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In 2017, an SG100 Cloud Computer was launched to the ISS as part of OA-7 mission. It was manufactured by NCSIST of Taiwan and designed in collaboration with Academia Sinica, and National Central University under contract for NASA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
ISS crew members have access to the Internet, and thus the web. This was first enabled in 2010, allowing NASA astronaut T.J. Creamer to make the first tweet from space. Access is achieved via an Internet-enabled computer in Houston, using remote desktop mode, thereby protecting the ISS from virus infection and hacking ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews. Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to the safe minimum of two ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions 9, 19/20, 31/32, and 43/44, and Commander of Expedition 11, has spent more time in space than anyone else, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes. Peggy Whitson has spent the most time in space of any American, totalling 665 days, 22 hours, and 22 minutes during her time on... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as "space tourists", a term they generally dislike. , seven space tourists have visited the ISS; all seven were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft. When profession... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Anousheh Ansari became the first self-funded woman to fly to the ISS as well as the first Iranian in space. Officials reported that her education and experience made her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been "excellent." She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiolo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In 2008, spaceflight participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his flight. This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in existence. At the same time, the Immortality Drive, an electronic record of eight digitised human DNA sequences, was placed aboard the ISS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
A wide variety of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's activities. Flights to the ISS include 37 Space Shuttle missions, 83 Progress resupply spacecraft (including the modified M-MIM2, M-SO1 and M-UM module transports), 63 crewed Soyuz spacecraft, 5 European ATVs, 9 Japanese HTVs, 1 Boeing Starli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
, 256 people from 20 countries had visited the space station, many of them multiple times. The United States sent 158 people, Russia sent 55, 11 were Japanese, nine were Canadian, five were Italian, four were French, four were German, and there were one each from Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Great Britain, Kazakhstan, Mal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Uncrewed spaceflights to the ISS are made primarily to deliver cargo, however several Russian modules have also docked to the outpost following uncrewed launches. Resupply missions typically use the Russian Progress spacecraft, former European ATVs, Japanese Kounotori vehicles, and the American Dragon and Cygnus spacec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
All Russian spacecraft and self-propelled modules are able to rendezvous and dock to the space station without human intervention using the Kurs radar docking system from over 200 kilometres away. The European ATV uses star sensors and GPS to determine its intercept course. When it catches up it uses laser equipment to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
From the initial station programs, the Russians pursued an automated docking methodology that used the crew in override or monitoring roles. Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardisations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive operations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation also serve as lifeboats for emergency evacuation; they are replaced every six months and were used after the "Columbia" disaster to return stranded crew from the ISS. The average expedition requires of supplies, and by 9 March 2011, crews had consumed a total of around . Soyuz cr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Other vehicles berth instead of docking. The Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle parked itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and then awaited 'approach' commands from the crew, until it was close enough for a robotic arm to grapple and berth the vehicle to the USOS. Berthed craft can transfer International ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
From 26 February 2011 to 7 March 2011 four of the governmental partners (United States, ESA, Japan and Russia) had their spacecraft (NASA Shuttle, ATV, HTV, Progress and Soyuz) docked at the ISS, the only time this has happened to date. On 25 May 2012, SpaceX delivered the first commercial cargo with a Dragon spacecraf... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Prior to a spacecraft's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control (GNC) is handed over to the ground control of the spacecraft's country of origin. GNC is set to allow the station to drift in space, rather than fire its thrusters or turn using gyroscopes. The solar panels of the station are turned edge-on to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, either on small ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons. Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004, the venting of fumes from an "Ele... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly. An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock. Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was first noticed in Soyuz imagery. The problem was initially not thought to be serious. The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel has peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact. On 15 May 2009 the damag... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems. The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Sever... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August successfully removed the failed pum... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the US company Boeing, which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station. In late 201... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a "mini blizzard" of ammonia while installing the new pump. It was only the second Christma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, including RKA Mission Control Center, ATV Control Centre, JEM Control Center and HTV Control Center at Tsukuba Space Center, Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, Payload Opera... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, aft... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly followed the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (M... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two "sleep stations" in the "Zvezda", one in "Nauka" and four more installed in "Harmony". The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters in "Zvezda" include a small window, but provide ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
