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= = = Portuguese colonial rule = = =
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San hunter and gatherers , ancestors of the Khoisani peoples , were the first known inhabitants of the region that is now Mozambique , followed in the 1st and 4th centuries by Bantu @-@ speaking peoples who migrated there across the Zambezi River . In 1498 , Portuguese explorers landed on the Mozambican coastline . Po... |
By the 19th century , European colonialism in Africa had reached its height . Having lost control of the vast territory of Brazil in South America , the Portuguese began to focus on expanding their African outposts . This brought them into direct conflict with the British . Since David Livingstone had returned to the ... |
As a result , in an attempt to avoid a naval conflict with the superior British Royal Navy , Portugal adjusted the borders of her colony and the modern borders of Mozambique were established in May 1881 . Control of Mozambique was left to various organisations such as the Mozambique Company , the Zambezi Company and t... |
The resisting Gaza Empire , a collection of indigenous tribes who inhabited the area that now constitutes Mozambique and Zimbabwe , was defeated in 1895 , and the remaining inland tribes were eventually defeated by 1902 ; in that same year , Portugal established Lourenço Marques as the capital . In 1926 , political an... |
= = = Rise of FRELIMO = = =
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Portugal designated Mozambique an overseas territory in 1951 in order to show to the world that the colony had a greater autonomy . It was called the Overseas Province of Mozambique ( Província Ultramarina de Moçambique ) . Nonetheless , Portugal still maintained strong control over its overseas province . The increas... |
Mozambique was marked by large disparities between the wealthy Portuguese and the majority of the large rural indigenous African population . Poorer whites , many of them recent immigrants , including illiterate peasants , were given preference in lower @-@ level urban jobs , where a system of job reservation existed ... |
Vocal political dissidents opposed to Portuguese rule and claiming independence were typically forced into exile . From the mid @-@ 1920s a succession of authoritarian regimes in Portugal closed unions and left @-@ wing opposition , both within Portugal and within its colonies , notably in the Estado Novo period ( 193... |
The Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( Frente de Libertação de Moçambique ) , formally ( Marxist @-@ Leninist as of 1977 but adherent to such positions since the late 1960s ) , was formed in Dar es Salaam , the largest city in neighbouring Tanzania , on June 25 , 1962 . It was created during a conference , by po... |
A year later , in 1963 , FRELIMO set up headquarters in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , under the leadership of sociologist Eduardo Mondlane , and began to call for independence from Portugal.After two years of organisation and failing political manoeuvres in an attempt to seek a peaceful independence , Mondlane began in 1... |
The United Nations also put pressure on Portugal to move for decolonisation . Portugal threatened to withdraw from NATO , which put a stop to this support and pressure , and the nationalist groups in Mozambique were forced to turn to help from the Soviet bloc .
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= = = Support from the Soviet Union = = =
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During the Cold War , and particularly in the late 1950s , the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China adopted a strategy of destabilisation of Western powers by disruption of their hold on African colonies . Nikita Khrushchev , in particular , viewed the ' underdeveloped third of mankind ' as a means to weaken t... |
Prior to the formation of FRELIMO , the Soviet position regarding the nationalist movements in Mozambique was one of confusion . There were multiple independence movements , and they had no sure knowledge that any would succeed . The nationalist groups in Mozambique , like those across Africa during the period , recei... |
Eduardo Mondlane 's successor , future President of Mozambique , Samora Machel , acknowledged assistance from both Moscow and Peking , describing them as " the only ones who will really help us . ... They have fought armed struggles , and whatever they have learned that is relevant to Mozambique we will use . " Guerri... |
