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= = = Recording locations = = =
Recording locations are adapted from Charmbracelet liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Thomas Quiney =
Thomas Quiney ( baptised 26 February 1589 - c . 1662 or 1663 ) was the husband of William Shakespeare 's daughter Judith Shakespeare , and a vintner and tobacconist in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Quiney held several municipal offices in the corporation of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , the highest being chamberlain in 1621 and 1622 , but was also fined for various minor offences .
In 1616 , Quiney married Judith Shakespeare . The marriage took place during a season when a special licence was required by the church , and the couple had failed to obtain one , leading to Quiney 's brief excommunication . Quiney was also summoned before the Bawdy Court fewer than two months after the wedding to answer charges of “ carnal copulation ” with a Margaret Wheeler , who died in childbirth . Scholars believe that as a result of these events William Shakespeare altered his will to favour his other daughter , Susanna Hall , and excluded Quiney from his inheritance .
Judith and Thomas had three children : Shakespeare , Richard , and Thomas . Shakespeare Quiney died at six months of age , and neither Richard nor Thomas lived past 21 . The death of Judith 's last child led to legal wrangling over William Shakespeare 's will that lasted until 1652 . Scholars speculate that Thomas Quiney may have died in 1662 or 1663 when the burial records are incomplete .
= = Birth and early life = =
Thomas Quiney was born in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon and baptised on 26 February 1589 in Holy Trinity Church . He was the son of Richard and Elizabeth Quiney . He had 10 siblings , among them a Richard Quiney who was a grocer in London , Mary Quiney who later married Richard Watts , the vicar of Harbury , and Elizabeth Quiney who married William Chandler . There is no record of Thomas Quiney 's attendance at the local school , but he had sufficient education to write short passages in French , run a business , and hold several municipal offices in his life .
= = Business and municipal offices = =
Quiney was a vintner and dealt in tobacco . He held the lease to a house known as “ Atwood 's ” for the purpose of running a tavern , and later traded houses with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , William Chandler , for the larger house known as “ The Cage ” where he set up his vintner 's shop in the upper half . He is recorded as selling wine to the corporation of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon as late as 1650 .
He was a man of some education , with knowledge of French and calligraphy . In signing his accounts for 1621 and 1622 as chamberlain he decorated them with a couplet in French from a romance by Mellin de Saint @-@ Gelais . Quiney writes “ Bien heureux est celui qui pour devenir sage , Qui pour le mal d 'autrui fait son apprentissage ” but the original is “ Heureux celui qui pour devenir sage , Du mal d 'autrui fait son apprentissage ” . The original translates into English as “ Happy is he who to become wise , serves his apprenticeship from other men 's troubles ” but Quiney 's version “ … is ungrammatical and without sense ” .
He was a well @-@ respected man in the borough , and was elected a burgess and constable in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon in 1617 . In 1621 and 1662 he was acting Chamberlain . In signing his accounts for 1622 – 3 , he did so " with flourishes ” , but the records show that the council voted them “ imperfect ” . Quiney did not attend this meeting , but he did attend the later meeting where the accounts were passed , so they appear to have needed further explanation .
Quiney 's reputation was slightly spotted ; he was fined for swearing and for “ suffering townsmen to tipple in his house ” , and was at one point in danger of prosecution for “ dispensing unwholesome and adulterated wine ” .
= = Marriage = =
On 10 February 1616 , Thomas Quiney married Judith Shakespeare , William Shakespeare 's daughter , in Holy Trinity Church . The assistant vicar , Richard Watts , who later married Quiney 's sister Mary , probably officiated . The wedding took place during the Lenten season , which was prohibited . In 1616 Lent started on 23 January , Septuagesima Sunday , and ended on 7 April , the Sunday after Easter . The marriage therefore required a special licence , issued by the Bishop of Worcester , which the couple had failed to obtain . A Walter Wright of Stratford was cited for marrying without either banns or licence , so since Quiney was only cited for marrying without the required licence it is presumed that they had posted banns in church . The infraction was a minor one , apparently caused by the minister , as three other couples were also wed that February . Quiney was nevertheless summoned by Walter Nixon to appear before the Consistory court in Worcester . ( This same Walter Nixon was later involved in a Star Chamber case and was found guilty of forging signatures and taking bribes ) . Quiney failed to appear by the required date . The register recorded the judgement , which was excommunication , on or about 12 March 1616 . It is unknown if Judith was also excommunicated , but in any case the punishment did not last long . In November of the same year they were back in church for the baptism of their firstborn child .
