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Alexander III of Scotland | Sources | Sources
Anderson, Alan Orr (ed.); Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500–1286, 2 Vols, (Edinburgh, 1922), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.); (Stamford, 1991).
idem (ed.); Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500–1286, (London, 1908), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.); (Stamford, 1969)
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Scott, Robert McNair; Robert the Bruce: King of Scots, 1869. |
Alexander III of Scotland | Further reading | Further reading
Alexander III at the official website of the British monarchy
Alexander III at BBC History
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Category:1241 births
Category:1286 deaths
Category:House of Dunkeld
Category:Deaths by horse-riding accident in Scotland
Category:Medieval child monarchs
Category:13th-century Scottish monarchs
Category:Burials at Dunfermline Abbey
Category:Scottish people of the Wars of Scottish Independence
Category:Gaelic monarchs in Scotland
Category:Scottish Roman Catholics |
Alexander III of Scotland | Table of Content | Short description, Life, Marriages and issue, Death, Legend, Fictional portrayals, Ancestry, References, Sources, Further reading |
Alexander of Greece (disambiguation) | '''[[Alexander of Greece]]''' | Alexander of Greece (1893–1920) was king of Greece from 1917 until his death.
Alexander of Greece may also refer to:
Alexander of Greece (rhetorician) ()
Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), ancient Greek king and general |
Alexander of Greece (disambiguation) | See also | See also
Alexander § People with the given name Alexander |
Alexander of Greece (disambiguation) | Table of Content | '''[[Alexander of Greece]]''', See also |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | short description | right|thumb|Opening paragraph of the treatise On Fate (Peri eimarmenes) by Alexander of Aphrodisias dedicated to the Emperors (tous autokratoras). From an anonymous edition published in 1658.
Alexander of Aphrodisias (; AD) was a Peripatetic philosopher and the most celebrated of the Ancient Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle. He was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria and lived and taught in Athens at the beginning of the 3rd century, where he held a position as head of the Peripatetic school. He wrote many commentaries on the works of Aristotle, extant are those on the Prior Analytics, Topics, Meteorology, Sense and Sensibilia, and Metaphysics. Several original treatises also survive, and include a work On Fate, in which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity; and one On the Soul. His commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was styled, by way of pre-eminence, "the commentator" (). |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Life and career | Life and career
Alexander was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria (present-day Turkey)A. Chaniotis, 'Epigraphic evidence for the philosopher Alexander of Aphrodisias', in Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, , v.47 (2004) pp. 79-81 and came to Athens towards the end of the 2nd century. He was a student of the two Stoic,J.P. Lynch, Aristotle's School, Berkeley, 1972, p. 215. See Sosigenes the Peripatetic. or possibly Peripatetic, philosophers SosigenesSee Alexander's Comm. in Arist. Meteor., p. 143.13 Hayduck (), Themistius, Paraphr. in Arist. de Anima, p. 61.23 Heinze, Ps.-Ammonius, Comm. in Arist. Anal. Pr. p. 39.24 Wallies, and Philoponus, Comm. in Arist. Anal. Pr., p. 126.20-23 Wallies. and Herminus,Simplicius, Comm. in Arist. de Caelo, p. 430.32 Heiberg, quoting Alexander: , "I heard from Herminus, as was said among Aspasius' students..." and perhaps of Aristotle of Mytilene.Pierre Thillet, in his 1984 Budé edition of On Fate, has argued against Moraux's identification (Der Aristotelismus im I. und II. Jahrhundert n. Chr., vol. 2, 1984) of Aristotle of Mytilene as Alexander's teacher, pointing out that the text that has been taken to mean this (On Fate, mantissa, p. 110.4 Bruns, ) could refer instead to Alexander's learning from the texts of Aristotle the Stagirite. See R.W. Sharples, "Review: Alexander of Aphrodisias, on Fate", Classical Review, n.s., 36 (1986), p. 33. Cyril of Alexandria, Against Julian 2.38, may name Aristocles of Messene, but the text edited by Burguière and Évieux (Sources Chrétiennes 322, 1985) reads . At Athens he became head of the Peripatetic school and lectured on Peripatetic philosophy. Alexander's dedication of On Fate to Septimius Severus and Caracalla, in gratitude for his position at Athens, indicates a date between 198 and 209. A recently published inscription from Aphrodisias confirms that he was head of one of the Schools at Athens and gives his full name as Titus Aurelius Alexander. His full nomenclature shows that his grandfather or other ancestor was probably given Roman citizenship by the emperor Antoninus Pius, while proconsul of Asia. The inscription honours his father, also called Alexander and also a philosopher. This fact makes it plausible that some of the suspect works that form part of Alexander's corpus should be ascribed to his father.R. Sharples, 'Implications of the new Alexander of Aphrodisias inscription', in Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 48 (2005) pp. 47-56. |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Commentaries | Commentaries
thumb|Commentaria in Analytica priora Aristotelis, 1549
thumb|Andrea Briosco, Aristotle and Alexander of Aphrodisias, 16th century plaquette, Bode-Museum
thumb|upright|Commentaria in meteorologica Aristotelis, 1548
Alexander composed several commentaries on the works of Aristotle, in which he sought to escape a syncretistic tendency and to recover the pure doctrines of Aristotle. His extant commentaries are on Prior Analytics (Book 1), Topics, Meteorology, Sense and Sensibilia, and Metaphysics (Books 1–5).Donald J. Zeyl, Daniel Devereux, Phillip Mitsis, (1997), Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy, page 20. The commentary on the Sophistical Refutations is deemed spurious, as is the commentary on the final nine books of the Metaphysics.William W. Fortenbaugh, R. W. Sharples, (2005), Theophrastus of Eresus, sources for his life, writings, thought and Influence, page 22. BRILL The lost commentaries include works on the De Interpretatione, Posterior Analytics, Physics, On the Heavens, On Generation and Corruption, On the Soul, and On Memory. Simplicius of Cilicia mentions that Alexander provided commentary on the quadrature of the lunes, and the corresponding problem of squaring the circle.Dunham, William. Journey through Genius, Penguin, 1991 In April 2007, it was reported that imaging analysis had discovered an early commentary on Aristotle's Categories in the Archimedes Palimpsest, and Robert Sharples suggested Alexander as the most likely author. |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Original treatises | Original treatises
There are also several extant original writings by Alexander. These include: On the Soul, Problems and Solutions, Ethical Problems, On Fate, and On Mixture and Growth. Three works attributed to him are considered spurious: Medical Questions, Physical Problems, and On Fevers. Additional works by Alexander are preserved in Arabic translation, these include: On the Principles of the Universe,Charles Genequand, (2001), Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos. BRILL On Providence, and Against Galen on Motion.N. Rescher, M. E. Marmura, (1965), The Refutation by Alexander of Aphrodisias of Galen's Treatise on the Theory of Motion. Islamic Research Institute
On the Soul (De anima) is a treatise on the soul written along the lines suggested by Aristotle in his own De anima.Gerd Van Riel, 2010, Ancient Perspectives on Aristotle's de Anima, page 174. Leuven University Press Alexander contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material (nous hylikos) and inseparable from the body. He argued strongly against the doctrine of the soul's immortality. He identified the active intellect (nous poietikos), through whose agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God. A second book is known as the Supplement to On the Soul (Mantissa). The Mantissa is a series of twenty-five separate pieces of which the opening five deal directly with psychology.Robert B. Todd, (1976), Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic physics: a study of the De Mixtione with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary, page 18. BRILL The remaining twenty pieces cover problems in physics and ethics, of which the largest group deals with questions of vision and light, and the final four with fate and providence. The Mantissa was probably not written by Alexander in its current form, but much of the actual material may be his."The two books of the De Anima differ markedly in form and content, and they were not originally a single work. Book I is generally recognized as authentic. Book II is almost certainly not by Alexander of Aphrodisias in its present form, though much of the material may be his or from his school."
Problems and Solutions (Quaestiones) consists of three books which, although termed "problems and solutions of physical questions," treat of subjects which are not all physical, and are not all problems.Robert B. Todd, (1976), Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic physics: a study of the De Mixtione with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary, page 19. BRILL Among the sixty-nine items in these three books, twenty-four deal with physics, seventeen with psychology, eleven with logic and metaphysics, and six with questions of fate and providence. It is unlikely that Alexander wrote all of the Quaestiones, some may be Alexander's own explanations, while others may be exercises by his students.R. W. Sharples, 1992, Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 1.1-2.15, pages 3-4. Duckworth.
Ethical Problems was traditionally counted as the fourth book of the Quaestiones. The work is a discussion of ethical issues based on Aristotle, and contains responses to questions and problems deriving from Alexander's school.Miira Tuominen, (2009), The ancient commentators on Plato and Aristotle, page 237. University of California Press It is likely that the work was not written by Alexander himself, but rather by his pupils on the basis of debates involving Alexander.
On Fate is a treatise in which Alexander argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity. In On Fate Alexander denied three things - necessity (), the foreknowledge of fated events that was part of the Stoic identification of God and Nature, and determinism in the sense of a sequence of causes that was laid down beforehand () or predetermined by antecedents (). He defended a view of moral responsibility we would call libertarianism today.Alexander of Aphrodisias
On Mixture and Growth discusses the topic of mixture of physical bodies.Robert B. Todd, (1976), Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic physics: a study of the De Mixtione with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary, page ix. BRILL It is both an extended discussion (and polemic) on Stoic physics, and an exposition of Aristotelian thought on this theme.
On the Principles of the Universe is preserved in Arabic translation. This treatise is not mentioned in surviving Greek sources, but it enjoyed great popularity in the Muslim world, and a large number of copies have survived.Charles Genequand, (2001), Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos, page 1. BRILL The main purpose of this work is to give a general account of Aristotelian cosmology and metaphysics, but it also has a polemical tone, and it may be directed at rival views within the Peripatetic school.Charles Genequand, (2001), Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos, page 4. BRILL Alexander was concerned with filling the gaps of the Aristotelian system and smoothing out its inconsistencies, while also presenting a unified picture of the world, both physical and ethical.Charles Genequand, (2001), Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos, page 6. BRILL The topics dealt with are the nature of the heavenly motions and the relationship between the unchangeable celestial realm and the sublunar world of generation and decay. His principal sources are the Physics (book 7), Metaphysics (book 12), and the Pseudo-Aristotelian On the Universe.
