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During September 1909 , a Japanese calling himself ' Nobu Taka ' arrived in Mexico City for the purpose of challenging Maeda for what the Mexican Herald said would be the world jujutsu championship . After several months of public wrangling , Taka and Maeda met at the Colon Theater on November 16 , 1909 ; Taka won . There was an immediate rematch , and four days later , Maeda was pronounced the champion . It was later revealed that Taka was , in fact , Maeda 's old friend , Soishiro Satake .
In January 1910 , Maeda took part in a wrestling tournament in Mexico City . During the semifinals , Maeda drew with Hjalmar Lundin . This is a different result than Lundin recalled in his 1937 memoirs . Said Lundin , " Having been accustomed to handling the big Greco @-@ Roman wrestlers with ease , the Jap thought he could do likewise with me , but in the first encounter I got the better of him , after which my confidence returned . I had no trouble then in winning the match . It was a surprise to the crowd and a set @-@ back for Koma . He had been the hero all week , but as soon as he was beaten the fans , true to form , called him a bum . "
In July 1910 , Maeda returned to Cuba , where he tried to arrange matches with Frank Gotch and Jack Johnson . The Americans ignored him — there was no money to be made wrestling him , and much money to be lost if they lost to him . On August 23 , 1910 , Maeda wrestled Jack Connell in Havana ; the result was a draw . During 1911 , Maeda and Satake were joined in Cuba by Akitaro Ono and Tokugoro Ito . The four men were known as the ' Four Kings of Cuba.'
The Four Kings were very popular in Cuba , and the Japanese media were proud of the reputation they were bringing to judo and Japan . Consequently , on January 8 , 1912 , the Kodokan promoted Maeda to 5th dan . There was some resistance to this decision because there were those in Japan who did not approve of his involvement in professional wrestling . In 1913 , Tokugoro Ito stayed in Cuba while Maeda and Satake went to El Salvador , Costa Rica , Honduras , Panama , Colombia , Ecuador and Peru . In El Salvador , the president was assassinated while Maeda was there , and in Panama , the Americans tried to pay him to lose ; in response , they kept moving south . In Peru they met Laku , a Japanese jujutsuka who taught the military , and invited him to join them . They were then joined by Okura in Chile , and by Shimitsu in Argentina . The troupe arrived in Brazil on November 14 , 1914 .
= = = = Brazil = = = =
According to a copy of Maeda 's passport provided by Gotta Tsutsumi , head of Belém 's Associação Paramazônica Nipako , Maeda arrived in Porto Alegre on November 14 , 1914 , where his first exhibition in Brazil took place . After appearing in Porto Alegre , Maeda and his companions moved throughout the country : on August 26 , 1915 , Maeda , Satake , Okura , Shimitsu , and Laku were at Recife ; during October 1915 , they were in Belém , finally arriving in Manaus on December 18 , 1915 . Tokugoro Ito arrived some time later .
On December 20 , 1915 , the first demonstration in Belém took place at the Theatro Politheama . The O Tempo newspaper announced the event , stating that Conde Koma would show the main jiu @-@ jitsu techniques , excepting the prohibited ones . He would also demonstrate self @-@ defense techniques . After that , the troupe would be accepting challenges from the crowd , and there would be the first sensational match of jiu @-@ jitsu between Shimitsu ( champion of Argentina ) and Laku ( Peruvian military professor ) . On December 22 , 1915 , according to O Tempo , jiu @-@ jitsu world champion Maeda , head of the Japanese troupe , and Satake , New York champion , performed an enthusiastic and sensational jiu @-@ jitsu match . On the same day , Nagib Assef , an Australian Greco @-@ Roman wrestling champion of Turkish origin , challenged Maeda . On December 24 , 1915 , Maeda defeated in seconds the boxer Barbadiano Adolpho Corbiniano , who became one of his disciples . On January 3 , 1916 at Theatro Politheama , Maeda finally fought Nagib Assef , who was thrown off the stage and pinned into submission by arm @-@ lock . On January 8 , 1916 , Maeda , Okura , and Shimitsu boarded the SS Antony and left for Liverpool . Tokugoro Ito went to Los Angeles . Satake and Laku stayed in Manaus teaching , according to O Tempo , jiu @-@ jitsu . After 15 years together , Maeda and Satake had finally split up . Of this last trip , little is known . Maeda went from England to Portugal , Spain , and France , coming back to Brazil in 1917 alone . Settling in Belém do Pará , Maeda married D. May Iris .