The marriage did not begin well : Quiney had recently impregnated another woman , Margaret Wheeler , who was to die in childbirth along with the child and was buried on 15 March 1616 . On 26 March 1616 , Quiney appeared before the Bawdy Court , which dealt , among other things , with " whoredom and uncleanliness " . Confessing in open court to " carnal copulation " with Margaret Wheeler , he submitted himself for correction . He was sentenced to open penance " in a white sheet ( according to custom ) " before the congregation on three Sundays . He also had to admit to his crime , this time wearing ordinary clothes , before the Minister of Bishopton in Warwickshire . The first part of the sentence was remitted , essentially letting him off with a five @-@ shilling fine to be given to the parish 's poor . Since Bishopton only had a chapel , he was spared any public humiliation .
= = Chapel Lane , Atwood 's and The Cage = =
Where the Quineys lived after being married is unknown . Judith owned her father 's cottage on Chapel Lane , Stratford , while Thomas had held , since 1611 , the lease on a tavern called " Atwood 's " on High Street . The cottage later passed from Judith to her sister as part of the settlement in their father 's will . In July 1616 Thomas swapped houses with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , William Chandler , moving his vintner 's shop to the upper half of a house at the corner of High Street and Bridge Street . Known as " The Cage " , it is the house traditionally associated with Judith Quiney . In the 20th century The Cage was for a time a Wimpy restaurant before being turned into the Stratford Information Office .
The Cage provides further insight into why Shakespeare would not have trusted Judith 's husband . Around 1630 Quiney tried to sell the lease on the house but was prevented by his kinsmen . In 1633 , to protect the interests of Judith and the children , the lease was signed over to the trust of : John Hall , Susanna 's husband ; Thomas Nash , the husband of Judith 's niece ; and Richard Watts , vicar of nearby Harbury , who was Quiney 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and who had officiated at Thomas and Judith 's wedding . Eventually , in November 1652 , the lease to The Cage ended up in the hands of Thomas ' eldest brother , Richard Quiney , a grocer in London .
= = William Shakespeare 's last will and testament = =
The inauspicious beginnings of Judith 's marriage , in spite of her husband and his family being otherwise unexceptionable , has led to speculation that this was the cause for William Shakespeare 's hastily altered last will and testament . He first summoned his lawyer , Francis Collins , in January 1616 . On 25 March he made further alterations , probably because he was dying and because of his concerns about Quiney . In the first bequest of the will there had been a provision " vnto my sonne in L [ aw ] " ; but " sonne in L [ aw ] " was then struck out , with Judith 's name inserted in its stead . To this daughter he bequeathed £ 100 " in discharge of her marriage porcion " ; another £ 50 if she were to relinquish the Chapel Lane cottage ; and , if she or any of her children were still alive at the end of three years following the date of the will , a further £ 150 , of which she was to receive the interest but not the principal . This money was explicitly denied to Thomas Quiney unless he were to bestow on Judith lands of equal value . In a separate bequest , Judith was given " my broad silver gilt bole " .
Finally , for the bulk of his estate , which included his main house , " New Place " , his two houses on Henley Street and various lands in and around Stratford , Shakespeare had set up an entail . His estate was bequeathed , in descending order of choice , to the following : 1 ) his daughter , Susanna Hall ; 2 ) upon Susanna 's death , " to the first sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing & to the heires Males of the bodie of the saied first Sonne lawfullie yssueing " ; 3 ) to Susanna 's second son and his male heirs ; 4 ) to Susanna 's third son and his male heirs ; 5 ) to Susanna 's " ffourth ... ffyfth sixte & Seaventh sonnes " and their male heirs ; 6 ) to Elizabeth , Susanna and John Hall 's firstborn , and her male heirs ; 7 ) to Judith and her male heirs ; or 8 ) to whatever heirs the law would normally recognise . This elaborate entail is usually taken to indicate that Thomas Quiney was not to be entrusted with Shakespeare 's inheritance , although some have speculated that it may simply indicate that Susanna was the favoured child .