On Providence survives in two Arabic versions.Robert W. Sharples, "The Peripatetic school", in David Furley (editor), (2003), From Aristotle to Augustine, pages 159-160. Routledge In this treatise, Alexander opposes the Stoic view that divine Providence extends to all aspects of the world; he regards this idea as unworthy of the gods. Instead, providence is a power that emanates from the heavens to the sublunar region, and is responsible for the generation and destruction of earthly things, without any direct involvement in the lives of individuals. |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Influence | Influence
By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as "the commentator" ().Cf. Simplicius, in Phys. 707, 33; 1170, 13; 1176, 32; Philoponus, in An. Pr. 126, 21; Olympiodorus, in Meteor. 263, 21. But see Jonathan Barnes et al., (1991), Alexander of Aphrodisias, On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.1-7, page 4, who argue: "In all these texts Alexander is indeed referred to by phrases such as 'the commentator' or 'Aristotle's commentator'; but these phrases are not honorific titles - they are ordinary referring expressions. If, at the end of a book review, you read 'The author deserves our thanks', you will rightly take this for praise - but you will not think that the author has been honoured as The Author par excellence." His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the Arabs, who translated many of them, and he is heavily quoted by Maimonides.
In 1210, the Church Council of Paris issued a condemnation, which probably targeted the writings of Alexander among others.G. Théry, Autour du décret de 1210: II, Alexandre d'Aphrodise. Aperçu sur l'influence de sa noétique, Kain, Belgium, 1926, pp. 7 ff.
In the early Renaissance his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted by Pietro Pomponazzi (against the Thomists and the Averroists), and by his successor Cesare Cremonini. This school is known as Alexandrists.
Alexander's band, an optical phenomenon, is named after him. |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Modern editions | Modern editions
Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495–1498; his De Fato and De Anima were printed along with the works of Themistius at Venice (1534); the former work, which has been translated into Latin by Grotius and also by Schulthess, was edited by J. C. Orelli, Zürich, 1824; and his commentaries on the Metaphysica by H. Bonitz, Berlin, 1847. In 1989 the first part of his On Aristotle's Metaphysics was published in English translation as part of the Ancient commentators project. Since then, other works of his have been translated into English. |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Bibliography | Bibliography |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Translations | Translations
M. Bergeron, Dufour (trans., comm.), 2009. De l’Âme. Textes & Commentaires. . Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 2008. 416 p.
R. W. Sharples, 1990, Alexander of Aphrodisias: Ethical Problems. Duckworth.
W. E. Dooley, 1989, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 1. Duckworth.
W. E. Dooley, A. Madigan, 1992, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 2-3. Duckworth.
A. Madigan, 1993, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 4. Duckworth.
W. Dooley, 1993, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 5. Duckworth.
E. Lewis, 1996, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Meteorology 4. Duckworth.
E. Gannagé, 2005, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On Coming-to-Be and Perishing 2.2-5. Duckworth.
A. Towey, 2000, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On Sense Perception. Duckworth.
V. Caston, 2011, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On the Soul. Duckworth.
J. Barnes, S. Bobzien, K. Flannery, K. Ierodiakonou, 1991, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.1-7. Duckworth.
I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.8-13. Duckworth.
I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.14-22. Duckworth.
I. Mueller, 2006, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.23-31. Duckworth.
I. Mueller, 2006, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.32-46. Duckworth.
J. M. Van Ophuijsen, 2000, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Topics 1. Duckworth.
R. W. Sharples, 1983, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Fate. Duckworth.
R. W. Sharples, 1992, Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 1.1-2.15. Duckworth.
R. W. Sharples, 1994, Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 2.16-3.15. Duckworth.
R. W. Sharples, 2004, Alexander of Aphrodisias: Supplement to On the Soul. Duckworth.
Charles Genequand, 2001, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos. Brill. |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | See also | See also
Alexander's band - an optical phenomenon associated with rainbows
Free will in antiquity |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Notes | Notes |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Further reading | Further reading
Fazzo, Silvia. Aporia e sistema. La materia, la forma e il divino nelle Quaestiones di Alessandro di Afrodisia, Pisa: ETS, 2002.
Flannery, Kevin L. Ways into the Logic of Alexander of Aphrodisias, Leiden: Brill, 1995.
Gili, Luca. La sillogistica di Alessandro di Afrodisia. Sillogistica categorica e sillogistica modale nel commento agli "Analitici Primi" di Aristotele, Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 2011.
Kessler, Eckhart, Alexander of Aphrodisias and his Doctrine of the Soul. 1400 years of lasting significance, Leiden: Brill 2012
Moraux, Paul. Der Aristotelismus bei den Griechen, Von Andronikos bis Alexander von Aphrodisias, III: Alexander von Aphrodisias, Berlin: Walter Gruyter, 2001.
Rescher, Nicholas & Marmura, Michael E., The Refutation by Alexander of Aphrodisias of Galen's Treatise on the Theory of Motion, Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, 1965.
Todd, Robert B., Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic Physics. A Study of the "De Mixtione" with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary, Leiden: Brill, 1976. |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | External links | External links
Alexander on Information Philosopher
Online Greek texts:
Scripta minora, ed. Bruns
Aristotelian commentaries: Metaphysics, Prior Analytics I, Topics, De sensu and Meteorology, In Aristotelis Metaphysica commentaria , Miscellanea
Category:2nd-century Greek philosophers
Category:Greek-language commentators on Aristotle
Category:Roman-era Peripatetic philosophers
Category:Roman-era philosophers in Athens
Category:Roman-era students in Athens
Category:People from Aphrodisias |
Alexander of Aphrodisias | Table of Content | short description, Life and career, Commentaries, Original treatises, Influence, Modern editions, Bibliography, Translations, See also, Notes, Further reading, External links |
Severus Alexander | Short description | Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – March 235), also known as Alexander Severus, was Roman emperor from 222 until 235. He was the last emperor from the Severan dynasty. Alexander took power in 222, when he succeeded his slain cousin Elagabalus at the age of 13. Alexander himself was eventually assassinated in 235, and his death marked the beginning of the events of the Crisis of the Third Century, which included nearly fifty years of civil war, foreign invasion, and the collapse of the monetary economy.
Alexander was the heir to his cousin, the 18-year-old Emperor Elagabalus. The latter had been murdered along with his mother Julia Soaemias by his own guards, who, as a mark of contempt, had their remains cast into the Tiber river.Dio, 60:20:2 Alexander and his cousin were both grandsons of Julia Maesa, who was the sister of empress Julia Domna and had arranged for Elagabalus's acclamation as emperor by the Third Gallic Legion.
Alexander's 13-year reign was the longest reign of a sole emperor since Antoninus Pius.A handful of emperors since Antoninus Pius reigned for longer than 13 years, but for some or most of their reign they were co-emperors with others and therefore they were sole emperor for less time. Alexander's peacetime reign was prosperous. However, Rome was militarily confronted with the rising Sassanid Empire and growing incursions from the tribes of Germania. Alexander managed to check the threat of the Sassanids, but when campaigning against Germanic tribes, he attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery. This alienated many in the Roman army, leading to a conspiracy that resulted in the assassination of Alexander, his mother Julia Avita Mamaea, and his advisors. After their deaths, the accession of Maximinus Thrax followed. Alexander's death marked the epoch event for the Crisis of the Third Century. |
Severus Alexander | Early life | Early life
The future emperor Severus Alexander was born on 1 October 208 in Arca Caesarea, Phoenicia.Furius Dionysius Filocalus, Chronograph of 354, Part 3: "DIVI·ALEXANDRI·KAL·OCT".Herodian, who lived during his reign, writes that Elagabalus and Alexander were "about fourteen and ten, respectively" in May 218 (5.3.3). The Epitome de Caesaribus (23, 24), written over a century later, states that "he lived sixteen years", while Alexander died in his "twenty-sixth year" (Elagabalus lived 18 years). Of his birth name, only two cognomina are known, from literary sources: Bassianus () according to the historian Cassius Dio, and Alexianus () according to Herodian. "Bassianus" was also borne by several family members, while "Alexianus" was probably later converted to Alexander.
The historian Cassius Dio thought Alexianus was the son of Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus, but Icks disputes this, saying the latter could not have married the emperor's mother before 212 and that Alexianus must have been fathered by his mother's first husband, who is of unknown name but of certain existence. The priest Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus may have been his younger brother. |
Severus Alexander | Emperor | Emperor |
Severus Alexander | Early reign | Early reign
thumb|180px|left|Bust of young Severus Alexander, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen
Severus Alexander became emperor when he was around 14 years old, making him the second youngest sole emperor in Rome's history, second only to Gordian III, who was 13. Alexander's grandmother Maesa believed that he had more potential to rule and gain support from the Praetorian Guard than her other grandson, the increasingly unpopular emperor Elagabalus.Jasper Burns (2006). Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars. London: Routledge, pp. 214–217. Thus, to preserve her own position, she had Elagabalus adopt the young Alexander and then arranged for Elagabalus' assassination, securing the throne for Alexander.Wells, Colin (1997). The Roman Empire, Harvard University Press. The Roman army hailed Alexander as emperor on 13 March 222, and the Senate ratified this the following day, conferring on him the titles of Augustus, Pater patriae and Pontifex maximus.Feriale Duranum 20–25: iii I[d]us Ṃ[artias quod] Imp(erator) [Caesar M(arcus) Aurelius Severus Alexander im]peratọṛ ap[pellat]ụ[s... [Pridie Idu]ṣ [Martias q]uod Ạ[lexander Augustus no]ṣ[ter Augustus et Pater] [Patriae et Pontife]x̣ Max̣[imus appellatus s]ịṭ supp̣[licat]io.
Throughout his life, Alexander relied heavily on guidance from his grandmother, Maesa, before her death in 224, and mother, Julia Mamaea. As a young, immature, and inexperienced adolescent, Alexander knew little about government, warcraft, or the role of ruling over an empire. In time, however, the army came to admire what Jasper Burns refers to as "his simple virtues and moderate behavior, so different from [Elagabalus]". |
Severus Alexander | Domestic achievements | Domestic achievements
Under the influence of his mother, Alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity of the state. He employed noted jurists, such as Ulpian, to oversee the administration of justice. His advisers were men like the senator and historian Cassius Dio, and historical sources claimed that with the help of his family, he created a select board of 16 senators, although this claim is sometimes disputed. Some scholars have rejected Herodian's view that Alexander expanded senatorial powers. He also created a municipal council of 14 who assisted the urban prefect in administering the affairs of the 14 districts of Rome.Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 33:1 Excessive luxury and extravagance at the imperial court were diminished,Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 15:1 and he restored the Baths of Nero in 227 or 229; consequently, they are sometimes also known as the Baths of Alexander after him. He extended the imperial residence at the Horti Lamiani on the Esquiline Hill with elaborate buildings, and created the Nymphaeum of Alexander (known as the Trophies of Marius), which still stands in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. This was the great fountain he built at the end of the Aqua Claudia aqueduct.
