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Antoninus Pius | Economy and administration | Economy and administration
thumb|An aureus of Antoninus Pius, 145 AD. Inscription: ANTONINVS PIVS / IIII
Antoninus was regarded as a skilled administrator and builder. Despite an extensive building directive—the free access of the people of Rome to drinking water was expanded with the construction of aqueducts, not only in Rome but throughout the Empire, as well as bridges and roads—the emperor still managed to leave behind a sizable public treasury of around 2.7 billion sesterces. Rome would not witness another Emperor leaving his successor with a surplus for a long time, but the treasury was depleted almost immediately after Antoninus's reign due to the Antonine Plague brought back by soldiers after the Parthian victory.
The Emperor also famously suspended the collection of taxes from multiple cities affected by natural disasters, such as when fires struck Rome and Narbona, and earthquakes affected Rhodes and the Province of Asia. He offered hefty financial grants for rebuilding and recovery of various Greek cities after two serious earthquakes: the first, , which mainly affected Rhodes and other islands; the second, in 152, which hit Cyzicus (where the huge and newly built Temple to Hadrian was destroyedBarbara Burrell. Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. Leiden: Brill, 2004, , p. 87), Ephesus, and Smyrna. Antoninus's financial help earned him praise from Greek writers such as Aelius Aristides and Pausanias.E.E. Bryant, The Reign of Antoninus Pius. Cambridge University Press: 1895, pp. 45–46, 68. These cities received the usual honorific accolades from Antoninus, such as when he commanded that all governors of Asia should enter the province when taking office through Ephesus.Conrad Gempf, ed., The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1994, , p. 305 Ephesus was especially favoured by Antoninus, who confirmed and upheld its distinction of having two temples for the imperial cult (neocorate), therefore having first place in the list of imperial honor titles, surpassing both Smyrna and Pergamon.Emmanuelle Collas-Heddeland, "Le culte impérial dans la compétition des titres sous le Haut-Empire. Une lettre d'Antonin aux Éphésiens". In: Revue des Études Grecques, tome 108, Juillet-décembre 1995. pp. 410–429. Available at . Retrieved 22 January 2016; Edmund Thomas,(2007): Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine Age. Oxford U. Press, , p. 133
In his dealings with Greek-speaking cities, Antoninus followed the policy adopted by Hadrian of ingratiating himself with local elites, especially with local intellectuals: philosophers, teachers of literature, rhetoricians, and physicians were explicitly exempted from any duties involving private spending for civic purposes, a privilege granted by Hadrian that Antoninus confirmed by means of an edict preserved in the Digest (27.1.6.8).Philip A. Harland, ed., Greco-Roman Associations: Texts, translations and commentaries. II: North Coast of the Black Sea, Asia Minor . Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2014, , p. 381 Antoninus also created a chair for the teaching of rhetoric in Athens.Paul Graindor, "Antonin le Pieux et Athènes". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, tome 6, fasc. 3–4, 1927. pp. 753–756. Available at . Retrieved 22 January 2016
Antoninus was known as an avid observer of rites of religion and formal celebrations, both Roman and foreign. He is known for having increasingly formalized the official cult offered to the Great Mother, which from his reign onwards included a bull sacrifice, a taurobolium, formerly only a private ritual, now being also performed for the sake of the Emperor's welfare.Gary Forsythe, Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History. London: Routledge, 2012, , p. 92 Antoninus also offered patronage to the worship of Mithras, to whom he erected a temple in Ostia.Samuel Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius. Library of Alexandria, s.d.g. In 148, he presided over the celebrations of the 900th anniversary of the founding of Rome. |
Antoninus Pius | Legal reforms | Legal reforms
thumb|Copy inscribed in marble of a letter from Antoninus to the Ephesians, from the Bouleuterion at Ephesus, 140–144 AD, explaining how the emperor resolved a dispute between the Roman cities of Ephesus and Smyrna. British Museum, London.
Antoninus tried to portray himself as a magistrate of the res publica, no matter how extended and ill-defined his competencies were. He is credited with splitting the imperial treasury, the fiscus. This splitting had to do with the division of imperial properties into two parts. Firstly, the fiscus itself, or patrimonium, meaning the properties of the "Crown", the hereditary properties of each succeeding person that sat on the throne, transmitted to his successors in office,Oxford Classical Dictionary, London: 2012, , entry "Patrimonium". regardless of their previous membership in the imperial family.After the death of Nero, the personal properties of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had been appropriated by the Flavians, and therefore turned into public properties: Carrié & Roussele, 586 Secondly, the res privata, the "private" properties tied to the personal maintenance of the emperor and his family,Carrié & Rousselle, 586 something like a Privy Purse. An anecdote in the Historia Augusta biography, where Antoninus replies to Faustina (who complained about his stinginess) that "we have gained an empire [and] lost even what we had before," possibly relates to Antoninus's actual concerns at the creation of the res privata.The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11: The High Empire, AD 70–192. Cambridge U.P., 2009, , p. 150 While still a private citizen, Antoninus had increased his personal fortune significantly using various legacies, the consequence of his caring scrupulously for his relatives.Edward Champlin, Final Judgments: Duty and Emotion in Roman Wills, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991, , p. 98 Also, Antoninus left behind him a reputation for stinginess and was probably determined not to leave his personal property to be "swallowed up by the demands of the imperial throne".
The res privata lands could be sold and/or given away, while the patrimonium properties were regarded as public.David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay. London: Routledge, 2014, , p. 49 It was a way of pretending that the Imperial function—and most properties attached to it—was a public one, formally subject to the authority of the Senate and the Roman people.Heinz Bellen, "Die 'Verstaatlichung' des Privatvermögens der römische Kaiser". Hildegard Temporini, ed., Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974, , p. 112 That the distinction played no part in subsequent political history—that the personal power of the princeps absorbed his role as office-holder—proves that the autocratic logic of the imperial order had already subsumed the old republican institutions.Aloys Winterling, Politics and Society in Imperial Rome. Malden, MA: John Wiley & sons, 2009, , pp. 73–75
Of the public transactions of this period, there is only the scantiest of information. However, to judge by what is extant, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful compared to those before and after the reign. However, Antoninus did take a great interest in the revision and practice of the law throughout the empire. One of his chief concerns was to having local communities conform their legal procedures to existing Roman norms: in a case concerning the repression of banditry by local police officers ("irenarchs", Greek for "peacekeepers") in Asia Minor, Antoninus ordered that these officers should not treat suspects as already condemned, and also keep a detailed copy of their interrogations, to be used in the possibility of an appeal to the Roman governor.Clifford Ando, Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press, 2012, , p. 91 Also, although Antoninus was not an innovator, he would not always follow the absolute letter of the law. Rather, he was driven by concerns over humanity and equality and introduced into Roman law many important new principles based upon this notion.
In this, the emperor was assisted by five chief lawyers: Lucius Fulvius Aburnius Valens, an author of legal treatises;John Anthony Crook, Consilium Principis: Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletian. Cambridge U.P.: 1955, p. 67 Lucius Ulpius Marcellus, a prolific writer; and three others. Of these three, the most prominent was Lucius Volusius Maecianus, a former military officer turned by Antoninus into a civil procurator, and who, given his subsequent career (discovered on the basis of epigraphical and prosopographic research), was the emperor's most important legal adviser.A. Arthur Schiller, Roman Law: Mechanisms of Development. The Hague: Mouton, 1978, , p. 477 Maecianus would eventually be chosen to occupy various prefectures (see below) as well as to conduct the legal studies of Marcus Aurelius. He also authored an extensive work on Fidei commissa (Testamentary Trusts). As a hallmark of the increased connection between jurists and the imperial government,George Mousourakis, Roman Law and the Origins of the Civil Law Tradition, Heidelberg: Springer, , p. 79 Antoninus's reign also saw the appearance of the Institutes of Gaius, an elementary legal textbook for beginners.
thumb|Gold aureus of Antoninus, 153 AD. ANTONINVS AVG PIVS PP TR P XVII
Antoninus passed measures to facilitate the enfranchisement of slaves. Mostly, he favoured the principle of favor libertatis, giving the putative freedman the benefit of the doubt when the claim to freedom was not clear-cut.Keith Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge University Press: 1994, , p. 162 Also, he punished the killing of a slave by their master without previous trialAubert, Jean-Jacques. "L'esclave en droit romain ou l'impossible réification de l'homme". Esclavage et travail forcé, Cahiers de la Recherche sur les droits fondamentaux (CRDF). Vol. 10. 2012. and determined that slaves could be forcibly sold to another master by a proconsul in cases of consistent mistreatment.Anastasia Serghidou, ed. Fear of slaves, fear of enslavement in the ancient Mediterranean. Presses Univ. Franche-Comté, 2007 , p. 159 Antoninus upheld the enforcement of contracts for selling of female slaves forbidding their further employment in prostitution.Jean-Michel Carrié & Aline Rousselle, L'Empire Romain en Mutation, des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337. Paris: Seuil 1999, , p. 290 In criminal law, Antoninus introduced the important principle of the presumption of innocence—namely, that accused persons are not to be treated as guilty before trial, as in the case of the irenarchs (see above). Antoninus also asserted the principle that the trial was to be held and the punishment inflicted in the place where the crime had been committed. He mitigated the use of torture in examining slaves by certain limitations. Thus, he prohibited the application of torture to children under fourteen years, though this rule had exceptions. However, it must be stressed that Antoninus extended, using a rescript, the use of torture as a means of obtaining evidence to pecuniary cases, when it had been applied up until then only in criminal cases.Digest, 48.18.9, as quoted by Edward Peters, Torture, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996, , p. 29 Also, already at the time torture of free men of low status (humiliores) had become legal, as proved by the fact that Antoninus exempted town councillors expressly from it, and also free men of high rank (honestiores) in general.Grant, pp. 154–155.
One highlight during his reign occurred in 148, with the 900th anniversary of the foundation of Rome being celebrated by hosting magnificent games in the city. It lasted many days, and a host of exotic animals were killed, including elephants, giraffes, tigers, rhinoceroses, crocodiles and hippopotamuses. While this increased Antoninus's popularity, the frugal emperor had to debase the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 89% to 83.5, the actual silver weight dropping from 2.88 grams to 2.68 grams.Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate"
Antoninus is a likely candidate for the Antoninus named multiple times in the Talmud as a friend of Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi. In the Talmudic tractate Avodah Zarah 10a–b, Rabbi Judah—exceptionally wealthy and highly revered in Rome—shared a close friendship with a man named Antoninus (possibly Antoninus Pius), who frequently sought his counsel on spiritual (in this context, Jewish), philosophical, and governance matters.A. Mischcon, Abodah Zara, p.10a Soncino, 1988. Mischcon cites various sources, "SJ Rappaport... is of opinion that our Antoninus is Antoninus Pius." Other opinions cited suggest "Antoninus" was Caracalla, Lucius Verus, or Alexander Severus. |
Antoninus Pius | Diplomatic mission to China | Diplomatic mission to China
thumb|Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China
The first group of people claiming to be an ambassadorial mission of Romans to China was recorded in 166 AD by the Hou Hanshu. Harper (2017) states that the embassy was likely to be a group of merchants, as many Roman merchants traveled to India and some might have gone beyond, while there are no records of official ambassadors of Rome travelling as far east. The group came to Emperor Huan of Han China and claimed to be an embassy from "Andun" (; for Anton-inus), "king of Daqin" (Rome)."... 其王常欲通使于汉，而安息欲以汉缯彩与之交市，故遮阂不得自达。至桓帝延熹九年，大秦王安敦遣使自日南徼外献象牙、犀角、瑇瑁，始乃一通焉。其所表贡，并无珍异，疑传者过焉。" 《后汉书·西域传》Translation:"... The king of this state always wanted to enter into diplomatic relations with the Han. But Anxi wanted to trade with them in Han silk and so put obstacles in their way, so that they could never have direct relations [with Han]. This continued until the ninth year of the Yanxi (延熹) reign period of Emperor Huan (桓) (A.D. 166), when Andun 安敦, king of Da Qin, sent an envoy from beyond the frontier of Rinan (日南) who offered elephant tusk, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise shell. It was only then that for the first time communication was established [between the two states]." "Xiyu Zhuan" of the Hou Hanshu (ch. 88)in .Chinese original: As Antoninus Pius died in 161, leaving the empire to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), and the envoy arrived in 166, confusion remains about who sent the mission, given that both emperors were named "Antoninus". The Roman mission came from the south (therefore probably by sea), entering China by the frontier province of Jiaozhi at Rinan or Tonkin (present-day northern Vietnam). It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell, probably acquired in South Asia.Hill (2009), p. 27 and nn. 12.18 and 12.20. The text states explicitly that it was the first time there had been direct contact between the two countries.For a full translation of that passage, see: Hill (2009), p. 27.
Furthermore, a piece of Republican-era Roman glassware has been found at a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou along the South China Sea, dated to the early 1st century BC. Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and perhaps even Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi. This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy () as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e., Malay Peninsula).For further information on Oc Eo, see Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been discovered in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the significantly greater amount of Roman coins unearthed in India suggest the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through ancient Iran. |
Antoninus Pius | Death and legacy | Death and legacy
thumb|Ruins of the triumphal arch of Antoninus Pius outside the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore in Eleusis, Greece, imitating Hadrian's Arch in Athens
In 156, Antoninus Pius turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions.
Marcus Aurelius had already been created consul with Antoninus in 140, receiving the title of Caesar, i.e., heir apparent.Geoffrey William Adams, Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013, , pp. 74–75. As Antoninus aged, Marcus took on more administrative duties. Marcus's administrative duties increased again after the death, in 156 or 157, of one of Antoninus's most trusted advisers, Marcus Gavius Maximus.
For twenty years, Gavius Maximus had been praetorian prefect, an office that was as much secretarial as military.Grant, The Antonines, 14 Gavius Maximus had been awarded with the consular insignia and the honours due a senator.Michael Petrus Josephus Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto. Leiden: Brill, 199, , p. 389 He had a reputation as a most strict disciplinarian (vir severissimus, according to Historia Augusta) and some fellow equestrian procurators held lasting grudges against him. A procurator named Gaius Censorius Niger died while Gavius Maximus was alive. In his will, Censorius Niger vilified Maximus, creating serious embarrassment for one of the heirs, the orator Fronto.Champlin, Final Judgments, 16
Gavius Maximus's death initiated a change in the ruling team. It has been speculated that it was the legal adviser Lucius Volusius Maecianus who assumed the role of grey eminence. Maecianus was briefly Praefect of Egypt, and subsequently Praefectus annonae in Rome. If it was Maecianus who rose to prominence, he may have risen precisely in order to prepare the incoming—and unprecedented—joint succession.Michel Christol, "Préfecture du prétoire et haute administration équestre à la fin du règne d'Antonin le Pieux et au début du règne de Marc Aurèle". In: Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz, 18, 2007. pp. 115–140. Available at . Accessed 27 January 2016 In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Perhaps Antoninus was already ill; in any case, he died before the year was out, probably on 7 March.
thumb|left|The bust of Antoninus Pius at the Museo del Prado, Madrid
Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria, about from Rome.Victor, 15:7 He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered: when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password, he responded, "aequanimitas" (equanimity). He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8 His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus (surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months). His record for the second-longest reign would be unbeaten for 168 years, until 329 when it was surpassed by Constantine the Great.