= = Children = =
Judith and Thomas Quiney had three children : Shakespeare ( baptised 23 November 1616 — buried 8 May 1617 ) ; Richard ( baptised 9 February 1618 — buried 6 February 1639 ) ; and Thomas ( baptised 23 January 1620 — buried 28 January 1639 ) . Shakespeare was named for his mother 's father . Richard 's name was common among the Quineys : his other grandfather and an uncle were both named Richard .
Shakespeare Quiney died at six months of age . Richard and Thomas Quiney were buried within a month of each other ; they were 19 and 21 years old , respectively . The deaths of all of Judith 's children brought on new legal consequences . The entail on her father 's inheritance led Susanna , along with her daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , to make a settlement , by use of a rather elaborate legal device , for the inheritance of her own branch of the family . Legal wrangling continued for another thirteen years , until 1652 .
= = Death = =
Of Thomas Quiney 's fate the records show little . It is speculated that he may have died in 1662 or 1663 when the parish burial records are incomplete . He certainly had a nephew in London , who by this time held the lease to The Cage .
= Transit of Venus =
A transit of Venus across the Sun takes place when the planet Venus passes directly between the Sun and a superior planet , becoming visible against ( and hence obscuring a small portion of ) the solar disk . During a transit , Venus can be seen from Earth as a small black disk moving across the face of the Sun . The duration of such transits is usually measured in hours ( the transit of 2012 lasted 6 hours and 40 minutes ) . A transit is similar to a solar eclipse by the Moon . While the diameter of Venus is more than 3 times that of the Moon , Venus appears smaller , and travels more slowly across the face of the Sun , because it is much farther away from Earth .
Transits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable astronomical phenomena . They occur in a pattern that generally repeats every 243 years , with pairs of transits eight years apart separated by long gaps of 121 @.@ 5 years and 105 @.@ 5 years . The periodicity is a reflection of the fact that the orbital periods of Earth and Venus are close to 8 : 13 and 243 : 395 commensurabilities .
The last transit of Venus was on 5 and 6 June 2012 , and was the last Venus transit of the 21st century ; the prior transit took place on 8 June 2004 . The previous pair of transits were in December 1874 and December 1882 . The next transits of Venus will be on 10 – 11 December 2117 , and 8 December 2125 .
Venus transits are historically of great scientific importance as they were used to gain the first realistic estimates of the size of the Solar System . Observations of the 1639 transit , combined with the principle of parallax , provided an estimate of the distance between the Sun and the Earth that was more accurate than any other up to that time . The 2012 transit provided scientists with a number of other research opportunities , particularly in the refinement of techniques to be used in the search for exoplanets .
= = Conjunctions = =
Venus , with an orbit inclined by 3 @.@ 4 ° relative to the Earth 's , usually appears to pass under ( or over ) the Sun at inferior conjunction . A transit occurs when Venus reaches conjunction with the Sun at or near one of its nodes — the longitude where Venus passes through the Earth 's orbital plane ( the ecliptic ) — and appears to pass directly across the Sun . Although the inclination between these two orbital planes is only 3 @.@ 4 ° , Venus can be as far as 9 @.@ 6 ° from the Sun when viewed from the Earth at inferior conjunction . Since the angular diameter of the Sun is about half a degree , Venus may appear to pass above or below the Sun by more than 18 solar diameters during an ordinary conjunction .
Sequences of transits usually repeat every 243 years . After this period of time Venus and Earth have returned to very nearly the same point in their respective orbits . During the Earth 's 243 sidereal orbital periods , which total 88757 @.@ 3 days , Venus completes 395 sidereal orbital periods of 224 @.@ 701 days each , equal to 88756 @.@ 9 Earth days . This period of time corresponds to 152 synodic periods of Venus .