The Soviet Union continued to support the new FRELIMO government against counterrevolution in the years after 1975 . By 1981 , there were 230 Soviet , close to 200 Cuban military and over 600 civilian Cuban advisers still in the country . Cuba 's involvement in Mozambique was as part of a continuing effort to export t... |
= = Conflict = =
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= = = Insurgency under Mondlane ( 1964 – 69 ) = = =
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At the war 's outset , FRELIMO had little hope for a conventional military victory , with a mere 7000 combatants against a far larger Portuguese force . Their hopes rested on urging the local populace to support the insurgency , in order to force a negotiated independence from Lisbon . Portugal fought its own version ... |
The military wing of FRELIMO was commanded by Filipe Samuel Magaia , whose forces received training from Algeria . The FRELIMO guerrillas were armed with a variety of weapons , many provided by the Soviet Union and China . Common weapons included the Mosin – Nagant bolt @-@ action rifle , SKS and AK @-@ 47 automatic r... |
In the dying stages of the conflict , FRELIMO was provided with a few SA @-@ 7 MANPAD shoulder @-@ launched missile launchers from China ; these were never used to shoot down a Portuguese plane . Only one Portuguese aircraft was lost in combat during the conflict , when Lt. Emilio Lourenço 's G.91R @-@ 4 was destroyed... |
The Portuguese forces were under the command of General António Augusto dos Santos , a man with strong faith in new counter @-@ insurgency theories . Augusto dos Santos supported a collaboration with Rhodesia to create African Scout units and other special forces teams , with Rhodesian forces even conducting their own... |
Although helicopters were not used in Mozambique to the same extent as they were in Vietnam , the Alouette III was the most widely used , although the Puma was also used with great success . Other aircraft were employed : for air support the T6 and the Fiat G.91 were used ; for reconnaissance , the Dornier Do 27 . In ... |
= = = = Start of FRELIMO attacks = = = =
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In 1964 , weak @-@ hearted attempts at peaceful negotiation by FRELIMO were abandoned and , on September 25 , 1964 , Eduardo Mondlane began to launch guerrilla attacks on targets in northern Mozambique from his base in Tanzania . FRELIMO soldiers , with logistical assistance from the local population , attacked the ad... |
During heavy rains , it was much more difficult to track insurgents by air , negating Portugal 's air superiority , and Portuguese troops and vehicles found movement during rain storms difficult . In contrast , the insurgent troops , with lighter equipment , were able to flee into the bush ( the mato ) amongst an ethn... |
With the initial FRELIMO attacks in Chai Chai , the fighting spread to Niassa and Tete at the centre of Mozambique . During the early stages of the conflict , FRELIMO activity was reduced to small , platoon @-@ sized engagements , harassments and raids on Portuguese installations . The FRELIMO soldiers often operated ... |
The Portuguese troops began to suffer losses in November , fighting in the northern region of Xilama . With increasing support from the populace , and the low number of Portuguese regular troops , FRELIMO was quickly able to advance south towards Meponda and Mandimba , linking to Tete with the aid of forces from the n... |
It was not until 1965 that recruitment of fighters increased along with popular support , and the strike teams were able to increase in size . The increase in popular support was in part due to FRELIMO agencies ' offer of help to exiled Mozambicans , who had fled the conflict by travelling to nearby Tanzania . Like si... |
FRELIMO attack groups had also begun to grow in size to include over 100 soldiers in certain cases , and the insurgents also began to accept women fighters into their ranks . On either October 10 or October 11 , 1966 , on returning to Tanzania after inspecting the front lines , Filipe Samuel Magaia was shot dead by Lo... |
One seventh of the population and one fifth of the territory were in FRELIMO hands by 1967 ; at this time there were approximately 8000 guerrillas in combat . During this period , Mondlane urged further expansion of the war effort , but also sought to retain the small strike groups . With the increasing cost of supply... |
In 1968 , the second Congress of FRELIMO was a propaganda victory for the insurgents , despite attempts by the Portuguese , who enjoyed air superiority throughout the conflict , to bomb the location of the meeting late in the day . This gave FRELIMO further weight to wield in the United Nations .