Antoninus Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, "elaborate".HA Marcus 7.10, tr. David Magie, cited in If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. However, it seems that this was not the case: according to his Historia Augusta biography (which seems to reproduce an earlier, detailed report) Antoninus's body (and not his ashes) was buried in Hadrian's mausoleum. After a seven-day interval (justitium), Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification.Robert Turcan, "Origines et sens de l'inhumation à l'époque impériale". In: Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 60, 1958, n°3–4. pp. 323–347. Available at . Accessed 14 January 2016 In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Antoninus, now Divus Antoninus.
A column was dedicated to Antoninus on the Campus Martius, and the temple he had built in the Forum in 141 to his deified wife Faustina was rededicated to the deified Faustina and the deified Antoninus. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda. |
Antoninus Pius | Historiography | Historiography
thumb|Arch of Antoninus Pius in Sbeïtla, Tunisia
thumb|Statue of Antoninus Pius, Palazzo Altemps, Rome
The only intact account of his life handed down to us is that of the Augustan History, an unreliable and mostly fabricated work. Nevertheless, it still contains information that is considered reasonably sound; for instance, it is the only source that mentions the erection of the Antonine Wall in Britain.Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 5:4
Antoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as Edward Gibbon or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
Some historians have a less positive view of his reign. According to the historian J. B. Bury,
German historian Ernst Kornemann has had it in his Römische Geschichte [2 vols., ed. by H. Bengtson, Stuttgart 1954] that the reign of Antoninus comprised "a succession of grossly wasted opportunities", given the upheavals that were to come. There is more to this argument, given that the Parthians in the East were themselves soon to make no small amount of mischief after Antoninus's death. Kornemann's brief is that Antoninus might have waged preventive wars to head off these outsiders. Michael Grant agrees that it is possible that had Antoninus acted decisively sooner (it appears that, on his death bed, he was preparing a large-scale action against the Parthians), the Parthians might have been unable to choose their own time, but current evidence is not conclusive. Grant opines that Antoninus and his officers did act in a resolute manner dealing with frontier disturbances of his time, although conditions for long-lasting peace were not created. On the whole, according to Grant, Marcus Aurelius's eulogistic picture of Antoninus seems deserved, and Antoninus appears to have been a conservative and nationalistic (although he respected and followed Hadrian's example of Philhellenism moderately) emperor who was not tainted by the blood of either citizen or foe, combined and maintained Numa Pompilius's good fortune, pacific dutifulness and religious scrupulousness, and whose laws removed anomalies and softened harshnesses.
Krzysztof Ulanowski argues that the claims of military inability are exaggerated, considering that although the sources praise Antoninus's love for peace and his efforts "rather to defend, than enlarge the provinces", he could hardly be considered a pacifist, as shown by the conquest of the Lowlands, the building of the Antonine Wall and the expansion of Germania Superior. Ulanowski also praises Antoninus for being successful in deterrence by diplomatic means. |
Antoninus Pius | Descendants | Descendants
Although only one of his four children survived to adulthood, Antoninus came to be ancestor to four generations of prominent Romans, including the Emperor Commodus. Hans-Georg Pflaum has identified five direct descendants of Antoninus and Faustina who were consuls in the first half of the third century.Pflaum, "Les gendres de Marc-Aurèle" , Journal des savants (1961), pp. 28–41
Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue
Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue
Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135), who married Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, suffect consul in 145;Ronald Syme, "Antonine Relatives: Ceionii and Vettuleni", Athenaeum, 35 (1957), p. 309 no children known for certain.
Annia Galeria Faustina the Younger (21 September between 125 and 130–175), had several children; those who had children were:Based on Table F, "The Children of Faustina II" in
Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (7 March 150–182?), whose children included:
Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus
Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (151–?), whose children included:
Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus
Empress Annia Faustina, Elagabalus's third wife
Annia Aurelia Fadilla (159 – after 211)
Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160–213) |
Antoninus Pius | References | References |
Antoninus Pius | Sources | Sources
Primary sources
Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 70, English translation
Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus", English translation
Historia Augusta, The Life of Antoninus Pius, English translation. Note that the Historia Augusta includes pseudohistorical elements.
Secondary sources
Kienast, Dietmar, Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie, Darmstadt, 1990.
This source lists:
Bossart-Mueller, Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A. (1868)
Bryant, The Reign of Antonine (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895)
Lacour-Gayet, A. le Pieux et son Temps (1888)
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Antoninus Pius | Further reading | Further reading
Hund, Ragnar (2017). Studien zur Außenpolitik der Kaiser Antoninus Pius und Marc Aurel im Schatten der Markomannenkriege [Studies on the foreign policy of the emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius in the shadow of the Marcomannic Wars]. Pharos, vol. 40. Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf, .
Michels, Christoph (2018). Antoninus Pius und die Rollenbilder des römischen Princeps. Herrscherliches Handeln und seine Repräsentation in der Hohen Kaiserzeit [Antoninus Pius and the role models of the Roman Princeps. Imperial activity and its representation in the High Imperial Age]. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, .
Rémy, Bernard (2005). Antonine le Pieux, 138–161. Le siècle d’or de Rome [Antoninus Pius, 138-161. The Golden Age of Rome]. Paris: Fayard, . |
Antoninus Pius | External links | External links
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Antoninus Pius | Table of Content | Short description, Early life, Childhood and family, Marriage and children, Favour with Hadrian, Emperor, Lack of warfare, Economy and administration, Legal reforms, Diplomatic mission to China, Death and legacy, Historiography, Descendants, References, Sources, Further reading, External links |
August 3 | pp-pc1 | |
August 3 | Events | Events |
August 3 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
8 – Roman Empire general Tiberius defeats the Dalmatae on the river Bosna.
435 – Deposed Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius, considered the originator of Nestorianism, is exiled by Roman Emperor Theodosius II to a monastery in Egypt.
881 – Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu: Louis III of France defeats the Vikings, an event celebrated in the poem Ludwigslied.
908 – Battle of Eisenach: An invading Hungarian force defeats an East Frankish army under Duke Burchard of Thuringia.
1031 – Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf by Grimketel, the English Bishop of Selsey.
1057 – Frederick of Lorraine elected as Pope Stephen IX.
1342 – The Siege of Algeciras commences during the Spanish Reconquista.
1492 – Christopher Columbus sets sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain.
1527 – The first known letter from North America is sent by John Rut while at St. John's, Newfoundland. |
August 3 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1601 – Long War: Austria captures Transylvania in the Battle of Goroszló.
1645 – Thirty Years' War: The Second Battle of Nördlingen sees French forces defeating those of the Holy Roman Empire.
1678 – Robert LaSalle builds the Le Griffon, the first known ship built on the Great Lakes.
1778 – The theatre La Scala in Milan is inaugurated with the première of Antonio Salieri's Europa riconosciuta.
1795 – Treaty of Greenville is signed, ending the Northwest Indian War in the Ohio Country.
1811 – First ascent of Jungfrau, third highest summit in the Bernese Alps by brothers Johann Rudolf and Hieronymus Meyer.
1829 – The Treaty of Lewistown is signed by the Shawnee and Seneca peoples, exchanging land in Ohio for land west of the Mississippi River.
1852 – Harvard University wins the first Boat Race between Yale University and Harvard. The race is also known as the first ever American intercollegiate athletic event.
1859 – The American Dental Association is founded in Niagara Falls, New York.
1900 – The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company is founded. |
August 3 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1903 – Macedonian rebels in Kruševo proclaim the Kruševo Republic, which exists for only ten days before Ottoman Turks lay waste to the town.
1907 – Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis fines Standard Oil of Indiana a record $29.4 million for illegal rebating to freight carriers; the conviction and fine are later reversed on appeal.
1914 – World War I: Germany declares war against France, while Romania declares its neutrality.
1921 – Major League Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis confirms the ban of the eight Chicago Black Sox, the day after they were acquitted by a Chicago court.
1936 – Jesse Owens wins the 100 metre dash, defeating Ralph Metcalfe, at the Berlin Olympics.
1936 – A fire wipes out Kursha-2 in the Meshchera Lowlands, Ryazan Oblast, Russia, killing 1,200 and leaving only 20 survivors.
1940 – World War II: Italian forces begin the invasion of British Somaliland.
1946 – Santa Claus Land, the world's first themed amusement park, opens in Santa Claus, Indiana, United States.
1948 – Whittaker Chambers accuses Alger Hiss of being a communist and a spy for the Soviet Union.
1949 – The Basketball Association of America and the National Basketball League finalize the merger that would create the National Basketball Association.
1958 – The world's first nuclear submarine, the USS Nautilus, becomes the first vessel to complete a submerged transit of the geographical North Pole.
1959 – Portugal's state police force PIDE fires upon striking workers in Bissau, Portuguese Guinea, killing over 50 people.
1960 – Niger gains independence from France.
1972 – The United States Senate ratifies the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
1975 – A privately chartered Boeing 707 strikes a mountain peak and crashes near Agadir, Morocco, killing 188.
1977 – Tandy Corporation announces the TRS-80, one of the world's first mass-produced personal computers.
1981 – Senegalese opposition parties, under the leadership of Mamadou Dia, launch the Antiimperialist Action Front – Suxxali Reew Mi.
1997 – Oued El-Had and Mezouara massacre in Algeria: A total of 116 villagers killed, 40 in Oued El-Had and 76 in Mezouara.
1997 – The tallest free-standing structure in the Southern Hemisphere, Sky Tower in downtown Auckland, New Zealand, opens after two-and-a-half years of construction.
2004 – The pedestal of the Statue of Liberty reopens after being closed since the September 11 attacks.
2005 – President of Mauritania Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya is overthrown in a military coup while attending the funeral of King Fahd in Saudi Arabia.
2007 – Former deputy director of the Chilean secret police Raúl Iturriaga is captured after having been on the run following a conviction for kidnapping.
2010 – Widespread rioting erupts in Karachi, Pakistan, after the assassination of a local politician, leaving at least 85 dead and at least 17 billion Pakistani rupees (US$200 million) in damage.
2014 – A 6.1 magnitude earthquake kills at least 617 people and injures more than 2,400 in Yunnan, China.
2014 – The genocide of Yazidis by ISIL begins.
2018 – Two burka-clad men kill 29 people and injure more than 80 in a suicide attack on a Shia mosque in eastern Afghanistan.
2019 – Six hundred protesters, including opposition leader Lyubov Sobol, are arrested in an election protest in Moscow, Russia.
2019 – Twenty-three people are killed and 22 injured in a mass shooting in El Paso, Texas.
2023 – Worst floods hit major parts of Slovenia. |
August 3 | Births | Births |
August 3 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
1442 – Galeotto I Pico, Duke of Mirandola (d. 1499)
1486 – Imperia Cognati, Italian courtesan (d. 1512)
1491 – Maria of Jülich-Berg, German noblewoman (d. 1543)
1509 – Étienne Dolet, French scholar and translator (d. 1546) |
August 3 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1622 – Wolfgang Julius, Count of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, German field marshal (d. 1698)
1692 – John Henley, English minister and poet (d. 1759)
1724 – Alvise Foscari, Venetian admiral (d. 1790)
1766 – Aaron Chorin, Hungarian rabbi and author (d. 1844)
1770 – Frederick William III of Prussia (d. 1840)
1803 – Joseph Paxton, English gardener and architect, designed The Crystal Palace (d. 1865)
1808 – Hamilton Fish, American lawyer and politician, 26th United States Secretary of State (d. 1893)
1811 – Elisha Otis, American businessman, founded the Otis Elevator Company (d. 1861)
1817 – Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen (d. 1895)
1823 – Thomas Francis Meagher, Irish-American revolutionary and military leader, territorial governor of Montana (d. 1867)
1832 – Ivan Zajc, Croatian composer, conductor, and director (d. 1914)
1837 – Julien Reverchon, French botanist (d. 1905)
1840 – John Bigham, 1st Viscount Mersey, English jurist and politician (d. 1929)
1850 – Reginald Heber Roe, English-Australian swimmer, tennis player, and academic (d. 1926)
1856 – Alfred Deakin, Australian lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1919)
1860 – William Kennedy Dickson, French-Scottish actor, director, and producer (d. 1935)
1863 – Géza Gárdonyi, Hungarian author and journalist (d. 1922)
1867 – Stanley Baldwin, English businessman and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1947)
1871 – Vernon Louis Parrington, American historian and scholar (d. 1929)
1872 – Haakon VII of Norway (d. 1957)
1886 – Maithili Sharan Gupt, Indian poet and playwright (d. 1964)
1887 – Rupert Brooke, English poet (d. 1915)
1887 – August Wesley, Finnish journalist, trade unionist, and revolutionary (d. ?)
