Conti, American composer and conductor
1943 โ Alan Jones, Australian rugby coach and radio host
1943 โ Tim Krabbรฉ, Dutch journalist and author
1944 โ Susan Davis, Russian-American social worker and politician
1945 โ Judy Nunn, Australian actress and author
1946 โ Al Green, American singer-songwriter, producer, and pastor
1947 โ Rae Armantrout, American poet and academic
1947 โ Mike Chapman, Australian-English songwriter and producer
1947 โ Jean-Jacques Laffont, French economist and academic (d. 2004)
1947 โ Thanos Mikroutsikos, Greek composer and politician (d. 2019)
1948 โ Nam Hae-il, South Korean admiral
1948 โ Drago Janฤar, Slovenian author and playwright
1948 โ Mikhail Shufutinsky, Soviet and Russian singer, actor, TV presenter
1949 โ Len Cook, New Zealand-English mathematician and statistician
1949 โ Frank Doran, Scottish lawyer and politician (d. 2017)
1949 โ Christopher Hitchens, English-American essayist, literary critic, and journalist (d. 2011)
1950 โ Ron Perlman, American actor
1950 โ Tommy Raudonikis, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2021)
1950 โ William Sadler, American actor
1951 โ Leszek Borysiewicz, Welsh immunologist and academic
1951 โ Peabo Bryson, American singer
1951 โ Peter Davison, English actor
1951 โ Joachim Streich, German footballer (d. 2022)
1951 โ Max Weinberg, American musician and bandleader
1952 โ Gabrielle Gourdeau, Canadian writer (d. 2006)
1952 โ Jonjo O'Neill, Irish jockey and trainer
1955 โ Steve Camp, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1955 โ Muwenda Mutebi II, current King of Buganda Kingdom
1955 โ Safet Suลกiฤ, Bosnian footballer and manager
1956 โ Cรฉsar, Brazilian footballer (d. 2024)
1958 โ Jean-Marc Pilorget, French footballer and manager
1959 โ John Middendorf, American mountain climber (d. 2024)
1960 โ Rudi Vรถller, German footballer and manager
1963 โ Garry Kasparov, Russian chess player and author
1964 โ Davis Love III, American golfer and sportscaster
1965 โ Patricio Pouchulu, Argentinian architect and educator
1966 โ Mando, Greek singer
1967 โ Dana Barros, American basketball player and coach
1967 โ Michael Eisen, American biologist and academic
1967 โ Olga Taรฑรณn, Puerto Rican singer-songwriter
1970 โ Ricky Schroder, American actor
1971 โ Franck Esposito, French swimmer La fiche de Franck Esposto, from L'รquipe; retrieved 23 June 2013.
1971 โ Danie Mellor, Australian painter and sculptor
1971 โ Bo Outlaw, American basketball player
1972 โ Aaron Lewis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1973 โ Bokeem Woodbine, American actor
1975 โ Lou Bega, German singer
1976 โ Jonathan Brandis, American actor (d. 2003)
1976 โ Dan Campbell, American football player and coach
1976 โ Glenn Howerton, American actor
1977 โ Margus Tsahkna, Estonian lawyer and politician
1978 โ Carles Puyol, Spanish footballer
1979 โ Baron Davis, American basketball player
1980 โ Kelli Giddish, American actress
1980 โ Quentin Richardson, American basketball player
1982 โ Nellie McKay, British-American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress
1982 โ Ty Dolla Sign, American singer, songwriter, and musician
1983 โ Claudio Bravo, Chilean footballer
1983 โ Hunter Pence, American baseball player
1984 โ Anders Lindegaard, Danish footballer
1986 โ Lorenzo Cain, American baseball player
1987 โ Steven De Vuyst, Belgian politician
1987 โ John-Allison Weiss, American singer-songwriter
1988 โ Allison Williams, American actress and singer
1988 โ Anderson, Brazilian footballer
1989 โ Josh Reynolds, Australian rugby league player
1991 โ Josh Gordon, American football player
1992 โ Jordan Silk, Australian cricketerhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/jordan-silk-437669 ESPNcricinfo
1993 โ Melvin Gordon, American football player
1993 โ Darrun Hilliard, American basketball player
1994 โ Kahraba, Egyptian footballer
1996 โ Marko Grujiฤ, Serbian footballer
1997 โ Mateo Cassierra, Colombian footballer
1997 โ Kyle Walker-Peters, English footballer
1999 โ Alessandro Bastoni, Italian footballer
1999 โ Andrรกs Schรคfer, Hungarian footballer
2000 โ Rasmus Dahlin, Swedish ice hockey player
2000 โ Facundo Torres, Uruguayan footballer
2001 โ Neco Williams, Welsh footballer{(cite web|title=Neco Williams|url=https://www.premierleague.com/players/23811/Neco-Williams/overview|website=Premier League|access-date=13 April 2025}}
2002 โ Karl Hein, Estonian footballer |
April 13 | Deaths | Deaths |
April 13 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
548 โ Lรฝ Nam ฤแบฟ, Vietnamese emperor (b. 503)
585 โ Hermenegild, Visigothic prince and saint