The pattern of 105 @.@ 5 , 8 , 121 @.@ 5 and 8 years is not the only pattern that is possible within the 243 @-@ year cycle , because of the slight mismatch between the times when the Earth and Venus arrive at the point of conjunction . Prior to 1518 , the pattern of transits was 8 , 113 @.@ 5 and 121 @.@ 5 years , and the eight inter @-@ transit gaps before the AD 546 transit were 121 @.@ 5 years apart . The current pattern will continue until 2846 , when it will be replaced by a pattern of 105 @.@ 5 , 129 @.@ 5 and 8 years . Thus , the 243 @-@ year cycle is relatively stable , but the number of transits and their timing within the cycle will vary over time . Since the 243 : 395 Earth : Venus commensurability is only approximate , there are different sequences of transits occurring 243 years apart , each extending for several thousand years , which are eventually replaced by other sequences . For instance , there is a series which ended in 541 BC , and the series which includes 2117 only started in AD 1631 .
= = History of observation = =
= = = Ancient history = = =
Ancient Indian , Greek , Egyptian , Babylonian and Chinese observers knew of Venus and recorded the planet 's motions . The early Greek astronomers called Venus by two names — Hesperus the evening star and Phosphorus the morning star . Pythagoras is credited with realizing they were the same planet . There is no evidence that any of these cultures knew of the transits . Venus was important to ancient American civilizations , in particular for the Maya , who called it Noh Ek , " the Great Star " or Xux Ek , " the Wasp Star " ; they embodied Venus in the form of the god Kukulkán ( also known as or related to Gukumatz and Quetzalcoatl in other parts of Mexico ) . In the Dresden Codex , the Maya charted Venus ' full cycle , but despite their precise knowledge of its course , there is no mention of a transit . However , it has been proposed that frescoes found at Mayapan may contain a pictorial representation of the 12th or 13th century transits .
= = = 1639 – first scientific observation = = =
In 1627 , Johannes Kepler became the first person to predict a transit of Venus , by predicting the 1631 event . His methods were not sufficiently accurate to predict that the transit would not be visible in most of Europe , and as a consequence , nobody was able to use his prediction to observe the phenomenon .
The first recorded observation of a transit of Venus was made by Jeremiah Horrocks from his home at Carr House in Much Hoole , near Preston in England , on 4 December 1639 ( 24 November under the Julian calendar then in use in England ) . His friend , William Crabtree , also observed this transit from Broughton , near Manchester . Kepler had predicted transits in 1631 and 1761 and a near miss in 1639 . Horrocks corrected Kepler 's calculation for the orbit of Venus , realized that transits of Venus would occur in pairs 8 years apart , and so predicted the transit of 1639 . Although he was uncertain of the exact time , he calculated that the transit was to begin at approximately 15 : 00 . Horrocks focused the image of the Sun through a simple telescope onto a piece of paper , where the image could be safely observed . After observing for most of the day , he was lucky to see the transit as clouds obscuring the Sun cleared at about 15 : 15 , just half an hour before sunset . Horrocks ' observations allowed him to make a well @-@ informed guess as to the size of Venus , as well as to make an estimate of the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun — the astronomical unit . He estimated that distance to be 59 @.@ 4 million miles ( 95 @.@ 6 Gm , 0 @.@ 639 AU ) – about two thirds of the actual distance of 93 million miles ( 149 @.@ 6 million km ) , but a more accurate figure than any suggested up to that time . The observations were not published until 1661 , well after Horrocks 's death .
= = = 1761 and 1769 = = =
In 1663 Scottish mathematician James Gregory had suggested in his Optica Promota that observations of a transit of the planet Mercury , at widely spaced points on the surface of the Earth , could be used to calculate the solar parallax and hence the astronomical unit using triangulation . Aware of this , a young Edmond Halley made observations of such a transit on 28 October O.S. 1677 from Saint Helena but was disappointed to find that only Richard Towneley in Burnley , Lancashire had made another accurate observation of the event whilst Gallet , at Avignon , simply recorded that it had occurred . Halley was not satisfied that the resulting calculation of the solar parallax at 45 " was accurate .