Maeda was still popular in Brazil , and recognized as a great fighter , although he only fought sporadically after his return . Around 1918 – 1919 , Maeda accepted a challenge from the famous capoeirista Pé de Bola . Maeda allowed Pé de Bola to use a knife in the fight . The capoeirista was 190 cm tall and weighed 100 kg . Maeda won the match quickly . In 1921 , Maeda founded his first judo academy in Brazil . It was called Clube Remo , and its building was a 4 m x 4 m shed . Later , it was moved to the Fire Brigade headquarters and then to the church of N. S. de Aparecida . In 1991 , the Academy was located in the SESI and was run by Alfredo Mendes Coimbra , of the third generation of Conde Koma 's descendants .
On September 18 , 1921 , Maeda , Satake , and Okura were briefly in New York City . They were aboard the Booth Line steamship SS Polycarp . All three men listed their occupations as professors of " juitso " . After leaving New York , the three men went to the Caribbean , where they stayed from September to December 1921 . At some point in this trip , Maeda was joined by his wife . In Havana , Satake and Maeda took part in some contests . Their opponents included Paul Alvarez , who wrestled as Espanol Icognito . Alvarez defeated Satake and Yako Okura — the latter being billed as a former instructor at the Chilean Naval Academy — before being himself beaten by Maeda . Maeda also defeated a Cuban boxer called Jose Ibarra , and a French wrestler called Fournier . The Havana papers attributed Maeda with a Cuban student called Conde Chenard .
= = = Later years = = =
In 1925 , Maeda became involved with helping settle Japanese immigrants near Tome @-@ açú , a Japanese @-@ owned company town in Pará , Brazil . This was part of a large tract in the Amazon forest set aside for Japanese settlement by the Brazilian government . The crops grown by the Japanese were not popular with the Brazilians , and the Japanese investors eventually gave up on the project . Maeda also continued teaching judo , now mostly to the children of Japanese immigrants . Consequently , in 1929 , the Kodokan promoted him to 6th dan , and on November 27 , 1941 , to 7th dan . Maeda never knew of this final promotion , because he died in Belém on November 28 , 1941 . The cause of death was kidney disease .
In May 1956 , a memorial to Maeda was erected in Hirosaki City , Japan . The dedication ceremony was attended by Risei Kano and Kaichiro Samura .
= = Influence on the creation of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu = =
Gastão Gracie was a business partner of the American Circus in Belém . In 1916 , Italian Argentine circus Queirolo Brothers staged shows there and presented Maeda . In 1917 , Carlos Gracie — 14 ‑ year @-@ old son of Gastão Gracie — watched a demonstration by Maeda at the Da Paz Theatre and decided to learn judo ( also known at the time as ' Kano Jiu @-@ Jitsu ' ) . Maeda accepted Gracie and Luiz França as students [ 1 ] , and the youth went on to become a great exponent of the art and ultimately , with his younger brother Hélio Gracie , founded Gracie Jiu @-@ Jitsu , modern Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu . In 1921 , Gastão Gracie and his family moved to Rio de Janeiro . Carlos , then 17 years old , passed Maeda 's teachings on to his brothers Osvaldo , Gastão , and Jorge . Hélio is considered by many as the founder of Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu ( though others , such as Carlson Gracie , have pointed to Carlos as the founder ) .
= = Maeda 's philosophy of combat = =
According to Renzo Gracie 's book Mastering Jujitsu , Maeda not only taught the art of judo to Carlos Gracie , but also taught a particular philosophy about the nature of combat based on his travels competing and training alongside catch @-@ wrestlers , boxers , savate fighters , and various other martial artists . The book details Maeda 's theory that physical combat could be broken down into distinct phases , such as the striking phase , the grappling phase , the ground phase , and so on . Thus , it was a smart fighter 's task to keep the fight located in the phase of combat that best suited his own strengths . The book further states that this theory was a fundamental influence on the Gracie approach to combat . The approach included armed versus armed , armed versus unarmed , unarmed , standing ( tachiwaza , 立ち技 ) , kneeling ( suwariwaza , 座技 ) , and ground work ( newaza , 寝技 ) , close quarters ( hakuheijugi , 白兵主義 ) , and other forms of combat . It was employed by other proponents of judo ( ' Kano jiu @-@ jutsu ' ) who , like Maeda , engaged in challenge match fighting overseas as judo spread internationally ( e.g. , Yukio Tani in the United Kingdom from 1905 , Mikonosuke Kawaishi in France , and others ) .