Upon his accession he reduced the silver purity of the denarius from 46.5% to 43%the actual silver weight dropped from 1.41 grams to 1.30 grams; however, in 229 he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity and weight to 45% and 1.46 grams. The following year he decreased the amount of base metal in the denarius while adding more silver, raising the silver purity and weight again to 50.5% and 1.50 grams. Additionally, during his reign taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged;Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 21:6 and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest.Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 21:2
In religious matters, Alexander preserved an open mind. According to the Historia Augusta, he wished to erect a temple to Jesus but was dissuaded by the pagan priests; however, this claim is unreliable as the Historia Augusta is considered untrustworthy by historians, containing significant amounts of information that is false and even invented, extending to when it was written and the number of authors it was written by.Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 43:6–7 He allowed a synagogue to be built in Rome, and he gave as a gift to this synagogue a scroll of the Torah known as the Severus Scroll.
In legal matters, Alexander did much to aid the rights of his soldiers. He confirmed that soldiers could name anyone as heirs in their will, whereas civilians had strict restrictions over who could become heirs or receive a legacy. He also confirmed that soldiers could free their slaves in their wills, protected the rights of soldiers to their property when they were on campaign, and reasserted that a soldier's property acquired in or because of military service (his castrense peculium) could be claimed by no one else, not even the soldier's father. |
Severus Alexander | Military discipline | Military discipline
Alexander's reign was also characterized by a significant breakdown of military discipline. In 228, the Praetorian Guard murdered their prefect, Ulpian, in Alexander's presence. Alexander could not openly punish the ringleader of the riot, and instead removed him to a nominal post of honor in Egypt and then Crete, where he was "quietly put out of the way" sometime after the excitement had abated. The soldiers then fought a three-day battle against the populace of Rome, and this battle ended after several parts of the city were set on fire.
Dio was among those who gave a highly critical account of military discipline during the time, saying that the soldiers would rather just surrender to the enemy. Different reasons are given for this issue; Campbell points to ...the decline in the prestige of the Severan dynasty, the feeble nature of Alexander himself, who appeared to be no soldier and to be completely dominated by his mother's advice, and lack of real military success at a time during which the empire was coming under increasing pressure.
Herodian, on the other hand, was convinced that "the emperor's miserliness (partly the result of his mother's greed) and slowness to bestow donatives" were instrumental in the fall of military discipline under Alexander. |
Severus Alexander | Persian War | Persian War
On the whole, Alexander's reign was prosperous until the rise of the Sassanids under Ardashir I. In 231 AD, Ardashir invaded the Roman provinces of the east, overrunning Mesopotamia and penetrating possibly as far as Syria and Cappadocia, forcing from the young Alexander a vigorous response.Arthur E.R. Boak (1921). A History Of Rome To 565 A.D., New York: The Macmillan Company, chap. XVIII., p. 258 Of the war that followed there are various accounts. According to the most detailed authority, Herodian, the Roman armies suffered a number of humiliating setbacks and defeats,Herodian, 6:5–6:6 while according to the Historia AugustaHistoria Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 55:1–3 as well as Alexander's own dispatch to the Roman Senate, he gained great victories. Making Antioch his base, he organized in 233 a three-fold invasion of the Sassanian Empire; at the head of the main body he himself advanced to recapture northern Mesopotamia, while another army invaded Media through the mountains of Armenia, and a third advanced from the south in the direction of Babylon. The northernmost army gained some success, fighting in mountainous territory favorable to the Roman infantry, but the southern army was surrounded and destroyed by Ardashir's skilful horse-archers, and Alexander himself retreated after an indecisive campaign, his army wracked by indiscipline and disease.Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chap. VIII., p. 182Herodian, 6:5:10 Further losses were incurred by the retreating northern army in the inclement cold of Armenia as it retired into winter quarters, due to a failure through incompetence to establish adequate supply lines.Herodian, 6:6:3 Still, Mesopotamia was retaken, and Ardashir was not thereafter able to extend his conquests, though his son, Shapur, would obtain some success later in the century.
Although the Sassanids were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. In 232, there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, which proclaimed Taurinus emperor.Epitome de Caesaribus, 24:2 Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the Euphrates. The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233. |
Severus Alexander | Germanic War | Germanic War
A new and menacing enemy started to emerge directly after Alexander's success in the Persian war. In 234, the barbarians crossed the Rhine and Danube in hordes that caused alarm as far as Rome. The soldiers serving under Alexander, already demoralized after their costly war against the Persians, were further discontented with their emperor when their homes were destroyed by the barbarian invaders.
As word of the invasion spread, the emperor took the front line and went to battle against the Germanic invaders. The Romans prepared heavily for the war, building a fleet to carry the entire army across. However, at this point in Alexander's career, he still knew little about being a general. Because of this, he hoped the mere threat of his armies would be sufficient to persuade the hostile tribes to surrender. Severus enforced a strict military discipline in his men that sparked a rebellion among his legions. Due to incurring heavy losses against the Persians, and on the advice of his mother, Alexander attempted to buy the Germanic tribes off, so as to gain time.Herodian, 6:7
It was this decision that resulted in the legionaries looking down upon Alexander. They considered him dishonorable and feared he was unfit to be Emperor. Under these circumstances the army swiftly looked to replace Alexander.Herodian, 6:8
Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus was the next best option. He was a soldier from Thrace who had a golden reputation and was working hard to increase his military status. He was also a man with superior personal strength, who rose to his present position from a peasant background. With the Thracian's hailing came the end of the Severan Dynasty, and, with the growing animosity of Severus' army towards him, the path for his assassination was paved. |
Severus Alexander | Assassination | Assassination
thumb|right|Bust of Severus Alexander, Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse
Alexander was forced to face his German enemies in the early months of 235. By the time he and his mother arrived, the situation had settled, and so his mother convinced him that to avoid violence, trying to bribe the German army to surrender was the more sensible course of action. According to historians, it was this tactic combined with insubordination from his own men that destroyed his reputation and popularity. Alexander was thus assassinated together with his mother in early March in a mutiny of the Legio XXII Primigenia at Moguntiacum (Mainz) while at a meeting with his generals. These assassinations secured the throne for Maximinus.
The Historia Augusta documents two theories that elaborate on Severus's assassination. The first claims that the disaffection of Mamaea was the main motive behind the homicide. However, Lampridius makes it clear that he is more supportive of an alternative theory, that Alexander was murdered in Sicilia (located in Britain).Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 59:6
This theory has it that, in an open tent after his lunch, Alexander was consulting with his insubordinate troops, who compared him to his cousin Elagabalus, the divisive and unpopular Emperor whose own assassination paved the way for Alexander's reign. A German servant entered the tent and initiated the call for Alexander's assassination, at which point many of the troops joined in the attack. Alexander's attendants fought against the other troops but could not hold off the combined might of those seeking the Emperor's assassination. Within minutes, Alexander was dead. His mother, Julia Mamaea, was in the same tent with Alexander and soon fell victim to the same group of assassins.
Alexander's body was buried together with the body of his mother, Julia Mamaea, in a mausoleum in Rome. The actual mausoleum, called , is the third largest in Rome after those of Hadrian and Augustus. It is still visible in Piazza dei Tribuni, in the Quadraro area in Rome, where it resembles a large earth mound. A large sarcophagus was found inside the tomb in the 16th century, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori Museum in Rome, was traditionally thought to contain the emperor's remains but this has been disputed. According to some sources inside the same sarcophagus in 1582 a precious glass urn was found, the Portland Vase, currently on display at the British Museum in London. |
Severus Alexander | Legacy | Legacy
Alexander's death marked the end of the Severan dynasty. He was the last of the Syrian emperors and the first emperor to be overthrown by military discontent on a wide scale. After his death his economic policies were completely discarded, and the Roman currency was devalued; this signaled the beginning of the chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century, which brought the empire to the brink of collapse.
Alexander's death at the hands of his troops can also be seen as the heralding of a new role for Roman emperors. Though they were not yet expected to personally fight in battle during Alexander's time, emperors were increasingly expected to display general competence in military affairs. Thus, Alexander's taking of his mother's advice to not get involved in battle, his dishonorable and unsoldierly methods of dealing with the Germanic threat, and the relative failure of his military campaign against the Persians were all deemed highly unacceptable by the soldiers. Indeed, Maximinus was able to overthrow Alexander by "harping on his own military excellence in contrast to that feeble coward". Yet by arrogating the power to dethrone their emperor, the legions paved the way for a half-century of widespread chaos and instability.
thumb|The Portland Vase
Alexander was deified after the death of Maximinus in 238. |
Severus Alexander | Portland Vase | Portland Vase
Perhaps his most tangible legacy was the emergence in the 16th century of the cameo glass Portland Vase (or "Barberini Vase"), dated to around the reign of Augustus. This was allegedly found at the mausoleum of the emperor and his family at Monte Del Grano. The discovery of the vase is described by Pietro Santi Bartoli. Pietro Bartoli indicates that the vase contained the ashes of Severus Alexander. However, there is no definitive proof that it was found at Alexander's sarcophagus and the interpretations of the scenes depicted are the source of many disputed theories. The vase passed through the hands of Sir William Hamilton Ambassador to the Royal Court in Naples, and in 1784 was sold to the Duchess of Portland, and has subsequently been known as the Portland Vase. After an attack by a disturbed man in the British Museum in 1845 smashed it into many fragments, the vase has been reconstructed three times. In 1786 the Portland vase had been borrowed from the 3rd Duke of Portland and copied in black Jasperware pottery by Josiah Wedgwood for his firm Wedgwood. He appears to have added some drapery to cover nudity, but his replicas were useful in the reconstructions. |
Severus Alexander | Personal life | Personal life
According to the Historia Augusta, Alexander's "chief amusement consisted in having young dogs play with little pigs."Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 41:5 Herodian portrays him as a mother's boy. |
Severus Alexander | Family | Family
thumb|left|Denarius of Sallustia Orbiana. Inscription: SALL. BARBIA ORBIANA AVG.|174x174px
Alexander's only known wife was Sallustia Orbiana, Augusta, whom he married in 225 when she was 16 years old. Their marriage was arranged by Alexander's mother, Mamaea. According to historian Herodian, however, as soon as Orbiana received the title of Augusta, Mamaea became increasingly jealous and resentful of Alexander's wife due to Mamaea's excessive desire of all regal female titles. Alexander divorced and exiled Orbiana in 227, after her father, Seius Sallustius, was executed after being accused of treason.