1890 – Konstantin Melnikov, Russian architect, designed the Rusakov Workers' Club (d. 1974)
1894 – Harry Heilmann, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1951)
1895 – Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley, English politician (d. 1942)
1896 – Ralph Horween, American football player and coach (d. 1997)
1899 – Louis Chiron, Monegasque race car driver (d. 1979)
1900 – Ernie Pyle, American soldier and journalist (d. 1945)
1900 – John T. Scopes, American educator (d. 1970) |
August 3 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1901 – John C. Stennis, American lawyer and politician (d. 1995)
1901 – Stefan Wyszyński, Polish cardinal (d. 1981)
1902 – Regina Jonas, German rabbi (d. 1944)
1902 – David Buttolph, American film composer (d. 1983)
1903 – Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian journalist and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Tunisia (d. 2000)
1904 – Dolores del Río, Mexican actress (d. 1983)
1904 – Clifford D. Simak, American journalist and author (d. 1988)
1905 – Franz König, Austrian cardinal (d. 2004)
1907 – Lawrence Brown, American trombonist and composer (d. 1988)
1907 – Ernesto Geisel, Brazilian general and politician, 29th President of Brazil (d. 1996)
1907 – Yang Shangkun, Chinese politician, and 4th President of China (d. 1998)
1909 – Walter Van Tilburg Clark, American author and educator (d. 1971)
1911 – Alex McCrindle, Scottish actor and producer (d. 1990)
1912 – Fritz Hellwig, German politician (d. 2017)
1913 – Mel Tolkin, Ukrainian-American screenwriter and producer (d. 2007)
1916 – Shakeel Badayuni, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1970)
1916 – José Manuel Moreno, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 1978)
1917 – Les Elgart, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1995)
1918 – James MacGregor Burns, American historian, political scientist, and author (d. 2014)
1918 – Sidney Gottlieb, American chemist and theorist (d. 1999)
1918 – Larry Haines, American actor (d. 2008)
1918 – Eddie Jefferson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1979)
1920 – Norman Dewis, English test driver and engineer (d. 2019)
1920 – Max Fatchen, Australian journalist and author (d. 2012)
1920 – P. D. James, English author (d. 2014)
1920 – Charlie Shavers, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1971)
1920 – Elmar Tampõld, Estonian-Canadian architect (d. 2013)
1921 – Richard Adler, American composer and producer (d. 2012)
1921 – Hayden Carruth, American poet and critic (d. 2008)
1921 – Marilyn Maxwell, American actress (d. 1972)
1922 – John Eisenhower, American historian, general, and diplomat, 45th United States Ambassador to Belgium (d. 2013)
1923 – Jean Hagen, American actress (d. 1977)
1923 – Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria (d. 2012)
1924 – Connie Converse, American musician and singer-songwriter
1924 – Leon Uris, American soldier and author (d. 2003)
1925 – Marv Levy, American-Canadian football player, coach, and manager
1925 – Lewis Rowland, American neurologist (d. 2017)
1926 – Rona Anderson, Scottish actress (d. 2013)
1926 – Tony Bennett, American singer and actor (d. 2023)
1926 – Anthony Sampson, English journalist and author (d. 2004)
1926 – Gordon Scott, American actor (d. 2007)
1926 – Rushdy Abaza, Egyptian actor (d. 1980)
1928 – Cécile Aubry, French actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010)
1928 – Henning Moritzen, Danish actor (d. 2012)
1930 – James Komack, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1997)
1933 – Pat Crawford, Australian cricketer (d. 2009)
1934 – Haystacks Calhoun, American wrestler and actor (d. 1989)
1934 – Michael Chapman, English bassoon player (d. 2005)
1934 – Jonas Savimbi, Angolan general, founded UNITA (d. 2002)
1935 – John Erman, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2021)
1935 – Georgy Shonin, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and cosmonaut (d. 1997)
1935 – Vic Vogel, Canadian pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2019)
1936 – Jerry G. Bishop, American radio and television host (d. 2013)
1936 – Edward Petherbridge, English actor
1937 – Steven Berkoff, English actor, director, and playwright
1937 – Roland Burris, American lawyer and politician, 39th Illinois Attorney General
1937 – Duncan Sharpe, Pakistani-Australian cricketer
1938 – Terry Wogan, Irish radio and television host (d. 2016)
1939 – Jimmie Nicol, English drummer
1939 – Apoorva Sengupta, Indian general and cricketer (d. 2013)
1940 – Lance Alworth, American football player
1940 – Martin Sheen, American actor and producer
1940 – James Tyler, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2010)
1941 – Beverly Lee, American singer
1941 – Martha Stewart, American businesswoman, publisher, and author, founded Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia
1943 – Béla Bollobás, Hungarian-English mathematician and academic
1943 – Princess Christina, Mrs. Magnuson of Sweden
1943 – Steven Millhauser, American novelist and short story writer
1944 – Morris Berman, American historian and social critic LCNAF: Library of Congress Name Authority Files
1944 – Nino Bravo, Spanish singer (d. 1973)
1945 – Eamon Dunphy, Irish footballer and journalist
1946 – Robert Ayling, English businessman
1946 – Jack Straw, English lawyer and politician, Shadow Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
1946 – John York, American bass player, songwriter, and producer
1947 – Ralph Wright, English footballer (d. 2020)
1948 – Jean-Pierre Raffarin, French lawyer and politician, 166th Prime Minister of France
1949 – Philip Casnoff, American actor and director
1949 – B. B. Dickerson, American bass player and songwriter (d. 2021)
1949 – Sue Slipman, English politician
1950 – Linda Howard, American author
1950 – John Landis, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
1950 – Jo Marie Payton, American actress and singer
1950 – Ernesto Samper, Colombian economist and politician, 29th President of Colombia
1951 – Marcel Dionne, Canadian ice hockey player
1951 – Jay North, American actor (d. 2025)
1952 – Osvaldo Ardiles, Argentinian footballer and manager
1953 – Ian Bairnson, Scottish saxophonist and keyboard player (d. 2023)
1953 – Marlene Dumas, South African painter
1954 – Michael Arthur, English physician and academic
1954 – Gary Peters, English footballer and manager
1956 – Kirk Brandon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1956 – Todd Christensen, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2013)
1956 – Dave Cloud, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2015)
1956 – Balwinder Sandhu, Indian cricketer and coach
1957 – Bodo Rudwaleit, German footballer and manager
1957 – Kate Wilkinson, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 11th New Zealand Minister of Conservation
1958 – Lindsey Hilsum, English journalist and author
1958 – Ana Kokkinos, Australian director and screenwriter
1959 – Martin Atkins, English drummer and producer
1959 – Mike Gminski, American basketball player and sportscaster
1959 – John C. McGinley, American actor and producer
1959 – Koichi Tanaka, Japanese chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate
1960 – Tim Mayotte, American tennis player and coach
1960 – Gopal Sharma, Indian cricketer
1961 – Molly Hagan, American actress
1961 – Nick Harvey, English politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces
1961 – Lee Rocker, American bassist
1963 – Tasmin Archer, English pop singer
1963 – Frano Botica, New Zealand rugby player and coach
1963 – James Hetfield, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1963 – David Knox, Australian rugby player
1963 – Ed Roland, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1963 – Lisa Ann Walter, American actress, producer, and screenwriter
1963 – Isaiah Washington, American actor and producer
1964 – Lucky Dube, South African singer and keyboard player (d. 2007)
1964 – Ralph Knibbs, British rugby union player
1964 – Nate McMillan, American basketball player and coach
1964 – Kevin Sumlin, American football player and coach
1964 – Abhisit Vejjajiva, English-Thai economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Thailand
1966 – Brent Butt, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter
1966 – Gizz Butt, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1966 – Eric Esch, American wrestler, boxer, and mixed martial artist
1966 – Robert Laimer, Austrian politician
1967 – Mathieu Kassovitz, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
1967 – Skin, English singer and guitarist
1968 – Rod Beck, American baseball player (d. 2007)
1969 – Doug Overton, American basketball player and coach
1970 – Stephen Carpenter, American guitarist and songwriter
1970 – Gina G, Australian singer-songwriter
1970 – Masahiro Sakurai, Japanese video game designer
1971 – Forbes Johnston, Scottish footballer (d. 2007)
1971 – DJ Spinderella, American DJ, rapper, producer, and actress
1972 – Sandis Ozoliņš, Latvian ice hockey player and politician
1973 – Jay Cutler, American bodybuilder
1973 – Nikos Dabizas, Greek footballer
1973 – Michael Ealy, American actor
1973 – Chris Murphy, American politician
1975 – Wael Gomaa, Egyptian footballer
1975 – Argyro Strataki, Greek heptathlete
1976 – Troy Glaus, American baseball player
1977 – Tom Brady, American football player
1977 – Justin Lehr, American baseball player
1977 – Óscar Pereiro, Spanish cyclist and footballer
1978 – Joi Chua, Singaporean singer-songwriter and actress
1978 – Mariusz Jop, Polish footballer
1978 – Jenny Tinmouth, English motorcycle racer
1978 – Dimitrios Zografakis, Greek footballer
1979 – Evangeline Lilly, Canadian actress
1980 – Nadia Ali, Libyan-American singer-songwriter
1980 – Dominic Moore, Canadian ice hockey player
1980 – Tony Pashos, American football player
1980 – Brandan Schieppati, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1980 – Hannah Simone, Canadian television host and actress
1981 – Fikirte Addis, Ethiopian fashion designer
1981 – Travis Bowyer, American baseball player
1981 – Pablo Ibáñez, Spanish footballer
1982 – Kaspar Kokk, Estonian skier
1982 – Jesse Lumsden, Canadian bobsledder and football player
1982 – Damien Sandow, American wrestler
1983 – Ryan Carter, American ice hockey player
1983 – Mark Reynolds, American baseball player
1984 – Yasin Avcı, Turkish footballer
1984 – Sunil Chhetri, Indian footballer
1984 – Matt Joyce, American baseball player
1984 – Ryan Lochte, American swimmer
1984 – Chris Maurer, former bassist of ska band Suburban Legends
1985 – Georgina Haig, Australian actress
1985 – Brent Kutzle, American bass player and producer
1985 – Ats Purje, Estonian footballer
1985 – Sonny Bill Williams, New Zealand rugby player and boxer
1986 – Charlotte Casiraghi, Monégasque journalist, co-founded Ever Manifesto
1986 – Darya Domracheva, Belarusian biathlete
1987 – Kim Hyung-jun, South Korean singer and dancer
1987 – Chris McQueen, Australian-English rugby league player
1988 – Denny Cardin, Italian footballer
1988 – Leigh Tiffin, American football player
1988 – Sven Ulreich, German footballer
1989 – Jules Bianchi, French race car driver (d. 2015)
1989 – Sam Hutchinson, English footballer
1989 – Tyrod Taylor, American football player
1989 – Nick Viergever, Dutch footballer
1990 – Jourdan Dunn, English model
1990 – Kang Min-kyung, South Korean singer
1992 – Gamze Bulut, Turkish runner
1992 – Gesa Felicitas Krause, German runner
1992 – Diāna Marcinkēviča, Latvian tennis player
1992 – Aljon Mariano, Filipino basketball player
1992 – Lum Rexhepi, Finnish footballer
1992 – Karlie Kloss, American fashion model
1993 – Ola Abidogun, English sprinter
1993 – Yurina Kumai, Japanese singer
1994 – Kwon Alexander, American football player
1994 – Manaia Cherrington, New Zealand rugby league player
1994 – Esther Earl, American author, vlogger, and online personality. (d. 2010) Celebrated annually as Esther day
1994 – Todd Gurley, American football player
1994 – Younghoe Koo, South Korean-born American football player
1995 – Zac Gallen, American baseball player
1995 – Victoria Kan, Russian tennis player
1996 – Alec Bohm, American baseball player
1996 – Bokondji Imama, Canadian ice hockey player
1996 – Derwin James, American football player
1997 – Luis Robert Jr., Cuban baseball player
1999 – Zach Wilson, American football player
1999 – Brahim Díaz, Spanish-Moroccan footballer
1999 – Yoo Yeon-jung, South Korean singer |
August 3 | Deaths | Deaths |
August 3 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
908 – Burchard, duke of Thuringia
908 – Egino, duke of Thuringia
908 – Rudolf I, bishop of Würzburg
925 – Cao, Chinese empress dowager
979 – Thietmar, margrave of Meissen
1003 – At-Ta'i, Abbasid caliph (b. 929)
1355 – Bartholomew de Burghersh, 1st Baron Burghersh, English nobleman
1460 – James II, king of Scotland (b. 1430)
1527 – Scaramuccia Trivulzio, Italian cardinal
1530 – Francesco Ferruccio, Italian captain (b. 1489)
1546 – Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect, designed the Apostolic Palace (b. 1484)
1546 – Étienne Dolet, French scholar and translator (b. 1509) |
August 3 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1604 – Bernardino de Mendoza, Spanish commander and diplomat (b. 1540)
1621 – Guillaume du Vair, French lawyer and author (b. 1556)
1712 – Joshua Barnes, English historian and scholar (b. 1654)
1720 – Anthonie Heinsius, Dutch politician (b. 1641)
1721 – Grinling Gibbons, Dutch-English sculptor and woodcarver (b. 1648)
1761 – Johann Matthias Gesner, German scholar and academic (b. 1691)
1773 – Stanisław Konarski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1700)
1780 – Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, French epistemologist and philosopher (b. 1715)
1792 – Richard Arkwright, English engineer and businessman (b. 1732)
1797 – Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, English field marshal and politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1717)
1805 – Christopher Anstey, English author and poet (b. 1724)
1835 – Wenzel Müller, Austrian composer and conductor (b. 1767)
1839 – Dorothea von Schlegel, German author and translator (b. 1763)
1857 – Eugène Sue, French author and politician (b. 1804)
1866 – Gábor Klauzál, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Agriculture (b. 1804)
1867 – Philipp August Böckh, German historian and scholar (b. 1785)
1877 – William B. Ogden, American businessman and politician, 1st Mayor of Chicago (b. 1805)
1879 – Joseph Severn, English painter (b. 1793)
1894 – George Inness, American painter (b. 1825) |
August 3 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1913 – William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1844)
1916 – Roger Casement, Irish poet and activist (b. 1864)
1917 – Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, German mathematician and academic (b. 1849)
1920 – Peeter Süda, Estonian organist and composer (b. 1883)
1922 – Ture Malmgren, Swedish journalist and politician (b. 1851)
1924 – Joseph Conrad, British novelist (b. 1857)
1925 – William Bruce, Australian cricketer (b. 1864)
1929 – Emile Berliner, German-American inventor and businessman, invented the phonograph (b. 1851)
1929 – Thorstein Veblen, American economist and sociologist (b. 1857)
1936 – Konstantin Konik, Estonian surgeon and politician, 19th Estonian Minister of Education (b. 1873)
1942 – Richard Willstätter, German-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1872)
1943 – Frumka Płotnicka, Polish resistance fighter during World War II (b. 1914)
1949 – Ignotus, Hungarian poet and author (b. 1869)
1954 – Colette, French novelist and journalist (b. 1873)
1958 – Peter Collins, English race car driver (b. 1931)
1959 – Herb Byrne, Australian footballer (b. 1887)
1961 – Hilda Rix Nicholas, Australian artist (b. 1884)
1964 – Flannery O'Connor, American short story writer and novelist (b. 1925)
1966 – Lenny Bruce, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1925)
1968 – Konstantin Rokossovsky, Marshal of the Soviet Union during World War II (b. 1896)
1969 – Alexander Mair, Australian politician, 26th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1889)
1972 – Giannis Papaioannou, Turkish-Greek composer (b. 1913)
1973 – Richard Marshall, American general (b. 1895)
1974 – Edgar Johan Kuusik, Estonian architect and interior designer (b. 1888)
1975 – Andreas Embirikos, Greek poet and photographer (b. 1901)
1977 – Makarios III, Cypriot archbishop and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Cyprus (b. 1913)
1977 – Alfred Lunt, American actor and director (b. 1892)
1979 – Bertil Ohlin, Swedish economist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)
1979 – Angelos Terzakis, Greek author and playwright (b. 1907)
1983 – Carolyn Jones, American actress (b. 1930)
1992 – Wang Hongwen, Chinese labor activist and politician, member of the Gang of Four (b. 1935)
1995 – Ida Lupino, English-American actress and director (b. 1918)
1995 – Edward Whittemore, American soldier and author (b. 1933)
1996 – Jørgen Garde, Danish admiral (b. 1939)
1997 – Pietro Rizzuto, Italian-Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1934)
1998 – Alfred Schnittke, Russian composer and journalist (b. 1934)
1999 – Rod Ansell, Australian hunter (b. 1953)
1999 – Byron Farwell, American historian and author (b. 1921)
2000 – Joann Lõssov, Estonian basketball player and coach (b. 1921)
2001 – Christopher Hewett, English actor and director (b. 1922)
2003 – Roger Voudouris, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1954)
2004 – Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (b. 1908)
2005 – Françoise d'Eaubonne, French author and poet (b. 1920)
2006 – Arthur Lee, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1945)
2006 – Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, German-English soprano and actress (b. 1915)
2007 – John Gardner, English author (b. 1926)
2007 – Peter Thorup, Danish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1948)
2008 – Skip Caray, American sportscaster (b. 1939)
2008 – Erik Darling, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933)
2008 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian novelist, dramatist and historian, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918)
2009 – Nikolaos Makarezos, Greek soldier and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1919)
2010 – Bobby Hebb, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938)
2011 – William Sleator, American author (b. 1945)
2011 – Bubba Smith, American football player and actor (b. 1945)
2012 – Frank Evans, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1921)
2012 – Martin Fleischmann, Czech-English chemist and academic (b. 1927)
2012 – Paul McCracken, American economist and academic (b. 1915)
2012 – John Pritchard, American basketball player (b. 1927)
2012 – George Shanard, American politician and agribusinessman (b. 1926)
2013 – John Coombs, English-Monegasque race car driver and businessman (b. 1922)
2013 – Jack English Hightower, American lawyer and politician (b. 1926)
2013 – Jack Hynes, Scottish-American soccer player and manager (b. 1920)
2014 – Miangul Aurangzeb, Pakistani captain and politician, 19th Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (b. 1928)
2014 – Edward Clancy, Australian cardinal (b. 1923)
2014 – Dorothy Salisbury Davis, American author (b. 1916)
2014 – Kenny Drew, Jr., American pianist and composer (b. 1958)
2014 – Lydia Yu-Jose, Filipino political scientist and academic (b. 1944)
2015 – Robert Conquest, English-American historian, poet, and academic (b. 1917)
2015 – Mel Farr, American football player and businessman (b. 1944)
2015 – Coleen Gray, American actress (b. 1922)
2015 – Margot Loyola, Chilean singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1918)
2015 – Johanna Quandt, German businesswoman (b. 1926)
2015 – Jef Murray, American artist and author (b. 1960)
2020 – John Hume, Northern Irish politician (b. 1937)
2022 – Jackie Walorski, American politician (b. 1963)
2023 – Mark Margolis, American actor (b. 1939)
2023 – Bram Moolenaar, Dutch software engineer (b. 1961)
2024 – Yamini Krishnamurthy, Indian dancer (b. 1940) |
August 3 | Holidays and observances | Holidays and observances
Anniversary of the Killing of Pidjiguiti (Guinea-Bissau)
Armed Forces Day (Equatorial Guinea)
Christian feast day:
George Freeman Bragg, W. E. B. Du Bois (Episcopal Church)
Lydia of Thyatira
Myrrhbearers (Lutheran Church)
Nicodemus
Olaf II of Norway (Translation of the relic)
Stephen (Discovery of the relic)
Waltheof of Melrose
August 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Flag Day (Venezuela)
Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Niger from France in 1960.