= Kitsune =
Kitsune ( 狐 , キツネ , IPA : [ kitsu ͍ ne ] ) is the Japanese word for fox . Foxes are a common subject of Japanese folklore ; in English , kitsune refers to them in this context . Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom . According to Yōkai folklore , all foxes have the ability to shape shift into men or women . While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others — as foxes in folklore often do — other stories portray them as faithful guardians , friends , lovers , and wives .
Foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan ; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures . Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari , a Shinto kami or spirit , and serve as its messengers . This role has reinforced the fox 's supernatural significance . The more tails a kitsune has — they may have as many as nine — the older , wiser , and more powerful it is . Because of their potential power and influence , some people make offerings to them as to a deity .
Conversely foxes were often seen as " witch animals " , especially during the superstitious Edo period ( 1603 – 1867 ) , and were goblins who could not be trusted ( similar to some badgers and cats ) .
= = Origins = =
Japanese fox myths had its origins in Chinese mythology . Chinese folk tales tell of fox spirits called húli jīng ( Chinese : 狐狸精 ) that may have up to nine tails ( Kyūbi no Kitsune in Japanese ) . Many of the earliest surviving stories are recorded in the Konjaku Monogatarishū , an 11th @-@ century collection of Chinese , Indian , and Japanese narratives . The nine @-@ tailed foxes came to be adapted as a motif from Chinese mythology to Japanese mythology .
Smyers ( 1999 ) notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories , but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan .
= = = Etymology = = =
The full etymology is unknown . The oldest known usage of the word is in the 794 text Shin 'yaku Kegonkyō Ongi Shiki . Other old sources include Nihon Ryōiki ( 810 – 824 ) and Wamyō Ruijushō ( c . 934 ) . These oldest sources are written in Man 'yōgana which clearly identifies the historical spelling as ki1tune . Following several diachronic phonological changes , this becomes kitsune .
Many etymological suggestions have been made , though there is no general agreement :
Myōgoki ( 1268 ) suggests that it is so called because it is " always ( tsune ) yellow ( ki ) " .
Early Kamakura period Mizukagami indicates that it means " came ( ki ) [ perfective aspect particle tsu ] to bedroom ( ne ) " due to a legend that a kitsune would change into one 's wife and bear children .
Arai Hakuseki in Tōga ( 1717 ) suggests that ki means " stench " , tsu is a possessive particle , and ne is related to inu , the word for " dog " .
Tanikawa Kotosuga in Wakun no Shiori ( 1777 – 1887 ) suggests that ki means " yellow " , tsu is a possessive particle , and ne is related to neko , the word for cat .
Ōtsuki Fumihiko in Daigenkai ( 1932 – 1935 ) proposes that the word comes from kitsu , which is onomatopoeia for the bark of a fox , and ne , which may be an affix or an honorific word meaning a servant of an Inari shrine .
Nozaki also suggests that the word kitsune was originally onomatopoetic . Kitsu represented a fox 's yelp and came to be the general word for fox . -Ne signifies an affectionate mood .
Kitsu is now archaic ; in modern Japanese , a fox 's cry is transcribed as kon kon or gon gon .
One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a widely known folk etymology of the word kitsune . Unlike most tales of kitsune who become human and marry human males , this one does not end tragically :
Ono , an inhabitant of Mino ( says an ancient Japanese legend of A.D. 545 ) , spent the seasons longing for his ideal of female beauty . He met her one evening on a vast moor and married her . Simultaneously with the birth of their son , Ono 's dog was delivered of a pup which as it grew up became more and more hostile to the lady of the moors . She begged her husband to kill it , but he refused . At last one day the dog attacked her so furiously that she lost courage , resumed vulpine shape , leaped over a fence and fled .
" You may be a fox , " Ono called after her , " but you are the mother of my son and I love you . Come back when you please ; you will always be welcome . "
So every evening she stole back and slept in his arms .
Because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox , she is called Kitsune . In classical Japanese , kitsu @-@ ne means come and sleep , and ki @-@ tsune means always comes .