799 โ Paul the Deacon, Italian monk and historian (b. 720)
814 โ Krum, khan of the Bulgarian Khanate
862 โ Donald I, king of the Picts (b. 812)
989 โ Bardas Phokas, Byzantine general
1035 โ Herbert I, Count of Maine
1093 โ Vsevolod I of Kiev (b. 1030)
1113 โ Ida of Lorraine, saint and noblewoman (b. c. 1040)
1138 โ Simon I, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1076)
1213 โ Guy of Thouars, regent of Brittany
1275 โ Eleanor of England (b. 1215)
1367 โ John Tiptoft, 2nd Baron Tibetot (b. 1313)
1592 โ Bartolomeo Ammannati, Italian architect and sculptor (b. 1511) |
April 13 | 1601โ1900 | 1601โ1900
1605 โ Boris Godunov, Tsar of Russia (b. 1551)
1612 โ Sasaki Kojirล, Japanese samurai (b. 1585)
1635 โ Fakhr-al-Din II, Ottoman prince (b. 1572)
1638 โ Henri, Duke of Rohan (b. 1579)
1641 โ Richard Montagu, English bishop (b. 1577)
1695 โ Jean de La Fontaine, French author and poet (b. 1621)
1716 โ Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington, English admiral and politician (b. 1648)
1722 โ Charles Leslie, Irish priest and theologian (b. 1650)
1793 โ Pierre Gaspard Chaumette, French botanist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1763)
1794 โ Nicolas Chamfort, French playwright and poet (b. 1741)
1826 โ Franz Danzi, German cellist, composer, and conductor (b. 1763)
1853 โ Leopold Gmelin, German chemist and academic (b. 1788)
1853 โ James Iredell, Jr., American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of North Carolina (b. 1788)
1855 โ Henry De la Beche, English geologist and palaeontologist (b. 1796)
1868 โ Tewodros II of Ethiopia (b. 1818)
1880 โ Robert Fortune, Scottish botanist and author (b. 1813)
1882 โ Bruno Bauer, German historian and philosopher (b. 1809)
1886 โ John Humphrey Noyes, American religious leader, founded the Oneida Community (b. 1811)
1890 โ Samuel J. Randall, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 33rd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b. 1828) |
April 13 | 1901โpresent | 1901โpresent
1909 โ Whitley Stokes, Anglo-Irish lawyer and scholar (b. 1830)
1910 โ William Quiller Orchardson, Scottish-English painter and educator (b. 1835)
1911 โ John McLane, Scottish-American politician, 50th Governor of New Hampshire (b. 1852)
1911 โ George Washington Glick, American lawyer and politician, 9th Governor of Kansas (b. 1827)
1912 โ Takuboku Ishikawa, Japanese poet and author (b. 1886)
1917 โ Diamond Jim Brady, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1856)
1918 โ Lavr Kornilov, Russian general (b. 1870)
1920 โ Stefanos Streit, Greek jurist, banker and politician (b. 1896)
1927 โ Georg Voigt, German politician, Mayor of Frankfurt (b. 1866)
1936 โ Konstantinos Demertzis, Greek politician 129th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1876)
1938 โ Grey Owl, English-Canadian environmentalist and author (b. 1888)
1941 โ Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer and academic (b. 1863)
1941 โ William Twaits, Canadian soccer player (b. 1879)
1942 โ Henk Sneevliet, Dutch politician (b. 1883)
1942 โ Anton Uesson, Estonian engineer and politician, 17th Mayor of Tallinn (b. 1879)
1944 โ Cรฉcile Chaminade, French pianist and composer (b. 1857)
1945 โ Ernst Cassirer, Polish-American philosopher and academic (b. 1874)
1954 โ Samuel Jones, American high jumper (b. 1880)
1954 โ Angus Lewis Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Nova Scotia (b. 1890)
1956 โ Emil Nolde, Danish-German painter and educator (b. 1867)
1959 โ Eduard van Beinum, Dutch pianist, violinist, and conductor (b. 1901)
1961 โ John A. Bennett, American soldier (b. 1936)
1962 โ Culbert Olson, American lawyer and politician, 29th Governor of California (b. 1876)
1964 โ Kristian Krefting, Norwegian footballer and chemical engineer (b. 1891)
1966 โ Abdul Salam Arif, Iraqi colonel and politician, 2nd President of Iraq (b. 1921)
1966 โ Carlo Carrร , Italian painter (b. 1881)
1966 โ Georges Duhamel, French soldier and author (b. 1884)
1967 โ Nicole Berger, French actress (b. 1934)
1969 โ Ambrogio Gianotti, Italian partigiano and priest (b. 1901)https://www.museopartigiano.it/upload/documenti/G/G-17.PDF
1969 โ Alfred Karindi, Estonian pianist and composer (b. 1901)
1971 โ Michel Briรจre, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1949)
1971 โ Juhan Smuul, Estonian author, poet, and screenwriter (b. 1921)
1975 โ Larry Parks, American actor and singer (b. 1914)
1975 โ Franรงois Tombalbaye, Chadian soldier, academic, and politician, 1st President of Chad (b. 1918)
1978 โ Jack Chambers, Canadian painter and director (b. 1931)
1978 โ Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti, Nigerian educator and women's rights activist (b. 1900)
