Datasets:
DioLiu
/
Test2

Dataset card Data Studio Files
xet
Community
text
stringlengths
0
3.86k
Amanita muscaria is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid and muscimol . Recently , an analysis of nine different methods for preparing A. muscaria for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did not depend on the solvent ( milk or water ) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol .
= = In Religion = =
= = = Soma = = =
In 1968 , R. Gordon Wasson proposed that A. muscaria was the Soma talked about in the Rig Veda of India , a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time . He noted that descriptions of Soma omitted any description of roots , stems or seeds , which suggested a mushroom , and used the adjective hári " dazzling " or " flaming " which the author interprets as meaning red . One line described men urinating Soma ; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia . Soma is mentioned as coming " from the mountains " , which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan invaders from the north . Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed , using as a source the Manusmṛti . In 1971 , Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson 's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma . In his 1976 survey , Hallucinogens and Culture , anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma , concluding cautiously in its favour .
= = = Christianity = = =
Philologist , archeologist , and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the entheogenic consumption of A. muscaria in his 1970 book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross , but his theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of ethnomycology . The book was roundly discredited by academics and theologians , including Sir Godfrey Driver , Emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at Oxford University , and Henry Chadwick , the Dean of Christ Church , Oxford . Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro 's theory in the 1970 book A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth ; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the Middle East , even though cedars and pines are found there , and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro . He concludes that if the theory was true , the use of the mushroom must have been " the best kept secret in the world " as it was so well concealed for two thousand years .
= = Culinary use = =
The toxins in A. muscaria are water @-@ soluble . When sliced thinly , or finely diced and boiled in plentiful water until thoroughly cooked , it seems to be detoxified . Although its consumption as a food has never been widespread , the consumption of detoxified A. muscaria has been practiced in some parts of Europe ( notably by Russian settlers in Siberia ) since at least the 19th century , and likely earlier . The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823 . In the late 19th century , the French physician Félix Archimède Pouchet was a populariser and advocate of A. muscaria consumption , comparing it to manioc , an important food source in tropical South America that must be detoxified before consumption .
Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America . A classic description of this use of A. muscaria by an African @-@ American mushroom seller in Washington , D.C. , in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon Coville . In this case , the mushroom , after parboiling , and soaking in vinegar , is made into a mushroom sauce for steak . It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan . The most well @-@ known current use as an edible mushroom is in Nagano Prefecture , Japan . There , it is primarily salted and pickled .
A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of A. muscaria as a food and describes detoxification methods . They advocate that Amanita muscaria be described in field guides as an edible mushroom , though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it . The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of cultural bias , as several other popular edible species , notably morels , are toxic unless properly cooked .
= = Legal Status = =
= = = Australia = = =
Muscimol found within Amanita muscaria is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) . A Schedule 9 substance is a substance which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research , or for analytical , teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and / or State or Territory Health Authorities .
= = = The Netherlands = = =
Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina are illegal to buy , sell , or possess since December 2008 . Possession of amounts larger than 0.5g dried or 5g fresh lead to a criminal charge .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
It is illegal to produce , supply , or import this drug under the Psychoactive Substance Act , which came into effect on May 26th , 2016 .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The red @-@ and @-@ white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture . Garden ornaments and children 's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies , such as the Smurfs , often show fly agarics used as seats , or homes . Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance , albeit in a subtle manner . In the Victorian era they became more visible , becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings . Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series Super Mario Bros. ( specifically two of the power @-@ up items and the platforms in several stages ) , and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film Fantasia .
= = = Literature = = =
An account of the journeys of Philip von Strahlenberg to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the mukhomor there was published in English in 1736 . The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo @-@ Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read 1762 novel , Citizen of the World . The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time . Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus , including naturalist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his books The Seven Sisters of Sleep and A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi . This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . A hallucinogenic " scarlet toadstool " from Lappland is featured as a plot element in Charles Kingsley 's 1866 novel Hereward the Wake based on the medieval figure of the same name . Thomas Pynchon 's 1973 novel Gravity 's Rainbow describes the fungus as a " relative of the poisonous Destroying Angel " and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested Amanita muscaria . Fly agaric shamanism is also explored in the 2003 novel Thursbitch by Alan Garner .
= Burning of women in England =
In England , burning was a legal punishment inflicted on women found guilty of high treason , petty treason and heresy . Over a period of several centuries , female convicts were publicly burnt at the stake , sometimes alive , for a range of activities including coining and mariticide .