Arbor Day (Niger)
National Guard Day (Venezuela) |
August 3 | References | References |
August 3 | External links | External links
Category:Days of August |
August 3 | Table of Content | pp-pc1, Events, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Births, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Deaths, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Holidays and observances, References, External links |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Short description | The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001.
AES is a variant of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits.
AES has been adopted by the U.S. government. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data.
In the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable.See Advanced Encryption Standard process for more details.
AES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES became effective as a U.S. federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Donald Evans. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module.See Security of AES below. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Definitive standards | Definitive standards
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in each of:
FIPS PUB 197: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
ISO/IEC 18033-3: Block ciphers |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Description of the ciphers | Description of the ciphers
AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution–permutation network, and is efficient in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael, with a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, Rijndael per se is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field.
AES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order array of 16 bytes termed the state:Large-block variants of Rijndael use an array with additional columns, but always four rows.
The key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext, into the final output, called the ciphertext. The number of rounds are as follows:
10 rounds for 128-bit keys.
12 rounds for 192-bit keys.
14 rounds for 256-bit keys.
Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | High-level description of the algorithm | High-level description of the algorithm
round keys are derived from the cipher key using the AES key schedule. AES requires a separate 128-bit round key block for each round plus one more.
Initial round key addition:
each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round key using bitwise xor.
9, 11 or 13 rounds:
a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a lookup table.
a transposition step where the last three rows of the state are shifted cyclically a certain number of steps.
a linear mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column.
Final round (making 10, 12 or 14 rounds in total):
|
Advanced Encryption Standard | The {{mono | The step
right|320px|thumbnail|In the step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, S; bij = S(aij).
In the step, each byte in the state array is replaced with a using an 8-bit substitution box. Before round 0, the state array is simply the plaintext/input. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over , known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), i.e., , and also any opposite fixed points, i.e., .
While performing the decryption, the step (the inverse of ) is used, which requires first taking the inverse of the affine transformation and then finding the multiplicative inverse. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | The {{mono | The step
right|320px|thumbnail|In the step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs incrementally for each row.
The step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively.Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets. For blocks of sizes 128 bits and 192 bits, the shifting pattern is the same. Row is shifted left circular by bytes. For a 256-bit block, the first row is unchanged and the shifting for the second, third and fourth row is 1 byte, 3 bytes and 4 bytes respectively—this change only applies for the Rijndael cipher when used with a 256-bit block, as AES does not use 256-bit blocks. In this way, each column of the output state of the step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. The importance of this step is to avoid the columns being encrypted independently, in which case AES would degenerate into four independent block ciphers. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | The {{mono | The step
right|320px|thumbnail|In the step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial .
In the step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with , provides diffusion in the cipher.
During this operation, each column is transformed using a fixed matrix (matrix left-multiplied by column gives new value of column in the state):
Matrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order . Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial . If processed bit by bit, then, after shifting, a conditional XOR with 1B16 should be performed if the shifted value is larger than FF16 (overflow must be corrected by subtraction of generating polynomial). These are special cases of the usual multiplication in .
In more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over and is then multiplied modulo with a fixed polynomial . The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of the binary representation of bit polynomials from . The step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS matrix in the finite field . This process is described further in the article Rijndael MixColumns. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | The {{mono | The
right|320px|thumbnail|In the step, each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round subkey using the XOR operation (⊕).
In the step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Optimization of the cipher | Optimization of the cipher
On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining the and steps with the step by transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables (together occupying 4096 bytes). A round can then be performed with 16 table lookup operations and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the step. Alternatively, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table (occupying 1024 bytes) followed by circular rotation operations.
Using a byte-oriented approach, it is possible to combine the , , and steps into a single round operation. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Security | Security
The National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for U.S. Government non-classified data. In June 2003, the U.S. Government announced that AES could be used to protect classified information:
The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use.
AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Known attacks | Known attacks
For cryptographers, a cryptographic "break" is anything faster than a brute-force attacki.e., performing one trial decryption for each possible key in sequence . A break can thus include results that are infeasible with current technology. Despite being impractical, theoretical breaks can sometimes provide insight into vulnerability patterns. The largest successful publicly known brute-force attack against a widely implemented block-cipher encryption algorithm was against a 64-bit RC5 key by distributed.net in 2006.
The key space increases by a factor of 2 for each additional bit of key length, and if every possible value of the key is equiprobable; this translates into a doubling of the average brute-force key search time with every additional bit of key length. This implies that the effort of a brute-force search increases exponentially with key length. Key length in itself does not imply security against attacks, since there are ciphers with very long keys that have been found to be vulnerable.
AES has a fairly simple algebraic framework. In 2002, a theoretical attack, named the "XSL attack", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk, purporting to show a weakness in the AES algorithm, partially due to the low complexity of its nonlinear components. Since then, other papers have shown that the attack, as originally presented, is unworkable; see XSL attack on block ciphers.
During the AES selection process, developers of competing algorithms wrote of Rijndael's algorithm "we are concerned about [its] use ... in security-critical applications." In October 2000, however, at the end of the AES selection process, Bruce Schneier, a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish, wrote that while he thought successful academic attacks on Rijndael would be developed someday, he "did not believe that anyone will ever discover an attack that will allow someone to read Rijndael traffic."Bruce Schneier, AES Announced , October 15, 2000
By 2006, the best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys.John Kelsey, Stefan Lucks, Bruce Schneier, Mike Stay, David Wagner, and Doug Whiting, Improved Cryptanalysis of Rijndael, Fast Software Encryption, 2000 pp213–230
Until May 2009, the only successful published attacks against the full AES were side-channel attacks on some specific implementations. In 2009, a new related-key attack was discovered that exploits the simplicity of AES's key schedule and has a complexity of 2119. In December 2009 it was improved to 299.5. This is a follow-up to an attack discovered earlier in 2009 by Alex Biryukov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Ivica Nikolić, with a complexity of 296 for one out of every 235 keys. However, related-key attacks are not of concern in any properly designed cryptographic protocol, as a properly designed protocol (i.e., implementational software) will take care not to allow related keys, essentially by constraining an attacker's means of selecting keys for relatedness.
Another attack was blogged by Bruce Schneier
on July 30, 2009, and released as a preprint
on August 3, 2009. This new attack, by Alex Biryukov, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Adi Shamir, is against AES-256 that uses only two related keys and 239 time to recover the complete 256-bit key of a 9-round version, or 245 time for a 10-round version with a stronger type of related subkey attack, or 270 time for an 11-round version. 256-bit AES uses 14 rounds, so these attacks are not effective against full AES.
The practicality of these attacks with stronger related keys has been criticized, for instance, by the paper on chosen-key-relations-in-the-middle attacks on AES-128 authored by Vincent Rijmen in 2010.
In November 2009, the first known-key distinguishing attack against a reduced 8-round version of AES-128 was released as a preprint.
This known-key distinguishing attack is an improvement of the rebound, or the start-from-the-middle attack, against AES-like permutations, which view two consecutive rounds of permutation as the application of a so-called Super-S-box. It works on the 8-round version of AES-128, with a time complexity of 248, and a memory complexity of 232. 128-bit AES uses 10 rounds, so this attack is not effective against full AES-128.
The first key-recovery attacks on full AES were by Andrey Bogdanov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Christian Rechberger, and were published in 2011. The attack is a biclique attack and is faster than brute force by a factor of about four. It requires 2126.2 operations to recover an AES-128 key. For AES-192 and AES-256, 2190.2 and 2254.6 operations are needed, respectively. This result has been further improved to 2126.0 for AES-128, 2189.9 for AES-192, and 2254.3 for AES-256 by Biaoshuai Tao and Hongjun Wu in a 2015 paper, which are the current best results in key recovery attack against AES.
This is a very small gain, as a 126-bit key (instead of 128 bits) would still take billions of years to brute force on current and foreseeable hardware. Also, the authors calculate the best attack using their technique on AES with a 128-bit key requires storing 288 bits of data. That works out to about 38 trillion terabytes of data, which was more than all the data stored on all the computers on the planet in 2016. A paper in 2015 later improved the space complexity to 256 bits, which is 9007 terabytes (while still keeping a time complexity of approximately 2126).
According to the Snowden documents, the NSA is doing research on whether a cryptographic attack based on tau statistic may help to break AES.
At present, there is no known practical attack that would allow someone without knowledge of the key to read data encrypted by AES when correctly implemented. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Side-channel attacks | Side-channel attacks
Side-channel attacks do not attack the cipher as a black box, and thus are not related to cipher security as defined in the classical context, but are important in practice. They attack implementations of the cipher on hardware or software systems that inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on various implementations of AES.
In April 2005, D. J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break a custom server that used OpenSSL's AES encryption. The attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machine cycles taken by the encryption operation). However, as Bernstein pointed out, "reducing the precision of the server's timestamps, or eliminating them from the server's responses, does not stop the attack: the client simply uses round-trip timings based on its local clock, and compensates for the increased noise by averaging over a larger number of samples."
In October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing attacks against the implementations in AES found in OpenSSL and Linux's dm-crypt partition encryption function. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryptions, in a total of 65 milliseconds. This attack requires the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system or platform that is performing AES.
In December 2009 an attack on some hardware implementations was published that used differential fault analysis and allows recovery of a key with a complexity of 232.
In November 2010 Endre Bangerter, David Gullasch and Stephan Krenn published a paper which described a practical approach to a "near real time" recovery of secret keys from AES-128 without the need for either cipher text or plaintext. The approach also works on AES-128 implementations that use compression tables, such as OpenSSL. Like some earlier attacks, this one requires the ability to run unprivileged code on the system performing the AES encryption, which may be achieved by malware infection far more easily than commandeering the root account.
In March 2016, C. Ashokkumar, Ravi Prakash Giri and Bernard Menezes presented a side-channel attack on AES implementations that can recover the complete 128-bit AES key in just 6–7 blocks of plaintext/ciphertext, which is a substantial improvement over previous works that require between 100 and a million encryptions. The proposed attack requires standard user privilege and key-retrieval algorithms run under a minute.
Many modern CPUs have built-in hardware instructions for AES, which protect against timing-related side-channel attacks. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Quantum attacks | Quantum attacks
AES-256 is considered to be quantum resistant, as it has similar quantum resistance to AES-128's resistance against traditional, non-quantum, attacks at 128 bits of security. AES-192 and AES-128 are not considered quantum resistant due to their smaller key sizes. AES-192 has a strength of 96 bits against quantum attacks and AES-128 has 64 bits of strength against quantum attacks, making them both insecure. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | NIST/CSEC validation | NIST/CSEC validation
The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of cryptographic modules validated to NIST FIPS 140-2 is required by the United States Government for encryption of all data that has a classification of Sensitive but Unclassified (SBU) or above. From NSTISSP #11, National Policy Governing the Acquisition of Information Assurance: "Encryption products for protecting classified information will be certified by NSA, and encryption products intended for protecting sensitive information will be certified in accordance with NIST FIPS 140-2."
The Government of Canada also recommends the use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments.