According to Historia Augusta, a late Roman work containing biographies of emperors and others, and considered by scholars to be a work of dubious historical reliability, Alexander was also at some point married to Sulpicia Memmia, a member of one of the most ancient Patrician families in Rome and a daughter to a man of consular rank; her grandfather's name was Catulus. She is mentioned as his wife only in this later text, thus the marriage has been questioned.Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 20:3Kosmetatou, Elizabeth, The Public Image of Julia Mamaea. An Epigraphic and Numismatic Inquiry, in Latomus 61, 2002, pp. 409 note 38
The ancient historian Zosimus claimed that Alexander was married three times. A man named Varius Macrinus may have been Alexander's father-in-law, but it is uncertain if he was the same man as Seius Sallustius, the father of Memmia or the father of an entirely unknown third wife.
Alexander is not known to have fathered any children. |
Severus Alexander | Christianity | Christianity
He was extremely tolerant of Jews and Christians alike. He continued all privileges towards Jews during his reign. The Historia Augusta, a source considered to be generally unreliable, relates that Alexander placed images of Abraham and Jesus in his oratory, along with other Roman deities and classical figures such as deified emperors, Orpheus and Apollonius of Tyana, and prayed there every morning. |
Severus Alexander | Severan dynasty family tree | Severan dynasty family tree |
Severus Alexander | See also | See also
Severan dynasty family tree
Sassanid campaign of Severus Alexander
Mesopotamian campaigns of Ardashir I |
Severus Alexander | References | References |
Severus Alexander | Citations | Citations |
Severus Alexander | Bibliography | Bibliography |
Severus Alexander | Ancient sources | Ancient sources
Cassius Dio ( 230), Roman History, Book 80
Herodian ( 240), Roman History, Book 6
Aurelius Victor att. ( 400), Epitome de Caesaribus
Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander
Zosimus ( 500), Historia Nova
Joannes Zonaras ( 1120), Compendium of History |
Severus Alexander | Modern sources | Modern sources
Although a few phrases appear to be copied from this encyclopedia, all of them are attributed here to primary sources. |
Severus Alexander | Further reading | Further reading
Heller, André (2022). Kommentar zur Vita Alexandri Severi der Historia Augusta. Bonn: Habelt, .
Nasti, Fara (2006). L’attività normativa di Severo Alessandro 1: Politica di governo, riforme amministrative e giudiziarie. Napoli: Satura, .
Städtler, Domenic (2021). Münzen und Denkmäler von und für Severus Alexander. Konstruktion eines Herrscherbildes. Hamburg: Dr. Kovač, . |
Severus Alexander | External links | External links
Severus Alexander on NumisWiki
Coins of Severus Alexander
Category:208 births
Category:235 deaths
Category:3rd-century people
Category:3rd-century Roman emperors
Category:3rd-century murdered monarchs
Category:Ancient child monarchs
Category:Ancient Roman adoptees
Category:Aurelii
Category:Crisis of the Third Century
Category:Deified Roman emperors
Category:Emesene dynasty
Category:3rd-century Roman consuls
Category:Murdered Roman emperors
Category:People from Homs
Category:People from Roman Syria
Category:Severan dynasty
Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae
Category:Roman pharaohs
Category:Damnatio memoriae |
Severus Alexander | Table of Content | Short description, Early life, Emperor, Early reign, Domestic achievements, Military discipline, Persian War, Germanic War, Assassination, Legacy, Portland Vase, Personal life, Family, Christianity, Severan dynasty family tree, See also, References, Citations, Bibliography, Ancient sources, Modern sources, Further reading, External links |
Alexander | About | Alexander () is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history.
Variants listed here are Aleksandar, Aleksander, Oleksandr, Oleksander, Aleksandr, and Alekzandr. Related names and diminutives include Iskandar, Alec, Alek, Alex, Alexsander, Alexandre, Aleks, Aleksa, Aleksandre, Alejandro, Alessandro, Alasdair, Sasha, Sandy, Sandro, Sikandar, Skander, Sander and Xander; feminine forms include Alexandra, Alexandria, and Sasha. |
Alexander | Etymology | Etymology
The name Alexander originates from the (; 'defending men'. or 'protector of men'). It is a compound of the verb (; 'to ward off, avert, defend'). and the noun (, genitive: , ; meaning 'man')..
The earliest attested form of the name, is the Mycenaean Greek feminine anthroponym , , (/Alexandra/), written in the Linear B syllabic script. Alaksandu, alternatively called Alakasandu or Alaksandus, was a king of Wilusa who sealed a treaty with the Hittite king Muwatalli II c. 1280 BC; this is generally assumed to have been a Greek called Alexandros.
The name was one of the epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean "one who comes to save warriors". In the Iliad, the character Paris is also known as Alexander.Ἀλέξανδρος, Georg Autenrieth, A Homeric Dictionary, on the Perseus Digital Library. The name's popularity was spread throughout the Greek world by the military conquests of Alexander the Great. Most later Alexanders in various countries were directly or indirectly named after him. |
Alexander | People known as Alexander | People known as Alexander
Alexander has been the name of many rulers, including kings of Macedon, of Scotland, emperors of Russia and popes. |
Alexander | Rulers of antiquity | Rulers of antiquity
Alexander (Alexandros of Ilion), more often known as Paris of Troy
Alexander of Corinth, 10th king of Corinth (816–791 BC)
Alexander I of Macedon
Alexander II of Macedon
Alexander the Great
Alexander IV of Macedon
Alexander V of Macedon
Alexander of Pherae despot of Pherae between 369 and 358 BC
Alexander I of Epirus king of Epirus about 342 BC
Alexander II of Epirus king of Epirus 272 BC
Alexander of Corinth, viceroy of Antigonus Gonatas and ruler of a rump state based on Corinth c. 250 BC
Alexander (satrap) (died 220 BC), satrap of Persis under Seleucid king Antiochus III
Alexander Balas, ruler of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria between 150 and 146 BC
Alexander Zabinas, ruler of part of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria based in Antioch between 128 and 123 BC
Alexander Jannaeus king of Judea, 103–76 BC
Alexander of Judaea, son of Aristobulus II, king of Judaea
Alexander Severus (208–235), Roman emperor
Julius Alexander, lived in the 2nd century, an Emesene nobleman
Domitius Alexander, Roman usurper who declared himself emperor in 308 |
Alexander | Rulers of the Middle Ages | Rulers of the Middle Ages
Alexander, Byzantine Emperor (912–913)
Alexander I of Scotland (c. 1078–1124)
Alexander II of Scotland (1198–1249)
Alexander Nevsky (1220–1263), Prince of Novgorod and Grand Prince of Vladimir
Alexander III of Scotland (1241–1286)
Nicholas Alexander of Wallachia, Voivode of Wallachia (died 1364)
Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria, tsar of Bulgaria (beginnings of the 14th century – 1371)
Aleksandr Mikhailovich of Tver, Prince of Tver as Alexander I and Grand Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal as Alexander II (1301–1339)
Aleksander (1338–before 1386), Prince of Podolia (son of Narymunt)
Alexander II of Georgia (1483–1510)
Eskender, Emperor of Ethiopia (1472–1494)
Alexander Jagiellon (Alexander of Poland), King of Poland (1461–1506) |
Alexander | Modern rulers | Modern rulers
Alexander I of Russia (1777–1825), emperor of Russia
Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881), emperor of Russia
Alexander III of Russia (1845–1894), emperor of Russia
Alexander Karađorđević, Prince of Serbia (1842–1858)
Alexander of Bulgaria (1857–1893), first prince of modern Bulgaria
Alexander I Obrenović of Serbia (1876–1903), king of Serbia
Alexander, Prince of Lippe (1831–1905), prince of Lippe
Alexander I of Yugoslavia (1888–1934), first king of Yugoslavia
Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia (born 1945), head of the Yugoslav Royal Family
Zog I, also known as Skenderbeg III (1895–1961), king of Albanians
Alexander of Greece (1893–1920), king of Greece
Leka, Crown Prince of Albania (1939–2011), king of Albanians (throne pretender)
Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands (born 1967), eldest child of Queen Beatrix and Prince Claus |
Alexander | Other royalty | Other royalty
Alexander, Judean Prince, one of the sons of Herod the Great from his wife Mariamne
Alexander Helios, Ptolemaic prince, one of the sons of Cleopatra and Mark Anthony
Alexander, Judean Prince, son to the above Alexander and Cappadocian princess Glaphyra
Alexander (d. 1418), son of Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman
Prince Alexander John of Wales (1871), short-lived son of Edward VII
Prince Alfred of Edinburgh and Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1874–1899)
Olav V of Norway (Prince Alexander of Denmark) (1903–1991) |
Alexander | Religious leaders | Religious leaders
Pope Alexander I (pope 97–105)
Alexander of Apamea, 5th-century bishop of Apamea
Pope Alexander II (pope 1058–1061)
Pope Alexander III (pope 1159–1181)
Pope Alexander IV (pope 1243–1254)
Pope Alexander V ("Peter Philarges" c. 1339–1410)
Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503), Roman pope
Pope Alexander VII (1599–1667)
Pope Alexander VIII (pope 1689–1691)
Alexander of Constantinople, bishop of Constantinople (314–337)
St. Alexander of Alexandria, Coptic Pope, Patriarch of Alexandria between 313 and 328
Pope Alexander II of Alexandria, Coptic Pope (702–729)
Alexander of Lincoln, bishop of Lincoln
Alexander of Jerusalem
See also Saint Alexander, various saints with this name |
Alexander | Other people | Other people |
Alexander | Antiquity | Antiquity
Alexander (artists), the name of a number of artists of ancient Greece and Rome
Alexander of Lyncestis (died 330 BC), contemporary of Alexander the Great
Alexander (son of Polyperchon) (died 314 BC), regent of Macedonia
Alexander (Antigonid general), 3rd-century BC cavalry commander under Antigonus III Doson