1980 โ Markus Hรถttinger, Austrian racing driver (b. 1956)
1983 โ Gerry Hitchens, English footballer (b. 1934)
1983 โ Theodore Stephanides, Greek physician, author, and poet (b. 1896)
1984 โ Ralph Kirkpatrick, American harpsichordist and musicologist (b. 1911)
1984 โ Dionysis Papagiannopoulos, Greek actor (b. 1912)
1988 โ Jean Gascon, Canadian actor and director (b. 1920)
1992 โ Maurice Sauvรฉ, Canadian economist and politician (b. 1923)
1992 โ Feza Gรผrsey, Turkish mathematician and physicist (b. 1921)
1992 โ Daniel Pollock, Australian actor (b. 1968)
1993 โ Wallace Stegner, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1909)
1996 โ Leila Mackinlay, English author and educator (b. 1910)
1997 โ Bryant Bowles, American soldier and white supremacist, founded the National Association for the Advancement of White People (b. 1920)
1997 โ Alan Cooley, Australian public servant (b. 1920)
1997 โ Dorothy Frooks, American author and actress (b. 1896)
1997 โ Voldemar Vรคli, Estonian wrestler (b. 1903)
1998 โ Patrick de Gayardon, French skydiver and base jumper (b. 1960)
1999 โ Ortvin Sarapu, Estonian-New Zealand chess player and author (b. 1924)
1999 โ Willi Stoph, German engineer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of East Germany (b. 1914)
2000 โ Giorgio Bassani, Italian author and poet (b. 1916)
2000 โ Frenchy Bordagaray, American baseball player and manager (b. 1910)
2004 โ Caron Keating, Northern Irish television host (b. 1962)
2005 โ Johnnie Johnson, American pianist and songwriter (b. 1924)
2005 โ Phillip Pavia, American painter and sculptor (b. 1912)
2006 โ Muriel Spark, Scottish novelist, poet, and critic (b. 1918)
2008 โ John Archibald Wheeler, American physicist and academic (b. 1911)
2012 โ Cecil Chaudhry, Pakistani pilot, academic, and activist (b. 1941)
2012 โ Shลซichi Higurashi, Japanese illustrator (b. 1936)
2013 โ Stephen Dodgson, English composer and educator (b. 1924)
2014 โ Ernesto Laclau, Argentinian-Spanish philosopher and theorist (b. 1935)
2014 โ Michael Ruppert, American journalist and author (b. 1951)
2015 โ Eduardo Galeano, Uruguayan journalist and author (b. 1940)
2015 โ Gรผnter Grass, German novelist, poet, playwright, and illustrator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1927)
2015 โ Herb Trimpe, American author and illustrator (b. 1939)
2017 โ Dan Rooney, American football executive and former United States Ambassador to Ireland (b. 1932)
2022 โ Michel Bouquet, French stage and film actor (b. 1925)
2022 โ Gloria Parker, American musician and bandleader (b. 1921)
2024 โ Faith Ringgold, American artist and author (b. 1930)
2025 โ Richard Armitage, American diplomat and government official (b. 1945)
2025 โ Mario Vargas Llosa, Peruvian novelist and writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1936)
2025 โ Jean Marsh, English actress and screenwriter (b. 1934) |
April 13 | Holidays and observances | Holidays and observances
Christian feast day:
Ida of Louvain
Margaret of Castello
April 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Songkran
Songkran (Thailand)
Water-Sprinkling Festival
Vaisakhi (between 1902 and 2011) |
April 13 | References | References |
April 13 | External links | External links
BBC: On This Day
Historical Events on April 13
Category:Days of April |
April 13 | Table of Content | pp-pc, Events, Pre-1600, 1601โ1900, 1901โpresent, Births, Pre-1600, 1601โ1900, 1901โpresent, Deaths, Pre-1600, 1601โ1900, 1901โpresent, Holidays and observances, References, External links |
Amaranth | short description | Amaranthus is a cosmopolitan group of more than 50 species which make up the genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some of the better known names include "prostrate pigweed" and "love lies bleeding". Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals, and ornamental plants.
Catkin-like cymes of densely-packed flowers grow in summer or fall. Amaranth varies in flower, leaf, and stem color with a range of striking pigments from the spectrum of maroon to crimson and can grow longitudinally from tall with a cylindrical, succulent, fibrous stem that is hollow with grooves and bracteoles when mature.
There are approximately 75 species in the genus, 10 of which are dioecious and native to North America, and the remaining 65 are monoecious species that are endemic to every continent (except Antarctica) from tropical lowlands to the Himalayas. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus Celosia. Amaranth grain is collected from the genus. The leaves of some species are also eaten. |