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= Verpa bohemica =
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Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae . Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a " false morel " . The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ shaped cap — 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long — that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain @-@ like convolutions . The cap hangs from the top of a lighter @-@ colored , brittle stem that measures up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Microscopically , the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores , typically 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm , and the presence of only two spores per ascus .
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In the field , the mushroom is reliably distinguished from the true morels on the basis of cap attachment : V. bohemica has a cap that hangs completely free from the stem . Although widely considered edible , consumption of the mushroom is generally not advised due to reports of poisoning in susceptible individuals . Poisoning symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination . V. bohemica is found in northern North America , Europe , and Asia . It fruits in early spring , growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt , before the appearance of " true morels " ( genus Morchella ) . The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European mycologists .
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= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
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The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius Vincenz von Krombholz in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica . The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 . Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile Boudier in his 1907 treatise on the Discomycetes of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications . Boudier believed that the large , curved ascospores and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species . Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa . The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .
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The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia ( now a part of the Czech Republic ) , where Krombholz originally collected the species . The mushroom is commonly known as the " early morel " , " early false morel " , or the " wrinkled thimble @-@ cap " . Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek ptyx ( genitive form ptychos ) , meaning " fold " , layer " , or " plate " .
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= = Description = =
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The cap of this fungus ( known technically as an apothecium ) is 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , with a conical or bell shape . It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together ( anastomose ) in a vein @-@ like network . The cap is attached to the stem at the top only — hanging from the top of the stipe , with the lobed edge free from the stem — and varies in color from yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown ; the underside of the cap is pale . The stem is 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , cream @-@ white in color , and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top . Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony hyphae , it eventually becomes hollow in maturity ; overall , the mushroom is rather fragile . The spore deposit is yellow , and the flesh is white .
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Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm . They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish . The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per ascus are characteristic for this species . The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide . The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller determined that the asci are heliotropic — they bend toward light . As he noted , " I cut transverse sections though their pilei , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . " This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind . The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .
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= = = Edibility = = =
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The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals . Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species Gyromitra esculenta . The responsible toxin in G. esculenta is gyromitrin ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin . Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma . Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to parboil with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance . Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems . Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from " strong but not on a par with true morels " , to " pleasant " , to " not distinctive " .
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= = = Similar species = = =
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The closely related species Verpa conica typically has a smooth cap , although specimens with wrinkled caps are known . V. conica may be distinguished microscopically by its eight @-@ spored asci . Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica . Another similar group of species are the " half @-@ free " morels , Morchella semilibera and others , which have a honeycombed cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length , and with ridges that are darker than the pits . Additionally , a cross @-@ sectioned stem of a specimen of M. semilibera is hollow , while V. bohemica usually has cottony wisps in the stem , and M. semilibera usually has vertical perforations near the base , while V. bohemica lacks them . Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores .
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= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
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The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season . It is often found along riverbanks , near cottonwoods , willows and aspens , often buried in plant litter . The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight . Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an optimum of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter . It has been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle . The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast . In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and has been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine . In Asia , it has been recorded from India and Turkey .
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A 10 @-@ year study of the distribution , time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring , appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees . Narrow @-@ head morels ( Morchella angusticeps ) fruit next , followed by the yellow or white morels ( Morchella esculenta ) , then lastly Morchella crassipes . The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding dipterans ( flies ) , including Porricondyla media , Pegomya geniculata , and Trichocera annulata .
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= Varanasi =
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Varanasi ( Hindustani pronunciation : [ ʋaːˈraːɳəsi ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( Banāras [ bəˈnaːrəs ] ) , or Kashi ( Kāśī [ ˈkaːʃi ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad . The spiritual capital of India , it is the holiest of the seven sacred cities ( Sapta Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism . Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , Agra , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junction and Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport .
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Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi . Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Goswami Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi . Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas . Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism . In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 . The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi , who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin . Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the Diesel Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited . Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .
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Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges . Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage . The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions . Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead . The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions . Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple . The Kashi Naresh ( Maharaja of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations . An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or have lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of Hindustani classical music was developed . One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) . The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .
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= = Etymology = =
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Traditional etymology links " Varanasi " to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city 's borders : Varuna , still flowing in northern Varanasi , and Assi , today a small stream in the southern part of the city , near Assi Ghat . The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges , bounded by Varuna and Assi .
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In the Rigveda , an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns , the city is referred to as Kāśī ( Kashi ) from the Sanskrit verbal root kaś- " to shine " , making Varanasi known as " City of Light " , the " luminous city as an eminent seat of learning " . The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha 's days .
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Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi , such as Kāśikā ( Sanskrit : " the shining one " ) , Avimukta ( Sanskrit : " never forsaken " by Shiva ) , Ānandavana ( Sanskrit : the forest of bliss ) , and Rudravāsa ( Sanskrit : the place where Rudra / Śiva resides ) .
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Over most of the last millennium , the city was known as Banaras . In the 1950s , Indian government decided to return to the Sanskrit form Varanasi ; however , Banaras is still the predominant form used locally .
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= = History = =
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According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva . The Pandavas , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of fratricide and Brāhmanahatya that they had committed during the climactic Kurukshetra War . It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide Moksha ; Ayodhyā , Mathurā , Gayā , Kaśī , Kañchi , Avantikā , and Dwārāvatī are the seven cities known as the givers of liberation .
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= = = Archaeological evidence = = =
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Archaeological evidence of the earliest known settlements around Varanasi in the Ganges valley suggest that they began in the 20th century BC , placing it among the world 's oldest continually inhabited cities according to Kenneth Fletcher . These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people . However , the oldest known text referencing the city , the Atharvaveda , which dates to approximately the same period , suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes . It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered . Recent excavations at Aktha and Ramnagar , two sites very near to Varanasi , show them to be from 1800 BC , suggesting Varanasi was also inhabited by this time .
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= = = Ancient period = = =
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Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . During the time of Gautama Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi . The Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The celebrated Chinese traveller Xuanzang , also known as Hiuen Tsiang , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges . When Xuanzang , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it " Polonisse " and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .
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= = = Medieval period = = =
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Chandradeva , founder of the Gahadvala dynasty made Banaras a second capital in 1090 .
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During the Birth Period , Varanasi was connected by a road starting from Taxila and ending at Pataliputra .
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Feroz Shah ordered Hindu temples at Varanasi destroyed in 1376 .
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Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir who was born here in 1389 , and Ravidas , a 15th @-@ century socio @-@ religious reformer , mystic , poet , traveller , and spiritual figure , who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry .
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= = = Modern history ( 1500 – present ) = = =
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Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia . Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism .
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Varanasi experienced a Hindu cultural revival in the 16th century under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar , who invested in the city and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu . The Raja of Pune established the Annapurna Mandir , and the 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) Akbari Bridge was also completed during this period . The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century . In 1665 , the French traveller Jean Baptiste Tavernier described the architectural beauty of the Vindu Madhava temple on the side of the Ganges . The road infrastructure was also improved during this period . It was extended from Kolkata to Peshawar by Emperor Sher Shah Suri ; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road . In 1656 , Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques , causing the city to experience a temporary setback . However , after Aurangazeb 's death , most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro @-@ Hindu kings . Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time , especially during the 18th century by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period , including the Maharaja of Benares , or Kashi Naresh .
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The Kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 , during the reign of Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh . In the 18th century , Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges , attached to Man Mandir Ghat , designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables . Tourism in the city began to flourish in the 18th century . In 1791 , under the rule of the British Governor @-@ General Warren Hastings , Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi . In 1867 , the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city 's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services , drinking water supply and sanitation
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In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , " Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . " In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself . The religious head , Kashi Naresh , has had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a repository of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges . The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .
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In 1857 , the British Army committed a massacre of Indian troops and city residence during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College , which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916 . Besant founded the Central Hindu College because she wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of brotherhood in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill @-@ will among different sections of the Indian population . "
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Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947 , and Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United Provinces in 1949 . He died in 2000 . The current king and the resident of the fort is Anant Narayan Singh , since 1971 .