= = Characteristics = =
Kitsune are believed to possess superior intelligence , long life , and magical powers . They are a type of yōkai , or spiritual entity , and the word kitsune is often translated as fox spirit . However , this does not mean that kitsune are ghosts , nor that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes . Because the word spirit is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment , all long @-@ lived foxes gain supernatural abilities .
There are two common classifications of kitsune . The zenko ( 善狐 , literally good foxes ) are benevolent , celestial foxes associated with Inari ; they are sometimes simply called Inari foxes . On the other hand , the yako ( 野狐 , literally field foxes , also called nogitsune ) tend to be mischievous or even malicious . Local traditions add further types . For example , a ninko is an invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them .
Physically , kitsune are noted for having as many as nine tails . Generally , a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful fox ; in fact , some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 100 years . One , five , seven , and nine tails are the most common numbers in folk stories . When a kitsune gains its ninth tail , its fur becomes white or gold . These kyūbi no kitsune ( 九尾の狐 , nine @-@ tailed foxes ) gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world . Other tales credit them with infinite wisdom ( omniscience ) .
= = = Shapeshifting = = =
A kitsune may take on human form , an ability learned when it reaches a certain age — usually 100 years , although some tales say 50 . As a common prerequisite for the transformation , the fox must place reeds , a broad leaf , or a skull over its head . Common forms assumed by kitsune include beautiful women , young girls , or elderly men . These shapes are not limited by the fox 's age or gender , and a kitsune can duplicate the appearance of a specific person . Foxes are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women . Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone , especially at dusk or night , could be a fox . Kitsune @-@ gao or fox @-@ faced refers to human females who have a narrow face with close @-@ set eyes , thin eyebrows , and high cheekbones . Traditionally , this facial structure is considered attractive , and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form . Variants on the theme have the kitsune retain other foxlike traits , such as a coating of fine hair , a fox @-@ shaped shadow , or a reflection that shows its true form .
In some stories , kitsune have difficulty hiding their tails when they take human form ; looking for the tail , perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless , is a common method of discerning the creature 's true nature . A particularly devout individual may in some cases even be able to see through a fox 's disguise merely by perceiving them . Kitsune may also be exposed while in human form by their fear and hatred of dogs , and some become so rattled by their presence that they revert to the form of a fox and flee .
One folk story illustrating these imperfections in the kitsune 's human shape concerns Koan , a historical person credited with wisdom and magical powers of divination . According to the story , he was staying at the home of one of his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot . Then , " in his pain , he ran out of the bathroom naked . When the people of the household saw him , they were astonished to see that Koan had fur covering much of his body , along with a fox 's tail . Then Koan transformed in front of them , becoming an elderly fox and running away . "
Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include possession , mouths or tails that generate fire or lightning ( known as kitsunebi ) , willful manifestation in the dreams of others , flight , invisibility , and the creation of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality . Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater powers , able to bend time and space , drive people mad , or take fantastic shapes such as a tree of incredible height or a second moon in the sky . Other kitsune have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi and feed on the life or spirit of human beings , generally through sexual contact .
= = = Kitsunetsuki = = =
Kitsunetsuki ( Japanese : 狐憑き , 狐付き ) , also written kitsune @-@ tsuki , literally means " the state of being possessed by a fox " . The victim is usually a young woman , whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts . In some cases , the victims ' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resemble those of a fox . Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read . Though foxes in folklore can possess a person of their own will , kitsunetsuki is often attributed to the malign intents of hereditary fox employers , or tsukimono @-@ suji .
Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition :
Strange is the madness of those into whom demon foxes enter . Sometimes they run naked shouting through the streets . Sometimes they lie down and froth at the mouth , and yelp as a fox yelps . And on some part of the body of the possessed a moving lump appears under the skin , which seems to have a life of its own . Prick it with a needle , and it glides instantly to another place . By no grasp can it be so tightly compressed by a strong hand that it will not slip from under the fingers . Possessed folk are also said to speak and write languages of which they were totally ignorant prior to possession . They eat only what foxes are believed to like — tofu , aburagé , azukimeshi , etc . — and they eat a great deal , alleging that not they , but the possessing foxes , are hungry .