In a paper published in 1691 , and a more refined one in 1716 , he proposed that more accurate calculations could be made using measurements of a transit of Venus , although the next such event was not due until 1761 . Halley died in 1742 , but in 1761 numerous expeditions were made to various parts of the world so that precise observations of the transit could be made in order to make the calculations as described by Halley — an early example of international scientific collaboration . This collaboration was , however , underpinned by competition , the British , for example , being spurred to action only after they heard of French plans from Joseph @-@ Nicolas Delisle . In an attempt to observe the first transit of the pair , astronomers from Britain , Austria and France traveled to destinations around the world , including Siberia , Norway , Newfoundland and Madagascar . Most managed to observe at least part of the transit , but successful observations were made in particular by Jeremiah Dixon and Charles Mason at the Cape of Good Hope . Less successful , at Saint Helena , were Nevil Maskelyne and Robert Waddington , although they put the voyage to good use by trialling the lunar @-@ distance method of finding longitude .
The existence of an atmosphere on Venus was concluded by Mikhail Lomonosov on the basis of his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 from the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg . He used a two @-@ lens achromat refractor and a weak solar filter ( smoked glass ) and reported seeing a bump or bulge of light ( " Lomonosov 's arc " ) off the solar disc as Venus began to exit the Sun . Lomonosov attributed that effect to refraction of solar rays through an atmosphere ; he also reported the appearance of a sliver around the part of Venus that had just entered the Sun 's disk during the initial phase of transit . In 2012 , Pasachoff and Sheehan reported , based on knowing what Venus 's atmosphere would look like because of Pasachoff and Schneider 's observations of the 2004 transit of Venus , that what Lomonosov reported was not Venus 's atmosphere . To make a decisive test , a group of researchers carried out experimental reconstruction of Lomonosov 's discovery of Venusian atmosphere with antique refractors during the transit of Venus on 5 – 6 June 2012 . They observed the " Lomonosov 's arc " and other aureole effects due to Venus 's atmosphere and concluded that Lomonosov 's telescope was fully adequate to the task of detecting the arc of light around Venus off the Sun 's disc during ingress or egress if proper experimental techniques as described by Lomonosov in his 1761 paper are employed .
For the 1769 transit , scientists traveled to Tahiti , Norway , and locations in North America including Canada , New England , and San José del Cabo ( Baja California , then under Spanish control ) ; . The Czech astronomer Christian Mayer was invited by Catherine the Great to observe the transit in Saint Petersburg with Anders Johan Lexell , while other members of Russian Academy of Sciences went to eight other locations in the Russian Empire , under the general coordination of Stepan Rumovsky . The Hungarian astronomer Maximilian Hell and his assistant János Sajnovics traveled to Vardø , Norway , delegated by Christian VII of Denmark . William Wales and Joseph Dymond made their observation in Hudson Bay , Canada , for the Royal Society . Observations were made by a number of groups in the British colonies in America . In Philadelphia , the American Philosophical Society erected three temporary observatories and appointed a committee , of which David Rittenhouse was the head . Observations were made by a group led by Dr. Benjamin West in Providence , Rhode Island. and published in 1769 . The results of the various observations in the American colonies were printed in the first volume of the American Philosophical Society 's Transactions , published in 1771 . Comparing the North American observations , William Smith published in 1771 a best value of the solar parallax of 8 @.@ 48 to 8 @.@ 49 arc @-@ seconds , which corresponds to an Earth @-@ sun distance of 24000 times the Earth 's radius , about 3 % different from the correct value .
Observations were also made from Tahiti by James Cook and Charles Green at a location still known as " Point Venus " . This occurred on the first voyage of James Cook , after which Cook explored New Zealand and Australia . This was one of five expeditions organised by the Royal Society and the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne .
Jean @-@ Baptiste Chappe d 'Auteroche went to San José del Cabo in what was then New Spain to observe the transit with two Spanish astronomers ( Vicente de Doz and Salvador de Medina ) . For his trouble he died in an epidemic of yellow fever there shortly after completing his observations . Only 9 of 28 in the entire party returned home alive .