On the USOS, most of the food aboard is vacuum sealed in plastic bags; cans are rare because they are heavy and expensive to transport. Preserved food is not highly regarded by the crew and taste is reduced in microgravity, so efforts are taken to make the food more palatable, including using more spices than in regula... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Showers on space stations were introduced in the early 1970s on "Skylab" and "Salyut" 3. By "Salyut" 6, in the early 1980s, the crew complained of the complexity of showering in space, which was a monthly activity. The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in "Zvezda" and "Tranquility". These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the Astronaut Twin Study. Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while his twin spent the year on Earth. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the othe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious blood flow and clot problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field. From an average distance of about from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to deflect solar wind around Earth and the space station. Solar flares are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive on... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Radiation levels on the ISS are between 12 and 28.8 milli rads per day, about five times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew, as Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other types of radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. For ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
There is considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance. Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the "Salyut" 6 space station: "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station "Mir". Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who sp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The physiological effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy, deterioration of the skeleton (osteopenia), fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high. The atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environme... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two TVIS treadmills (including the COLBERT); the ARED (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density; and a st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful to the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD-PTS which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS. The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the Apollo missions. For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed noise control and hearing loss prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members. Specifi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels incurred by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration – rarely reaching 85 dBA. But crew members are exposed to these levels... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS. During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose quietest available payloads,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and the World Health Organization), in order to protect all crew members. The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
There have been no persistent mission-related hearing threshold shifts among US Orbital Segment crewmembers (JAXA, CSA, ESA, NASA) during what is approaching 20 years of ISS mission operations, or nearly 175,000 work hours. In 2020, the MMOP Acoustics Subgroup received the Safe-In-Sound Award for Innovation for their c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of and a maximum of , in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.007. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
It travels at an average speed of , and completes orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit). The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2 km a month on average. Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the "Zvezda" service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to "Zvezda" aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a second... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station. Initially, "Zarya", the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module "Zvezda" docked and was transferred control. "... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
"Zvezda" uses gyroscopes (reaction wheels) and thrusters to turn itself around. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified. If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris wi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In November 2021, a debris cloud from the destruction of Kosmos 1408 by an anti-satellite weapons test threatened the ISS, leading to the announcement of a yellow alert, leading to crew sheltering in the crew capsules. A couple of weeks later, it had to perform an unscheduled maneuver to drop the station by 310 meters ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The ISS is visible to the naked eye as a slow-moving, bright white dot because of reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark. The ISS takes about 10 minutes to pass from one horizon to another, and will only be visibl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see "Live viewing" below) as well as smartphone applications that use orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the hori... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In November 2012 NASA launched its "Spot the Station" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town. The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers, while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew. The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Transits of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an eclipse (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Involving five space programs and fifteen countries, the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history. The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subseq... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. British Prime Minister Boris Johnson commented on the current status of cooperation, saying "I have been broadly in favour of continuing artistic and sc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
On 26 July 2022, Yury Borisov, Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024. However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
According to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched. Several possible disposal options were considered: Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a contro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