While men guilty of heresy were also burned at the stake , those who committed high treason were instead hanged , drawn and quartered . The English jurist William Blackstone supposed that the difference in sentencing , although " full as terrible to the sensation as the other " , could be explained by the desire not to publicly expose a woman 's body . Public executions were well @-@ attended affairs , and contemporary reports detail the cries of women on the pyre as they were burned alive . It later became commonplace for the executioner to strangle the convict , and for the body to be burned post @-@ mortem .
In the latter half of the eighteenth century , changing attitudes to such public displays prompted Sir Benjamin Hammett MP to denounce the practice in Parliament . His bill , by no means the first such attempt to end the public burning of women , led to the Treason Act 1790 , which abolished the sentence .
= = Crimes punishable by burning = =
= = = Treason = = =
By the end of the thirteenth century , several offences against either one 's lord , or one 's king , were treasonable . High treason , defined as transgressions against the sovereign , was first codified during King Edward III 's reign by the Treason Act 1351 . It clarified exactly what crimes constituted treason , following earlier , somewhat " over zealous " interpretations of England 's legal codes . For instance , high treason could be committed by anyone found to be compassing the king 's death or counterfeiting his coin . High treason remained distinct though , from what became known as petty treason : the killing of a lawful superior , such as a husband by his wife . Though twelfth century contemporary authors made few attempts to differentiate between high treason and petty treason , enhanced punishments may indicate that the latter was treated more seriously than an ordinary felony .
As the most egregious offence an individual could commit , viewed as seriously as though the accused had personally attacked the monarch , high treason demanded the ultimate punishment . But whereas men guilty of this crime were hanged , drawn and quartered , women were drawn and burned . In his Commentaries on the Laws of England the 18th @-@ century English jurist William Blackstone noted that the sentence , " to be drawn to the gallows , and there to be burned alive " , was " full as terrible to the sensation as the other " . Blackstone wrote that women were burned rather than quartered as " the decency due to the sex forbids the exposing and publicly mangling their bodies " . However , an observation by historian Jules Michelet , that " the first flame to rise consumed the clothes , revealing poor trembling nakedness " , may , in the opinion of historian Vic Gatrell , suggest that this solution is " misconceived " . In The Hanging Tree , Gatrell concludes that the occasional live burial of women in Europe gave tacit acknowledgement to the possibility that a struggling , kicking female hanging from a noose could " elicit obscene fantasies " from watching males .
= = = Heresy = = =
Another law enforceable by public burning was De heretico comburendo , introduced in 1401 during the reign of Henry IV . It allowed for the execution of persons of both sexes found guilty of heresy , thought to be " sacrilegious and dangerous to souls , but also seditious and treasonable . " Bishops were empowered to arrest and imprison anyone suspected of offences related to heresy and , once convicted , send them to be burned " in the presence of the people in a lofty place " . Although the act was repealed in 1533 / 34 , it was revived over 20 years later at the request of Queen Mary I who , during the Marian persecutions , made frequent use of the punishment it allowed .
De heretico comburendo was repealed by the Act of Supremacy 1558 , although that act allowed ecclesiastical commissions to deal with occasional instances of heresy . Persons declared guilty , such as Bartholomew Legate and Edward Wightman , could still be burned under a writ of de heretico comburendo issued by the Court of Chancery . The burning of heretics was finally ended by the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1677 which , although it allowed ecclesiastical courts to charge people with " atheism , blasphemy , heresy , schism , or other damnable doctrine or opinion " , limited their power to excommunication .
= = Execution of the sentence = =
Public executions were normally attended by large crowds . For the killing in 1546 of Anne Askew , charged with heresy and tortured at the Tower of London , a " Substancyall Stage " was built to seat the various officials who presided over her burning . A witness to proceedings reported that Askew was so badly injured by her torture that she was unable to stand . Instead , " the dounge carte was holden up betwene ij sarjantes , perhaptes syttyng there in a cheare " .
A pamphlet detailing the burning in April 1652 of Joan Peterson , the so @-@ called Witch of Wapping , also describes the execution of Prudence Lee , found guilty of mariticide . Lee was apparently brought on foot , between two sheriff 's officers and dressed in a red waistcoat , to the place of execution in Smithfield . There she confessed to having " been a very lewd liver , and much given to cursing and swearing , for which the Lord being offended with her , had suffered her to be brought to that untimely end " . She admitted to being jealous of and arguing with her husband , and stabbing him with a knife . The executioner put her in a pitch barrel , tied her to the stake , placed the fuel and faggots around her and set them alight . Lee was reported to have " desired all that were present to pray for her " and , feeling the flames , " shrike [ d ] out terribly some five or six several times . " Burning alive for murder was abolished in 1656 , although burning for adultery remained . Thereafter , out of mercy , the condemned were often strangled before the flames took hold . Notable exceptions to this practice were the burnings in 1685 and 1726 of Elizabeth Gaunt , found guilty of high treason for her part in the Rye House Plot , and Catherine Hayes , for petty treason . Hayes apparently " rent the air with her cries and lamentations " when the fire was lit too early , preventing the executioner from strangling her in time . She became the last woman in England to be burned alive .