Although NIST publication 197 ("FIPS 197") is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 validated and NIST itself does not generally take the time to list FIPS 197 validated modules separately on its public web site. Instead, FIPS 197 validation is typically just listed as an "FIPS approved: AES" notation (with a specific FIPS 197 certificate number) in the current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules.
The Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program (CAVP) allows for independent validation of the correct implementation of the AES algorithm. Successful validation results in being listed on the NIST validations page. This testing is a pre-requisite for the FIPS 140-2 module validation. However, successful CAVP validation in no way implies that the cryptographic module implementing the algorithm is secure. A cryptographic module lacking FIPS 140-2 validation or specific approval by the NSA is not deemed secure by the US Government and cannot be used to protect government data.
FIPS 140-2 validation is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally. There is a standardized battery of tests as well as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of a few weeks. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over $30,000 US) and does not include the time it takes to write, test, document and prepare a module for validation. After validation, modules must be re-submitted and re-evaluated if they are changed in any way. This can vary from simple paperwork updates if the security functionality did not change to a more substantial set of re-testing if the security functionality was impacted by the change. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Test vectors | Test vectors
Test vectors are a set of known ciphers for a given input and key. NIST distributes the reference of AES test vectors as AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors.The AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors are available in Zip format within the NIST site here |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Performance | Performance
High speed and low RAM requirements were some of the criteria of the AES selection process. As the chosen algorithm, AES performed well on a wide variety of hardware, from 8-bit smart cards to high-performance computers.
On a Pentium Pro, AES encryption requires 18 clock cycles per byte (cpb), equivalent to a throughput of about 11 MiB/s for a 200 MHz processor.
On Intel Core and AMD Ryzen CPUs supporting AES-NI instruction set extensions, throughput can be multiple GiB/s. On an Intel Westmere CPU, AES encryption using AES-NI takes about 1.3 cpb for AES-128 and 1.8 cpb for AES-256. |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Implementations | Implementations |
Advanced Encryption Standard | See also | See also
AES modes of operation
Disk encryption
Whirlpool – hash function created by Vincent Rijmen and Paulo S. L. M. Barreto
List of free and open-source software packages |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Notes | Notes |
Advanced Encryption Standard | References | References
alternate link (companion web site contains online lectures on AES) |
Advanced Encryption Standard | External links | External links
AES algorithm archive information – (old, unmaintained)
Animation of Rijndael – AES deeply explained and animated using Flash (by Enrique Zabala / University ORT / Montevideo / Uruguay). This animation (in English, Spanish, and German) is also part of CrypTool 1 (menu Indiv. Procedures → Visualization of Algorithms → AES).
HTML5 Animation of Rijndael – Same Animation as above made in HTML5.
Category:Advanced Encryption Standard
Category:Cryptography |
Advanced Encryption Standard | Table of Content | Short description, Definitive standards, Description of the ciphers, High-level description of the algorithm, The {{mono, The {{mono, The {{mono, The {{mono, Optimization of the cipher, Security, Known attacks, Side-channel attacks, Quantum attacks, NIST/CSEC validation, Test vectors, Performance, Implementations, See also, Notes, References, External links |
April 26 | pp-pc1 | |
April 26 | Events | Events |
April 26 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
1336 – Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch) ascends Mont Ventoux.
1478 – The Pazzi family attack on Lorenzo de' Medici in order to displace the ruling Medici family kills his brother Giuliano during High Mass in Florence Cathedral.
1564 – Playwright William Shakespeare is baptized in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England (date of birth is unknown). |
April 26 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1607 – The Virginia Company colonists make landfall at Cape Henry.
1721 – A massive earthquake devastates the Iranian city of Tabriz.
1777 – Sybil Ludington, aged 16, allegedly rode to alert American colonial forces to the approach of British regular forces
1794 – Battle of Beaumont during the Flanders Campaign of the War of the First Coalition.
1802 – Napoleon Bonaparte signs a general amnesty to allow all but about one thousand of the most notorious émigrés of the French Revolution to return to France.
1803 – Thousands of meteor fragments fall from the skies of L'Aigle, France; the event convinces European scientists that meteors exist.
1805 – First Barbary War: United States Marines captured Derne under the command of First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon.
1865 – Union cavalry troopers corner and shoot dead John Wilkes Booth, assassin of President Abraham Lincoln, in Virginia.
1900 – Fires destroy Canadian cities Ottawa and Hull, reducing them to ashes in 12 hours. Twelve thousand people are left without a home.| |
April 26 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1903 – Atlético Madrid Association football club is founded.
1915 – World War I: Italy secretly signs the Treaty of London pledging to join the Allied Powers.
1916 – Easter Rising: Battle of Mount Street Bridge.
1920 – Ice hockey makes its Olympic debut at the Antwerp Games with center Frank Fredrickson scoring seven goals in Canada's 12–1 drubbing of Sweden in the gold medal match."Winners in first Olympic ice hockey tournament" Victoria Daily Times, April 28, 1920 (p. 10). Retrieved 2020-07-27.
1923 – The Duke of York weds Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon at Westminster Abbey.
1925 – Paul von Hindenburg defeats Wilhelm Marx in the second round of the German presidential election to become the first directly elected head of state of the Weimar Republic.
1933 – The Gestapo, the official secret police force of Nazi Germany, is established by Hermann Göring.
1937 – Spanish Civil War: Guernica, Spain, is bombed by the German Condor Legion and the Italian Aviazione Legionaria.
1942 – Benxihu Colliery accident in Manchukuo leaves 1,549 Chinese miners dead.
1943 – The Easter Riots break out in Uppsala, Sweden.
1944 – Georgios Papandreou becomes head of the Greek government-in-exile based in Egypt.
1944 – Heinrich Kreipe is captured by Allied commandos in occupied Crete.
1945 – World War II: Battle of Bautzen: Last successful German tank-offensive of the war and last noteworthy victory of the Wehrmacht.
1945 – World War II: Filipino troops of the 66th Infantry Regiment, Philippine Commonwealth Army, USAFIP-NL and the American troops of the 33rd and 37th Infantry Division, United States Army liberate Baguio as they fight against the Japanese forces under General Tomoyuki Yamashita.
1954 – The Geneva Conference, an effort to restore peace in Indochina and Korea, begins.
1954 – The first clinical trials of Jonas Salk's polio vaccine begin in Fairfax County, Virginia.
1956 – , the world's first successful container ship, leaves Port Newark, New Jersey, for Houston, Texas.
1958 – Final run of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Royal Blue from Washington, D.C., to New York City after 68 years, the first U.S. passenger train to use electric locomotives.
1960 – Forced out by the April Revolution, President of South Korea Syngman Rhee resigns after 12 years of dictatorial rule.
1962 – NASA's Ranger 4 spacecraft crashes into the Moon.
1962 – The British space programme launches its first satellite, the Ariel 1.
1963 – In Libya, amendments to the constitution transform Libya (United Kingdom of Libya) into one national unity (Kingdom of Libya) and allows for female participation in elections.
1964 – Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form the United Republic of Tanzania.
1966 – The magnitude 5.1 Tashkent earthquake affects the largest city in Soviet Central Asia with a maximum MSK intensity of VII (Very strong). Tashkent is mostly destroyed and 15–200 are killed.
1966 – A new government is formed in the Republic of the Congo, led by Ambroise Noumazalaye.
1970 – The Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization enters into force.
1981 – Dr. Michael R. Harrison of the University of California, San Francisco Medical Center performs the world's first human open fetal surgery.
1986 – The Chernobyl disaster occurs in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.
1989 – The deadliest known tornado strikes Central Bangladesh, killing upwards of 1,300, injuring 12,000, and leaving as many as 80,000 homeless.
1989 – People's Daily publishes the April 26 Editorial which inflames the nascent Tiananmen Square protests.
1991 – Fifty-five tornadoes break out in the central United States. Before the outbreak's end, Andover, Kansas, would record the year's only F5 tornado.
1993 – The Space Shuttle Columbia is launched on mission STS-55 to conduct experiments aboard the Spacelab module.
1994 – China Airlines Flight 140 crashes at Nagoya Airport in Japan, killing 264 of the 271 people on board.
1994 – South Africa begins its first multiracial election, which is won by Nelson Mandela's African National Congress.
2002 – Robert Steinhäuser kills 16 at Gutenberg-Gymnasium in Erfurt, Germany before committing suicide.
2005 – Cedar Revolution: Under international pressure, Syria withdraws the last of its 14,000 troop military garrison in Lebanon, ending its 29-year military domination of that country (Syrian occupation of Lebanon).
2015 – Nursultan Nazarbayev is re-elected President of Kazakhstan with 97.7% of the vote, one of the biggest vote shares in Kazakhstan's history. |
April 26 | Births | Births |
April 26 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
121 – Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor (d. 180)
757 – Hisham I of Córdoba (d. 796)
764 – Al-Hadi, Abbasid caliph (d. 786)
1284 – Alice de Toeni, Countess of Warwick (d. 1324)
1319 – John II of France (d. 1364)
1538 – Gian Paolo Lomazzo, Italian painter and academic (d. 1600)
1575 – Marie de' Medici, queen of Henry IV of France (d. 1642) |
April 26 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1647 – William Ashhurst, English banker, Sheriff of London, Lord Mayor of London and politician (d. 1720)
1648 – Peter II of Portugal (d. 1706)
1697 – Adam Falckenhagen, German lute player and composer (d. 1754)
1710 – Thomas Reid, Scottish philosopher and academic (d. 1796)
1718 – Esek Hopkins, American commander (d. 1802)
1774 – Christian Leopold von Buch, German geologist and paleontologist (d. 1853)
1782 – Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily, Queen of France (d. 1866)
1785 – John James Audubon, French-American ornithologist and painter (d. 1851)
1787 – Ludwig Uhland, German poet, philologist, and historian (d. 1862)
1798 – Eugène Delacroix, French painter and lithographer (d. 1863)
1801 – Ambrose Dudley Mann, American politician and diplomat, 1st United States Assistant Secretary of State (d. 1889)
1804 – Charles Goodyear, American banker, lawyer, and politician (d. 1876)
1822 – Frederick Law Olmsted, American journalist and designer, co-designed Central Park (d. 1903)
1834 – Charles Farrar Browne, American author (d. 1867)
1856 – Joseph Ward, Australian-New Zealand businessman and politician, 17th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1930)
1862 – Edmund C. Tarbell, American painter and educator (d. 1938)
1865 – Akseli Gallen-Kallela, Finnish artist (d. 1931)
1876 – Ernst Felle, German rower (d. 1959)
1877 – James Dooley, Irish-Australian politician, 21st Premier of New South Wales (d. 1950)
1878 – Rafael Guízar y Valencia, Mexican bishop and saint (d. 1938)
1879 – Eric Campbell, British actor (d. 1917)
1879 – Owen Willans Richardson, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)
1886 – Ma Rainey, American singer-songwriter (d. 1939)
1886 – Ğabdulla Tuqay, Russian poet and publicist (d. 1913)
1889 – Anita Loos, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1981)
1889 – Ludwig Wittgenstein, Austrian-English philosopher and academic (d. 1951)
1894 – Rudolf Hess, German politician and Deputy Führer in Nazi regime until 1941 (d. 1987)
1896 – Ruut Tarmo, Estonian actor and director (d. 1967)
1896 – Ernst Udet, leading German fighter pilot in World War I and Chief of Procurement and Supply in the Luftwaffe (d. 1941)
1897 – Eddie Eagan, American boxer and bobsledder (d. 1967)
1897 – Douglas Sirk, German-American director and screenwriter (d. 1987)
1898 – Vicente Aleixandre, Spanish poet and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)
1898 – John Grierson, Scottish director and producer (d. 1972)
1899 – Oscar Rabin, Latvian-English saxophonist and bandleader (d. 1958)
1900 – Eva Aschoff, German bookbinder and calligrapher (d. 1969)
1900 – Charles Francis Richter, American seismologist and physicist (d. 1985)
1900 – Hack Wilson, American baseball player (d. 1948) |
April 26 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1904 – Paul-Émile Léger, Canadian cardinal (d. 1991)
1904 – Xenophon Zolotas, Greek economist and politician, 177th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2004)
1905 – Jean Vigo, French director and screenwriter (d. 1934)
1907 – Ilias Tsirimokos, Greek politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1968)
1909 – Marianne Hoppe, German actress (d. 2002)
1910 – Tomoyuki Tanaka, Japanese screenwriter and producer (d. 1997)
1911 – Paul Verner, German soldier and politician (d. 1986)
1912 – A. E. van Vogt, Canadian-American author (d. 2000)
1914 – Bernard Malamud, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1986)
1914 – James Rouse, American real estate developer (d. 1996)
1916 – Eyvind Earle, American artist, author, and illustrator (d. 2000)
1916 – Ken Wallis, English commander, engineer, and pilot (d. 2013)
1916 – Morris West, Australian author and playwright (d. 1999)
1917 – Sal Maglie, American baseball player and coach (d. 1992)
1917 – I. M. Pei, Chinese-American architect, designed the National Gallery of Art and Bank of China Tower (d. 2019)
1917 – Virgil Trucks, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013)
1918 – Fanny Blankers-Koen, Dutch sprinter and long jumper (d. 2004)
1921 – Jimmy Giuffre, American clarinet player, saxophonist, and composer (d. 2008)
1922 – J. C. Holt, English historian and academic (d. 2014)
1922 – Jeanne Sauvé, Canadian journalist and politician, Governor General of Canada (d. 1993)
1922 – Margaret Scott, South African-Australian ballerina and choreographer (d. 2019)
1924 – Browning Ross, American runner and soldier (d. 1998)
1925 – Vladimir Boltyansky, Russian mathematician, educator and author (d. 2019)