OPSEK was previously intended to be constructed of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module ("Nauka"), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and "Zvezda 2" as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth-Moon Lagrange points. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House. In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using a deorbit module and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed. As of 2010, the total cost was US$150 billion. This includes NASA's budget of $58.7 billion ($89.73 billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12 billion, Europe's $5 billion, Japan's $5 billion, Canada's $2 billio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries Space Station 3D from 2002, or "A Beautiful Planet" from 2016, the ISS is subject of feature films such as "The Day After Tomorrow" (2004), "Life" (2017), "Love" (2011), ortogether with the Chinese station Tiangong space stationin "Gravity" (2013). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
Hedy Lamarr (; born Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler; November 9, 1914 January 19, 2000) was an Austrian-born American film actress and inventor. A film star during Hollywood's golden age, Lamarr has been described as one of the greatest movie actresses of all time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
After a brief early film career in Czechoslovakia, including the controversial "Ecstasy" (1933), she fled from her first husband, a wealthy Austrian ammunition manufacturer, and secretly moved to Paris. Traveling to London, she met Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studio head Louis B. Mayer, who offered her a movie contract in Holl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
At the beginning of World War II, she and avant-garde composer George Antheil developed a radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes that used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
Lamarr was born Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler in 1914 in Vienna, the only child of Gertrud "Trude" Kiesler (born Lichtwitz; 1894–1977) and Emil Kiesler (1880–1935). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
Her father, Emil, was born to a Galician-Jewish family in Lemberg (now Lviv in Ukraine) and was, in the 1920s, deputy director of Wiener Bankverein, and in the end of his life a director at the united Creditanstalt-Bankverein. Trude, her mother, a pianist and Budapest native, had come from an upper-class Hungarian-Jewi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
As a child, Lamarr showed an interest in acting and was fascinated by theatre and film. At the age of 12, she won a beauty contest in Vienna. She also began to associate invention with her father, who would take her out on walks, explaining how technology functioned. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
Lamarr was taking acting classes in Vienna when one day, she forged a note from her mother and went to Sascha-Film and was able to get herself hired as a script girl. While there, she was able to get a role as an extra in "Money on the Street" (1930), and then a small speaking part in "Storm in a Water Glass" (1931). P... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
However, she never actually trained with Reinhardt or appeared in any of his Berlin productions. Instead, she met the Russian theatre producer Alexis Granowsky, who cast her in his film directorial debut, "The Trunks of Mr. O.F." (1931), starring Walter Abel and Peter Lorre. Granowsky soon moved to Paris, but Lamarr st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
In early 1933, at age 18, Lamarr was given the lead in Gustav Machatý's film "Ecstasy" ("Ekstase" in German, "Extase" in Czech). She played the neglected young wife of an indifferent older man. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
The film became both celebrated and notorious for showing Lamarr's face in the throes of orgasm as well as close-up and brief nude scenes. Lamarr claimed she was "duped" by the director and producer, who used high-power telephoto lenses, but other people related to the movie contested her claims. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
Although she was dismayed and now disillusioned about taking other roles, the film gained world recognition after winning an award in Rome. Throughout Europe, it was regarded an artistic work. In America it was considered overly sexual and received negative publicity, especially among women's groups. It was banned ther... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
Lamarr played a number of stage roles, including a starring one in "Sissy", a play about Empress Elisabeth of Austria produced in Vienna. It won accolades from critics. Admirers sent roses to her dressing room and tried to get backstage to meet her. She sent most of them away, including a man who was more insistent, Fr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
Mandl was an Austrian military arms merchant and munitions manufacturer who was reputedly the third-richest man in Austria. She fell for his charming and fascinating personality, partly due to his immense financial wealth. Her parents, both of Jewish descent, did not approve, due to Mandl's ties to Italian fascist lead... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
On August 10, 1933, Lamarr married Mandl at the Karlskirche. She was 18 years old and he was 33. In her alleged autobiography "Ecstasy and Me", she described Mandl as an extremely controlling husband who strongly objected to her simulated orgasm scene in "Ecstasy" and prevented her from pursuing her acting career. She ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
Mandl had close social and business ties to the Italian government, selling munitions to the country, and although like Hedy, his own father was Jewish, had ties to the Nazi regime of Germany, as well. Lamarr wrote that the dictators of both countries attended lavish parties at the Mandl home. Lamarr accompanied Mandl ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
Lamarr's marriage to Mandl eventually became unbearable, and she decided to separate herself from both her husband and country in 1937. In her alleged autobiography, she wrote that she disguised herself as her maid and fled to Paris, but by other accounts, she persuaded Mandl to let her wear all of her jewelry for a di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
After arriving in London in 1937, she met Louis B. Mayer, head of MGM, who was scouting for talent in Europe. She initially turned down the offer he made her (of $125 a week), but then booked herself onto the same New York bound liner as he, and managed to impress him enough to secure a $500 a week contract. Mayer pers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170982 |
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