Alexander of Athens, 3rd-century BC Athenian comic poet
Alexander Aetolus (), poet and member of the Alexandrian Pleiad
Alexander (son of Lysimachus) (), Macedonian royal
Alexander (grandson of Seleucus I Nicator) (), Greek Anatolian nobleman
Alexander (Aetolian general), briefly conquered Aegira in 220 BC
Alexander of Acarnania (died 191 BC), confidant of Antiochus III the Great
Alexander Isius (), Aetolian military commander
Alexander Lychnus, early 1st-century BC poet and historian
Alexander Philalethes, 1st century BC physician
Alexander Polyhistor, Greek scholar of the 1st century BC
Alexander of Myndus, ancient Greek writer on zoology and divination
Alexander of Aegae, peripatetic philosopher of the 1st century AD
Alexander of Cotiaeum, 2nd-century Greek grammarian and tutor of Marcus Aurelius
Alexander Numenius, 2nd-century Greek rhetorician
Alexander Peloplaton, 2nd-century Greek rhetorician
Alexander of Abonoteichus (), Greek religious leader and imposter
Alexander of Aphrodisias (), Greek commentator and philosopher
Alexander of Lycopolis, 4th-century author of an early Christian treatise against Manicheans
Alexander, a member of the Jerusalem Temple Sanhedrin mentioned in Acts 4:6 |
Alexander | Middle Ages | Middle Ages
Alexander of Hales, English theologian in the 13th century |
Alexander | Modern | Modern
Alexander (magician) (1880–1954), American stage magician specializing in mentalism |
Alexander | People with the given name | People with the given name
People with the given name Alexander or variants include:
Technoblade (1999–2022), American YouTuber, real name Alexander, surname not made public
Alexander Aigner (1909–1988), Austrian mathematician
Aleksandr Akimov (1953–1986), Russian nuclear engineer who died in Chernobyl
Alexander Albon (born 1996), Thai-British racing driver
Aleksander Allila (1890–?), Finnish politician
Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov (1883–1946), Russian composer
Alexander Argov (1914–1995), Russian-born Israeli composer
Alexander Armah (born 1994), American football player
Alexander Armstrong (born 1970), British comedian and singer
Aleksandr Averbukh (born 1974), Israeli pole vaulter
Alex Baldock (born 1970), British businessman
Alec Baldwin (born Alexander Rae Baldwin III, 1958), American actor
Alexander Björk (born 1990), Swedish golfer
Alexander Borodin (1833–1887), Russian composer
Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), Scottish inventor of the first practical telephone
Aleksander Barkov (born 1995), Finnish ice hockey player
Alexander Calder (1898–1976), American sculptor best known for making mobiles
Aleksandr Davidovich (disambiguation), several people
Alexander Davidson (disambiguation), several people
Alexander Day (disambiguation), several people
Alexander Nicholas de Abrew Abeysinghe (1894–1963), Sri Lankan Sinhala politician
Alex DeBrincat (born 1997), American ice hockey player
Alexander Davidovich Dilman (born 1976), Russian organic chemist
Aleksandar Djordjevic (born 1967), Serbian basketball player
Alexander Dubček (1921–1992), leader of Czechoslovakia (1968–1969)
Alex Ebert (born 1978), American singer-songwriter
Alexander Gee (born 1963), community leader and pastor in Madison, Wisconsin
Alexander Lee (born 1988), also known as Alexander or Xander, South Korean singer, member of U-KISS
Alexander Exarch (1810–1891), Bulgarian revivalist, publicist and journalist, participant in the struggle for an independent Bulgarian Exarchate
Alex Ferguson (born 1941), Scottish football player and manager
Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), Scottish discoverer of penicillin
Alexander Zusia Friedman (1897–1943), Polish rabbi, educator, activist, and journalist
Aleksander Gabelic (born 1965), Swedish politician
Alex Galchenyuk (born 1994), American ice hockey player
Alexander Gardner (disambiguation), multiple people
Alexander Glazunov (1865–1936), Russian composer
Alexander Goldberg (born 1974), British rabbi, barrister, and human rights activist
Alexander Goldberg (chemical engineer), Israeli chemical engineer and President of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
Alexander Goldscheider (born 1950), Czech/British composer, producer and writer
Alexander Gomelsky (1928–2005), Russian head coach of USSR basketball national team for 30 years
Alexander Gordon (disambiguation), several people
Aleksandr Gordon (1931–2020), Russian-Soviet director, screenwriter and actor
Aleksandr Gorelik (1945–2012), Soviet figure skater
Alexander Gould (born 1994), American actor
Alexander Grothendieck (1928–2014), German-born French mathematician
Alexander Gustafsson (born 1987), Swedish mixed martial arts fighter
Alexander Haig (1924–2010), American general and politician
Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804), first United States Secretary of the Treasury and one of the founding fathers of the United States
Alexander Hamilton Jr. (1786–1875), American attorney and son of Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton Jr. (1816–1889), son of James Alexander Hamilton and grandson of Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Haugg (born 1968), German actor
Alexander Held (born 1958), German actor
Alexander Henn, German anthropologist
Alexander Henry (1823–1883), mayor of Philadelphia
Alex Higgins (1949–2010), Northern Irish snooker player
Alexander Hollins (born 1996), American football player
Alexander Holtz (born 2002), Swedish ice hockey player
Alex Horne (born 1978), British comedian
Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Prussian naturalist and explorer
Alexander Ilečko (1937–2023), Slovak sculptor
Alexander Isak (born 1999), Swedish Football Player
Alexander Isakov (1730-1794), Russian major general
Alex Israel (born 1982), American artist
Alex Israel, founder of Metropolis Technologies
Alex Jones (born 1974), American radio show host and conspiracy theorist
Aleksandr Kamshalov (1932–2019), Soviet politician
Alex Kapranos (born 1972), Scottish musician, author, songwriter and producer, front-man of Franz Ferdinand
Aleksandar Katai (born 1991), Serbian footballer
Alexander Kerensky (1881–1970) leader of Russian Provisional Government
Alexander Kerfoot (born 1994), Canadian ice hockey player
Alex Killorn (born 1989), Canadian ice hockey player
Alexander Klaws (born 1983), German singer and songwriter
Alexander Klingspor (born 1977), Swedish painter and sculptor
Aleksandr Kogan (born 1985/86), Moldovan-born American psychologist and data scientist
Alexander Korda (1893–1956), Hungarian film director
Alexander Kucheryavenko (born 1987), Russian ice hockey player
Aleksander Kwaśniewski (born 1954), former President of Poland
Aleksander Lesser (1814–1884), Polish painter, illustrator, and art critic
Alexander Levinsky (1910–1990), Canadian ice hockey player
Alexander Ivanovich Levitov (1835–1877), Russian writer
Alexander Lévy (born 1990), French golfer
Alexander Ludwig (born 1992), Canadian actor
Alexander "Sandy" Lyle (born 1958), Scottish golfer
Alexander Lukashenko (born 1954), President of Belarus
Alex Manninger (born 1977), Austrian footballer
Alexander "Ali" Marpet (born 1993), American football player
Aleksandr Marshal (born 1957), Russian singer, songwriter, and musician
Alexander Mattison (born 1998), American football player
Alexander McClure (1828–1909), American politician, editor and writer
Alexander Lyell McEwin (1897–1988), known as Lyell McEwin, Australian politician, Minister for Health
Alexander McQueen (1969–2010), British fashion designer and couturier
Alexander Michel Melki (born 1992), Swedish-Lebanese footballer
Alexander Mirsky (born 1964), Latvian politician
Alexander Francis Molamure (1888–1951), 1st Speaker of the State Council of Ceylon and 1st Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka
Aleksandr Nikolayev (disambiguation), several people
Alexander Nikolov (boxer) (born 1940), Bulgarian boxer
Alex Norén (born 1982), Swedish golfer
Alexander Nylander (born 1998), Swedish ice hockey player
Alexander O'Neal (born 1953), American singer
Alexander Ovechkin (born 1985), Russian hockey player
Alexander Patch (1889–1945), American general during World War II
Aleksandr Panayotov, Russian-Ukrainian singer and songwriter
Alexander Pechtold (born 1965), Dutch politician
Alexander Penn (1906–1972), Israeli poet
Alexander Perera Jayasuriya (1901–1980), Sri Lankan Sinhala MP and Cabinet Minister
Alexander Pichushkin (born 1974), prolific Russian serial killer
Alex Pietrangelo (born 1990), Canadian ice hockey player
Alexander Piorkowski (1904–1948), German Nazi SS concentration camp commandant executed for war crimes
Alexander Ponomarenko (born 1964), Russian billionaire businessman
Alexander Pope (1688–1744), English poet
Alexander Popov (disambiguation), several people
Alexander Ptushko (1900–1973), Russian film director
Alexander Pushkin (1799–1837), Russian writer
Alexander Radulov (born 1986), Russian ice hockey player
Alexander Raevsky (aviator) (1887–1937), Russian aviator
Alexander Ragoza (1858–1919), Russian general in World War I
Alexander Edmund de Silva Wijegooneratne Samaraweera Rajapakse (1866–1937), Sri Lankan Sinhala politician
Alexander Rendell (born 1990), Thai actor and singer
Alex Rodriguez (born 1975), Major League Baseball star, won 3 AL MVP awards, also known as A-Rod
Alexander Rou (1906–1973), Russian film director
Alexander Rowe (born 1992), Australian athlete
Alexander Rudolph ("Al McCoy"; 1894–1966), American boxer
Alexander Russell (born 2002), Welsh cricketer
Alexander Rybak (born 1986), Belarusian-born Norwegian artist and violinist
Alexander Salkind (1921–1997), French film producer
Alex Salmond (1954–2024), Scottish politician, first minister of Scotland (2007–2014)
Alexander Scholz (born 1992), Danish footballer
Alexander Scriabin (1872–1915), Russian composer and pianist
Alexander Selkirk (1676–1721), Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer
Alexander Semin (born 1984), Russian hockey player
Aleksander Serov (born 1954), Russian singer
Alexander Serov (1820–1871), Russian composer
Alexander Shatilov (born 1987), Uzbek-Israeli artistic gymnast
Alexander Theodore "Sasha" Shulgin (1925–2014), American chemist, psychopharmacologist, and author