1925 – Gerard Cafesjian, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013)
1925 – Michele Ferrero, Italian entrepreneur (d. 2015)
1925 – Frank Hahn, British economist (d. 2013)
1926 – Michael Mathias Prechtl, German soldier and illustrator (d. 2003)
1927 – Jack Douglas, English actor (d. 2008)
1927 – Anne McLaren, British scientist (d. 2007)
1927 – Harry Gallatin, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015)
1927 – Granny Hamner, American baseball player (d. 1993)
1929 – Richard Mitchell, American author and educator (d. 2002)
1930 – Roger Moens, Belgian runner and sportscaster
1931 – Paul Almond, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)
1931 – Bernie Brillstein, American talent agent and producer (d. 2008)
1931 – John Cain Jr., Australian politician, 41st Premier of Victoria (d. 2019)
1932 – Israr Ahmed, Indian-Pakistani theologian, philosopher, and scholar (d. 2010)
1932 – Shirley Cawley, English long jumper
1932 – Frank D'Rone, American singer and guitarist (d. 2013)
1932 – Francis Lai, French accordion player and composer (d. 2018)
1932 – Michael Smith, English-Canadian biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2000)
1933 – Carol Burnett, American actress, singer, and producer
1933 – Al McCoy, American sports announcer (d. 2024)
1933 – Filiberto Ojeda Ríos, Puerto Rican-American general (d. 2005)
1933 – Arno Allan Penzias, German-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2024)
1937 – Jean-Pierre Beltoise, French racing driver and motorcycle racer (d. 2015)
1938 – Duane Eddy, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2024)
1938 – Maurice Williams, American doo-wop/R&B singer-songwriter
1940 – Giorgio Moroder, Italian singer-songwriter and producer
1940 – Cliff Watson, English rugby league player (d. 2018)
1940 – Tan Cheng Bock, Singaporean doctor and politician
1941 – Claudine Auger, French model and actress (d. 2019)
1942 – Svyatoslav Belza, Russian journalist, author, and critic (d. 2014)
1942 – Sharon Carstairs, Canadian lawyer and politician, Leader of the Government in the Senate
1942 – Michael Kergin, Canadian diplomat, Canadian Ambassador to the United States
1942 – Bobby Rydell, American singer and actor (d. 2022)
1942 – Jadwiga Staniszkis, Polish sociologist, political scientist, and academic (d. 2024)
1943 – Gary Wright, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (d. 2023)
1943 – Peter Zumthor, Swiss architect and academic, designed the Therme Vals
1944 – Richard Bradshaw, English conductor (d. 2007)
1945 – Richard Armitage, American diplomat and government official (d. 2025)
1945 – Howard Davies, English director and producer (d. 2016)
1945 – Dick Johnson, Australian racing driver
1945 – Sylvain Simard, Canadian academic and politician
1946 – Ralph Coates, English international footballer (d. 2010)
1946 – Marilyn Nelson, American poet and author
1946 – Alberto Quintano, Chilean footballer
1949 – Carlos Bianchi, Argentinian footballer and manager
1949 – Jerry Blackwell, American wrestler (d. 1995)
1950 – Junko Ohashi, Japanese singer (d. 2023)
1951 – John Battle, English politician
1954 – Tatyana Fomina, Estonian chess player
1954 – Alan Hinkes, English mountaineer and explorer
1955 – Kurt Bodewig, German politician
1956 – Koo Stark, American actress and photographer
1958 – John Crichton-Stuart, 7th Marquess of Bute, Scottish racing driver (d. 2021)
1958 – Giancarlo Esposito, American actor, director, and producer
1958 – Georgios Kostikos, Greek footballer, coach, and manager
1959 – John Corabi, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1959 – Pedro Pierluisi, Puerto Rican politician
1960 – H. G. Carrillo, American writer and academic (d. 2020)
1960 – Steve Lombardozzi, American baseball player and coach
1960 – Roger Taylor, English drummer
1961 – Joan Chen, Chinese-American actress, director, producer, and screenwriter
1961 – Chris Mars, American artist
1962 – Colin Anderson, English footballer
1962 – Debra Wilson, American actress and comedian
1963 – Jet Li, Chinese-Singaporean martial artist, actor, and producer
1963 – Colin Scotts, Australian-American football player
1963 – Cornelia Ullrich, German hurdler
1963 – Bill Wennington, Canadian basketball player
1965 – Susannah Harker, English actress
1965 – Kevin James, American actor and comedian
1967 – Glenn Thomas Jacobs, American professional wrestler, actor, businessman and politician
1967 – Marianne Jean-Baptiste, English actress and singer-songwriter
1967 – Toomas Tõniste, Estonian sailor and politician
1970 – Dean Austin, English footballer and manager
1970 – Melania Trump, Slovene-American model; 47th First Lady of the United States
1970 – Kristen R. Ghodsee, American ethnographer and academic
1970 – Tionne "T-Boz" Watkins, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress
1971 – Naoki Tanaka, Japanese comedian and actor
1971 – Jay DeMarcus, American bass player, songwriter, and producer
1972 – Jason Bargwanna, Australian racing driver
1972 – Kiko, Spanish footballer
1972 – Natrone Means, American football player and coach
1972 – Avi Nimni, Israeli footballer and manager
1973 – Geoff Blum, American baseball player and sportscaster
1973 – Jules Naudet, French-American director and producer
1973 – Chris Perry, English footballer
1973 – Óscar, Spanish footballer and coach
1975 – Joey Jordison, American musician and songwriter (d. 2021)
1975 – Rahul Verma, Indian social worker and activist
1976 – Václav Varaďa, Czech ice hockey player
1977 – Samantha Cristoforetti, Italian astronaut
1977 – Kosuke Fukudome, Japanese baseball player
1977 – Roxana Saberi, American journalist and author
1977 – Tom Welling, American actor
1978 – Stana Katic, Canadian actress
1978 – Peter Madsen, Danish footballer
1980 – Jordana Brewster, Panamanian-American actress
1980 – Marlon King, English footballer
1980 – Anna Mucha, Polish actress and journalist
1980 – Channing Tatum, American actor and producer
1981 – Caro Emerald, Dutch pop and jazz singer
1981 – Ms. Dynamite, English rapper and producer
1981 – Sandra Schmitt, German skier (d. 2000)
1982 – Novlene Williams-Mills, Jamaican sprinter
1983 – José María López, Argentinian racing driver
1983 – Jessica Lynch, American soldier
1985 – John Isner, American tennis player
1986 – Lior Refaelov, Israeli footballer
1986 – Yuliya Zaripova, Russian runner
1987 – Jorge Andújar Moreno, Spanish footballer
1989 – Melvin Ingram, American football player
1989 – Kang Daesung, South Korean singer
1990 – Jonathan dos Santos, Mexican footballer
1990 – Mitch Rein, Australian rugby league player
1990 – Nevin Spence, Northern Irish rugby player (d. 2012)
1990 – Joey Wendle, American baseball player
1991 – Peter Handscomb, Australian cricketer
1991 – Isaac Liu, New Zealand rugby league player
1992 – Aaron Judge, American baseball player
1992 – Delon Wright, American basketball player
1994 – Daniil Kvyat, Russian racing driver
1994 – Odysseas Vlachodimos, Greek international footballer
1996 – Jordan Pefok, American footballer
1997 – Max Hechtman, American filmmaker, video editor and videographer
1997 – Kirill Kaprizov, Russian ice hockey player
1997 – Amber Midthunder, American actress
1997 – Calvin Verdonk, Indonesian footballer
2001 – Thiago Almada, Argentine footballer
2005 – Alex Sarr, French basketball player |
April 26 | Deaths | Deaths |
April 26 | Pre-1600 | Pre-1600
499 – Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei (b. 467)
645 – Richarius, Frankish monk and saint (b. 560)
680 – Mu'awiya I, Umayyad caliph (b. 602)
757 – Pope Stephen II (b. 715)
893 – Chen Jingxuan, general of the Tang Dynasty
962 – Adalbero I, bishop of Metz
1192 – Emperor Go-Shirakawa of Japan (b. 1127)
1366 – Simon Islip, Archbishop of Canterbury
1392 – Chŏng Mong-ju, Korean civil minister, diplomat and scholar (b. 1338)
1444 – Robert Campin, Flemish painter (b. 1378)
1478 – Giuliano de' Medici, Italian ruler (b. 1453)
1489 – Ashikaga Yoshihisa, Japanese shōgun (b. 1465)
1558 – Jean Fernel, French physician (b. 1497) |
April 26 | 1601–1900 | 1601–1900
1686 – Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, Swedish statesman and military man (b. 1622)
1716 – John Somers, 1st Baron Somers, English jurist and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1651)
1784 – Nano Nagle, Irish nun and educator, founded the Presentation Sisters (b. 1718)
1789 – Petr Ivanovich Panin, Russian general (b. 1721)
1809 – Bernhard Schott, German music publisher (b. 1748)
1865 – John Wilkes Booth, American actor, assassin of Abraham Lincoln (b. 1838)
1881 – Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann-Rathsamhausen, German general (b. 1815)
1895 – Eric Stenbock, Estonian-English author and poet (b. 1860) |
April 26 | 1901–present | 1901–present
1910 – Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian-French author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1832)
1915 – John Bunny, American actor (b. 1863)
1915 – Ida Hunt Udall, American diarist (b. 1858)
1916 – Mário de Sá-Carneiro, Portuguese poet and writer (b. 1890)
1920 – Srinivasa Ramanujan, Indian mathematician and theorist (b. 1887)
1932 – William Lockwood, English cricketer (b. 1868)
1934 – Arturs Alberings, Latvian politician, former Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1876)
1934 – Konstantin Vaginov, Russian poet and novelist (b. 1899)
1940 – Carl Bosch, German chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)
1944 – Violette Morris, French footballer, shot putter, and discus thrower (b. 1893)
1945 – Sigmund Rascher, German physician (b. 1909)
1945 – Pavlo Skoropadskyi, German-Ukrainian general and politician, Hetman of Ukraine (b. 1871)
1946 – James Larkin White, American miner, explorer, and park ranger (b. 1882)
1950 – George Murray Hulbert, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1881)
1951 – Arnold Sommerfeld, German physicist and academic (b. 1868)
1956 – Edward Arnold, American actor (b. 1890)
1957 – Gichin Funakoshi, Japanese martial artist, founded Shotokan (b. 1868)
1964 – E. J. Pratt, Canadian poet and author (b. 1882)
1968 – John Heartfield, German illustrator and photographer (b. 1891)
1969 – Morihei Ueshiba, Japanese martial artist, founded aikido (b. 1883)
1970 – Erik Bergman, Swedish minister and author (b. 1886)
1970 – Gypsy Rose Lee, American actress, striptease dancer, and writer (b. 1911)
1973 – Irene Ryan, American actress and philanthropist (b. 1902)
1976 – Sidney Franklin, American bullfighter (b. 1903)
1976 – Sid James, South African-English actor (b. 1913)
1976 – Armstrong Sperry, American author and illustrator (b. 1897)
1980 – Cicely Courtneidge, Australian-born British actress, comedian and singer (b. 1893)
1981 – Jim Davis, American actor (b. 1909)
1984 – Count Basie, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1904)
1986 – Broderick Crawford, American actor (b. 1911)
1986 – Bessie Love, American actress (b. 1898)
1986 – Dechko Uzunov, Bulgarian painter (b. 1899)
1987 – Shankar, Indian composer and conductor (b. 1922)
1987 – John Silkin, English lawyer and politician, Shadow Leader of the House of Commons (b. 1923)
1989 – Lucille Ball, American model, actress, comedian, and producer (b. 1911)
1991 – Leo Arnaud, French-American composer and conductor (b. 1904)
1991 – Carmine Coppola, American composer and conductor (b. 1910)
1991 – A. B. Guthrie, Jr., American novelist and historian, (b. 1901)
1991 – Richard Hatfield, Canadian lawyer and politician, 26th Premier of New Brunswick (b. 1931)
1994 – Masutatsu Ōyama, Japanese martial artist, founded Kyokushin kaikan (b. 1923)
1996 – Stirling Silliphant, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1918)
1999 – Adrian Borland, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1957)
1999 – Jill Dando, English journalist and television personality (b. 1961)
2003 – Rosemary Brown, Jamaican-Canadian academic and politician (b. 1930)
2003 – Yun Hyon-seok, South Korean poet and author (b. 1984)
2003 – Edward Max Nicholson, Irish environmentalist, co-founded the World Wide Fund for Nature (b. 1904)
2004 – Hubert Selby, Jr., American author, poet, and screenwriter (b. 1928)
2005 – Mason Adams, American actor (b. 1919)
2005 – Elisabeth Domitien, Prime Minister of the Central African Republic (b. 1925)
2005 – Maria Schell, Austrian-Swiss actress (b. 1926)
2005 – Augusto Roa Bastos, Paraguayan journalist, author, and academic (b. 1917)
2007 – Jack Valenti, American businessman, created the MPAA film rating system (b. 1921)
2008 – Árpád Orbán, Hungarian footballer (b. 1938)
2009 – Hans Holzer, Austrian-American paranormal investigator and author (b. 1920)
2010 – Mariam A. Aleem, Egyptian graphic designer and academic (b. 1930)
2010 – Urs Felber, Swiss engineer and businessman (b. 1942)
2011 – Phoebe Snow, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1950)
2012 – Terence Spinks, English boxer and trainer (b. 1938)
2013 – Jacqueline Brookes, American actress and educator (b. 1930)
2013 – George Jones, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1931)
2013 – Earl Silverman, Canadian men's rights advocate (b. 1948)
2014 – Gerald Guralnik, American physicist and academic (b. 1936)
2014 – Paul Robeson, Jr., American historian and author (b. 1927)
2014 – DJ Rashad, American electronic musician, producer and DJ (b. 1979)
2015 – Jayne Meadows, American actress (b. 1919)
2015 – Marcel Pronovost, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1930)
2016 – Harry Wu, Chinese human rights activist (b. 1937)
2017 – Jonathan Demme, American filmmaker, producer and screenwriter (b. 1944)
2022 – Klaus Schulze, German composer and musician (b. 1947)
2023 – Jerry Apodaca, American politician, 24th Governor of New Mexico (b. 1934)
2023 – Tangaraju Suppiah, Singaporean drug trafficker (b. 1977) |
April 26 | Holidays and observances | Holidays and observances
Chernobyl disaster related observances:
Day of Remembrance of the Chernobyl tragedy (Belarus)
Memorial Day of Radiation Accidents and Catastrophes (Russia)
Christian feast day:
Aldobrandesca (or Alda)
Franca Visalta
Lucidius of Verona
Our Lady of Good Counsel
Pope Anacletus and Marcellinus
Rafael Arnáiz Barón
Riquier
Paschasius Radbertus
Peter of Rates (or of Braga)
Robert Hunt (Episcopal Church (USA))
Stephen of Perm, see also Old Permic Alphabet Day
Trudpert
April 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Confederate Memorial Day (Florida, United States)
Union Day (Tanzania)
World Intellectual Property Day |
April 26 | References | References |
April 26 | External links | External links
BBC: On This Day
Historical Events on April 26
Category:Days of April |
April 26 | Table of Content | pp-pc1, Events, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Births, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Deaths, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Holidays and observances, References, External links |
Anisotropy | short description | thumb|upright=1.36|WMAP image of the tiny anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background radiation
Anisotropy () is the structural property of non-uniformity in different directions, as opposed to isotropy. An anisotropic object or pattern has properties that differ according to direction of measurement. For example, many materials exhibit very different physical or mechanical properties when measured along different axes, e.g. absorbance, refractive index, conductivity, and tensile strength.