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= = = Portuguese development program = = =
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Due to both the technological gap between civilisations and the centuries @-@ long colonial era , Portugal was a driving force in the development and shaping of all Portuguese Africa since the 15th century . In the 1960s and early 1970s , to counter the increasing insurgency of FRELIMO forces and show to the Portugues... |
As part of this redevelopment program , construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam began in 1969 . This particular project became intrinsically linked with Portugal 's concerns over security in the overseas colonies . The Portuguese government viewed the construction of the dam as testimony to Portugal 's " civilising missi... |
Realising the symbolic significance of the dam to the Portuguese , FRELIMO proceeded to spend seven years attempting to halt its construction by force . No direct attacks were ever successful , but FRELIMO had some success in attacking convoys en route to the site . FRELIMO also lodged a protest with the United Nation... |
= = = Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane = = =
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On February 3 , 1969 , Eduardo Mondlane was killed by explosives smuggled into his locale . Many sources state that , in an attempt to rectify the situation in Mozambique , the Portuguese secret police assassinated Mondlane by sending a parcel to his office in Dar es Salaam . Inside the parcel was a book containing an... |
The original investigations levelled accusations at Silverio Nungo ( who was later executed ) and Lazaro Kavandame , FRELIMO leader in Cabo Delgado . The latter had made no secret of his distrust of Mondlane , seeing him as too conservative a leader , and the Tanzanian police also accused him of working with PIDE ( Po... |
Although the exact details of the assassination remain disputed , the involvement of the Portuguese government , particularly Aginter Press or PIDE , is generally accepted by most historians and biographers and is supported by the Portuguese stay behind Gladio @-@ esque army , known as Aginter Press , that suggested i... |
Mondlane 's immediate successor was the moderate Rev. Uria Simango , who had served under him , as FRELIMO 's vice @-@ President , from its formation until 1969 . In the post @-@ assassination power @-@ struggle , Simango was ousted by the more hardline Samora Machel and Marcelino dos Santos , expelled from FRELIMO an... |
= = = Continuing war ( 1969 – 74 ) = = =
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In 1969 , General António Augusto dos Santos was relieved of command , with General Kaúlza de Arriaga taking over officially in March 1970 . Kaúlza de Arriaga favoured a more direct method of fighting the insurgents , and the established policy of using African counter @-@ insurgency forces was rejected in favour of t... |
By 1972 there was growing pressure from other commanders , particularly Kaúlza de Arriaga 's second in command , General Francisco da Costa Gomes , for the use of African soldiers in Flechas units . Flechas units ( Arrows ) were also employed in Angola and were units under the command of the Portuguese PIDE . Composed... |
Costa Gomes argued that African soldiers were cheaper and were better able to create a relationship with the local populace , a tactic similar to the ' hearts and minds ' strategy being used by United States forces in Vietnam at the time . These Flechas units saw action in the territory at the very end stages of the c... |
There were several Portuguese special forces units that were unique to either the Mozambican conflict or the Portuguese Colonial War as a whole :
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Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais ) : units similar to the ones used in Angola
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Paratrooper Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais Pára @-@ Quedistas ) : units of volunteer black soldiers that had paratrooper training
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Combat Tracking Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais de Pisteiros de Combate ) : special units trained in tracking
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Flechas : Local tribesmen and rebel defectors specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and terrorist operations . They sometimes patrolled in captured uniforms and are rewarded with cash bounties for every guerrilla or guerrilla weapon they capture .