The law also allowed for the hanging of children aged seven years or more . Mary Troke , " but sixteen years of age " , was burned at Winchester in 1738 for poisoning her mistress . An unidentified 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl imprisoned at Newgate was more fortunate . Found guilty in 1777 of being an accomplice to treason , for concealing whitewashed farthings on her person ( at her master 's request ) , she had been sentenced to burn . She was saved by the intervention of Thomas Thynne , 1st Marquess of Bath , who happened to be passing .
= = Changing attitudes = =
In 1786 , Phoebe Harris and her accomplices were " indicted , for that they , on the 11th of February last , one piece of false , feigned , and counterfeit money and coin , to the likeness and similitude of the good , legal , and silver coin of this realm , called a shilling , falsely , deceitfully , feloniously , and traiterously did counterfeit and coin " . Watched by a reported 20 @,@ 000 people , she was led to the stake and stood on a stool , where a noose , attached to an iron bolt driven into the top of the stake , was placed around her neck . As prayers were read , the stool was taken away and over the course of several minutes , her feet kicking as her body convulsed , Harris choked to death . About 30 minutes later , faggots were placed around the stake , her body was chained into position , and subsequently burned for over two hours .
Executions like this had once passed with little to no comment in the press . Historically , while fewer women than men were subjected to capital punishment , proportionately more were acquitted , found guilty of lesser charges , or pardoned if condemned . In centuries past , these women were judged by publications such as The Newgate Calendar to have succumbed to their own perversions , or to have been led astray . But while 18th and 19th @-@ century women guilty of treasonable crimes were still seen as villains , increasingly , the cause of their descent was ascribed to villainous men . Those people concerned about the brutality inflicted on condemned women were , in Gatrell 's opinion , " activated by the sense that even at their worst women were creatures to be pitied and protected from themselves , and perhaps revered , like all women from whom men were born . " Commenting on Harris 's execution , The Daily Universal Register claimed that the act reflected " a scandal upon the law " , " a disgrace to the police " and " was not only inhuman , but shamefully indelicate and shocking " . The newspaper asked " why should the law in this species of offence inflict a severer punishment upon a woman , than upon a man " ?
Harris 's fate prompted William Wilberforce to sponsor a bill which , if passed , would have abolished the practice . But as one of its proposals would have allowed the anatomical dissection of criminals other than murderers , the House of Lords rejected it . Though sympathetic to reform of England 's Bloody Code , Lord Chief Justice Loughborough saw no need to change the law : " Although the punishment , as a spectacle , was rather attended with circumstances of horror , likely to make a more strong impression on the beholders than mere hanging , the effect was much the same , as in fact , no greater degree of personal pain was sustained , the criminal being always strangled before the flames were suffered to approach the body " .
When on 25 June 1788 Margaret Sullivan was hanged and burned for coining , the same newspaper ( by then called The Times ) wrote :
There is something so inhuman in burning a woman , for what only subjects a man to hanging , that human nature shudders at the idea . Must not mankind laugh as our long speeches against African slavery — and our fine sentiments on Indian cruelties , when just in the very eye of the Sovereign we roast a female fellow creature alive , for putting a pennyworth of quicksilver on a half @-@ penny worth of brass . The savage barbarity of the punishment — and the smallness of the offence in the eye of God are contrasts that should meet the consideration of Government .
The Gentleman 's Magazine addressed the Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger :
the woman was brought out attended by a priest of the Romish persuasion , and as soon as she came to the stake she was placed upon a stool , which was instantly removed from under her , and she left suspended , when the faggots were placed around her , and being set on fire she was soon consumed to ashes . — Mr. Pitt , himself a lawyer , ' tis hoped , will not suffer this cruel remain of savage legislation to escape his notice , and continue a disgrace to the enlightened sense of this country .