Alexander Sieghart (born 1994), Thai footballer
Alexander Skarsgård (born 1976), Swedish actor
Alexander Stafford, British politician
Alexander Stavenitz (1901–1960), Russian Empire-born American visual artist and educator
Alex Stitt (1939-2016), Australian graphic designer and animator
Alexander Suvorov (1730–1800), Russian military leader, considered a national hero, Count of Rymnik, Count of the Holy Roman Empire, Prince of Italy, and the last Generalissimo of the Russian Empire
Alexander McCall Smith (born 1948), Scottish writer
Alexander Solonik (1960–1997), Russian murder victim
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008), Russian writer, Nobel laureate, Soviet dissident
Alexander Steen (born 1984), Swedish ice hockey player
Alexander Stubb (born 1968), Finnish politician, president of Finland 2024–2030
Alexander Thorburn (1836–1894), Canadian politician
Alexander Tikhonov (born 1947), Russian biathlete
Alex Turner (born 1986), British musician, songwriter and producer, front-man of Arctic Monkeys and The Last Shadow Puppets
Alexander Vainberg (born 1961), Russian politician
Lex van Dam (born 1968), Dutch trader and TV personality
Alexander Van der Bellen (born 1944), President of Austria
Alexander Varchenko (born 1949), Russian mathematician
Aleksander Veingold (born 1953), Estonian and Soviet chess player and coach
Alexander Verkhovskiy (born 1956), Russian entrepreneur
Aleksandr Verkhovsky (1886–1938), Russian military and political figure
Aleksandr Vlasov (disambiguation), several people
Alexander Volkanovski (born 1988), UFC Fighter
Alexander Voltz (born 1999), Australian composer
Alexander Wennberg (born 1994), Swedish ice hockey player
Alexander Vika (1933–2025), Slovak sculptor
Alexander Wilson (disambiguation), several people
Alexander Wijemanne, Sri Lankan Sinhala lawyer and politician
Alex Zanardi (born 1966), Italian racing driver and paracyclist
Aleksandar Zečević (born 1996), Serbian basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Oleksandr Zubov (born 1983), Ukrainian chess player and Grandmaster
Oleksandr Usyk (born 1987), Ukrainian professional boxer
Alexander Zverev (born 1997), German tennis player |
Alexander | In other languages | In other languages
Afrikaans: Alexander
Albanian: Aleksandër
Albanian diminutive: Leka
Amharic: እስክንድር (Isikinidiri, Eskender)
Arabic: (Iskandar)
Armenian: Ալեքսանդր (Aleksandr)
Asturian: Alexandru, Xandru
Azerbaijani: İsgəndər/Исҝәндәр/ایسگندر, Aleksandr/Александр/آلئکساندر
Basque: Alesander
Belarusian: Аляксандр (Aliaksandr), Алесь (Ales)
Bengali: আলেকজান্ডার (Alēkjānḍār), সিকান্দার (Sikāndār), ইস্কান্দার (Iskāndār)
Bulgarian: Александър (Aleksandŭr), Сашко (Sashko)
Catalan: Alexandre/Aleixandre
Chinese:
Historical:
Traditional: , Simplified: , Baxter-Sagart:
Traditional and Simplified: , Baxter Romanization: 'a lejH sanH
Contemporary: Traditional: , Simplified: , Pinyin: Yàlìshāndà, Jyutping: aa3 lik6 saan1 daai6, Wugniu: iá-liq-sé-da, BUC: Ā-lĭk-săng-dâi
Czech: Alexandr, Alexander
Danish: Aleksander, Alexander
Dutch: Alexander
Esperanto: Aleksandro
Estonian: Aleksander
English: Alexander
Finnish: Aleksanteri
French: Alexandre
Galician: Alexandre
Georgian: ალექსანდრე (Aleksandre)
German: Alexander
Greek
Mycenaean Greek: 𐀀𐀩𐀏𐀭𐀅𐀫 (Aléxandros)
Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος (Aléxandros)
Koine Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος (Aléxandros)
Modern Greek: Αλέξανδρος (Aléxandros)
Hawaiian: Alekanekelo
Hebrew: אלכסנדר (Aleksander)
Hindi: सिकंदर (Sikandar)
Hungarian: Sándor, Alexander, Elek
Icelandic: Alexander
Indonesian: Iskandar, Alexander
Irish: Alastar
Italian: Alessandro
Japanese: アレキサンダー (Arekisandā)
Korean: 알렉산더 (Alleksandeo)
Kazakh: Искандер (Iskander)
Kyrgyz: Искендер (Iskender)
Latin: Alexander
Latvian: Aleksandrs
Lithuanian: Aleksandras
Macedonian: Александар (Aleksandar), Сашко (Sashko, Saško)
Malay: Iskandar
Malayalam
Syriac Origin : ചാണ്ടി (t͡ʃaːɳʈI), ഇടിക്കുള (IʈIkkʊɭa)
Greek Origin : അലക്സിയോസ് (alaksIyos), അലക്സി (alaksI)
Anglican Origin : അലക്സാണ്ടര് (alaksa:ndar), അലക്സ് (alaks)
Mongolian: Александр (Alyeksandr)
Norwegian: Aleksander, Alexander
Pashto: سکندر (Sikandar)
Persian: (Aleksânder), (Eskandar)
Polish: Aleksander
Portuguese: Alexandre, Alexandro, Alessandro, Leandro
Punjabi: Sikandar
Romanian: Alexandru, Alex, Sandu
Russian: Александр (Aleksandr), Саша (Sasha)
Rusyn: Александер (Aleksander)
Sanskrit: अलक्षेन्द्र (Alakṣendra)
Scottish Gaelic: Alasdair
Scots: Alastair, Alistair, Alister, Sandy
Serbo-Croatian: Александар / Aleksandar
Slovak: Alexander
Slovene: Aleksander
Spanish: Alejandro
Swedish: Alexander
Tagalog: Alejandro
Turkish: İskender
Ukrainian: Олександр (Oleksandr, sometimes anglicized Olexander), Сашко (Sashko), Олесь (Oles), Олелько (Olelko)
Urdu: سکندر (Sikandar)
Valencian: Alecsandro, Aleksandro, Aleixandre, Alexandre
Vietnamese: Alexander, A Lịch San
Welsh: Alexander
Yiddish: אלעקסאנדער (Aleksander), סענדער (Sender) |
Alexander | Variants and diminutives | Variants and diminutives
Alex
Alexsander
Alexey
Sasha/Sash
Sandy
Xander |
Alexander | See also | See also
Alex (disambiguation)
Alexander (surname)
Alexandra
Hera Alexandros, epithet of the Greek goddess Hera
Justice Alexander (disambiguation)
|
Alexander | References | References
Category:Armenian masculine given names
Category:Czech masculine given names
Category:Danish masculine given names
Category:Dutch masculine given names
Category:English-language masculine given names
Category:English masculine given names
Category:German masculine given names
Category:Irish masculine given names
Category:Given names of Greek language origin
Category:Masculine given names
Category:Norwegian masculine given names
Category:Russian masculine given names
Category:Slavic masculine given names
Category:Swedish masculine given names
Category:Welsh masculine given names
Category:Welsh given names |
Alexander | Table of Content | About, Etymology, People known as Alexander, Rulers of antiquity, Rulers of the Middle Ages, Modern rulers, Other royalty, Religious leaders, Other people, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Modern, People with the given name, In other languages, Variants and diminutives, See also, References |
Alexander I | '''Alexander I''' | Alexander I may refer to:
Alexander I of Macedon, king of Macedon from 495 to 454 BC
Alexander I of Epirus (370–331 BC), king of Epirus
Alexander I Theopator Euergetes, surnamed Balas, ruler of the Seleucid Empire 150-145 BC
Pope Alexander I (died 115), early bishop of Rome
Pope Alexander I of Alexandria (died 320s), patriarch of Alexandria
Alexander I of Scotland ( – 1124), king of Scotland
Aleksandr Mikhailovich of Tver (1301–1339), prince of Tver as Alexander I
Alexander I of Georgia (1386–?), king of Georgia
Alexander I of Moldavia (died 1432), prince of Moldavia
Alexander I of Kakheti (1445–1511), king of Kakheti
Alexander Jagiellon (1461–1506), king of Poland
Alexander I of Russia (1777–1825), emperor of Russia
Alexander of Battenberg (1857–1893), prince of Bulgaria
Alexander I of Serbia (1876–1903), king of Serbia
Alexander I of Yugoslavia (1888–1934), king of Yugoslavia
Alexander of Greece (1893–1920), king of Greece |
Alexander I | See also | See also
King Alexander (disambiguation) |
Alexander I | Table of Content | '''Alexander I''', See also |
Alexander II | '''Alexander II''' | Alexander II may refer to:
Alexander II of Macedon, king of Macedon from 370 to 368 BC
Alexander II of Epirus (died 260 BC), king of Epirus in 272 BC
Alexander II Zabinas, king of the Greek Seleucid kingdom in 128–123 BC
Alexander (Byzantine emperor) ruled from 912-913
Pope Alexander II of Alexandria, ruled from 702 to 729
Patriarch Alexander II of Alexandria
Pope Alexander II (died 1073), pope from 1061 to 1073
Alexander II of Scotland (1198–1249), king of Scots
Alexander II of Imereti (died 1510), king of Georgia and of Imereti
Alexander II of Kakheti (1527–1605), king of Kakheti
Alexander II Mircea
Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881), emperor of Russia
Alexander II of Yugoslavia (born 1945), crown prince of Serbia |
Alexander II | See also | See also
King Alexander (disambiguation) |
Alexander II | Table of Content | '''Alexander II''', See also |
Alexander III | '''Alexander III''' | Alexander III may refer to:
Alexander III of Macedon (356 BC – 323 BC), also known as Alexander the Great
Alexander (Byzantine emperor) (870–913), Byzantine emperor
Pope Alexander III (1100s–1181)
, grand duke of Vladimir (1328–1331), prince of Suzdal
Alexander III of Scotland (1241–1286), king of Scotland
Alexander III of Imereti (1609–1660), king of Imereti
Alexander III of Russia (1845–1894), emperor of Russia
, an arch bridge that spans the Seine in Paris
Russian battleship , Russian warship
Alexander III of Antioch (1869–1958), Greek Orthodox patriarch of Antioch |
Alexander III | See also | See also
King Alexander (disambiguation) |
Alexander III | Table of Content | '''Alexander III''', See also |
Alexander Aetolus | Short description | Alexander Aetolus (, Alexandros ho Aitōlos) or Alexander the Aetolian was a Hellenistic Greek poet and grammarian, who worked at the Library of Alexandria and composed poetry in a variety of genres, now almost entirely lost. He is the only known Aetolian poet of antiquity.Knaack 1894; Dover 1996. |
Alexander Aetolus | Life and works | Life and works
Alexander was a native of Pleuron in Aetolia. A contemporary of Callimachus and Theocritus, he was born c. 315 BC, and according to the Suda the names of his parent were Satyros and Stratokleia.Knaack 1894; Dover 1996; Suda, α 1127 = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 106–107, test. 1. By the 280s he was one of a group of literary scholars working at the Library of Alexandria, where Ptolemy II Philadelphus commissioned him to organize and correct the texts of the tragedies and satyr plays in the collection of the Library.Dover 1996; Lightfoot 2009, pp. 110–115, test. 7. Later, along with Antagoras and Aratus, he spent time at the court of the Macedonian king Antigonus II Gonatas.Schmitz 1870; Knaack 1894; Dover 1996; Lightfoot 2009, pp. 106–111, test. 2–6.