An example of anisotropy is light coming through a polarizer. Another is wood, which is easier to split along its grain than across it because of the directional non-uniformity of the grain (the grain is the same in one direction, not all directions). |
Anisotropy | Fields of interest | Fields of interest |
Anisotropy | Computer graphics | Computer graphics
In the field of computer graphics, an anisotropic surface changes in appearance as it rotates about its geometric normal, as is the case with velvet.
Anisotropic filtering (AF) is a method of enhancing the image quality of textures on surfaces that are far away and viewed at a shallow angle. Older techniques, such as bilinear and trilinear filtering, do not take into account the angle a surface is viewed from, which can result in aliasing or blurring of textures. By reducing detail in one direction more than another, these effects can be reduced easily. |
Anisotropy | Chemistry | Chemistry
A chemical anisotropic filter, as used to filter particles, is a filter with increasingly smaller interstitial spaces in the direction of filtration so that the proximal regions filter out larger particles and distal regions increasingly remove smaller particles, resulting in greater flow-through and more efficient filtration.
In fluorescence spectroscopy, the fluorescence anisotropy, calculated from the polarization properties of fluorescence from samples excited with plane-polarized light, is used, e.g., to determine the shape of a macromolecule. Anisotropy measurements reveal the average angular displacement of the fluorophore that occurs between absorption and subsequent emission of a photon.
In NMR spectroscopy, the orientation of nuclei with respect to the applied magnetic field determines their chemical shift. In this context, anisotropic systems refer to the electron distribution of molecules with abnormally high electron density, like the pi system of benzene. This abnormal electron density affects the applied magnetic field and causes the observed chemical shift to change. |
Anisotropy | Real-world imagery | Real-world imagery
Images of a gravity-bound or man-made environment are particularly anisotropic in the orientation domain, with more image structure located at orientations parallel with or orthogonal to the direction of gravity (vertical and horizontal). |
Anisotropy | Physics | Physics
thumb|300px|right|A plasma globe displaying the nature of plasmas, in this case, the phenomenon of "filamentation"
Physicists from University of California, Berkeley reported about their detection of the cosmic anisotropy in cosmic microwave background radiation in 1977. Their experiment demonstrated the Doppler shift caused by the movement of the earth with respect to the early Universe matter, the source of the radiation. Cosmic anisotropy has also been seen in the alignment of galaxies' rotation axes and polarization angles of quasars.
Physicists use the term anisotropy to describe direction-dependent properties of materials. Magnetic anisotropy, for example, may occur in a plasma, so that its magnetic field is oriented in a preferred direction. Plasmas may also show "filamentation" (such as that seen in lightning or a plasma globe) that is directional.
An anisotropic liquid has the fluidity of a normal liquid, but has an average structural order relative to each other along the molecular axis, unlike water or chloroform, which contain no structural ordering of the molecules. Liquid crystals are examples of anisotropic liquids.
Some materials conduct heat in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source. Heat conduction is more commonly anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in electronics are often anisotropic.
Many crystals are anisotropic to light ("optical anisotropy"), and exhibit properties such as birefringence. Crystal optics describes light propagation in these media. An "axis of anisotropy" is defined as the axis along which isotropy is broken (or an axis of symmetry, such as normal to crystalline layers). Some materials can have multiple such optical axes. |
Anisotropy | Geophysics and geology | Geophysics and geology
Seismic anisotropy is the variation of seismic wavespeed with direction. Seismic anisotropy is an indicator of long range order in a material, where features smaller than the seismic wavelength (e.g., crystals, cracks, pores, layers, or inclusions) have a dominant alignment. This alignment leads to a directional variation of elasticity wavespeed. Measuring the effects of anisotropy in seismic data can provide important information about processes and mineralogy in the Earth; significant seismic anisotropy has been detected in the Earth's crust, mantle, and inner core.
Geological formations with distinct layers of sedimentary material can exhibit electrical anisotropy; electrical conductivity in one direction (e.g. parallel to a layer), is different from that in another (e.g. perpendicular to a layer). This property is used in the gas and oil exploration industry to identify hydrocarbon-bearing sands in sequences of sand and shale. Sand-bearing hydrocarbon assets have high resistivity (low conductivity), whereas shales have lower resistivity. Formation evaluation instruments measure this conductivity or resistivity, and the results are used to help find oil and gas in wells. The mechanical anisotropy measured for some of the sedimentary rocks like coal and shale can change with corresponding changes in their surface properties like sorption when gases are produced from the coal and shale reservoirs.
The hydraulic conductivity of aquifers is often anisotropic for the same reason. When calculating groundwater flow to drains The corresponding free EnDrain program can be downloaded from: . or to wells, 9 pp. The corresponding free WellDrain program can be downloaded from: the difference between horizontal and vertical permeability must be taken into account; otherwise the results may be subject to error.
Most common rock-forming minerals are anisotropic, including quartz and feldspar. Anisotropy in minerals is most reliably seen in their optical properties. An example of an isotropic mineral is garnet.
Igneous rock like granite also shows the anisotropy due to the orientation of the minerals during the solidification process. |
Anisotropy | Medical acoustics | Medical acoustics
Anisotropy is also a well-known property in medical ultrasound imaging describing a different resulting echogenicity of soft tissues, such as tendons, when the angle of the transducer is changed. Tendon fibers appear hyperechoic (bright) when the transducer is perpendicular to the tendon, but can appear hypoechoic (darker) when the transducer is angled obliquely. This can be a source of interpretation error for inexperienced practitioners. |
Anisotropy | Materials science and engineering | Materials science and engineering
Anisotropy, in materials science, is a material's directional dependence of a physical property. This is a critical consideration for materials selection in engineering applications. A material with physical properties that are symmetric about an axis that is normal to a plane of isotropy is called a transversely isotropic material. Tensor descriptions of material properties can be used to determine the directional dependence of that property. For a monocrystalline material, anisotropy is associated with the crystal symmetry in the sense that more symmetric crystal types have fewer independent coefficients in the tensor description of a given property. When a material is polycrystalline, the directional dependence on properties is often related to the processing techniques it has undergone. A material with randomly oriented grains will be isotropic, whereas materials with texture will be often be anisotropic. Textured materials are often the result of processing techniques like cold rolling, wire drawing, and heat treatment.
Mechanical properties of materials such as Young's modulus, ductility, yield strength, and high-temperature creep rate, are often dependent on the direction of measurement. Fourth-rank tensor properties, like the elastic constants, are anisotropic, even for materials with cubic symmetry. The Young's modulus relates stress and strain when an isotropic material is elastically deformed; to describe elasticity in an anisotropic material, stiffness (or compliance) tensors are used instead.
In metals, anisotropic elasticity behavior is present in all single crystals with three independent coefficients for cubic crystals, for example. For face-centered cubic materials such as nickel and copper, the stiffness is highest along the <111> direction, normal to the close-packed planes, and smallest parallel to <100>. Tungsten is so nearly isotropic at room temperature that it can be considered to have only two stiffness coefficients; aluminium is another metal that is nearly isotropic.
For an isotropic material, where is the shear modulus, is the Young's modulus, and is the material's Poisson's ratio. Therefore, for cubic materials, we can think of anisotropy, , as the ratio between the empirically determined shear modulus for the cubic material and its (isotropic) equivalent:
The latter expression is known as the Zener ratio, , where refers to elastic constants in Voigt (vector-matrix) notation. For an isotropic material, the ratio is one.
Limitation of the Zener ratio to cubic materials is waived in the Tensorial anisotropy index AT that takes into consideration all the 27 components of the fully anisotropic stiffness tensor. It is composed of two major parts and , the former referring to components existing in cubic tensor and the latter in anisotropic tensor so that This first component includes the modified Zener ratio and additionally accounts for directional differences in the material, which exist in orthotropic material, for instance. The second component of this index covers the influence of stiffness coefficients that are nonzero only for non-cubic materials and remains zero otherwise.
Fiber-reinforced or layered composite materials exhibit anisotropic mechanical properties, due to orientation of the reinforcement material. In many fiber-reinforced composites like carbon fiber or glass fiber based composites, the weave of the material (e.g. unidirectional or plain weave) can determine the extent of the anisotropy of the bulk material. The tunability of orientation of the fibers allows for application-based designs of composite materials, depending on the direction of stresses applied onto the material.
Amorphous materials such as glass and polymers are typically isotropic. Due to the highly randomized orientation of macromolecules in polymeric materials, polymers are in general described as isotropic. However, mechanically gradient polymers can be engineered to have directionally dependent properties through processing techniques or introduction of anisotropy-inducing elements. Researchers have built composite materials with aligned fibers and voids to generate anisotropic hydrogels, in order to mimic hierarchically ordered biological soft matter. 3D printing, especially Fused Deposition Modeling, can introduce anisotropy into printed parts. This is because FDM is designed to extrude and print layers of thermoplastic materials. This creates materials that are strong when tensile stress is applied in parallel to the layers and weak when the material is perpendicular to the layers. |
Anisotropy | Microfabrication | Microfabrication
Anisotropic etching techniques (such as deep reactive-ion etching) are used in microfabrication processes to create well defined microscopic features with a high aspect ratio. These features are commonly used in MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) and microfluidic devices, where the anisotropy of the features is needed to impart desired optical, electrical, or physical properties to the device. Anisotropic etching can also refer to certain chemical etchants used to etch a certain material preferentially over certain crystallographic planes (e.g., KOH etching of silicon [100] produces pyramid-like structures) |
Anisotropy | Neuroscience | Neuroscience
Diffusion tensor imaging is an MRI technique that involves measuring the fractional anisotropy of the random motion (Brownian motion) of water molecules in the brain. Water molecules located in fiber tracts are more likely to move anisotropically, since they are restricted in their movement (they move more in the dimension parallel to the fiber tract rather than in the two dimensions orthogonal to it), whereas water molecules dispersed in the rest of the brain have less restricted movement and therefore display more isotropy. This difference in fractional anisotropy is exploited to create a map of the fiber tracts in the brains of the individual. |
Anisotropy | Remote sensing and radiative transfer modeling | Remote sensing and radiative transfer modeling
Radiance fields (see Bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF)) from a reflective surface are often not isotropic in nature. This makes calculations of the total energy being reflected from any scene a difficult quantity to calculate. In remote sensing applications, anisotropy functions can be derived for specific scenes, immensely simplifying the calculation of the net reflectance or (thereby) the net irradiance of a scene.
For example, let the BRDF be where 'i' denotes incident direction and 'v' denotes viewing direction (as if from a satellite or other instrument). And let P be the Planar Albedo, which represents the total reflectance from the scene.
It is of interest because, with knowledge of the anisotropy function as defined, a measurement of the BRDF from a single viewing direction (say, ) yields a measure of the total scene reflectance (planar albedo) for that specific incident geometry (say, ). |
Anisotropy | See also | See also
Circular symmetry
|
Anisotropy | References | References |
Anisotropy | External links | External links
"Overview of Anisotropy"
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package: "Introduction to Anisotropy"
"Gauge, and knitted fabric generally, is an anisotropic phenomenon"
Category:Orientation (geometry)
Category:Asymmetry |
Anisotropy | Table of Content | short description, Fields of interest, Computer graphics, Chemistry, Real-world imagery, Physics, Geophysics and geology, Medical acoustics, Materials science and engineering, Microfabrication, Neuroscience, Remote sensing and radiative transfer modeling, See also, References, External links |
Alpha decay | Short description | thumb|240px|right|Visual representation of alpha decay
Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus). The parent nucleus transforms or "decays" into a daughter product, with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 atom, which consists of two protons and two neutrons. It has a charge of and a mass of . For example, uranium-238 decays to form thorium-234.
While alpha particles have a charge , this is not usually shown because a nuclear equation describes a nuclear reaction without considering the electrons – a convention that does not imply that the nuclei necessarily occur in neutral atoms.
Alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. Theoretically, it can occur only in nuclei somewhat heavier than nickel (element 28), where the overall binding energy per nucleon is no longer a maximum and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous fission-type processes. In practice, this mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known alpha emitter being the second lightest isotope of antimony, 104Sb.F.G. Kondev et al 2021 Chinese Phys. C 45 030001 Exceptionally, however, beryllium-8 decays to two alpha particles.
Alpha decay is by far the most common form of cluster decay, where the parent atom ejects a defined daughter collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind. It is the most common form because of the combined extremely high nuclear binding energy and relatively small mass of the alpha particle. Like other cluster decays, alpha decay is fundamentally a quantum tunneling process. Unlike beta decay, it is governed by the interplay between both the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force.
Alpha particles have a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (or ≈ 0.13% of their total energy, 110 TJ/kg) and have a speed of about 15,000,000 m/s, or 5% of the speed of light. There is surprisingly small variation around this energy, due to the strong dependence of the half-life of this process on the energy produced. Because of their relatively large mass, the electric charge of and relatively low velocity, alpha particles are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, and their forward motion can be stopped by a few centimeters of air.
Approximately 99% of the helium produced on Earth is the result of the alpha decay of underground deposits of minerals containing uranium or thorium. The helium is brought to the surface as a by-product of natural gas production. |
Alpha decay | History | History
Alpha particles were first described in the investigations of radioactivity by Ernest Rutherford in 1899, and by 1907 they were identified as He2+ ions.
By 1928, George Gamow had solved the theory of alpha decay via tunneling. The alpha particle is trapped inside the nucleus by an attractive nuclear potential well
and a repulsive electromagnetic potential barrier. Classically, it is forbidden to escape, but according to the (then) newly discovered principles of quantum mechanics, it has a tiny (but non-zero) probability of "tunneling" through the barrier and appearing on the other side to escape the nucleus. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived, from first principles, a relationship between the half-life of the decay, and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically and was known as the Geiger–Nuttall law. |
Alpha decay | Mechanism | Mechanism
The nuclear force holding an atomic nucleus together is very strong, in general much stronger than the repulsive electromagnetic forces between the protons. However, the nuclear force is also short-range, dropping quickly in strength beyond about 3 femtometers, while the electromagnetic force has an unlimited range. The strength of the attractive nuclear force keeping a nucleus together is thus proportional to the number of the nucleons, but the total disruptive electromagnetic force of proton-proton repulsion trying to break the nucleus apart is roughly proportional to the square of its atomic number. A nucleus with 210 or more nucleons is so large that the strong nuclear force holding it together can just barely counterbalance the electromagnetic repulsion between the protons it contains. Alpha decay occurs in such nuclei as a means of increasing stability by reducing size.