Although in his objections to Wilberforce 's 1786 bill Loughborough had noted that these women were dead long before they suffered the flames , many newspapers of the day made no such distinction . The Times incorrectly stated that Sullivan was burned alive , rhetoric which , in Dr Simon Devereaux 's opinion , could be " rooted in the growing reverence for domesticated womanhood " that might have been expected at the time . As many objections may also have been raised by the perceived iniquity of drawing and burning women for coining , whereas until 1783 , when the halting of executions at Tyburn removed ritualistic dragging from public view , men were simply drawn and hanged . A widening gulf between the numbers of men and women whipped in London ( during the 1790s , 393 men versus 47 women ) , which mirrors a similar decline in the sending of women to the pillory , may also indicate an imposition of commonly @-@ held gender ideals on English penal practices .
= = Abolition = =
The burning in 1789 of Christian Murphy , for coining , received practically no attention from the newspapers ( perhaps owing to practical limitations on how much news they could publish across only four pages ) , but it may have been enacted by Sir Benjamin Hammett , a former sheriff of London . Hammett was also an MP , and in 1790 he introduced to Parliament a Bill for Altering the Sentence of Burning Women . He denounced the punishment as " the savage remains of Norman policy " which " disgraced our statutes " , as " the practice did the common law " . He also highlighted how a sheriff who refused to carry out the sentence was liable to prosecution . William Wilberforce and Hammett were not the first men to attempt to end the burning of women . Almost 140 years earlier , during the Interregnum , a group of lawyers and laymen known as the Hale Commission ( after its chairman Matthew Hale ) , was tasked by the House of Commons to take " into consideration what inconveniences there are in the law " . Among the proposed reforms was the replacement of burning at the stake with hanging , but , mainly through the objections of various interested parties , none of the commission 's proposals made it into law during the Rump Parliament . Hammett was confident though . He believed that public opinion was on his side and that " the House would go with him in the cause of humanity " . The change in execution venues , from Tyburn to Newgate , also attracted criticism . Following Phoebe Harris 's burning in 1786 , as well as questioning the inequality of English law The Times complained about the location of the punishment and its effect on locals :
When remission of burning was refused , the scene of inhumanity should have been changed ; the consequences have been serious ; several persons in the neighbourhood of Newgate lying ill , have been severely affected by the smoke which issued from the body of the unhappy female victim .
Another factor was the fate of Sophia Girton , found guilty of coining . Hammett 's bill was introduced only four days before Girton 's fate was to be decided , but a petition for her respite from burning , supported by another sheriff of London ( either Thomas Baker or William Newman ) and brought to King George III 's notice by William Grenville , proved successful . Devereaux suggests that her impending fate lent weight to the eventual outcome of Hammett 's bill , which was to abolish the burning of women for treason through the Treason Act 1790 . Christian Murphy , who at her execution in 1789 was " drest in a clean striped gown , a white ribbon , and a black ribbon round her cap " , was the last woman in England to be burned .
= Strand , London =
Strand ( or the Strand ) is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster , Central London . It runs just over 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar , where the road becomes Fleet Street inside the City of London , and is part of the A4 , a main road running west from inner London .
The road 's name comes from the Old English strond , meaning the edge of a river , as it historically ran alongside the north bank of the River Thames . The street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries , with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river . These included Essex House , Arundel House , Somerset House , Savoy Palace , Durham House and Cecil House . The aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century , following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops , restaurants and taverns . The street was a centre point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century , and several venues remain on the Strand . At the east end of the street are two historic churches ; St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes .
Several authors , poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand , including Charles Dickens , Ralph Waldo Emerson and Virginia Woolf . The street has been commemorated in the song , " Let 's All Go Down the Strand " , now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall .
= = Geography = =
The street is the main link between the two cities of Westminster and London . It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square , parallel to the River Thames , to Temple Bar which is the boundary between the two city districts ; the road ahead being Fleet Street . Traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych , connected at both ends to the Strand . The road marks the southern boundary of the Covent Garden district and forms part of the Northbank business improvement district .
The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway , then in 1185 as Stronde and in 1220 as la Stranda . It is formed from the Old English word ' strond ' , meaning the edge of a river . Initially it referred to the shallow bank of the once much wider Thames , before the construction of the Victoria Embankment . The name was later applied to the road itself . In the 13th century it was known as ' Densemanestret ' or ' street of the Danes ' , referring to the community of Danes in the area .
Two London Underground stations were once named Strand : a Piccadilly line station ( which was renamed Aldwych station ) that operated between 1907 and 1994 and a former Northern line station which today forms part of Charing Cross station . ' Strand Bridge ' was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction ; it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo . London Bus routes 6 , 23 , 139 and 176 all run along the Strand , as do numerous night bus services .
= = History = =