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During the entire period of 1970 – 74 , FRELIMO intensified guerrilla operations , specialising in urban terrorism . The use of landmines also intensified , with sources stating that they had become responsible for two out of every three Portuguese casualties . During the conflict , FRELIMO used a variety of anti @-@ ... |
= = = = Portuguese counter @-@ offensive ( June 1970 ) = = = =
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On June 10 , 1970 , a major counter @-@ offensive was launched by the Portuguese army . The Gordian Knot Operation ( Portuguese : Operação Nó Górdio ) targeted permanent insurgent camps and the infiltration routes across the Tanzanian border in the north of Mozambique over a period of seven months . The operation invo... |
The Portuguese had excellent coordination between light bombers , helicopters and reinforced ground patrols . They utilised American tactics of quick airborne ( helibourne ) assaults supported by heavy aerial bombardments of FRELIMO camps by the Portuguese Air Force ( Força Aérea Portuguesa or FAP ) to surround and el... |
Problems for the Portuguese arose almost immediately when the offensive coincided with the beginning of the monsoon season , creating additional logistical difficulties . Not only were the Portuguese soldiers badly equipped , but there was very poor cooperation , if any at all , between the FAP and the army . Thus , t... |
The Portuguese eventually reported 651 as killed ( a figure of some 440 was most likely closer to reality ) , and 1 @,@ 840 captured , for the loss of 132 Portuguese . Gen. Arriaga also claimed his troops to have destroyed 61 guerrilla bases and 165 camps , while 40 tons of ammunition had been captured in the first tw... |
By 1972 , the Portuguese military had changed its strategy , adapting the British / American search and destroy operations utilising small shock troop sweeps . They also initiated a hearts and minds campaign , named the Aldeamentos Programme , which was a forced relocation program . But on November 9 , 1972 , FRELIMO ... |
On December 16 , 1972 , the Portuguese 6th company of Commandos in Mozambique killed the inhabitants of the village of Wiriyamu , in the district of Tete . Referred to as the ' Wiriyamu Massacre ' , the soldiers killed between 150 ( according to the Red Cross ) and 300 ( according to a much later investigation by the ... |
By 1973 , FRELIMO were also mining civilian towns and villages in an attempt to undermine the civilian confidence in the Portuguese forces . " Aldeamentos : agua para todos " ( Resettlement villages : water for everyone ) was a commonly seen message in the rural areas , as the Portuguese sought to relocate and resettl... |
This change in tactic led to protests by Portuguese settlers against the Lisbon government , a telltale sign of the conflict 's unpopularity . Combined with the news of the Wiriyamu massacre and that of renewed FRELIMO onslaughts through 1973 and early 1974 , the worsening situation in Mozambique later contributed to ... |
= = = Political instability and ceasefire ( 1974 – 75 ) = = =
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Back in Lisbon , the ' Armed Revolutionary Action ' branch of the Portuguese Communist Party , which was created in the late 1960s , and the Revolutionary Brigades ( BR ) , a left @-@ wing organisation , worked to resist the colonial wars . They had carried out multiple sabotages and bombings against military targets ... |
Fighting colonial wars in Portuguese colonies had absorbed forty @-@ four percent of the overall Portuguese budget . This led to an obvious diversion of funds from necessary infrastructural developments in Portugal itself . This contributed to the growing unrest in the European nation . Portugal 's GDP growth during t... |
The unpopularity of the Colonial Wars among many Portuguese led to the formation of several magazines and newspapers , such as Cadernos Circunstância , Cadernos Necessários , Tempo e Modo , and Polémica , which had support from students and called for political solutions to Portugal 's colonial problems .
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The growing unrest in Portugal culminated on April 25 , 1974 , when the Carnation Revolution , a peaceful leftist military coup d 'état in Lisbon , ousted the incumbent Portuguese government of Marcelo Caetano . Thousands of Portuguese citizens left Mozambique , and the new head of government , General António de Spín... |
= = Aftermath = =
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Many Portuguese colonials were not typical settlers in Mozambique . While most European communities in Africa at the time - with the possible exception of Afrikaners - were established from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries , some white families and institutions in those territories still administered b... |
With the departure of Portuguese professionals and tradesmen , the new country had no senior workforce to maintain its infrastructure , and economic collapse loomed . Privileged commercial links were established with several communist countries by the FRELIMO regime at the expense of NATO , which rapidly lost influenc... |
Samora Machel became Mozambique 's first president . The Reverend Uria Simango , his wife , and other FRELIMO dissidents were arrested in 1975 and detained without trial . Within about two years , fighting resumed with the Mozambican Civil War against RENAMO insurgents plied with Rhodesian and South African military s... |
= = = Printed sources = = =
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= = = Online sources = = =
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