One curiosity is why alpha particles, helium nuclei, should be preferentially emitted as opposed to other particles like a single proton or neutron or other atomic nuclei.These other decay modes, while possible, are extremely rare compared to alpha decay. Part of the reason is the high binding energy of the alpha particle, which means that its mass is less than the sum of the masses of two free protons and two free neutrons. This increases the disintegration energy. Computing the total disintegration energy given by the equation
where is the initial mass of the nucleus, is the mass of the nucleus after particle emission, and is the mass of the emitted (alpha-)particle, one finds that in certain cases it is positive and so alpha particle emission is possible, whereas other decay modes would require energy to be added. For example, performing the calculation for uranium-232 shows that alpha particle emission releases 5.4 MeV of energy, while a single proton emission would require 6.1 MeV. Most of the disintegration energy becomes the kinetic energy of the alpha particle, although to fulfill conservation of momentum, part of the energy goes to the recoil of the nucleus itself (see atomic recoil). However, since the mass numbers of most alpha-emitting radioisotopes exceed 210, far greater than the mass number of the alpha particle (4), the fraction of the energy going to the recoil of the nucleus is generally quite small, less than 2%. Nevertheless, the recoil energy (on the scale of keV) is still much larger than the strength of chemical bonds (on the scale of eV), so the daughter nuclide will break away from the chemical environment the parent was in. The energies and ratios of the alpha particles can be used to identify the radioactive parent via alpha spectrometry.
These disintegration energies, however, are substantially smaller than the repulsive potential barrier created by the interplay between the strong nuclear and the electromagnetic force, which prevents the alpha particle from escaping. The energy needed to bring an alpha particle from infinity to a point near the nucleus just outside the range of the nuclear force's influence is generally in the range of about 25 MeV. An alpha particle within the nucleus can be thought of as being inside a potential barrier whose walls are 25 MeV above the potential at infinity. However, decay alpha particles only have energies of around 4 to 9 MeV above the potential at infinity, far less than the energy needed to overcome the barrier and escape. |
Alpha decay | Quantum tunneling | Quantum tunneling
Quantum mechanics, however, allows the alpha particle to escape via quantum tunneling. The quantum tunneling theory of alpha decay, independently developed by George Gamow and by Ronald Wilfred Gurney and Edward Condon in 1928, was hailed as a very striking confirmation of quantum theory. Essentially, the alpha particle escapes from the nucleus not by acquiring enough energy to pass over the wall confining it, but by tunneling through the wall. Gurney and Condon made the following observation in their paper on it:
It has hitherto been necessary to postulate some special arbitrary 'instability' of the nucleus, but in the following note, it is pointed out that disintegration is a natural consequence of the laws of quantum mechanics without any special hypothesis... Much has been written of the explosive violence with which the α-particle is hurled from its place in the nucleus. But from the process pictured above, one would rather say that the α-particle almost slips away unnoticed.
The theory supposes that the alpha particle can be considered an independent particle within a nucleus, that is in constant motion but held within the nucleus by strong interaction. At each collision with the repulsive potential barrier of the electromagnetic force, there is a small non-zero probability that it will tunnel its way out. An alpha particle with a speed of 1.5×107 m/s within a nuclear diameter of approximately 10−14 m will collide with the barrier more than 1021 times per second. However, if the probability of escape at each collision is very small, the half-life of the radioisotope will be very long, since it is the time required for the total probability of escape to reach 50%. As an extreme example, the half-life of the isotope bismuth-209 is .
The isotopes in beta-decay stable isobars that are also stable with regards to double beta decay with mass number A = 5, A = 8, 143 ≤ A ≤ 155, 160 ≤ A ≤ 162, and A ≥ 165 are theorized to undergo alpha decay. All other mass numbers (isobars) have exactly one theoretically stable nuclide. Those with mass 5 decay to helium-4 and a proton or a neutron, and those with mass 8 decay to two helium-4 nuclei; their half-lives (helium-5, lithium-5, and beryllium-8) are very short, unlike the half-lives for all other such nuclides with A ≤ 209, which are very long. (Such nuclides with A ≤ 209 are primordial nuclides except 146Sm.)
Working out the details of the theory leads to an equation relating the half-life of a radioisotope to the decay energy of its alpha particles, a theoretical derivation of the empirical Geiger–Nuttall law. |
Alpha decay | Uses | Uses
Americium-241, an alpha emitter, is used in smoke detectors. The alpha particles ionize air in an open ion chamber and a small current flows through the ionized air. Smoke particles from the fire that enter the chamber reduce the current, triggering the smoke detector's alarm.
Radium-223 is also an alpha emitter. It is used in the treatment of skeletal metastases (cancers in the bones).
Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space probes and were used for artificial heart pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay.
Static eliminators typically use polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize the air, allowing the "static cling" to dissipate more rapidly. |
Alpha decay | Toxicity | Toxicity
Highly charged and heavy, alpha particles lose their several MeV of energy within a small volume of material, along with a very short mean free path. This increases the chance of double-strand breaks to the DNA in cases of internal contamination, when ingested, inhaled, injected or introduced through the skin. Otherwise, touching an alpha source is typically not harmful, as alpha particles are effectively shielded by a few centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or the thin layer of dead skin cells that make up the epidermis; however, many alpha sources are also accompanied by beta-emitting radio daughters, and both are often accompanied by gamma photon emission.
Relative biological effectiveness (RBE) quantifies the ability of radiation to cause certain biological effects, notably either cancer or cell-death, for equivalent radiation exposure. Alpha radiation has a high linear energy transfer (LET) coefficient, which is about one ionization of a molecule/atom for every angstrom of travel by the alpha particle. The RBE has been set at the value of 20 for alpha radiation by various government regulations. The RBE is set at 10 for neutron irradiation, and at 1 for beta radiation and ionizing photons.
However, the recoil of the parent nucleus (alpha recoil) gives it a significant amount of energy, which also causes ionization damage (see ionizing radiation). This energy is roughly the weight of the alpha () divided by the weight of the parent (typically about 200 Da) times the total energy of the alpha. By some estimates, this might account for most of the internal radiation damage, as the recoil nucleus is part of an atom that is much larger than an alpha particle, and causes a very dense trail of ionization; the atom is typically a heavy metal, which preferentially collect on the chromosomes. In some studies, this has resulted in an RBE approaching 1,000 instead of the value used in governmental regulations.
The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock. If the gas is inhaled, some of the radon particles may attach to the inner lining of the lung. These particles continue to decay, emitting alpha particles, which can damage cells in the lung tissue.EPA Radiation Information: Radon. October 6, 2006, , Accessed December 6, 2006, The death of Marie Curie at age 66 from aplastic anemia was probably caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, but it is not clear if this was due to alpha radiation or X-rays. Curie worked extensively with radium, which decays into radon,Health Physics Society, "Did Marie Curie die of a radiation overexposure?" along with other radioactive materials that emit beta and gamma rays. However, Curie also worked with unshielded X-ray tubes during World War I, and analysis of her skeleton during a reburial showed a relatively low level of radioisotope burden.
The Russian defector Alexander Litvinenko's 2006 murder by radiation poisoning is thought to have been carried out with polonium-210, an alpha emitter. |
Alpha decay | References | References
Alpha emitters by increasing energy (Appendix 1) |
Alpha decay | Notes | Notes |
Alpha decay | External links | External links
Image:Ndslivechart.png The LIVEChart of Nuclides - IAEA with filter on alpha decay
Alpha decay with 3 animated examples showing the recoil of daughter |
Alpha decay | See also | See also
Beta decay
Gamma decay
Category:Helium
Category:Nuclear physics
Category:Radioactivity |
Alpha decay | Table of Content | Short description, History, Mechanism, Quantum tunneling, Uses, Toxicity, References, Notes, External links, See also |
Extreme poverty | Multiple issues | thumb|upright=1.6|Number of people living in extreme poverty from 1820 to 2015.
thumb|upright=1.6|Total population living in extreme poverty, by world region 1990 to 2015.
thumb|upright=1.6|The number of people living on less than $1.90, $3.20, $5.50, and $10 globally from 1981 to 2015.
Extreme poverty is the most severe type of poverty, defined by the United Nations (UN) as "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services".United Nations. "Report of the World Summit for Social Development", 6–12 March 1995. (archived from the original on 4 July 2019) Historically, other definitions have been proposed within the United Nations.
In 2018, extreme poverty mainly refers to an income below the international poverty line of $1.90 per day (in 2011 prices, $ in dollars), set by the World Bank. In October 2017, the World Bank updated the international poverty line, a global absolute minimum, to $1.90 a day. This is the equivalent of $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices, hence the widely used expression "living on less than a dollar a day". The vast majority of those in extreme poverty reside in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. As of 2018, it is estimated that the country with the most people living in extreme poverty is Nigeria, at 86 million.Laurence Chandy and Homi Kharas (2014), What Do New Price Data Mean for the Goal of Ending Extreme Poverty?, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC. Article was reviewed in The Financial Times: Shawn Donnan (9 May 2014), World Bank eyes biggest global poverty line increase in decades
In the past, the vast majority of the world population lived in conditions of extreme poverty.
The percentage of the global population living in absolute poverty fell from over 80% in 1800 to around 10% by 2015. According to UN estimates, roughly 734 million people or 10% remained under those conditions. The number had previously been measured as 1.9 billion in 1990, and 1.2 billion in 2008. Despite the significant number of individuals still below the international poverty line, these figures represent significant progress for the international community, as they reflect a decrease of more than one billion people over 15 years.
In public opinion surveys around the globe, people surveyed tend to think that extreme poverty has not decreased.Human Progress, "What 19 in 20 Americans Don't Know About World Poverty," 30 April 2018
The reduction of extreme poverty and hunger was the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG1), as set by the United Nations in 2000. Specifically, the target was to reduce the extreme poverty rate by half by 2015, a goal that was met five years ahead of schedule. In the Sustainable Development Goals, which succeeded the MDGs, the goal is to end extreme poverty in all its forms everywhere. With this declaration the international community, including the UN and the World Bank have adopted the target of ending extreme poverty by 2030. |
Extreme poverty | Definition | Definition |
Extreme poverty | Previous definitions | Previous definitions
In July 1993, Leandro Despouy, the then UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights made use of a definition he adapted from a 1987 report to the French Economic and Social CouncilJoseph Wresinski. "Grande pauvreté et precarité économique et sociale", 10–11 February 1987. by Fr. Joseph Wresinski, founder of the International Movement ATD Fourth World, distinguishing "lack of basic security" (poverty) and "chronic poverty" (extreme poverty), linking the eradication of extreme poverty by allowing people currently experiencing it a real opportunity to exercise all their human rights:
This definition was mentioned previously, in June 1989, in the preliminary report on the realization of economic, social and cultural rights by the UN Special Rapporteur Danilo Türk.Danilo Türk. "Preliminary report on the new international economic order and the promotion of human rights", 28 June 1989. It is still in use today, among others, in the current UN Guiding Principles on Extreme Poverty and Human RightsMagdalena Sepúlveda Carmona "Final draft of the guiding principles on extreme poverty and human rights", 18 July 2012. adopted by the UN Human Rights Council in September 2012.UN Human Rights Council. Resolution 21/11 dated 27 September 2012. |
Extreme poverty | Consumption-based definition | Consumption-based definition
alt=|thumb|Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population). Based on World Bank data ranging from 1998 to 2018.
Extreme poverty is defined by the international community as living below $1.90 a day, as measured in 2011 international prices (equivalent to $2.12 in 2018). This number, also known as the international poverty line, is periodically updated to account for inflation and differences in the cost of living;Sala-i-Martin, Xavier. "The world distribution of income: falling poverty and convergence period". The Quarterly Journal of Economics 121.2 (2006): 351–397 (370). it was originally defined at $1.00 a day in 1996. The updates are made according to new price data to portray the costs of basic food, health services, clothing, and shelter around the world as accurately as possible. The latest revision was made in 2015 when the World Bank increased the line to international-$1.90.
Because many of the world's poorest people do not have a monetary income, the poverty measurement is based on the monetary value of a person's consumption. Otherwise the poverty measurement would be missing the home production of subsistence farmers that consume largely their own production. |
Extreme poverty | Alternative definitions | Alternative definitions
thumb|upright=1.6|Share of population living in multidimensional poverty in 2014
The $1.90/day extreme poverty line remains the most widely used metric as it highlights the reality of those in the most severe conditions."Getting to Zero: USAID Discussion Paper" , 21 November 2013. Although widely used by most international organizations, it has come under scrutiny due to a variety of factors. For example, it does not account for how far below the line people are, referred to as the depth of poverty. For this purpose, the same institutions publish data on the poverty gap.
The international poverty line is designed to stay constant over time, to allow comparisons between different years. It is therefore a measure of absolute poverty and is not measuring relative poverty. It is also not designed to capture how people view their own financial situation (known as the socially subjective poverty line). Moreover, the calculation of the poverty line relies on information about consumer prices to calculate purchasing power parity, which are very hard to measure and are necessarily debatable. As with all other metrics, there may also be missing data from the poorest and most fragile countries.
Several alternative instruments for measuring extreme poverty have been suggested which incorporate other factors such as malnutrition and lack of access to a basic education. The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), based on the Alkire-Foster Method, is published by the Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI): it measures deprivation in basic needs and can be broken down to reflect both the incidence and the intensity of poverty. For example, under conventional measures, in both Ethiopia and Uzbekistan about 40% of the population is considered extremely poor, but based on the MPI, 90% of Ethiopians but only 2% of Uzbeks are in multidimensional poverty.Dan Morrell."Who Is Poor?", Harvard Magazine. January–February 2011.
The MPI is useful for development officials to determine the most likely causes of poverty within a region, using the M0 measure of the method (which is calculated by multiplying the fraction of people in poverty by the fraction of dimensions they are deprived in).OPHI."Alkire-Foster Method" , 2014. For example, in the Gaza Strip of Palestine, using the M0 measure of the Alkire-Foster method reveals that poverty in the region is primarily caused by a lack of access to electricity, lack of access to drinking water, and widespread overcrowding. In contrast, data from the Chhukha District of Bhutan reveals that income is a much larger contributor to poverty as opposed to other dimensions within the region.Sabina Alkire and James Foster."Counting and Multidimensional Poverty", International Food Policy Research Institute. However, the MPI only presents data from 105 countries, so it cannot be used for global measurements. |
Extreme poverty | Share of the population living in extreme poverty | Share of the population living in extreme poverty
thumb|Share of the population living in extreme poverty in selected parts of the world
+Number of people pushed below the $1.90 ($2011 PPP) poverty line (in millions) +Region1990199520002005201020152017Developed countries4.064.994.75.485.287.917.45Latin America & Caribbean66.6164.7565.7754.0435.322.9523.73Middle East & North Africa14.816.499.959.66.8615.7424.16South Asia557.05550.44564.92533.28425.32230.51173.1East Asia & Pacific977.29766.14632.26347.99212.1242.0829.15Europe & Central Asia11.513234.2822.0411.277.356.37Sub-Saharan Africa280.95352.76388.27393.57412.49417.6432.5Total1,9101,7901,7001,3701,110744.14696.45 |