The unfortunate Guillaume Le Gentil spent eight years travelling in an attempt to observe either of the transits . His unsuccessful journey led to him losing his wife and possessions and being declared dead ( his efforts became the basis of the play Transit of Venus by Maureen Hunter ) . Under the influence of the Royal Society Ruđer Bošković travelled to Istanbul , but arrived too late .
Unfortunately , it was impossible to time the exact moment of the start and end of the transit because of the phenomenon known as the " black drop effect " . This effect was long thought to be due to Venus ' thick atmosphere , and initially it was held to be the first real evidence that Venus had an atmosphere . However , recent studies demonstrate that it is an optical effect caused by the smearing of the image of Venus by turbulence in the Earth 's atmosphere or imperfections in the viewing apparatus .
In 1771 , using the combined 1761 and 1769 transit data , the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande calculated the astronomical unit to have a value of 153 million kilometers ( ± 1 million km ) . The precision was less than had been hoped for because of the black drop effect , but still a considerable improvement on Horrocks ' calculations .
Maximilian Hell published the results of his expedition in 1770 , in Copenhagen . Based on the results of his own expedition , and of Wales and Cook , in 1772 he presented another calculation of the astronomical unit : 151 @.@ 7 million kilometers . Lalande queried the accuracy and authenticity of the Hell expedition , but later he retreated in an article of Journal des sçavans , in 1778 .
= = = 1874 and 1882 = = =
Transit observations in 1874 and 1882 allowed this value to be refined further . Three expeditions — from Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States — were sent to the Kerguelen Archipelago for the 1874 observations . The American astronomer Simon Newcomb combined the data from the last four transits , and he arrived at a value of about 149 @.@ 59 million kilometers ( ± 0 @.@ 31 million kilometers ) . Modern techniques , such as the use of radio telemetry from space probes , and of radar measurements of the distances to planets and asteroids in the Solar System , have allowed a reasonably accurate value for the astronomical unit ( AU ) to be calculated to a precision of about ± 30 meters . As a result , the need for parallax calculations has been superseded .
= = = 2004 and 2012 = = =
A number of scientific organizations headed by the European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) organized a network of amateur astronomers and students to measure Earth 's distance from the Sun during the transit . The participants ' observations allowed a calculation of the astronomical unit ( AU ) of 149 608 708 km ± 11 835 km which had only a 0 @.@ 007 % difference to the accepted value .
There was a good deal of interest in the 2004 transit as scientists attempted to measure the pattern of light dimming as Venus blocked out some of the Sun 's light , in order to refine techniques that they hope to use in searching for extrasolar planets . Current methods of looking for planets orbiting other stars only work for a few cases : planets that are very large ( Jupiter @-@ like , not Earth @-@ like ) , whose gravity is strong enough to wobble the star sufficiently for us to detect changes in proper motion or Doppler shift changes in radial velocity ; Jupiter or Neptune sized planets very close to their parent star whose transit causes changes in the luminosity of the star ; or planets which pass in front of background stars with the planet @-@ parent star separation comparable to the Einstein ring and cause gravitational microlensing . Measuring light intensity during the course of a transit , as the planet blocks out some of the light , is potentially much more sensitive , and might be used to find smaller planets . However , extremely precise measurement is needed : for example , the transit of Venus causes the Sun 's light to drop by a mere 0 @.@ 001 magnitude , and the dimming produced by small extrasolar planets will be similarly tiny .
The 2012 transit provided scientists numerous research opportunities as well , in particular in regard to the study of exoplanets . Research of the 2012 Venus transit includes :
Measuring dips in a star 's brightness caused by a known planet transiting the Sun will help astronomers find exoplanets . Unlike the 2004 Venus transit , the 2012 transit occurred during an active phase of the 11 @-@ year activity cycle of the Sun , and it is likely to give astronomers practice in picking up a planet 's signal around a " spotty " variable star .
Measurements made of the apparent diameter of Venus during the transit , and comparison with its known diameter , will give scientists an idea of how to estimate exoplanet sizes .