In addition to his work as a scholar, Alexander was a versatile poet who produced verse in a variety of meters and genres, although only about 70 lines of his work survive, mostly in short fragments quoted by later sources.Olson 2000. He was admired for his tragedies, which earned him a place among the seven Alexandrian tragedians who constituted the so-called Tragic Pleiad.Schmitz 1870; Knaack 1894; Dover 1996; Suda, α 1127 = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 106–107, test. 1. One of his tragedies (or perhaps a satyr play),Spanoudakis 2005. the Astragalistai ("Knucklebone-players"), described the killing of a fellow student by the young Patroklos.Dover 1996; Scholiast to Iliad 2386 = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 134–135, fr. 17. Alexander also wrote epics or epyllia, of which a few names and short fragments survive: the Halieus ("Fisherman"), about the sea-god Glaukos,Knaack 1894; Athenaeus 7.296e = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 120–123, fr. 3. and the Krika or Kirka (perhaps "Circe"?)Knaack 1894; Olson 2000; Athenaeus 7.283a = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 122–123, fr. 4. The interpretation of the title is uncertain, and Athenaeus indicates that there was doubt about the authenticity of the poem. The longest surviving example of his work is a 34-line excerpt from the Apollo, a poem in elegiac couplets, which tells the story of Antheus and Cleoboea.Dover 1996; preserved in Parthenius 14 = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 594–599. A few other elegiac fragments are quoted by other authors,Athenaeus 15.699c; Macrobius, Saturnalia 5.22.4–5; Strabo 12.4.8 (C566). and two epigrams in the Greek Anthology are usually considered his work.AP 7.709, A. Plan 4.172 = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 118–119, fr. 1 and 2; see Gow and Page 1965 for discussion of other epigrams sometimes attributed to him. Ancient sources also describe him as a writer of kinaidoi (obscene verses, known euphemistically as "Ionic poems") in the manner of Sotades.Knaack 1894; Lightfoot 2009, pp. 102; Strabo 14.1.41 (C648) and Athenaeus 14.620e, 136–137 = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 136–137, fr. 18a, b. A short fragment in anapestic tetrameters compares the gruff and sullen personality of Euripides with the honeyed quality of his poetry.Dover 1996; Aulus Gellius 15.20 = Lightfoot 2009, pp. 138–139, fr. 19. The attribution of these verses is uncertain; see Lloyd-Jones 1994. |
Alexander Aetolus | Editions | Editions
A. Meineke, Analecta alexandrina (Berlin 1843), pp. 215–251.
J. U. Powell, Collectanea alexandrina: Reliquiae minores poetarum graecorum aetatis ptolemaicae, 323–146 A.C. (Oxford 1925), pp. 121–129.
E. Magnelli, Alexandri Aetoli testimonia et fragmenta (Florence 1999).
J. L. Lightfoot, Hellenistic Collection (Loeb Classical Library: Cambridge, Mass. 2009), pp. 99–145 (with English translation). |
Alexander Aetolus | References | References |
Alexander Aetolus | Sources | Sources
Dover, K. 1996. "Alexander of Pleuron", Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Oxford, p. 60.
Gow, A. S. F., and D. L. Page. 1965. The Greek Anthology: Hellenistic Epigrams, Cambridge, vol. 2, pp. 27–29.
Knaack, G. 1894. "Alexandros 84", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft I.2, 1894, cols. 1447–1448.
Lightfoot, J. L., ed. 2009. Hellenistic Collection, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Mass., pp. 99–145.
Lloyd-Jones, H. 1994. "Alexander Aetolus, Aristophanes, and the Life of Euripides", Storia poesia e pensiero nel mondo antico: Studi in onore di M. Gigante, Naples, pp. 371–379.
Olson, S. 2000. review of Enrico Magnelli, Alexandri Aetoli testimonia et fragmenta, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2000.11.14.
Spanoudakis, K. 2005. "Alexander Aetolus' Astragalistai", Eikasmos 16, pp. 149–154.
Category:Ancient Aetolians
Category:Ancient Greek tragic poets
Category:Ancient Greek epic poets
Category:Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology
Category:Ancient Greek elegiac poets
Category:3rd-century BC Greek poets
Category:Ptolemaic court
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death unknown |
Alexander Aetolus | Table of Content | Short description, Life and works, Editions, References, Sources |
Alexander Jannaeus | Use dmy dates | Alexander Jannaeus ( ;DGRBM, "Alexander Jannaeus"; RE, "Alexandros 24" Yannaʾy;Corpus Inscriptioum Iudaeae/Palaestinae vol. 3, De Gruyter, [ p. 53] born Jonathan ) was the second king of the Hasmonean dynasty, who ruled over an expanding kingdom of Judaea from 103 to 76 BCE. A son of John Hyrcanus, he inherited the throne from his brother Aristobulus I, and married his brother's widow, Queen Salome Alexandra. From his conquests to expand the kingdom to a bloody civil war, Alexander's reign has been described as cruel and oppressive with never-ending conflict. The major historical sources of Alexander's life are Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish War.
thumb|A bronze prutah coin of Alexander Jannaeus. Obverse: the Paleo-Hebrew inscription "Jonathan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews". Reverse: a pair of Cornucopias or Horns of Plenty, which were a Hellenistic and Roman symbol. The pomegranate in the center of the coin gives it a Jewish aspect. Pomegranate appears on many Hasmonean coins. Itamar Atzmon Collection
The kingdom reached its greatest territorial extent under Alexander Jannaeus, incorporating most of Palestine's Mediterranean coastline and regions surrounding the Jordan River. Alexander also had many of his subjects killed for their disapproval of his handling of state affairs. Due to his territorial expansion and adverse interactions with his subjects, he was continuously embroiled with foreign wars and domestic turmoil. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Family | Family
Alexander Jannaeus was the third son of John Hyrcanus by his second wife. When Aristobulus I, Hyrcanus' son by his first wife, became king, he deemed it necessary for his own security to imprison his half-brother. Aristobulus died after a reign of one year. Upon his death, his widow, Salome Alexandra had Alexander and his brothers released from prison. One of these brothers is said to have unsuccessfully sought the throne.
Alexander, as the oldest living brother, had the right not only to the throne, but also to Salome, the widow of his deceased brother, who had died childless. Although she was thirteen years older than him, he married her in accordance with the Jewish law of levirate marriage. By her he had two sons: the eldest, Hyrcanus II, became high priest in 62 BCE; and Aristobulus II, who was high priest from 66 – 62 BCE and started a bloody civil war with his brother, ending in his capture by Pompey the Great.
Like his brother, Alexander was an avid supporter of the aristocratic priestly faction known as the Sadducees. His wife Salome came from a Pharisaic family. Her brother was Simeon ben Shetach, a famous Pharisee leader. Salome was more sympathetic to their cause, and protected them throughout his turbulent reign.
Like his father, Alexander served as high priest. This raised the ire of the Pharisees, who insisted that these two offices should not be combined. According to the Talmud, Alexander was a questionable desecrated priest, rumour had it that his mother was captured in Modi'in and violated, and, in the opinion of the Pharisees, was not allowed to serve in the temple. This infuriated the king and he sided with the Sadducees who defended him. This incident led the king to turn against the Pharisees, and he persecuted them until his death. |
Alexander Jannaeus | War with Ptolemy Lathyrus | War with Ptolemy Lathyrus
Alexander's first expedition was against the city of Ptolemais. While Alexander went ahead to besiege the city, Zoilus of Dora took the opportunity to see if he could relieve Ptolemais in hopes of establishing his rule over coastal territories. Alexander's Hasmonean army quickly defeated Zoilus's forces. Ptolemais then requested aid from Ptolemy IX Lathyros, who had been banished by his mother Cleopatra III. Ptolemy had founded a kingdom in Cyprus after being cast out by his mother.
The situation at Ptolemais was seized as an opportunity by Ptolemy to possibly gain a stronghold and control the Judean coast in order to invade Egypt by sea. An individual named Demaenetus convinced the inhabitants of their imprudence in requesting Ptolemy's assistance. They realised that by allying themselves with Ptolemy, they had unintentionally declared war on Cleopatra. When Ptolemy arrived at the city, the inhabitants denied him access.
Alexander too didn't want to be involved in a war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy, so he abandoned his campaign against Ptolemais and returned to Jerusalem. After offering Ptolemy four hundred talents and a peace treaty in return for Zoilus's death, Alexander met him with treachery by negotiating an alliance with Cleopatra. Once he had formed an alliance with Ptolemy, Alexander continued his conquests by capturing the coastal cities of Dora and Straton's Tower.
As soon as Ptolemy learned of Alexander's scheme, he was determined to kill him. Ptolemy put Ptolemais under siege, but left his generals to attack the city, while he continued to pursue Alexander. Ptolemy's pursuit caused much destruction in the Galilee region. Here he captured Asochis on the Sabbath, taking ten thousand people as prisoners. Ptolemy also initiated an unsuccessful attack on Sepphoris. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Battle of Asophon | Battle of Asophon
Ptolemy and Alexander engaged in battle at Asophon near the Jordan River. Estimated to have fifty to eighty thousand soldiers, Alexander's army consisted of both Jews and pagans. At the head of his armed forces were his elite pagan mercenaries. They were specialised in Greek-style phalanx. One of Ptolemy's commanders, Philostephanus, began the first attack by crossing the river that divided both forces.
The Hasmoneans had the advantage. Philostephanus held back a certain amount of his forces whom he sent to recover lost ground. Perceiving them as vast reinforcements, Alexander's army fled. Some of his retreating forces tried to push back, but quickly dispersed as Ptolemy's forces pursued Alexander's fleeing army. Thirty to fifty thousand Hasmonean soldiers died.
Ptolemy's forces at Ptolemais succeeded in capturing the city. He then continued to conquer much of the Hasmonean kingdom, occupying the entirety of northern Judea, the coast, and territories east of the Jordan River. While doing so, he pillaged villages and ordered his soldiers to cannibalise women and children to create psychological fear towards his enemies. At the time, Salome Alexandra was notified of Cleopatra's approach to Judea. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Intervention of Cleopatra III | Intervention of Cleopatra III
Realising that her son had amassed a formidable force in Judea, Cleopatra appointed Jewish generals Ananias and Chelkias to command her forces. She went with a fleet towards Judea. When Cleopatra arrived at Ptolemais, the people refused her entry, so she besieged the city. Ptolemy, believing Syria was defenseless, withdrew to Cyprus after his miscalculation. While in pursuit of Ptolemy, Chelkias died in Coele-Syria.