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= = Geography and climate = =
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= = = Geography = = =
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Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80 @.@ 71 metres ( 264 @.@ 8 ft ) in the centre of the Ganges valley of North India , in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh , along the left crescent @-@ shaped bank of the Ganges , averaging between 15 metres ( 50 ft ) and 21 metres ( 70 ft ) above the river . The city is the headquarters of Varanasi district . By road , Varanasi is located 797 kilometres ( 495 mi ) south @-@ east of New Delhi , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of Lucknow , 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad , and 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) south of Jaunpur . The " Varanasi Urban Agglomeration " – an agglomeration of seven urban sub @-@ units – covers an area of 112 @.@ 26 km 2 ( approximately 43 mi ² ) . Neighbourhoods of the city include Adampura , Anandbagh , Bachchhaon , Bangali Tola , Bhelpura , Bulanala , Chaitganj , Chaukaghat , Chowk , Dhupchandi , Dumraon , Gandhinagar , Gautam Nagar , Giri Nagar , Gopal Vihar , Guru Nanak Nagar , Jaitpura , Kail Garh , Khanna , Kotwali , Lanka Manduadih , Luxa , Maheshpur , Mahmoorganj , Maulvibagh , Nagwar , Naipokhari , Shivala , Siddhagiribagh , and Sigra .
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Being located in the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plains of North India , the land is very fertile because low level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil . Varanasi is located between the Ganges confluences with two rivers : the Varuna and the Assi stream . The distance between the two confluences is around 2 miles ( 4 km ) , and serves as a sacred journeying route for Hindus , which culminates with a visit to a Sakshi Vinayak Temple .
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= = = Climate = = =
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Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cwa ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures . The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October . The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers . Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights . Cold waves from the Himalayan region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon . The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) . Fog is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called loo , blow in the summers . In recent years , the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and dwindling glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .
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= = Administration = =
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= = = Politics and law = = =
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Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies , the most important being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and the Varanasi Development Authority , which is responsible for the master planning of the city . Water supply and sewage system is operated by the Jal Nigam . Varanasi is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin .
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= = = Healthcare = = =
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Sushruta , the great surgeon and author of the Sushruta Samhita , the Sanskrit text of surgery , lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BC . Since 1922 , Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established . There are many Ayurvedic centres in Varanasi like Sparsa Ayurvedic Centre which provide Ayurvedic treatments such as Panchakarma and other methods . S S Ayurveda Hospital operates a Panchakarma treatment centre , in association with Kerala Ayurveda Ltd .
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Varansi has several hospitals , including Heritage Hospital , Marwari Hospital , Pitambari Hopspital , Mata Anand Mai Hospital , Rajkiya Hospital , Ram Krishna Mission Hospital , Shiv Prasad Gupta Hospital , Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay hospital ( managed by state govt . ) the largest & superspaciality hospital is Sir Sundar Lal Hospital ( University Hospital ) having more 1150 beds & a separate trauma centre having 340 beds , and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre . A separate cancer institute is also operated in Varanasi . The Varanasi Hospital , established in 1964 by Dr. Baijnath Prasad . The hospital , which in 2012 had 66 beds , serves Varanasi and surrounding districts and states , many of which rely on it for surgery . Although the hospital suffers from a lack of funding , it has facilities such as x @-@ ray , ultrasonography , echocardiography and a pathology lab . The urban portion of Varanasi District had an infant mortality rate of 70 per 1 @,@ 000 live births in 2010 – 2011 .
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= = = Public maintenance = = =
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Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components . Pollution of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself . The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control . Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .
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Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals including toxic heavy metal . Studies of wastewater from Varanasi 's sewage treatment plants identify that water 's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food . One studied example is palak , a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil , and which people then eat . Some of the polluting sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser , which could make polluted water attractive to use . Pesticides used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water , to sewer treatment , then back to the farms as wastewater .
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Varanasi 's water supply and sewage system is maintained by Jal Nigam , a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam . Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited . The city produces about 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 92 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day of sewage and 425 tonnes ( 418 long tons ; 468 short tons ) per day of solid waste . The solid wastes are disposed in one landfill site .
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