He goes on to note that , once freed from the possession , the victim will never again be able to eat tofu , azukimeshi , or other foods favored by foxes :
Exorcism , often performed at an Inari shrine , may induce a fox to leave its host . In the past , when such gentle measures failed or a priest was not available , victims of kitsunetsuki were beaten or badly burned in hopes of forcing the fox to leave . Entire families were ostracized by their communities after a member of the family was thought to be possessed .
In Japan , kitsunetsuki was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for mental illness until the early 20th century . Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals . In the late 19th century , Dr. Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases that caused fever were often considered kitsunetsuki . The belief has lost favor , but stories of fox possession still occur , such as allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed .
In medicine , kitsunetsuki is a culture @-@ bound syndrome unique to Japanese culture . Those who suffer from the condition believe they are possessed by a fox . Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet adzuki beans , listlessness , restlessness , and aversion to eye contact . Kitsunetsuki is similar to but distinct from clinical lycanthropy .
= = = Hoshi no tama = = =
Depictions of kitsune or their possessed victims may feature round or onion @-@ shaped white balls known as hoshi no tama ( ほしのたま , star balls ) . Tales describe these as glowing with kitsunebi . Some stories identify them as magical jewels or pearls . When not in human form or possessing a human , a kitsune keeps the ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail . Jewels are a common symbol of Inari , and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare .
One belief is that when a kitsune changes shape , its hoshi no tama holds a portion of its magical power . Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune 's soul ; the kitsune will die if separated from it for long . Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract a promise from the kitsune to help them in exchange for its return . For example , a 12th @-@ century tale describes a man using a fox 's hoshi no tama to secure a favor :
" Confound you ! " snapped the fox . " Give me back my ball ! " The man ignored its pleas till finally it said tearfully , " All right , you 've got the ball , but you don 't know how to keep it . It won 't be any good to you . For me , it 's a terrible loss . I tell you , if you don 't give it back , I 'll be your enemy forever . If you do give it back though , I 'll stick to you like a protector god . "
The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed robbers .
= = Portrayal = =
Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are , kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works . Noh , kyogen , bunraku , and kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them , as do contemporary works such as anime , manga and video games . Japanese metal idol band Babymetal refer to the kitsune myth in their lyrics and include the use of fox masks , hand signs , and animation interludes during live shows . Western authors of fiction have also made use of the kitsune legends .
= = = Servants of Inari = = =
Kitsune are associated with Inari , the Shinto deity of rice . This association has reinforced the fox 's supernatural significance . Originally , kitsune were Inari 's messengers , but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari Ōkami may be depicted as a fox . Likewise , entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune , where devotees can leave offerings . Fox spirits are said to be particularly fond of a fried sliced tofu called aburage , which is accordingly found in the noodle @-@ based dishes kitsune udon and kitsune soba . Similarly , Inari @-@ zushi is a type of sushi named for Inari Ōkami that consists of rice @-@ filled pouches of fried tofu . There is speculation among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past . Foxes have long been worshipped as kami .
Inari 's kitsune are white , a color of good omen . They possess the power to ward off evil , and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits . In addition to protecting Inari shrines , they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome nogitsune , those spirit foxes who do not serve Inari . Black foxes and nine @-@ tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens .
According to beliefs derived from fusui ( feng shui ) , the fox 's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil kimon , or energy , that flows from the northeast . Many Inari shrines , such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto , feature such statues , sometimes large numbers of them .
Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten , goddesses conflated with Inari 's female aspect . Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox .
= = = Tricksters = = =
Kitsune are often presented as tricksters , with motives that vary from mischief to malevolence . Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai , greedy merchants , and boastful commoners , while the crueler ones abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks . Their victims are usually men ; women are possessed instead . For example , kitsune are thought to employ their kitsunebi to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will o ' the wisp . Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions . Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction , theft of food , humiliation of the prideful , or vengeance for a perceived slight .
A traditional game called kitsune @-@ ken ( fox @-@ fist ) references the kitsune 's powers over human beings . The game is similar to rock , paper , scissors , but the three hand positions signify a fox , a hunter , and a village headman . The headman beats the hunter , whom he outranks ; the hunter beats the fox , whom he shoots ; the fox beats the headman , whom he bewitches .
This ambiguous portrayal , coupled with their reputation for vengefulness , leads people to try to discover a troublesome fox 's motives . In one case , the 16th @-@ century leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi wrote a letter to the kami Inari :