The war abruptly came to an end with Ptolemy fleeing to Cyprus. Alexander then approached Cleopatra. Bowing before her, he requested to retain his rule. Cleopatra was urged by her subordinates to annex Judea. Ananias demanded she consider the residential Egyptian Jews who were the main support of her throne. This induced Cleopatra to modify her longings for Judea. Alexander met her demands and suspended his campaigns. These negotiations took place at Scythopolis. Cleopatra died five years later. Confident, after her death, Alexander found himself free to continue with new campaigns. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Transjordan and coastal conquest | Transjordan and coastal conquest
right|thumb|The Hasmonean Kingdom under Alexander Jannaeus
Alexander captured Gadara and fought to capture the strong fortress of Amathus in the Transjordan region, but was defeated. He was more successful in his expedition against the coastal cities, capturing Raphia and Anthedon. In 96 BCE, Jannaeus defeated the inhabitants of Gaza. This victory gained Judean control over the Mediterranean outlet of the main Nabataean trade route. Alexander initially returned his focus back to the Transjordan region where, avenging his previous defeat, he destroyed Amathus. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Battle of Gaza | Battle of Gaza
Determined to proceed with future campaigns despite his initial defeat at Amathus, Alexander set his focus on Gaza. A victory against the city wasn't so easily achieved. Gaza's general Apollodotus strategically employed a night attack against the Hasmonean army. With a force of two thousand less-skilled soldiers and ten thousand slaves, Gaza's military was able to deceive the Hasmonean army into believing they were being attacked by Ptolemy. The Gazans killed many and the Hasmonean army fled the battle. When morning exposed the delusive tactic, Alexander continued his assault but lost a thousand additional soldiers.
The Gazans remained defiant in hopes that the Nabataean kingdom would come to their aid. The city eventually suffered defeat due to its own leadership. Gaza at the time was governed by two brothers, Lysimachus and Apollodotus. Lysimachus convinced the people to surrender, and Alexander peacefully entered the city. Though he at first seemed peaceful, Alexander suddenly turned against the inhabitants. Some men killed their wives and children out of desperation, to ensure they wouldn't be captured and enslaved. Others burned down their homes to prevent the soldiers from plundering. The town council and five hundred civilians took refuge at the Temple of Apollo, where Alexander had them massacred. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Judean Civil War | Judean Civil War |
Alexander Jannaeus | War with Obodas I | War with Obodas I
The Judean Civil War initially began after the conquest of Gaza around 99 BCE. Due to Jannaeus's victory at Gaza, the Nabataean kingdom no longer had direct access to the Mediterranean Sea. Alexander soon captured Gadara, which together with the loss of Gaza caused the Nabataeans to lose their main trade routes leading to Rome and Damascus. After losing Gadara, the Nabataean king Obodas I launched an attack against Alexander in a steep valley at Gadara, where Alexander barely managed to escape. After his defeat in the Battle of Gadara, Jannaeus returned to Jerusalem, and was met with fierce Jewish opposition. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Feast of Tabernacles | Feast of Tabernacles
During the Jewish holiday Sukkot, Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as the High Priest at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his displeasure against the Pharisees by refusing to perform the water libation ceremony properly: instead of pouring it on the altar, he poured it on his feet. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting him with etrogim (citrons). They made the situation worse by insulting him. They called him a descendant of a captive woman and unsuitable to hold office and to sacrifice. Outraged, he killed six thousand people. Alexander also had wooden barriers built around the altar and the temple preventing people from going near him. Only the priests were permitted to enter. This incident during the Feast of Tabernacles was a major factor leading up to the Judean Civil War. |
Alexander Jannaeus | War with Demetrius III and conclusion of the Civil War | War with Demetrius III and conclusion of the Civil War
thumb|Alexander Jannaeus feasting during the crucifixion of the Pharisees, engraving by Willem Swidde, 17th century
After Jannaeus succeeded early in the war, the rebels asked for Seleucid assistance. Judean insurgents joined forces with Demetrius III Eucaerus to fight against Jannaeus. Alexander had gathered six thousand two hundred mercenaries and twenty thousand Jews for battle. Demetrius had forty thousand soldiers and three thousand horses. There were attempts from both sides to persuade each other to abandon positions, but were unsuccessful. The Seleucid forces defeated Jannaeus at Shechem, and all of Alexander's mercenaries were killed in battle.
This defeat forced Alexander to take refuge in the mountains. In sympathy towards Jannaeus, six thousand Judean rebels ultimately returned to him. In fear of this news, Demetrius withdrew. War between Jannaeus and the rebels who returned to him continued. They fought until Alexander achieved victory. Most of the rebels died in battle, while the remaining rebels fled to the city of Bethoma until they were defeated.
Jannaeus had brought the surviving rebels back to Jerusalem where he had eight hundred Jews, primarily Pharisees, crucified. Before their deaths, Alexander had the rebels' wives and children executed before their eyes as Jannaeus ate with his concubines. Alexander later returned the land he had seized in Moab and Galaaditis from the Nabataeans in order to have them end their support for the Jewish rebels. The remaining rebels who numbered eight thousand, fled by night in fear of Alexander. Afterward, all rebel hostility ceased and Alexander's reign continued undisturbed. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Final campaigns | Final campaigns
From 83 to 80 BCE, Alexander continued campaigning in the east. The Nabataean king Aretas III managed to defeat Alexander in battle. However, Alexander continued expanding the Hasmonean kingdom into Transjordan. In Gaulanitis, he captured the cities of Golan, Seleucia, and Gamala. In Galaaditis, the cities of Pella, Dium, and Gerasa. Alexander had Pella destroyed because its inhabitants refused to Judaize.
He is believed to have expanded and fortified the Hasmonean palace near Jericho. |
Alexander Jannaeus | Death | Death
thumb|Swimming pool at the Hasmonean palace near Jericho, believed to have been built by Alexander
For the last three years of his life, Alexander Jannaeus suffered from the combined effects of alcoholism and quartan ague (malaria).
After a reign of 27 years, he died c. 76 BCE at the age of fifty-one, during the siege of Ragaba.
In Josephus's "Antiquities," he presents an account that differs from his earlier "War" and Syncellus's accounts. According to Josephus, Jannaeus fell fatally ill on the battlefield at Ragaba, with his wife Salome Alexandra present. Jannaeus instructed her to hide his death until she captured Ragaba and to subsequently share power with the Pharisees. He also requested that she allow the Pharisees to abuse his corpse, believing they would then give him an honorable burial, despite this request violating Deuteronomy 21:22-23. This request is interpreted as Jannaeus seeking atonement for previously violating this commandment by abusing the bodies of crucified Pharisees. Kenneth Atkinson writes that Josephus's style and wording suggest Jannaeus died in Jerusalem and never reached Ragaba. Josephus may have concealed this fact to hide the undignified nature of this death.
Alexander's reign ended with a significant political decision, naming his wife as successor and granting her the authority to appoint the next high priest. |
Alexander Jannaeus | References | References |
Alexander Jannaeus | Bibliography | Bibliography
Category:2nd-century BC births
Category:76 BC deaths
Category:2nd-century BC Hasmonean monarchs
Category:1st-century BC Hasmonean monarchs
Category:2nd-century BCE high priests of Israel
Category:1st-century BCE high priests of Israel |
Alexander Jannaeus | Table of Content | Use dmy dates, Family, War with Ptolemy Lathyrus, Battle of Asophon, Intervention of Cleopatra III, Transjordan and coastal conquest, Battle of Gaza, Judean Civil War, War with Obodas I, Feast of Tabernacles, War with Demetrius III and conclusion of the Civil War, Final campaigns, Death, References, Bibliography |
Alexander IV | '''Alexander IV''' | Alexander IV may refer to:
Pope Alexander IV (1199 or –1261)
Alexander IV of Macedon (323 BC–309 BC), son of Alexander the Great
Alexander IV of Imereti (died 1695), of the Bagrationi Dynasty, king of Imereti (western Georgia) |
Alexander IV | Table of Content | '''Alexander IV''' |
Alexander V | '''Alexander V''' | Alexander V may refer to:
Alexander V of Macedon (died 294 BCE)
Antipope Alexander V (–1410)
Alexander V of Imereti (–1752)
|
Alexander V | Table of Content | '''Alexander V''' |
Alexandrists | Short description | The Alexandrists were a school of Renaissance philosophers who, in the great controversy on the subject of personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the De Anima given by Alexander of Aphrodisias.
According to the orthodox Thomism of the Catholic Church, Aristotle rightly regarded reason as a facility of the individual soul. Against this, the Averroists, led by Agostino Nifo, introduced the modifying theory that universal reason in a sense individualizes itself in each soul and then absorbs the active reason into itself again. These two theories respectively evolved the doctrine of individual and universal immortality, or the absorption of the individual into the eternal One.
The Alexandrists, led by Pietro Pomponazzi, assailed these beliefs and denied that either was rightly attributed to Aristotle. They held that Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore a mortal entity which operates during life only under the authority of universal reason. Hence the Alexandrists denied that Aristotle viewed the soul as immortal, because in their view, since they believed that Aristotle viewed the soul as organically connected with the body, the dissolution of the latter involves the extinction of the former. |
Alexandrists | References | References
Attribution
Category:Christian philosophers |
Alexandrists | Table of Content | Short description, References |
Alexios I Komnenos | short description | Alexios I Komnenos (, – 15 August 1118), Latinized as Alexius I Comnenus, was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. After usurping the throne, he was faced with a collapsing empire and constant warfare throughout his reign, Alexios was able to curb the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the Komnenian restoration. His appeals to Western Europe for help against the Seljuk Turks were the catalyst that sparked the First Crusade. Although he was not the first emperor of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during his reign that the Komnenos family came to full power and initiated a hereditary succession to the throne.
The son of John Komnenos and a nephew of Isaac I Komnenos, Alexios served with distinction under three Byzantine emperors. In 1081, he led a rebellion against Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates and took the throne for himself. He immediately faced an invasion of the western Balkans by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemond. Despite initial defeats, Alexios secured an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and drove back the Normans, recovering most of Byzantine losses by 1085. In 1091, he achieved a decisive victory over the Pechenegs at the Battle of Levounion in Thrace with the help of Cuman allies.
Later in the 1090s, Alexios directed his attention towards Asia Minor, most of which had fallen to the Seljuk Turks. Desiring western support, he took reconciliatory measures towards the Papacy, and in 1095 his envoys made a formal appeal to Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza. At the subsequent Council of Clermont, Pope Urban formally called the First Crusade, which began a year after and concluded with much of western Anatolia restored to Byzantine rule. On Alexios' death in 1118, he was suceeeded by his son John II Komnenos. Alexios' reign and campaigns were recorded by his daughter Anna Komnene in her Alexiad, a political and military history, which she named after her father. |